HATL INST. OF STAND i TECH R.I.C. NIST

PUBLICATIONS

IN SITU BURNING OIL SPILL

Sponsored by Minerals Management Service, U.S. Department of the Interior

QC

100

.U57

NO. 857

198^

Nisr United States Department of Commerce

Technology Administration

National Institute of Standards and Technology

NIST SP 867
NOTICE

The statements and conclusions of this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Institute of Standards and Technology.

COVER

Newfoundland Offshore Burn Experiment, August 12, 1993. David D. Evans, Photographer.
NIST Special Publication 867

In Situ Burning Oil Spill Workshop Proceedings

Orlando, Florida, January 26-28, 1994

Nora H. Jason, Editor

Building and Fire Research Laboratory

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, MD 20899-0001

August 1994

U.S. Department of Commerce Sponsored by:

Ronald H. Brown, Secretary U.S. Department of the Interior

Technology Administration Minerals Management Service

Mary L. Good, Under Secretary for Technology Herndon, VA 22070

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Arati Prabhakar, Director
National Institute of Standards

and Technology

Special Publication 867

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Spec. Publ. 867

101 pages (Aug. 1994)

CODEN: NSPUE2

U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington: 1994

For sale by the Superintendent

of Documents

U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, DC 20402
CONTENTS

Page

AGENDA V

INTRODUCTION 1 PANEL SUMMARIES

Research Needs Associated with In Situ Burning; Report of the

Environmental and Human Health Panel - Jean Snider, Chair 3

Report of the Operational Implications Working Panel - Bruce

McKenzie, Chair 11

WORKSHOP PAPERS

In Situ Burning Overview - Edward J. Tennyson 21

In Situ Burning of Oil Spills: Smoke Production and Plume

Behavior - David D. Evans 29

Emissions from In Situ Oil Fires - Merv F. Fingas 39

Environmental and Human Health Concerns Related to In Situ

Burning - D. Kennedy, N. Barnea, G. Shigenaka 47

Operational Implications of In Situ Burning - Peter Tebeau 57

Newfoundland Offshore Bum Experiment - NOBE - Merv F. Fingas 63

In Situ Burning: Legal and Regulatory Issues - John Cunningham 71

Texas Marsh Bum, Removing Oil From a Salt Marsh Using In Situ

Buming - M. E Gonzalez, G. A. Lugo 77

Brunswick Naval Air Station JP-5 Aviation Fuel Discharge In Situ

Bum of Fuel Remaining in Fresh Water Marsh, April 6-8,

1993 - Steven J. Eufemia 87

In Situ Buming: Louisiana Oil Spill Response Interests [Summary only] - J. Heather Warner Finley 91

ABOUT THE AUTHORS AND PANEL CHAIRS 93

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 97

LIST OF ATTENDEES 99

iii
I

IV
In Situ Burning Oil Spill Workshop

Howard Johnsons Resort Hotel

Lake Buena Vista, FL

January 26-28, 1994

Agenda

Wednesday, January 26, 1994

8:00 AM Registration

Session Chairperson - Elmer P. Danenberger, US Minerals Management Service

9:00 AM Tom Gernhofer, Associate Director, US Minerals Management Service - Welcome

9:15 AM Edward J. Tennyson, US Minerals Management Service - In Situ Burning Overview

9:45 AM David D. Evans, National Institute of Standards and Technology - In Situ

Burning of Oil Spills: Smoke Production and Plume Behavior

10:15 AM Break

10:45 AM Merv E Fingas, Environment Canada - Effluent Chemistry

11:15 AM Nir Barnea, National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration - Scientific Information Issues and Environmental Concerns

11:45 AM Peter Tebeau, Marine Environmental Consultant - Operational Implications of

Burning

12:15 PM Lunch

1:30 PM Merv F. Fingas, Environment Canada - Newfoundland Offshore Burn Experiment

2:00 PM John Cunningham, US Environmental Protection Agency - Legal/Regulatory Issues 2:30 PM Elmer P. (Bud) Danenberger, US Minerals Management Service - Purpose of Panels

Bruce McKenzie, Alaska Clean Seas - Chair, Operational Implications

Jean Snider, National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration - Chair,

Environmental Effects

3:30 PM Break

5:00 PM Panel Chairs Update

Thursday, January 27, 1994

8:30 AM Manny Gonzalez, Texas General Land Office - Texas Marsh Burn

9:00 AM Steven J. Eufemia, Maine Dept. of Environmental Protection - Maine Marsh Burn

9:30 AM Heather Finley, Louisiana Oil Spill Coordinator's Office - In Situ Burning:

Louisiana Oil Spill Response Interests 10:00 AM Break

10:30 AM Panel Sessions Resume

12:30 PM Lunch

1:30 PM Panels Reconvene

3:00 PM Break

5:00 PM Panel Chairs Summarize Priorities

V
Friday. January 28, 1994

8:30 AM Priorities Discussion

9:00 AM Annotated Priorities List Collected for Summary Presentation

9:30 AM Break

10:00 AM Panel Chairs Presentation

10:30 AM Consensus List Developed

11:20 AM Elmer (Bud) P. Danenberger, US Minerals Management Service - Closing Remarks

11:30 AM Workshop Closes

vi
INTRODUCTION

The U. S. Minerals Management Service (MMS) is designated as the lead agency for in situ burn

research in the Oil Pollution Research and Technology Plan prepared under the authority of Title

Vn of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA-90). Significant advances in the technology of oil spill

response have been made as a result of the MMS funded research program. This workshop is part

of MMS's continuing effort to ensure the relevance of their research program to the needs of the user community. Specific emphasis was given to environmental and operational implications of in situ bum response technology.

The goals of the In Situ Oil Burning workshop were:

1. To present the state of knowledge to representatives of industry, government, and

research organizations.

2. To review the present status guidelines for use of in situ burning as an oil spill

response method.

3. To prioritize research and information needs to support decisions on the use of in situ burning of oil spills.

To facilitate the discussions, preprints of technical papers were distributed at registration. The

Keynote Speaker presented the current state-of-the-art of in situ burning of oil spills. The

presentation was followed by the presentation of ongoing research: Smoke Production and Plume

Behavior and Effluent Chemistry. Two papers addressed the concerns facing the participants:

Environmental and Human Health Concerns Related to In-Situ Burning and Operational Implications

of Burning and In Situ Burning: Legal and Regulatory Issues. Three recent oil spill burn experiences were presented: Newfoundland Offshore Burn Experiment, and oil spill burns in marshes and

wetlands from Texas and Maine, respectively. The presentation by the Louisiana Oil Spill

Coordinator's Office represented the view of a state agency on the issue of in situ burning.

Participants were divided into two breakout panels: Environmental and Human Health; Operational

Implications. The panels examined the information presented, determined a consensus, and

developed a list of priority needs. The results of the workshop will be delivered to MMS as input

to their planning of future research efforts.

This proceedings is the official transmittal of workshop information and recommendations to the

sponsor, Minerals Management Service, Department of the Interior. It reflects the combined input

of the workshop participants. The Panel recommendations and the individual papers follow this Introduction.

1

RESEARCH NEEDS ASSOCIATED WITH IN SITU BURNING;

Report of the Environmental and Human Health Panel

Jean Snider, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Panel Chair

BACKGROUND

The groups divided themselves into two sections according to interests: 1) Operational and

2) Environment and Human Health. Participants in the Environment and Human Health

Panel included representatives from several states, industry, and human health agencies.

The discussion focused on the human health aspects of in-situ burning (ISB), since that

seemed to be the topic of primary concern. Less time was spent on the environmental

consequences of in-situ burning, since the group felt that with the publication of a MSRC/Environment Canada/NOAA report on the toxicity of the burn residue, the major

unanswered environmental question will have been addressed. In addition, there were some

issues which, although not solvable by research, were critical to the successful

implementation of ISB as a response tool. Three issues were identified as falling into this

category: public education regarding ISB - the tradeoffs involved in choosing response

countermeasures, and the relation of the risks associated with ISB - to better-known risks; a thorough evaluation of the legal constraints and risks associated with ISB under state and

federal law; and education of the decision-makers who are held responsible for the

consequences of an oil spill. This latter issue is particularly difficult since the turnover of

personnel is rapid in comparison to the frequency of instances where ISB would be

considered.

Two activities evolved from the discussion that, if implemented, would facilitate research and

would perhaps, facilitate decisions to use ISB. The first was the recommendation of a network of researchers who could be rapidly contacted, should a decision be made to burn.

This is most likely to occur inland or in a coastal area where marsh burning or burning

associated with agriculture is more common. Although it was stressed that the consequences

of burning under these conditions are not totally transferable to ISB of oil spills, it was felt that some data may be collected which would be useful. The second suggestion was that a

directory of experts on different aspects of ISB be disseminated to state and local decisionmakers to provide answers to questions associated with ISB. (Note: Such a directory could

not be construed to be an endorsement of the opinions offered, since the ultimate

responsibility remains with the decision-maker to judge the applicability of the information

to his/her needs.)

The panel's discussion would have been facilitated by the release of several reports. These

papers were assumed, in several instances, to answer environmental or human health concerns and thus would diminish or alleviate the need for further research. Integration of

the findings of these reports and dissemination to the user community, both decision makers

3
and the public, was judged to be the critical factor hindering implementation of ISB as an

oil spill response tool. Research needs relating to the human health and environmental

consequences from ISB were judged to be few. Those areas remaining emphasized

validating previous findings and increasing the range of conditions where ISB could be safely

used. Some of the remaining concern might be addressed through planned test burns at the

US Coast Guard facility in Mobile, Alabama.

The panel discussion was divided into three parts: human health concerns, monitoring

requirements and environmental issues. Worker health and safety was addressed by the

Operational Panel. Within each topic, the question was defined, the research that was

needed to address that question was explained, and the type of appropriate implementation

was listed. These needs were then ranked, by general consensus, according to importance.

The following summary follows that format, with explanatory text added as necessary.

HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS

General

The potential for human health effects appears to be the greatest impediment to approval

for ISB. While the plume components are known, data are still lacking on downwind

concentration, especially of particulates. A smoke plume model developed for that purpose

needs to be validated in actual burnings. In addition, there is no concentration level of fine

particulates (i.e., <10/ig or PM^^) which is an accepted standard for the exposure time

period expected during a burn. The only national level that exists for PM , the plume

component of most concern, is EPA's National Ambient Air Quality Standard which has

been established for a 24-hour exposure.

The uncertainty related to the potential health effects to adjacent populations is shown by

the variation in state guidance for offshore burning: Louisiana requires 3 miles offshore and

Alaska requires 6 miles offshore.

The group did not feel that the lack of an appropriate standard was the major factor

hindering decision-making. Rather it was the lack of sufficient data or credible model

estimates of the concentrations of the plume components upon which to make decisions.

In addition, it appeared that data from related types of fires (e.g., the Kuwaiti oil well fires,

forest fires, farm field burning, marsh burning) or opportunities to collect measurements at some of these events had not been fully utilized.

RESEARCH NEEDS IDENTIFIED

Need: Improve predictions of potential human health effects from ISB

Research: Synthesis of existing data for user community and regulators, including

mechanisms for dissemination

4
Method for implementation: Workshop to produce usable data and information

(e.g., generic plume footprint, comparison to oil emissions); discussions would be

based upon soon to be released data, other reports relating to oil burning,

evaluation of related burns (e.g. agricultural land) and trade offs with other

counter measures.

Priority: Very High

Comment: Integration of the multiple research efforts ongoing (see Table 1 on

page 17).

Research: Evaluate existing and relevant plume models for use in

planning and real time estimation

Method for implementation : Workshop (with state air quality, health experts,

developers and other regulators)

Priority : High

Comment: This workshop would examine existing models, their validation with

field data and their relationship to the needs of air quality and health experts.

Need: Reduction of smoke emission from ISB

Research: Investigate other methods of smoke suppression (e.g.,

ferrocene, other chemicals, etc.)

Method for implementation: Ongoing research by SINTEF and Imperial Oil

Priority : Medium

MONITORING

General

Several Regional Response Teams have given the Federal On-Scene Coordinator

authorization to use ISB under specific circumstances or in limited geographic areas. These

authorizations and supporting implementation plans include the requirement for monitoring

of the downwind concentrations of constituents in the smoke plume; however, most of the

plans, to date, do not include specifics of the monitoring strategy (e.g., frequency, spatial

distances from burn site, etc.), parameters to be monitored, and actions to be taken based

upon the monitoring results. Because of this lack of specificity, as well as the common

requirement of monitoring during a burn, the panel spent some time discussing the reasons

for monitoring and the sufficiency of information to provide guidance for effective

monitoring.

Five objectives were identified by the panel which may be the purpose for a monitoring

program:

1. To satisfy regulatory requirements.

5
Many states have defined air quality standards which cannot be exceeded during burning,

regardless of the material being burned. These standards have been applied to ISB, or some

adjustment has been made to these standards to account for their being no specific standards

for the burning of oil.

2. To gain public confidence.

Because models estimating the extent and concentration of the particulates and other

constituents of a burn are inaccurate and not fully field-validated, conducting a monitoring

program during an ISB is required to reassure the public that model predictions are

acceptable. Furthermore, since ISB, especially offshore burning, is not yet an established

practice, such monitoring is needed to validate the use of this procedure as a safe

countermeasure.

3. To terminate a burn.

Conducting a monitoring program during an ISB may result in a decision to extinguish the

burn, due to a change in the parameters being monitored (e.g., wind conditions, ability to

control the burn, etc.).

4. To expand the knowledge base.

In certain circumstances, the opportunity may arise to allow monitoring to validate ISB

models to increase knowledge of the ISB process or procedures. The results of such

monitoring may result in more efficient, safer or broader use of ISB in the future.

5. To meet legal requirements.

Implementing a monitoring program may be desirable to ensure that data are subsequently

available to demonstrate the conditions to which the public, response workers, the biota, etc. were exposed.

Based upon the possible reasons for a monitoring program, the following research needs

were identified:

Need: To develop relevant and effective monitoring methods

Research: Verify existing smoke plume models with real time

measurements, including compound-specific measurements

Method of Implementation: Collect ground level (i.e., 4-6 feet)

concentrations of airborne pollutants at varying distances from burn source at spills

of opportunity or experimental spills, such as Mobile.

Priority : High

Comments: PM^^ concentrations are the measurement of most concern.

Research: Evaluate different real time monitoring instruments for PM^^, including

laboratory methods.

6
Method of implementation : Smoke house, Mobile, spill of opportunity.

Priority: Very High

Comment: Comparison of existing methods and instruments for field use in

monitoring ISB, such as that available through the USCG Strike Teams, the EPA

Environmental Response Teams, and other field instrumentation. Existing field

instrumentation has sensitivity to Siig/nv'. Real-time measurements need to be compared

to existing acceptable methods to verify accuracy.

Research: Resolve question of particulates and VOCs behavior, i.e., the

interrelationship of gas and particulate movement from the near to far field.

Method of implementation : Mobile test facility.

Priority : Medium

Comment: This research is needed to determine if the particulates and

gases are adsorbed to the PM^^ fraction and need to be modeled separately.

Research: Test operational monitoring protocols.

Method of implementation : Mobile test facility.

Priority : High

Comment: This should include not only the testing of the protocols for

operational feasibility and effectiveness under field conditions, but also the

integration in the field effort of supplementary data collection, such as meteorological data.

INLAND RESEARCH NEEDS (wetlands, rivers, etc.)

General

Most of the information presented during the opening sessions were from marine spills in

open waters. Because of this emphasis, some time was spent by the panel in discussing the use of in-situ burning in inland environments. Burning of vegetation following inland spills, as well as the burning of vegetation for other purposes, such as the clearing of agricultural

lands, is relatively common; however, the consequences of these activities has not been well

documented. Information on the smoke plume components from these activities or on the

environmental effects from burning is lacking, precluding any potential benefit that could be

applied to marine burns. As a consequence, the panel suggested several "research" areas

that were in part systemic: establishment of a network to provide researchers the

opportunity to monitor or otherwise study inland burns so that the measurements at inland

burns could benefit those who are making decisions for marine spills. Another

recommendation which did not require the collection of new data was the identified need

to compile and evaluate existing information on inland burns. Other recommendations

emanated from the general lack of attention spent on inland spills by the spill community.

Need: To determine the effects of inland burning that are unique from offshore burns

7
Research: Determine recovery rates of different habitats following burning.

Methods of implementation: Develop network for notification of inland burn

opportunities for conducting monitoring and long term studies.

Priority: High

Comments: Implementation of part of this recommendation included in the

synthesis of existing information on the burning of marshes; field work following

burns would supplement information synthesis.

Research: Determine the human health risks specific to inland burning.

Methods of implementation : Monitor related inland burns (e.g., agricultural

burns, etc.).

Priority: Low

Comments: This research would include an evaluation of the effects of vegetation

on the plume composition, including the VOCs.

Research: Determine the comparative human health risks between burning and

no burning.

Method of implementation : Evaluation of existing literature.

Priority: Low

Comment: This information was considered necessary to document the risk to

humans from the oil spill itself, since decision making during spills is always a

tradeoff.

Research: Develop better environmentally protective marsh burning guidehnes

(including coastal environments).

Method of implementation : Past burns, burn network testing different techniques.

Priority : High

Comments: Some marshes that had been burned appeared to recover more

rapidly than others. However, documentation of these effects, or results from

intentional spills are lacking. These data, if developed, would provide the basis for

guidelines for marsh burning that could effect more rapid recovery.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH NEEDS (coastal and marine)

General

The work group felt that most of the environmental concerns associated with ISB in the

coastal and marine environments had been adequately addressed during the Newfoundland

Experiment and other ongoing synthesis efforts. Except for the few remaining issues

identified, there appears to be no unacceptable environmental risks associated with burning,

especially when evaluated against the alternative of shoreline impacts.

8
Need: Characterization of the fate of the burn residue. Does the residue float or sink?

Research: Determine which, if any, types of burned oil residues sink (e.g., to

protect live bottoms, coral reefs).

Method of Implementation : lab burns

Priority: Medium

Comment: Toxicity of residue does not appear to be issue; rather smothering

potential of sinking residue in environmentally sensitive area.

Need: What is the toxicity of the burn residue?

Research: Determine the toxicity of the residue from a range of oils, including the

potentially, most toxic oils. Method of implementation : Mobile facility, laboratory experiment.

Priority : Medium

Comment: This research would only be necessary if work being done by MSRC,

NOAA, and Environment Canada did not address the range of oils required.

NON-RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ISSUES

General

Several issues were identified in the general discussion and were reiterated during the work

group meetings that cannot be considered research, but can obstruct the proper use of ISB.

These issues need to be addressed to facilitate acceptance of ISB and to prevent or minimize unnecessary difficulties following a burn. These needs were not ranked.

Need: Determine the legal constraints and liabilities involved in burning, both on

government and private lands.

" Research" Synthesize and evaluate the legal constraints and liabilities

associated with ISB.

Methods of implementation : Legal study

Need: Develop materials to educate the public and media about burning--its risks,

tradeoffs with other countermeasures, and oil, alone.

"Research" Synthesize existing knowledge about oil spills, the trade-off decisions

that must be made, and the risks and benefits of different countermeasures.

Method of Implementation : Interagency work group of experts to develop

information. Distribution could be through agencies' public affairs offices, prior to

9
a spill, as well as through a joint information center established during a spill.

PENDING REPORTS

Bruist, I. A., Ross, S. L., Trudel, B. K., Taylor, E., Campbell, T. G., Westphal, P. A., Myers,

M. R., Ronzio, G. S., and Allen, A. A. The Science, Technology, and Effects of Controlled

Burning of Oil Spills at Sea. Marine Spill Response Corp., Washington, DC. MSRC

Technical Report Series 93-017. To be published in 1994.

Daykin, M., Setgy, G., Aurand, D., Shigenaka, G., Wang, Z., and Tang, A. Aquatic Toxicity

Resulting from In Situ Burning of Oil on Water. In: Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program

(AMOP) Technical Seminar, 17th, Proceedings, Volume 2. June 8-10, 1994, Vancouver,

British Columbia. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, Environment Canada, pp. 1165-1193, 1994.

10
REPORT OF THE OPERATIONAL IMPLICATIONS WORKING PANEL

Bruce McKenzie, Alaska Clean Seas

Panel Chair

BACKGROUND

Participants in the Operational Implications Panel included representatives from

response organizations, the US Coast Guard, industry, research organizations and

regulatory agencies. The discussion focused on the operational elements of in-situ

burning: what tools or information is needed to successfully conduct a burn. To avoid

getting bogged down on the controversial issue of permitting requirements, it was

agreed by the Panel that for the purpose of the workshop, permission to conduct a bum had been received.

The Operational Implications Panel session was structured into two parts. The first part involved identifying data gaps that preclude or restrict burning as a response tool

and identification of areas where there is potential to improve performance of the

technique or extend/expand its usage. These data gaps and potential improvement

areas were then prioritized into a high, medium or low need. It is important to note

that the suggested needs were not prioritized within each of these categories.

The second part of the Panel session involved a brain storming session to identify

potential R&D needs related to the identified data gaps/areas for improvement. The

complete list of brain storming ideas is provided in Table 1. For the purposes of this

project, the needs were then placed under the most appropriate identified

information gap/improvement need as a possible means of resolving or addressing the

data gap.

Three noteworthy general observations came out of the Panel discussion. Firstly, due

to the limited number of burns that have been conducted in a real response situation,

there are still some fundamental questions that remain unanswered concerning the

survivability of equipment, the ignitability of certain oils and the validity of suggested

operational techniques. Secondly, that the operational expertise and experience to

conduct burns is presently vested in a relatively few number of individuals. Finally,

much of the knowledge related to burning is focused on burning at sea. Relatively

little work has been done on assessing the viability of in-situ combustion in non- marine environments.

11
OPERATIONAL INFORMATION GAPS/IMPROVEMENT AREAS

High Priority

1) Criteria, protocols and performance data for fire resistant booms and ignitors

presently available on the market.

° Based on the results of the Newfoundland burn, a potentially

significant problem with durability of fabric based fire resistant booms

was identified. Further development, testing and evaluation is required

to understand the survivability limitations (when exposed to both

thermal and mechanical stress) of existing fire-booms on the market

and methods of improving the fire resistant boom design.

° The methods of igniting oil on water should be documented and

their advantages and limitations quantified. Additionally, the factors

which may limit and govern ignitability of oils ( properties of oil and

environmental conditions ) should be identified and quantified.

Brainstorming suggestions:

° Use reactive metals for igniting oil

° Standardized testing for ignitors and booms

° Meso-scale verification of ignitor capability

° Standardized testing for booms

° Improvements to fire boom

° Create a light weight, compactible fire boom

2) Can heavy oils (Number 5, Bunker C) and emulsified oils be made more

burnable? What are the ignition requirements? Can the techniques used be

improved to facilitate combustion of these types of products?

° There is a need to push the window of opportunity in which burning can successfully be used (both from an oil type and a % emulsification

point of view)

Brainstorming suggestions:

° Better ways of breaking emulsions. How can we add additional heat to the

emulsion?

12
° New or better ways to burn emulsions with high water content

3) When can uncontained oil be burned? For example, will emulsified oil stop or

retard the spreading process to allow uncontained combustion? In a large burn

will the movement of air into a fire ( fire storm) provide sufficient force to keep

the oil from spreading and thus extinguish itself.

° There have been a number of situations where an oil release from

a tanker or a blowout has accidentally caught on fire and burned

uncontained. The processes involved in a large scale fire such as this

need to be better understood. Additionally, there is a possibility of

using surface collecting agents as a non-mechanical means of

containment so they might possibly be used in a real spill situation.

Brainstorming suggestions:

° Use of emulsion as a means of containment

° Uncontained burning - foam and/or other alternatives to contained burning

4) Feasibility of burning in environments other than water. Of specific interest is burning on land, in marshes and on beaches. While a number of elements of

burning in these environments were identified ( efficiencies, substrate penetration

on beaches and ignition techniques) the primary concern was fire control

techniques.

° Most of the focus of in-situ burning in recent years has been related

to burning of oil at sea. Recent successful burns in marshes (Maine &

Texas) have shown that in-situ burning is a viable response tool for

other environments as well.

Brainstorming suggestions:

° Investigate fire extinguishing techniques

° Test burning on or against a beach

5) Ability to control/extinguish an in-situ burn at sea.

Of primary concern when conducting a burn is the ability to control or

extinguish the fire. The common theory for an in-situ burn conducted

within a fire resistant boom is that by speeding up the tow, entrainment

will occur, thus reducing oil thickness to below levels where combustion

is sustainable. This theory has never been tested in the field.

13
Brainstorming suggestions:

° Investigate fire extinguishing techniques

° Field tests of fire control with booms

6) Chemical agents that can be applied to enhance various elements of the burn:

smoke suppression, breaking of emulsions and promotion of combustion.

Recent work in Norway has suggested that it may be possible to add

a mixture of chemical additives that suppress smoke emissions while

simultaneously breaking emulsion and promoting combustion. The

possibility of meeting the operational objective of effectively burning

emulsions while also addressing the environmental concern related to

air emissions merits pursuit.

Brainstorming suggestions:

° Chemical treatment for emulsion burning

° Chemical additives that could be added prior

to spillage

° Use of ferrocene

° A catalyst to enhance burning

° Adding oxidizers, such as those available for

solid rocket fuel

Medium Priority

7) When do physical environmental conditions such as: wind speed, gusts, wind

direction shifts, wave height/geometry and currents preclude burning?

More information is needed on the limits of wave height, form and

period as it effects the ignition and burning of oil on water. Particularly

when dealing with emulsified and/or heavy oils.

Brainstorming suggestions:

Low Priority

14
8) Personal protection for workers conducting burning. This includes protocols,

personal protective equipment requirements and techniques, monitoring on scene,

follow-up medical monitoring and exposure characterization. The key element of

this was identified as exposure characterization, to ensure that the personal

protective equipment requirements were not overly onerous.

° While the health and safety of workers conducting a burn is of the

highest priority, it was felt by the panel that much of the information

required to meet this data gap was already available from other

disciplines (i.e., fire fighting).

Brainstorming suggestions:

9) Fate, behavior and mechanical techniques for recovery of residue.

° There is still some concern related to the toxicity of the residue from

a burn. Based on observations from some actual offshore burns there

is reason to believe that the residue may sink or escape under a barrier

(such as a boom) if currents are sufficiently strong. No effective

mechanical means of recovering the residue from a burn has yet been

devised.

Brainstorming suggestions:

° Bioremediate residue at sea

° Let the residue go (don't pick it up)

15
During the Panel session, a number of suggestions came up concerning the direction

that future In-situ Burning Research & Development should take. The key points

were captured and are provided below.

1) Cooperative and coordinated R&D efforts need to continue and if possible

expanded to incorporate work being done outside of North America.

2) Look for potential solutions/answers to some of the identified needed research

areas in other related industries that have been dealing with similar type issues

for a number of years (i.e., fire fighting industry; for emulsions, the cosmetics and

food industry)

3) In the present economic climate, recognize R&D funding constraints and scale

projects accordingly. Attention needs to be given to more focused, smaller

projects in recognition of limited funding.

4) Look for alternatives to at sea burn tests, which tend to be expensive,

logistically difficult to coordinate and have long lead times.

5) the need for a testing facility where oil can be burned and dynamic testing

conducted. The concern revolved around the difficulty to obtain permits to spill

oil and produce black smoke for research related work.

Towards the end of the workshop session, the panel members were asked if, from an

operational point of view, you could fund one project for 1994 what would it be. The

response was as follows.

1) To develop a light weight, permanent fire resistant boom that can withstand

the rigors of an offshore burn.

2) To be able to burn high water content emulsions.

16
Table 1 Operational R&D Brainstorming Ideas

Ignition

" Use reactive metals for igniting oil

° Standardized testing for ignitors and booms

° Meso-scale verification of ignitor capability

Containment

° Test burning on or against a beach

° Use of emulsion as a means of containment

° Uncontained burning - foam and/or other alternatives to contained burning

° Improve encounter rate without entrainment

° Standardized testing for booms

° Improvements to Fire boom

° Create a light weight, compactible fire boom

Emulsions

" Better ways of breaking emulsions. How can we add additional heat to the

emulsion?

° New or better ways to burn emulsions with high water content

Combustion Promotion

" Make the boom a better wick

° Make the surface of the boom reflectant to radiate heat back

° Can anything be done beneath the slick to enhance the process

" Can we promote the vigorous burn phase (catalysts, bubblers, etc.)?

° Increase the draft into the fire

° Combustion enhancer that contains nutrients and enhances droplet

formation

° Increase heat radiation for the flame back to the oil (currently « 1%)

° Air injection to enhance burning process

° Inject oxygen into the oil to promote burning

17
Table 1 (cont)

Residue

° Bioremediate residue at sea

° Let the residue go (don't pick it up)

Soot

° Biodegradation of soot on water

° Fate and behavior study of soot on water

" Find a substance that will make all soot particles > lOju

Operational

° Novel techniques that may be applied with existing equipment

" What are the effects of debris on burning

° Robotic responders to avoid health/safety issues

° Night lighting

° Logistical and operational constraints

° Aerial deployment of equipment

° Investigate fire extinguishing techniques

° Means of remotely determining oil thickness

° Portable real time vessel speed indicator (< 1 kt.)

Chemicals

° Chemical treatment for emulsion burning

° Chemical additives that could be added prior to spillage to prevent or slow

weathering and emulsification

° use of ferrocene

° A catalyst to enhance burning

" Adding oxidizers, such as those available for solid rocket fuel

18
TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR THE WORKSHOP

Prior to moving into the breakout sessions, all participants in the workshop took part

in defining the geographic area of in situ burning during the workshop. The

consensus of the group was that discussions would include burning in both marine

and inland situations and in all latitudes.

CRITERIA FOR PROJECT RECOMMENDATION

° Addresses a data gap restricting use as a tool for response

° Cost / Benefit

° Project duration (timeliness)

° Probability of success

" Improves performance of technique

° Extends / expands usage (e.g.: to land, marshes)

° Relevance to operational conditions (simplicity in implementing)

° Safety

° Meets a permit requirement need

° Helps with public acceptance

19
NON-RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ISSUES

A number of issues arose during the conference that were identified as important, but

were not specifically related to R&D needs. It was felt important to capture these

issues, but not to dwell on them during the limited time available in the workshop.

These issues were captured and are provided below.

° Legal / regulatory constraints

° Need for Education of

- Regulators

- Public

- Operations personnel

° Burning of residual wastes (sorbents / booms)

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS

1) Based on the information provided at the workshop through the presenters and

also the discussions held in the breakout sessions, there are no significant road blocks

to having in-situ burning accepted as a viable response technique.

2) As additional information is gained from R&D efforts and the regulators become

more comfortable with the knowledge base, the procedures and approvals process

will continue to be refined.

20
IN SITU BURNING OVERVIEW

Edward J. Tennyson

Technology Assessment and Research Branch

U. S. Minerals Management Service

Herndon, Virginia 22070-4817 USA

SUMMARY

In situ burning of spilled oil, as a primary response technique, has been extensively

investigated over the past 11 years. Evaluations of air emissions and effectiveness in

removing oil from the ocean surface have been completed for a wide variety of oils in the

laboratory and at mesoscale. Results from a field verification offshore of Newfoundland,

Canada are becoming available.

A brief overview of the historical research perspective is contained in this paper. An

overview of the purposes of the workshop also is given.

INTRODUCTION

Significant advances in oil spill response capabilities have been made in recent years as a

result of the Minerals Management Service (MMS) funded cooperative research

program. Areas of major progress include improved remote sensing, chemical treating

agents including dispersants, understanding of weathering phenomena in realistic slick

thicknesses, and in situ burn (Tennyson, 1993).

This workshop is part of MMS's continuing efforts to ensure maximum applicability and

benefits of its cooperative research to the user community. The invited participants

represent our best attempts to include all segments of that community.

PURPOSE OF THE WORKSHOP

The workshop is organized into two major segments. First, we have assembled a speakers' roster of recognized experts in various aspects of in situ burning of spilled oil. These speakers will present the current state of knowledge and their ideas for future

research to improve our understanding of this promising oil spill response strategy.

Response managers who have recently used this tool for onshore spills will also describe

their experiences. We have attempted to involve regulatory and scientific agencies as well as the public in the dialogue during this conference.

The second major part, and the most beneficial part of the workshop for us, will be the

results of deliberations during the two breakout panels. There are two panels: 1. Environmental and Health and Safety, and; 2. Operational impHcations. We recognize

that many potential issues overlap this distinction.

21
We ask you to place priorities on each panel's recommendations. On the last day, we

will attempt to reach consensus on the priorities of information needs across panel lines.

Our goal is to reach consensus on the present status of information for decision making

to allow the use of in-situ burning as appropriate. We want to cut across disciplines and

political Hnes to examine existing information and to identify specific needs that have not

been met. You, as decision makers and advisors, will probably have the opportunity to use in situ burning. The time to take stock of your information base and to conduct

research to answer your questions is now, certainly not after an event has occurred.

You will have opportunities to cross fertilize between panel deliberations at the

scheduled plenary sessions. We encourage you to take advantage of the breaks and

unscheduled times to discuss issues of particular importance. All of the speakers will

make every effort to be available to answer questions and support panel efforts.

Results of this workshop will be used by MMS to refine future research efforts to address

the most important issues developed at this workshop.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE - AN OVERVIEW

The MMS began a cooperative research program on in situ burning of spilled oil in 1983

to quantify the limitations of this innovative response strategy. Initial efforts were

predicated upon the extensive Department of Energy (DOE, 1979) literature search and

upon early demonstrations in ice covered areas. Results of this program, supported by

Environment Canada (EC), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and U.S.

Coast Guard (USCG), immediately indicated that in situ burn could be utilized in a wide

range of environmental conditions. Specific physical variables evaluated were slick

thickness, degree of oil weathering (sparging), sea state, wind velocities, air and water

temperatures, oil type, degrees of emulsification and degree of ice coverage. A wide

range of oils tested all burned with 50 to 90 percent removal ratios as long as significant

emulsification had not occurred. Slick thicknesses of 3mm or thicker were required to

sustain ignition. Extinguishment occurred when the slick reached approximately 1mm

thick. Heavily weathered (sparged) oils burned more completely than fresh by

approximately 7 percent. Wind velocities from 0 to 51 knots were experienced at Ohmsett during these tests. At wind speed over 30 knots the flame would not propagate

up wind, however slicks ignited on the windward side would continue to burn irrespective

of the wind speed. Air temperatures ranged from -11°C to 23°C and water temperatures

varied from -1°C to 17°C without effect on burn efficiencies. Ice coverage also had

minimal effect. Coverage ranged from 99 percent to less than 10 percent during testing

(Smith and Diaz, 1985). Insufficient funding existed to quantify the concentration and

behavior of the airborne pollutants resulting from the released oil and from combustion

at Ohmsett.

22
The next phase of the research involved an extensive laboratory effort to quantitatively

analyze the pollutants created by in situ burning, including chemical composition of the

parent oil, burn residue, and water and airborne constituents. These studies were

conducted at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) with major

emphasis on particulate and gaseous components created by the burning process.

Analyses were also conducted at the EC laboratories in Ottawa, Canada. These research

efforts, with a wide variety of crude oils over several years, yielded data that indicated

that aldehydes ketones, dioxans, furans, and polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAHs) were

not formed in the burning process. The airborne pollutants reflected similar

concentrations of these compounds as in the parent oil. The overall concentrations of

PAHs were reduced in the smoke versus the parent oil with a conversion of lighter

molecular weight PAHs to heavier compounds.

Predominant bum products released were: Carbon Dioxide - 75 percent, water vapor - 12 percent, soot - 10 percent, carbon monoxide - 3 percent and other products listed

above - 0.2 percent. The burn residue was composed of the higher molecular weight

compounds present in the parent oil. The lighter molecular weight compounds in

unburned oil are the major sources of acute toxicity of spilled hydrocarbons. The burn

residue tended to be consistently weathered throughout and did not contain relatively

fresh oil (lighter compounds) in the center of weathered oil coverings, as typically found

in naturally weathered tar balls (Evans et al, 1986-1993) (Fingas et al, 1991-1993).

Concern for the behavior of the airborne products of in situ burning resulted in an

extensive effort to develop a model to predict the concentrations of pollutants in the

smoke plume, including depositional patterns on the earth's surface. This sophisticated

model is under development at NIST. It has been run for various predictive applications

in Alaska and other areas. Verification is underway utilizing data from mesoscale

experiments at the USCG Fire and Safety Detachment, Mobile, Alabama, and the open

ocean field verification exercise offshore Newfoundland, Canada, August 12, 1993 (Evans

et al, 1989-1983).

The third phase of this research involved evaluation of the effects of fire size upon the

extensive results obtained in the laboratory. In 1991 14 mesoscale experiments were

conducted to measure the burning characteristics of crude oil on salt water. The fire

sizes ranged from 5 meters to 15 meters square with burn volume ranging from 343 to

3,720 gallons. The amount of oil removed from the water surface in these experiments

ranged from 90 to 99 plus percent with one burn yielding 75 percent for unknown

reasons. Extensive sampling of the burn plume was conducted with emphasis on burn

rate, radiation, and the concentration and behavior of particulate and gaseous burn

products. Burns lasted from 5 to 25 minutes with the most usual duration of 16 minutes.

The burning rates indicated removal of 0.55 mm/sec plus or minus 0.01 mm/sec for pan

fires up to 7 meters. These rates of removal are significantly higher than those of

conventional oil spill response strategies (Evans and Tennyson, 1991). Smoke particulate

generation from fires larger than 2 meters in diameter was approximately 13 percent.

23
although various estimates range from 3 to 15 percent (Evans et al, 1992 and Fingas et

al, 1993). Data from the mesoscale tests confirmed laboratory results. The effects of fire

size from laboratory to 15 meters square has been quantified.

Burning at Mobile continued with 6 mesoscale burns and 2 evaporation experiments

being conducted in 1992 (Fingas et al, 1993 and Evans et al 1993).

Comparison experiments of air quality impacts of spilled oil under the burn and no-burn

scenarios were conducted. This data is in preliminary form.

On August 12, 1993, EC and the Canadian Coast Guard, with support from MMS,

USCG, Marine Spill Response Cooperation (MSRC) and over 20 other funding entities,

conducted a very successful field verification of in situ burning of spilled oil offshore

St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada. Several major objectives including quantifying

removal effectiveness, air and water borne pollutants generated by the burn, background

levels of volatile compounds prior to burning and evaluation of selected spill response

equipment were accomplished. Information on this landmark activity will be presented

during this workshop.

Volumes of weathered Alberta Sweet Mixed Blend released in this activity were 48.3m-^

(12,760 gal.) and 28.9m^ (7,635 gal.). Despite mechanical problems with the fire resistant

boom during the second burn, approximately 99 plus percent of the oil was removed in

each burn. Extensive air and water quality samples were taken and analysis is underway.

Mr. Merv Fingas (EC) will be presenting this information.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS AND FINDINGS

The following are based upon 10 plus years of involvement in situ burn research and 24

years of oil spill response activity:

o In situ burning of spilled oil has the potential of removing 100 to 1000

times as much oil, prerecovery effort, as any other current response

methods.

o Airborne pollutant levels rapidly reach background levels.

o We know more about the efficiencies, effects and operational procedures

for in situ burn than we do for dispersants.

o Research suggest no increase in water pollution (water soluble fractions)

during burning compared with non burning response scenarios.

24
o Health hazards associated with near field exposure to airborne pollutants

may be reduced by burning compared to other response strategies.

o Responders and near populations exposed to visible smoke should be

protected with combination PM|o and organic vapor filtered respirators.

o Fire containment boom technology needs improvement and verification.

o Testing protocols for fire resistant booms are needed.

o For the wide range of oils investigated, the burn residue approximates

heavily weathered oil with low toxicity.

o No residue, in our experiments, were observed to sink.

o Additional research is needed on near full scale burning of emulsions in waves.

o Particulate pollutant concentrations in the mid field

(300 to 2000 m downwind) needs to be evaluated more fully.

o We need your input to most efficiently proceed with our research.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author gratefully acknowledges the contributions from a number of co-sponsors for

the research described in this paper. Among the cosponsors with MMS were EC;

American Petroleum Institute; Imperial Oil Ltd., Canada; USCG; Alaska Clean Seas;

EPA; MSRC and others.

25
REFERENCES

DOE Combustion: An Oil Spill Mitigation Tool. Report No. DOE/EVANS-1380-1.

August 1979.

Evans D., Combustion of Oil Spills on Water, in: Technology Assessment and Research

Program for Offshore Minerals Operations, 1986 Report, OCS Study MMS 86-0083,

Minerals Management Service, Herndon, Virginia, 1986.

Evans, D., Mulholland, G., Gross, D., Baum, H., Saito, K., Environmental Effects of Oil

Spill Combustion, in: Proceeding of the Tenth Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program

Technical Seminar, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, June 9-11, 1987.

Evans, D. Mulholland, G., Gross, D., Baum, H., Saito, K, Burning, Smoke Production,

and Smoke Dispersion from Oil Spill Combustion, in: Proceedings of the Eleventh Arctic

and Marine Oil Spill Technical Seminar, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, June 7-9,

1988.

Evans, D., Mulholland, G., Grass, D., Baum, H., Saito, K., Generation and Dispersion of

Smoke Oil Spill Combustion, in: Proceedings 1989 Oil Conference - Prevention, Behavior,

Control, Cleanup, San Antonio, Texas, 1989, February 13-16, 1989.

Evans, D. D., Baum, H., Mulholland, G., Bryner, N., Forney, G., Smoke Plums from

Crude Oil Burns, in: Proceedings of the Twelfth Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program

Technical Seminar, Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, pp. 1-22, 1989.

Evans, D. D., Tennyson, E. J., In Situ Burning - A Promising Response Strategy, in: Proceedings of the Seventh Symposium on Coastal and Ocean Management, Long Beach,

California, July 8-12, 1991.

Evans, D. D., Walton, W. D., Baum, H. R., Notarianni, K. A., Lawson, J. R., Tang, H. C,

Keydal, K. R., Rehm, R. G., Madrzykowski, D., Zile, R. H., Koseki, H., Tennyson, E. J., In Situ Burning of Oil Spills: Mesoscale Experiments, in: Proceedings of the Fifteenth

Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Technical Seminar, pp. 593-657, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada,

June 10-12, 1992.

Evans, D. D., Walton, W. D., Baum, H. R., Notarianni, Tennyson, E. J., Tebeau, P. A.,

Mesoscale Experiments Help to Evaluate In Situ Burning of Oil Spills, in: Proceedings of

the Thirteenth Biennial Conference on the Prevention, Behavior, Control, and Cleanup of

Oil Spills, Tampa, Florida, March 29 - April 1, 1993.

26
Fingas, M. F., Li, K., Ackerman, F., Campagna, P., Turpin, R. D., Getty, S. J., Soleki, M.

F., Tresplacios, M. J., Pare, J., Bissonnette, M. C, Tennyson, E. J., Emissions From

Mesoscale In situ Oil Fires: The Mobile 1991 and 1992 Tests, in: Proceedings of the

Sixteenth Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Technical Seminar, pp. 749-832, Calgary, Alberta,

Canada, June 7-9, 1993.

Smith, N. K., Diaz, A., In-Place Burning of Crude Oils In Broken Ice, in: Proceedings of

the Eighth Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, Edmonton, Alberta,

Canada, June 18-20, 1985.

Tennyson, E. J., Results from Oil Spill Response Research-An Update, in: Proceedings

of the 1993 Oil Spill Conference, pp. 541-544, March 29-April 1, 1993.

Walton, W. D., Evans, D. D., McGratten, K. B., Baum, Twilley, W. H., Madrzykowski,

D., Putorti, A. D., Rehm, R. G., Koseki, H., Tennyson, E. J., In-Situ Burning of Oil Spills

Mesoscale Experiments and Analysis, in: Proceedings of the Sixteenth Arctic and Marine

Oil Spill Technical Seminar, pp. 679-734, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, June 7-9, 1993.

27

IN SITU BURNING OF OIL SPILLS:

, SMOKE PRODUCTION AND PLUME BEHAVIOR

David D. Evans

Large Fire Research Group

Building and Fire Research Laboratory

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899

SUMMARY

In 1985, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) began a study of in situ

burning of crude oil to provide information to support decisions about the use of this

technology for oil spill response. Measured smoke production from burning of crude oils

in the laboratory, in mesoscale experiments, and in an offshore experiment are presented.

Calculations of smoke plume dispersion for an oil spill burn in the vicinity of Cook Inlet,

Alaska show that beyond 5 km downwind of the burn, smoke particulate concentrations near

the ground averaged over 1 hour do not exceed 150 iig/nv'.

INTRODUCTION

In situ burning of spilled oil has distinct advantages over other countermeasures. It offers

the potential to convert rapidly large quantities of oil into its primary combustion products,

carbon dioxide and water, with a small percentage of smoke particulate and other unburned

and residue byproducts. Burning of spilled oil from the water surface reduces the chances

of shoreline contamination and damage to biota by removing the oil from the water surface

before it spreads. In situ burning requires minimal equipment and less labor than other

techniques. It can be applied in areas where many other methods cannot due to lack of

response infrastructure and/or lack of alternatives. Oil spills amongst ice and on ice are examples of situations where practical alternatives to burning are very limited. Because the

oil is mainly converted to airborne products of combustion by burning, the need for physical

collection, storage, and transport of recovered fluids is reduced to the few percent of the

original spill volume that remains as residue after burning.

Burning oil spills produces a visible smoke plume containing smoke particulate and other

products of combustion which may persist over many kilometers downwind from the burn.

This fact gives rise to public health concerns, related to the chemical content of the smoke

plume and the downwind deposition of particulate, which need to be answered. The program

of research in oil spill burning began at NIST in 1985 addresses this need for information

through measurements and calculations.

29
BACKGROUND

As a result of 1983 experiments in which 50 to 95 percent of all the oils tested were removed

from the water surface by burning in the Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated

Environmental Test Tank (OHMSETT) facility in Leonardo, New Jersey [1], studies were

initiated at the NIST under funding from the Minerals Management Service (MMS). The

NIST research program was designed to study how burning large oil spills would affect air

quality by quantifying the products of combustion and developing methods to predict the

downwind airborne smoke particulate concentrations. Measurements were performed at three scales. Initially, laboratory experiments of 0.4 m to 1.2 m diameter pool fires were

conducted to measure burning rates and smoke product in a controlled environment [2].

Subsequent mesoscale burn experiments up to 15 m square were conducted outdoors to

examine scaling of laboratory results to a size approaching that expected to be used in oil

spill mitigation. New instrumentation techniques were developed to perform measurements

of smoke production in a free smoke plume [3]. These measurement methods were

employed in the large scale experiments conducted recently in at sea burns off the coast of

Newfoundland, Canada [4].

Concurrent with the development of measurements techniques for smoke plumes, a Large

Eddy Simulation (LES) model for the calculation of smoke plume trajectory and predicting

the "footprint" of soot particle deposition downwind of a burn was developed. LES is a

steady-state three-dimensional calculation of smoke plume trajectory and smoke particulate

deposition based on a mixed finite difference and Lagrangian particle tracking method [3].

SMOKE YIELD

The smoke production from a fire may be expressed in terms of a smoke yield which is defined as the mass of smoke particulate rrip produced from burning a fuel mass m^, as:

Y, = (1)

The mass of carbon in the fuel that is consumed by burning is equal to the mass of carbon

in the smoke plume.

Three assumptions are made in the analysis. The first is that the smoke particulate is predominately carbon. Previous laboratory measurements [5] have shown that the organic

carbon fraction of smoke from crude oil pool fires is not greater than 10 percent before

30
there is any boiling in the supporting water sublayer. The remainder of the smoke contains

greater than 90 percent elemental carbon. Thus the total carbon content which includes the

elemental carbon and the carbon contained in the organic fraction is well over 90 percent

of the content of the smoke. Based on this evidence, for the purpose of the smoke yield

analysis, the smoke particulate is considered to be pure carbon. The second assumption is that samples are collected over a suitable time period to average out natural fluctuations in

the fire and plume. In the mesoscale tests and laboratory tests, samples are drawn over a period of 600 seconds to over 1000 seconds. This is deemed sufficient to represent the

average burning conditions for the fires. The third assumption is that no preferential

separation of smoke particulate and combustion gases occur in the smoke plume up to the

point where the sample is taken. In all field measurements, and unconfined laboratory

burns, the smoke yield measurement is made close to the source where the smoke and

gaseous combustion products move in a well formed smoke plume. Combining eqs (1) and

(2) and taking into account the three assumptions above yields:

Smoke

To evaluate the above ratio, a known volume of smoke is drawn though a filter and the

gaseous portion collected in a sample bag. The mass of carbon in the smoke (m^ spnoi^-g) is equal to the mass of carbon in the smoke particulate, assumed equal to the mass of

particulate (mp) collected on the filter, plus the mass of carbon in the CO2 and CO in the

gaseous portion of the smoke sample. The second fraction on the right-hand-side of eq (3),

the mass fraction of carbon in the fuel, is determined from an elemental analysis of the fuel.

For example, the ratio,

^CFuei I^F Louisiana crude oil, is 0.858, which is typical for crude oils.

Controlled laboratory experiments provided the opportunity to evaluate if the smoke yield

measurements are constant over the entire cross section of the smoke plume. Following the

assumption that both the gases and the particulate travel together near the fire mixing with

the entrained air as the smoke moves away from the source, the smoke yield should be equal

when measured at the center of the plume and at its edge. In mesoscale tests, due to

variations in the wind, natural fluctuations in the fire, and difficulties in positioning smoke

measurement instruments which are suspended below a tethered blimp, the smoke samples

are drawn from a variety of positions within the plume over the long sampling time.

Therefore it is important to assure the accuracy of these measurements, and that position

is not a sensitive factor in the smoke yield measurement.

31
Table 1. Smoke yield from laboratory burn

Location Smoke Yield

(%)

Plume centerline 10.90

1 m radial from plume centerline 10.90

1 m radial from plume centerline 10.68

2 m radial from plume centerline 11.07

2 m radial from plume centerline 10.76

In the laboratory burn of a 1.2 m diameter Louisiana crude oil pool fire [6], smoke yield

measurements were made at three positions: plume centerline, 1 m radius and 2 m radius

(near the edge of the visible plume) at a height of 15 m above the burning fuel surface.

Table 1 shows the results of the measurements. The smoke yield is seen to be nearly

constant across the plume and the measurement method is seen to be repeatable at each

measurement station. The average smoke yield for the 1.2 m diameter Louisiana crude oil fire is 10.9 percent.

Smoke yields from the larger mesoscale burns (6.88 m and 17.2 m effective diameter) are given in table 2. It appears that smoke yield in the 1.2 m diameter laboratory fires (10.9%)

is a good indicator of smoke yield from the 17.2 m diameter fires (10.5% average of five tests [6]). This result based on measurement of a single crude oil type should be regarded

as preliminary. Also, the single 6.88 m fire measured produced a larger smoke yield than

the 17.2 m burn which has four times the burning surface area [6]. This result is interesting

as it suggests that either there is peak in the smoke production rate, or that there is a

characteristic of the 6.88 m diameter fires that has not been taken into account. Both 1.2

m and 17.2 m fires produced significantly less smoke per unit mass of fuel consumed than

the 6.88 m burn. In field tests of in situ oil spill burning off the coast of Newfoundland [4], a smoke yield of nominally 15 percent was measured for weathered Alberta Sweet Mixed

Blend crude oil.

32
Table 2. Smoke yield from mesoscale and field burns

Crude Oil

Effective Burn

Diameter (m)

Smoke Yield (%)

Louisiana [6] 6.88 14.0 - 15.2

Louisiana [6] 17.2 9.4 - 12.3

Alberta Sweet

Mixed Blend

Varied* 14.8 - 15.2

^ NOBL field test [4J. Oil burned in the apex of a 150 m

long boom towed in a U-configuration, August 12, 1993

Table 3. Smoke Yield from Crude

Oils Fires (1.2 m diameter)

Crude Oil Smoke Yield (%)

Louisiana [6] 10.9

Cook Inlet [7] 9.2

Alaska North

Slope [7]

11.6

Table 3 shows the results of laboratory burns of three crude oils in 1.2 m diameter pans.

The smoke yield for each was slightly different but nominally 10 percent.

SMOKE PLUME BEHAVIOR

NIST is developing the LES (Large Eddy Simulation) smoke plume trajectory model to

address the need for accurate predictions of downwind smoke dispersion from large buoyant

sources such as oil spill fires to support the decision process about the application of in situ

burning in response to oil spills. This model differs from most of the atmospheric dispersion

models in use today because it is a deterministic rather than an empirical model; that is, the

approach taken is to solve the governing equations of motion directly rather than relying on

empirical formulae which approximate the extent of the dispersion. These empirical models

typically assume the pollutant of interest to be Gaussian distributed in the plane

perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing wind. The parameters defining the

distribution are estimated from experiments. Unfortunately, the problem of in situ burning

of crude oil is inappropriate for these types of models for two reasons: (1) The nature of the

"source" is different than what is normally assumed, a smokestack, and (2) the size of the source is well beyond those considered in industrial applications and thus outside of the

experimental parameter range.

33
Because the LES model approaches the dispersion problem from first principles, it is more

flexible, and ultimately easier to apply because it reduces the number of empirical

parameters demanded of the user. The long range goal of the LES modeling study is to

provide high resolution predictions that can account for the actual terrain and atmospheric

conditions in the vicinity of the spill. LES version 2.0 was used to predict smoke plume

trajectory from oil spill burns in Alaska [7]. This version of the model is limited to predictions of downwind smoke concentration for uniform winds and flat terrain. Details

of the model derivation are given in reference [7].

Application of the model is demonstrated by calculation of a hypothetical in situ burn of

North Slope crude oil in the vicinity of Cook Inlet, Alaska. It is assumed that spilled crude

oil is being burned in the confines of a fire resistant boom. Figure 1 presents the results

from an example calculation for a steady burning fire for 1 hour with a burning area of 465

m'^ (5000 ft^). In that figure, (A) is a typical atmospheric temperature profile for the Cook

Inlet region in the winter. The effect of the temperature inversion on the plume rise is evident in (B) which shows the crosswind extent of hour-averaged plume particulate

concentrations of 150 and 300 ^ig/rrv' at a cross section 5 km downwind of the burn site. (C)

is a similar plot showing the downwind extent of these concentration levels in the plume.

(D) displays the concentrations at the ground level, where the darker shaded areas indicate

values higher than 150 iig/nr'. The term "ground level" refers to the first 10 to 20 m of the

atmosphere, reflecting the resolution of the finite difference approximation of the

conservation equations. In this example calculation, the concentrations of smoke particulate

exceeding 150 ^ig/nv" are confined to a small area less than 2 km long immediately downwind

of the fire. Finally, (E) is included to quantify the previous contour plot. It shows the

decrease in the ground concentration along the plume centerline. A comprehensive

evaluation of many burn scenarios for the state of Alaska [7] showed that for a 465 m^ burn,

150 fig/nv' 1 hour average smoke particulate concentrations were not found at distances

greater than 5 km downwind of the burn and did not extend beyond a width of 1 km. The

300 tJ-g/nv' 1 hour average ground level smoke concentrations were limited to less than 2 km

downwind.

Finally, if doubling of the burning area to 930 m^ (10,000 ft^) is considered both the heat

and mass release rates are assumed to be double, but the particulate concentrations near

the ground are not double. The reason for this is that the plume will rise higher when the

fire is larger in area. The higher elevation of the plume causes greater dispersion, and thus

the particulate matter is spread over a larger area.

CONCLUSION

Smoke production from crude oil fires was found to vary with the area of the burn and the

type of crude oil. It appears that 10 to 15 percent of the mass of crude oil burned in large areas is converted to particulate that is carried in the smoke plume. Calculations performed

to predict near ground level concentrations of particulate from oil spill burns have shown

34
that 1 hour average concentrations do not exceed 150 ^g/m at downwind distances greater

than 5 km and do not exceed 300 iig/nr" beyond 2 km downwind of burns for a wide variety

of weather conditions.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author would like to thank Mr. Wilham D. Walton and Dr. Kevin B. McGrattan for

their help in preparing clear and concise explanations of smoke yield calculations and LES

model capabilities. The program of studies to understand in situ burning of oil spills was

begun under funding from the Minerals Management Service, Department of the Interior

in 1985. MMS has been a substantial and continuous source of funding for this research and

has played an important role in steering the research effort to the best advantage of

industry. Cooperative research has been performed with Environment Canada to

characterize the combustion products from crude oil burns. The U.S. Coast Guard Fire

Safety and Test Detachment in Mobile, Alabama has been an invaluable resource for test data and opportunities to develop instrumentation during mesoscale pan burns. Funding

from the USCG Research and Development Center has helped to establish means to measure the chemical composition of smoke plumes from large fires. Cooperative support

for mesoscale experiments was received from the American Petroleum Institute, Marine Spill

Response Corporation, Marine Industry Group, Exxon Baton Rouge Refinery, and BP

America. Large laboratory fire experiments were conducted in cooperation with the Fire

Research Institute in Japan. Analysis of smoke plume dispersion for in situ oil spill burns

in Alaska using the LES model was performed under support from the Alaska Department

of Environmental Conservation (ADEC).

REFERENCES

[1] Smith, N.K. and Diaz, A., In-place Burning of Prudhoe Bay Oil in Broken Ice. Proceedings 1985 Oil Spill Conference, Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup,

American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC 20005, pp. 405-410, (1985).

[2] Evans, D., Mulholland, G., Gross, D., Baum, H., and Saito, K., Burning, Smoke

Production, and Smoke Dispersion from Oil Spill Combustion, Proceedings of the

Eleventh Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, June 7-9, 1988,

Vancouver, British Columbia, Ministry of Supply and Services Canada, Cat. No. En

49-11/5-1988 E/F, pp. 41-87, (1988).

[3] Evans, D., Walton, W., Baum, H., Notarianni, K., Lawson, J., Tang, H., Keydel, K.,

Rehm, R., Madrzykowski, D., Zile, R., Koseki, H., and Tennyson E., In-Situ Burning

of Oil Spills: Mesoscale Experiments, Proceedings of the Fifteenth Arctic and Marine

Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, June 10-12, 1992, Edmonton, Alberta, Ministry

of Supply and Services Canada, Cat. No. En 40-11/5-1992. pp. 593-657, (1992).

35
NOBE, Newfoundland Offshore Burn Experiment, Environment Canada, Ottawa,

Ontario, June, 1993.

Benner, B. A. Jr., Bryner, N. P., Wise, S. A., Mulholland, G, W., Lao, R. C, Fingas,

M. F., Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Emissions from the Combustion of Crude

Oil on Water, Environmental Sciences & Technology, Vol. 24, pp. 1418-1427, (1990).

Walton, W.D., Evans, D.D., McGrattan, K.B., Baum, H.R., Twilley, W.H.,

Madrzykowski, D., Putorti, A.D., Rehm, R.G., Koseki, H., and Tennyson, E.J., In situ

Burning of Oil Spills: Mesoscale Experiments and Analysis, Proceedings of the

Sixteenth Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, June 7-9, 1993,

Calgary, Alberta, Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, (1993).

McGrattan, K.B., Putorti, A.D., Twilley, W.H., Evans. D.D., Smoke Plume Trajectory

from In Situ Burning of Crude Oil in Alaska, NISTIR 5273, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, (1993).

36
COOK INLET, WINTER WIND SPEED 8.0 m/» HEAT LOADING 820. MW

STABILITY CLASS 0 MASS LOADING 2.8 kg/s

(A) TO»CT*7mc nans (») eaosswwo eo»ico*TiuT»o« at sooo. uztocs

1000 TCMTEMTUaC (C) OBTANCC FWM CCNTDUME (UCTERS)

(C) VCimOU. CDTOLME COWCOfflUTtOM

0 2000 4000 (000 8000 1000C 12000 liOOO 1CO0O 1S00O 20OOO OOWNWIHO DtSTAMCC (UCTCRS)

it) CROUMO COntRUWE COMCEKnUTWW

0 2S00 4O0O tOOO tOOO 10000 1200O 14000 11000 laOOO 20000 OOWMWIMO USTAMCt (UCTOB)

ALL COHCtNTIATIOMS EXntCSSQ) M UMTS OT w/m'

Figure 1. LES smoke plume calculations for in situ burning of a Alaska North Slope

crude oil in the vicinity of Cook Inlet in the winter.

37
JI
EMISSIONS FROM IN SITU OIL FIRES

Merv F. Fmgas\ Ken Li\ Philip R. Campagna^, Rodney D. Turpin^, Francine Ackerman\

Martine C. Bissonnette\ Pat Lambert , Samuel J. Getty-"^, Miguel J. Trespalacios^, J. Belanger^ and Edward J. Tennyson'^

SUMMARY

A series of 30 mesoscale burns was conducted in 1991 and 1992 to study various aspects of

oil burning. Twenty of these burn tests were sponsored by the U.S. Minerals Management

Service (MMS) and were conducted at the U.S. Coast Guard facility in Mobile, Alabama.

A further round of tests was conducted in Calgary, Alberta and was co-sponsored by Exxon

Biomedical Services, Environment Canada (EC) and Esso Resources. EC and the U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) conducted extensive sampling and monitoring of

these burns to determine the emissions resulting from the burn. Measurements and samples

of air, soot (smoke), water and residue were taken and analyzed for specific pollutants.

Subsequently, a full-scale burn was conducted offshore Newfoundland in 1993 and very

extensive measurements and samples were taken. Although not complete at time of writing,

these new results shed even more light on the environmental acceptability of oil in-situ

burning.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) were found to be lower in the soot than in the starting

oil and were consumed by the fire to a large degree. Metals in the oil were found

exclusively in the residue and could not be measured in soot samples using conventional

industrial hygiene sampling techniques. Particulates in the air were measured by several

means and found to be of concern up to 150 metres downwind at ground level. Particulate

matter may not be a concern past this distance. Combustion gases including carbon dioxide,

sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide do not reach levels of concern. These gases are emitted over a broad area around the fire and are not directly associated with the plume

trajectory. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are extensive from fires, however are less

than emitted from a lum-burning test spill. Over 50 compounds can be quantified, several

at levels of concern up to 150 metres downwind.

1 Emergencies Science Division, River Road Environmental Technology Centre,

Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.

2 Environmental Response Team, Environmental Protection Agency, Edison, New Jersey

3 Roy F. Weston/REAC, Edison, New Jersey

4 Minerals Management Service, Herndon, Virginia

39
Water under the burns was analyzed; no compounds of concern (or any compounds - generally) could be found at the detection level of the methods. The burn residue was

analyzed for the same compounds as the air samples. The residue contains elevated

amounts of metals, explaining the fate of these metals. PAHs are at a lower concentration

in the residue than in the starting oil, however there is a slight concentration increase in

some higher molecular-weight species. The overall mass of PAHs including that of the

higher-molecular-weight species, is about 6 orders-of-magnitude lower after the burn.

Overall, indications from these burn trials are that emissions from in-situ burning are low

in comparison to other sources of emissions and result in concentrations of air contaminants

that are acceptable beyond 500 metres downwind.

INTRODUCTION

In-situ burning has long been a means for dealing with oil spills. Acceptance in some

regions has been poor because of concern over the resulting air emission. A series of studies

have been started by several groups to address these concerns. In Canada, Environment

Canada commissioned several studies to address this issue. ^""^ In the United States the U.S.

Minerals Management Service contracted the National Institute of Standards and

Technology (NIST) to study burns.^"^' These efforts have been coordinated to ensure the

maximum use of resources. Studies have been done at laboratory scale to study emissions.

In 1991, MMS began the sponsorship, in cooperation with several agencies, of a series of

mesoscale burn tests at Sand Island situated at upper Mobile Bay, AJabama.^^ Environment

Canada and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency cooperated to set up a series of

instruments and samplers to monitor all suspect emissions. In 1992, a similar series of

experiments was set up to monitor these burns. In 1993, the full-scale Newfoundland

Offshore Burn Experiment was conducted to extend these measurements to a realistic burn

situation.

SAMPLING

Sampling methodologies and target emissions are summarized in Table 1. Detailed methods

are described in the literature.

40
Table 1 Summary of Analytical Methods

Sample

Taken

Sampler Measurement

Parameter

Secondary Additional Parameters Parameters

Soot at Ground High Volume Sampler Dioxins and Dibenzofurans

Sampling Pump PAHs medium volume RAM

Soot in Smoke

Particulates

PAHs

Gases

Sampling Pump

low volume

blimp, remote-controlled helicopter, research aircraft Summa Canister Volatile Organic Compounds

Sampling Pump

low volume

C02 Meter

S02 Meter

N02 Meter CO Meter D

D

Oil

Burn Ftesidue

Water under Bum

Volatile Organic Compounds

Carbon Dioxide

Sulphur Dioxide

Nitrogen Dioxide

Carbon Monoxide

PAHs

PAHs

PAHs

Particulates PAHs

Particulates

Particulates Metals

Metals Full Analysis

Metals Full Analysis

Organics Toxicity

PAHs were sampled using several collection methods. Mid-volume air samplers were used

at a nominal flow rate of 7 L/min. Air/smoke was drawn through a teflon filter, followed by

sorbent tube packed with XAD resin. A high-volume sampler collected particulates on a 10.2

cm (4-in) diameter glass-fibre filter. This was in tandem with a polyurethane foam plug

(PUF) which adsorbed the volatile components of the target analytes. Typical sampling rate

was 200 L/min. A typical sampling volume was thus 2 m"^ for a sampling duration of 20 min.

A high volume sampler collected total suspended particulate matter (TSP) on a tared 20 X

25 cm (8 X 10 in ) filter. Typical flow rate was 1 nv'/min. After gravimetric determination

of TSP, 36-cm discs were cut out using a metal punch and extracted for PAHs. Filter, PUF,

PUF/XAD, airborne particulate samples from the samplers were spiked with surrogate PAH

standards and extracted with toluene. The raw extract was concentrated and applied

quantitatively to an activated silica column. The second fraction, containing PAH, was

41
recovered using benzene. This fraction was concentrated, spiked with dl4-terphenyl as an

internal standard before GC/MSD analysis.

Aliquots of fresh crude and residue were collected from the burn pan before and after each

burn using a sampler. The water in the burn pan was also sampled before and after the burn

for PAH and metal analyses. Crude and residue sample was first dissolved in cyclohexane

to precipitate asphaltenes. An aliquot was spiked and subjected to silica column cleanup.

The saturates were first eluted with hexane; the aromatic (PAH) fraction was eluted using

benzene. This fraction was concentrated down and the column cleanup was repeated to

remove the residual oil. An internal standard of dl4-terphenyl was added prior to injection

into a GC/MS for analysis. Water samples were spiked and extracted 3 times by

dichloromethane (DM). The extracts were dried, combined and concentrated before

instrumental analysis.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) were initially taken using Gilian or SKC personal

samplers were employed at the same locations as the PAH samplers. Sampling media was

a two-stage charcoal tube at a nominal flow rate of 2 L/m. Typical sample size was 50 L.

Whole air/smoke samples were also taken using 6 L pre-evacuated (to 0.05 mm Hg) stainless

steel canisters (Summa canister). A fixed orifice with a stainless steel frit was used to restrict

the flow to about 200 mL/min. For a few selected runs, samples were also collected at an upwind location to evaluate the non-combustion related emission of VOC. Summa VOC

analysis was performed by GC/MS after desorption on a cryogenic trap The C2

hydrocarbons were determined separately on a packed-column GC. VOCs on sorption tubes

were extracted using CS2 and then injected onto a GC/MS. For the Newfoundland trials, the

Summa canisters were also analyzed for CO2 using a third analytical technique.

Heavy metals in soot were collected using personal samplers on a membrane cellulose ester

filter. Metals were analyzed by acid digestion followed by measurement on an ICP-AE

spectrometer. In later tests, soot samples were taken with high-volume samplers to improve

sensitivity.

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin/furans were measured on soot and in the oil. High volume

samplers were employed to collect samples at upwind and downwind locations. Sampling

media were 10.2 cm (4 in) glass-fibre filters followed by a polyurethane foam plug (PUF).

The samples were spiked with a mixture of carbon-13 surrogates covering tetra- to octachloro DX/DF and extracted by soxhlet using toluene. The raw extract was cleaned up using

a silica column which removed the easily-oxidisable organics. This was followed by an

activated alumina column that separated the dioxins/furans from interfering PCBs, pesticides

etc. The extracts were then injected on a high-resolution GC/MS.

Sampling of carbonyls such as aldehydes and ketones was accomplishing using a speciallydesigned tube with subsequent extraction and analysis by liquid chromatography. Sampling

of the smoke plume was also accomplished using a remote-controlled model helicopter

equipped with a sampling pump. Samples from a tethered blimp were also analyzed.

42
Sampling at the full-scale Newfoundland burn was similar in design to that described for the

mesoscale tests above except that more sophisticated and extensive techniques were

generally applied both for sampling and the subsequent analysis.

FINDINGS

The quantitative analytical data clearly show that the emissions from in-situ oil fires are not

a serious concern. All compounds and parameters measured are below health concern levels

beyond about 150 metres from the fire. The fate and behaviour of oil components in fires, are still not fully understood and could be the subject of future experiments.

Several generalizations can be made about the fate, behaviour and quantity of the basic

emissions from burning:

Gases - combustion gases are very diffuse and do not have spatial relationship to the plume.

A good model is to view gas dispersal as following a doughnut-like pattern around the burn.

This pattern is deformed by increasing wind velocities. Generally gas concentrations

downwind are very low. Gas concentrations, especially in low winds can be as high around

the fire as downwind.

Particulate Matter/Soot - Particulate matter at ground level is only a matter of concern very

close to the fire and under the plume. The concentration of particulates in the smoke plume

may not be a concern past about 500 metres. The level of respirable particulates, those

which have a size less than 10 ^t, is poorly understood. These may be carried away in the

vestiges of the smoke plume. Measurements at ground level do not detect respirable

particles.

Water Emissions - No compounds have yet been detected in the water of the test tanks. The

aquatic toxicity of the water under a burn is either not measurable or not extant.

Organic Compounds - No exotic or highly-toxic compounds are generated as a result of the

combustion process. Organic macro-molecules are in lesser concentration in the smoke and

downwind than they are in the oil itself. Volatile organic compounds are released in large

concentration by fires, but in lesser concentrations than the evaporating slick if not burning.

Residue - The residue is generally lighter than water. Density appears to relate to efficiency.

If a burn is highly efficient (>99.9%), then the residue may be neutrally buoyant. The

residue resembles high-weathered oil, measurements showed this to be about 40 to 50%

weathered (%weight loss). The residue contains a lower amount of PAHs than the starting

oil, although proportionately high amounts of multi-ringed PAHs are present. Metals are concentrated in the residue.

The following are conclusions relating to specific compounds or specific groups:

43
PAHs - Additional Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons are not produced by in-situ oil fires. Oils

contain significant quantities of PAHs. These are largely destroyed in combustion. The

PAH concentrations in the smoke, both in the plume and the particulate precipitation at ground level are much less than the starting oil. This also includes the concentration of

multi-ringed PAHs that are often created in other combustion processes such as lowtemperature incinerators and diesel engines. This finding is very different from that noted

in earlier lab experiments. It is suspected that re-precipitation of large soot particles occurs

in large-scale tests which does not occur in laboratory tests. These large soot particles are conducive to the accumulation of large multi-ringed PAHs. The burn residue does, however,

show a slight increase in the concentration of multi-ringed PAHs. However, when

considering the mass balance of the burn, most of the five and six-ringed PAHs is destroyed

by the fire. A comparison of the mass of PAHs in the starting oil, residues and soot at downwind points

is shown in Figure 1. This figure is based on the use of average PAH values from the 1992

Mobile tests. Soot percent is taken as 0.7 % which is the average of several series of lab

scale tests by several workers. These figures clearly show that the PAH's are largely

consumed by the fire. Furthermore, there is net loss of even the larger PAHs in the smoke.

Only in the residue is there an increase in the amount of 5 and 6 ring PAHs by a factor of

two. This figure shows that the mass of PAHs is actually reduced by about 6 orders-ofmagnitude using combustion. This is true for all PAHs including the larger or multi-ringed

compounds.

2 1 2 12 3

Dioxins and Dibenzofurans - Analysis for dioxins and dibenzofurans on particulate matter

44
both upwind and downwind of the fires show that these compounds are not produced during

in-situ fires. Levels of all samples taken are at background levels.

Metals - Crude oil contains several metals in the ppm range. These metals could not be

detected on soot particles using the analytical techniques described here. The burn residue

has an elevated metal content - leading to the conclusion that the metals largely remain in

the residue. More sensitive analytical techniques were used in recent burn tests, however

results are still not available.

Carbon Dioxide - The Carbon Dioxide concentration is well below concern levels - even near

the fire. The distribution of the gas is very widespread, especially with low wind conditions.

Carbon dioxide is the only good indicator of the presence or absence of a fire. It rises

quickly near the fire (all around if winds are low) and then falls after the fire is out.

Carbon Monoxide - Very little Carbon Monoxide is produced by large-scale fires. These

concentrations are well below concern levels and are generally at the lower detection levels

of most instruments.

Sulphur Dioxide - The concentration of Sulphur Dioxide is far below what is expected from

the sulphur content of the oil. This is probably due to the wide dispersal of the gas during

the combustion process. Again the levels are just at or below the detection level of most

instruments.

Nitrous Oxides - Tests for Nitric Oxides were performed; however, no levels above the

background were detected.

Volatile Organic Compounds - The levels of volatile organic compounds are well above

concern levels within 200 metres of these size of fires. The levels of these compounds are even greater from an evaporating slick that is not burning.

Carbonyls - Formaldehyde and Acetaldehyde are produced in low concentrations. Their

concentrations fall far below concern levels a short distance from the fire.

REFERENCES

1. Twardus, E.M., A Study To Evaluate The Combustibility and Other Physical and

Chemical Properties of Aged Oils and Emulsions, Environment Canada Manuscript Report

EE-5, Ottawa, Ontario, 1980.

2. Georghiou, P.E. and Sheppard, P.E., A Study of Mutagenicity of Residue Resulting

From the Burning of Crude Oil, Environment Canada Manuscript Report EE-29, Ottawa,

Ontario, 1982.

45
3. Fingas, M.F. and Laroche, N., An Introduction To In-Situ Burning of Oil, Spill

Technology Newsletter, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 1-12,1990.

4. Evans, D.D., Combustion of Oil Spills on Water, in: Technology Assessment and

Research Program for Offshore Minerals Operations, OCS Study MMS 88-0057, Reston,

Virginia, pp. 169-179, 1988.

5. Evans, D.D., Mulholland, G.W., Gross, D., Baum, H., and Saito, K., Environmental

Effects of Oil Spill Combustion, in: Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Arctic Marine Oilspill

Program Technical Seminar, Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, pp. 91-130, 1987.

6. Evans, D.D., In-Situ Burning of Oil Spills, in: Alaska Arctic Offshore Oil Spill

Response Technology Workshop Proceedings, Washington, D.C., pp. 47-55, 1988.

7. Evans, D.D., Mulholland, G.W., Lawson, J.R., Tennyson, E.J., Tebeau, P.A., Fingas,

M.F., and J.R. Gould, Burning of Oil Spills, in: Proceedings of the 1991 Oil Spill Conference,

American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC, 1991.

8. Benner, B.A., Jr., Bryner, N.P., Wise, S.A., Mulholland, G.W., Evans, D.E., Fingas,

M.F., and Li, K., Emissions of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons From the Combustion of

Crude Oil On Water, Spill Technology Newsletter, Vol 16(1), Environment Canada, Ottawa,

Ontario, 1991.

9. Evans, D.D., Walton, W., Baum, H., Mulholland, G., Lawson, J., Koseki, H., and

Ghoniem, A., Smoke Emission From Burning Crude Oil, in: Proceedings of the Fourteenth

Annual Arctic Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, Environment Canada, Ottawa,

Ontario, pp 421-499, 1991.

10. Evans, D.D., Walton, W.D., Baum, H.R., Notarianni, K.A., Lawson, J.R., Tang, H.C.,

Keydel, K.R., Rehm, R.G., Madrzykowski, D., Zile, R.H., Koseki, H., and Tennyson, E.J.,

In-situ Burning of Oil Spills: Mesoscale Experiments, in: Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual

Arctic Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, pp. 593-623, 1992.

11. Fingas, M.F., Li, K., Ackerman, F., Campagna, P.R., Turpin, R.D., Getty, S.J., Soleki,

M.F., Trespalacios, M.J., Par6, J., Bissonnette, M.C., and Tennyson, E.J., Emissions From

Mesoscale In-Situ Oil Fires: The Mobile 1991 and 1992 Test, in: Proceedings of The

Sixteenth Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, Environment Canada,

Ottawa, Ontario, pp. 749-821, 1993.

46
ENVIRONMENTAL AND HUMAN HEALTH CONCERNS RELATED TO

IN SITU BURNING

D. Kennedy, N. Barnea, G. Shigenaka

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Seattle, WA 98115 USA

SUMMARY

The mechanics, chemistry, and operational feasibility of in-situ burning as a spill

response technique have been studied over the last fifteen years, primarily in the

laboratory and in mesoscale environments, although there have been some field tests,

the most recent being the Newfoundland Offshore Burn Experiment (NOBE) in

August 1993. Interest in in-situ burning as a spill response technique has continued

to increase. This paper summarizes the current state of knowledge about the possible

effects of in-situ burning on human health and the environment, and suggests areas

for future research.

INTRODUCTION

The apparent environmental effects associated with in-situ burning may be less than

those resulting from alternative response methods. For example, burning can rapidly

remove a large volume of oil from the surface of the water, reducing the magnitude

of subsequent environmental impacts of stranded oil. It has become clear that human

health concerns represent one of the main impediments to using in-situ burning.

Health considerations should thus be a high priority during contingency planning,

experimental burn experiments, and during actual spill incidents. We need more

human health-oriented studies that could be performed during mesoscale or full-scale

test burns. Many experts (e.g., Booher, Ferek, Butler, Laursen, Hobbs, Allen) believe

that the risk is relatively small, particularly when compared to health and safety risks

associated with mechanical remediation. This assessment, coupled with the likelihood

that the lighter fraction of a spill will evaporate unless burned and thus impose its own set of health concerns, suggests that the risk is worth considering.

HUMAN HEALTH CONCERNS

The possible health hazards of in-situ burning for response personnel conducting the

burning will be different from those for the general public at a substantial distance

away.

L Response personnel working in close proximity to the burn may be exposed to

levels of gases and particulates that may require the use of personal protective

equipment. Training for burn personnel should include proper use of personal

47
protective equipment which may be used to minimize inhalation of, and skin contact

with combustion by-products. Exposure limits such as the Occupational Safety and

Health Administration's Permissible Exposure Limits are applicable to this group of

typically healthy adults.

2. The general public would be expected to include sensitive individuals (e.g., the very

young or old, pregnant women, people with pulmonary or cardiovascular diseases,

people with allergic sensitivities). This population's tolerance to exposures may be

significantly lower than a healthy worker population. When the burning is conducted

far enough from population centers and under normal weather conditions public

exposure to combustion by-products is expected to be minimal. The National

Ambient Air Quality Standards should be the main level of concern for the public at

large.

For purposes of risk communication, it sometimes can be useful to compare the risk

expected from in-situ burning to other more familiar risks. Based on the analysis of the

Kuwait oil pool fires, a hypothetical in-situ burning of oil was compared to other combustion

sources[l]. In this exercise, an oil combustion rate of 10,000 barrels/day^ was assumed. The

amount of particulate material smaller than 3.5 micrometers (/xm) from such an in-situ burn

would be comparable to that released from a 4.5-acre slash burn; the amount of CO2

comparable to a two acre of slash burn; the amount of CO to a 0.2 acre of slash burn; the

amount of SO2 would be similar to the emission of an average coal-fired power plant; and

PAH emissions would be equivalent to the amount emitted from 12,000 wood stoves. While

this is a considerable emission to the environment, it should be noted that the oil burned in

the Kuwaiti oil fires was likely destined to be used as fuel. Most of this emission would have

occurred regardless (although presumably in a more efficient manner and distributed over

a larger area).

In general, humans are well adapted to living in dusty environments. Humans' ability to

keep their respiratory systems clean and functioning properly has enabled them to survive

times when the air was laden with airborne particulates from volcanic eruptions, massive

forest fires, and dust carried by the wind. Over time, humans have developed an efficient

mechanism to clear the respiratory system and prevent particulates from reaching the

sensitive alveoli in the lungs.

However, recent studies have suggested that a higher level of respirable particulates are

associated with higher daily mortaility[2]. These studies suggested that exposure to elevated

leels of respirable paticulates in the air resulted in increased mortality and morbidity of

individuals suffering from pulmonary, cardiovascular, or severe allergic diseases. These

For purposes of comparison: an estimated 6,000,000 barrels/day were burned at the height of the

Kuwaiti oil fires, with the total burned estimated to be 1 billion barrels; and the Exxon Valdez spilled a

total of 250,000 barrels of oil.

48
studies resulted in increased public interest and awareness of this problem.

SAFETY CONCERNS

Burning large amounts of combustible liquids on the surface of the water presents some

unique safety concerns for workers and response personnel. These include fire hazard,

which requires that extreme care be taken that the fire be controlled at all times so that it will not harm the personnel or equipment managing the process. The ignition hazard

requires particularly careful coordination of aircraft operations to ignite oil with gel or other

aerial ignition methods. Weather and water conditions should also be kept in mind, and

proper safety distances be kept at all times. In-situ burning at sea will involve several vessels,

working in relatively close proximity to each other, perhaps at night, or in other poorvisibility conditions. Such conditions are hazardous by nature, and require great degree of

practice, competence and coordination). Other hazards include personnel being exposed to extreme heat from the compounded effects of hot weather and fire, or extreme cold in

places like Alaska. Working under time constraints may impair judgment or increase the

tendency to attempt costly shortcuts. It is important that good and thorough training and

strict safety guidelines be part of any in-situ burning operation.

POTENTIAL ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Potential ecological impacts of in-situ burning have not been extensively discussed or studied.

As a result, the answer to this question is largely speculative and is based on documented

physical effects observed in the laboratory and at limited test burns. Recently, the

environmental effects of the Kuwait oil well fires have been proposed as a surrogate for

assessing ecological and human health impacts of in-situ burning. However, investigations

by NOAA chemists, among others, determined that the situation in Kuwait was qualitatively

different from controlled burning of an oil spill at sea. In particular, the emissions from the

Kuwaiti oil well fires included a large constituent of unburned crude oil. This unburned oil formed a substrate that profoundly influenced the chemical composition of the emissions and

the nature of the physical interactions among airborne constituents[3]. In addition, the areal

impact in Kuwait, where hundreds of wells were deliberately set ablaze, was much more

extensive than would be expected for a controlled in-situ burn arising from a single spill

incident. The surface area affected by in-situ burning is likely to be small relative to the total

surface area and depth of a given body of water. This does not necessarily preclude adverse

ecological impacts, particularly if rare or sensitive species are present. Organisms possibly

affected by in-situ burning include those that use the uppermost layers of the water column,

those that might come into contact with residual material, and possibly some bottom-dwelling

plants and animals.

Direct Temperature Effects

Burning oil on the surface of the water could adversely affect those organisms at or near the

49
interface between oil and water, although the area affected would presumably be relatively

small.

The surface of the water represents the "surface microlayer," a unique ecological niche. The

microlayer, variously defined but often considered to be the upper millimeter or less of the

water surface, is a habitat for many sensitive life stages of marine organisms, including eggs

and larval stages of fish and crustaceans, and reproductive stages of other plants and

animals.

During an experimental combustion of crude oils on water, the water immediately below the

oil was brought to a vigorous boil during the peak of the burn period[4]. However,

observations during large-scale burns using towed containment boom did not indicate such an impact on surface waters[5]. It was suggested that, in these cases, the length of time the

burning layer resides over a given water surface may be too brief to induce boihng because

ambient temperature seawater is continually supplied below the oil layer as the boom is towed.

Static tests of burning (e.g., in tanks) would likely represent worst-case situations with respect

to in-situ burn heating effects at the surface of the water. In an operational application,

there would be a continuous exchange of water below the slick as the boomed burn material

is towed over the surface. At the Mobile, Alabama mesoscale burn tests in 1992,

researchers found that temperature did not increase in the static water layer at depths

greater than 4 cm below the oil[6].

The ecological importance of the surface microlayer and the potential impacts to it from

burning activities have been discussed in the different, but related, context of ocean

incineration. The Office of Technology Assessment noted in an evaluation of the

technique[7], "...given the intermittent nature of ocean incineration, the relatively small size

of the affected area, and the high renewal rate of the surface microlayer resulting from new

growth and replenishment from adjacent areas, the long-term net loss of biomass would

probably be small or non-existent."

Despite the obvious differences between shipboard incineration of hazardous wastes and

surface burning of spilled oil, the above rationale applies to in-situ burning. Accordingly,

potential impacts to the ecologically important surface microlayer are, to some extent, offset

by the presumably short-lived nature of the burn and its associated residual material.

Toxicological Considerations: The 1993 In-Situ Burn Aquatic Toxicity Study

This study looked at the potential toxicity effects on aquatic organisms exposed to materials

in the water column that resulted from oil combustion[8]. Through bioassay testing of

laboratory-generated burn samples in May and June 1993 and through full-scale, fieldgenerated burn samples taken in August 1993, the study compared the lethal and sublethal

aquatic toxicity of water beneath unburned and burned crude oil collected in both laboratory

50
and field conditions. The study also evaluated the aquatic toxicity of the burn residues

remaining after the combustion of oil in laboratory and field experiments.

Small-sale burns were conducted in the laboratory to generate samples. Each burn unit

consisted of an interior burn crucible surrounded by a water bath, supporting a burn of a 1- centimeter thick oil layer within the 100 centimeter-square surface area of the crucible, and

generating an one-liter water sample for testing. Inter-burn variability was determined by

comparing water chemistry on replicated burns. Immediately after collection, each water

sample was evaluated using five different toxicity tests, performed in triplicate. These

included the echinoderm fertilization test, embryo test, and cytogenetic tests; the oyster

larvae test, and the inland silverside acute toxicity test. This test battery addressed different

types of effects on different species and life stages. It was recognized that water samples

collected at the field burn trial in August would not be tested immediately due to transit

time from the collection point to the test facility. Thus, an additional component of the lab

study evaluated the effects of a 48-hour holding time on the toxicity and chemistry of the

samples. Hydrocarbon chemistry was conducted on all samples at the time they were

generated and at the beginning and end of toxicity testing.

When the actual field burn took place in Newfoundland in August 1993, a series of water

and burn residue samples were collected for comparable biological testing. Problems were

encountered with the water sampling apparatus during the field burns, but a usable set of

samples were collected and shipped to a laboratory facility in Vancouver, B.C. for toxicity

testing. Although the results are still being interpreted and a report is being prepared,

preliminary data from both the lab trials and the Newfound field burn indicate that both

burned and unburned oil on water result in slight increases in aquatic toxicity. However,

there did not appear to be a significant toxicity difference between burning oil and not

burning oil: no additional toxic effect was conferred by burning. Chemistry results from the

lab and field tests both showed that very little oil—measured both as total petroleum

hydrocarbons and as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons—could be found in the water

samples themselves.

The preliminary results indicate that water column toxicity is not expected to be a major

concern with the use of in-situ burning. If another field experiment is undertaken in the

future, confirmation of the field results would be desirable due to the reduced water sample

size that occurred in Newfoundland.

POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL TRADEOFFS

As is the case with all response methods, the environmental tradeoffs associated with in-situ

burning must be considered on a case-by-case basis and weighed with operational tradeoffs.

In-situ burning can offer important advantages over other response methods in specific cases, and may not be advisable in others, depending on the overall mix of circumstances.

51
Pros

° Burning may offer the only realistic means of removal that will reduce shoreline impacts

in areas where containment and storage facilities may be overwhelmed by the sheer size

of a spill, or in remote or inaccessible areas where other countermeasures are not

practicable.

° If properly planned and implemented, in-situ burning may prevent or significantly reduce

the extent of shoreline impacts, including exposure of sensitive natural, recreational, and

commercial resources.

° Burning rapidly removes oil from the environment, particularly when compared to

shoreline cleanup activities that may take months or even years.

" In-situ burning puts many less people directly at risk. Manual shorehne cleanup is one

of the most hazardous jobs at a spill. Burning oil with a small, well-trained crew will

hopefully minimize worker injury.

Cons

° The method, when employed in its simplest form, generates large quantities of highly

visible smoke that may adversely affect human and other exposed populations downwind.

° Burn residues may sink, making it harder to recover the product and to prevent the

potential exposure of benthic organisms.

° Plant and animal deaths and other adverse biological impacts may result from the

localized temperature elevations at the sea surface.

. While these could be expected to occur over a relatively small area, in specific bodies of

water at specific times of the year, affected populations may be large enough or important enough to represent reasons for not considering burning as a cleanup

technique.

° The longer-term effects of burn residues on exposed populations of marine organisms

have not been investigated. It is not known whether these materials would be

significantly toxic in the long run.

° The burn must be carefully controlled in order to maintain worker safety.

CONCLUSIONS AND REMAINING QUESTIONS

This paper has briefly reviewed the environmental and human health concerns associated

with burning oil in place. Yet, fundamental questions related to the physics, chemistry, and

52
biology of burning remain unaddressed by research efforts. While researchers have explored

many aspects in the laboratory or in medium-scale burns, these may not accurately reflect

conditions expected to occur during a full-scale test or operational burn. Many questions

on in-situ burning cannot be satisfactorily answered in reduced-scale settings because basic

conditions are altered by changes in physical interactions attributable to scale. Some aspects,

therefore, must necessarily be explored in the field, i.e., either during a spill of opportunity

or during a dedicated test burn. However, past experiences with evaluations of other

response techniques (e.g., dispersants) have clearly shown that attempting to conduct

research during an actual incident is difficult and often ill-advised. Resources for conducting

a proper experiment are rarely in place or available, and operational considerations of

response and cleanup take precedence over research activities.

A procedurally oriented question arises: What information is necessary for setting pre-use

approval guidelines? The time-critical nature of the decision to employ burning during a response suggests that having pre-approval conditions in place is highly desirable, if not

mandatory. What information does the Regional Response Team or the On-Scene

Coordinator need to decide whether in-situ burning should be used as a response tool?

Based on available information about the method (e.g., observations on operational

limitations and production of visible residues), RRTs and other decision-makers should be

able to anticipate critical information needs that would determine whether the method is used, or even considered, in specific regions of the country. Identifying knowledge gaps can

provide direction for research activity, both in the laboratory and in the field.

It is likely that current monitoring methods and protocols are not entirely adequate to answer many of the remaining questions on in-situ burning. Although recent mesoscale

burns at Mobile, Alabama have provided important data on larger-scale oil combustion

events, these still do not fully reflect operational burn conditions (the test burns have been

conducted in a stationary 50-foot by 50-foot tank at a Coast Guard facility in Mobile Bay).

Some attention should be directed to developing and refining appropriate methods for

collecting information on environmental effects, including measuring plume exposure and

evaluating toxicity resulting from burn activities. Operationally, monitoring protocols for

both effectiveness and effects, should be developed and incorporated into contingency plans

prior to an actual incident.

A number of other information needs exist, particularly from the perspective of ecological

effects. Although physical processes related to in-situ burning have been described by such

researchers as Fingas and Evans and their colleagues, additional information on fate and

effects relevant to environmental toxicology would be valuable. For example, recent

observations that residues from the burning of some products are prone to sinking indicates

that further research is needed on the physical processes associated with burning. Although

a number of studies have identified by-products of in-situ burning, the ecological significance

of their introduction into the environment has not be adequately. Specifically, we need

toxicity studies on burn residues (soot, dissolved fractions, and solid material) to help us evaluate environmental implications. In addition, because it is likely that the surface

53
microlayer would be the zone of highest potential impact to marine organisms, chemical

analyses of the microlayer before and after a burn incident would help to define potential

exposure levels to marine life.

54
REFERENCES

1. Allen, A. Presentation at Region IV Regional Response Team In-situ Burning

Workshop, Orlando, Florida, November 16, 1992.

2. Pope, C.A., D.W. Deckery, X. Xu, F. E. Speizer, J.D. Spengler, and B.G. Ferris.

Mortality Risks of Air Pollution: A Prospective Cohort Study. Department of

Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Harvard Medical School,

Boston, and Channing Laboratory, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Brigham

Young University, Provo, Utah. (1993).

3. Henry, C, Louisiana State University Institute of Environmental Studies, Baton

Rouge, personal communication, June 7, 1993.

4. Evans, D., W. Walton, H. Baum, R. Lawson, R. Rehm, R. Harris, A. Ghoniem,

and J. Holland. Measurement of large scale oil spill burns. In: Proceedings of the

Thirteenth Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, June 6-8,

1990, Edmonton, Alberta, pp. 1-38. (1990)

5. Evans, D., National Institute for Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg,

Maryland, personal communication, January 4, 1993.

6. Office of Technology Assessment. Ocean Incineration: Its Role in Managing

Hazardous Waste. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (1986)

7. Newfoundland Offshore Burn Experiment. NOBE FACTS Newsletter, Volume 3,

May 1993. Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. (1993).

8. Evans, D.D., W.D. Walton, H.R. Baum, K.A. Notarianni, J.R. Lawson, H.C. Tang,

K.R. Keydel, R.G. Rehm, D. Madrzykowski, R.H. Zile, H. Koseki, and E.J. Tennyson. In-situ burning of oil spills: Mesoscale experiments. In: Proceedings

of the Fifteenth Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, June 10-

12, 1992, Edmonton, Alberta, pp. 593-657. (1992)

55

THE OPERATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF IN SITU BURNING

^ Peter A. Tebeau

Marine Environmental Consultant

158 Wyassup Road

North Stonington, CT 06359

SUMMARY

In-situ burning has been considered as an oil spill response technique ever since the TORREY

CANYON spill in 1967. In many cases, in-situ burning became an effective de facto response

technique for removing spilled oil from the water through accidental explosion and ignition at the source (BURMA AGATE spill, MEGA BORG spill and others). Over the past two decades, much

effort has been devoted to perfecting the equipment and methodology employed with this spill

technique, and researching the potential environmental impacts associated with its use. At present,

it is generally recognized as the most promising countermeasure for dealing with large spills offshore,

where the volume of oil and logistics of operating offshore, decrease the effectiveness of other

options (dispersants and mechanical recovery). Much of the recent discussion and literature on in- situ burning deals with the environmental impacts of the technique. This discussion will focus on the

operational issues involved in choosing and implementing in-situ burning as a technique; specifically

the feasibility of the technology under various conditions, the requirements for deploying and

supporting the technology in the field, the health and safety issues involved on-scene and in the

vicinity of the operation, and the cost effectiveness of in-situ burning compared to other options.

Operational advantages and disadvantages are summarized.

SELECTION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF IN SITU BURNING

In-situ burning is a relatively straightforward spill response technique with respect to technology and

execution. A concise overview of the technique and environmental implications is given by Fingas and

Larouche [1]. A thorough discussion of the operational procedures and issues is provided by Allen

and Ferek [2]. Summaries of recent research and development efforts in in-situ burning are provided

by Walton et al. [3], Bech, Sveum and Buist [4], and Fingas et. al. [5]. The list of references for these

five papers provides an excellent sampling of the extensive literature that exists on the topic.

As with any oil spill response technique, effective cleanup requires the selection of an appropriate

technique at the strategic level, followed by effective management of its implementation on the

tactical level. Strategic selection involves weighing the technical and logistical feasibility of the

technique applied to the present and anticipated spill conditions, against the net environmental

benefit that may be accrued. Once chosen, the technique should be implemented and managed

weighing the level of effort expended against the environmental damage prevented or mitigated. Thus

at both strategic and tactical levels, operational and environmental considerations must be balanced.

Operational considerations include determining if the technique is feasible, deployable and

supportable, safe, and cost effective Figure (1) depicts the overall decision process, and the

supporting data requirements, for making these determinations in a specific spill scenario. The

technique is feasible if the technology and its implementation are suited to the spill conditions (oil

type, slick thickness, weather, sea state). Allen [6] provides a comprehensive treatment of the

57
feasibility of various oil spill response options for offshore spill. The technique is deployable and

supportable if necessary equipment and personnel can arrive on-scene in time to implement the

technique successfully, and maintain operations over time so that a reasonable quantity of oil is recovered or removed film the surface of the ocean. The technique is safe if its implementation does

not pose an immediate risk to response personnel; nearby vessels, facilities, or populations; or

sensitive environmental resources. Finally, the technique is cost effective if the costs are reasonable

compared to other options, and if the cost is justifiable based on the net environmental benefit

realized.

TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY

The technical feasibility of in-situ burning depends largely on the particular spill scenario including

the general nature of the spill, the location of the spill, the condition of the oil both initially and over

time, and weather and sea conditions on-scene. The overall nature of the spill relates to whether the source is moving or stationary, whether the spill is instantaneous or steady-state, and whether the

volume or flow rate is large or small. Ideally, in-situ burn operations are best suited to a stationary source, where the oil is spilling at a steady flow rate that can be handled by the equipment available.

The location of the spill can be offshore in open water, inshore in protected water, on solid ice, in broken ice, or on the shoreline. Each location can affect feasibility in different ways. For instance,

offshore locations lessen health and safety concerns, but require containment of the slick and

generally involve more severe wind and wave conditions. Inshore wind and wave conditions may be

more favorable, but burning may be prohibited because of nearby populations. Ice can provide for

natural containment of the oil; however, ice can also hamper access to the spill and complicate

logistics.

The oil characteristics and slick thickness are of primary importance in determining burnability.

Although most oil types are burnable initially, more effort may be required to ignite thicker, less volatile oils. Slick thickness is critical with a 2 to 3 mm thickness required to support combustion. The

oil is most effectively burned when the oil is relatively flesh (1 to 2 days old [2]). As weathering

proceeds (evaporation and emulsification), the oil may become more difficult to ignite. Emulsification

is particularly important as some oils emulsify quickly. Tests and field experience indicate that slicks with a water-in-oil content of 20-30% are still readily ignitable. As water-in-oil content approaches

50%, the spill becomes difficult to ignite, and may be impossible to ignite at 50-70% [1,2].

Closely related to the slick characteristics are the wind and wave conditions. Wind and waves can

emulsify or disperse the oil and preclude burning as an option. In the offshore environment, winds

in excess of 15-20 knots and seas in excess of 2-3 feet may prevent effective containment of the oil to achieve the 2-3 mm thickness, or extinguish the fire after ignition occurs. Strong currents in the area may complicate containment of the spill depending on the speed and orientation of the current

with respect to the sources.

All of the above factors dictate a relatively narrow "window of opportunity" for initiating and carrying

out in-situ burn operations. The operational window for in-situ burning relative to other response

options is discussed in detail by Allen [6]. In order to catch this window of opportunity, pre-planning

is essential with decision processes defined and checklists prepared in advance. This pre-planning is currently underway in Alaska and the Gulf of Mexico (RRT Region VI), where guidelines and

58
Containment

In-situ

Burn

Feaslbililv Ignition

Weather

Sea Cond.

Weathering

Model

Oil

Properties

Database

Equipment

deployment

and support

J

Logistics

Planner

Safety and

Environmental

Impact

Health &

Safety

database

Determine

operational

effectiveness

Fate & effects

database

Oil volume

burned

Cleanup cost

database

Equipment

capabilities

database

Cleanup

resources

Inventory

Plume

trajectory

model

Terminate

Figure 1. Decision Diagram for the Selection and Operational Management of In-Situ Burning

checklists have been completed. In addition to pre-planning, pre-approval by area can greatly expedite

the in-situ burn decision and implementation process. Wherever possible, "Burn Feasibility Areas"

should be pre-designated as part of contingency planning by Regional Response Teams.

59
DEPLOYMENT AND LOGISTIC SUPPORT FOR IN-SITU BURNING

Given that in-situ burning is generically applicable to a particular spill scenario, it will often be the

deployment and support requirements for that scenario that determine overall effectiveness of the operation.

Spills that occur some distance offshore or in remote areas may prevent transport and support of equipment

and personnel, unless equipment is pre-staged and logistics are well-planned in advance. Again, this is particularly critical for in-situ burning due to the limited window of opportunity.

For many in-situ burn operations, operational response will proceed in two stages: an initial response to

assess the practicality of in-situ burning and begin a limited cleanup operation, followed by an extended

response over time to continue the in-situ burn operation, and coordinate it with other cleanup techniques.

For the initial response in an open water environment, the equipment and personnel requirements are moderate. One or more containment and burning units are dispatched to the scene, each consisting of a section of fire resistant boom (300-500 ft. minimum), towed in a U-configuration by two towing-vessels

(typically 30-40 ft., twin prop, capable of maintaining 1/2 knot tow speed). An ignition capability is provided

by surface igniters, drifted back into the contained slick from the tow vessels or deployed into the slick from

a helicopter; or by a Heli-torch suspended from a helicopter which can ignite a larger area, quickly and

efficiently, by dispensing gelled fuel into the slick. A spotter aircraft is employed to direct the units through

and away from the slick, and conduct overall reconnaissance from the air. If a helo is used for the ignition

process, it can effectively serve as the spotter. Of course trained personnel are essential, with the appropriate

personal protection and monitoring equipment on hand.

Allen and Ferek [2] have estimated that one such unit, operating continuously, can eliminate 15,000

barrels per day. Such an operation would be possible with a stationary constant source of similar spill rate. Three such units, operating one at a time in a collection-relocation-and-burn mode, could eliminate 8,000

barrels in a 12 hour period. Such would be the case in attacking a large slick. If 24 hour a day operations were feasible, the amount would be doubled.

For larger spills requiring extended responses, additional response platforms, equipment, and

personnel would be required. As the number of units increased, and other countermeasures and

cleanup activities proceeded; command, control, and communications capabilities would have to be

augmented. A command vessel and additional aircraft might be deployed to the scene. In addition,

logistics and personnel support vessels would be required to maintain the operation. Additional

fireproof boom would be required to replace boom degraded by combustion to where it was no longer

serviceable. Backup mechanical recovery equipment and temporary storage capability would be

needed to collect and remove burn residue, and to the extent possible, oil that cannot be burned.

HEALTH AND SAFETY DURING IN-SITU BURNING

The health and safety issues associated with in-situ burning include the safety of vessels, facilities,

populations and resources in the surrounding area; safety for the spilling vessel or platform; and

safety for personnel on-scene. The safety to the surrounding area will be largely dictated by the

location of the spill and proximity to shipping lanes, other oil production platforms, industrial and

population centers, sensitive populations (children, elderly, people with respiratory problems), and

sensitive natural resources (National Parks, Wildlife Refuges, endangered species). Proximity to these

areas must be considered but may not preclude in-situ burning based on the size of the burn, plume

60
trajectory, ambient air quality standards, and the risk associated with not burning.

Safety of the spilling platform will be ensured by maintaining a safe distance between the in-situ burn

operation and vessel or platform as dictated by the volatility of the product, wind and current speed

and direction, and slick continuity. A backup contingency plan and fire fighting equipment may be

needed for some situations.

The safety of on-scene personnel can be ensured by maintaining a safe distance from the fire to prevent flame radiation hazard, remaining away from the smoke plume and fallout, and wearing

proper clothing and respirators. On-scene ambient conditions should be monitored to detect

explosion hazards and monitor airborne emissions from the burn and the oil itself. Follow-up medical

monitoring should be considered for extended response operations. Above all, as with any response

technique, appropriate health and safety training is essential.

COST EFFECTIVENESS CONSIDERATIONS FOR IN-SITU BURNING

There are two types of costs to be considered in determining the cost effectiveness of an oil spill

response technique. The first is the generic cost which is the "average cost" of implementing a particular response technique. Tlie second is the spill specific cost which is the overall cost of

applying the technique at a specific spill. Depending on the spill conditions, the overall cost can be

lower, or often much higher than the anticipated generic cost.

Allen and Ferek [2] present a comparison of overall cleanup costs for mechanical recovery,

dispersants, and burning. The costs are generic in the sense that they are based on the recovery or

elimination of a 8,000 to 10,000 barrel oil volume over 12 hours without reference to oil type or

specific spill conditions (slick area, sea conditions, logistics, etc.). Assumptions are made concerning

available equipment, recovery efficiency (33%-67%), throughput efficiency (50%-80%), dispersant

efficiency (50%-70%), and burn efficiency (95%). Using these performance characteristics,

approximate costs were calculated for all vessels, aircraft, equipment, etc. for each response technique

in removing or controlling the 8,000-10,000 barrel volume in the 12 hour period. Included in the

estimates were the costs to dispose of mechanically recovered oil/water, current costs to purchase and

transport chemical dispersant, and costs of replacing fire containment boom. Based on these

calculations, Allen and Ferek report the following generic costs:

Mechanical: $100 to $150 per barrel of oil recovered & disposed

Dispersants: $50 to $100 per barrel of oil dispersed

In-Situ Burning: $20 to $50 per barrel of oil burned

These costs are constrained by the specific assumptions and will vary with each spill. However, they

do highlight the generally accepted cost effectiveness of in-situ burning as compared to the other two

techniques. Again the actual costs of carrying out in-situ burn operations on a specific spill may

depart significantly from the $20 to $50 range depending on the remoteness of the site, the spreading

of the slick and the effort required to collect burnable volumes, whether natural containment (such

as in broken ice) is available, etc. If the technique is used on the shoreline, additional restoration

costs may be involved.

61
OPERATIONAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BURNING

The primary operational advantages of in-situ burning can be summarized as follows. The technique

is highly effective under favorable conditions allowing the quick removal of significant volumes of oil from the water's surface. It is logistically simple compared to mechanical recovery in that it does not

require temporary storage and disposal of the oil after cleanup; and logistically simple compared to dispersants which require large volumes of chemical, and multiple aircraft and vessels for treating a comparable volume of oil. The technique is generically more cost effective than other techniques in recovering/eliminating the same volume of oil. Based on these advantages, in-situ is generally

considered the most promising countermeasure for major and catastrophic spills at sea.

There are several significant constraints to be considered as well. Most importantly, the window of

opportunity for in-situ burning is limited requiring rapid determination of spill conditions, and

immediate deployment and implementation if in-situ burning is chosen as a response option. Fire

resistant booms are expensive compared to conventional containment boom. Although fire resistant

booms are currently available on the market, they have only been subjected to limited experimental

and operational use, and hence the actual replacement rate under various spill conditions is not fully

known. Perhaps the greatest uncertainty with in-situ burning stems from its limited use to date under

actual spill conditions. However, as research and training in in-situ burn operations continues, and

as Regional Response Teams incorporate in-situ burning into their pre-planning and pre-approval

process, the technique is becoming generally accepted as a primary response option.

REFERENCES

1. Fingas, M. and N. Larouche, "An Introduction to In-Situ Burning of Oil Spills", Environment

Canada, Spill Technology Newsletter, Vol. 15(4), (December 1990).

2. Allen, A.A and R.J. Ferek, 1993, "Advantages and Disadvantages of Burning Spilled Oil",

Proceedings of the 1993 International Oil Spill Conference, Tampa, Florida, March 29 - April

1, (1993).

3. Walton, W.D., D.D. Evans, K.B. McGrattan, H.R. Baum, W.H. Twilley, D. Madrzykowski,

A.D. Putorti, R.G. Rehm, H. Koseki and E.J. Tennyson, "In-Situ Burning of Oil Spills:

Mesoscale Experiments and Analysis", Proceedings of the 16th Annual AMOP Technical

Seminar, Calgary, Alberta, June 7-9, (1993).

4. Bech C, P. Sveum and I. Buist, "The Effects of Wind, Ice and Waves on the In-Situ Burning

of Emulsions and Aged Oils", Proceedings of the 16th Annual AMOP Technical Seminar,

Calgary, Alberta, June 7-9, (1993).

5. Fingas, M.F., K. Li, F. Ackerman, J.R.J. Pare, M.C. Bissonnette, P.R. Campagna, R.D.

Turpin, M.F. Soleki, S.J. Getty, M.J. Trespalacios, and E.J.Tennyson, "Emissions from

Mesosale In-Situ Oil Fires: The Mobile 1991 and 1992 Tests", Proceedings of the 16th Annual

AMOP Technical Seminar, Calgary, Alberta, June 7-9, (1993).

6. Allen, A.A, 1988, "Comparison of Response Options for Offshore Oil Spills", Proceedings of

the 11th Annual AMOP Technical Seminar, Vancouver, British Columbia, June 7-9, (1988).

62
THE NEWFOUNDLAND OFFSHORE BURN EXPERIMENT - NOBE

Merv F. Fmgas\ Ken Li\ Francine Ackerman\ Martine C. Bissonnette\ Patrick Lambert^

Robert Nelson^ Greg Halley\ Philip R. Campagna^, Nanci Laroche\ Paula Jokuty\ Rodney

D. Turpin^, Miguel J. Trespalacios , J. Belanger\ Nick Vanderkooy'*, Edward J. Tennyson , Don Aurand^ and Robert Hiltrabrand^

SUMMARY

A group of over 25 agencies from Canada and the United States conducted a major offshore

burn near Newfoundland, Canada. Two lots of oil, about 50 tons each, were released into a fire-proof boom. Each burn lasted over an hour and was monitored for emissions and

physical parameters. Over 200 sensors or samplers were employed to yield data on over 2000

parameters or substances. The experiment was the largest of its type ever conducted. The

operation was extensive, over 20 vessels, 7 aircraft and 230 people were involved in the at- sea operation.

The quantitative analytical data show that the emissions from this in-situ oil fire were less

than expected. All compounds and parameters measured are below health concern levels

beyond about 150 metres from the fire, very little was detected beyond 500 metres. The fate

and behaviour of oil components in fires, are still not fully understood and could be the

subject of future experiments. Pollutants were found to be at lower values in the

Newfoundland Offshore burn than they were in previous pan tests. The reasons for this are not fully understood, but the offshore test appears to have resulted in more efficient

combustion.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) were found to be lower in the soot than in the starting

oil and were consumed by the fire to a large degree. Particulates in the air were measured

by several means and found to be of concern only up to 150 metres downwind at sea level.

Particulate matter may not be a concern past this distance except perhaps in the plume

remnants. Combustion gases including carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide

did not reach levels of concern. These gases are emitted over a broad area around the fire

and are not directly associated with the plume trajectory. Volatile organic compounds

(VOCs) were abundant, however were less than emitted from the non-burning spill. Over

50 compounds were quantified, several at levels of concern up to 150 metres downwind.

1 Emergencies Science Division, River Road Environmental Technology Centre,

Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.

2 Environmental Response Team, Environmental Protection Agency, Edison, New Jersey

3 Roy F. Weston/REAC, Edison, New Jersey

4 Canmar/Amoco Canada, Calgary, Alberta

5 Minerals Management Service, Herndon, Virginia

6 Marine Spill Response Corporation, Washington, D.C.

7 United States Coast Guard, Groton, Connecticut

63
Water under the burns was analyzed; no compounds of concern could be found at the

detection level of the methods employed. Toxicity tests performed on this water did not

show any adverse effect. The burn residue was analyzed for the same compounds as the air

samples. PAHs were found at lower concentrations in the residue than in the starting oil. The overall mass of PAHs including that of the higher-molecular-weight species, was about

6 orders-of-magnitude lower after the burn. Overall, indications from these burn trials are

that emissions from in-situ burning are low in comparison to other sources of emissions and

result in acceptable concentrations of air contaminants.

OPERATIONS

The oil was released into a fire-resistant boom and burned in this location. Air emissions

were monitored downwind using two remote-controlled boats, a research vessel and from

an airplane. The plume itself was sampled by two remote-controlled helicopters and a blimp. Water samples were collected from the remote-controlled sampling boats, and air

and water temperatures measured from the same vessels. The fire-resistant boom was

equipped with thermocouples to monitor temperatures directly impacting it and those in the

water directly underneath the fire. A submersible was deployed under the burning slick to

monitor temperatures and take video footage. A small boat monitored and measured surface

material that escaped and took samples of the burn residue after the burn.

The oil was released from a supply-type ship through a skimmer so that if there were some

problem, the flow could be reversed and the oil recovered. A 700-foot section of boom was

used. The amount of oil released in each spill was 50 cubic metres or about 10,000 Imperial

gallons. This is about the lower limit of a typical boom capacity. Once sufficient oil was in

the boom to sustain combustion, it was ignited using a Helitorch.

The fire-resistant boom used was a commercial version along with some experimental

sections. The middle sections near the burn were equipped with a number of thermocouples

to measure the temperature on the boom. The boom was backed up by another boom, an

offshore type, about one kilometre down current. This second boom was loaded with

sorbent to ensure that any sheen was recovered. The fire-resistant boom was towed by a major vessel and the opening was maintained by two vessels towing outward at an angle of

approximately 45 degrees. Both of the tow vessels were equipped with current meters to ensure that they are able to maintain a forward speed of 0.5 knots.

Command and control operations took place from a major vessel of the Canadian Coast

Guard, the ANN HARVEY. One helicopter was used both to ignite the slick and put out

flares to guide the procession into the wind. Another helicopter was used to provide still and video footage of documentation. Two charter ships were engaged to bring out observers.

They were also used as platforms for some of the documentation and air measurement.

Several smaller boats were used for other sampling purposes and for controlling the remote

sampling boats and a remote-underwater vessel.

64
OPERATIONAL RESULTS

Burn one started after a second Helitorch run. Reports from the helicopters and both

airplanes indicate the smoke plume bifurcated after about 2 km downwind. A small part

remained with the inversion layer at about 0.5 km and the

main portion split with one portion turning southeast and

one turning east after rising about 2 km. The pumping

during bum 1 had to be stopped several times because the

fire often spread back to the discharge point. The average

discharge and burn rate for burn 1 was about 550 L/min. The

fire-resistant boom was inspected after the first burn. Some

signs of fatigue in the stainless steel core were observed at a

point about 10 cm from the stiffeners. Some of the Nextel

fire-resistant fabric was missing from these areas as well.

The boom was fit for another burn, however.

The crews re-fit the equipment for the second burn which

began in mid-afternoon. The first run of the Helitorch

ignited the oil. Some oil was again splashed over, however,

unlike the first burn no sheening whatsoever was observed,

burned completely leaving only small patches of residue which drifted back into the

secondary recovery boom. The wind was 8 to 11 km/hr and this resulted in an approximate

45 degree angle for the plume. This burn was characterized by its "classical", regular plume

behaviour. The plume did, however, bifurcate about 2 km downwind, similar to the previous

plume.

The pump rate for this burn was adjusted to 560 L/min to match the burn rate. Pumping

was stopped after 1 1/4 hours of burn time when some small pieces of the fire-resistant

boom were released. The duration had already exceeded planned sampling times and most

samplers had already been stopped.

The fire-resistant boom was again inspected for damage and it was found that a prototype

section with a middle tension member had lost 3 of its float logs. Inspecdon of this section

at the factory showed that the section had not been properly constructed. The apex of the

boom was still holding oil. The boom was in generally good condition, but one would not

have used the apex for another burn.

SAMPLING

Sampling methodologies and target emissions are summarized in Table 2. Detailed methods

are described in the literature.

Table 1 - Burn Summary

Burn 1 Oil volume discharged - 48.3 Burn and Pump time - 1.5 hours Residue in fireproof boom - 0.2 m^ (max.)

Residue in backup boom - 0.2 m^ (max.)

Efficiency - >99%

Burn 2

Oil volume discharged - 28.9 m

Burn and Pump time - 1.3 hours

The oil outside of the boom

65
Table 2 Summary of Analytical Methods

Sample

Taken

Sampler Measurement

Parameter

Secondary Additional Parameters Parameters D

Soot at Sea Level High Volume Sampler Dioxins and Dibenzofurans

Sampling Pump PAHs medium volume

D

Soot In Smoke

Gases

D

D

D

RAM

Cascade sampler

Particulates

Particle size

Sampling Pump PAHs

low volume

blimp, remote-controlled helicopter, research aircraft

Particulates PAHs

Particulates

PAHs

Particulates Metals

Summa Canister

Sampling Pump

low volume

CO2 Meter

SOg Meter

NO2 Meter CO Meter

Oil

Burn Residue

Water under Burn

Volatile Organic Compounds COj

Volatile Organic Compounds

Carbon Dioxide

Sulphur Dioxide

Nitrogen Dioxide

Carbon Monoxide

PAHs

PAHs

PAHs

Metals Full Analysis

Metals Full Analysis

Organics Toxicity

FINDINGS

Fire Temperature

Temperatures were recorded at several points on the fire boom. Eight sections were

monitored with thermocouples at four locations in the vertical plane. Figure 1 shows a

typical output. This shows that the temperature at the top of the fire boom often reached

1000°C and the temperatures below were substantially lower. Thermocouple probes known

to be in the water show no increase in water temperatures.

66
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Recorded time (mm) (0 is ignition time]

Figure 1 Temperatures Recorded on Fireboom Near Apex

Oil Analysis

The oil was analyzed for physical properties. Table 3 shows the results. The most

interesting result is that the residue appears to be an oil with an evaporative loss of about

45% by weight.

67
Table 3 Physical Analysis of NOBE Oil/Residue Samples

Weathering Percentage 0.04 40-48%

Density 0.8437g/mL (15°C) 0.9365g/mL (15°C)

Viscosity 11 cP (15"C) (shear rate 500s"^) Newtonian vise.

130500 cP (15°C) (shear rate

ls-1) non-Newtonian vise.

Pour Point -21°C 34°C

Interfacial Tension 21.4 dynes/cm (15°C) (air/oil) Not measurable at 15°C

13.3 dynes/cm (15°C) (oil/sea ) Not measurable at 15°C

Emulsion Formation (fj) and

Stability (ff)

f

i = 0 {IS^C) ff = 0 (15°C) fi = 0 (15°C) ff = 0 (15°C)

Asphaltene Content 0.7 wt% 2.3 wt%

Wax Content 10.1 wt% 13.8 wt%

Flash Point -13<^C >WC

Water Content 0.54 wt% 14.01 wt%

Sulphur Content 0.15 wt% 0.40%

Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)

A comparison of the mass of PAHs in the starting oil, residues and soot at downwind points

has been done. This comparison shows that the PAH's are largely consumed by the fire. The amounts of PAHs detected at the Newfoundland burn are a fraction of that detected

in previous burn trials. This may be indicative of a more efficient burn.

Combustion Gases

Tests were made for a number of gases, but CO, SO2 and NO^ are not above the lower

detection level. Carbon Dioxide is clearly measured around the burn and is illustrated in

Figure 2. The levels of volatile organic compounds are well above concern levels within 150

metres of the fire. The levels of these compounds are even greater from an evaporating

slick that is not burning. Carbonyls such as Formaldehyde and Acetaldehyde are produced

in low concentrations. Their concentrations fall far below concern levels a short distance

from the fire.

68
1500

MOD

0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Recorded time fminl fO Is ignition timel

Figure 2 Carbon Dioxide Measurements

Metals

Crude oil contains several metals in the ppm range. The analysis from the Newfoundland

tests is not complete, but in previous tank tests, metals could not be detected on soot

particles.

Dioxins and Dibenzofurans

Analysis for dioxins and dibenzofurans on particulate matter both upwind and downwind of

the fires shows that these compounds are not produced. Levels of all samples taken are at background levels.

OVERALL FINDINGS

The Newfoundland burn and the previous tank test burns have revealed several facts about

the fate, behaviour and quantity of the basic emissions from burning:

Gases - combustion gases are very diffuse and do not have spatial relationship to the plume.

A good model is to view gas dispersal as following a doughnut-like pattern around the burn.

This pattern is deformed by increasing wind velocities. Generally gas concentrations

downwind are very low. Gas concentrations, especially in low winds can be as high around

the fire as downwind.

69
Particulate Matter/Soot - Particulate matter at ground level is only a matter of concern very

close to the fire and under the plume. The concentration of particulates in the smoke plume

may not be a concern past about 500 metres. The level of respirable particulates, those

which have a size less than 10 }x, is poorly understood. These may be carried away in the

vestiges of the smoke plume. Respirable particulates have not been detected at ground or sea level.

Water Emissions - No compounds have yet been detected in the water of the test tanks or under the water at sea. The aquatic toxicity of the water under a burn is either not

measurable or not extant.

Organic Compounds - No exotic or highly-toxic compounds are generated as a result of the

combustion process. Organic macro-molecules are in lesser concentration in the smoke and

downwind than they are in the oil itself. Volatile organic compounds are released in large

concentration by fires, but in lesser concentrations than the evaporating slick if not burning.

Residue - The residue is generally lighter than water. Density appears to relate to efficiency.

If a burn is highly efficient (>99.9%), then the residue may be neutrally buoyant. The

residue resembles high-weathered oil, measurements showed this to be about 40 to 50%

weathered (% weight loss). The residue contains a lower amount of PAHs than the starting

oil, although proportionately high amounts of multi-ringed PAHs are present. Metals are concentrated in the residue.

PAHs - Additional Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons are not produced by in-situ oil fires. Oils

contain significant quantities of PAHs. These are largely destroyed in combustion. The

PAH concentrations in the smoke, both in the plume and the particulate precipitation at ground level are much less than the starting oil. This also includes the concentration of

multi-ringed PAHs that are often created in other combustion processes such as lowtemperature incinerators and diesel engines. This finding is very different from that noted

in earlier lab experiments. It is suspected that re-precipitation of large soot particles occurs

in large-scale tests which does not occur in laboratory tests. These large soot particles are conducive to the accumulation of large multi-ringed PAHs. The burn residue does, however,

show a slight increase in the concentration of multi-ringed PAHs. However, when

considering the mass balance of the burn, most of the five and six-ringed PAHs is destroyed

by the fire. REFERENCES

1. Fingas, M.F., Li, K., Ackerman, F., Campagna, P.R., Turpin, R.D., Getty, S.J., Soleki,

M.F., Trespalacios, M.J., Par6, J., Bissonnette M.C., and Tennyson, E.J., Emissions From

Mesoscale In-Situ Oil Fires: The Mobile 1991 and 1992 Tests, in: Proceedings of The

Sixteenth Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, Environment

Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, pp. 749-821, 1993.

70
IN SITU BURNING: LEGAL AND REGULATORY ISSUES

John Cunningham, Chief

Oil Pollution Response & Abatement Branch

Emergency Response Division

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Washington, DC 20460 USA

SUMMARY

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations generally prohibit oil spills but

authorize permits for intentional spills used to research response techniques such as in-situ

burning. However, thousands of accidental spills occur each year, and recent experiences

show that accidental spills can be burned successfully. EPA, therefore, encourages

researchers to make use of accidental spills wherever possible and is developing guidance

to ensure that the burning of such spills is safe and effective. The Agency may issue permits

for intentional spills; in fact, EPA is updating its guidelines and regulations for this purpose.

Nevertheless, permits are granted only when apphcants meet strict requirements for

addressing the risks of the intentional spills they propose and for balancing those risks

against the benefits of the proposed research projects.

INTRODUCTION

EPA regulations under the Clean Water Act (CWA) generally prohibit the discharge of oil to navigable waters and in certain other cases (40 CFR 110.6). Nevertheless, accidental

spills do happen, so technologies are needed to mitigate the damage these spills may cause. EPA supports efforts -- including research on the emerging, promising technique of in-situ

burning -- that will help us better protect the environment from oil spills. In fact, EPA

regulations make an exception to the oil discharge prohibition by allowing EPA to issue

permits for research-related discharges of oil (40 CFR 110.9).

The Goals of Environmental Protection and Research Must Be Balanced

Research is important. We must, however, ensure that research activities (such as the

intentional discharge of oil) do not threaten the very environment we seek to protect. The

goal of improving oil spill response technology must be balanced with the original,

fundamental goal of protecting the environment.

For in-situ burning, a good way to balance these goals is to carry out research on accidental

spills (spills of opportunity) wherever possible. Such research should be the primary source

of data concerning in-situ burning. Permits for intentional spills should be granted only in

special cases where a significant need exists for data unobtainable from accidental spills and

where that need can be met without harming the environment.

71
Related Regulations

Research on in-situ burning must comply with other regulations besides the 40 CFR Part 110

regulations noted above. These include additional EPA regulations (such as the National

Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan, or NCP), regulations of other

Federal agencies (such as the worker health and safety regulations administered by the

Occupational Safety and Health Administration), and regulations issued by States and

localities. Because these regulations generally would apply regardless of whether accidental or intentional spills are used for research, they will not be discussed in detail in this paper.

The remainder of this paper will discuss the possibilities for in-situ burning research on

accidental spills and the special requirements for intentional discharge permits.

RESEARCH ON ACCIDENTAL SPILLS

An estimated 15,000 accidental oil spills occur each year - on average, about 40 spills every

day. Few of these spills may be ideal for an in-situ burning experiment, and even where

burning is feasible, it is not always the best response option. Still, with so many spills, there are bound to be many cases in which burning is at least part of the preferred response

strategy. Valuable information can be ~ and has been ~ accumulated from burns of

accidental spills.

Burning Can Be Used

Although in-situ burning of accidental spills has not been a common practice to date.

Federal regulations do allow it when certain requirements are met. The NCP, the Federal

government's blueprint for oil spill planning and response, does not exclude burning from

the "defensive actions" that "shall begin as soon as possible to prevent, minimize, or mitigate

threat(s) to public health or welfare or the environment" (40 CFR 300.310(a)).

As with any oil spill response measure, burning must be conducted under the direction of

the On-Scene Coordinator (OSC) for the response, and must be consistent with plans

prepared by the relevant Regional Response Team (RRT). Burning works best on freshly

spilled oil, so time is of the essence in getting RRT approval for a burn. For that reason, an increasing number of RRTs, such as the Region 6 RRT, have streamlined the approval

process by preauthorizing the use of in-situ burning.

Burning agents, such as gelled gasoline, may not be needed to conduct a burn, but the NCP

does allow OSCs to authorize their use on a case-by-case basis if the relevant RRT members

and natural resource trustees concur (40 CFR 300.910(b)).

72
Burning Has Been Used Successfully

In-situ burning has already been used successfully on some accidental spills. On the second

day of the response to the March 1989 Exxon Valdez spill, about 15,000 gallons of oil were

burned with a high degree of oil removal. In April 1993, responders used in-situ burning to

effectively remove part of a jet fuel spill from a marsh in Maine. Lessons are also being

learned from intentional spills outside the U.S., such as the Newfoundland Offshore Burn

Experiment conducted in August 1993.

The Valdez and the Maine marsh incidents are examples that show we can burn at least

some accidental spills successfully. None of the burns conducted to date have been perfect, so there is more we need to learn. After all, the possible dangers of a burn -- excessive

smoke in populated areas, or shoreline fouling by unburned oil ~ are just as bad for an

accidental spill as they are for an intentional spill. Nevertheless, with the solid base of

knowledge we now have, we can refine our understanding of and technique for burning

through the prudent use of accidental spills.

Research on Accidental Spills Will Be Persuasive

Managing a research project under the exigencies of an accidental oil spill is admittedly a challenging task. The results of such a project, however, would be far more persuasive than

those of an intentional-spill project in gaining wider acceptance of the technology.

When a research project is designed around an intentional spill, the research plan is simplified and key parameters (such as weather, oil type, and response equipment) are

carefully selected. Unfortunately, though, the simplicity and controls of such an experiment

may cast doubt on its applicability to accidental spills, which are notoriously unpredictable

and problematic. Critics might contend that such an experiment is specially designed and

controlled to maximize the technology's effectiveness while minimizing its adverse

environmental effects. Even the most impressive demonstration of a technology is of limited

relevance if it can't be duplicated for accidental spills.

In contrast, broader use of in-situ burning on accidental spills will build a large body of

empirical data that responders and planners can use to better understand the factors that

determine the success or failure of a burn. After all, the ultimate test of a technology's

success (including the acceptability of environmental effects such as air emissions) is whether

it can be managed under the constraints and imperfect conditions of the "real-world"

situations faced by responders.

Response Authorities Need to Know What We Have Learned

Although in-situ burning has been used on accidental spills and shows promise, it is used

only rarely. Why? The answer is that the basic knowledge about how to conduct a burn

exists, but it has not been collected, organized, and disseminated to the response authorities

73
who can use it. These authorities - RRTs and OSCs -- need both environmental and

operational information about in-situ burning.

Environmental Information: What short- and long-term hazards does burning pose

for the health and safety of both the public and spill responders? What are the

short- and long-term ecological hazards of in-situ burning? How can these hazards

be minimized? How should the concerns of the public about the smoke plume

produced by burning be addressed? How can monitoring be used to guide the burn

operation? What data collection is needed to allow reliable post-burn analysis that

adds to the body of knowledge on in-situ burning? What Federal, State, and local

regulatory approvals need to be obtained prior to burning?

• Operational Information : Under what oil and weather conditions will in-situ burning

most likely be effective? What is the correct procedure for conducting a burn, and

how should that procedure be adjusted as weather or spill conditions change? When

should be burning be used instead of, or in addition to, other response measures?

Recognizing the need for information about burning, some RRTs have already developed

guidance for their respective Regions. For example, the Region 4 RRT has prepared a guide to the use of in-situ burning in Region 4, complete with a spill evaluation "checklist"

and State-by-State approval requirements. The Region 6 RRT also has developed a

checklist. The Alaska RRT has developed its own in-situ burning guidelines.

To aid and promote these RRT efforts, EPA Headquarters has been developing

comprehensive national guidance for the preparation of Regional in-situ burning plans. The

guidance will describe how to conduct an in-situ burn that is successful and that accomplishes

research objectives. Specifically, the guidance will explain how to define the area in which

burns may be feasible; evaluate the burnability of a particular spill; identify the logistical

needs and mechanics of burn operations, including monitoring and post-burn analysis; discuss

health and environmental precautions; and describe how to implement the plan through

training efforts and communication with the public. We welcome submissions of information

for possible inclusion in this document.

Because the scope of the guidance has expanded from an initial focus on safety and

environmental concerns to a more comprehensive view, and because any official guidance

to RRTs should come from the National Response Team (NRT), we are exploring the

possibility of having the NRT complete, finalize, and distribute the document.

RESEARCH ON INTENTIONAL SPILLS

There may be cases in which oil spill response research requires the control of key spill

characteristics such as location, timing, spill size, and oil type. Selection of such variables,

along with careful control and monitoring of burn operations, may help us see more clearly

and precisely how certain variables influence the outcome of a burn.

74
Intentional Spill Permits May be Granted in Special Cases

EPA may issue permits to allow the intentional discharge of oil for research purposes (40

CFR 110.9). We are very careful in granting these permits because many opportunities for

research on accidental spills already exist, and because intentional oil spills ~ along with

burning or other responses to such spills -- inevitably pose risks of additional damage

(beyond the damage caused by accidental spills and related response efforts).

The risks of intentional spills impose two general requirements on applications for oil discharge permits. First, applicants must demonstrate a complete understanding of the

human health and ecological risks of the intentional spill, and must propose measures that are adequate to protect against these risks. For example, an applicant for a permit to

conduct research on in-situ burning must not only show a full understanding of constituents

of the smoke produced by oil combustion and the hazards they pose to humans, but also

must propose steps to keep the smoke sufficiently far from populated areas.

The second requirement is based on the recognition that even when steps are taken to protect against risks, the risks cannot be completely avoided. Thus, applicants must justify

the risks of the spill by citing the benefits of the data sought and the need to obtain the data

from an intentional spill. Are the data to be obtained the first of their kind, or have

substantially similar data already been obtained? Are the data available through other, less

risky methods, such as research on accidental spills, or on land-based burns in test tanks?

Do the potential benefits of the project outweigh its potential risks?

Permit Guidelines and Regulations Are Being Updated

Given the dangers of intentional spills and the need for carefully developed, well-justified

oil discharge permit applications, guidelines for preparing applications would be helpful. In

fact, such guidelines exist, but they were published in 1971 and are now out of date. The

guidelines allow only relatively small (1,000 gallons or less) research spills, and they reflect

the relatively early state of environmental science and regulation that existed at the time.

EPA, therefore, is working to update the guidelines. The revised guidelines will reflect: (1)

gains in understanding of human health and environmental risks; (2) the current interest in

discharging larger volumes of oil (which pose substantially greater risks); (3) permitting

program concepts (such as public participation) and methods that have evolved since 1971;

and (4) new requirements of other EPA offices and other agencies. The Agency expects to publish the revised guidelines in the Federal Register in Fiscal Year 1994.

After it publishes the revised guidelines, EPA will work on revising the oil discharge permit

regulation (40 CFR 110.9). As a part of this effort, EPA will consider expanding the permits

to cover the use of oil spill response products in conjunction with intentional spills.

Although burning agents and other products may be used on accidental spills, there is currently no 40 CFR 110.9 provision for their use on intentional spills. We believe, however,

75
that until such a change is made, EPA could authorize the use of response products on

intentional spills under other CWA regulations (specifically, those of the National Pollutant

Discharge Elimination System, also known as NPDES) or EPA regulations under the Ocean

Dumping Act.

CONCLUSION

EPA supports research to help realize the promising potential of in-situ burning as an oil

spill response technique. At the same time, the Agency recognizes that research efforts must

not compromise the paramount goal of environmental protection. Therefore, the Agency

is encouraging research on accidental spills and is allowing for intentional, research-related

spills only in special, justified cases.

76
TEXAS MARSH BURN

REMOVING OIL FROM A SALT MARSH USING IN SITU BURNING

M. F. Gonzalez, G.A. Lugo

Texas General Land Office

Division of Oil Spill Prevention and Response

1700 N. Congress

Austin, Texas 78701

PREFACE

The grounding of the Exxon Valdez in March of 1989 and later separate incidents along the

Texas coast, including the Mega Borg and the Apex barge collision in the summer of 1990,

caused a rippling effect on the State Legislature to introduce S.B. 14, commonly referred to as the Oil Spill Prevention and Response Act of 1991.i This Act established the Texas

General Land Office as the lead state agency for oil spill prevention and response in the

coastal marine environment. Through these efforts, this agency along with other state agencies are ensuring that the Texas coast is better protected from oil spills.

INTRODUCTION

An oil spill occurred from the Exxon Pipeline Company (EPC) on the morning of January

7, 1992, during a routine pipehne transfer of South Texas Light Crude (API Gravity 36.0)

from their Harbor Island facility to their facility in Vanderbilt, Texas. The Harbor Island

facility, located near Ingleside, Texas, consists of several large above-ground storage tanks

and a marine terminal. The interstate, below ground pipeline, suffered a rupture due to

corrosion, along the seam on the underside which extended about 1.5 m (4.9 ft). The line

was installed in 1966 and is 40.64 cm (16 in) in diameter, with a wall thickness of 5.56 mm

(0.219 in) and rated for a maximum operating pressure of 1104 psig. On the evening before

the incident at approximately 22:45, EPC's Oil Traffic Control Center confirmed a probable

leak on the pipeline in question. Earlier, the Ingleside pumps had shut down on an

operational trip after switching from a very light plant distillate to a heavy crude. At the

time, the recording pressure chart at Ingleside showed a momentary pressure increase to 1145 psig at the station, 3.7% above the maximum operating pressure, well within the 10%

surge allowable. Apparently, at the same time, a leak occurred 22.8 km (14.2 mi.) away at the site at 1072 psig, again well below the 1104 psig maximum operating pressure. Even

though pressures were in acceptable operating range, the date of the latest test was 26 years

prior to the incident in 1966 and then had achieved a maximum test pressure of 1380 psig.2

The rupture occurred in a privately owned tidal mud flat at the mouths of Chiltipin Creek

and the Aransas River near Copano Bay (figure 1) and 50 km (31 mi.) from the Aransas

Wildlife Refuge.

77
Copano Bay (figure 2) is a body of water about 13 km (8 mi.) wide and 39 km (24 mi.) long

that flows into the Aransas Bay system and is primarily used by recreational and commercial

fisherman. However, it does have oil and gas facilities and Liquid Petroleum Gas processing

plants in and around the bay which pose other environmental threats.

RESPONSE

At the time of the release, it was raining, cold, and windy. The temperature was about 7

degrees centigrade (45 degrees Fahrenheit) with winds at 15 to 20 knots. Rainfall in recent

days had been heavy leaving the ground saturated and a continued forecast of rain was

predicted for the next several days.

After the problem was encountered, EPC ordered their air patrol to investigate. Hampered

by fog, the patrol finally discovered the leak at 10:45 the next day. Maintenance and clean

up crews were dispatched and agency notifications were made. The National Response

Center^ was notified along with a host of state agencies. The Texas General Land Office"*

received its first call at 1322 on January 7, 1992. The caller stated that a 750 barrel crude

oil spill from a ruptured pipeline in a plowed field had occurred. When agency

representatives converged at the site, EPC's Incident Commander briefed them with these

additional comments: Two valves 11 miles apart had been shut in, but 16,000 barrels

remained in the line and continued to pose a threat. EPC's initial response was to contain

and control the movement of the oil and to commence pipeline repair operations.

Containment boom had been placed in the river and sorbent boom was placed at the leading

edge of the spill, which at the time was approximately 457 m (1500 feet) from the river.

EPC had established a 24-hour operation effort. In the days following, over 130 personnel

would be utilized to mitigate the situation.

INCIDENT COMMAND

After Federal and State jurisdictional issues were addressed and agreed to, an Incident

Command System was initiated and with modifications, established, a Unified Command

structure. EPC assumed the role as the responsible party and Incident Commander, the

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as Federal On Scene Coordinator (FOSC) and the

Texas General Land Office (Oil Spill Division) as State On Scene Coordinator (SOSC). The

goal of the Unified Command was to safely remove the oil from the marsh with the least

damage to the environment, prevent any oil from entering the river, and restore EPC's

pipeline transfer capabilities. A command post was positioned on the surrounding farmland

by EPC about a mile from the spill site, with established security radius of 3 km (1.9 mi.).

At this command post and through this system, all decisions were made and agency concerns

addressed. Agencies participating on scene included the Texas General Land Office

(Coastal Division), Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Texas Railroad Commission,

Texas Water Commission and Texas Air Control Board (now comprise the Texas Natural

Resource Conservation Commission), United States Coast Guard, and United States Fish

and Wildlife Services. The EPA chose to handle their duties from the Region 6

78
headquarters office in Dallas. They did, however, send an EPA Technical Assist Team

(TAT) from Houston during the initial days of the event. Meetings were conducted twice

daily to brief all representatives and interested stakeholders on all actions. Evening planning

meetings with EPC and the SOSC were held to further discuss operational, regulatory and

public relations matters.

ASSESSMENTS

Initial assessments were done by aerial inspection. Little was seen from the air as the oil's migration was through the dense marsh grasses rather than over it. Ground assessments

were the best way to determine the extent of the damage and were restricted to response

personnel. With all the rains, transportation to the site was accomplished via helicopter,

sleds pulled by D-8 tractors, or All Terrain Vehicles. Ingress and egress to the site were

around the marsh over neighboring farmland. Walking through the marsh on foot was

extremely difficult and only contributed to the damage by trampling. To go about 1.6 km

(1 mi.) took the better part of an hour by sled. The logistical problem of getting equipment

to the site was slow and tedious. Once at the site, it was discovered that the spilled oil encompassed between 8.1 and 10.13 ha (20 and 25 acres) of sensitive marshlands. The

majority of the habitat affected was principally vegetated with salt-flat grass, Virginia

dropseed, sea ox-eye daisy, sea-lavender, glasswort, and saltwort.'' Wildlife was minimally

affected. Two oiled gadwalls were recovered and taken to a certified rehabilitator and

several sheephead minnows were discovered dead in a nearby pond. The initial reported

volume of 750 barrels quickly increased to over 2900 barrels. Heavy equipment was moved

in to dig up the line, cold cut it and replaced it with a 63' section of new line. A bell hole

was dug around the rupture to control the trickling flow of oil. CONVENTIONAL CLEANUP

Eventually two tankage systems with pumps were set up with a capacity of 2400 barrels.

One tank system by the spill site and the other near the command post were both connected

by a 3" plastic line where vacuum trucks could enter and take the recovered crude back to EPC's facility. Conventional cleanup techniques at the site such as skimmers, pumps and

sorbents proved to be inadequate, and some ruled out completely due to the greater

potential damage to the marsh. Other alternative cleanup methods had to be considered as the oil continued to migrate closer to the river.

ALTERNATIVE CLEANUP TECHNIQUES

Alternative cleanup methods like bioremediation, flooding, peat moss application and in-situ

burning were considered. Bioremediation might have been a viable action to take but was

later discouraged because of extensive Regional Response Team permitting protocols.

Water flooding of the marsh with low pressure, high volume pumps might have worked, but

logistically would have been disastrous. Peat moss was used at the leak site to absorb the

remaining free oil allowing personnel to work in the area. Tall marsh grasses prevented

79
peat moss application to the oil and would have left a greater than desired total petroleum

hydrocarbon content. Any oil-saturated peat moss could not have been able to be picked

up. Because less manpower and equipment was needed in-situ burning seemed to be the

most effective method of oil removal from the marsh.

IN-SITU BURN

Once the decision to burn was made, the Unified Command planned to expeditiously obtain a positive consensus decision from all stakeholders. The FOSC was called in Dallas and

stated that the decision lay on the Texas Air Control Board (TACB). EPC formally

requested permission from the TACB and after gaining positive response from all stakeholders. The TACB permit came back with these directives:^

1. Burn will be under the direction of the Texas General Land Office.

2. Burning only conducted to eliminate emergency conditions and threat to the wetland

environment.

3. Disposal site must stay in compliance with all applicable rules and regulations of

appropriate State and Federal agencies.

4. Burn must always be attended.

5. Heavy oils, asphaltic materials and vehicle tires shall not be burned.

6. Burning shall not be commenced when the surface wind speed is predicted to be less

than 5 knots or greater than 20 knots during the burn.

7. Local TACB office was to be notified during any burning.

Seventy-six hours into the event, a test burn was conducted to determine the oil's ignitabihty.

An isolated area measuring 6 m (16 ft) in diameter was chosen. A small berm was built

around the area. Using diesel to ignite the oil, it slowly burned then quickly raged with

crackling flames 7 m (21 ft) high. It was a successful test. Meanwhile, EPC's crews completed repairs on the line and slowly continued to pump out oil from the marsh into the

tanks. The Unified Command needed to quickly prepare for the full burn.

Planning for the burn was as follows: The line had to be repaired and covered. Continued

site safety had to be maintained. Heavy equipment had to be retrieved onto higher ground.

Experts in fire safety, like the Texas Forest Service (TFS) and the Refinery Terminal Fire

Company, Corpus Christi, were called in to conduct and manage the burn. Logistical

problems continued to hamper and slow the process. The TFS called for the D-8 tractors

to build fire breaks through the surrounding brush. Ignition sources were considered and

it was later determined that mineral spirits would do the job.

The Texas Division of Emergency Management was contacted and with their assistance, calls were made notifying all the local fire, sheriffs and police departments of the controlled burn.

Nearby residents were alerted of possible evacuation. The Department of Public Safety

(DPS) maintained traffic control on the nearby county roads. The Federal Aviation

Administration (FAA) was alerted of the potential smoke plume from the burning oil.

80
Finally, the local news media was notified and the evening's newscast provided viewers with

a public service announcement to prevent alarm from any fire and smoke seen in the night.

They stated, "It was a controlled burn." A control site was prepared by the USF&WS for

later study. However the USF&WS was told by the Unified Command that this was a response effort for the removal of spilled oil from the marsh and science might have to take

a back seat. Communication to Austin Control was frequent and support for burning was

continued.

Before the commencement of the burn, a final meeting was held by the Unified Command

to again secure a consensus decision from all stakeholders at the scene. The decision was

unanimous... burn. Recommendation from the TFS and the RTFC was to leave a contiguous layer of oil on the ground to maintain a good burn. This would allow the fire

fighters to ignite the oil on the upwind side and retrieved back. Mechanical pumping of the

oil was ceased and all the equipment removed. Responders and cleanup personnel were

placed in safe zones. Six fire fighters positioned themselves and at 1750 on January 11,

1992, ignited the oil. One mile from the spill site at the command post, the flames were

barely visible with the naked eye ~ within minutes the flames towered to heights in excess of 50 m (164 ft) into the sky and the smoke plume eventually traveled and dispersed miles

away over farmland. Through the rain and twenty-one hours later, the flames finally died.

Observers from the Unified Command, along with fire fighters, made aerial inspections of

the site and visually estimated that - 80 to 85 percent had been removed. Three small

ponds remained and the order was given to continue burning. Each burned successfully for

approximately 4 hours. Again, visual inspection showed similar removal percentages. The

remaining residue was an asphaltic material that adhered to anything it came in contact with.

That evening forceful rains fell and flooded the marsh. Drainage was directly into Chiltipin

Creek and flooding had cleared by the next day. Residue was visible and EPC personnel

continued to conduct smaller burns to remove as much oil as possible. Plywood planks were

laid out to gain access to the remaining affected areas preventing any further damage.

FINAL CLEANUP

Oil sheen and residue remained. Sorbent sweeps were placed and slowly absorbed the final

remnants of floating oil and sorbent pompoms were used to recover the residue. Twenty

days from the initial discovery of the leak the site was deemed clean.

CLOSING

It is agreed that this spill damaged the environment, but as in any spill event, concessions

and difficult decisions were made. Many times, it is a choice of the lesser of the evils. In

this instance, the goals of the Unified Command were to minimize any further damage to the environment. The final totals of oil released from the line were 2950 barrels. Twelve

hundred barrels removed from the bell hole and pumped into tankage, 1700 barrels entered

the marsh, 500 barrels recovered from the marsh and pumped into tankage, 50 barrels in

81
sorbents and 1150 evaporated or burned. The oil was removed, no oil entered the river and

damage to the marsh was minimized by burning. The goals were achieved. Follow up

inspections to the site revealed that the heartier vegetation had sprouted within two weeks

of the burn. Four months later, 75 percent of the impacted area had regrown. Although

the vegetation diversity had diminished, the regrowth process is crucial to the restoration of

the marsh.

82
REFERENCES

1 Texas Natural Resources Code, Chapter 40 (S.B. 14, 72nd Legislature)

2 Exxon Pipeline Company, Department of Transportation Accident Report

3 National Response Center (Case # 101878)

4 Texas General Land Office (Spill # 92-013)

5 Texas General Land Office (Field Investigation Report, Coastal Division)

6 Texas Air Control Board, Request to Conduct Outdoor Burning, Special Provisions,

83
k
85

BRUNSWICK NAVAL AIR STATION JP-5 AVIATION FUEL DISCHARGE

IN SITU BURN OF FUEL REMAINING IN FRESH WATER MARSH

APRIL 6-8, 1993

Steven J. Eufemia

Maine Department of Environmental Protection

312 Canco Rd.

Portland, Maine 04103

SUMMARY

On March 26-29, 1993 approximately 240,350 liters (63,500 gallons) of JP-5 aviation fuel was

discharged from a fuel farm located at the Brunswick Naval Air Station, Brunswick, ME. The fuel

entered the storm sewer system and migrated into a fresh water wetland where it was contained by ice, snow and other natural barriers. Conventional oil spill recovery technologies were employed at the

outset of the clean-up efforts; however, due to limited access and the potential for physical damage to the wetland by equipment and manpower needed to complete the project, a decision was made to remove the fuel remaining within this wetland by means of in-situ burning.

A large scale burn was conducted on April 6, 1993 at which time the entire surface area of the

wetland that had been oiled was allowed to burn. Two smaller burns followed on April 7 and April 8

to remove remaining pockets of oil not burned in the initial operation.

INTRODUCTION

In-situ burning can be used successfully as an oil spill clean-up technique for inland oil spills. In these

applications it is particularly effective when integrated with mechanical clean-up methods. It is an

attractive alternative to more conventional methods where access to the spill site is limited or where

there is the potential to cause additional damages by the movement of the equipment and human

resources necessary to effect mechanical oil removal.

BACKGROUND

On Monday March 29, 1993 Navy personnel discovered a discharge of JP-5 aviation fuel from a newly

constructed fuel tank farm located on the Brunswick Naval Air Station. The Navy estimates that

240,350 liters (63,500 gallons) of fuel was discharged from a pipeline valve sometime between Friday,

March 26, 1993 and Monday, March 29, 1993 when the discharge was discovered. Notifications were made to appropriate regulatory agencies including the United States Coast Guard Marine Safety

Office, the Maine Department of Environmental Protection (M.D.E.P.), as well as local public safety

agencies. A command post was established and an incident command system instituted. The Navy

contracted with Clean Harbors, a pollution contractor, to provide clean-up equipment, personnel and

services. The M.D.E.P. established itself as a crucial element of the incident command system and the

overall response effort due to the experience that M.D.E.P. personnel were able to bring to bear to a clean-up of this nature as well as their familiarity with the pollution contractor.

Once it had been determined that a substantial portion of the fuel discharge had been contained

within a freshwater wetland situated between the base and the Androscoggin River, it was evident to

all parties involved in the response effort that access to this area by the oil spill recovery equipment

and the manpower required to operate it would be severely limited. The main body of the wetland

87
was accessible only by a residential driveway and a utility right-of-way. The right-of-way was only

traversable by four wheel drive vehicle even under ideal conditions. The accessibility problem was compounded by the hilly terrain surrounding the wetland and snow cover of several feet. The depth

of the water and the ice cover precluded the use of all but small unpowered watercraft.

The M.D.E.P. and others on the incident command staff were also keenly aware of the fragile

ecosystems that wetlands of this type support and the potential for physical damage to the ecosystem

by clean-up equipment and manpower. Also considered was additional oil contamination of the

sediments on the periphery of the wetland due to foot traffic. These viewpoints were echoed by the

Regional Response Team's Scientific Support Coordinator, whose input had been requested by the

Federal On-Scene Coordinator consistent with the National Contingency Plan. The Maine

Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife that is designated, along with the M.D.E.P., as the State

Trustee of Natural Resources for spills into these types of environments, also was concerned that the

response efforts could cause additional damage to the wetland.

In consideration of these constraints, the M.D.E.P. proposed a clean-up plan combining conventional

oil spill technologies followed by in-situ burning. This plan called for augmenting the natural

containment of the wetland using containment boom, sorbent boom, and underflow dams. Vacuum

trucks would be staged at accessible locations to begin product removal. A residential driveway and

the utility right-of-way required upgrading to facilitate the movement of the vacuum trucks in order to conduct this phase of the clean-up. Despite the road improvements, there were still areas within the

wetland, where product thickness exceeded 20cm, that were 150-200 meters from the closest point that

recovery equipment could be staged. The pollution contractor would be instructed to limit the

number of personnel entering the wetland and to restrict them to designated routes of entry and

egress. The proposed plan include in-situ burning operation which would be conducted once the

mechanical product removal was determined to have become impractical or inefficient due to a high

percentage of water in the recovered oil/water mix.

The mechanical recovery operation began immediately; however, there was some opposition to the in- situ burn phase of the clean-up by some members of the incident command structure. This opposition

had basis both from a public relations standpoint, as well as the opinion that the JP-5 would not

readily ignite and remain burning. Although the mechanical recovery operation progressed well, it became apparent that these mechanical means alone would not provide a satisfactory recovery of the

oil in the wetland. It was agreed upon by the command structure to conduct a test burn and to endorse a large scale burn provide the test burn was successful.

In the meantime, the M.D.E.P. had been working to secure approvals to conduct the burn. These

included approvals from within the M.D.E.P., from various Federal agencies and from the Fire Chiefs

of both the Town of Brunswick, ME and the Brunswick Naval Air Station. Internal policy of the

Me.D.E.P. requires that State Oil Spill Coordinator, as designated in State of Maine Marine Oil Spill

Contingency Plan, must authorize any in-situ burn and the air quality section of the M.D.E.P. must be

informed of the specifics of the burn. The Federal agencies from which approvals were sought and

granted were the United States Coast Guard (OSC), the Environmental Protection Agency and the

Department of the Interior. Both Fire Chiefs had been included on the incident command staff and

had concurred.

Mechanical clean-up continued through April 4, 1993 at which time it was determined that the vacuum

trucks were recovering as much water as fuel. The mechanical recovery was suspended at this time.

88
In excess of 151,400 liters (40,000 gallons) of JP-5 had been recovered. Factored into this decision was the intent to leave a sufficient product layer atop the water to support combustion. A small test burn was successfully conducted on April 5, 1993 confirming the opinion of the M.D.E.P.that the JP-5

could be readily ignited. The appropriate meteorological conditions under which to conduct a large

scale bum of the wetland were discussed and decided upon and the operation was planned for the

next day on which these conditions existed.

The conditions under which the burn would be conducted would be a clear sky with no overcast and a

light wind from a westerly direction. The clear conditions would facilitate smoke plume rise and

atmospheric dispersion. The westerly wind would direct the plume away from the population centers. Ideal conditions existed on April 6, 1993 and a large scale burn was begun at approximately 11:30

A.M. A high voltage power line which crosses the headwaters of the wetland upstream from the burn

area was not considered at risk; however, a fire break had been designed and was put in place to slow

the rate of flame advance in the upstream direction. No other overhead hazards existed. The ice and snowcover served to contain the fire to the oiled portions of the wetland.

The fire was allowed to burn for approximately five hours at which time it all but extinguished itself. Smaller burns were conducted on April 7, 1993 and April 8, 1993 as additional oil was released from

beneath the ice and collected in burnable quantities. The remaining product layer was virtually

eliminated throughout the burn area. It was estimated by M.D.E.P. personnel that less than 1700

liters (450 gallons) remained within the wetland at the conclusion of the burns.

Pre-bum as well as post-burn samples were collected under the direction of the RRT Scientific

Support Coordinator. The samples were submitted to the Institute for Environmental Studies,

Lx3uisiana State University for analysis. The analysis report concludes that the pre-burn and postburn

samples were compositionally similar except for a slight increase in the concentration of combustion

sourced aromatic hydrocarbons^.

CONCLUSION

In-situ burning was successfully combined with mechanical recovery techniques to remove a discharge

of 240,350 liters (63,500 gallons) of JP-5 from a freshwater wetland in Brunswick, ME.

Factored into the decision to burn was the inaccessibility to the area by mechanical recovery

equipment, the potential to cause additional physical damage to the wetland by response activities, the concurrence of various Federal, State and local agencies as well as the time of year. In this incident

the time of year was significant both from the fact that the ice and snowcover would serve to contain

the fire to the oiled areas within the wetland and and in terms of migratory wildlife which had not yet

returned to the area.

Visual inspections of the wetland throughout the Spring and Summer months of 1993 indicate very

little residual impact from the oil spill or the burn. The long term impacts from the spill, response

effort and the in-situ burn are expected to be negligible.

89
REFERENCES

1 Henry, C. B. Characterization of Weathered JP-5 Fuel Oil Before and After In-Situ Burning.

Technical Report IES93-06. Institute for Environmental Studies, Louisiana State University,

Baton Rouge, Louisiana (1993).

90
IN SITU BURNING: LOUISIANA OIL SPILL RESPONSE INTERESTS

J. Heather Warner Finley

Louisiana Oil Spill Coordinator's Office

Office of the Governor

P O Box 94004

Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70804-9004

SUMMARY

Oil spills are of particular concern to the state of Louisiana. Approximately 150 million barrels of

oil and 130 million cubic feet of natural gas are produced in the state annually. In addition,

approximately 20 percent of the nation's imported oil passes through the Louisiana Offshore Oil Port

facility annually. Louisiana's coastal area contains more than 2.5 million acres of salt and brackish

marshes, and more than 1.6 million acres of fresh marshes. These wetlands, in addition to providing

important wildlife habitat and water quality services, are an integral part of the life cycle of 90

percent of the commercially important species in the Gulf of Mexico. The economic activity

generated by wildlife and fishery resources in the state of Louisiana exceeds 2 billion dollars annually.

The Louisiana Oil Spill Coordinator's Office (LOSCO) was created in 1991 by the Oil Spill

Prevention and Response Act. In creating the office, the Legislature found that"the release of oil into the environment presents a real and substantial threat to the public health and welfare, to the

environment, the wildlife and aquatic life, and to the economy of the state" (LA R.S. 2453 A). The

Louisiana oil spill coordinator is charged with developing a statewide oil spill prevention and response

plan that includes, among other things, the "use of both proven and innovative prevention and

response methods and technologies" (LA R.S. 2460 A.9).

LOSCO recognizes the need for a variety of alternative clean-up options in order to best protect

Louisiana's fragile coastal resources. The office is interested in promoting research into in-situ burn

technology. Currently, LOSCO's Oil Spill Research and Development Program is considering funding

for several studies on the effects of burning hydrocarbons in coastal marshes. We hope that through

the concerted efforts of various agencies, both state and federal, the needed research will be carried

out, and our collective oil spill response and prevention efforts will be strengthened.

91

ABOUT THE AUTHORS AND PANEL CHAIRS

John M. Cunningham is Chief, Oil Pollution Response and Abatement Branch (OPRAB) in EPA's

Emergency' Response Di\ision. OPRAB leads EPA efforts to implement the requirements of the Oil

Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA). OPRAB administers the schedule of dispersants and other chemicals,

required by Section 311 of the Clean Water Act, which lists products that may be used to respond

to oil spills in navigable waters. OPRAB also administers the Oil Pollution Prevention regulation (40

CFR Part 112), also known as the Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasures (SPCC) regulation,

which implements EPA oil spill prevention program for fixed, onshore facihties. Before joining the

Emergency Response Division, John was with the Superfund remedial program, with a private

consulting firm working on projects on waste water discharge issues and with ERPA's Office of Water

developing regulations for industrial waste water discharge control. He holds a Bachelor of Science

in chemical engineering from the University' of Texas. He has a Master of Chemical Engineering and

a Juris Doctor from the Catholic University of America.

Elmer P. Danenberger is Chief of Mineral Management Service's (MMS) Engineering and

Technology Division with responsibilities for safety and pollution-prevention research, engineering

support, and offshore operating regulations. Bud has been employed as an engineering in the

Department of the Interior's offshore oil and gas program since 1971. He has served as District

Supervisor for the Minerals Management Service (MMS) field offices in Santa Maria, California, and

Hyannis, Massachusetts; as a staff engineer in the Gulf of Mexico regional headquarters office of the

U. S. Geological Survey. He received a B.S. degree in petroleum and natural gas engineering and

a masters degree in environmental pollution control, both from the Pennsylvania State University.

Steven J. Eufemia is a Unit Supervisor in the Maine Department of Environmental Protection (Me.

D.E.P.) Southern Maine Regional Office. He is an Oil and Hazardous Materials Specialist III within

the Me. D.E.P.'s Bureau of Hazardous Materials and Solid Waste Control, Division of Response

Services. The responsibilities of the Division include responding to discharges of oil and hazardous

materials which occur within the State of Maine and providing technical assistance as well as regulatory oversight. Steve worked as a commercial fisherman before joining Me.D.E.P. He has a

B.S. degree in Natural Resource Management from the University of Maine, Orono.

David D. Evans is Acting Chief, Fire Safety Engineering Division at the National Institute of

Standards and Technology (NIST). Formerly he was Group Leader of the Large Fire Research

Group; this group is concerned with measurement and prediction of effects of industrial fires. Dave

has been Principal Investigator on two major research projects conducted at NIST on behalf of MMS.

In one, the capabilities of new technology' water spray injection systems for reduction of fire effects

and extinguishment of gas-well blowout fires were determined. In the other, a muld-disciplined team

was assembled to develop new measurement and predictive methods to characterize the burning,

combustion product emission, and smoke particulate transport from large crude oil spill fires. Though

this project NIST has developed unique long range smoke plume dispersion calculations and field instrumentation to characterize emission from large fires. Dave initially worked in the area of

building fire protection systems at NIST. In this work he designed an apparatus to measure the time

response characteristics of fire sprinkler hardware in order to obtain input data for predictive

methods. He received his PhD in Mechanical Engineering from Harvard University-.

93
Merv F. Fingas is Chief of the Emergencies Sciences Division, Environment Canada. The division

is responsible for performing research on oil and chemical spill behavior and control. Current

responsibilities include the management and performance of research related to the following areas: study of in situ countermeasures such as oil burning; fate, behavior and modelling of oil and chemical

spills generally; development of analytical and remote sensing techniques; preparation of spill

manuals, information compilations and overview reports; testing and development of chemical spill

treating agents. Merv has spent the last 19 years in spill research and has over 200 papers and

publications in the field. He has three masters degrees: chemistry, business, mathematics. He is currently completing his doctorate in environmental sciences.

J. Heather Warner Finley is a Natural Resource Specialist at the Oil Spill Coordinator's Office,

Office of the Governor, State of Louisiana, working on oil spill contingency planning and resource

protection projects. Previously Heather worked in the field of petroleum exploration and production.

She has a B.S. and M.S. in Biology from the University of Southwestern Louisiana and a B.S. in Geology from Michigan State University.

Thomas M. Gernhofer is the Associate Director for Offshore Minerals Management, MMS, and

served as Acting Deputy Director, MMS, for the first half of 1993. Previously Tom became the

Assistant Director for Administration in the newly created bureau, MMS. He then served as the

Assistant Director for Administration until he was named Acting Deputy Director, MMS, and then

appointed the Associate Director for Management and Budget, MMS, responsible for all administrative, budgetary, and appeals activities. He graduated from the University of Virginia.

Manuel F. Gonzalez is the Director of Field Operations, Oil Spill Prevention and Response Division

of the Texas General Land Office. Manny manages three coastal regional field offices from Austin.

As needed, acts as the State On-Scene Coordinator for medium to major spill events. He is a member of the Governor's Environmental Task Force. He graduated from Texas A&I University.

David M. Kennedy is the Chief of the Hazardous Materials Response and Assessment Division within

the National Ocean Service of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA) in Seattle, Washington. He currently directs a multi-disciplinary program that works to reduce risks to coastal and marine resources from oil and hazardous material releases through emergency response

to oil and chemical spills in the Nation's coastal zone, developing and applying scientific protocols

to research spill prevention, contingency planning, operational forecasting and working to protect and

restore trust resources affected by hazardous waste sites in coastal and marine habitats. Previously

David managed the Scientific Support Coordination and previously was the Scientific Support

Coordinator, acting as a liaison between the scientific community and the U.S. Coast Guard during

spills to identify problem areas, research ideas, resolve issues, and generally ensure that cleanup

proceeds as rapidly as is effective and environmentally beneficial. During this time he coordinated

the Federal scientific response to spills in Alaska, Washington, Oregon, Hawaii, and Oceania,

California, and the Gulf of Mexico. Previously David was Director of the Spilled Oil Research Team

at the University of Alaska Geophysical Institute. He received the NOAA Administrator's Gold

Medal for performance in the Exxon Valdez oil spill.

94
Bruce McKenzie is the Manager of Planning and Development with Alaska Clean Seas, an Alaskan

based oil spill response cooperative. In this position he is responsible for training, research and

development and planning. Bruce has been a strong and active proponent of burning; his efforts

have focused on having in situ combustion recognized as a viable spill response tool and broadening

the window in which it can be effectively used. Bruce has been involved in the detailed project

planning for two offshore, full-scale burn tests, participated in the planning of the 1993 Newfoundland

burn and funding of an active burn research program conducted in Norway. Previously Bruce was

in the oil spill business, primarily in the Arctic and has worked for both government and the oil industry. He has a degree in Geography and graduate studies from the University of Victoria, British

Columbia.

Jean E. Snider is responsible for program development and interagency liaison for the Hazardous

Materials Response and Assessment (HAZMAT) Division, National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA). The HAZMAT Division provides technical assistance to the US Coast

Guard during spills of oil and hazardous materials through its Scientific Support Coordinators;

provides technical assistance to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for the cleanup of

Superfund sites through its Coastal Resource Coordinators. Jean has worked for NOAA in both

headquarters and field assignments, as well as spending several years on Capitol Hill. All of her years

with NOAA have been spent in the areas of marine pollution and the effects of other man-related

impacts on the marine environment. She was involved with the scientific response to the Argo

Merchant and this incident provided the idea for NOAAs Scientific Support Coordinator program.

When she joined the HAZMAT Division, Jean established a Washington, DC office to better support

the Division's numerous interagency programs. Jean represents the Department of Commerce on

the National Response Team, the interagency committee overseeing all aspects of the Nation's

response to oil and hazardous materials spills and chairs its subcommittee on Research and

Development. She spent several months in Alaska during 1989 working on the Exxon Valdez spill,

and revisited the area briefly in subsequent summers. She has a decorate in Oceanography from

Texas A & M University and a B.A. from Earlham College, Richmond, IN.

Peter A. Tebeau is a maine environmental consultant specializing in marine environmental protection

technology and policy. Previously Peter was with the U.S. Coast guard in the areas of marine science

and marine environmental protection, particularly in technology development and assessment of oil and hazardous chemical spill response. His operational experience includes a seagoing tour of duty on the icebreaker CGC GLACIER, where he coordinated the logistics for oceanographic research

in the Arctic and Antarctica. This was followed by a tour as staff officer at Seventh Coast Guard

District, Marine Environmental Protection Branch, where he was the environmental impact

assessment coordinator for Coast Guard projects and worked with the enforcement of oil pollution

and ocean dumping regulations in the Seventh District. He played a significant role in revitalizing

the Coast Guard's marine environmental protection research and development effort following the

Exxon Valdez oil spill. He has a B.S. in Engineering from the Coast Guard Academy, a B.S. in Environmental Engineering from Rorida International University, and an M.S. in Physical

Oceanography from the University of Miami. He is currently completing the Master of Marine

Affairs program at the University of Rhode Island.

95
Edward J. Tennyson is the Program Manager for Oil Spill Response Research within the Technology

Assessment and Research Branch, MMS. He is credited with being the chief architect of the MMS

research program to increase response capabilities for marine oil spills. This program has made

significant contributions to nonconventional response strategies including in situ burning, chemical

treating agents and increased understanding of the fate of spilled oil in the marine environment. He

recently received the Meritorious Service Award from the Department of the Interior for his efforts. He holds a patent for original research and is widely published. Previously Ed was an officer in the

U. S. Coast Guard. He has an M.S. degree in Marine Biology and has completed additional graduate

studies in Oceanography.

96
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

No workshop is the effort of any one person. Ed Tennyson, John Gregory and Joe Mullin (MMS

Herndon Headquarters Office) assisted in developing the agenda and identifying speakers and

participants. Jean Snider (NOAA) and Bruce McKenzie (ACS) did an outstanding job in keeping

the panel members focussed on the purpose of the Workshop. They kept the panel members focused on the topic and did an excellent summary. The Keynote Speaker, Speakers and Panel Chairs

provided the input for the Proceedings. Last, but not least, special thanks to Betty Thames (NIST)

for providing excellent secretarial and receptionist support throughout the workshop and to Wanda

Duffin (NIST) for the digitization of several manuscripts and figures.

97
Ii
LIST OF ATTENDEES

David Atkinson

U.S. Coast Guard

2100 2nd St., SW

Room 6205

Washington, DC 20593

USA

202/267-0888

FAX 202/267-4758

Don Aurand

MSRC

1350 I St., NW

Suite 300

Washington, DC 20005

USA

202/408-5733

FAX 202/371-0401

Nir Barnea NOAA/HAZMAT

7600 Sand Point Way

Seattle, WA 98115

USA

206/526-6317

J. Bruce Bartz

Clift Berry, Inc. P.O. Box 13079

Port Everglades Station Fort Lauderdale, FL 33316

USA

305/763-5455

FAX 305/763-8375

Linda Bernhardt

WA Dept. of Ecology

300 Desmond Dr. P.O. Box 47600

Olympia, WA 98504-7600

USA

206/407-6963

FAX 206/407-6903

Ian Buist

S.L. Ross Environmental

200-717 Belfast Rd.

Ottawa, Ontario, KIG OZ4

CANADA

613/232-1564

FAX 613/232-6660

Philip Campagna

U.S. EPA/ERT

2890 Woodbridge Ave. MS 101, Bldg. 18 Edison, NJ 08837

USA

908/321-6689

Matthew O. Carr EPA

222 W. 7th Ave.

Ste. 19 Anchorage, AK 99513

USA

907/271-5083

FAX 907/271-3424

Andrie Chen

Exxon Production Research

P.O. Box 2189

Houston, TX 77252-2189

USA

713/965-4166

Warren E. Colbum

USCG, R&D Center 1082 Shennecossett Rd.

Room 237

Groton, CT 06340-6096

USA

203/441-2608

FAX 203/441-2792

John Cunningham

EPA

401 M St., SW

Washington, DC 20460

USA

703/603-8707

FAX 703/603-9116

Elmer (Bud) Danenberger

Minerals Mgmt. Service

381 Elden Street Hemdon, VA 22070-4817

USA

703/787-1596

FAX 703/787-1115

Linda DuCharme

Exxon Company USA

1555 Poydras Street Room 465

New Orleans, LA 70112

USA

504/561-4390

Terry L. Edwards

FL Dept. of Environ. Prot. P.O. Box 21564

Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33335

USA

305/467-5970

FAX 305/467-5975

Lee Ellwein U.S. Coast Guard

2100 2nd Street, SW

Room 2110

Washington, DC 20593-0001

USA

202/267-6882

FAX 202/267-4677

Steven J. Eufemia

ME Dept. of Environ. Prot. 312 Canco Rd.

Portland, ME 04103-4278

USA

207/822-6340

FAX 207/822-6303

David D. Evans

NIST

Bldg. 224, Room B250

Gaithersburg, MD 20899-0001

USA

301/975-6862

Joseph Falk

TCOM L.P. 7115 Thomas Edison Dr. Columbia, MD 21046

USA

410/312-2405

FAX 410/312-2437

99
Merv F. Fingas

Environment Canada

3439 River Rd.

Ottawa, Ontario, KIA OH3

USA

9-613-998-9622

FAX 9-613-991-9485

Robert Forrest U.S. EPA

1445 Ross Ave. MC 6E-EP

Dallas, TX 75202

USA

214/655-2269

FAX 214/655-7447

Julian Foster EPA

1445 Ross Ave. MC 6E-EP

Dallas, TX 75202

USA

214/655-6494

FAX 214/655-7447

John Eraser

Oil Spill Response Plann. 23 Asbury Drive

Houston, TX 77024

USA

713/780-9224

FAX 713/789-1347

Paul Frederick

Exxon Company, U.S.A.

1555 Poydras Street Room 547

New Orleans, LA 70112

USA

504/561-3450

FAX 504/561-3061

David Fritz Amoco Oil Company

P.O. Box 3011

MC H-9

Naperville, IL 60566

USA

708/420-4985

Thomas Gemhofer

Minerals Mgmt. Service

1849 C St., NW

Washington, DC 20240

202/208-3500

Manuel (Manny) Gonzalez

Texas General Land Office

1700 N. Congress Ave. Room 740

Austin, TX 78701-1495

USA

512/475-1505

FAX 512/475-1560

Edwin Kent Gray

HHS/CDC

MC F38

Atlanta, GA 30333

USA

404/488-7100

FAX 404/488-7107

Chantal Guenette SINTEF Applied Chemistry

N-7034

Trondheim,

NORWAY

47-73-59-5172

FAX 47-73-59-6363

Joseph Hennessey

Minerals Mgmt. Service

1201 Elmwood Park Blvd. MS 5231

New Orleans, LA 70123

USA

Robert Hiltabrand

U.S. Coast Guard

2 Whalehead Rd.

Gales Ferry, CT 06340

USA

203/441-2701

J. Heather Warner Finley

Louisiana Oil Spill

Coordinator's Office

Office of the Govenor

P.O. Box 94004

Baton Rouge, LA 70804-9004

Gregory Hogue

Dept. of the Interior 75 Spring St., SW

MC 306

Atlanta, GA 30303

USA

404/331-4524

FAX 404/331-1736

Shane Ishiki U.S. Coast Guard

Commandant G-MEP-2

2100 Second St., SW

Washington, DC 20593

USA

N. Ake Jacobson

EPA

21295 Rumford Dr. H-8-5

Cupertino, CA 95014

USA

415/744-2203

FAX 415/744-1796

Karyn Jaskoviak

Amoco Oil Company

200 E. Randolph Dr. MC 1103

Chicago, IL 60601

USA

312/856-5265

FAX 312/616-0529

Nora Jason NIST

Bldg. 224, Room B250

Gaithersburg, MD 20899-0001

USA

301/975-6862

FAX 301/975-4052

Jerry Jeschke

Minerals Mgmt. Service

949 East 36th Street MS 8200

Anchorage, AK 99508

USA

100
Jimmy Jones Ergon Nonwovens, Inc. P.O. Box 1639

Jackson, MI 39215-1639

USA

601/933-3206

FAX 601/933-3361

Brian Kelly

Unocal

376 S. Valencia Ave.

Brea, CA 92621

USA

714/577-1653

FAX 714/577-1610

John Kern

LA Dept. of Environ. Qlty.

2290 Bluebonnet Rd.

P.O. Box 82215

Baton Rouge, LA 70887-2215

USA

504/765-0867

FAX 504/765-0866

Scott Knutson

U.S. Coast Guard

915 Second Ave. Room 3510

Seattle, WA 98174

USA

206/220-7210

FAX 206/220-7225

Robert LaBelle

Minerals Mgmt. Service

381 Elden St. MS 4360

Hemdon, VA 22070-4817

USA

703/782-1728

FAX 703/787-1010

Richard Lazes

Oil Stop, Inc. 804 First Ave.

Harvey, LA 70058

USA

304/347-8888

FAX 304/347-9999

Bruce McKenzie

Alaska Clean Seas P.O. Box 196010

Suite 200

Anchorage, AK 99519-6010

USA

907/345-3142

FAX 907/345-2435

Timothy McKiima

Texas General Land Office

1700 North Congress Ave. MC 740

Austin, TX 78750

USA

512/463-5195

FAX 512/475-1560

Kermeth McSperitt

Phillips Petroleum Co.

13 Phillips Bldg.

BartlesviUe, OK 74004

USA

918/661-1630

FAX 918/661-5664

W. F. "Bill" Merlin

Marine Spill Response Corps.

901 Lakeshore Drive

Suite 900

Lake Chades, LA 70605

USA

318/437-9602

FAX 318/437-9678

Amy Merten

PCCI/SUPSALV-Navy

1201 E. Abingdon Dr.

Ste. 201

22314

USA

703/684-2060

FAX 703/684-5343

Peter Milne

Univ. of Miami

4600 Rickenbacker

RSMA-MAC

Miami, FL 33149

USA

305/361-4786

FAX 305/361-4786

David Mogan

U.S. Coast Guard

909 SE, 1st Ave. Room 908, Brickell Fed. Bldg.

Miami, FL 33131

USA

305/536-5651

Joseph V. Mullin

Minerals Mgmt. Service

381 Elden Street MS 4700

Hemdon, VA 22070-4817

USA

703/787-1564

FAX 703/787-1575

Donald Noviello U.S. Coast Guard

915 Second Ave. Room 3506

Seattle, WA 98174

USA

206/220-7210

FAX 206/220-7225

Craig Ogawa

Minerals Mgmt. Service

770 Paseo Camarillo

MS 7100

Camarillo, CA 93010

USA

James Pearce American Marine, Inc. 401 Shearer Blvd. Cocoa, FL 32922

USA

407/636-5783

FAX 407/636-5787

Jim Pennington

EPA

2600 Blair Stone Rd.

Tallahassee, FL 32359-2400

USA

904/488-1344

FAX 904/922-2390

101
Terri Porche

LA Applied Oil Spill R&D

E302 Howe-Russell Geoscience Baton Rouge, LA 70803

USA

504/388-3477

FAX 504/388-5328

Benn Potier

LA Dept. of Environ. Qlty.

P.O. Box 82135

Baton Rouge, LA 70884-2135

USA

504/765-0108

FAX 504/265-0222

Scott Robertson

ARCO

515 South Flower St. AP-4159

Los Angeles, CA 90091

USA

213/486-8523

FAX 213/486-2021

Ed Schrader

Millsaps College

1701 North State St. Jackson, MS 39210

USA

601/974-1342

FAX 601/974-1345

Paul Schuler

Clean Caribbean Cooperative

2381 Stirling Rd.

Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33312

USA

305/983-9880

FAX 305/987-3001

Gary Shigenaka

NOAA/Hazmat

7600 Sand Point Way, NW

Bin C15700

Seattle, WA 98115

USA

206/526-6402

Robert Simmons

Exxon Company, U.S.A.

1555 Poydras Street Room 545

New Orleans, LA 70112

USA

504/561-4938

FAX 504/561-3061

James L. Simmons

MSRC

1350 I Street, NW

Ste. 300

Washington, DC 20005

USA

202/408-7490

FAX 202/371-0401

Shawn Smith

U.S. Coast Gaurd R&D

1082 Shermecossett Rd.

ESB

Groton, CT 06340

USA

203/441-2812

Jean Snider

NOAA

2100 2nd Street, SW

Washington, DC 20850

USA

202/267-0418

Bea Stong

Aramco Services Co. 9009 West Loop South

MS 1090

Houston, TX 77096

USA

713/432-5031

FAX 713/432-5747

Per Sveum

SINTEF Applied Chemistry

N-7034

Trondheim,

NORWAY

47-73-59-2830

FAX 47-73-59-6363

Peter Tebeau

Marine Environmental

Consultant

158 Wyassup Rd.

North Stonington, CT 96359

USA

203/535-4171

FAX 203/535-4171

Edward J. Tennyson

Minerals Mgmt. Service

381 Elden Street Hemdon, VA 22070-4817

USA

703/787-1564

FAX 703/787-1575

Andrew Tirpak

Texas A&M University

P.O. Box 1675

Galveston, TX 77553-1675

USA

409/740-4490

Christian Toelle

Chemische Betriebe

Thiesstr. 617

Pluto

D-44649 Heme,

GERMANY

4912325/980-284

FAX 4912325/980-289

W. Douglas Walton

NIST

Bldg. 224, Room B250

Gaithersburg, MD 20899-0001

USA

301/975-6862

Mike White

U.S. Coast Guard

501 Magazine Street Room 1341

New Orleans, LA 70130-3396

USA

504/589-6901

FAX 504/589-4999

102
David Williams

Conoco, Inc. 2210 Old Spanish Trail Westlake, LA 70669

USA

318/497-4916

Henry Woodcock

DOL-OSHA

200 Constitution Ave., NW

Room N-3653

Washington, DC 20210

USA

202/219-7065

103
I

I

J

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1

•iiST-114 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

P.EV. 6-93) NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY

aDMAN 4.09

i MANUSCRIPT REVIEW AND APPROVAL

(ERB USE ONLY) ERB CONTROL NUMBER j / —r DIVISION . //

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PUBUCATION DATE NUMBER PRINTED PAGES

August 1994 101

TLE AND SUBTITLE (CITE IN FULL)

In Situ Burning Oil Spill Workshop, Orlando, Florida, January 26-28, 1994,

Proceedings

3NTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER TYPE OF REPORT AND/OR PERIOD COVERED

JTHOR(S) (LAST NAME, FIRST INITIAL, SECOND INITIAL) Jason, Nora H. , Editor

P ERFO

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NIST/GAITHERSBURQ

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Building and Fire Research Laboratory, Fire Safety Engineering Division

'ONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS (STREET, CITY, STATE, ZIP) Minerals Management Service, U.S. Department of Interior, Herndon, VA 22070

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The goal of the workshop was: To present the state of knowledge to the user community,

I representaives from local, state, and federal agencies, oil industry, manufacturers,

• and researchers; to reach consensus on the present status of decision making to allow the

.;. use of in situ burning and to prioritize research and information needs to support decisions

! on the use of in situ burning of spilled oil. To facilitate the discussions, preprints of

( technical papers were distributed at registration. Participants were divided into two

' breakout panels: Environmental and human health; Operational implications. The panels

examined the information presented, determined a consensus and developed a list of

priority needs. The results of the workshop will be used by MMS to refine future research

efforts to address the most important issues developed by the participants.

EY WORDS (MAXIMUM OF 9; 28 CHARACTERS AND SPACES EACH; SEPARATE WITH SEMICOLONS; ALPHABETIC ORDER; CAPITAUZE ONLY PROPER NAMES)

Fire research; oil spills; in situ burning; environmental effects; operational hazards;

human beings

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