CHAPTER 3. MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

............................................................................................................ 3-1

3.2 MARKET ASSESSMENT

............................................................................................... 3-1

3.2.1 Manufacturers and Ma rket Share

............................................................................ 3-1

3.2.2 Small Businesses

..................................................................................................... 3-3

3.2.3 Trade Associations

.................................................................................................. 3-4

3.2.4 Industry Consolidation

............................................................................................ 3-6

3.2.5 Equipment Classes

.................................................................................................. 3-6

3.2.5.1 Refrigeration

............................................................................................ 3-6

3.2.5.2 Envelope

.................................................................................................. 3-8

3.2.6 Equipment Lifetimes

............................................................................................... 3-8

3.2.6.1 Refrigeration

............................................................................................ 3-8

3.2.6.2 Envelope

.................................................................................................. 3-9

3.2.6.3 Used or Refurbished Equipment

.............................................................. 3-9

3.2.7 Shipments

.............................................................................................................. 3-10

3.2.8 Barriers to Efficiency Improvements

.................................................................... 3-10

3.2.9 Regulatory and Non-Regul atory Initiatives

.......................................................... 3-11

3.2.9.1 California Energy Commission

.............................................................. 3-11

3.2.9.2 Other U.S. States

.................................................................................... 3-12

3.2.9.3 Australia & New Zealand

...................................................................... 3-12

3.2.9.4 Japan

...................................................................................................... 3-13

3.2.10 Market Performan ce Data

..................................................................................... 3-13

3.2.10.1 Envelope

................................................................................................ 3-13

3.2.10.2 Refrigeration

.......................................................................................... 3-15

3.3 TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT

................................................................................... 3-19

3.3.1 Technologies and Designs Re levant to All Envelope Equipment Classes

........... 3-20

3.3.1.1 Wall, Ceiling, and Floor Insulation

........................................................ 3-20

3.3.1.2 Door Gaskets

.......................................................................................... 3-20

3.3.1.3 Panel Interface Systems

......................................................................... 3-20

3.3.1.4 Electronic Lighting Ballasts and High-Efficiency Lighting

.................. 3-20

3.3.1.5 Occupancy Sensors

................................................................................ 3-21

3.3.1.6 Automatic Door Opening and Closing Systems

.................................... 3-21

3.3.1.7 Non-Penetrative Internal Racks and Shelving

....................................... 3-21

3.3.1.8 Air Curtains

............................................................................................ 3-21

3.3.1.9 Strip Curtains

......................................................................................... 3-22

3.3.1.10 Refrigeration System Override

.............................................................. 3-22

3.3.1.11 Air and Water Infiltr ation Sensors

......................................................... 3-22

3.3.1.12 Humidity Sensors

................................................................................... 3-23

3.3.1.13 Heat Flux Sensors

.................................................................................. 3-23

3.3.1.14 Vestibule Entryways

.............................................................................. 3-23

3.3.1.15 Revolving Doors

.................................................................................... 3-23

3.3.1.16 Fiber Optic Natural Lighting

................................................................. 3-23

3.3.1.17 Energy Storage Systems

........................................................................ 3-24

3-i3.3.2 Technologies and Designs Relevant to Display Envelopes Only

......................... 3-24

3.3.2.1 Display and Window Glass System Insulation Performance

................ 3-24

3.3.2.2 Anti-sweat Heater Controls

.................................................................... 3-24

3.3.2.3 Non-Electric Anti-sweat Systems

.......................................................... 3-25

3.3.2.4 No Anti-sweat Systems

.......................................................................... 3-25

3.3.2.5 Automatic Insulation Deployment Systems

........................................... 3-25

3.3.3 Technologies and Designs Re levant to All Refrigerati on Equipment Classes

..... 3-25

3.3.3.1 Evaporator and Condens er Fan Blades

.................................................. 3-25

3.3.3.2 Improved Evaporator and Condenser Coils

........................................... 3-26

3.3.4 Technologies and Designs Relevant to Dedicated Condensing Refrigeration Systems Only

........................................................................................................ 3-26

3.3.4.1 Ambient Subcooling

.............................................................................. 3-26

3.3.4.2 Higher-Efficiency Fan Motors

............................................................... 3-26

3.3.4.3 Automatic Evaporator Fan Shut-Off

...................................................... 3-27

3.3.4.4 Evaporator Fan Control

.......................................................................... 3-27

3.3.4.5 Higher-Efficiency Compressors

............................................................. 3-27

3.3.5 Technologies and Designs Re levant to Low Temperature Refrigeration Systems Only

....................................................................................................................... 3-2 7

3.3.5.1 Hot Gas Defrost

..................................................................................... 3-27

3.3.5.2 Defrost Controls

..................................................................................... 3-28

3.3.6 Technologies and Designs Re levant to Outdoor Refrigeration Systems Only

..... 3-28

3.3.6.1 Floating Head Pressure

.......................................................................... 3-28

3.3.6.2 Economizer Cooling

.............................................................................. 3-29

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.2.1 Manufacturers of Walk-in Equipment (Envelope Only)

......................................... 3-2 Table 3.2.2 Manufacturers of Walk-in Equipment (Refrigeration Only)

................................... 3-2

Table 3.2.3 Manufacturers of both E nvelope and Refri geration

................................................ 3-2 Table 3.2.4 Equipment Classes for Refrigeration Equipment

.................................................... 3-7 Table 3.2.5 Equipment Classes for Envelopes

............................................................................ 3-8

Table 3.2.6 Lifetime of Refri geration Equipment

...................................................................... 3-9 Table 3.2.7 Value of Shipments of Walk-I n Coolers and Freezers (in millions)

..................... 3-10 Table 3.2.8 Estimated Shipment s of Envelope & Refrigera tion Equipment, 1998-2009

......... 3-10 Table 3.2.9 Requirements for Walk-i ns Sold in California

...................................................... 3-12 Table 3.2.10 Summary of Walk-in Cooler a nd Freezer Data Compiled by NRCan

................ 3-13

3-iiCHAPTER 3. MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter details the market and technolog y assessments that the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has carried out in support of the energy conservation standards rulemaking for walk-in coolers and freezers (WICF or walk-ins). Prior to 2007, walk-in coolers and freezers had never before been the subject of energy conservation regulations at the federal level.

This chapter consists of two sections: the market assessment and the technology assessment. The goal of the market assessment is to develop a qualitative and quantitative characterization of the WICF industry and ma rket structure, based on publicly available

information as well as data and information s ubmitted by manufacturers and other stakeholders. Issues that are addressed include manufacturer characteristics and market shares, existing regulatory and non-regulatory efficiency improvement initiatives, equipment classes, and trends in equipment markets and characteristics. The go al of the technology assessment is to develop a preliminary list of technologies that could be used to improve the efficiency of walk-in coolers

and freezers.

As discussed in Chapter 2 of the prelimin ary Technical Support Document (TSD), DOE is considering setting standards separately fo r the two overall components of a walk-in: the envelope and the refrigeration system. DOE’s mark et research found that the majority of small manufacturers in the WICF industry manufacture e ither envelope or refrigeration, but not both. On the other hand, DOE found that large manufactur ers or parent companies tend to manufacture both envelope and refrigeration. Accordingl y, DOE conducted the MTA by examining manufacturers of envelope only, refrigerati on only, and both envelope and refrigeration.

3.2 MARKET ASSESSMENT

The following market assessment identif ies domestic manufacturers of walk-in equipment, manufacturer market share, the manuf acturer trade association, regulatory programs, and non-regulatory initiatives; defines equipment classes; provides historical shipment data and equipment lifetime estimates; and summarizes market performance data.

3.2.1 Manufacturers and Market Share

DOE identified 47 manufacturers of walk-i n envelopes (listed in Table 3.2.1), 8 manufacturers of walk-in refrigeration systems ( listed in Table 3.2.2), a nd 9 manufacturers of both envelopes and refrigeration (listed in Table 3.2.3). Parent companies are shown in parentheses.

3-1Table 3.2.1 Manufacturers of Walk-in Equipment (Envelope Only)
*Advanced Refrigeration Technology *Dade Engineering Corporation

a.k.a. Daeco *Refrigeration Gaskets of Texas,

Inc.

*Aircooler Corporation *Duracold Refrigeration Manufacturing Company *Refrigerator Manufacturers, Inc.

*American Cold Storage, Inc *General Restaurant Equipment Co,

Inc. *Rudy's Commercial Refrigeration

*American Cooler Technologies Hussmann Corporation (IngersollRand) *Snowman Cooler LLC

*American Insulated Panel Co. *Imperial Manufacturing *Southeast Cooler Corporation

*Amerikooler, Inc *Kool Star (Standex International Corporation) *Storflex Fixture Corporation

*Arctic Industries, Inc Kysor Panel Systems (M anitowoc) *Superior Commercial Coolers, Inc

*Artic Temp Inc Leer Limited Partnership (Dexter Apache Holdings, Inc.) *T.M.P. Company, Inc. (Tafco)

*Bush Refrigeration *Louisville Cooler Manufacturing Company *T.O. DeVilbiss Manufacturing Co.

Carroll Coolers Inc. (Dexter Apache Holdings, Inc.) *Mr. Winter/Isopanel ThermalRite (Rainey Road LLC)

*Chrysler & Koppin Company *National Cooler (Dover Corporation) *Thermo-Kool/Mid-South Ind, Inc

*Clark Manufacturing (Southern Stainless Equipment Co.) *North Star Refrigerator Co., Inc *U.S. Cooler Company, Inc. (Craig Industries) *Commercial Cooling (PAR Engineering, Inc.) *Pacific Refrigerator Company *W.A. Brown & Son, Inc.

*Cool Solutions Panel Manufacturing LLC. *Penn Refrigeration Service Co. *Worldwide Refrigeration

*Crown Tonka Walk-ins (Rainey Road LLC) *Polar King International, Inc. *Yenlin Li Refrigeration Company

*Custom Cooler, Inc. *Polar Panels Mfg. LLC

*Small business manufacturer

Table 3.2.2 Manufacturers of Walk-in Equipment (Refrigeration Only)

*Century Refrigeration (RAE Corporation) Krack (Ingersoll Rand) Tecumseh Products Company

Heat Transfer Products Group a.k.a. Russell (United Technologies Corporation) *LRC Coil Company a.k.a. S&S Refrigeration Corp Trenton Refrigeration Products (National Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Products Inc.) Heatcraft Refrigeration Products, LLC (Lennox International) *Peerless of America, Inc.

*Small business manufacturer

Table 3.2.3 Manufacturers of both Envelope and Refrigeration

*Advance Energy Technologies,

Inc. *Bally Refrigerated Boxes, Inc Kolpak (Manitowoc)

*Airdyne Refrigeration (ARI Industries) Harford Duracool, LLC (Manitowoc) Master-Bilt Products (Standex International Corporation)

*American Panel Corporation *International Cold Storage (Rainey Road LLC) Nor-Lake, Inc. (Standex International Corporation)

*Small business manufacturer

3-2As illustrated in these tables, the walk-in market is characterized by a large number of small companies and a small number of large companies. In general, the large companies tend to be part of public corporations while the small companies tend toward private ownership. For small companies, DOE gathered company info rmation including revenues from Hoovers. DOE also analyzed financial information for all publicly traded manufacturers of walk-ins by examining SEC 10-k reports. The total walk-in ma rket, including envelope and/or refrigeration equipment, is valued at roughly $800 million to $1 billion in annual revenue. No single company controls the market, although the several large companies together represent roughly half of the annual revenue. This diversity reflects the wide range of end-users that make up the customer base: larger manufacturers tend to serve chai n and brand name stores in the grocery, supermarket, and convenience store markets while smaller manufacturers may be preferred by regional non-chain convenience and grocery stores.

DOE estimated that the envelope-only manufacturers have combined total revenues of approximately $367 million. DOE is aware that th ere may be additional small envelope-only manufacturers not listed in any of the tables above or in publicly av ailable documents or

websites.

Though DOE identified several companies that only manufacture refrigeration equipment, the market is dominated by a fe w large players. United Technologies Corporate (UTC), Lennox International Inc (LII), and Tecums eh make up a majority of sales in the market through their subsidiary brands. Those brands include Russell, Heatcraft, and Tecumseh Cool Products, respectively. Public data for both Lennox Internati onal Inc and Tecumseh provided revenue for commercial refrigeration, and public data for United Technologies Corporate provided revenue for cooling equipment in gene ral, including air conditioning. Thus, DOE was unable to determine the exact percentage of WICF market share attributed to each company because the revenue data does not explicitly break out revenue from WICF refrigeration sales.

Likewise, of the manufacturers that manufacture both refrigeration and envelopes, the market was dominated by the large companies: Ingersoll-Rand (subsidiary brands are Hussman and Krack), Standex International Corporation (subsidiary brands are Master-Bilt and Nor-Lake), and Manitowoc (subsidiary brands are Harford Dur acool, Kysor Panel, and Kolpak). These large companies tended to break out food service e quipment in their public revenues reports, but similarly to refrigeration equipment, this could include types of equipment other than walk-ins, such as commercial refrigerated display cases, reach-ins, and refrigerated beverage vending machines. Walk-in specific revenues were embedd ed in these data within the public revenue reports, but were not broken out specifically.

3.2.2 Small Businesses

DOE is considering the possibility that small businesses would be particularly impacted by the promulgation of energy conservation standards for walk-ins. The Small Business Administration (SBA) lists small business size sta ndards for industries as they are described in the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS). The size standard for an industry is the largest that a for-profit concern can be in th at industry and still qualify as a small business for Federal Government programs. These size standa rds are generally expressed in terms of the average annual receipts or the average employme nt of a firm. DOE matched walk-in coolers and

3-3freezers to NAICS code 333415, Air-Conditioning and Warm Air Heating Equipment and

Commercial and Industrial Refrigeration Equipment Manufacturing, which has a size standard of 750 employees. DOE realizes that this code ma y be appropriate only for manufacturers of walkin refrigeration systems and may not apply to ma nufacturers of walk-in envelopes. DOE also realizes that a different metric than size (for instance, annual receipts) may be more appropriate for characterizing small manufacturers of walk-in equipment. DOE will consult with the SBA in the next stage of the rulemaking to determine the best way to characterize small manufacturers in the walk-in industry.

Manufacturers classified as small businesses according to the NAICS code assumed for the industry are indicated in Table 3.2.1 through Table 3.2.3 with a *.

DOE will study the potential impacts on these small businesses in detail during the manufacturer impact analysis, which will be condu cted as a part of the notice of proposed rulemaking analysis.

3.2.3 Trade Associations

There is no single unifying trade organi zation representing manufacturers of WICF. Rather, the industry is segmented by equipment type and end use. Several refrigeration system manufacturers are represented by a single associ ation. Also, some walk-i n manufacturers belong to a trade association that represents manufactu rers of foodservice equi pment. No association represents manufacturers of e nvelopes specifically, although se veral organizations represent manufacturers of different types of foam used in WICF envelopes.

The Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute (AHRI) is one of the trade associations representing walk-in cooler and freezer manufacturers. i AHRI primarily represents refrigeration manufacturers, although some of these companies also make the envelopes used in

WICF. Manufacturers of walk-ins and walk-in components with membership in AHRI include:

‐ Carrier Corporation

‐ Emerson Climate Technologies

‐ Heatcraft Refrigeration Products, LLC

‐ Heat Transfer Product Group (also known as Russell)

‐ Hill PHOENIX

‐ Honeywell International, Inc.

‐ Hussmann Corporation

‐ Kysor/Warren

‐ Master-Bilt Products

As an organization, AHRI is subdivided into di visions that represent various parts of the refrigeration market. One of these is the Commercial Refrigerator Manufacturers Division (CRMD). Originally founded in 1933 as a sepa rate trade associati on, CRMD was established within AHRI with the purpose of developing and implementing a certification program for commercial refrigerators, commercial freezers, and commercial refrigerator-freezers. Technical

activities of CRMD include:

3-4‐ Harmonization of internati onal equipment standards;

‐ Development of industry performance standard s for commercial refrigeration equipment;

‐ Updating of industry guidelines for retail store fixture installation, design, energy conservation, electronic case controls, and sp ecifications for equipment installation;

‐ Maintaining liaison with refrigerant s uppliers and government agencies on environmentally acceptable chlorofl uorocarbon (CFC) alternatives; and

‐ Providing input to government agencies conc erning regulations affecting the industry.

The North American Association of Food Equipment Manufacturers (NAFEM) represents manufacturers of foodservice equi pment. Several WICF manufacturers who sell equipment to the foodservice industry belong to NAFEM, including:

‐ American Panel Corporation

‐ Arctic Industries, Inc.

‐ Bally Refrigerated Boxes, Inc.

‐ Hussmann Corporation

‐ Imperial Manufacturing

‐ International Cold Storage

‐ Kolpak Walk-ins

‐ Kool Star

‐ Leer, Inc.

‐ Master-Bilt Products

‐ Nor-Lake, Inc.

‐ Penn Refrigeration Service Corporation

‐ Polar King International, Inc.

‐ Tafco – TMP Company

‐ ThermalRite

‐ Thermo-Kool/Mid-South Industries Inc.

‐ U.S. Cooler Company

The envelope segment of the walk-in industr y has no single organization serving in an umbrella role. Reflecting the dive rsity of products available, seve ral trade associations represent manufacturers of specific foam types within the WICF industry.

‐ Polyurethane Manufacturers Association (PMA, www.pmahome.org ) comprised of numerous suppliers, distributors and contr actors of polyurethane foam insulation.

‐ Extruded Polystyrene Foam Association (XPSA, www.xpsa.com ) comprised of Dow Chemical, Owens Corning, and Pactiv, the main manufacturers of extruded polystyrene

foam insulation.

‐ Spray Polyurethane Foam Alliance (SPFA, www.sprayfoam.org ) comprised of contractors, chemical manufacturers, and distributors of spray polyurethane foam insulation. Chemical manufacturers include: BASF Polyurethane Foam Enterprises LLC, Gaco Western, Honeywell, Huntsman Polyurethanes.

3-5‐ Polyisocyanurate Insulation Manufacturers Association (PIMA, www.polyiso.org ) comprised of manufacturers, suppliers, and brand relabelers associated with the polyisocyanurate foam insulation industry. Arkema, Inc. is a member.

3.2.4 Industry Consolidation

The consolidation of major manufacturers through mergers and acquisitions is an industry trend. In some cases c onsolidation serves to expand vertical reach, such as the acquisition of an envelope manufacturer by a refrigeration manufacturer, while in other cases consolidation creates companies with a more dominant market share in a similar manufacturing process. For example:

‐ In 1995, commercial refrigeration manufac turer Manitowoc acquired walk-in manufacturer Kolpak.

‐ In 2000, Hill PHOENIX (Dover Corporation) ac quired National Cool er Corporation, a

manufacturer of walk-in coolers and freezers.

‐ In 2000, refrigeration and envelope manufact urer Hussmann was acquired by Ingersoll

Rand.

‐ In 2003, Standex International Corporation acquired Nor-Lake, which manufacturers walk-in envelopes. In 2005, the company acquired Kool Star, a refrigeration manufacturer for walk-in end uses. Standex International also owns Master-Bilt, a major refrigeration and envelope manufacturer.

‐ In 2008, Manitowoc went on to buy Enodis, PLC in 2008. Enodis owned another envelope manufacturer, Kysor Panel Systems.

‐ In 2009, Rainey Road, LLC, owner of Cr ownTonka Walk-ins and ThermalRite, purchased another envelope ma nufacturer, International Co ld Storage, from Carrier Commercial Refrigeration, Inc, (Carrier Corporation).

3.2.5 Equipment Classes

3.2.5.1 Refrigeration

Refrigeration systems of walk-in coolers a nd freezers can be divided into various equipment classes categorized by key physical characteristics that affect the efficiency of the equipment: the operating temperature, the location of the walk-in (i.e., i ndoors or outdoors) and the type of condensing unit (i.e., whether the sy stem has a dedicated condensing unit or is connected to a multiplex system).

The condensing unit type has a significant impact on utility and energy use. DOE is considering two classes of e quipment associated with the condensing unit type: dedicated condensing (DC) systems and mu ltiplex condensing (MC) systems. In a dedicated condensing system, there is only one condensing unit (consisting of one or more compressors and condensers) that serves a single walk-in. In a multiplex condensing system, the unit cooler inside the walk-in envelope is connected via a refrige rant line to a system consisting of several

3-6condensers and compressors in parallel; the set of c ondensers and compressors serves both the walk-in and other equipment, which may include other walk-ins or other types of refrigeration equipment such as reach-ins. Walk-in units that are connected to a large supermarket compressor rack fall into this category. Multiplex condensin g equipment is typically more efficient than dedicated condensing equipment because it uses compressors of varying capacity and cycles

them on and off as needed to avoid exce ss capacity in operation. Compressor racks and condensers of multiplex systems are outsi de the scope of this rulemaking.

For dedicated condensing units only, the location of the condensing unit, indoors or outdoors, affects the characteristics with regard to energy consumption. Indoor units are assumed to operate at a consistent am bient temperature, while outdoor units are assumed to experience varying temperatures throughout the year. The proposed test procedure accounts for this variation by requiring outdoor c ondensing units to be tested at three ambient temperatures. This gives credit for certain energy-saving technologies that may allow the compressor to use less energy at lower ambient temperatures. Therefore, DOE intends to create separate classes for refrigeration equipment with indoor (I ) and outdoor (O) condensing units.

The operating temperature for walk-ins determines whether the equipment is a refrigerator (medium or high operating temperatur e) or a freezer (low operating temperature). Because different types of merchandise require different temperatures (e.g., chilled or frozen), operating temperature is a necessa ry class distinction. Furthermore, EPCA specifically divides walk-in equipment into coolers (above 32 °F) a nd freezers (at or below 32 °F). The larger temperature differences and thermodynamic behavior of refrigerants means that equipment with lower operating temperatures runs less effici ently than equipment with higher operating temperatures. Thus, DOE is considering separate classes for refrigeration equipment that is medium-temperature (M), operatin g above 32 °F; and low-temperatur e (L), operating at or below

32 °F.

Using all combinations of condensing unit ty pes, location and temperature, 6 equipment classes are possible for walk-in cooler or freez er refrigeration systems. DOE also developed a lettering system to simplify discussion of equi pment classes. The lettering designation for a particular equipment class consis ts of the lettering abbreviations for the condenser type, location and temperature, separated by periods. A comple te list of equipment classes with lettering designations is shown in Table 3.2.4.

Table 3.2.4 Equipment Classes for Refrigeration Equipment

Condensing Type* Operating Temperature Condenser Location Class

Multiplex Medium

- MC.M

Low

­ MC.L

Dedicated Medium Indoor DC.M.I

Low DC.L.I

Medium Outdoor DC.M.O

Low DC.L.O

*Note: For each of the six equipment classes, two analysis points will be used, corresponding to small and large representative units.

3-73.2.5.2 Envelope

Likewise, DOE also divided envelopes into different equipment classes, as shown in

Table 3.2.5.

DOE is considering creating separate equi pment classes for display (D) and non-display (ND) walk-ins (that is, walk-ins with and wit hout glass). Glass is necessary for displaying products, but also has a significant effect on ener gy consumption because of substantial heat loss through the glass. To achieve significant ener gy savings, transparent glass doors could be replaced by standard foam insulated doors. Howe ver, this directly impacts the utility of this product, which is specifically designed to ensu re an unobstructed view through the doors. This requirement means that walk-ins with glass doors are inherently less energy efficient. Therefore, to avoid unfairly penalizing display walk-ins by re quiring the same energy standard to be met for both display and non-display, DOE created a separate class fo r non-display products.

DOE also intends to create separate classes for coolers (C) and freez ers (F). Coolers and freezers have different insulation requirement s under EPCA. Like display and non-display products, freezer and coolers have distinct design requirements; for exampl e, freezers must have door heater wires to prevent entry doors from freezing closed. In addition, EPCA specifically divides walk-in equipment into coolers (above 32 °F) and freezers (at or below 32 °F).

Outdoor units were not considered as a separate product class since there are limited design options available to reduce energy cons umption. Manufacturers typically sell indoor units as outdoor units by including roofing or other weatherization systems to prevent rain from entering panel-to-panel interfaces. In additi on, the proposed WICF test procedure does not provide a means of testing variation in due external temperature for outdoor units. 75 FR 186.

Table 3.2.5 Equipment Classes for Envelopes

Display Type* Operating Temperature Class

Non-Display Cooler ND.C.

Freezer ND.F.

Display Cooler D.C.

Freezer D.F.

*Note: For each of the four equipment classes, three analysis points will be used, corresponding to small, medium, and large representative units.

3.2.6 Equipment Lifetimes

3.2.6.1 Refrigeration

DOE reviewed available literature and consulted with experts on walk-in refrigeration equipment in order to establish typical equipment lifetimes. The literature and individuals consulted estimated a wide range of typical equipment lifetimes, as shown in Table 3.2.6.

3-8A 2008 report by The Freedonia Group suggested that custom-made walk-in refrigeration units are typically used by the food production/dist ribution sectors. As thes e units are not seen by consumers but are made for durability, efficiency and dependability, there is little attention paid to aesthetics in design. U.S. ta x depreciation schedules (which allow depreciation over a 5-year period for retail fixtures, including walk-in refrigerators and freezers) ii may be one driver for regular replacement of walk-in refrigeration equipment in the United States.

Table 3.2.6 Lifetime of Refrigeration Equipment
Lifetime (in years) Reference

7-15 Mark Ellis & Associatesiii, New Zealand Minimum Energy Performance Standards for Commercial Refrigeration Cabinets

15 Foster-Miller (2001) i v

15-20 EPA (2001) v

15 Arthur D. Little (ADL) (2002) v i

7-10 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2001 v ii

Some literature reviewed suggested longer lifetimes of up to 20 years or more for walk-in refrigeration equipment. Many of the studies cite d here related to examin ation of environmental impacts of refrigerant emissions and therefore may not always clearly distinguish between the lifetime of the case and the lifetime of the compressor racks. viii However, consultation with experts in the field suggested that smaller, inde pendently owned grocery stores were more likely to keep equipment longer than larger chain stores.

3.2.6.2 Envelope

Unlike motorized or electrical equipment, a walk-in envelope may not have a clear point of failure. In some instances, panel and/or door failure may be obvious, such as in the cases of a severe puncture or freeze-thaw di stortion of panel shape. However, it is more common that box components fail from an insulation perspective long before they exhibit any visual forms or signs of failure. Even if the envelope box appears structurally intact, its ability to insulate effectively may have been diminished substantially by di ffusion, water absorption, or wear and tear.

Owing to this visual ambiguity, and th e wide variety of material properties and environmental conditions that may impact the envelope, walk-in lifetimes may have a wide range. Envelope lifetimes across a variety of sources cited a range of 12-25 years that was first referenced in the widely referenced commerc ial refrigeration equipment industry report by Arthur D. Little, Inc. (1996). Anecdotal evidence suggests that some walk-in envelopes remain operational for years longer.

In addition, since there is possibly a large discrepancy between when the envelope fails and when the envelope is replaced, all following analysis for the envelope is based on estimated replacement rates.

3.2.6.3 Used or Refurbished Equipment

Several industry experts suggested there is a significant used/refurbished equipment market. However, the size of the used market relative to the new mark et was not determined.

3-9Those consulted generally agreed that the sa lvage value of used equipment was very low compared to the initial purchase price. This is due to both cosmetic concerns and the custom nature of much of the equipment. Additionally, the difficulty in collecting used equipment of the same “look” for planned display case line-ups was cited as another reason for the low price of used equipment. A survey in the Pacific Northw est reported that for sma ll, independent grocery stores (<20,000 square feet) and for independently owned convenience stores, the fraction of owners who would consider purchase of re furbished equipment was 25 and 16 percent, respectively. For larger, regional chains, this fra ction was approximately 11 percent. None of the large grocery chains surveyed had plan s to purchase refurbished equipment.

3.2.7 Shipments

Table 3.2.7 shows the forward-looking trend in values of walk-in coolers and freezers shipments beginning in 1993, as estimated by the Freedonia Group in a 2008 report.

Table 3.2.7 Value of Shipments of Walk-In Coolers and Freezers (in millions)

Years 1993 1998 2003 2008 2013
Walk-In Cooler/Freezer Shipments $390 $680 $620 $800 $1,000

Source: The Freedonia Group, Inc. (2008)

The walk-in industry lacks aggregated data on actual shipments of walk-ins. Table 3.2.8 summarizes DOE estimates of historical shipments of envelope and refrigeration equipment.

Table 3.2.8 Estimated Shipments of Envelo pe & Refrigeration Equipment, 1998-2009

Year Envelope Refrigeration

Coolers Freezers Total Multiplex Dedicated Total

1998 74,481 29,220 103,701 243,114 43,472 286,586

1999 74,379 29,262 103,641 243,409 43,599 287,007

2000 74,277 29,304 103,582 243,704 43,725 287,429

2001 74,175 29,347 103,522 243,998 43,851 287,850

2002 74,074 29,389 103,462 266,935 22,339 289,274

2003 73,149 29,035 102,185 266,219 22,033 288,252

2004 73,104 29,059 102,162 266,382 22,103 288,485

2005 73,058 29,082 102,140 266,545 22,173 288,718

2006 73,012 29,105 102,118 266,708 22,242 288,950

2007 72,967 29,129 102,095 266,217 21,963 288,180

2008 72,582 28,964 101,546 266,147 21,579 287,726

2009 72,335 28,858 101,193 265,873 21,557 287,430

3.2.8 Barriers to Efficiency Improvements

As the primary barrier to widespread deployment of energy efficient technologies, first

cost is reflected across the walk-in market in several different ways.

The structure of the walk-in market is larg ely responsible for the emphasis on first cost.

3-10The highly competitive market consists of many suppliers, none of whom has a dominant market position, meaning that first cost is a primary basis of differentiation between competitors. Purchasing decisions may not take lifecycle cost or payback considerations into account because in many cases, a general contr actor oversees the purchasing of parts and their assembly, which incentivizes the selection of lowest cost equipment in terms of capital expense. The multitude of supply chain options confounds these issues and th e lack of coordination between manufacturers of the envelope and refrigeration means that efficient technologies may get overlooked. Cash flow can further sway a decision away from energy efficient technologies that may have a higher first cost. For example, the uncer tain long-term prospects for new restaurants, a major end-user of walk-in technologies, often leads to the selection of lowe st-cost equipment.

Assessing lifecycle costs associated with walk-in equipment options can be very challenging for end-users. In particular, refrigeration systems and commercial electric rate structures are highly complex and variable. Electric rate structures differ across utilities and states, making lifecycle cost calculations a cha llenge even for chains planning to implement standard design specifications. These factors create a difficult environment for energy efficient technologies; operating savings rela ted to lifecycle costs are ofte n the only way to differentiate for customers if the more efficient technology has a higher first cost than its conventional

counterparts.

The market structure hinders increased use of energy saving technologies for walk-ins. Several of the technologies disc ussed represent additional complexity for the refrigeration system and its control. Training would be re quired for most refrigeration service technicians providing service for walk-in systems.

3.2.9 Regulatory and Non-Regulatory Initiatives

The prescriptive standards for WICF set out in EPCA and any standards established by DOE during the WICF rulemaking process preempt state standards established for the same equipment. Exceptions include any state standards established for equipment not regulated by the federal government and state standards that supersede those established by the federal government. The following sections detail exis ting state standards for WICF thatmeet or go beyond the EPCA requirements.

3.2.9.1 California Energy Commission

The California Energy Commission’s tiered specification regulates the minimum energy performance of equipment sold in California. As of January 6, 2006, walk-in coolers and freezers have been regulated by the California Appliance Efficiency Regulations. The most recent version, published in August 2009 lists the latest requirements for walk-ins sold in California after January 1, 2009, which are identical to the standards established at the federal level by EPCA for all WICF for which fe deral standards have been established.

Additionally, California has established standards for freezers with volumes exceeding 30ft 3

, wine chillers that are consumer products, comme rcial refrigerators including but not limited to refrigerated bottled or canned beverage machines, commercial refrigerator-freezers, commercial

3-11freezers, commercial ice-markets, and water dispensers. These standards are described in Table

3.2.9.

Table 3.2.9 Requirements for Walk-ins Sold in California

Motor Type Required Components

All Automatic door closers that firmly close all reach-in doors

All Automatic door closers on all doors no wider than four foot or higher than seven foot, that firmly close walk-in doors that have been closed to within one inch of full closure

All Envelope insulation >R-28 for refrigerators

All Envelope insulation >R-36 for freezers

Condenser Fan (i) Electronically commutated motors

Motors < 1 HP (ii) Permanent split capacitor-type motors, (iii) Polyphase motors >1/2 HP, or (iv) Motors of equivalent efficiency as determined by the Executive Director Single-phase Evaporator Fan

Motors < 1 HP and

< 460 volts (i) Electronically commutated motors (ii) Permanent split capacitor-type motors,

Single-phase Evaporator Fan

Motors < 1 HP and

< 460 volts (i) Electronically commutated motors or (ii) Permanent split capacitor-type motors

Walk-ins Coolers

and Walk-in

Freezers withtransparent reachin doors (i) Triple-pane glass with heat-reflective treated glass or gas fill, (ii) If appliance has anti-sweat heater without anti-sweat heat controls, then: the appliance must have a total door rail, glass, and frame heater power draw of no more than 40 W (freezers) or 17 watts (refrigerators) per foot of door frame width; and (iii) If appliance has anti-sweat heater with anti-sweat controls, and the total door rail, glass, and frame heater power draw is no more than 40W (freezers) or 17W (refrigerators) per foot of door frame width, then: the anti-sweat controls shall reduce the energy use of the anti-sweat heater in an amount corresponding to the relative humidity in the air outside the door or to the condensation on the inner glass pane.

3.2.9.2 Other U.S. States

Connecticut, Maryland and Oregon have recentl y set up energy efficiency standards for walk-ins. Connecticut and Oregon’s standards were implemented in 2008 while Maryland’s was introduced in 2009. It is unlikely that these standa rds will have much impac t given that they will be quickly preempted by the design requireme nts in EPCA. However, the legislation may prepare any manufacturers or consumers in these states for compliance with the federal

standards.

3.2.9.3 Australia & New Zealand

The National Appliance and Equipmen t Energy Efficiency Committee (NAEEEC) establishes minimum energy performance standa rds (MEPS) for a variety of technologies

manufactured and sold in Australia and New Zealand. Its standards are based on the North

American work of the Canadian Standards A ssociation, the California Energy Commission, and the U.S. ENERGY STAR program.

3-12MEPS for remote and sel f-contained commercial refrigeration are defined in AS1731.14, which targets refrigerated display ca binets used in retail applications ix . These standards specifically omit walk-ins.

3.2.9.4 Japan

Japan’s Top Runner program targets energy efficiency standards for a wide range of appliances. Although Top Runner sets standards for commercial re frigerators and freezers, units produced for industrial use are not included.

3.2.10 Market Performance Data

Natural Resources Canada (NRCan) provides estimates of the installed number, sales and energy consumption of WICF equipment on an annual basis, summarized in Table 3.2.10.

Table 3.2.10 Summary of Walk-in Cooler and Freezer Data Compiled by NRCan x

Equipment Type Total Installed Annual Sales (New or replacement) Annual Energy Consumption (kWh) Refrigerator (15 m2)

- - 16,200 Freezer (15 m2)

- - 21,400 Refrigerator-Freezer (31 m2) - - 30,200

Total 96,000 3,300

-

DOE was unable to find a source that compile d WICF data in the U.S. Therefore, DOE gathered its own industry data by sampling e quipment of each class for both envelopes and refrigeration systems. The results are shown in sections 3.2.10.1 and 3.2.10.2

3.2.10.1 Envelope

In DOE’s research, it was unable to find equi pment energy ratings for each equipment class or analysis point. This is likely due to the fact that the industry does not yet have a uniform method for rating products, but this will likely ch ange with the publication of the WICF test procedure NOPR and Final Rule. In the abse nce of product data, DO E made estimates of envelope energy performance using the envelope engineering analysis (described in Chapter 5 of the preliminary TSD) with various product si zes. Figure 3.2.1 through Figure 3.2.4 show the resulting calculations for each of the four produc t classes described in Table 3.2.5. The data are plotted on a log scale to facilitate comparison be tween sizes. Without this scale, the energy performance range within each product class would make the ranges for smaller sized analysis points unreadable.

3-131 10 100

180

‐ 900 (24

‐ 200) 795

‐ 2400 (200

‐ 600) 2400

‐ 12500 (600

‐ 3000)CDEC[kWh/day]

Walk

‐ in Total Surface Area (Total Footprint) [ft 2 ]

Low High

Figure 3.2.1 Market Performance Da ta for the ND.C Equipment Class

10 100 1000

180

‐ 900 (24

‐ 200) 795

‐ 2400 (200

‐ 600) 2400

‐ 12500 (600

‐ 3000)CDEC[kWh/day]

Walk

‐ in Total Surface Area (Total Footprint) [ft 2 ]

Low High

Figure 3.2.2 Market Performance Da ta for the ND.F Equipment Class

3-1410 100 1000

280

‐ 543 (48

‐ 120) 590

‐ 1792 (120

‐ 320) 1370

‐ 11100 (320

‐ 3000)CDEC[kWh/day]

Walk

‐ in Total Surface Area (Total Footprint) [ft 2 ]

Low High

Figure 3.2.3 Market Performance Da ta for the D.C Equipment Class

10 100 1000 10000

280

‐ 543 (48

‐ 120) 590

‐ 1792 (120

‐ 320) 1370

‐ 11100 (320

‐ 3000)CDEC[kWh/day]

Walk

‐ in Total Surface Area (Total Footprint) [ft 2 ]

Low High

Figure 3.2.4 Market Performance Da ta for the D.F Equipment Class

3.2.10.2 Refrigeration

As of now, DOE is not aware of any published market performance data for WICF refrigeration. Because there has not been a test pr ocedure in place in this industry, there is no established industry-wide metric for performan ce of equipment as it relates to energy

3-15consumption. However, this may change with the recent publication of AHRI 1250. Manufacturers’ specification sheets ty pically provide only information relevant to the end user or contractor: refrigeration capacity, dimensi ons, electrical characteristics, etc.

In order to gather energy consumption da ta for refrigeration systems, DOE examined manufacturers’ specification sheets and estimated the energy consumption of the system by entering the information into DOE’s engineering spreadsheet. The engineering spreadsheet uses the calculation methodology contained in AHRI 1 250 to calculate energy consumption of the system. DOE examined 10 systems in each class that encompass a range of efficiencies that are currently on the market. Figure 3.2.5 through Figure 3.2.10 show graphs of the results.

0 5 10 15 20 25

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0Calculated Energy Consumption(MWh/year)

System Net Capacity (kBtu/h)

Figure 3.2.5 Market Performance Data for the DC.M.I Equipment Class

3-160 5 10 15 20 25

0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0Calculated Energy Consumption(MWh/year)

System Net Capacity (kBtu/h)

Figure 3.2.6 Market Performance Data for the DC.L.I Equipment Class

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0Calculated Energy Consumption(MWh/year)

System Net Capacity (kBtu/h)

Figure 3.2.7 Market Performance Data for the DC.M.O Equipment Class

3-170 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0Calculated Energy Consumption(MWh/year)

System Net Capacity (kBtu/h)

Figure 3.2.8 Market Performance Data for the DC.L.O Equipment Class

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0Calculated Energy Consumption(MWh/year)

System Net Capacity (kBtu/h)

Figure 3.2.9 Market Performance Data for the MC.M Equipment Class

3-180 5 10 15 20 25 30

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0Calculated Energy Consumption(MWh/year)

System Net Capacity (kBtu/h)

Figure 3.2.10 Market Performance Data for the MC.L Equipment Class

3.3 TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT

The function of the technology assessment is to develop a preliminary list of technologies that could potentially be used to reduce the ener gy consumption of walk-in coolers and freezers, as well as to highlight the developments within those technology categories and their applicability to these product classes. Walk-in coolers and freezers present a wide variety of design options which could lead to energy sa vings if implemented in production models. The diversity of these options is compounded by th e large number of components and corresponding energy loss pathways present in this equipment.

Each unit can be broken down into two com ponents: the envelope and the mechanical refrigeration system. Each of these presents specific energy-loss issues which can be addressed through new technologies. Within the refrigeration system, most energy loss and waste are due to inefficiencies in the components, including th e compressor, motors, and fan blades. Advanced designs can lead to both direct energy savings, as well as reduction of waste heat discharged into the refrigerated space which must be removed. The envelope presents another group of energy loss pathways altogether, including the conduction of external h eat through insulated walls, as well as infiltration of outside air into the refrigerated space and electricity consuming devices such as lights and anti-sweat heaters.

Certain types of walk-in coolers and freezers may also exhibit further means through which energy loss occurs. For example, units with th e case located outdoors are exposed to increased fluctuations in temperature and increased heat lo ad on the surface of the unit due to sunlight, and display units exhibit pronounced energy losses due to conduction through and opening of the glass doors, as well as the presence of anti-sw eat heating devices. The following assessment

3-19provides descriptions of technol ogies and designs that apply to all equipment classes for envelope and refrigera tion, designs that apply only to par ticular classes for envelope and refrigeration.

3.3.1 Technologies and Designs Relevant to All Envelope Equipment Classes

3.3.1.1 Wall, Ceiling, and Floor Insulation

Most walk-in cooler and freezer envel opes are constructed from panels known as Structurally Insulated Panels (SIPs), which are comprised of a sandwich of metal skins encapsulating an insulating material. Most walk -ins currently manufactured and installed use

traditional foam materials as insulation. Their ma in purpose is to reduce heat transfer from the external environment to the internal conditioned space of the walk-in.

Improvements to the insulating capacity of the envelope could be achieved through a

number of methods. The most basic of these would be increased in sulation thickness using existing foam insulating materials. Another option would be the incorporation of insulating materials that have higher th ermal resistance per inch thickness. One such technology is the Vacuum Insulated Panel (VIP), wh ich consists of an outer air-tig ht membrane surrounding a core material. The inner core is evacuated to remove air from the material. This greatly reduces heat conduction on a per inch basis compared to fo am materials. Other options include the incorporation of aerogels, a low-dens ity and low heat conducting material.

3.3.1.2 Door Gaskets

All walk-in doors utilize seals to prevent air exchange with the surroundings when the door is closed. These seals typically consist of rubber gaskets which are compressed when the door latch is closed, or magnetic, vinyl-coated systems used display glass doors. Improvements in these systems and the seal materials could result in greater insulating capacity as well as less air leakage, reducing energy loss due to both conduction and air infiltration.

3.3.1.3 Panel Interface Systems

Panel interface systems include the methods and materials designed to seal the panel-topanel, panel-to-floor, and other interfaces presen t. Use of improved materials, geometries, and manufacturing techniques could serve to furthe r reduce infiltration and conductive losses and improve the overall insulating capacity of the envelope, meaning that less energy input would be required by the refrigeration system.

3.3.1.4 Electronic Lighting Ballasts and High-Efficiency Lighting

Many fluorescent lighting systems currently in use to illuminate the interior of walk-ins employ traditional magnetic ballasts. These ballasts generate significant amounts of heat due to resistive losses incurred in the circuit. This results in increased energy consumption to power the lights, as well as an increase in the cooling lo ad to remove the waste heat generated by the ballasts. Solid state electronic ballasts serve to reduce this waste heat, as the integrated circuits

3-20employed produce very low resistive losses. These advanced ballasts also lead to more efficient operation of the fluorescent lamps, thereby reduc ing the electricity consumption of the lights. Moving the ballasts away from the lamps entirely, to a location outside of the refrigerated space, is another option. This would ensure than any wa ste heat produced would be discharged to the surroundings, rather than to the refrigerated sp ace, where it would have to be removed by the cooling system.

In addition to fixtures and ballasts, new advanced lights such as light emitting diodes (LEDs) and organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) offer significant increase in efficacy. Compared to standard fluorescent systems, the electricity consumption a nd waste heat generated are far lower. Nearly every major display door manufacturer offers LED lighting as design option. LED bulbs that fit in Edison type fixtures are also widely available.

3.3.1.5 Occupancy Sensors

One major source of energy consumption in a walk-in is the operation of lighting when it is not needed, primarily due to lights being le ft on when the unit is unoccupied. Occupancy sensors ensure operation of the in terior lighting when an individua l is present and working inside the refrigerated space or viewing products in a display type walk-in. When motion has not been detected for a set period of time, the lights are turned off. This would reduce waste due to lights being left on unnecessarily. Moreover, the sensor s could also be used to notify personnel of periods when the door is ajar; that is, if the door is open and there has been no one present inside the space for a period of time. This would save energy due to loss of refrigerated air from the interior space.

3.3.1.6 Automatic Door Opening and Closing Systems

Doors left open accidentally by employees can be a major cause of losses from the envelope. To avoid accidental and intentional door opening frequ ency and duration, especially while products are being loaded into the walk-i n, the use of automatic door opening and closing mechanisms can reduce air infiltration. By sensin g approaching personnel and through the use of powered door openers, the door can be quickly opened and closed at a rate that both ensures safe movement through the doorway and minimizes the dur ation of the door opening event. Instead of door propping while loading, the door would only be opened for the short period that a person or forklift needs to pass through the doorway.

3.3.1.7 Non-Penetrative Internal Racks and Shelving

Many manufacturers have noted that end users and customers will install interior shelving units and racks in the walk-ins using penetra tive fasteners such as nails and screws. These compromise the inner skin and insulation of the envelope, resulting in reduced insulating capacity and possibly air leakage. The use of frees tanding racks and shelving units by end users could be a simple and effec tive method for reducing losses.

3.3.1.8 Air Curtains

3-21Air curtains consist of fans mounted horizontally or vertically that di rect a stream of air across a door opening. When the door is opened, the air current is activated, blowing air perpendicular to direction of ai r movement into and out of the walk-in. This air barrier greatly reduces unwanted exchange of air while offeri ng unobstructed visual or movement barrier.

Two types of air curtains exist: recirculatin g and non-recirculating. Non-recirculating units are the most common, as these simply use air from the interior space to form the moving stream. The air then impinges upon the floor a nd the stream splits. If properly positioned, the systems are very effective at reducing air infiltr ation. In recirculating units, the stream of air captured through a floor grate and run through the blower again. Manufacturers claim that recirculating units these systems ar e even more effective than non- recirculating. Ai r curtains are not standard on most walk-ins, but have been widely available for quite some time and are often installed by end users as an accessory.

3.3.1.9 Strip Curtains

Strip curtains are barriers com posed of vertically-oriented st rips of plastic, usually clear PVC, which can be suspended in the doorway opening of a walk-in. When undisturbed, the curtain forms a barrier which limits movement of the cooled air out into the environment, yet allows for easy and unobstructed passage throug h the doorway. These are commonly installed by end users for the intent of saving energy. Generall y, strip curtains are used in larger units which experience heavy traffic, such as constant movement of goods using forklifts. However, their proficiency in preventing the loss of chilled air from the inside of the refrigerated space makes

them a candidate for use in walk -ins of all sizes and uses.

3.3.1.10 Refrigeration System Override

During periods of high traffic, such as wh en a shipment of product is received and must be transferred into the walk-in, the door to the c ooler or freezer may be repeatedly opened or simply left open for a long period of time. With traditional systems, the thermostat engages the compressor and fans during such periods. However, such operation wastes a large amount of electricity, as the attempt on behalf of the system to cool the interior space is lost via the open

door. A better alternative is to simply override the thermostat, turning off the refrigeration system completely during high-traffic periods and reengaging it after the tasks have been performed. Such a simple control would prevent the cooling system from continuously running at maximum capacity in an attempt to bring the inside temperature down to the desired value while continuously ejecting cold air to the surrounding environment. The result would be an immediate and sizeable energy savings.

3.3.1.11 Air and Water Infiltration Sensors

Infiltration of water and/or water vapor into the envelope insulating material may lead to significant reductions in the insulating capacity of the affected regions due to the thermal conductivity properties of wa ter. This sort of infiltration may result from specific incidents, such as punctures or damage or a steady-state process occurring over a long period of time. A water condensate or vapor sensor, implanted within the insulating material would allow for early detection of damage to the insulating material . This would prevent continued operation with a

3-22damaged unit and would provide no tification of the need for repairs. As a result, the energy wasted during sustained operation of a damaged unit would be conserved. In addition, pressureor flow sensors may be utilized to directly measure walk-in air exchange rates, providing endusers data to use historical air exchange patterns to monitor real-time performance.

3.3.1.12 Humidity Sensors

Humidity of the air is another factor wh ich can influence the performance of the mechanical refrigeration system. As air with a higher humidity has a higher specific heat, it thus requires more energy to cool the air on a day with high humidity. Sensors installed in the system could provide real-time information regarding the outside humidity, which would allow for more informed decisions to be made regarding topics such as the loading and loading of product at certain times. Such intelligently managed use would result in lower infiltration losses due to prolonged door opening on days exhi biting adverse operating conditions.

3.3.1.13 Heat Flux Sensors

As mentioned earlier, damage to the envelope of the walk-in can occur due to many reasons, including penetrative fasteners used to attach shelves or racks and/or long-term degradation of insulation due to gas diffusion or water infiltr ation. Heat flux sensors are available which use a simple hot plate method to provide real-time information regarding the insulating properties of a wa ll on which they are mounted. This non-destructive R-value monitoring would provide manufacturers with usef ul data of walk-in performance as installed in the field and allow end-users to monitor performance of the insulation over time to avoid energy losses incurred due to drop in insulation R-value.

3.3.1.14 Vestibule Entryways

The implementation of vestibul e or air-lock doors would greatly reduce the losses that arise as a result of opening the doors for entry. This type of entry system is typically used in larger building entrances to prevent heat loss due to door opening air infiltration. The doors open and close sequentially during entry and exit, neve r allowing direct air exchange. Instead, only a

small amount of air would move with the user into the small space between the two doors. This would significantly reduce the increase in interior temperature that occurs each time the door is opened, as well as the corresponding amount of ener gy required to cool that space back down to the desired set point.

3.3.1.15 Revolving Doors

Another provision for the reduction of losses from door opening would be the use of revolving doors. Like vestibule entries, revol ving door systems are commonly used for the entryways of large buildings. Similarly, they prevent direct exchange of air and reduce the rate of infiltration compared to a standard door.

3.3.1.16 Fiber Optic Natural Lighting

3-23During day light business hours, instead of us ing electrically powered lighting systems,

roof mounted collectors can be used to direct sunlight into fiber optic cables that transmit the light to where it is needed in a walk-in cooler resulting in immediate energy savings. Artificial lighting, such as in the form of the high-effic iency lighting systems mentioned previously would also need to be present, as walk-in coolers a nd freezers are generally accessed at all hours in many applications.

3.3.1.17 Energy Storage Systems

Thermal energy storage systems could be utilized to levelize cooling demand on the compressor and associated refrigeration system, allow the system to operate only during optimal

environmental conditions and shif t electrical demand to off-peak hours to achieve cost savings. For example, the refrigeration equipment could cool a large mass during the night when outdoor temperatures are lowest and electricity prices are cheapest. During the daytime or periods of peak demand, this stored energy could then be utilized. Storage would allow for systems to be designed for steady-state operation rather than being over sized for “worst-case” weather or product loading scenarios. Generally, the more time the system operates at 100% capacity efficiency increases cost of operation decreases.

3.3.2 Technologies and Designs Relevan t to Display Envelopes Only

The following technologies are relevant only to walk-in coolers and freezers which also feature display fronts: display and window gl ass system insulation performance, anti-sweat heater controls, non-electric anti-sweat systems, no anti-sweat systems, and automatic insulation deployment systems.

3.3.2.1 Display and Window Glass System Insulation Performance

The glass display door heat transfer losses for represents 30-40% of walk-in energy consumption. While current regulation prescribes minimum standards for number of panes, gas fill and low emissivity coatings, there is sign ificant opportunity for improvement. In addition, windows used in non-display doors also contribute to energy consumption but on a much lower percentage basis.

Improvements to reduce heat transfer perfo rmance could include the use of additional panes of glass and expanded us e of inert gas filled panes using argon, krypton or xenon. The treatment of the window glass with advanced lo w emissivity coatings and increasing the number

of coated surfaces could also reduce losses due to radiation heat transfer. The result of these improvements would include both direct energy savings, through reduced conduction losses, and an indirect reduction in energy consumpti on due to reduced anti-sweat heater demand.

3.3.2.2 Anti-sweat Heater Controls

In display units, the glass door external su rface may experience temperatures below the dew point of the ambient air with which they are constantly in contact. As a result, condensation can form in on the surface of the doors, reducing visibility of the product and also possibly leading to ice buildup or pools of condensate fo rming at the base of the glass door. This

3-24phenomenon is known as “sweating”. To prevent th is, anti-sweat heaters are generally employed in order to ensure that the external glass temperature is sufficiently high to avoid sweating.

Generally, electric heater wi re, in contact with the door perimeter, is energized to continuously heat the glass. However, anti-swea t heat may only be required during particularly

humid environmental conditions or walk-in temperatures. Control devices are available that sense external humidity and temperature regula te anti-sweat heater wire use on demand. These systems significantly reduce the re quired daily electrical demand.

3.3.2.3 Non-Electric Anti-sweat Systems

While conventional anti-sweat heaters opera te using separately powered electric resistance heater wire, any heat source capable of bringing the door surfaces to temperature could also serve this purpose. It may be possible, similar to hot-gas defrost, to utilize the waste heat generated by the mechanical refrigeration sy stem to provide the required glass door heating. In these non-electric systems, a heat transfer fluid could be used to absorb heat from the refrigeration system and reject heat to the glass doors. By utilizing waste heat that is readily available a major source of electrical energy consumption in display units may be entirely

eliminated.

3.3.2.4 No Anti-sweat Systems

Another option for addressing the issue of sw eating is the use of static systems that prevent the phenomenon from occurring. These include multi-pane gla ss doors which have greater insulating properties, preventing the exterior temperature from becoming low enough for sweating to occur. Another option may be advanced hydrophobic materials that prevent condensate from attaching or lingering on the glas s surface and therefore prevent the formation of water droplets that may obscure a customer’s view of a product.

3.3.2.5 Automatic Insulation Deployment Systems

In many businesses, such as convenien ce and grocery stores with limited hours of operation, glass display doors are not utilized dur ing non-business hours. In such applications, automatic insulation deployment systems could be put in place to lower a layer of insulation over the interior or exterior surface of the glass doors during non-business hours, thus increasing the thermal resistance of the door and, corresponding ly, the net insulating capacity of the entire envelope. This would greatly reduce conduction lo sses and lead to a direct energy savings.

3.3.3 Technologies and Designs Relevant to All Refrigeration Equipment Classes

3.3.3.1 Evaporator and Condenser Fan Blades

Conventional fans have sheet metal blades mounted to a central hub, and are generally not optimized for the specific application in which they will be used. Instead, they are designed for mass production and scalability in order to minimize production cost and waste. Optimization of fan design for specific applications could sign ificantly reduce input energy needed in order to perform the necessary work. Higher efficiency fan blades are capable of moving more air at a

3-25given rotational speed when compared to traditional fan blades. This means that a smaller motor can be used, or the existing motor can be run at a lower speed, resulting in direct energy savings. The improvements described here would be applicable to bot h evaporator and condenser fans, though evaporator fans would likely stand to earn greater efficiency gains due to the fact that sheet metal fans are poorly suited to the higher pressure drops encountered in this application.

3.3.3.2 Improved Evaporator and Condenser Coils

The effectiveness of the refrigeration system in moving heat from the temperaturecontrolled space to the ambient environment is constrained by the ability of the evaporator and condenser coils to transfer heat. Coils are gene rally constructed of c opper and aluminum, with these materials being chosen for their favorable heat transfer characteristics. Enhancements to both the refrigerant side (inside) and air side (out side) of the coils can improve their heat transfer characteristics, requiring less compressor power and fan energy to achieve the same system capacity. Improvements to the refrigerant side of the coil can include increased tubing passes as well as changes in the geometric profile of the tubing itself. Air-side improvements consist of decreasing the spacing between the fins, thus in creasing the number of fins per unit coil length, as well as changes in the fin patterns. Increased overall coil size also improves heat transfer, but this is infeasible in some cases due to space constraints on both the ev aporator and condenser

coils.

3.3.4 Technologies and Designs Relevant to Dedicated Condensing Refrigeration Systems Only

3.3.4.1 Ambient Subcooling

This process utilizes an oversized condenser or subcooling heat exchanger in order to further cool the condensed refrigerant. The resu lt is a decrease in coolant enthalpy and an increase in specific capacity, meaning that a lower mass flow rate of compressed refrigerant, and thus less compressor power, is needed. Ambient subcooling is only needed when head pressure has been reduced to the lowest allowable value; in any other case, it is more efficient to simply reduce the head pressure. This system then proves effective when the ambient temperature is low enough that the head pressure must be kept at a high level, as is often the case for systems operating in cooler geographical regions.

3.3.4.2 Higher-Efficiency Fan Motors

Two separate sets of fan mo tors service the evaporator and condenser of the unit, respectively. Their functions are to facilitate heat transfer by moving air across the heat exchangers, in order to move heat out of the re frigerated volume and discharge it to the ambient environment. The current regulati ons dictate that all evaporator fan motors must be either 3­ phase or electrically commutated motors (ECMs), and that all condenser fan motors must be ECMs, permanent split capacitor motors (PSCs), or 3-phase. This eliminates the usage of an older and less sophisticated motor type, the shad ed-pole motor. Aside from motor type alone, other design options can be implemented into the motors in order to reduce internal friction and improve operating capacity. The result will be that less electrical energy input will be required to generate the same amount of output shaft work, and less waste heat will be discharged due to

3-26friction, reducing electricity consum ption directly and, in the case of the evaporator fan motors, reducing the system heat load, thereby reducing the indirect consumption of the system in removing that load.

3.3.4.3 Automatic Evaporator Fan Shut-Off

Typically, evaporator fans run at all times to circulate cool air in the walk-in. This design option consists of a control that would automatical ly shut off evaporator fans whenever the walkin door is opened. The result would be that less chilled air would be blown out into the walk-in’s surroundings, meaning that less energy would be needed to bring the interior space back down to temperature following a door opening.

3.3.4.4 Evaporator Fan Control

In traditionally operated systems, evaporator fans run at all times, whether or not the compressor is running. In many instances, the ev aporator fan motors are running for more time than is actually necessary, resulting in overuse of electrical power. Evaporator fan controls save energy by allowing the evaporator fans to run at variable speed, or cycle on and off, during periods when the compressor is off. These could include timers or sensors which detect conditions inside the refrigerated space and control the motors accordingly.

3.3.4.5 Higher-Efficiency Compressors

The compressor is the component that uses th e most power out of all those comprising the refrigeration system, making it a likely and ap propriate target for imp rovement. Even a small percentage increase in compressor efficiency would result in very large energy savings over the life of the product. Currently, se veral types of compressors are in use for walk-in refrigeration systems. Smaller systems utilize hermetic reciprocating piston compressors, while larger units utilize semi-hermetic compressors. Additional compressor types exist which have not achieved large market share, including scroll compressors, which generally exhibit quite high efficiencies. Moreover, multiple capacity compressors present an opportunity for energy savings as well. These systems can take many forms, including single compressors with multiple stages or variable operating speeds as well as coupled sets of compressors which engage as necessitated by the load on the envelope. These technologies allow for the compressor operating time and power to more closely follow the heat load, resulting in improved performance and decreased energy consumption.

3.3.5 Technologies and Designs Relevant to Low Temperature Refrigeration Systems Only

3.3.5.1 Hot Gas Defrost

As the air in the refrigerated space is cooled, water vapor condenses on the surface of the evaporator coil, and, if the coil temperature is be low freezing, ice will form, creating a layer over the surface of the coil. If this layer grows to be too thick, air flow will be decreased and thermal

3-27resistance will increase, resulting in reduced cooling performance. Thus the removal of evaporator coil frost is imperative.

Hot gas defrost involves the recirculation of hot gas discharged from the compressor to warm the evaporator. Compared to other defro sting methods, namely electric defrost, energy consumption is much less as the heat comes from an existing by-product of the process. However, sophisticated controls are required, along with complex pipe routing, in order for the system to be effective. A more serious conseque nce of using this defrosting system is cracking and leaking resulting from therma l stresses induced upon the coolan t piping due to alternate exposure to high and low-temperature refrigerant.

3.3.5.2 Defrost Controls

Management of frost buildup on coils is e ssential in ensuring continued efficient operation of the unit. Traditionally, defrosting systems were run on regular intervals utilizing a simple timer. However, this system has two possible negative consequences in that the defroster may run too often, resulting in wasted energy, or not often enough, resulting in decreased system performance. Current systems allow for contro l of the termination of defrosting based on temperature; when the coils reach a specified temp erature, the defroster is turned off. However, initiation of the cycle still occurs on a periodic basis using a timer.

Control of the defrost cycle re quires the use of sensors in order to determine that a defrost cycle is needed. The data collected can consist of either the temperature drop across the coil or detection of the physical thickness of frost buildup using photocells. The first of these two

methods is based on the idea that decreased airf low across the coil is a result of frost buildup, meaning that the temperature differential across the coil will increase. However, there are issues

in that external factors aside from frost buil dup on the coil may be the reason for decreased

airflow. The second method is more accurate but requires more sophisticated sensors.

3.3.6 Technologies and Designs Relevant to Outdoor Refrigeration Systems Only

3.3.6.1 Floating Head Pressure

Traditionally, the pressure at which the compressor discharges, known as the head pressure, is kept at a constantly fixed setting in order to enable operation over a variety of environmental temperatures in outdoor units. Generally, this is fixed at a high value in order to ensure that a sufficient amount of refrigerant ca n flow through the system, which also protects the evaporative condenser against freezing and maintains the necessary pressure difference across the expansion valve.

However, modern technology, in the form of more sophisticated expansion valves, allows for the use of floating head pressure schemes, in which the refrigerant flow is dynamically controlled over a broad range of external temperatures. In this case, condensing temperatures down to 70 degrees Fahrenheit can be utilized, much lower than the temperatures of 90 or 95 degrees necessary for a fixed-head pressure system . In this case, the evaporative condenser is in constant operation, rather than simply turning on and off as needed. This has the potential to

3-28generate a significant net energy reduction through a decrease in compressor energy use, and also can reduce the wear induced upon moving parts due to continual starting and stopping.

3.3.6.2 Economizer Cooling

Economizer cooling consists of directly venting outside air into the interior of the walk-in

when the outside air is as cold as or colder than the interior of the walk-in. This relieves load on the refrigeration system when pull-down load is necessary.

3-29REFERENCES

i It was formerly known simply as the Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI) until January 1, 2008 when its merger with the Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association (GAMA)

was finalized.

ii U.S. Internal Revenue Service. Field Directive on the Planni ng and Examination of Cost Segregation Issues in the Retail Industry . 2004. (Last accessed June 25, 2007.)

< http://www.irs.gov/businesses/ article/0,,id=151273,00.html > The June 25, 2007, material from

this website is available in Docket EE-2006-S TD-0126. For more information, contact Brenda Edwards-Jones at (202) 586-2945.

iii Mark Ellis & Associates. New Zealand Minimum Energy Performance Standards for Commercial Refrigeration Cabinets, Prepared for the Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority . 2003. (Last accessed June 26, 2007.) <http://www.eeca.govt.nz/eecalibrary/products/standards/report/meps-for-commercial-refridger ation-cabinets-03.pdf> The June 26, 2007, material from this website is av ailable in Docket EE-2006-STD-0126. For more information, contact Brenda Ed wards-Jones at (202) 586-2945.

iv Foster-Miller. Development and Demonstration of an Advanced Supermarket Refrigeration/HVAC System . 2001. Oak Ridge National Laboratory: Oak Ridge, TN. Report

No. ORL-970163.

v U.S. Environmental Protection Agen cy Office of Air and Radiation. U.S. High GWP Gas Emissions 1990–2010: Inventories, Projections ,and opportunities for Reductions, June 2001

. 2001. (Last accessed April 3, 2009.) <http://www.ep a.gov/highgwp/projections.html > The June 26, 2007, material from this website is availa ble in Docket EE-2006-STD-0126. For more information, contact Brenda Ed wards-Jones at (202) 586-2945.

vi ADL. Final Report to the Alliance for Respons ible Atmospheric Policy, March 21, 2002

. 2002. (Last accessed April 3, 2009.) <http://www.arap.org/adlittle/toc.html> The June 26, 2007, material from this website is availa ble in Docket EE-2006-STD-0126. For more information, contact Brenda Ed wards-Jones at (202) 586-2945.

vii Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, World Meteorological Organization/United Nations Environment Programme . Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in

National Greenhouse Gas Inventories . 2001. (Last accessed June 26, 2007.) < http://www.ipcc

nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gp/english/3_Industry .pdf > The June 26, 2007, material from this

website is available in Docket EE-2006-STD-012 6. For more information, contact Brenda Edwards-Jones at (202) 586-2945.

viii Sand, J.R., S.K. Fisher and V.D. Baxter. Energy and Global Warming Impacts of HFC Refrigerants and Emerging Technologies. 1997. (Last accessed June 25, 2007.)

< http://www.afeas.org/tewi/tewi-iii.pdf > The June 25, 2007, material from this website is

3-30available in Docket EE-2006-STD-0126. For more information, contact Brenda Edwards-Jones at (202) 586-2945.

ix CLASP, Energy Efficiency Standards a nd Labeling Information Clearinghouse, “AS 1731.14 Minimum Energy Performance Standards (MEPS) requirement for Refrigerated Display Cabinets”, http://www.clasponline.org/clasp.online.worldwide.php?programinfo=1147

x Natural Resources Canada, “Wal k-in Commercial Refrigeration”, http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/industrial/equipment/commercial-refrigeration/index.cfm?attr=24

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