U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

Early Millennials: The Sophomore 

Class of 2002 a Decade Later

Statistical Analysis Report

NCES 2017-437
This page intentionally left blank 
NCES 2017-437

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

Early Millennials: The Sophomore 

Class of 2002 a Decade Later

Statistical Analysis Report 

JUNE 2017 

Xianglei Chen

Erich Lauff

Caren A. Arbeit

Robin Henke

Paul Skomsvold

Justine Hufford

RTI International

Elise Christopher 

Project Officer

National Center for Education Statistics
U.S. Department of Education

Betsy DeVos

Secretary

Institute of Education Sciences

Thomas W. Brock

Commissioner for Education Research Deputy Director for Policy and Research

Delegated the Duties of the Director

National Center for Education Statistics

Peggy G. Carr

Acting Commissioner

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) is the primary federal entity for collecting, analyzing, and reporting 

data related to education in the United States and other nations. It fulfills a congressional mandate to collect, collate, 

analyze, and report full and complete statistics on the condition of education in the United States; conduct and publish 

reports and specialized analyses of the meaning and significance of such statistics; assist state and local education 

agencies in improving their statistical systems; and review and report on education activities in foreign countries.

NCES activities are designed to address high-priority education data needs; provide consistent, reliable, complete, and 

accurate indicators of education status and trends; and report timely, useful, and high-quality data to the U.S. 

Department of Education, the Congress, the states, other education policymakers, practitioners, data users, and the 

general public. Unless specifically noted, all information contained herein is in the public domain.

We strive to make our products available in a variety of formats and in language that is appropriate to a variety of 

audiences. You, as our customer, are the best judge of our success in communicating information effectively. If you have 

any comments or suggestions about this or any other NCES product or report, we would like to hear from you. Please 

direct your comments to

NCES, IES, U.S. Department of Education

Potomac Center Plaza 

550 12th Street, SW 

Washington, DC 20202

June 2017

The NCES Home Page address is http://nces.ed.gov. 

The NCES Publications and Products address is http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch. 

This publication is only available online. To download, view, and print the report as a PDF file, go to the NCES 

Publications and Products address shown above. 

This report was prepared for the National Center for Education Statistics under Contract No. ED-07-CO-0104 with 

RTI International. Mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations does not imply endorsement by the 

U.S. Government.

Suggested Citation

Chen X., Lauff, E., Arbeit, C.A., Henke, R., Skomsvold, P., and Hufford, J. (2017). Early Millennials: The Sophomore Class of 

2002 a Decade Later (NCES 2017-437). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education 

Statistics. Retrieved [date] from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/. 

Content Contact

National Center for Education Statistics 

els2002@ed.gov

(800) 677-6987
iii

Executive Summary

This Statistical Analysis Report tracks a cohort of 2002 high school sophomores1

over 10 years, examining the extent to which cohort members had reached such life

course milestones as finishing school, starting a job, leaving home, getting married, 

and having children. The analyses in this report are based on data from the 

Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), a multifaceted survey sponsored 

by the U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National 

Center for Education Statistics (NCES) and designed to study the 2002 sophomore 

cohort’s transition from adolescence to adulthood. Launched in spring 2002, 

ELS:2002 started with a nationally representative sample of more than 15,000 high 

school sophomores from public and private high schools across the United States. 

Over the next 10 years, these sample members were resurveyed three times—in 

2004, 2006, and 2012. The final (2012) data collection occurred at a key stage of life 

for the 2002 sophomore cohort—most members were 26 years old and had been out 

of high school for 8 years, and many also had completed postsecondary education 

and formally entered the labor market (Lauff and Ingels 2014).

Born in the mid-1980s, members of the 2002 sophomore cohort grew up in a 

tumultuous period of recent history. The “dot-com bubble” of 1997–2000 burst just 

as most were entering high school. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 

occurred when these students had just started their sophomore year in high school. 

When the Great Recession hit in 2007–08, most cohort members were turning 

22 years old, and many were in college or completing postsecondary certificates or 

degrees. During the next few years, the U.S. economy saw rising unemployment 

rates, declining earnings, and growing numbers of people living in poverty 

(DeNavas-Walt, Proctor, and Smith 2013). Although the long-term consequences of 

these economic trends are not yet fully assessed, they may be especially hard for 

those (including many members of the 2002 sophomore cohort) who were finishing 

college and entering the job market during and immediately after the recession (Bell 

and Blanchflower 2011; Hoynes, Miller, and Schaller 2012).

In addition to their place in the larger historical context, 2002 high school 

sophomores came of age during a period of change in postsecondary education. The 

past decades witnessed an upward trend in postsecondary enrollment and attainment 

 

1 This report refers to these cohort members as 10th-graders, 2002 sophomores, or simply sophomores

interchangeably. 
iv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

(Snyder, de Brey, and Dillow 2016), and the cost of attending college has skyrocketed

(Dynarski and Scott-Clayton 2013). Today, large proportions of young people have 

to borrow money to pay for their postsecondary education, and many leave college 

with high levels of debt (Avery and Turner 2012; Woo 2013). There is widespread 

concern that high levels of education debt, especially among those who left college 

during and after the recent recession, may undermine students’ ability to pursue 

further education, achieve financial independence, and start families (Barrow, Brock, 

and Rouse 2013; Rothstein and Rouse 2011; Zhang 2013).

Nevertheless, members of this cohort had high expectations for their future 

education. As sophomores, 9 in 10 students expressed a desire to attend 

postsecondary education after high school, and close to three-quarters expected to 

complete a 4-year-college or higher degree (Ingels et al. 2005). Large proportions of 

cohort members also placed great significance on their future work and family life: 

84 percent rated being able to find a steady job as very important, and 80 percent 

thought that marrying and having a happy family life were very important.

This study is designed to examine the extent to which 2002 high school sophomores 

achieved various milestones of early adulthood as of 2012, including high school 

completion, entrance into postsecondary education, progress toward or completion 

of a postsecondary credential, family formation, and employment and earnings. 

Specifically, the study addresses the following questions: 

• Where did 2002 high school sophomores stand a decade later in education, the

labor market, and family formation? 

• Did 2002 sophomores from different demographic backgrounds and with 

different academic characteristics in high school achieve the same or different 

outcomes in these areas? 

• Did various demographic and high school academic characteristics have unique 

associations with 2002 sophomores’ later outcomes in education and the labor 

market when other factors were taken into account?

• How did 2002 sophomores who achieved various levels of education—from 

not completing high school through post-baccalaureate attainment—fare in the 

labor market in 2012?

This study addresses these questions by analyzing longitudinal data from ELS:2002. 

Key findings from this study are summarized below. 
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY v 

Status of 2002 High School Sophomores a Decade Later

By 2012, the year when most 2002 high school sophomores turned 26 years old, the 

majority of cohort members had completed high school (96 percent) by earning a 

regular diploma, passing a General Educational Development (GED) certificate test, 

or obtaining other high school equivalency such as a certificate of attendance. Many 

members had also made the transition to postsecondary education (84 percent) 

(figure A). As of 2012, about one-half of cohort members had earned a 

postsecondary certificate or degree. One-third of all cohort members had earned a 

bachelor’s or higher degree by 2012. 

Figure A. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who achieved selected outcomes: 2012

NOTE: Estimates and standard errors are available in tables C-2a, C-2b, C-4a, C-4b, C-7a, C-7b, C-11a, C-11b, C-12a, 

C-12b, C-13a, C-13b, C-14a, C-14b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

1

 Persons are classified as employed if they currently have a job; unemployed if they do not have a job, have actively looked 

for work in the prior 4 weeks, and are currently available for work; or out of the labor force if they are neither working nor 

looking for work.

23

33

3

28

7

11

82

33

52

84

96

0 20 40 60 80 100

Lived with parents

Had one or more children

Divorced/separated/widowed

Married

Out of the labor force

Unemployed

Employed

Attained a bachelor’s or higher degree

Attained a postsecondary credential

Enrolled in postsecondary education

Completed high school

Percent

Education

Employment status1

Marriage, parenthood, living arrangements
vi EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The majority of 2002 sophomores (93 percent) were in the workforce in 2012—

82 percent were employed and 11 percent were unemployed but looking for jobs—

and 7 percent were out of the labor force.2

Fewer cohort members had taken on such adult roles as spouse and parent, however. 

By 2012, some 31 percent had married—28 percent were currently married and 

3 percent had subsequently divorced, separated, or become widowed. Overall, onethird of cohort members had become parents as of 2012. Some 23 percent were 

living with their parents in 2012.

Subgroup Differences in Educational Attainment, 

Employment, and Earnings a Decade Later

The achievement of these milestones varied among subgroups of the cohort. In 

general, cohort members from advantaged backgrounds (e.g., students from highsocioeconomic status [SES] families;3

 those who demonstrated strong academic 

preparation via their coursetaking and performance in high school) tended to have 

higher educational attainment, employment rates, and earnings. To better understand 

subgroup differences, this study selects three 2012 outcomes—highest educational 

attainment, employment status, and hourly wages for 2012 jobs—and uses 

multivariate techniques to examine the unique association between various factors 

and each of these outcomes after controlling for other factors. Key findings from the 

multivariate analyses are summarized below. 

Sex

The multivariate results show that female students had a higher probability of 

earning a master’s or other advanced degree and a lower probability of attending

college without earning any postsecondary credential as of 2012 than did their male

counterparts, even after controlling for a range of factors including race/ethnicity, 

family SES, the type of family arrangement (single- vs. two-parent) in which students 

lived in 10th grade, the language students first learned to speak, students’ educational 

expectations, and their academic experiences in high school (table A). 

 

2 ELS:2002 used the federal definitions of employed, unemployed, and out of the labor force (Bureau of Labor 

Statistics 2014). Specifically, persons are classified as employed if they currently have a job; unemployed if 

they do not have a job, have actively looked for work in the prior 4 weeks, and are currently available 

for work; or out of the labor force if they are neither working nor looking for work. 3 The family SES measure used in this report combines information about parents’ education, 

occupation, and income. See appendix A for more information about this variable.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY vii

Table A.

Selected subgroup differences in the probability of 2002 high school sophomores achieving various levels of education after 

controlling for other factors in multivariate regression analysis: 2012

Despite their higher educational achievement, females appeared to have more obstacles than 

males when entering the labor market: females were more likely than males to be

unemployed, out of the labor force, or working part time in 2012, even after controlling for 

various factors (table B). Employed females also earned a lower hourly wage in their 2012 

job than did employed males, even under similar circumstances with respect to demographic 

and academic characteristics, educational attainment, occupational field, work intensity, 

region of residence, current enrollment status, and current marital and parenthood status. 

Selected subgroups

Received some 

college education 

but no 

postsecondary 

credential

Earned an 

undergraduate

 certificate or 

associate’s 

degree

Earned a 

bachelor’s 

degree

Earned a 

master’s 

or higher 

degree

Demographic characteristics

Female vs. male < > ns >

Black vs. White ns ns ns ns

Hispanic vs. White ns ns ns ns

Asian vs. White ns ns ns ns

High- vs. low-SES family ns < > >

High- vs. middle-SES family ns < > >

High school academic characteristics

Expected master’s/higher degree vs. high school 

 education/less ns ns > >

Expected master’s/higher degree vs. some college ns < > >

Had low vs. high academic risk2 ns < > >

Had low vs. high disengagement with school3 ns ns ns ns

Completed rigorous vs. below-standard curriculum4 ns ns ns >

Took calculus vs. no/low-level math5 < ns > >

Took advanced vs. no/low-level science6 ns ns > >

Earned an academic GPA of 3.5‒4.0 vs. below 3.0 < < > >

4

 Rigor of curriculum is a composite measure derived from credits earned in mathematics, biology, chemistry, physics, English, social studies, and 

foreign language that are reported on students’ high school transcripts. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

5

 Low-level math includes basic math and pre-algebra.

6

 Advanced science includes chemistry II, physics II, and advanced biology. Low-level science includes primary physical science, secondary 

physical science, and basic biology.

NOTE: Results in this table are based on a multinomial probit regression predicting the probability of 2002 high school sophomores achieving 

various levels of education as their highest educational attainment as of 2012. The regression includes the following independent variables: sex, 

race/ethnicity, family socioeconomic status, language student first spoke, type of family in which student lived in 10th grade, student’s educational 

expectation in 10th grade, academic risk in 10th grade, school disengagement in 10th grade, rigor of high school curriculum, highest math and 

science courses taken in high school, GPA earned in academic subjects in high school, and 10th-grade school sector. See table 17 for detailed 

results.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

3

 School disengagement is a composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, 

cutting/skipping classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on 

probation, and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

Subgroup difference in the probability of achieving 

the following level of education in 20121

1

 Each row represents the difference between the first group (e.g., female) and its counterpart (e.g., male) in the probability of achieving a 

particular level of education after controlling for other factors in the multivariate regression model. The symbol “ns” indicates that the difference is 

not significant. The symbol “>” indicates that the difference is significant, with the first group surpassing its counterpart (e.g., female > male). The 

symbol “<” indicates that the difference is significant, with the first group being surpassed by its counterpart (e.g., female < male).

2

 Academic risk is a composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point 

average (GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.
viii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Table B. 

Selected subgroup differences in the probability of being out of the labor force, unemployed, or employed part time, and in the 

hourly wage for current job after controlling for other factors in multivariate regression analysis: 2012

Selected subgroups

Out of the 

labor 

force Unemployed

Employed 

part time

Subgroup 

difference in 

hourly wage 

for 2012 job1

Demographic characteristics

Female vs. male > > > <

Black vs. White < > ns ns

Hispanic vs. White < ns ns ns

Asian vs. White > > ns >

High- vs. low-SES family ns ns ns >

High- vs. middle-SES family > ns ns >

High school academic characteristics

Had low vs. high academic risk3 ns ns ns >

Had low vs. high disengagement with school4 ns ns > ns

Completed rigorous vs. below-standard curriculum5 ns ns ns ns

Took calculus vs. no/low-level math6 ns < ns >

Took advanced vs. no/low-level science7 ns ns ns ns

Earned an academic GPA of 3.5‒4.0 vs. below 3.0 ns ns ns >

Highest educational attainment in 2012

Attained a master’s/higher degree vs. high school 

 education/less < ns ns >

Attained a bachelor’s degree vs. high school education/less < ns ns >

Attained a certificate/associate’s degree vs. high school 

 education/less < ns ns >

Other 2012 status

Enrolled vs. not enrolled in postsecondary education > ns > <

Married vs. single (never married) > < < >

Had one or more vs. no children > > ns ns

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

1

 Each row represents the difference between the first group (e.g., female) and its counterpart (e.g., male) in the probability of achieving a labor 

market participation outcome or in hourly wage for 2012 job after controlling for various factors in the multivariate regression model. The symbol 

“ns” indicates that the difference is not significant. The symbol “>” indicates that the difference is significant, with the first group surpassing its 

counterpart (e.g., female > male). The symbol “<” indicates that the difference is significant, with the first group being surpassed by its counterpart 

(e.g., female < male).

3

 Academic risk is a composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point 

average (GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

Subgroup difference in the 

probability of being1,2

4

 School disengagement is a composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, 

cutting/skipping classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on 

probation, and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

5

 Rigor of curriculum is a composite measure derived from credits earned in mathematics, biology, chemistry, physics, English, social studies, and 

foreign language that are reported on students’ high school transcripts. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

6

 Low-level math includes basic math and pre-algebra.

7

 Advanced science includes chemistry II, physics II, and advanced biology. Low-level science includes primary physical science, secondary 

physical science, and basic biology.

NOTE: Results in this table are based on two multivariate regressions. The first is a multinomial probit regression predicting the probability of 2002 

high school sophomores having various labor market participation outcomes in 2012. The second is an ordinary least squared regression predicting 

employed cohort members’ hourly wage in their 2012 job. Both regressions include the following independent variables: sex, race/ethnicity, family 

socioeconomic status, language student first spoke, type of family in which student lived in 10th grade, academic risk in 10th grade, school 

disengagement in 10th grade, rigor of high school curriculum, highest math and science courses taken in high school, GPA earned in academic 

subjects in high school, 10th-grade school sector, highest educational attainment in 2012, postsecondary enrollment status in 2012, region of 

residence in 2012, marital status in 2012, and parenthood status in 2012. The regression on hourly wage includes two additional independent 

variables: job intensity in 2012 and occupational field for 2012 job. See tables 18 and 19 for detailed results.

2

 Persons are classified as employed if they currently have a job; unemployed if they do not have a job, have actively looked for work in the prior 

4 weeks, and are currently available for work; or out of the labor force if they are neither working nor looking for work.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ix

Race/Ethnicity

The multivariate analysis reveals no significant differences between students from 

various racial/ethnic subgroups and their White counterparts in terms of educational 

attainment in 2012 after controlling for sex, family SES, the type of family 

arrangement in which students lived in 10th grade, the language students first learned 

to speak, students’ educational expectations, and their academic experiences in high 

school (table A). In other words, among students with similar socioeconomic and 

academic backgrounds, Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians in the 2002 sophomore cohort 

had a similar probability of attaining various levels of education as of 2012 relative to 

their White peers.

As for labor market outcomes, the multivariate results show that Whites had a higher 

probability than Blacks and Hispanics of being out of the labor force and had a 

lower probability than Blacks of being unemployed in 2012, but once employed, the 

gaps in hourly wages between these groups were not evident (table B). The pattern

for Asians was different: Asians were more likely than Whites to be unemployed or 

out of the labor force in 2012; but once employed, Asians had higher hourly wages 

than did Whites.

Family Socioeconomic Status

The multivariate analysis indicates that students from low- or middle-SES families 

had a higher probability of earning a subbaccalaureate credential as of 2012, while 

their counterparts from high-SES families had a higher probability of earning a 

bachelor’s or higher degree (table A). 

With respect to labor market outcomes, family SES was generally not uniquely 

associated with employment status, but it did demonstrate unique associations with 

hourly wages (table B). Employed cohort members from high-SES family 

backgrounds earned higher hourly wages in their 2012 job than did their 

counterparts from low- or middle-SES backgrounds after controlling for such factors 

as educational attainment, occupational field, job intensity, region of residence, other 

demographic characteristics (e.g., sex, race/ethnicity, and language first spoken), high 

school academic experiences and current status in school enrollment, marriage, and 

parenthood. 
x EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

High School Academic Experiences

High school academic experiences—particularly math and science coursetaking, 

academic performance, educational expectations, and academic risk4

—were

significantly associated with 2002 sophomores’ later educational attainment (table A). 

For example, after controlling for other factors in the multivariate analysis, 2002 

sophomores who expected to attain a master’s or higher degree, who took calculus 

and advanced science courses in high school, who earned an academic GPA5 of 

3.5 or higher, or who exhibited a low risk of academic failure while in 10th grade were 

more likely to have earned a bachelor’s or higher degree a decade later than were their 

corresponding counterparts who expected to complete high school at most, took no 

or low-level math and science courses in high school, earned an academic GPA of 

below 3.0, or exhibited a high risk of academic failure in 10th grade. 

Some of these high school characteristics were also associated with sophomores’ 

labor market outcomes in 2012, particularly hourly wages (table B). The multivariate 

analysis shows that employed cohort members who took calculus in high school 

earned higher hourly wages in their 2012 job than did their counterparts who took 

no or low-level math courses even after controlling for a range of factors in the 

model. Employed cohort members who exhibited a low risk of academic failure 

while in 10th grade also earned higher hourly wages for their 2012 jobs than did their 

peers with high risk of academic failure. High school grade was another significant 

factor: independent of educational attainment, job characteristics, demographic 

backgrounds, other high school academic variables, and current status in school 

enrollment, marriage, and parenthood, employed cohort members who earned an 

academic GPA of 3.5 or higher in high school earned higher hourly wages in their 

2012 jobs than did their peers with an academic GPA of below 3.0. 

Educational Attainment and Labor Market Outcomes

Educational attainment was associated with labor market outcomes, even after

controlling for many factors related to the outcomes. For example, cohort members 

who completed a postsecondary credential had a lower probability of being out of 

the labor force in 2012 than did those who just completed high school or less

(table B). Employed cohort members with a postsecondary credential earned higher 

hourly wages than did those with only a high school credential at most. For example, 

even after controlling for differences in demographic and academic characteristics, 

 

4 Academic risk is a composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test 

scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average (GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades 

K–10. See appendix A for a detailed discussion of the construction of this variable. 5 Average GPA accumulated since grade 9 in academic subjects including English, mathematics, 

science, social sciences, foreign language, and arts. See appendix A for more information about this 

variable. 
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY xi

job classification, work intensity, region of residence, and current status in school 

enrollment, marriage, and parenthood, employed master’s or advanced degree 

holders earned a significantly higher hourly wage in their 2012 job than did those 

who completed only a high school education or less ($21 vs. $15, see table 19).

Coming of Age: Other Experiences

During the transition to young adulthood, 2002 high school sophomores 

experienced some outcomes that may reflect or be the consequences of historical 

events, economic circumstance, and larger social trends at the turn of the century. 

These outcomes are highlighted below. Readers should note that, unlike the findings 

presented in the preceding section, these analyses reflect bivariate relationships and 

do not control for other factors.

Borrowing for Postsecondary Education

To cope with rising college costs, many young people rely on student loans to pay 

for their postsecondary education (Avery and Turner 2012; Dynarski and ScottClayton 2013). Among 2002 high school sophomores who subsequently enrolled in 

postsecondary education, 60 percent reported taking out a student loan to pay for 

their postsecondary education, and, on average, they had borrowed a total of $30,000

as of 2012 (see table 8). 

Borrowing was more prevalent among female students than male students (63 percent 

vs. 57 percent), among Black students than those from other racial/ethnic subgroups 

(67 percent vs. 55–60 percent), among students from middle-SES families (62 percent) 

than those from low- and high-SES families (58 and 59 percent, respectively), and 

among those who first attended private institutions (75 percent for both private 

nonprofit 4-year institutions and for-profit institutions) than those who first attended 

public institutions (65 percent for those who first attended public 4-year institutions 

and 48 percent for those who first attended public 2-year institutions). 

Student loan debt had various effects on employment: 25 percent of borrowers said

that because of their student loan debt, they had to work at more than one job at the 

same time, 34 percent took a less desirable job, 36 percent worked more hours than 

desired, and 37 percent worked outside their field of study (see figure 10). The 

percentages of students who reported these effects generally increased with their

cumulative loan amount. 
xii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Students Who First Enrolled in Public 2-year Institutions

Among members of the 2002 sophomore cohort who entered postsecondary 

education after high school, 36 percent chose a public 2-year institution to start their 

postsecondary education (see figure 7). By 2012, some 34 percent of these students 

had left college without a degree or certificate (see table C-7a). While 47 percent of 

students who began at public 2-year institutions had earned a postsecondary 

credential by 2012, most of their credentials (30 percent) were at the

subbaccalaureate level (i.e., undergraduate certificates or associate’s degrees); and just 

17 percent had earned a bachelor’s or advanced degree. In comparison, educational 

attainment among students who first enrolled in public 4-year institutions or private 

nonprofit 4-year institutions was much higher: by 2012, at least 72 percent of 

students in these two groups had earned a postsecondary credential, most of which 

were at the bachelor’s or advanced level, and about 15 percent had left college 

without earning a postsecondary credential (see table C-7a).

Marriage and Parenthood

Leaving home and starting a family are traditional milestones of adulthood 

(Settersten, Furstenberg, and Rumbaut 2005). Relative to earlier generations, recent 

generations have delayed these traditional milestones (Cherlin 2005; Furstenburg 

2010; Sawhill 2014). In 2012, when most 2002 high school sophomores had reached 

their mid-20s, 31 percent of cohort members had married and 33 percent had at least 

one child (see figures 11 and 12). Among 1988 eighth-graders, 46 percent had 

married and 41 percent had at least one child when most of them reached their 

mid-20s, in 2000 (Ingels et al. 2002).

Proportionally more females than males were married (31 percent vs. 26 percent) and 

had children in 2012 (40 percent vs. 26 percent). Although a higher percentage of 

Whites (32 percent) than all other racial/ethnic subgroups (14–29 percent) were 

married in 2012, a lower proportion of Whites and Asians than other racial/ethnic 

subgroups had children (29 percent of Whites and 13 percent of Asians vs. 47 percent

of Blacks, 43 percent of Hispanics, and 37 percent of those whose race/ethnicity was 

categorized as “other”). 

Marriage and childbearing rates were also related to educational attainment. For 

example, about 51 percent of bachelor’s or higher degree holders were single and 

never married in 2012, compared with 40–46 percent of those with less education. 

About 70 percent of those who lacked a high school credential and 53 percent of 

those who had a high school education had children in 2012, compared with 

13 percent of bachelor’s degree holders and 9 percent of master’s or higher degree 

holders. 
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY xiii

Cohabiting

Cohabitation (i.e., living with a partner) has become an increasingly common 

alternative to marriage among young people (Settersten and Ray 2010). Among the 

2002 sophomore cohort, 23 percent were cohabiting in 2012 (see figure 11); as 

background, just 1 percent of the 1988 eighth-grade cohort members were 

cohabiting in 2002 when most of them were 26 years old (Ingels et al. 2002). 

Cohabitation was most common among cohort members with less than a high 

school education: 31 percent versus 19–26 percent among those with higher levels of 

educational attainment.

Living With Parents

Besides cohabitation, increasing numbers of young people have been living with their 

parents into their 20s and beyond, and men were more likely than women to do so 

(Aud, KewalRamani, and Frohlich 2011; Settersten and Ray 2010). In 2014, living with 

parents became the most common living arrangement for young adults ages 18 to 34 

for the first time since the 1960s (Fry 2016). Among 2002 sophomores, 23 percent

were living with their parents in 2012, and doing so was more common among males 

than females (25 percent vs. 21 percent); Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians than Whites 

(28–39 percent vs. 18 percent); those from low-SES families than those from high- or 

middle-SES families (26 percent vs. 18 percent and 22 percent, respectively); and those 

who had only a high school education or less compared with master’s or advanced

degree holders (27–28 percent vs. 15 percent) (see table 9). 

Military Service

Six percent of 2002 sophomores reported having ever served in the military as of 

2012 (see figure 17). Significantly more men than women served in the military 

(10 percent vs. 2 percent). Military service was more prevalent among cohort 

members with lower levels of educational attainment: about 7 percent of those with a 

high school diploma or an associate’s degree and 10 percent of those who had some 

postsecondary education but had not yet earned a postsecondary credential have 

served in the military, compared with 3 percent of those with a bachelor’s degree and 

2 percent of those with a master’s or higher degree (see table 10). Other key 

demographic characteristics such as race/ethnicity, family SES, and most high school 

academic characteristics, however, did not appear to be related to military service

among the 2002 sophomore cohort. 

Unemployment Since 2009

The Great Recession of 2007–09 resulted in the highest U.S. unemployment rates 

since 1983 (DeNavas-Walt, Proctor, and Smith 2013). The 2012 survey of ELS:2002 
xiv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

asked sample members about their unemployment history during 2009–12, a time 

period generally considered to be post recession but still characterized by high 

unemployment rates, particularly for young adults. Overall, 41 percent of 2002 

sophomores reported having been unemployed at least once during 2009–12 (see 

table 14). Those who had been unemployed during this period reported an average 

of 10 months of unemployment, and 56 percent experienced one unemployment 

spell (i.e., a period of unemployment lasting at least one month), while 23 percent

experienced three or more unemployment spells. 

The incidence, duration, and frequency of unemployment declined with increasing 

levels of educational attainment. Unemployment was particularly prevalent among 

individuals who had a lower educational attainment: 53 percent of high school 

noncompleters and 58 percent of GED certificate or other equivalency holders had 

been unemployed at least once since 2009 for an average of 13 months, compared 

with 30–36 percent of those with a bachelor’s degree or more education for an 

average of 7 months (see table 14). Both Blacks and Hispanics experienced more and 

longer unemployment than did Whites. Similar differences were also evident for 

cohort members from low-SES families compared with those from high-SES 

families, those who completed less rigorous high school curricula compared with 

those who completed rigorous high school curricula, and those who earned academic 

GPAs below 3.0 in high school compared with their counterparts who earned 

academic GPAs of 3.5–4.0 (see table 15).

Underemployment

In addition to high unemployment rates, an economic recession often results in high 

levels of underemployment or underutilization of workers’ human capital in the 

labor market (Abel, Deitz, and Su 2014). A typical form of underemployment occurs 

when individuals work in a job that does not require the level of education that they 

have attained. Among the 2002 sophomore cohort, 35 percent of bachelor’s degree 

recipients and 29 percent of those with a master’s or higher degree reported that they 

currently or recently worked in a job requiring just a subbaccalaureate credential (see 

table 13). Twenty percent of associate’s degree holders reported that they worked in 

a job requiring an undergraduate certificate. 

Another way to measure potential underemployment is to determine the alignment 

between an individual’s education and job. Overall, 29 percent of bachelor’s degree 

recipients and 10 percent of those with a master’s or higher degree reported that 

their job was not related to their degree (see table 13). The percentages of associate’s 

degree and undergraduate certificate holders whose job was not related to their 

degree were even higher: 41 and 42 percent, respectively. For individuals who 
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY xv

attended some college but did not yet earn a postsecondary credential, 63 percent 

worked in a field unrelated to their postsecondary major. 

Socioeconomic Status of 2002 Sophomores

This report also examined cohort members’ SES based on their earnings from 2011 

employment, the prestige of their 2012 or most recent job, and their educational 

attainment as of 2012.6 Although 40 percent of 2002 sophomores who grew up in lowSES families were found in the lowest quarter of the SES distribution in 2012, more 

than one-half (60 percent) of this group had moved up the socioeconomic ladder into 

the middle half or highest quarter of SES by their mid-20s (see figure 24). 

 

6 Individuals’ SES is measured differently from the traditional measure of their parents’ SES. While 

the latter reflects the household’s SES, the former reflects individuals’ SES (i.e., excluding the 

contribution of their spouse or partner). Individuals’ SES may not reflect their true socioeconomic 

situation. For example, a physician’s stay-at-home spouse, while living in a relatively high-SES family, 

has a relatively low score of SES him/herself. In addition, there is still a lot of flux in education and 

employment at age 26. For example, individuals who pursue a doctoral or professional degree may 

have a low SES score, due to income and occupation, which does not accurately reflect their SES. The 

reader should keep this caveat in mind when interpreting data on individuals’ SES. 
This page intentionally left blank 
xvii

Contents

PAGE

Executive Summary .............................................................................................................. iii

List of Tables ....................................................................................................................... xix

List of Figures................................................................................................................... xxvii

Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1

Changing Transition to Adulthood: A Brief Review of the Literature..................... 3

Report Background and Organization........................................................................... 7

Data Source and Study Sample....................................................................................... 9

Limitations....................................................................................................................... 10

High School Completion .................................................................................................... 11

High School Completion Status................................................................................... 11

Timing of High School Completion ............................................................................ 17

Postsecondary Enrollment, Completion, and Borrowing.............................................. 23

Entering Postsecondary Education.............................................................................. 23

Completing Postsecondary Education ........................................................................ 31

Borrowing for Postsecondary Education.................................................................... 38

Family Formation................................................................................................................. 43

Marital Status................................................................................................................... 44

Parenthood ...................................................................................................................... 46

Living Arrangements...................................................................................................... 48

Labor Market Outcomes and Socioeconomic Status ..................................................... 51

Most Recent Employment as of 2012 ......................................................................... 53

Employment History...................................................................................................... 73

Socioeconomic Status..................................................................................................... 78

Factors Associated With Education and Labor Market Outcomes a Decade Later..... 85

Model Specifications ...................................................................................................... 85

Multivariate Results........................................................................................................ 87

Summary..............................................................................................................................103
xviii CONTENTS

PAGE

References...........................................................................................................................105

Appendix A—Glossary .....................................................................................................A-1

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology........................................................B-1

Appendix C—Appendix Tables.......................................................................................C-1
xix

List of Tables

TABLE PAGE

A Selected subgroup differences in the probability of 2002 high school 

sophomores achieving various levels of education after controlling 

for other factors in multivariate regression analysis: 2012................................ vii

B Selected subgroup differences in the probability of being out of the 

labor force, unemployed, or employed part time, and in the hourly 

wage for current job after controlling for other factors in multivariate 

regression analysis: 2012....................................................................................... viii

1 Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ high 

school completion status, by selected student high school 

characteristics: 2012................................................................................................ 16

2 Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who received a high 

school credential, percentage distribution of high school completion 

year, by selected student high school characteristics: 2012 .............................. 21

3 Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled 

in postsecondary education, and of those, percentage who had 

enrolled within 3 months after high school completion, by selected 

demographic characteristics: 2012........................................................................ 24

4 Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled 

in postsecondary education, and of those, percentage who had 

enrolled within 3 months after high school completion, by selected 

student high school characteristics: 2012............................................................ 26

5 Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in 

postsecondary education, percentage distribution of the level and 

control of the institution they first attended, by selected 

characteristics: 2012................................................................................................ 30
xx LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

6 Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in 

postsecondary education, percentage distribution of their highest 

postsecondary attainment, by selected student high school 

characteristics: 2012................................................................................................ 34

7 Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had earned a 

bachelor’s or higher degree, percentage who completed their first 

bachelor’s degree within 4 years, by selected characteristics: 2012 ................. 37

8 Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in 

postsecondary education, percentage who took out a student loan to 

pay for their postsecondary education and average total amount of 

student loans, by selected characteristics: 2012.................................................. 39

9 Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

living arrangements, by selected characteristics: 2012....................................... 48

10 Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had ever 

served in the military, by student’s highest educational attainment: 

2012 .......................................................................................................................... 60

11 Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently 

employed, percentage distribution of their current occupation, by 

selected characteristics: 2012................................................................................. 61

12 Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently 

employed, median and percentage distribution of standardized hourly 

wage for their current job, by selected student high school 

characteristics: 2012................................................................................................ 68

13 Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had worked for 

pay, percentage reporting the perception that their current or most 

recent job required various postsecondary credentials, and of those 

who had also enrolled in postsecondary education, percentage 

indicating that their current or most recent job was closely, 

somewhat, or not related to their most recent postsecondary major: 

by selected characteristics: 2012 ........................................................................... 71
LIST OF TABLES xxi

TABLE PAGE

14 Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had ever 

been unemployed since January 2009, and of those, average number 

of months unemployed and percentage distribution of number of 

unemployment spells since January 2009, by student’s highest 

educational attainment: 2012 ................................................................................ 74

15 Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had ever 

been unemployed since January 2009, and of those, average number 

of months unemployed and percentage distribution of number of 

unemployment spells since January 2009, by selected characteristics: 

2012 .......................................................................................................................... 77

16 Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who received or 

whose spouses, partners, or children received public assistance in 

2011, by selected characteristics........................................................................... 83

17 Average marginal effects of various characteristics on the probability 

of spring 2002 high school sophomores achieving various levels of 

educational attainment as of 2012 and the average predicted 

probability of attaining these educational outcomes among various 

groups of students.................................................................................................. 88

18 Average marginal effects of various characteristics on the probability 

of spring 2002 high school sophomores being out of the labor force, 

unemployed, or working part time in 2012 and the average predicted 

probability of having these labor market outcomes among various 

groups of students.................................................................................................. 94

19 Average marginal effects of various characteristics on hourly wage for 

current job among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were 

employed in 2012 and the average predicted hourly wage for various 

groups of students.................................................................................................. 99

B-1 Item response and nonresponse rates for variables used in this study.........B-4

B-2 Summary of bias analysis for five variables used in this study.......................B-5

C-1 U.S. postsecondary enrollment, bachelor’s degree attainment, and 

unemployment rates among young adults in selected age groups: 

1980–2012..............................................................................................................C-2
xxii LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

C-2a Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ high 

school completion status, by selected characteristics: 2012 ...........................C-3

C-2b Standard errors for table C-2a: Percentage distribution of spring 2002 

high school sophomores’ high school completion status, by selected 

characteristics: 2012..............................................................................................C-5

C-3a Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who received a high 

school credential, percentage distribution of their high school 

completion year, by selected characteristics: 2012...........................................C-7

C-3b Standard errors for table C-3a: Among spring 2002 high school 

sophomores who received a high school credential, percentage 

distribution of their high school completion year, by selected 

characteristics: 2012..............................................................................................C-9

C-4a Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled 

in postsecondary education, and of those, percentage distribution of 

their postsecondary enrollment timing, by selected characteristics: 

2012 ......................................................................................................................C-11

C-4b Standard errors for table C-4a: Percentage of spring 2002 high school 

sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, and of 

those, percentage distribution of their postsecondary enrollment 

timing, by selected characteristics: 2012..........................................................C-14

C-5a Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in 

postsecondary education, percentage distribution of the level and 

control of the institution they first attended, by selected 

characteristics: 2012............................................................................................C-16

C-5b Standard errors for table C-5a: Among spring 2002 high school 

sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage distribution of the level and control of the institution they 

first attended, by selected characteristics: 2012..............................................C-19

C-6a Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in 

postsecondary education, percentage distribution of the level and 

selectivity of the institution they first attended, by selected 

characteristics: 2012............................................................................................C-21
LIST OF TABLES xxiii

TABLE PAGE

C-6b Standard errors for table C-6a: Among spring 2002 high school 

sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage distribution of the level and selectivity of the institution 

they first attended, by selected characteristics: 2012 .....................................C-24

C-7a Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in 

postsecondary education, percentage distribution of their highest 

postsecondary attainment, by selected characteristics: 2012........................C-26

C-7b Standard errors for table C-7a: Among spring 2002 high school 

sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage distribution of their highest postsecondary attainment, by 

selected characteristics: 2012.............................................................................C-30

C-8a Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had earned a 

bachelor’s or higher degree, average total number of months between 

postsecondary entry and first bachelor’s degree attainment, 

percentage distribution by number of months to the first bachelor’s 

degree, and average age when they completed the first bachelor’s 

degree, by selected characteristics: 2012..........................................................C-34

C-8b Standard errors for table C-8a: Among spring 2002 high school 

sophomores who had earned a bachelor’s or higher degree, average 

total number of months between postsecondary entry and first 

bachelor’s degree attainment, percentage distribution by number of 

months to the first bachelor’s degree, and average age when they 

completed the first bachelor’s degree, by selected characteristics: 2012 ....C-37

C-9a Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in 

postsecondary education, percentage who had ever taken out a 

student loan to pay for their postsecondary education and average 

total amount of student loans, by selected characteristics: 2012 .................C-40

C-9b Standard errors for table C-9a: Among spring 2002 high school 

sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage who had ever taken out a student loan to pay for their 

postsecondary education and average total amount of student loans, 

by selected characteristics: 2012 .......................................................................C-43
xxiv LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

C-10a Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who reported ever 

taking out a student loan to pay for their postsecondary education, 

percentage indicating various impacts of student loan debt on their 

employment plans, by selected characteristics and student loan 

amount: 2012.......................................................................................................C-46

C-10b Standard errors for table C-10a: Among spring 2002 high school 

sophomores who reported ever taking out a student loan to pay for 

their postsecondary education, percentage indicating various impacts 

of student loan debt on their employment plans, by selected 

characteristics and student loan amount: 2012...............................................C-49

C-11a Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

marital status, by selected characteristics: 2012..............................................C-52

C-11b Standard errors for table C-11a: Percentage distribution of spring 

2002 high school sophomores’ marital status, by selected 

characteristics: 2012............................................................................................C-54

C-12a Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores with children, 

and of parents, percentage who were single, by selected 

characteristics: 2012............................................................................................C-56

C-12b Standard errors for table C-12a: Percentage of spring 2002 high 

school sophomores with children, and of parents, percentage who 

were single, by selected characteristics: 2012..................................................C-58

C-13a Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

living arrangements and percentage who owned a home, by selected 

characteristics: 2012............................................................................................C-60

C-13b Standard errors for table C-13a: Percentage distribution of spring 

2002 high school sophomores’ living arrangements and percentage 

who owned a home, by selected characteristics: 2012 ..................................C-62

C-14a Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

employment status and percentage who had ever served in the 

military, by selected characteristics: 2012........................................................C-64
LIST OF TABLES xxv

TABLE PAGE

C-14b Standard errors for table C-14a: Percentage distribution of spring 

2002 high school sophomores’ employment status and percentage 

who had ever served in the military, by selected characteristics: 2012 .......C-67

C-15a Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently 

employed, percentage distribution of their current occupation, by 

selected characteristics: 2012.............................................................................C-69

C-15b Standard errors for table C-15a: Among spring 2002 high school 

sophomores who were currently employed, percentage distribution of 

their current occupation, by selected characteristics: 2012...........................C-73

C-16a Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently 

employed, median and percentage distribution of standardized hourly 

wage for their current job, by selected characteristics: 2012........................C-76

C-16b Standard errors for table C-16a: Among spring 2002 high school 

sophomores who were currently employed, median and percentage 

distribution of standardized hourly wage for their current job, by 

selected characteristics: 2012.............................................................................C-79

C-17a Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had worked for 

pay, percentage reporting the perception that their current or most 

recent job required various postsecondary credentials, and of those 

who had also enrolled in postsecondary education, percentage 

indicating that their current or most recent job was closely, 

somewhat, or not related to their most recent postsecondary major 

field: by selected characteristics: 2012 .............................................................C-82

C-17b Standard errors for table C-17a: Among spring 2002 high school 

sophomores who had worked for pay, percentage reporting the 

perception that their current or most recent job required various 

postsecondary credentials, and of those who had also enrolled in 

postsecondary education, percentage indicating that their current or 

most recent job was closely, somewhat, or not related to their most 

recent postsecondary major field: by selected characteristics: 2012............C-85

C-18a Among spring 2002 high school sophomores, percentage distribution 

of employment since 2006, by selected characteristics: 2012.......................C-88
xxvi LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

C-18b Standard errors for table C-18a: Among spring 2002 high school 

sophomores, percentage distribution of employment since 2006, by 

selected characteristics: 2012.............................................................................C-91

C-19a Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had ever 

been unemployed since January 2009 and of those, average number 

of months unemployed and percentage distribution of 

unemployment spells since January 2009, by selected characteristics: 

2012 ......................................................................................................................C-93

C-19b Standard errors for table C-19a: Percentage of spring 2002 high 

school sophomores who had ever been unemployed since January 

2009 and of those, average number of months unemployed and 

percentage distribution of unemployment spells since January 2009, 

by selected characteristics: 2012 .......................................................................C-96

C-20a Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

socioeconomic status in 2012 and percentage who or whose spouses, 

partners, or children received public assistance in 2011, by selected 

student characteristics........................................................................................C-99

C-20b Standard errors for table C-20a: Percentage distribution of spring 

2002 high school sophomores’ socioeconomic status in 2012 and 

percentage who or whose spouses, partners, or children received 

public assistance in 2011, by selected student characteristics ....................C-103
xxvii

List of Figures

FIGURE PAGE

A Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who achieved 

selected outcomes: 2012 .......................................................................................... v

1 U.S. postsecondary enrollment, bachelor’s degree attainment, and 

unemployment rates among young adults in selected age groups: 

1980–2012.................................................................................................................. 5

2 Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ high 

school completion status: 2012 ............................................................................ 12

3 Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ high 

school completion status, by selected demographic characteristics: 

2012 .......................................................................................................................... 13

4 Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who subsequently 

received a high school credential, percentage distribution of high 

school completion year, by high school credential type: 2012......................... 18

5 Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who subsequently 

received a high school credential, percentage distribution of their 

high school completion year, by selected demographic characteristics: 

2012 .......................................................................................................................... 19

6 Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled 

in postsecondary education, and of those, percentage who had 

enrolled within 3 months after high school completion, by parent’s 

highest education: 2012 ......................................................................................... 25

7 Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who subsequently 

enrolled in postsecondary education, percentage who first attended 

various types of institutions: 2012........................................................................ 28
xxviii LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE

8 Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who subsequently 

enrolled in postsecondary education, percentage distribution of their 

highest postsecondary attainment, by selected demographic 

characteristics: 2012................................................................................................ 32

9 Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had earned a 

bachelor’s or higher degree, percentage distribution by time to first 

bachelor’s degree attainment: 2012...................................................................... 35

10 Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who reported taking 

out a student loan to pay for their postsecondary education, 

percentage indicating various impacts of student loan debt on their 

employment plans, by total amount of student loans: 2012............................. 41

11 Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

marital status, by selected demographic characteristics and student’s 

highest educational attainment: 2012................................................................... 45

12 Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had one or 

more biological or adopted children, and of parents, percentage who 

were single, by selected demographic characteristics and student’s 

highest educational attainment: 2012................................................................... 47

13 Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

employment status, by student’s highest educational attainment: 2012 ......... 53

14 Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

employment status, by selected demographic characteristics: 2012................ 55

15 Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

employment status, by selected high school academic characteristics: 

2012 .......................................................................................................................... 56

16 Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

employment status, by marital and parenthood status: 2012 ........................... 57

17 Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had ever 

served in the military, by selected demographic characteristics: 2012 ............ 58
LIST OF FIGURES xxix

FIGURE PAGE

18 Median standardized hourly wage for spring 2002 high school 

sophomores who were currently employed, by students’ highest 

educational attainment: 2012 ................................................................................ 65

19 Median standardized hourly wage for spring 2002 high school 

sophomores who were currently employed, by selected demographic 

characteristics: 2012................................................................................................ 66

20 Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently 

employed, percentage distribution of standardized hourly wage, by 

selected demographic characteristics: 2012......................................................... 67

21 Median standardized hourly wage for spring 2002 high school 

sophomores who were currently employed, by current occupation: 

2012 .......................................................................................................................... 69

22 Among spring 2002 high school sophomores, percentage distribution 

of employment since 2006, by student’s highest educational 

attainment: 2012...................................................................................................... 73

23 Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had ever 

been unemployed since January 2009, by selected demographic 

characteristics: 2012................................................................................................ 75

24 Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

socioeconomic status, by selected demographic characteristics: 2012 ........... 80

25 Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who or whose 

spouses, partners, or children received public assistance in 2011, by 

student’s highest educational attainment............................................................. 81
This page intentionally left blank 
1 

Introduction

In the spring term of the 2001–02 school year, a nationally representative sample of 

more than 15,000 high school sophomores from public and private high schools in

the United States participated in the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002). Sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education 

Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), ELS:2002 is a 

multifaceted longitudinal survey designed to provide data on the transition from 

adolescence to adulthood (Ingels et al. 2005). In the 10 years after the launch of this 

study, sample members were resurveyed three times—in 2004, 2006, and 2012. 

Comprehensive data about their background and experiences were collected from

students, their parents, teachers, and school administrators; transcripts were 

requested from all high schools that students had attended since ninth grade;7

 and 

additional information from such sources as the federal financial aid system and 

college entrance examination providers was gathered (Lauff and Ingels 2014). 

Together, the multiple surveys and supplemental data sources of ELS:2002 provide 

researchers with opportunities to study the critical transitions of American 

adolescents as they progress through high school into postsecondary education, the 

workforce, and other adult roles such as spouse and parent. 

This Statistical Analysis Report uses data from ELS:2002 to examine the status of 

2002 high school sophomores a decade later, focusing on the extent to which cohort 

members had reached such life course milestones as finishing school, starting a job, 

leaving home, getting married, and having children. In so doing, this study draws 

heavily on data collected during the base-year and the third follow-up surveys of 

ELS:2002. In other words, this study describes the status of 2002 high school 

sophomores in 2012, when most cohort members were 26 years old, in relation to 

various characteristics observed during their high school years. 

Representing approximately 3.4 million students from the sophomore class of 2002, 

ELS:2002 sample members came from diverse backgrounds. About 40 percent of 

the cohort were members of racial/ethnic minority groups, and 14 percent were 

non-native-English speakers (Ingels et al. 2005). When in 10th grade, some

22 percent lived in a single-parent household, and one in five came from a family 

with a total annual income below $25,000. About 43 percent of 2002 sophomores 

had at least one parent with a bachelor’s or higher degree, and 25 percent had 

parents with no education beyond high school. In terms of academic achievement, 

 

7 Postsecondary transcripts were also collected in 2013–14, but they were not available in time for the 

analysis of this report.
2 INTRODUCTION

while at least two-thirds of sophomores had mastered basic math skills by 10th grade 

(e.g., simple arithmetic operations), 20 percent showed proficiency in understanding 

intermediate-level math concepts and 1 percent demonstrated the mastery of 

knowledge and skills typically taught in upper-level high school math classes

(e.g., solving complex multistep word problems). In reading, nearly 90 percent of 

sophomores were proficient at simple reading comprehension, and 8 percent were at 

a much more advanced level, already capable of combining information from 

multiple sources and making complex inferences or judgments. 

Members of this sophomore cohort had high expectations for their future education 

(Ingels et al. 2005). Nine in 10 expressed a desire to attend postsecondary education

after high school, and close to three-quarters expected to complete a 4-year-college 

or higher degree. Many also placed great significance on their future work and family 

life: 84 percent rated being able to find a steady job as very important, and 

80 percent thought that marrying and having a happy family life were very important. 

This study is designed to examine the extent to which 2002 high school sophomores 

achieved various milestones of early adulthood as of 2012, including high school 

completion, entrance into postsecondary education, progress toward or completion 

of a postsecondary credential, family formation, and employment and earnings. 

Specifically, the study addresses the following questions: 

• Where did 2002 high school sophomores stand a decade later in education, the 

labor market, and family formation? 

• Did 2002 sophomores from different demographic backgrounds and with 

different academic characteristics in high school achieve the same or different 

outcomes in these areas?

• Did various demographic and high school academic characteristics have unique 

associations with 2002 sophomores’ later outcomes in education and the labor 

market when other factors were taken into account?

• How did 2002 sophomores who achieved various levels of education—from 

not completing high school through post-baccalaureate attainment—fare in the 

labor market in 2012?

This study addresses these questions by providing a descriptive portrait of 2002 

sophomores in 2012, focusing on both the outcomes of students overall and 

differences in outcomes among various groups of students. Recognizing that many 

demographic and academic characteristics are interrelated, this study selects three 

2012 outcomes—highest educational attainment, employment status, and hourly 

wages for 2012 jobs—and uses multivariate techniques to determine which 

characteristics had a unique association with these outcomes after controlling for 

related factors. To provide a context for these analyses, the following section 
INTRODUCTION 3

presents a brief review of the current research literature on the transition into young 

adulthood and of the historical context unique to the 2002 sophomore class. 

Changing Transition to Adulthood: A Brief Review of the 

Literature

Becoming an adult in the United States has traditionally been conceived as a young 

person completing four core milestones—finishing school, leaving home, entering 

the labor force, and forming a family of one’s own. Considerable evidence indicates 

that both the length and sequence of adult transitions are changing (Arnett 2000; 

Furstenberg 2010; Settersten and Ray 2010). Compared with their parents’ and 

grandparents’ generations, today’s young people are taking longer to reach adult 

milestones: they are extending education, living at home longer, delaying full 

participation in the labor market, and postponing marriage and childbearing (Aud, 

KewalRamani, and Frohlich 2011; Danziger and Rouse 2009; Furstenberg 2010; 

Settersten, Furstenberg, and Rumbaut 2005).

In addition, the passage to adulthood has become less orderly and predictable 

(Settersten and Ray 2010). Compared with earlier generations, fewer young people 

nowadays have followed the sequence of finishing school, working, leaving home, 

getting married, and becoming parents. Instead, many combine school with work; 

some have children before marriage; and increasing numbers of young adults 

continue to live with their parents after college and beyond (Furstenberg 2010). 

Between 1974 and 2006, for example, the percentage of 20-year-olds who had ever 

worked while enrolled in college rose from 63 percent to 78 percent (Ingels et al. 

2012). Between 1980 and 2008, the number of births to unmarried women ages 

20 to 29 more than doubled, from 37 to 78 per 1,000 women (Aud, KewalRamani, 

and Frohlich 2011). In 1970, some 13 percent of single 25-year-old White men 

without children and 7 percent of single 25-year-old White women without children 

were living at home with their parents; by 2007, these percentages had increased to 

26 percent for men and 20 percent for women (Settersten and Ray 2010). Attitudes 

are shifting as well: although more than 95 percent of Americans still consider 

completing school, leaving home, and being employed full time as necessary markers 

of adulthood, fewer (50 percent) view marriage and parenthood as such markers 

(Settersten, Furstenberg, and Rumbaut 2005; Settersten and Ray 2010).

The 2002 sophomore cohort not only shares in this larger trend of the lengthening 

transition to adulthood, but also has experienced some unique historical events at the 

end of the 20th century and beginning of the 21st century—events that may 

influence their educational expectations, career goals, and decisions about marriage

and parenthood. Born in the mid-1980s, members of the 2002 sophomore cohort 

belong to the “Millennial Generation,” a term frequently used by researchers to 
4 INTRODUCTION

describe a generation born after 1980 and ranging in age from 18 to 33 in 2014 

(Pew Research Center 2014a).8

 While the period of the mid-1980s through 2012 

witnessed Americans’ increased participation and attainment in postsecondary 

education (Snyder, de Brey, and Dillow 2016), it has also seen terrorism, wars, and 

devastating natural disasters; experienced both economic booms and busts; watched 

the rapid growth of the Internet, mobile technology, and social networking; and was 

subject to waves of reform in the nation’s educational system (Elsby, Hobijin, and 

Sahin 2010; Holmes, Rauch, and Cozza 2013; Pew Research Center 2014a; Taylor 

2011). In trying to understand the later outcomes of the sophomore class of 2002, it 

may be helpful to review some of the most important historical events, economic 

trends, and educational reform movements that may have shaped the coming of age 

of this cohort. 

Historical Context

Students who were high school sophomores in 2002 grew up in a tumultuous period 

of recent history. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 occurred at the 

beginning of these students’ sophomore year, and in response, the United States and 

its allies initiated military action in Afghanistan in 2001 (Taylor 2011). Additional 

military action in Iraq followed in 2003. Both wars continued well into the next 

decade, producing more than 50,000 casualties and resulting in over 2 million 

children growing up in military families (Holmes, Rauch, and Cozza 2013).

Consequently, the ELS:2002 sophomore cohort came of age while the United States 

was actively engaged in military actions for a prolonged period of time. Thus far, few 

researchers have studied the long-term impact of these wars on Americans’ lives in 

general and on the development of children growing up in wartime in particular, but 

there is some evidence that the recent wars may have influenced young people’s 

decisions to serve in the military. Trend data have shown that the percentage of 

young adults who entered the military within 2 years after high school declined from 

7 percent in 1974 and 6 percent in 1982 to 3 percent in 2006 (Ingels et al. 2012).

Economic Context

The U.S. economy went through significant turbulence during the 2002 sophomore 

cohort’s middle school years and beyond (Elsby, Hobijin, and Sahin 2010). The 

 

8 Emerging research has found that the millennial generation has some distinctive characteristics

(Howe and Strauss 2007; Rainie and Wellman 2012; Pew Research Center 2010b, 2014a). Compared 

with earlier generations, they are more confident, motivated, optimistic, and achievement-oriented—

qualities that may have contributed to their status as the best-educated cohort of young adults in 

American history. Millennials are also relatively unattached to organized politics and religion; widely 

connected by digital media; overburdened by debt; and in no rush to marry and start families. Except 

for marriage and parenthood, many of these characteristics are not measured in ELS:2002 and thus, 

cannot be explored in this report.
INTRODUCTION 5 

“dot-com bubble” of 1997–2000 burst just as most cohort members were entering 

high school. Within a few years of the “dot-com bust,” the real estate market

boomed and then went bust in 2007–08, when many ELS:2002 cohort members 

were either enrolled in college or finishing their undergraduate education. The U.S. 

unemployment rate among persons aged 16 years and older climbed steadily since

2007, reaching its peak by 2010 (figure 1). The nation’s poverty rate rose from 

11 percent in 2000 to 14 percent in 2009 (Aud, KewalRamani, and Frohlich 2011). 

The long-term consequences of this Great Recession have yet to be measured but 

may be especially severe for those who entered the job market during and 

immediately after the recession (Kahn 2010), including many members of the 2002 

sophomore cohort. 

Figure 1. 

U.S. postsecondary enrollment, bachelor’s degree attainment, and unemployment rates among young adults in selected age 

groups: 1980–2012

NOTE: The postsecondary enrollment rate is the percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds who are enrolled in all U.S. degree-granting institutions. The 

bachelor’s degree attainment rate is the percentage of persons 25 years and older who hold a bachelor’s degree. The unemployment rate is the 

percentage of persons 16 years and older in the labor force who are jobless, looking for a job, and available for work; the labor force consists of 

people who are employed or seeking employment. Estimates are available in table C-1. 

SOURCE: Postsecondary enrollment rates and bachelor’s degree attainment rates are from Snyder, T.D., de Brey, C., and Dillow, S.A. (2016). 

Digest of Education Statistics 2015 (NCES 2016-014). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department 

of Education. Washington, DC. Unemployment rates are from the Bureau of Labor Statistics tabulation, 

https://data.bls.gov/timeseries/LNU04000000?years_option=all_years&periods_option=specific_periods&periods=Annual+Data.

26

28

32

34 35

39 37 39 40

41 41 42 41

17

19

21

23

26

28 28 29 29 30 30 30 31

7.1 7.2

5.6 5.6 4.0 5.1 4.6 4.6 5.8

9.3 9.6 8.9 8.1

0

10

20

30

40

50

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Percent

Postsecondary enrollment

Bachelor’s degree attainment

Unemployment

1986: 

Birth of 

most cohort 

members

1991: 

Most cohort 

members started 

formal schooling

(modal age = 5)

2002: 

ELS base-year study; all were 

in 10th grade (modal age = 16)

2004: 

ELS first follow-up study; most 

were in 12th grade (modal age = 18)

2006: 

ELS second follow-up study; most had been 

out of high school for 2 years (modal age = 20)

2012: 

ELS third 

follow-up 

study (modal 

age = 26)
6 INTRODUCTION

Economic hardship may be one reason that increasing numbers of young adults 

today depend on their parents and are slower to get married than their counterparts 

of earlier generations (Danziger and Rouse 2009; Roksa and Arum 2012). Both the 

median age at first marriage—now 29 for men and 27 for women—and the share of 

young adults living with their parents are now the highest in modern history (Pew 

Research Center 2014a). Further, increasing globalization, expanding markets, and 

fast-growing technologies have given rise to new industries and employment 

uncertainties, all of which may complicate young adults’ decisions about their careers

and investments in education (Blossfeld et al. 2005).

Education Policy Context

Since the release of A Nation at Risk in 1983, the United States has seen repeated 

waves of education reform focused on increasing student achievement, reducing 

performance gaps, and raising the standing of U.S. students on international tests. By 

2000, when members of the 2002 sophomore cohort started high school, most states 

had raised high school graduation requirements, mandated standardized tests, 

tightened teachers’ certifications, and increased schools’ accountability for the 

outcomes of their students (Lee and Ready 2009; Rouse and Kemple 2009). These 

reforms may have brought about changes in students’ coursetaking—2004 high 

school seniors in ELS earned more credits in math and science and took more 

advanced-level courses in these subject areas than did their counterparts in the 1982 

and 1992 cohorts (Dalton et al. 2007).

In 2002, when members of the ELS:2002 cohort were 10th-graders, the No Child 

Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) was signed into law, and provisions of the 

legislation were implemented throughout their remaining high school years. The goal 

of the legislation was to provide incentives for states to implement various reforms

to ensure that all students in each state were proficient in mathematics and reading

by 2014. NCLB also included school- and district-level accountability not only for 

students’ achievement test results but also for the high school graduation rate. Given 

its limited implementation during the early 2000s, which were the cohort’s final years 

of high school, the effects of NCLB on 2002 sophomores’ outcomes may be 

minimal. 

At the postsecondary education level, changes in federal policy, coupled with shifts in 

public attitudes and expectations, opened up higher education as never before (Brock 

2010). From a policy perspective, the Higher Education Act (HEA) of 1965 has played 

a key role in the expansion of higher education. The law was designed to provide 

need-based financial assistance to postsecondary students. Since 1965, the law has 

been reauthorized nine times, most recently in 2008, with each authorization intended 
INTRODUCTION 7

to expand college access through financial aid to underserved populations (e.g., 

minorities, low-income, and disabled students) (Barrow, Brock, and Rouse 2013). 

Fueled at least partly by the HEA, college enrollment has increased dramatically. 

Among U.S. 18- to 24-year-olds, the percentage who were enrolled in postsecondary 

institutions increased from 26 percent in 1980 to 41 percent in 2012 (figure 1). During 

the same period, the bachelor’s degree attainment rate among persons aged 25 years 

and older nearly doubled, rising from 17 percent to 31 percent. The ELS:2002 cohort 

was part of this upward trend, in which 62 percent of 2004 seniors enrolled in 

postsecondary education within 2 years of high school completion, compared with 

40 percent of 1974 seniors and 49 percent of 1982 seniors (Ingels et al. 2012).

Along with increased enrollments, rising college costs and the deep economic 

recession in the late 2000s have led unprecedented numbers of students to take out 

student loans to pay for their college education (Avery and Turner 2012; Dynarski 

and Scott-Clayton 2013). Between 1995 and 2012, borrowing rates for undergraduate 

education rose from 26 percent to 42 percent (Horn and Paslov 2014). Two-thirds of 

2007–08 college graduates had outstanding student loans upon receiving their 

bachelor’s degree, with an average debt of $25,000; 15 years before, about half of 

graduates had college debt, and the average debt was $15,000 (in constant 2009 

dollars) (Woo 2013). There has been increasing concern that high levels of education 

debt, especially among those who left college during and after the recent recession 

and entered a weak job market, may undermine students’ ability to pursue further 

education, achieve financial independence, and start families (Barrow, Brock, and 

Rouse 2013; Danziger and Rouse 2009; Minicozzi 2005; Roksa and Arum 2012; 

Rothstein and Rouse 2011; Zhang 2013). 

The historical, economic, and education policy contexts are presumed to have helped 

shape the distinctive experiences of the sophomore class of 2002. The final followup survey conducted in 2012 provides the data this study uses to examine the status 

of and choices made by members of this cohort as they move into adulthood and 

begin to take on adult roles and responsibilities. 

Report Background and Organization

Report Background

NCES has collected longitudinal data on high school students for more than 

40 years. Starting with the National Longitudinal Study (NLS-72), followed by the 

High School and Beyond (HSB) Study of 1980 Sophomores and Seniors and the 

National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), and continuing with the 

two recent studies, ELS:2002 and the High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 
8 INTRODUCTION

(HSLS:2009), NCES has provided nationally representative longitudinal data to 

education policymakers and researchers, allowing them to link secondary school 

educational experiences with such important adult outcomes as postsecondary 

attainment, employment outcomes, and family formation. 

In 2002, NCES published Coming of Age in the 1990s: The Eighth-Grade Class of 1988

12 Years Later, using data from NELS:88 to examine the status and outcomes of 

1988 eighth-graders 12 years later in 2000 (Ingels et al. 2002). The report portrayed 

the transition of the 1988 eighth-graders into young adulthood during the last decade 

of the 20th century, which was marked by such far-reaching changes as the end of 

the Cold War, the explosive growth of the Internet and personal computers, and 

continued scrutiny and reform of the nation’s education systems.

ELS:2002 provides the first opportunity to examine the transition of high school 

students into young adulthood during the early 21st century. As with NELS:88, the 

final follow-up survey of ELS:2002 occurred when most cohort members were 

26 years old and had been out of high school for 8 years. Many, by 2012, had already 

completed postsecondary education and entered the workforce, and some had also 

started their own families (Lauff and Ingels 2014). 

Report Organization

This report is organized into five sections. The first section presents detailed 

estimates regarding high school completion in this nationally representative cohort of 

students who were enrolled in 10th grade in spring 2002, answering such questions as 

what percentage completed high school via a regular diploma, GED, or other 

equivalency, and how long it took them to complete high school. The second section 

focuses on cohort members’ participation and attainment in postsecondary education, 

examining enrollment rates, the type of the first institution attended, degree 

completion, time to bachelor’s degree, and the extent and perceived impact of 

borrowing for postsecondary education. The third section looks at family formation, 

presenting the percentage of cohort members who got married, started families, or 

were still living with parents as of 2012. The fourth section examines cohort 

members’ labor market experiences and outcomes, presenting their 2012 employment 

status, occupation, the relationship between their education and job, and hourly wage

for their 2012 job. This section also provides a first look at 2002 sophomores’ 2012 

socioeconomic status (SES) and its relationship with their parents’ SES.

The last section of this report turns to multivariate analysis, exploring how various 

demographic and high school academic characteristics were associated with cohort 

members’ later postsecondary attainment and labor market outcomes, while

controlling for covariation among the variables included in the model. The section 
INTRODUCTION 9 

also examines how sophomores’ educational attainment was associated with their 

labor market outcomes. The primary purpose of this section is to determine which 

factors are uniquely associated with students’ later outcomes and whether various 

gaps identified in the bivariate analysis persist after controlling for other related 

factors. Details on model specifications are provided in the multivariate analysis 

section below. 

The main text of this report uses tables and figures to highlight the major findings of 

these analyses. More detailed results are presented in the tables in appendix C as an 

additional source for readers. Estimates in the appendix tables are sometimes 

referred to in the text for ease of presentation. 

All bivariate comparisons in this report were tested for statistical significance using a 

two-tailed Student’s t statistic to ensure that the differences were larger than might be 

expected due to sampling variation. Unless specifically noted, all differences cited in 

the report were statistically significant at the .05 level. Adjustments were not made 

for multiple comparisons. 

Data Source and Study Sample

Data Source

The data source for this study is ELS:2002, an integrated, multilevel data collection 

designed to provide data about students’ transitions from high school to 

postsecondary education or early careers. The ELS:2002 base-year data collection

started in the spring term of the 2001–02 school year with a nationally representative 

sample of about 15,400 high school sophomores in approximately 750 public and 

private schools across the United States.

9 Over the next 10 years, these sample 

members were resurveyed in three follow-ups: in 2004 (when most members were 

seniors in high school10); in 2006 (approximately 2 years after the sample’s modal 

high school graduation date); and in 2012 (when the majority of the sample was 

approximately 26 years old).11

 

9 Students who had dropped out of school prior to the 2001–02 school year were not included in the 

base-year sampling frame for ELS:2002 (Ingels et al. 2014). 10 In the first follow-up survey in 2004, base-year students who remained in their base-year schools 

were resurveyed, along with a freshening sample that makes the study representative of spring 2004 

high school seniors nationwide. Efforts were also made to track students who had changed schools, 

switched to a homeschool environment, completed high school early, and dropped out of school 

between the base-year and first follow-up surveys (Ingels et al. 2014). 11 The ELS:2002 third follow-up data collection began in July 2012 and continued until late 

January 2013. For brevity, this report refers to students’ current status “as of 2012,” although some 

students were interviewed in 2013.
10 INTRODUCTION

ELS:2002 provides a wealth of information from multiple sources (achievement 

tests, questionnaires, administrative records, and both high school and postsecondary 

transcripts) about the factors and circumstances related to the performance and 

development of 2002 high school sophomores (Lauff and Ingels 2014). These data 

permit us to see what the 2002 sophomore class had accomplished 10 years after the 

2002 baseline survey. More details on the design and structure of ELS:2002 can be 

found in Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 Third Follow-up Data File Documentation

(Ingels et al. 2014).

Study Sample

To describe the outcomes of 2002 high school sophomores 10 years later, this study 

selects cohort members who participated in both the base-year survey in 2002 and 

the third follow-up survey in 2012. Of about 15,400 students who participated in the 

base-year survey, approximately 13,100 also participated in the third follow-up. 

These 13,100 respondents became the base sample for this study. Some specific 

analyses were further restricted to subgroups of this base sample; for example, in the 

section on postsecondary education, several analyses included only 2002 sophomores 

who had attended postsecondary education by 2012. Data reported in this report 

reflect nationally representative estimates of spring 2002 high school sophomores as 

of the third follow-up survey in 2012. 

Limitations

This study provides numerous findings about the status and outcomes of 2002 

sophomores in 2012. At the same time, the study leaves unanswered some basic why

questions—e.g., why were some students able to make the transition to 

postsecondary education and the labor market and others not? Although the 

multivariate analyses in the last part of the report control for a wide range of 

characteristics when looking at such outcomes and do yield some insights, they do 

not control for many other potential factors that may be associated with the 

outcomes examined in this study (i.e., educational attainment, employment status, 

and hourly wages) and, hence, do not reveal a complete story. While the multivariate 

results may suggest topics for further research that might examine questions of 

causality, this study remains descriptive and does not purport to identify causal 

relationships. 
11

High School Completion

High school completion is a key milestone in the transition to young adulthood, as it 

often serves as a requisite step in accessing subsequent postsecondary education, 

finding stable employment, and earning a living wage (Baum, Ma, and Payea 2013; 

Berlin, Furstenberg, and Waters 2010). Failing to achieve this critical milestone can 

burden individuals (e.g., more unemployment and lower earnings), their families (e.g., 

greater need for families to support young adults), and society (e.g., lower tax 

revenues, greater public spending on public assistance and health care, and higher 

crime rates) (Kingston et al. 2003; Tyler and Lofstrom 2009). Demographic, family, 

and academic characteristics that might facilitate or interfere with high school 

completion and, by extension, the transition to adulthood, are therefore of particular 

interest.

This section explores the high school completion status and timing among 2002 high 

school sophomores as of 2012. These outcomes are examined in terms of students’ 

demographics; high school coursetaking patterns (e.g., rigor of curriculum); academic 

performance (e.g., GPA); and behavior while in high school (e.g., 10th-grade school 

disengagement). Results of additional bivariate analyses of high school completion 

can be found in appendix C of this report. 

High School Completion Status

By 2012, most members of the 2002 sophomore cohort (89 percent) had earned a 

high school diploma (figure 2). An additional 7 percent had earned an alternative 

credential by passing a GED certificate test or earning other high school equivalency 

such as a certificate of attendance. A small fraction (4 percent) had failed to complete 

high school by either method. 

Past research has shown a wide range in reported estimates of U.S. high school 

graduation rates (Heckman and LaFontaine 2010; Seastrom et al. 2006); these rates 

often vary according to the definitions, data sources, and methods used in their 

calculation. It is therefore worth noting several nuances related to the high school 

completion rates reported here relative to those from other studies. 
12 HIGH SCHOOL COMPLETION

Figure 2. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ high school completion status: 2012

First, as described earlier in this report, estimates for this report were generated using 

data from ELS:2002, which makes up a nationally representative cohort of 2002 high 

school sophomores; consequently, these data do not capture students who dropped 

out of high school prior to 10th grade. The resulting high school completion rates 

presented in this report may therefore appear higher than estimates generated for 

some other cohorts—e.g., a cohort of ninth-graders (Stetser and Stillwell 2014;

Stillwell, Sable, and Plotts 2011).

Second, ELS:2002 is a longitudinal study, allowing collection of high school 

completion information up to 8 years after the cohort’s modal high school 

completion year. The high school completion rates reported here may appear higher 

than “on-time” graduation rates calculated based on the duration of 4 years in other 

studies (Stetser and Stillwell 2014; Stillwell, Sable, and Plotts 2011).

Lastly, while most earlier studies focus on completion rates among those attending 

public high schools, ELS:2002 comprises students from both public and private high 

schools. Private high schools typically have higher graduation rates than public 

schools (Ingels et al. 2002; Snyder, de Brey, and Dillow 2016); hence, the ELS:2002-

based high school completion rates may appear higher than those calculated based 

on public high school students (Stetser and Stillwell 2014).

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates and standard errors are available in tables C-2a 

and C-2b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

Received a high 

school diploma

89

Received a 

GED or other 

equivalency

Did not receive 

a high school 

credential

7 4
HIGH SCHOOL COMPLETION 13

Completion Status by Demographic Characteristics

Although the high school completion rates presented here may differ from those in 

other studies, the differences observed among demographic subgroups in this study 

are consistent with the findings of past research—i.e., high school completion rates 

tend to be higher among females, Whites and Asians, and economically advantaged 

students than among their peers who are males, Blacks and Hispanics, and 

economically disadvantaged (Aud et al. 2012; Balfanz et al. 2014; Heckman and 

LaFontaine 2010; Stillwell, Sable, and Plotts 2011; Tyler and Lofstrom 2009).

Specifically, a greater proportion of females in the 2002 sophomore cohort received 

a high school diploma than did males (91 percent vs. 88 percent) (figure 3). In 

contrast, a greater proportion of males than females received a GED or other high 

school equivalency (8 percent vs. 5 percent).

Figure 3. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ high school completion status, by selected 

demographic characteristics: 2012

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

1 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native 

Hawaiian, other Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude 

Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates and standard errors are available in tables C-2a 

and C-2b.

96

91

81

85

94

82

84

92

91

88

3

6

10

10

4

9

9

5

5

8

1

3

9

5

2

9

7

2

4

5

0 20 40 60 80 100

Highest quarter

Middle two quarters

Lowest quarter

Other

Asian

Hispanic

Black

White

Female

Male

Percent

Received

a high school

diploma

Received

a GED or other

equivalency

Did not receive

a high school

credential

Sex

Race/ethnicity1

Family SES in 10th grade
14 HIGH SCHOOL COMPLETION

In terms of race/ethnicity, greater proportions of White and Asian students received 

high school diplomas than did Black or Hispanic students (92 and 94 percent vs. 

84 and 82 percent, respectively), while greater proportions of Black and Hispanic 

students received GEDs or other equivalencies (9 percent for both groups) than did 

White and Asian students (5 and 4 percent, respectively). In addition, 7–9 percent of 

Black and Hispanic students had not earned any high school credential (i.e., a high 

school diploma, GED, or other equivalency), compared with 2 percent of White and 

Asian students. 

High school completion rates also differed by the SES of students’ families.12 Among 

students from high-SES families (i.e., families in the highest quarter of the SES 

distribution), 96 percent had earned a high school diploma; 3 percent had earned a 

GED or other equivalency; and 1 percent had not earned a high school credential by 

2012. High school completion rates among students from middle-SES families (i.e., 

families in the middle two quarters of the SES distribution) were slightly lower than 

those of students from high-SES families: 91 percent had earned a high school 

diploma; 6 percent had earned a GED or other equivalency; and 3 percent had not 

earned a high school credential by 2012. The corresponding percentages among 

students from low-SES families (i.e., families in the lowest quarter of the SES 

distribution) were 81 percent, 10 percent, and 9 percent, respectively.

Completion Status by High School Academic Characteristics

Past research has shown that high school completion—as well as subsequent 

postsecondary enrollment and attainment—is related to students’ coursetaking in 

high school (Atanda 1999; Long, Conger, and Iatarola 2012). To facilitate 

examination of these relationships in the 2002 sophomore cohort, a composite 

measure of the rigor of high school curriculum completed by students was derived 

for this report. This measure is based on information collected from high school 

transcripts and is aligned with the four curriculum levels (below-standard, standard, 

moderately rigorous, and rigorous) developed for the National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP) High School Transcript Studies (Nord et al. 2011).

Details on the construction of this variable can be found in appendix A of this 

report. An early analysis, using ELS:2002 high school transcript data to link students’ 

coursetaking to their achievement gains in mathematics, found that various curricular 

pathways and coursetaking sequences were related to growth in math performance 

over time (Bozick and Ingels 2008). This study takes a longitudinal perspective 

(which is not possible in NAEP) and provides an important piece of evidence 

concerning the role of the rigorous curriculum in students’ later outcomes. 

 

12 The family SES measure used in this report combines information about parents’ education, 

occupation, and income. See appendix A for more information about this variable.
HIGH SCHOOL COMPLETION 15 

As shown in table 1, at least 98 percent of students who completed a standard, 

moderately rigorous, or rigorous high school curriculum had earned a high school 

diploma by 2012. In comparison, among those whose high school curriculum was 

below standard, 80 percent had earned a high school diploma. An additional 

12 percent of this subgroup had earned a GED or other high school equivalency, 

and 8 percent had not earned a high school credential. 

Students’ high school completion status was also related to whether they took 

specific courses in mathematics and science. Almost all students who had taken a 

course in trigonometry, statistics, precalculus, or calculus had received a high school 

diploma by 2012. In comparison, among those whose highest math course was 

algebra I, geometry, or algebra II, 87 percent had received a high school diploma, 

and an additional 8 percent had earned a GED or other equivalency. Among those 

who took no or low-level math in high school, 56 percent had earned a high school 

diploma; 23 percent had earned a GED or other equivalency; and 21 percent had not 

graduated with a high school credential as of 2012. A similar pattern appeared with 

respect to students’ science coursetaking: at least 97 percent of those who had taken 

chemistry 1, physics 1, or a higher level science course had received a diploma by 

2012, compared with 59 percent among those who had taken no or low-level 

science.13 Among students with no or low-level science courses, 22 percent had 

received a GED or other equivalency, and 19 percent had not received any credential 

by 2012.

Past research has shown that disengaged students and those with a high propensity 

for academic failure are at greater risk of dropping out of school (Finn 1989, 2006; 

Kaufman and Bradbury 1992; Osterman 2000). To include these factors in the 

analyses of this report, two composite measures were derived (details on the 

construction of these two composites can be found in appendix A of this report). 

1. Students’ academic risk level in 10th grade was derived from students’ 9th- and 

10th-grade GPAs, their scores on the ELS:2002 10th-grade mathematics and 

reading assessments, and the number of grades they had repeated prior to 10th 

grade.

2. Students’ school disengagement level in 10th grade was derived from 

sophomores’ responses to questions about absenteeism, tardiness, 

suspension/probation, and other potential sources of disciplinary action. 

 

13 Throughout this report, “low-level science” refers to primary physical science, secondary physical 

science, and basic biology.
16 HIGH SCHOOL COMPLETION

Table 1. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ high school completion status, by selected 

student high school characteristics: 2012

Selected student high 

school characteristics

Received a high 

school diploma

Received a GED or 

other equivalency

Did not receive 

a high school 

credential

Total 89.3 6.6 4.2

Academic risk in 10th grade1

Low 99.2 0.6 ! ‡

Moderate 91.0 6.2 2.8

High 70.3 14.5 15.2

School disengagement in 10th grade2

Low 96.8 1.6 1.6

Moderate 93.4 4.3 2.3

High 77.3 13.9 8.8

Rigor of high school curriculum3,4

Below-standard 79.5 12.1 8.3

Standard 98.4 1.3 ‡

Moderately rigorous 99.7 ‡ ‡

Rigorous 99.9 ‡ #

Highest math coursetaking since grade 94

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 55.8 23.3 20.8

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 86.8 8.4 4.8

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 98.7 0.8 0.5 !

Calculus 99.7 ‡ #

Highest science coursetaking since grade 94

No science or low-level science 59.1 22.3 18.5

General biology 82.6 10.8 6.6

Chemistry I or physics I 96.7 2.2 1.1

Chemistry I and physics I 99.0 0.7 ! ‡

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 98.8 0.9 ‡

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 72.0 16.1 11.9

2.00‒2.49 93.3 4.4 2.3

2.50‒2.99 98.3 1.3 0.4 !

3.00‒3.49 98.6 1.2 ‡

3.50‒4.00 99.7 ‡ ‡

School control in 10th grade

Public 88.6 6.9 4.5

Private 97.6 2.1 ! ‡

‡ Reporting standards not met.

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate.

# Rounds to zero.

3

 A composite measure derived from credits earned in mathematics, biology, chemistry, physics, English, social studies, and 

foreign language reported on students’ high school transcripts. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard errors are available in table C-2b. 

4

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

2

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, 

cutting/skipping classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being 

suspended/put on probation, and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed 

information about this variable.

1

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade 

point average (GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about 

this variable.
HIGH SCHOOL COMPLETION 17

Students’ high school completion status varied with the level of academic risk and 

school disengagement observed in 10th grade (table 1). About 15 percent of 

sophomores who were at high risk of academic failure had not earned a high school 

credential as of 2012, compared with 3 percent of those at a moderate level of risk. 

About 9 percent of students exhibiting a high level of school disengagement in 10th 

grade had not earned a high school credential, compared with 2 percent of those 

with moderate or low disengagement. 

As found in earlier studies (Allensworth and Easton 2007; Mac Iver and Messel 

2013), students’ academic performance was related to their high school completion: 

at least 98 percent of those whose high school academic GPA was 2.5 or higher had 

received a high school diploma, compared with 72 percent of those whose GPA was 

under 2.0. Among students with GPAs under 2.0, some 16 percent had received a 

high school equivalency, and 12 percent had not completed high school. 

In terms of school sector, proportionally more private school than public school 

students graduated from high school with a diploma. Among those who attended a 

private school in 10th grade, almost all (98 percent) had earned a high school 

diploma, and an additional 2 percent had earned a GED or other equivalency. In 

comparison, among those who attended a public school in 10th grade, 89 percent

had received a high school diploma; 7 percent had received a GED or other 

equivalency; and 4 percent had not completed high school. 

Timing of High School Completion

The timing of high school completion may have some impact on students’ 

subsequent postsecondary education, job earnings, and employment rates. For 

example, Kienzl and Kena (2006) found that on-time high school completers had 

lower unemployment rates and higher annual earnings than did late high school 

completers. Late high school graduates tend to delay postsecondary enrollment, 

putting them at greater risk of not completing postsecondary education (Horn, 

Cataldi, and Sikora 2005; Hull 2009).

Among 2002 high school sophomores who had earned a high school credential, 

5 percent received their credential prior to 2004 (for convenience, these students are 

referred to as early completers below); 88 percent received their credential during 2004 

(on-time completers); and the remaining 7 percent received their credential sometime 

after 2004 and by 2012 (late completers) (figure 4).
18 HIGH SCHOOL COMPLETION

Figure 4. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who subsequently received a high school credential, 

percentage distribution of high school completion year, by high school credential type: 2012

Diploma recipients had a higher on-time completion rate than did recipients of a 

GED or other equivalency (92 percent vs. 32 percent). Larger proportions of 

recipients of a GED or other equivalency, on the other hand, completed high school 

either late (50 percent vs. 4 percent) or early (18 percent vs. 4 percent).14 

Timing of High School Completion by Demographic Characteristics

Among 2002 sophomores who had completed high school with a credential (also 

called “high school completers” below), 90 percent of female students completed on 

time and 5 percent completed late; the corresponding percentages for male students 

were 86 and 8 percent, respectively. About 91–92 percent of White and Asian 

students completed on time, and 4–5 percent completed late. In comparison, 

80 percent of Black and Hispanic students completed on time, and 10–13 percent 

completed late (figure 5). As for family SES, 95 percent of high school completers 

 

14 The distribution of early/late recipients of a GED or other equivalency in the 2002 high school 

sophomore cohort is consistent with information provided by the GED Testing Service. For example, 

among all U.S. GED passers in 2004, 4 percent were age 16; 14 percent were age 17; 17 percent were 

age 18; 11 percent were age 19; and 54 percent were age 20 or above (American Council on Education 

2006).

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates and standard errors are available in tables C-3a 

and C-3b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

5 4

18

88 92

32

7 4

50

0

20

40

60

80

100

Total Recipients of

high school

diploma

Recipients of

GED or other

equivalency

After 2004

During 2004

Before 2004

Percent
HIGH SCHOOL COMPLETION 19

from high-SES families received an on-time credential, and 2 percent received a late 

credential, compared with 80 and 12 percent of those from low-SES families, 

respectively. 

Figure 5. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who subsequently received a high school credential, percentage distribution of 

their high school completion year, by selected demographic characteristics: 2012

Early high school completers were more common among Black and Hispanic 

students (10 and 7 percent, respectively) than among White and Asian students 

(4 percent for both groups). Relative to students from middle- and high-SES 

families, a greater proportion of students from low-SES families were early 

completers (8 percent as compared with 5 and 3 percent of students from middleand high-SES families, respectively). These patterns are consistent with the 

relationship between students’ demographic characteristics, the type of diploma they 

received, and the timing of high school completion shown in figures 3 and 4. For 

example, Black and Hispanic students completed high school with a GED at higher 

rates than did White and Asian students (figure 3), and GED recipients completed 

high school early at higher rates than did high school diploma recipients (figure 4).

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates and standard errors are available in tables C-3a and C-3b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

1

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other Pacific 

Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

6 5 4 10 7 4 7 8 5 3

86 90 92 80 80 91 82 80 89 95

8 5 4 10 13

5 11 12 6 2

0

20

40

60

80

100

Male Female White Black Hispanic Asian Other Lowest

quarter

Middle

two

quarters

Highest

quarter

After 2004

During 2004

Before 2004

Percent

Sex Race/ethnicity1 Family SES in 10th grade
20 HIGH SCHOOL COMPLETION

Timing of High School Completion by High School Academic 

Characteristics

The timing of high school completion was also related to various academic 

characteristics in high school. In general, proportionally more students with strong 

academic backgrounds completed high school on time than did those with weak 

academic backgrounds. For example, at least 99 percent of those who had completed 

high school with a moderately rigorous or rigorous curriculum were on-time 

completers, compared with 84 percent of those who had completed a belowstandard curriculum (table 2). About 10 percent of the below-standard curriculum 

subgroup were late completers, and 5 percent were early completers.

Almost all high school completers who took a course in trigonometry, statistics, 

precalculus, or calculus completed high school on time (98 percent); in comparison, 

73 percent of those who took no or only low-level math did so. About 19 percent of 

the no or low-level math group completed after 2004, and 8 percent completed 

before 2004. The pattern was similar with respect to science coursetaking: at least 

96 percent of high school credential recipients who took chemistry I, physics I, or 

higher completed on time, compared with 74 percent of those whose who took no 

or only low-level science. About 17 percent of this latter group were late completers, 

and 9 percent were early completers.

Other high school characteristics were also related to the timing of students’ high 

school completion. On-time completion rates were lower among those who 

exhibited high academic risk or school disengagement while in 10th grade. For 

example, 70–78 percent of high school completers who were at high risk of academic 

failure or were highly disengaged with school while in 10th grade completed high 

school on time, compared with 95–97 percent of their counterparts who exhibited 

low academic risk or school disengagement. In terms of academic performance, at 

least 91 percent of high school completers with an academic GPA of 2.0 or higher 

completed high school on time, compared with 71 percent of those with an academic 

GPA under 2.0. One-fifth of those with an academic GPA under 2.0 were late 

completers, and an additional 15 percent were early completers. Proportionally more 

sophomores who attended a private school completed high school on time than did 

those who attended a public school (96 percent vs. 87 percent).
HIGH SCHOOL COMPLETION 21

Table 2. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who received a high school credential, percentage distribution 

of high school completion year, by selected student high school characteristics: 2012

Selected student high school characteristics

Before 

2004

During

2004

After 

2004

Total 5.4 87.8 6.8

Academic risk in 10th grade1

Low 2.2 97.2 0.6 !

Moderate 5.2 88.9 5.9

High 10.3 70.0 19.6

School disengagement in 10th grade2

Low 3.1 94.7 2.2

Moderate 4.2 91.4 4.3

High 8.5 77.9 13.7

Rigor of high school curriculum3,4

Below-standard 5.4 84.4 10.1

Standard 2.3 96.3 1.5

Moderately rigorous 1.3 98.5 0.2 !

Rigorous ‡ 99.6 ‡

Highest math coursetaking since grade 94

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 8.4 72.6 19.0

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 4.7 87.9 7.4

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 1.3 97.8 0.9

Calculus 0.9 ! 98.8 ‡

Highest science coursetaking since grade 94

No science or low-level science 8.5 74.3 17.2

General biology 5.5 84.9 9.7

Chemistry I or physics I 2.2 95.5 2.3

Chemistry I and physics I 1.1 ! 98.5 0.5 !

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 2.1 96.7 1.1

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 10.0 71.1 18.9

2.00‒2.49 5.0 90.7 4.2

2.50‒2.99 3.2 95.5 1.3

3.00‒3.49 2.8 96.6 0.6 !

3.50‒4.00 2.0 97.4 0.6 !

School control in 10th grade

Public 5.7 87.0 7.3

Private 2.1 96.3 1.6

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard errors are available in table C-3b.

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate.

2

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, 

cutting/skipping classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, 

being suspended/put on probation, and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for 

detailed information about this variable.

1

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade 

point average (GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about 

this variable.

4

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

‡ Reporting standards not met.

3

 A composite measure derived from credits earned in mathematics, biology, chemistry, physics, English, social studies, and 

foreign language reported on students’ high school transcripts. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.
This page intentionally left blank 
23

Postsecondary Enrollment, Completion, and 

Borrowing

Upon completing high school, students make critical choices about the next stage of 

their lives. Today, more than 90 percent of U.S. high school seniors expect to attend 

college at some point, and nearly 70 percent enroll in college immediately after high 

school completion (Aud et al. 2012; Kena et al. 2016). Rising college enrollment rates

are partly fueled by the economy (Autor 2011; Oreopoulos and Petronijevic 2013). 

The share of U.S. jobs requiring postsecondary education has grown from 28 percent

in 1973 to 59 percent in 2010 and is projected to reach 65 percent by 2020 

(Carnevale, Smith, and Strohl 2010). The competitive pressures associated with an 

increasingly global economy make a college education necessary for individuals who 

want access to good jobs (Hout 2012). Today, young people who do not pursue 

education beyond high school are facing fewer job opportunities, lower career 

earnings, and greater chances of being unemployed than their college-educated peers 

(Baum, Ma, and Payea 2013; Blossfeld et al. 2005; Pew Research Center 2014b). 

Within this context, this section addresses the transition of the 2002 sophomore 

cohort from high school to postsecondary education. It focuses on students’ 

postsecondary entrance, choice of their first institution, degree completion, and 

borrowing for postsecondary education. 

Entering Postsecondary Education

Postsecondary Enrollment

When asked about their future educational plans, 90 percent of 2002 sophomores 

indicated that they planned to attend college after high school (Ingels et al. 2005). 

Data from the third follow-up survey show that by 2012, some 84 percent of cohort 

members had entered postsecondary education (table 3). 
24 POSTSECONDARY ENROLLMENT, COMPLETION, AND BORROWING

Table 3. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, and of 

those, percentage who had enrolled within 3 months after high school completion, by selected demographic 

characteristics: 2012

Enrollment rates varied across many demographic subgroups, however. More female 

than male students (88 percent vs. 80 percent) had enrolled in postsecondary 

education by 2012. Larger proportions of White and Asian students (86 and 

92 percent, respectively) than Black and Hispanic students (81 and 78 percent, 

respectively) had entered postsecondary education. The enrollment rate for students 

from high-SES families was 96 percent, surpassing the rates for those from middleand low-SES families (85 percent and 71 percent, respectively). About 93 percent of 

sophomores whose parents had a bachelor’s or higher degree had received at least 

some postsecondary education by 2012, compared with 72 percent of those whose 

parents had a high school education or less (figure 6).

Selected demographic 

characteristics

Enrolled in postsecondary 

education by 2012

Enrolled within 3 months 

of high school completion1

Total 84.0 68.4

Sex

Male 79.9 65.5

Female 87.9 70.9

Race/ethnicity2

White 86.2 72.3

Black 81.5 59.2

Hispanic 78.3 57.5

Asian 92.2 81.4

Other 76.4 63.7

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 71.0 54.9

Middle two quarters 84.9 66.4

Highest quarter 96.4 82.1

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

1

 Includes only students who had enrolled in postsecondary education by 2012.

2

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native 

Hawaiian, other Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude 

Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

NOTE: Standard errors are available in table C-4b.
POSTSECONDARY ENROLLMENT, COMPLETION, AND BORROWING 25

Figure 6. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, and of 

those, percentage who had enrolled within 3 months after high school completion, by parent’s highest 

education: 2012

Enrollment rates were also related to students’ 10th-grade academic characteristics 

(table 4). Looking at educational expectations, 51 percent of sophomores who had 

expected to complete a high school education or less had enrolled by 2012, 

compared with 71 percent of those who had expected to complete some college and 

91 percent of those who had expected to complete a bachelor’s or higher degree. In 

addition, 60–74 percent of students who were at high risk of academic failure or 

highly disengaged with school in 10th grade had entered postsecondary education by 

2012; in contrast, 90–99 percent of their peers who were at low academic risk or not 

disengaged had done so. 

NOTE: Estimates and standard errors are available in tables C-4a and C-4b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

1

 Includes only students who had enrolled in postsecondary education by 2012.

72

58

84

63

93

78

0

20

40

60

80

100

Enrolled in

postsecondary education

by 2012

Enrolled in

postsecondary education

within 3 months of

high school completion1

High school

education or less

Some

college

Bachelor’s degree 

or higher

Percent
26 POSTSECONDARY ENROLLMENT, COMPLETION, AND BORROWING

Table 4. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, and of 

those, percentage who had enrolled within 3 months after high school completion, by selected student high 

school characteristics: 2012

Selected student high 

school characteristics

Enrolled in postsecondary 

education by 2012

Enrolled within 3 months 

of high school completion1

Total 84.0 68.4

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 73.4 54.1

High school diploma or less 51.1 35.5

Some college 71.1 48.4

Bachelor’s or higher degree 91.4 74.1

Academic risk in 10th grade2

Low 98.5 88.6

Moderate 85.8 67.6

High 59.9 37.3

School disengagement in 10th grade3

Low 90.2 79.7

Moderate 87.6 70.4

High 73.8 53.6

Rigor of high school curriculum4,5

Below-standard 76.0 58.9

Standard 87.0 70.0

Moderately rigorous 96.3 80.8

Rigorous 99.9 90.1

Highest math coursetaking since grade 95

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 49.6 37.9

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 80.2 57.9

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 95.8 81.0

Calculus 99.0 89.4

Highest science coursetaking since grade 95

No science or low-level science 54.9 38.8

General biology 75.7 54.4

Chemistry I or physics I 91.2 73.5

Chemistry I and physics I 97.9 82.2

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 96.1 83.8

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 65.7 42.4

2.00‒2.49 83.2 58.0

2.50‒2.99 91.1 72.4

3.00‒3.49 95.1 83.1

3.50‒4.00 98.7 88.6

School control in 10th grade

Public 82.9 67.1

Private 97.0 81.2

NOTE: Standard errors are available in table C-4b. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

2

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point 

average (GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this 

variable.

3

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, 

cutting/skipping classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being 

suspended/put on probation, and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed 

information about this variable.

4

 A composite measure derived from credits earned in mathematics, biology, chemistry, physics, English, social studies, and 

foreign language reported on students’ high school transcripts. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable. 5 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

1

 Includes only students who had enrolled in postsecondary education by 2012.
POSTSECONDARY ENROLLMENT, COMPLETION, AND BORROWING 27

Typically, students who take high-level academic courses in high school enroll in 

postsecondary education at higher rates than do their peers who do not take such 

courses (Bozick and Lauff 2007). This pattern was also reflected in the 2002 

sophomore cohort. For example, almost all students who completed a rigorous high 

school curriculum moved on to postsecondary education by 2012, compared with 

76 percent of those who completed a below-standard curriculum. Enrollment rates 

increased with the level of math and science coursetaking in high school: 99 percent

of students who took calculus and 96 percent of those who took advanced science 

courses such as chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology had enrolled in 

postsecondary education by 2012, compared with 50–55 percent of those who took 

no or only low-level math or science courses. Enrollment rates also increased with 

students’ academic GPAs in high school, starting at 66 percent for students with an 

academic GPA below 2.00 and reaching 99 percent for those with a GPA of 3.5 or 

higher. Furthermore, students who attended a private school in 10th grade had 

enrolled in postsecondary education at a higher rate than their public school peers 

(97 percent vs. 83 percent).

Timing of Initial Enrollment

Among 2002 sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, most 

(68 percent) had done so within 3 months of high school completion (referred to as 

immediate enrollment below) (table 3). About 13 percent had entered within 4–12 months 

of high school completion, and 18 percent had delayed their enrollment by more than 

1 year15 (see table C-4a).

Immediate enrollment was more common among some demographic subgroups, 

including females, Whites and Asians, and students from high-SES families (table 3). 

Immediate enrollment rates were also more prevalent among students with strong 

academic backgrounds, including those who expected to graduate from college, 

those who had low-level academic risk or school disengagement, and those who had 

completed a rigorous curriculum, taken advanced classes in math and science, or 

earned high grades in high school (table 4). Among their counterparts, on the other 

hand, higher percentages of students delayed postsecondary enrollment by more 

than 1 year after completing high school (see table C-4a). 

 

15 The percentages do not sum to 100 because of rounding.
28 POSTSECONDARY ENROLLMENT, COMPLETION, AND BORROWING

Choice of the First Institution

High school students intending to attend college have a wide range of institutions 

they can choose from. Among the 2002 sophomore cohort who had enrolled in 

postsecondary education, 36 percent started at a 4-year public institution, 15 percent

at a private nonprofit 4-year institution, 36 percent at a public 2-year institution, and 

9 percent at a for-profit institution (figure 7).

Figure 7. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who subsequently enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage who first attended various types of institutions: 2012

1

 The for-profit category includes for-profit institutions at all levels.

NOTE: Estimates and standard errors are available in tables C-5a, C-5b, C-6a, C-6b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

2

 Selectivity categories are based on 2010 Carnegie classifications. “Highly selective” 4-year institutions refer to those 

whose first-year students’ postsecondary entrance test scores place them in roughly the top fifth of baccalaureate 

institutions; “moderately selective” 4-year institutions refer to those whose first-year students’ postsecondary entrance test 

scores place them in roughly the middle two-fifths of baccalaureate institutions; “inclusive” 4-year institutions refer to those 

whose first-year students’ postsecondary entrance test scores indicate that they extend educational opportunity to a wide 

range of students with respect to academic preparation and achievement; and “Unclassified” 4-year institutions are those 

that do not have information on students’ postsecondary entrance test scores.

45

8

9

22

17

3

9

36

15

36

0 10 20 30 40 50

Less-than-4-year

Unclassified 4-year

Inclusive 4-year

Moderately selective 4-year

Highly selective 4-year

Other

For-profit1

Public 2-year

Private nonprofit 4-year

Public 4-year

Percent

Level and control of institution

Level and selectivity of institution2
POSTSECONDARY ENROLLMENT, COMPLETION, AND BORROWING 29

A minority of enrollees—17 percent in the 2002 sophomore cohort—first attended 

highly selective institutions.16 Many first attended moderately selective or inclusive

4-year institutions (22 and 9 percent, respectively), and a larger percentage

(45 percent) began at less-than-4-year institutions. 

Students’ choice of the first institution varied with their demographic and academic 

characteristics. For example, proportionally more White and Asian students started 

their postsecondary education at public 4-year (40 and 47 percent, respectively) or 

private nonprofit 4-year institutions (18 and 17 percent, respectively) than did Black 

and Hispanic students (33 and 24 percent, respectively, for public 4-year institutions; 

and 11 and 8 percent, respectively, for private nonprofit 4-year institutions) (table 5). 

About 50 percent of Hispanic students began at a public 2-year institution, compared 

with 29 percent of Asians, 34 percent of Whites, and 37 percent of Blacks. Both 

Black and Hispanic students started at a private for-profit institution at higher rates 

(14 and 15 percent, respectively) than did White and Asian students (7 and 6 percent, 

respectively).

In addition, proportionally more students from high-SES families first attended 

public 4-year or private nonprofit 4-year institutions (48 percent and 26 percent, 

respectively) than did students from low-SES families (25 percent and 7 percent, 

respectively), while the latter group first attended a public 2-year or a private forprofit institution at higher rates (48 percent and 15 percent, respectively) than did 

their counterparts from high-SES families (22 percent and 3 percent, respectively). 

Students from middle-SES families fell in between—35 percent first attended public 

4-year institutions, 13 percent nonprofit 4-year institutions, and 40 percent public 

2-year institutions. 

More students with strong academic backgrounds started their postsecondary 

education at a 4-year institution and fewer of them at a public 2-year or private forprofit institution. For example, 54–56 percent of students who completed a rigorous 

curriculum, took calculus, or earned an academic GPA of 3.5 or higher in high school 

began their postsecondary education at a public 4-year institution, and 31–37 percent

of them began at a private nonprofit institution. On the other hand, 46–56 percent of 

students who completed a below-standard curriculum, took no math or just basic 

math or pre-algebra, or earned an academic GPA of below 2.5 in high school began 

their postsecondary education at a public 2-year institution. 

 

16 Institution selectivity is defined only for 4-year institutions and is based on first-year students’ 

college entrance test scores. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.
30 POSTSECONDARY ENROLLMENT, COMPLETION, AND BORROWING

Table 5. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, percentage distribution of the level 

and control of the institution they first attended, by selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics

Public 

4-year 

Private 

nonprofit 

4-year

Public 

2-year For-profit1 Other

Total 36.5 15.4 36.4 9.3 2.5

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 36.8 14.8 36.5 8.9 2.9

Female 36.2 15.8 36.2 9.6 2.2

Race/ethnicity2

White 39.6 17.9 33.8 6.9 1.8

Black 33.2 11.3 36.5 14.4 4.5

Hispanic 23.9 7.7 49.7 15.3 3.4

Asian 47.0 17.2 29.0 5.7 1.1 !

Other 35.0 15.7 34.6 10.6 4.0

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 24.7 7.3 48.2 15.4 4.5

Middle two quarters 35.4 12.6 39.6 9.8 2.5

Highest quarter 47.5 26.1 22.3 3.4 0.7

High school academic characteristics

Academic risk in 10th grade3

Low 54.0 33.9 10.7 1.0 0.4

Moderate 35.6 12.6 40.2 9.3 2.3

High 13.1 4.6 51.1 23.3 7.9

School disengagement in 10th grade4

Low 41.8 20.3 30.7 5.7 1.5

Moderate 40.4 16.4 33.0 8.3 1.9

High 23.9 8.2 48.7 14.9 4.4

Rigor of high school curriculum5,6

Below-standard 26.8 10.5 46.3 12.8 3.6

Standard 34.7 13.9 40.2 9.0 2.2

Moderately rigorous 49.4 19.0 26.6 4.2 0.7

Rigorous 56.3 36.8 5.9 1.0 ! ‡

Highest math course taken since grade 96

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 10.3 1.9 ! 56.4 24.1 7.3

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 23.9 8.4 51.5 12.7 3.5

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 50.5 19.1 25.4 4.3 0.7 !

Calculus 55.1 33.8 9.7 1.3 ‡

Highest science course taken since grade 96

No science or low-level science 10.0 4.8 55.6 20.3 9.3

General biology 21.1 6.4 54.7 14.3 3.4

Chemistry I or physics I 39.7 14.4 36.3 8.1 1.5

Chemistry I and physics I 52.8 24.0 19.8 2.7 0.7

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 50.0 26.9 19.2 3.0 0.9

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 13.1 5.7 55.2 20.1 5.9

2.00‒2.49 25.3 8.4 50.8 12.3 3.3

2.50‒2.99 40.4 12.4 38.2 7.4 1.6

3.00‒3.49 50.6 21.3 24.9 2.7 0.5

3.50‒4.00 54.4 30.9 12.7 1.5 0.5

See notes at end of table.
POSTSECONDARY ENROLLMENT, COMPLETION, AND BORROWING 31

Table 5. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, percentage distribution of the level 

and control of the institution they first attended, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

Completing Postsecondary Education

Degree Attainment

The timing of the ELS:2002 third follow-up survey, conducted 8 years after most 

cohort members had graduated from high school, permits examination of 

subbaccalaureate, bachelor’s, or even higher degree attainment among students who 

entered postsecondary education after high school. As of 2012, 14 percent of 2002 

sophomores with subsequent postsecondary enrollment were still in school and had 

not earned a postsecondary credential, and 24 percent had left postsecondary 

education without a postsecondary credential (figure 8). The remaining students had 

completed at least one credential, with 8 percent earning a master’s or other 

advanced degree, 31 percent a bachelor’s degree, 10 percent an associate’s degree, 

and 12 percent an undergraduate certificate as their highest degree attainment. 

Differences in educational attainment by sex have shifted over the past few decades, 

with gaps now in favor of females (Snyder, de Brey, and Dillow 2016). This trend was 

also reflected in the 2002 sophomore cohort: more females than males had earned a 

master’s or higher degree by 2012 (9 percent vs. 6 percent), and more males than 

females had left college without a degree or certificate (28 percent vs. 21 percent).

Long-standing gaps between Whites and Asians compared with Blacks and 

Hispanics were also reflected in the 2002 sophomore cohort. After they enrolled in 

postsecondary education, 45 percent of Whites and 55 percent of Asians had earned 

a bachelor’s or higher degree by 2012, compared with 25 percent of Blacks and 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate.

2

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other Pacific 

Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

‡ Reporting standards not met.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard errors are available in table C-5b.

3

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average (GPA), and 

the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

4

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping classes, 

being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, and being 

transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

1

 Includes for-profit institutions at all levels.

6

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

5

 A composite measure derived from credits earned in mathematics, biology, chemistry, physics, English, social studies, and foreign language 

reported on students’ high school transcripts. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.
32 POSTSECONDARY ENROLLMENT, COMPLETION, AND BORROWING

24 percent of Hispanics. On the other hand, 18 percent of Blacks and 16 percent of 

Hispanics had earned an undergraduate certificate, compared with 9 percent of 

Asians and 10 percent of Whites. In addition, 30 percent of Blacks and 32 percent of 

Hispanics had left college before earning a postsecondary credential, while 

22 percent of Whites and 15 percent of Asians had done so. 

Figure 8. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who subsequently enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage distribution of their highest postsecondary attainment, by selected demographic characteristics: 

2012

1

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native 

Hawaiian, other Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude 

Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates and standard errors are available in tables C-7a 

and C-7b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

17

28

31

15

26

33

27

15

32

30

22

21

28

24

13

16

15

10

15

18

16

15

17

19

12

14

14

14

7

14

17

6

13

18

12

9

16

18

10

13

10

12

8

11

13

7

11

11

11

6

12

9

10

11

10

10

43

26

20

47

28

17

27

43

20

20

36

32

31

31

13

5

3

15

6

3

7

12

4

5

9

9

6

8

0 20 40 60 80 100

Bachelor’s or higher degree

Some college

High school education or less

Highest quarter

Middle two quarters

Lowest quarter

Other

Asian

Hispanic

Black

White

Female

Male

Total

Percent

No degree,

not enrolled

No degree,

still enrolled

Certificate Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s or 

higher degree

Sex

Race/ethnicity1

Family’s SES in 10th grade 

Parent’s highest education
POSTSECONDARY ENROLLMENT, COMPLETION, AND BORROWING 33

The percentage of students from high-SES families who earned a bachelor’s or 

higher degree was about three times as high as that for those from low-SES families 

(62 percent vs. 20 percent). The percentage for students from middle-SES families 

(34 percent) put them in between. Looking specifically at the highest level of 

education completed by either parent (one of the components included in the family 

SES measure), 56 percent of students whose parents were college graduates had 

earned a bachelor’s or higher degree by 2012, compared with 23 percent of those 

whose parents had a high school education or less. 

Degree attainment was also related to students’ high school academic experiences

(table 6). Among 2002 sophomores who enrolled in postsecondary education after 

high school, those who had high academic risk in 10th grade had lower rates of 

attaining a bachelor’s or advanced degree than did their peers who had low academic 

risk (5 percent vs. 78 percent). Students who were highly disengaged with school in 

10th grade also had lower rates of attaining such degrees than did their peers who 

were not disengaged (20 percent vs. 53 percent). Students who expected to complete 

only a high school education or less had substantially lower bachelor’s or advanced 

degree attainment rates than did their counterparts who expected to earn a bachelor’s 

or higher degree later (6 percent vs. 46 percent).

About 80 percent of enrollees who completed a rigorous high school curriculum had 

earned a bachelor’s or higher degree as of 2012, compared with 26 percent of those 

who completed a below-standard curriculum. The bachelor’s degree attainment rate 

for those who took calculus in high school was about 14 times as high as that of 

students who took no or only low-level math courses (56 percent vs. 4 percent), and 

the rate for students with an academic GPA of 3.5 or higher was about 8 times as 

high as that for students with an academic GPA of below 2.00 (56 percent vs. 

7 percent).

Finally, degree attainment rates were related to enrollment timing and the type of 

institution that students first attended. Students who entered college immediately 

after high school and who first attended a 4-year institution, especially a highly 

selective 4-year institution, had earned a bachelor’s or advanced degree at higher 

rates than did their counterparts who delayed enrollment by at least 1 year or began 

at a public 2-year or a less selective, inclusive institution (see table C-7a).
34 POSTSECONDARY ENROLLMENT, COMPLETION, AND BORROWING

Table 6. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, percentage distribution of their 

highest postsecondary attainment, by selected student high school characteristics: 2012

Selected student high school 

characteristics Certificate

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s 

or higher 

degree

No degree, 

still 

enrolled

No degree, 

not 

enrolled

Total 12.0 10.3 31.4 7.9 14.2 24.3

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 15.7 10.4 19.8 4.2 16.0 34.0

High school diploma or less 22.0 9.9 6.4 ‡ 17.5 43.7

Some college 20.1 14.9 10.9 1.4 16.7 36.0

Bachelor’s or higher degree 10.2 9.6 36.5 9.4 13.4 20.9

Academic risk in 10th grade1

Low 2.9 4.1 56.3 21.7 7.2 7.7

Moderate 12.5 11.7 29.4 5.8 14.9 25.6

High 23.1 9.6 5.4 ‡ 20.0 41.8

School disengagement in 10th grade2

Low 8.0 11.2 40.4 12.1 10.1 18.1

Moderate 11.6 10.1 33.5 8.3 13.7 22.9

High 17.1 10.2 17.1 2.9 18.6 34.2

Rigor of high school curriculum3,4

Below-standard 15.4 10.9 22.2 4.3 16.5 30.8

Standard 12.6 11.6 30.0 6.5 15.2 24.1

Moderately rigorous 7.9 10.6 42.0 10.7 10.5 18.2

Rigorous 2.2 3.1 56.4 24.1 7.9 6.3

Highest math coursetaking since grade 94

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 23.7 9.0 4.0 ‡ 20.8 42.5

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 16.9 13.3 18.2 2.3 17.1 32.3

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 7.0 9.2 43.8 10.8 11.5 17.8

Calculus 3.1 4.7 56.3 21.8 7.0 7.1

Highest science coursetaking since grade 94

No science or low-level science 21.5 11.0 6.9 ‡ 19.3 40.7

General biology 18.4 12.4 14.9 1.6 17.9 34.8

Chemistry I or physics I 11.2 12.3 32.9 6.6 13.7 23.3

Chemistry I and physics I 5.6 7.8 49.6 14.2 9.5 13.4

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 5.1 6.5 48.0 16.7 10.0 13.8

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 19.4 9.5 7.0 0.5 22.8 40.8

2.00‒2.49 14.8 13.1 18.3 1.9 18.0 33.9

2.50‒2.99 13.2 13.9 30.3 4.8 12.8 24.9

3.00‒3.49 7.5 9.9 49.4 10.3 9.4 13.5

3.50‒4.00 2.8 4.8 55.7 23.3 6.0 7.3

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard errors are available in table C-7b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

Highest postsecondary degree

‡ Reporting standards not met.

2

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping classes, 

being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, and being 

transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

3

 A composite measure derived from credits earned in mathematics, biology, chemistry, physics, English, social studies, and foreign language 

reported on students’ high school transcripts. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

1

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average (GPA), and 

the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

4

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.
POSTSECONDARY ENROLLMENT, COMPLETION, AND BORROWING 35

Time to Bachelor’s Degree

Among 2002 high school sophomores who had earned a bachelor’s degree by 2012, 

the average time between initial postsecondary entry and first bachelor’s degree 

completion was 55 months (figure 9). About 47 percent of bachelor’s degree 

recipients had attained their first bachelor’s degree within 48 months (4 years) of 

their initial postsecondary enrollment; 27 percent completed within 49–60 months 

(5 years); and 13 percent finished within 61–72 months (6 years). The remaining 

13 percent took more than 6 years to finish their first bachelor’s degree. 

Figure 9. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had earned a bachelor’s or higher degree, percentage 

distribution by time to first bachelor’s degree attainment: 2012

Characteristics related to degree attainment were also related to time to degree. 

Specifically, proportionally more females (51 percent), Whites and Asians (49 and 

51 percent, respectively), and students from high-SES families (54 percent) 

completed their bachelor’s degree within 4 years than did their counterparts who 

were males (42 percent), Blacks and Hispanics (36 and 41 percent, respectively), 

and from low-SES families (38 percent) (table 7). Students with a strong academic 

preparation in high school—e.g., completing a rigorous curriculum; taking calculus

or advanced science courses such as chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology; 

and earning an academic GPA of 3.5 or higher (55–65 percent)—completed their

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates and standard errors are available in tables C-8a 

and C-8b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

48 months

or fewer

47%

49‒60 months

27%

61‒72 

months

13%

73 months

or more

13%

Average total months between initial postsecondary enrollment and

first bachelor’s degree: 55 months
36 POSTSECONDARY ENROLLMENT, COMPLETION, AND BORROWING

bachelor’s degree within 4 years at higher rates than did their counterparts with less 

academic preparation, such as those who completed a below-standard curriculum, 

took no or low-level math and science courses, or earned an academic GPA of 

below 2.5 (24–43 percent). 

Time to bachelor’s degree was also related to other academic characteristics observed 

in 10th grade: proportionally more of those who exhibited low academic risk or 

school disengagement (62 and 51 percent, respectively) completed their bachelor’s 

degree within 4 years than did their counterparts who had a high academic risk or 

school disengagement (23 and 33 percent, respectively).

About 66 percent of bachelor’s degree recipients who first attended a private 

nonprofit 4-year institution completed their bachelor’s degree within 4 years. In 

comparison, 46 percent of students who first attended a public 4-year institution and 

19 percent of those who first attended a public 2-year institution had done so (see 

table C-8a). In addition, 65 percent of bachelor’s degree recipients who first attended 

a highly selective 4-year institution completed their bachelor’s degree within 4 years, 

compared with 47 percent of those who started at a moderately selective institution 

and 37 percent of those who started at an inclusive institution. 
POSTSECONDARY ENROLLMENT, COMPLETION, AND BORROWING 37

Table 7. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had earned a bachelor’s or higher degree, percentage who 

completed their first bachelor’s degree within 4 years, by selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics

Percent completing first 

bachelor’s degree within 4 years

Total 47.3

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 42.4

Female 51.2

Race/ethnicity1

White 49.1

Black 36.3

Hispanic 40.9

Asian 51.2

Other 47.1

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 38.3

Middle two quarters 41.9

Highest quarter 53.7

High school academic characteristics

Academic risk in 10th grade2

Low 61.7

Moderate 40.7

High 23.0 !

School disengagement in 10th grade3

Low 50.9

Moderate 47.2

High 32.6

Rigor of high school curriculum4,5

Below-standard 42.6

Standard 43.5

Moderately rigorous 45.8

Rigorous 65.3

Highest math coursetaking since grade 95

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 28.0 !

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 30.0

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 46.7

Calculus 62.7

Highest science coursetaking since grade 95

No science or low-level science 32.9 !

General biology 33.3

Chemistry I or physics I 42.0

Chemistry I and physics I 50.9

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 55.3

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 23.6

2.00‒2.49 26.9

2.50‒2.99 34.8

3.00‒3.49 44.7

3.50‒4.00 63.2

See notes at end of table.
38 POSTSECONDARY ENROLLMENT, COMPLETION, AND BORROWING

Table 7. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had earned a bachelor’s or higher degree, percentage who 

completed their first bachelor’s degree within 4 years, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

Borrowing for Postsecondary Education

Student Loans

About 60 percent of 2002 high school sophomores with subsequent postsecondary 

enrollment reported taking out a student loan to pay for their postsecondary 

education, which may include graduate education (table 8). Based on data from the 

National Student Loan Data System (NSLDS),17 59 percent of postsecondary 

enrollees took out a federal loan. On average, borrowers reported that their

cumulative student loan amount as of 2012 was $30,000. NSLDS data indicate that 

among the 59 percent of students who borrowed through federal loan programs, 

their cumulative amount of federal student loan debt was $24,900.

More females than males took out a student loan (63 percent vs. 57 percent); 

however, there was no difference by sex in the loan amount. Among various 

racial/ethnic subgroups, proportionally more Black (67 percent) than White, Asian, 

or Hispanic students (55–60 percent) reported taking out a student loan. Asian 

students, however, borrowed more ($47,300) than White ($31,900), Black ($25,000), 

and Hispanic students ($21,600). 

 

17 The NSLDS is the U.S. Department of Education’s central database for student aid. It contains 

records of all federal loan and Pell Grant information for anyone who has such a loan or grant.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

NOTE: Standard errors are available in table C-8b.

2

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point 

average (GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this 

variable.

1

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native 

Hawaiian, other Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude 

Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate.

3

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, 

cutting/skipping classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being 

suspended/put on probation, and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed 

information about this variable.

4

 A composite measure derived from credits earned in mathematics, biology, chemistry, physics, English, social studies, and 

foreign language reported on students’ high school transcripts. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

5 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.
POSTSECONDARY ENROLLMENT, COMPLETION, AND BORROWING 39

Proportionally more students from middle-SES families (62 percent) than those from 

low- and high-SES families reported taking out a student loan (58–59 percent). 

However, students from high-SES families borrowed more ($41,200) than those 

from middle- and low-SES families ($27,400 and $22,000, respectively).

Table 8. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, percentage who 

took out a student loan to pay for their postsecondary education and average total amount of student loans, 

by selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics

Percent 

taking out 

a student 

loan2

Total 

amount 

of student 

loans3

Percent 

taking out 

a federal 

loan4

Total 

amount 

of federal 

loans5

Total 60.2 $30,000 58.6 $24,900

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 56.5 30,600 53.8 24,300

Female 63.4 29,600 62.9 25,400

Race/ethnicity6

White 60.0 31,900 59.0 25,700

Black 66.9 25,000 69.4 23,200

Hispanic 55.3 21,600 49.0 19,300

Asian 57.6 47,300 53.6 38,700

Other 60.3 31,400 57.5 24,600

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 57.9 22,000 56.3 19,400

Middle two quarters 62.4 27,400 61.2 22,100

Highest quarter 58.7 41,200 58.6 34,500

Postsecondary characteristics

Type of first-attended institution

Public 4-year 64.6 33,400 64.3 29,000

Private nonprofit 4-year 75.3 47,200 74.9 35,600

Public 2-year 47.8 19,600 45.4 17,200

For-profit7 74.7 18,500 74.7 12,900

Other 41.9 18,700 28.9 13,300

Selectivity of first-attended institution8

Highly selective 4-year institution 65.4 50,900 65.0 43,200

Moderately selective 4-year institution 71.1 35,000 70.8 28,000

Inclusive 4-year 73.8 27,800 75.0 22,200

Less-than-4-year institution 50.5 18,500 47.6 15,700

Highest postsecondary attainment in 2012

Some college but no postsecondary credential 51.6 16,700 49.8 14,800

Undergraduate certificate 56.2 16,400 53.4 11,600

Associate’s degree 58.5 22,100 59.8 17,100

Bachelor’s degree 68.3 37,000 66.5 28,300

Master’s or higher degree 77.9 71,700 76.6 67,700

See notes at end of table.

Estimated from 

students’ reports

Estimated from 

NSLDS1
40 POSTSECONDARY ENROLLMENT, COMPLETION, AND BORROWING

Table 8. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, percentage who 

took out a student loan to pay for their postsecondary education and average total amount of student loans, 

by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued 

Whether and how much students borrowed for postsecondary education were also 

related to the type of institution that students first attended. Students beginning at 

private nonprofit 4-year or private for-profit institutions (75 percent for both types) 

borrowed at higher rates than did those beginning at public 4- or 2-year institutions 

(65 and 48 percent, respectively). Those who first attended private nonprofit 4-year

institutions borrowed more than did those who first attended public 4-year

institutions ($47,200 vs. $33,400), and both groups borrowed more than did students 

who first attended public 2-year institutions ($19,600) or private for-profit 

institutions ($18,500). In addition, proportionally fewer students who first attended 

highly selective 4-year institutions (65 percent) reported taking out a student loan 

than did students who first attended moderately selective (71 percent) or inclusive 

4-year institutions (74 percent); the former group, however, borrowed more, on 

average, than did the latter two groups ($50,900 vs. $35,000 and $27,800, 

respectively).

The percentage of students taking out a student loan also increased with their level 

of educational attainment. About 78 percent of those who earned a master’s or 

higher degree and 68 percent of those who earned a bachelor’s degree reported 

taking out a student loan, compared with 56–59 percent of those who earned an 

undergraduate certificate or an associate’s degree. The average cumulative amount 

borrowed also increased with students’ level of educational attainment, ranging from 

$16,400 for those who had earned an undergraduate certificate to $37,000 for those 

7 Includes for-profit institutions at all levels.

6

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native 

Hawaiian, other Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude 

Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

5

 Includes only students who took out a federal loan, as indicated by NSLDS.

4

 Includes any type of federal loan.

3

 Includes only students who reported taking out a student loan.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

NOTE: Standard errors are available in table C-9b.

8

 Selectivity categories are based on 2010 Carnegie classifications. “Highly selective” 4-year institutions refer to those 

whose first-year students’ postsecondary entrance test scores place them in roughly the top fifth of baccalaureate 

institutions; “moderately selective” 4-year institutions refer to those whose first-year students’ postsecondary entrance test 

scores place them in roughly the middle two-fifths of baccalaureate institutions; and “inclusive” 4-year institutions refer to 

those whose first-year students’ postsecondary entrance test scores indicate that they extend educational opportunity to a 

wide range of students with respect to academic preparation and achievement. Institutions with unclassified selectivity (i.e., 

those that do not have test score data) are included in the “Total” row but not displayed separately.

2

 Student loans, which must be paid back or forgiven, include federal loans (subsidized and unsubsidized loans and 

Perkins Loans), state loans, institutional loans, and private or alternative loans.

1

 NSLDS refers to the National Student Loan Data System.
POSTSECONDARY ENROLLMENT, COMPLETION, AND BORROWING 41

who had earned a bachelor’s degree and $71,700 for those who had earned a master’s 

or other advanced degree.

Perceived Impact of Student Loans

In ELS:2002, students who had enrolled in and borrowed for postsecondary 

education were asked to indicate whether their student loan debt had impacted their 

employment. At least one-quarter of these students indicated that because of their 

student loan debt, they had to take a job outside their field of study (37 percent), 

work more hours than desired (36 percent), take a less desirable job (34 percent), or 

work at more than one job at the same time (25 percent) (figure 10). Students who 

borrowed more (e.g., $25,000 or more) reported these consequences of student loan 

debt more frequently than did students who borrowed less (e.g., less than $25,000). 

For example, 42 percent of students who borrowed $50,000 or more responded that 

they had to take a job outside their field of study because of their student loan debt, 

compared with 30 percent of those who borrowed less than $10,000. 

Figure 10. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who reported taking out a student loan to pay for their postsecondary education, 

percentage indicating various impacts of student loan debt on their employment plans, by total amount of student loans: 2012

NOTE: Estimates and standard errors are available in tables C-10a and C-10b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

37 36 34

25

30

28

25

17

35 33

30

23

43 43 42

30

42

45 46

33

0

10

20

30

40

50

Took a job outside

field of study

or training

Had to work

more hours

than desired

Took a less

desirable job

Had to work

at more than one job

at the same time

Total Less than $10,000 $10,000–$24,999 $25,000–$49,999 $50,000 or more

Percent
This page intentionally left blank 
43

Family Formation

Leaving home and starting a family are traditional milestones of adulthood 

(Settersten, Furstenberg, and Rumbaut 2005). Relative to earlier generations, recent 

generations have delayed these traditional milestones as a matter of circumstance 

(e.g., economic hardships, caring for parents) or in favor of other priorities (e.g., 

postsecondary attainment, career advancement, financial independence) (Cherlin 

2005; Furstenberg 2010; Sawhill 2014). While the majority of Americans (95 percent) 

still consider completing school, leaving their parents’ home, and being employed 

full time as the most important markers of adulthood, fewer (50 percent) consider 

marriage and parenthood necessary prerequisites for adulthood (Settersten, 

Furstenberg, and Rumbaut 2005). A recent Pew Research Center survey found that 

almost 40 percent of Americans think marriage is becoming obsolete (Livingston and 

Cohn 2010), and other researchers found that public support of marriage has 

declined in recent decades (Goldrick-Rab and Han 2011). 

Indeed, marriage rates in the United States have declined steadily since the 1960s 

(Martin, Astone, and Peters 2014; Proulx, Helms, and Buehler 2007). In 1960, about 

72 percent of American adults age 18 or older were currently married; by 2008, the 

rate had declined to 52 percent (Pew Research Center 2010a), and the rate is 

projected to decrease further in the future (Martin, Astone, and Peters 2014). Not 

only are more people choosing not to marry, but also more are postponing marriage 

and childbirth (Aud, KewalRamani, and Frohlich 2011; Child Trends Databank 2013; 

Martin et al. 2015). Between 1980 and 2009, the median age at first marriage 

increased from 25 to 28 years old for males and from 22 to 26 years old for females 

(Aud, KewalRamani, and Frohlich 2011). Similar to marriage rates, birth rates have 

declined in the last 50 years, from 118 births per 1,000 women 15–44 years old in 

1960 to a record low of 63 births in 2013 (Child Trends Databank 2013; Martin et al. 

2015). As public opinion about marriage and family life has shifted, the pathway to 

family formation has become more ambiguous. Cohabiting, childbearing outside of 

marriage, and living with parents after college have become more common (Martin 

et al. 2015; Sawhill 2014; Settersten and Ray 2010; Wang and Taylor 2011). In 2014, 

living with parents became the most common living arrangement for young adults 

for the first time since the 1960s: 32 percent of adults ages 18 to 34 lived in the 

home of their parents, 32 percent lived with a spouse or partner in their own 

household, 14 percent lived alone, and 22 percent lived in the home of another 

family member or a nonrelative or in group quarters (such as college dormitories). 

(Fry 2016).
44 FAMILY FORMATION

Within this context, this section examines the marital status, parenthood status, and 

living arrangements of the 2002 high school sophomore cohort as of 2012. Family 

formation activities are examined in terms of demographic characteristics in 2002 

and postsecondary educational attainment as of 2012. Bivariate results for other 

characteristics can be found in appendix C. 

Marital Status

By 2012, when most 2002 high school sophomores had reached their mid-20s, 

31 percent of cohort members had married—28 percent were currently married and 

3 percent had divorced, separated, or become widowed (figure 11). To provide 

context for this figure, 46 percent of 1988 eighth-graders had married before they 

reached their mid-20s in 2000 (Ingels et al. 2002).

A higher percentage of females than males (31 percent vs. 26 percent) were married, 

while a higher percentage of males than females were single and had never married 

(50 percent vs. 41 percent). Marriage rates varied across racial/ethnic subgroups. 

A higher percentage of Whites (32 percent) than all other racial/ethnic subgroups 

(14–29 percent) were married in 2012. Proportionally more Blacks and Asians than 

all other racial/ethnic subgroups were single and had never married (60 and 

63 percent, respectively, vs. 41–45 percent). Marriage rates were also related to family 

SES. Proportionally fewer cohort members from high-SES families (26 percent) than 

those from middle- and low-SES families were married (30 percent for both groups). 

Postsecondary education has been associated with delayed marriage (Goldstein and 

Kenny 2001; Pew Research Center 2010a). In the 2002 high school sophomore 

cohort, 51–52 percent of those who had earned a bachelor’s or higher degree were 

single and never married as of 2012. In comparison, 40–46 percent of their 

counterparts with less education were single and never married. This pattern was also 

observed with the NELS:88 eighth-grade cohort 10 years after high school 

completion (Ingels et al. 2002).

Parallel to the decline of marriage is the rising prevalence of cohabitation (Copen 

et al. 2012; Settersten and Ray 2010). Among the 2002 sophomore cohort, about 

23 percent were cohabiting in 2012 (figure 11). To put this percentage in context, 

when 1988 eighth-graders turned 26 years old in 2000, just 1 percent were cohabiting 

(Ingels et al. 2002). Proportionally more sophomores from low-SES families than 

those from high-SES families lived with a partner as of 2012 (24 percent vs. 

20 percent). In addition, proportionally more high school dropouts than those with at 

least some postsecondary education were cohabiting (31 percent vs. 19–24 percent). 
FAMILY FORMATION 45

Figure 11. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ marital status, by selected demographic 

characteristics and student’s highest educational attainment: 2012

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates and standard errors are available in tables C-11a 

and C-11b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

2

 Not living with any partner.

1

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native 

Hawaiian, other Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude 

Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

52

51

40

41

46

41

40

52

43

42

45

63

44

60

41

41

50

46

28

28

34

31

26

29

24

26

30

30

26

18

29

14

32

31

26

28

1!

1

5

5

4

4

5

2

4

4

3

2

4

3

3

4

3

3

19

20

21

23

24

26

31

20

23

24

26

18

23

23

23

24

21

23

0 20 40 60 80 100

Master’s or higher degree

Bachelor’s degree

Associate’s degree

Undergraduate certificate

 Some college but no

postsecondary credential

High school only

Less than high school

Highest quarter

Middle two quarters

Lowest quarter

Other

Asian

Hispanic

Black

White

Female

Male

Total

Percent

Single

never

married2

Married Divorced/

separated/

widowed2

Living

with partner

Sex

Race/ethnicity1

Family SES in 10th grade 

Student’s highest educational 

attainment in 2012
46 FAMILY FORMATION

Parenthood

About one-third (33 percent) of 2002 high school sophomores had at least one child 

as of 2012 (figure 12). To provide context for this finding, 41 percent of 1988 eighthgraders had at least one child when they were about 26 years old (Ingels et al. 2002).

More females than males had at least one child (40 percent vs. 26 percent). 

Parenthood status also varied across racial/ethnic subgroups: 47 percent of Blacks 

and 43 percent of Hispanics had at least one child in 2012, followed by Whites 

(29 percent) and Asians (13 percent). The percentage of 2002 sophomores who had 

at least one child in 2012 was highest among those from low-SES families 

(50 percent), followed by those from middle-SES families (34 percent) and then 

those from high-SES families (16 percent). Proportionally fewer bachelor’s or higher 

degree holders (9–13 percent) than those with a lower level of educational attainment 

(35–70 percent) had at least one child in 2012. The childrearing rate was highest 

among those who lacked a high school credential (70 percent) and among those who 

had only a high school education (53 percent).

Among the 33 percent of 2002 high school sophomores who reported having at least 

one child as of 2012, 13 percent were single parents (figure 12). Among parents, the 

percentage who were single and living with their children in 2012 was higher among 

females than males (16 percent vs. 7 percent), among Blacks than other racial/ethnic 

subgroups (20 percent vs. 10–13 percent), and among those from low-SES families 

than those from high-SES families (14 percent vs. 8 percent). About 12 percent of 

2002 sophomores who grew up in a single-parent home and became parents later 

were single and living with their children in 2012; this rate was not different from the 

14 percent observed among their counterparts who grew up in a two-parent home 

and became parents later. 
FAMILY FORMATION 47

Figure 12. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had one or more biological or adopted children, and of parents, 

percentage who were single, by selected demographic characteristics and student’s highest educational attainment: 2012

1

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other Pacific 

Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

NOTE: Estimates and standard errors are available in tables C-12a and C-12b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

‡ Reporting standards not met. 

‡

5

15

14

14

12

15

14

12

8

13

14

12

12

13

20

10

16

7

13

0 20 40 60 80 100

Percent

Parents who were single

9

13

35

48

40

53

70

39

31

16

34

50

37

13

43

47

29

40

26

33

0 20 40 60 80 100

Master’s or higher degree

Bachelor’s degree

Associate’s degree

Undergraduate certificate

 Some college but no

postsecondary credential

High school only

Less than high school

Single-parent family

Two-parent family

Highest quarter

Middle two quarters

Lowest quarter

Other

Asian

Hispanic

Black

White

Female

Male

Total

Percent

Had one or more children

Sex

Race/ethnicity1

Family SES in 10th grade

Student’s highest educational 

attainment in 2012

Family type in 10th grade
48 FAMILY FORMATION

Living Arrangements

About 23 percent of 2002 high school sophomores were living with parents in 2012, 

while 42 percent were living with a spouse or partner and another 19 percent were 

living alone (table 9). More males than females were living with parents (25 percent 

vs. 21 percent) and friends or roommates (13 percent vs. 7 percent), while more 

females than males were living with a spouse/partner (46 percent vs. 39 percent). 

Table 9. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ living arrangements, by selected 

characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics Parents

Spouse/

partner1

Friends/

roommates2 Children3 Alone Other

Total 22.7 42.3 10.0 2.8 18.8 3.4

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 24.9 38.8 12.6 1.8 17.6 4.3

Female 20.7 45.6 7.5 3.8 19.9 2.6

Race/ethnicity4

White 18.1 47.8 11.4 2.1 17.9 2.8

Black 28.3 30.1 6.8 5.7 24.9 4.2

Hispanic 32.2 35.0 6.8 3.3 18.4 4.3

Asian 39.2 25.8 11.6 1.9 15.4 6.1

Other 22.6 43.4 8.8 3.8 17.5 3.9

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 25.9 42.0 4.7 5.0 19.1 3.3

Middle two quarters 22.4 44.8 8.7 2.8 18.0 3.3

Highest quarter 18.1 40.5 16.5 1.0 20.9 3.0

Student’s highest educational 

 attainment in 2012

Less than high school 28.0 42.7 2.7 5.9 14.3 6.3

High school only 27.3 44.0 5.8 4.5 14.4 4.0

Some college but no

 postsecondary credential 25.5 40.5 7.5 3.8 19.2 3.6

Undergraduate certificate 21.2 44.4 6.6 3.8 20.3 3.7

Associate’s degree 22.9 45.6 7.4 3.6 18.1 2.4

Bachelor’s degree 19.6 42.0 15.9 0.7 18.9 2.9

Master’s or higher degree 14.6 42.0 15.4 ‡ 24.5 2.9

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard errors are available in table C-13b.

4 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native 

Hawaiian, other Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude 

Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

1 Living with spouse/partner and not living with parents.

2

 Living with friends/roommates and not living with parents, spouse/partner, children, or siblings.

3 Living with children and not living with parents or spouse/partner.

‡ Reporting standards not met. 
FAMILY FORMATION 49

Proportionally more Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians than Whites were living with 

parents in 2012 (28–39 percent vs. 18 percent), as were individuals from low-SES 

families compared with those from middle- and high-SES families (26 percent vs. 

18–22 percent). About 15 percent of master’s or higher degree holders were living 

with parents in 2012, a lower percentage than that observed among those with lower 

levels of educational attainment (20–28 percent).
This page intentionally left blank 
51

Labor Market Outcomes and

Socioeconomic Status

The average member of the high school sophomore class of 2002 turned 21 as the 

Great Recession began in late 2007. During this economic turbulence, the United 

States saw rising unemployment rates, declining earnings, and growing numbers of 

people living in poverty (DeNavas-Walt, Proctor, and Smith 2013). This recession 

disproportionately affected younger workers beginning their careers and adult lives 

(Hoynes, Miller, and Schaller 2012). Various sources report the following: 

• Almost 18 percent of young workers in their 20s experienced a job loss 

between 2007 and 2009, up from 10 percent from 2005–07 (Farber 2011). 

• The youth (aged 16–24) unemployment rates climbed from 11 percent in 

2005–07 to 18 percent in 2009–10 (Bell and Blanchflower 2011). 

• Between 2007 and 2012, the average earnings of recent high school and college 

graduates declined by 10 and 5 percent, respectively (Shierholz, Sabadish, and 

Wething 2012). 

• The median household income was 8.3 percent lower in 2012 than in 2007 

(DeNavas-Walt, Proctor, and Smith 2013). 

• In 2009, almost 3 million (7 percent) of young adults aged 15–24 lived in 

households that received some form of public assistance, compared with 

1.7 million (4 percent) in 1980 (Aud, KewalRamani, and Frohlich 2011). 

• In 2012, about 47 million Americans (15 percent) lived in poverty, up from 

37 million (12 percent) in 2007 (DeNavas-Walt, Proctor, and Smith 2013). 

Although the long-term consequences of these economic trends are not yet known, 

they may be especially hard for those (including many members of the 2002 

sophomore cohort) who were finishing college and ready to enter the workforce 

during and immediately after the recession.

Since the early 1990s, the United States has also been experiencing a labor market 

restructuring, including changes in dominant industries and the skills and educational 

requirements for jobs and increases in part-time, temporary, and short-term labor

(Kalleberg 2011; Kim 2013; Pedulla 2013). This restructuring has led to new 

divisions in the labor market with increases in low-skill and low-pay professions and, 

to a lesser degree, high-skill professions such as those related to science, technology, 
52 LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and a decline in middle-skill professions 

(Kalleberg 2011; Autor 2011).18 Highly educated young adults are more likely to end 

up in highly skilled occupations than those with lower levels of education (Kim 

2013). In addition, even after taking overall labor market changes into account and 

controlling for education, sex and race/ethnicity remain associated with the 

probability of individuals working in a specific occupation (Blau, Brummund, and 

Liu 2013; Alonso-Villar, Del Río, and Gradín 2012). 

Within this context, this section provides a portrait of the 2002 high school 

sophomore cohort’s labor market outcomes during and after the Great Recession 

and their SES in 2012. It presents estimates related to cohort members’ employment 

status, occupations, and earnings in 2012 as well as their unemployment history 

from 2009 to 2012. To provide a context for understanding the impact of recent 

wars on this group of young adults, this section also explores the extent to which 

the 2002 high school sophomores served in the military and the characteristics of 

those who entered the military by 2012. The section ends with an analysis of 2002 

sophomores’ SES in 2012, focusing on their SES as adults and the degree to which 

they received public assistance. Building on prior sections, variables indicating 

students’ educational outcomes and family formation—in addition to 10th-grade 

demographic characteristics and high school experiences—are included to better 

understand the cohort members’ labor market outcomes in 2012.

It is important to note that this section only addresses cohort members’ early career 

and labor market outcomes. At age 25–26, many individuals are just starting their 

careers; some are still enrolled in undergraduate or graduate studies; and others will 

return to school for additional training later in their careers. ELS:2002 does not 

contain long-term labor market data that capture individuals’ full dynamic job histories 

and their career growth. Nevertheless, research indicates that early labor market 

experiences are generally correlated with later labor market outcomes (Pedulla 2012).

 

18 Jobs are often described on continua between manual and cognitive jobs and between routine and 

nonroutine jobs (Cheremukhin 2014). Cognitive, nonroutine jobs are usually high-skill jobs that 

require problem-solving skills; workers in these jobs typically have a college degree (e.g., engineers, 

technical analysts, and scientists). Manual, routine jobs are often low-skill jobs that involve manual 

tasks (e.g., food service and personal care) and typically do not require a high school diploma. Both 

cognitive routine and manual nonroutine jobs tend to be middle-skill jobs that require the ability to 

follow precise procedures (such as sales and administrative jobs). Often, middle-skill jobs require a 

high school diploma or a higher level of education.
LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS 53

Most Recent Employment as of 2012

Employment Status

In 2012, all but 7 percent of 2002 high school sophomores were in the labor force 

(figure 13). About 11 percent were unemployed (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2014), 

while 82 percent were employed with 69 percent employed full time and 13 percent

employed part time.19

Figure 13. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ employment status, by student’s highest 

educational attainment: 2012

 

19 ELS:2002 used the federal definitions of employed, unemployed, and out of the labor force (Bureau of 

Labor Statistics 2014). Specifically, persons are classified as employed if they currently have a job; 

unemployed if they do not have a job, have actively looked for work in the prior 4 weeks, and are 

currently available for work; or out of the labor force if they are neither working nor looking for work. 

NOTE: Persons are classified as employed if they currently have a job; unemployed if they do not have a job, have actively 

looked for work in the prior 4 weeks, and are currently available for work; or out of the labor force if they are neither 

working nor looking for work. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates and standard errors are 

available in tables C-14a and C-14b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

80

78

71

68

58

68

64

53

51

69

10

11

14

13

20

12

12

18

12

13

6

5

10

12

14

14

14

21

26

11

4

6

5

7

9

6

10

8

11

7

0 20 40 60 80 100

Master’s or higher degree

Bachelor’s degree

Associate’s degree

Undergraduate certificate

Some college, no postsecondary

credential, currently enrolled

Some college, no postsecondary

credential, not currently enrolled

High school diploma

GED or other equivalency

Less than high school

Total

Percent

Worked

35 or more

hours per week

Worked 

1–34 

hours per week

Unemployed Out of

the labor

force

Student’s highest educational 

attainment in 2012
54 LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

Cohort members’ 2012 employment status varied considerably based on their 

educational attainment, with the pattern of findings reflecting the longstanding 

relationship between employment and educational attainment (Hout 2012; Shierholz, 

Davis, and Kimball 2014; Shierholz, Sabadish, and Wething 2012). That is, 

individuals with less education had higher unemployment rates, while those with 

more education had higher employment rates and were more likely to be working 

full time. For example, 26 percent of those who had not completed high school were 

unemployed, and 51 percent were employed full time in 2012. Among cohort 

members who had earned a GED or other high school equivalency but did not 

enroll in postsecondary education, 21 percent were unemployed, and 53 percent were 

employed full time. Among those who had earned a high school diploma but did not 

enroll in postsecondary education, however, proportionally fewer (14 percent) were 

unemployed and proportionally more (64 percent) were employed full time. Fouryear college graduates, including those with a master’s or higher degree, had the 

lowest unemployment rates (5–6 percent) and the highest rates of full-time 

employment (78–80 percent) among all cohort members. 

Cohort members from different demographic backgrounds exhibited different levels 

of employment status. Compared with men, proportionally fewer women worked 

full time (63 percent vs. 75 percent), and more women worked part time (15 percent

vs. 11 percent) or were out of the labor force (10 percent vs. 4 percent) (figure 14). 

Employment status also varied among different racial/ethnic subgroups. Whites had a 

higher rate of full-time employment (73 percent) and lower rate of unemployment 

(8 percent) than did those from all other racial/ethnic subgroups (60–64 percent for 

full-time employment rates and 13–18 percent for unemployment rates). In contrast, 

Blacks had a higher rate of unemployment than did Whites and Asians (18 percent vs. 

8–13 percent). In terms of family SES background, 2002 sophomores from low-SES 

families were unemployed at about twice the rate of those from high-SES families 

(15 percent vs. 7 percent), while proportionally more sophomores from high-SES 

families were employed full time than were their peers from low-SES families 

(73 percent vs. 63 percent). Those from middle-SES families fell in between—

10 percent were unemployed, while 71 percent were working full time in 2012. 
LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS 55

Figure 14. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ employment status, by selected 

demographic characteristics: 2012

High school academic characteristics also appeared to be related to employment 

status 10 years later (figure 15). For example, among those at low academic risk as 

10th-graders, 74 percent were employed full time and 5 percent were unemployed. In 

comparison, among those at high academic risk as 10th-graders, 60 percent were 

employed full time and 19 percent were unemployed.

1

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native 

Hawaiian, other Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude 

Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

NOTE: Persons are classified as employed if they currently have a job; unemployed if they do not have a job, have actively 

looked for work in the prior 4 weeks, and are currently available for work; or out of the labor force if they are neither 

working nor looking for work. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates and standard errors are 

available in tables C-14a and C-14b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

73

71

63

60

61

64

63

73

63

75

12

13

14

16

16

14

16

12

15

11

7

10

15

15

13

15

18

8

12

10

8

6

8

9

10

7

3

7

10

4

0 20 40 60 80 100

Highest quarter

Middle two quarters

Lowest quarter

Other

Asian

Hispanic

Black

White

Female

Male

Percent

Worked

35 or more

hours per week

Worked 

1–34 

hours per week

Unemployed Out of

the labor

force

Sex

Race/ethnicity1

Family SES in 10th grade
56 LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

Figure 15. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ employment status, by selected high 

school academic characteristics: 2012

In terms of high school coursetaking, completing a rigorous curriculum and taking 

calculus and advanced science courses were associated with higher full-time 

employment rates and lower unemployment rates. For example, among 2002 

sophomores who had taken a rigorous high school curriculum, 77 percent were 

employed full time, and 4 percent were unemployed in 2012; the corresponding 

figures for their peers who had taken a below-standard curriculum in high school 

were 66 percent and 13 percent, respectively. Among 2002 sophomores who had 

taken algebra 1 or a more advanced math course in high school, 67 percent or more 

were employed full time, and 12 percent or fewer were unemployed in 2012. In 

1

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade 

point average (GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about 

this variable.

NOTE: Persons are classified as employed if they currently have a job; unemployed if they do not have a job, have actively 

looked for work in the prior 4 weeks, and are currently available for work; or out of the labor force if they are neither 

working nor looking for work. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates and standard errors are 

available in tables C-14a and C-14b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

2

 A composite measure derived from credits earned in mathematics, biology, chemistry, physics, English, social studies, 

and foreign language that are reported on students’ high school transcripts. See appendix A for detailed information about 

this variable.

3

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

77

75

67

54

77

75

70

66

60

70

74

10

12

14

13

10

12

11

14

14

13

11

5

7

12

25

4

7

12

13

19

11

5

8

6

7

8

8

6

6

7

6

7

9

0 20 40 60 80 100

Calculus

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra

Rigorous

Moderately rigorous

Standard

Below-standard

High

Moderate

Low

Percent

Worked

35 or more

hours per week

Worked 

1–34 

hours per week

Unemployed Out of

the labor

force

Academic risk in 10th grade1

Highest math course taken since grade 93

Rigor of high school curriculum2,

3
LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS 57

contrast, among those who had not taken a math course more advanced than prealgebra, 54 percent were employed full time, and 25 percent were unemployed.

Marriage and parenthood may influence young adults’ labor market participation and 

employment intensity; for example, family responsibility and childrearing may make 

it difficult for some people to participate in the labor force (Budig, Boeckmann, and 

Misra 2011). The pattern observed in the 2002 sophomore cohort is consistent with 

this relationship: 11 percent of those who were married in 2012 were out of the labor 

force, compared with 3–5 percent of single, partnered, or formerly married 

individuals (figure 16). In addition, 11 percent of those who had become parents

were out of the labor force, compared with 5 percent of those who were not parents. 

Married cohort members had a lower unemployment rate (8 percent) than did others 

(10–17 percent). Those with children had a higher unemployment rate (15 percent) 

than did their counterparts without children (9 percent). Proportionally fewer cohort 

members with children than their childless counterparts were employed full time 

(60 percent vs. 73 percent).

Figure 16. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ employment status, by marital and 

parenthood status: 2012

NOTE: Persons are classified as employed if they currently have a job; unemployed if they do not have a job, have actively 

looked for work in the prior 4 weeks, and are currently available for work; or out of the labor force if they are neither 

working nor looking for work. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates and standard errors are 

available in tables C-14a and C-14b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

1

 Not living with any partner.

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate.

60

73

72

67

71

66

13

13

12

13

10

15

15

9

10

17

8

13

11

5

5

3!

11

5

0 20 40 60 80 100

Yes

No

Living with partner

Divorced/separated/widowed1

Married

Single, never married1

Percent

Worked

35 or more

hours per week

Worked 

1–34 

hours per week

Unemployed Out of

the labor

force

Marital status in 2012

Parent in 2012
58 LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

Military Service

Although less than 1 percent of Americans have served in the recent wars in 

Afghanistan and Iraq, those who entered the military were disproportionately young 

men (Kelty, Kleykamp, and Segal 2010; Kudler and Porter 2013). Among the 2002 

high school sophomore cohort, a total of 6 percent reported having ever served in 

the military as of 2012 (including those who were still serving in the military in 2012)

(figure 17). Consistent with early research, proportionally more males than females 

reported that they had served in the military (10 percent vs. 2 percent). 

Figure 17. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had ever served in the military, by selected demographic 

characteristics: 2012

1

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other Pacific 

Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

NOTE: Estimates and standard errors are available in tables C-14a and C-14b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate.

6

10

2!

6 6 5

3

10

5

7

5

0

5

10

15

20

25

Total Male Female White Black Hispanic Asian Other Lowest

quarter

Middle

two

quarters

Highest

quarter

Percent

Sex Race/ethnicity1 Family SES in 10th grade
LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS 59

In terms of race/ethnicity, the rate ranged from 6 percent for both Whites and 

Blacks to 5 percent for Hispanics and 3 percent for Asians. The rate was relatively 

higher (10 percent) for those whose race/ethnicity was categorized as “other.” These 

individuals consisted of American Indians, Alaska Natives, Native Hawaiians, other 

Pacific Islanders, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other races.

Military service did not appear to be related to family SES among the 2002 

sophomore cohort: 5 percent of those from low-SES families entered the military, 

which was not measurably different from the 7 percent of those from middle-SES 

families and the 5 percent of those from high-SES families who served. Military 

service was generally not related to high school characteristics except for GPA: those 

who earned a lower academic GPA in high school (e.g., below 2.5) entered the 

military at a higher rate than did their counterparts who earned a higher academic

GPA (e.g., 3.0 or above) (8 percent vs. 3 percent) (see table C-14a).

Looking at its relationship to cohort members’ educational attainment in 2012, 

military service was more prevalent among those with some college education than 

among those who had completed an undergraduate certificate and those who had 

earned a bachelor’s degree. Ten percent of cohort members who had some 

postsecondary education but had not yet earned a credential and 12 percent of those 

who were still enrolled in college in 2012 had served in the military by 2012 

(table 10). In comparison, 3 percent of those with a bachelor’s degree had served in 

the military. This difference may, in part, be due to delayed college enrollment of 

students who had served in the military. Facilitated by the generous educational 

benefits provided by the Post 9/11 GI Bill,20 many veterans attend college after 

completing their service, thus increasing their time to degree relative to high school 

completion (Kelty, Kleykamp, and Segal 2010).

 

20 The GI Bill provides a range of benefits to returning veterans, including low-cost mortgages, lowinterest loans to start a business, and payments of tuition and living expenses to attend college, high 

school, or vocational education. The benefits are available to every veteran who had been on active 

duty during the war years and had not been dishonorably discharged. After the 9/11 terrorist attacks, 

the bill was amended in 2008 with several new provisions designed to expand educational benefits for 

military service members and veterans who have served since September 11, 2001, including a 

housing allowance, a stipend for books and supplies, and full payment of their tuition and fees 

(U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs 2011). 
60 LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

Table 10. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had ever served in the military, by student’s highest 

educational attainment: 2012 

Current Occupation

Looking at the current occupations reported by 2002 sophomores who were employed 

in 2012, about one-third (32 percent) were in a trade or technical occupation

(table 11).21 Another 16 percent worked as business support personnel or administrative 

assistants, and 14 percent worked in business or management occupations. One-tenth 

worked in health care-related occupations, 6 percent as PK–12 educators or social 

service professionals,

22 another 6 percent in an occupation related to STEM,23 and the 

final 7 percent worked in “other” occupations.24

 

21 This report classifies current occupations into eight broad categories listed in table 11. Current 

occupations are coded based on the 2010 Standard Occupational Classification (SOC). More 

information on the 2010 SOC codes can be found at http://www.bls.gov/soc/. 22 Due to small sample sizes, PK–12 educators and social service professionals are combined in this 

report. Social service professional occupations include counselors, social workers, religious workers, 

clinical and school psychologists, and other community and social service specialists. 23 For this report, STEM-related occupations include natural scientists, mathematics-related 

occupations, engineers, and computer/information systems occupations.

24 “Other” occupations include air transportation professionals, artists and designers, communication 

professionals, information professionals, legal professionals, other educators, postsecondary 

educators, and social scientists.

Student’s highest educational attainment in 2012

Ever served

in the military

Total 5.9

Student’s highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school ‡

High school only 6.2

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalence ‡

High school diploma 6.8

Some college but no postsecondary credential 9.5

Still enrolled in 2012 12.4

Not enrolled in 2012 7.8

Undergraduate certificate 5.2

Associate’s degree 7.3

Bachelor’s degree 3.2

Master’s or higher degree 1.8 !

‡ Reporting standards not met.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

NOTE: Standard errors are available in table C-14b.

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate.
LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS 61

Table 11. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently employed, percentage distribution of their current occupation, by selected characteristics: 2012 

Selected characteristics

Business/

management 

occupations

STEM 

occupations1

Health care 

occupations

PK‒12 

educators/

social service 

professionals2

Sales 

occupations

Business 

support/

administrative 

assistants

Trade/

technical 

occupations Other3

Total 13.5 5.9 10.2 6.4 7.9 16.5 32.4 7.2

Student’s highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 8.0 # 3.1 ! ‡ 7.6 15.2 64.5 ‡

High school only 7.2 1.0 ! 3.4 0.8 ! 9.4 18.6 57.2 2.3

Some college but no postsecondary credential 12.4 3.5 5.9 3.0 9.8 19.9 41.2 4.4

Undergraduate certificate 8.5 1.9 22.9 2.4 5.4 14.9 41.1 2.9

Associate’s degree 9.7 4.9 17.7 3.2 7.9 20.6 30.1 5.9

Bachelor’s degree 20.7 12.3 8.2 11.0 7.7 13.9 14.6 11.5

Master’s or higher degree 13.7 7.8 23.1 23.8 1.2 ! 6.5 4.5 19.5

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 14.1 8.7 3.7 3.0 7.8 11.5 45.2 6.0

Female 13.0 3.0 16.9 10.1 8.0 21.7 18.9 8.5

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 9.0 3.0 10.4 5.0 8.2 18.8 41.8 3.9

Middle two quarters 13.0 5.2 10.1 5.9 7.7 17.8 34.2 6.1

Highest quarter 18.7 9.7 10.1 8.9 7.8 11.8 20.6 12.3

High school academic characteristics

Rigor of high school curriculum4,5

Below-standard 12.1 4.6 8.0 4.8 8.7 16.8 40.0 5.1

Standard 13.4 5.9 11.8 6.0 5.8 17.5 32.5 7.1

Moderately rigorous 16.1 6.3 13.0 9.8 7.7 15.9 21.9 9.2

Rigorous 19.2 15.2 14.1 10.1 4.6 9.4 12.6 14.9

Highest math course taken since grade 95

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 7.1 2.0 ! 4.8 2.1 ! 9.9 17.3 54.5 2.4 !

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 11.6 2.8 9.1 4.6 8.8 18.4 39.4 5.3

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 16.4 6.7 12.2 10.4 6.8 15.4 23.7 8.3

Calculus 18.9 17.8 13.8 7.5 4.7 10.2 13.1 14.0

See notes at end of table.
62 LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

Table 11. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently employed, percentage distribution of their current occupation, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard errors are available in table C-15b.

5

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

3

 Other occupations include air transportation professionals, artists and designers, communication professionals, information professionals, legal professionals, other educators, postsecondary educators, 

and social scientists.

1

 STEM occupations include life scientists, physical scientists, mathematics-related occupations, engineers, and computer/information systems occupations.

# Rounds to zero.

‡ Reporting standards not met.

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate.

4 A composite measure derived from credits earned in mathematics, biology, chemistry, physics, English, social studies, and foreign language reported on students’ high school transcripts. See appendix A 

for detailed information about this variable.

2

 Due to small sample sizes, PK–12 educators and social service professionals are combined in this report. Social service professional occupations include counselors, social workers, religious workers, 

clinical and school psychologists, and other community and social service specialists.
LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS 63

Cohort members’ 2012 occupations varied with their educational attainment. Among 

those who had not completed high school, almost all (96 percent) of those who had 

not completed high school were employed in occupations that fell into four of the 

eight occupational categories, including the 65 percent who worked in trade or 

technical occupations, the 15 percent who worked as business support personnel or 

administrative assistants, and another 8 percent who worked in each of the 

business/management and sales occupation categories. These four occupation 

categories also accounted for 92 percent of employed 2002 sophomores who had 

just completed a high school education. Three percent of those who had no more 

than a high school education worked in health care occupations. Among those who 

had earned an undergraduate certificate, however, 23 percent worked in health care 

occupations. 

Proportionally more bachelor’s degree recipients (21 percent) than their peers in other 

educational attainment categories (7–14 percent) worked in business/management 

occupations in 2012. In addition, about 12 percent of bachelor’s degree recipients 

worked in STEM occupations, compared with 1–8 percent of their peers in other 

educational attainment categories. Among 2002 sophomores who had earned a 

master’s or other advanced degree, the four largest occupation categories included 

elementary/secondary educators or social service professionals (24 percent), health 

care occupations (23 percent), “other” (19 percent), and business/management 

occupations (14 percent).

Consistent with past research (Gabriel and Schmitz 2007; Reskin and Bielby 2005;

Blau, Brummund, and Liu 2013), men and women tended to cluster in different 

occupational fields, with more women than men in such fields as education, social 

services, and health care. For example, proportionally more women than men 

worked as business support personnel or administrative assistants (22 percent vs. 

12 percent), in health care occupations (17 percent vs. 4 percent), and in PK–12 

education or social services (10 percent vs. 3 percent). Proportionally more men than 

women worked in trade or technical occupations (45 percent vs. 19 percent).

Sophomores’ 2012 occupations were also related to their family SES as measured in 

high school. Proportionally more individuals from high-SES families worked in 

business/management and STEM occupations (19 and 10 percent, respectively) than 

did their counterparts from low-SES families (9 and 3 percent, respectively). The 

latter group, on the other hand, had higher proportions than their high-SES peers 

working in trade/technical occupations (42 percent vs. 21 percent) or as business 

support/administrative assistants (19 percent vs. 12 percent).
64 LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

In addition, sophomores’ 2012 occupations were correlated with the rigor of their 

curriculum in high school. For example, having taken more rigorous high school 

curricula was associated with lower percentages of cohort members working in 

trade/technical occupations: 40 percent of those who had taken a below-standard 

high school curriculum, 33 percent who had taken a standard, 22 percent who had 

taken a moderately rigorous, and 13 percent who had taken a rigorous high school 

curriculum worked in the trade/technical occupations. Conversely, 15 percent of 

those who had taken a rigorous curriculum worked in STEM fields, compared with 

5–6 percent of those who had taken less rigorous curricula. The relationship between 

cohort members’ 2012 occupations and their math coursetaking in high school 

exhibited similar patterns: in general, cohort members who had taken no or low-level 

math and science courses tended to cluster in lower skill fields such as 

trade/technical occupations, whereas those who had taken calculus tended to work 

in STEM fields and business management positions. 

Wages for Current Jobs

Cohort members who worked in 2012 earned a median hourly wage of $14 in their 

2012 job, which was equivalent to approximately $29,00025 a year for a full-time, 

year-round job (figure 18). Hourly wages varied based on individuals’ educational 

attainment, demographic and family characteristics, high school characteristics, and 

occupation. Generally, and following historical trends, the higher a student’s 

educational attainment, the higher his or her wage. For example, the median hourly 

wage for those who did not complete high school was about one-half the median 

hourly wage for those with a master’s or higher degree ($10 vs. $21). The median 

hourly wage for associate’s degree recipients was higher than that for those who 

attended some college but did not earn a postsecondary credential ($14 vs. $12). 

Bachelor’s degree holders had a higher median hourly wage than associate’s degree 

holders ($17 vs. $14), and those with a master’s or higher degree had a higher median 

hourly wage than bachelor’s degree holders ($21 vs. $17).

 

25 For an individual who works 40 hours per week and 52 weeks a year, $14 per hour would be 

equivalent to $29,120 per year in earnings.
LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS 65

Figure 18. 

Median standardized hourly wage for spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently employed, by students’ highest 

educational attainment: 2012

Consistent with prior research (McCall and Percheski 2010), hourly wages differed 

between men and women. Despite having higher educational attainment, women 

earned less than men: women’s median hourly wage was a dollar an hour lower than 

men’s median hourly wage ($14 vs. $15) (figure 19). In addition, 28 percent of 

women’s hourly wages fell in the lowest quarter of the wage distribution, compared 

with 22 percent of men’s (figure 20). 

Earnings also differed among racial/ethnic subgroups. Blacks had the lowest median 

hourly wages ($12 vs. $14–$16 for other racial/ethnic subgroups) (figure 19), and 

40 percent of Blacks’ hourly wages fell in the lowest quarter of the wage distribution, 

compared with 18–29 percent among other racial/ethnic subgroups (figure 20). Of 

all racial/ethnic subgroups, Whites and Asians had the highest median hourly wages 

($15 and $16, respectively) and the largest percentages of individuals in the highest 

quarter of the wage distribution (28 and 34 percent, respectively). 

NOTE: Earnings that were reported in a format other than dollars per hour (e.g., dollars per week) were standardized to dollars per hour. 

Estimates and standard errors are available in tables C-16a and C-16b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

14

10 11

13 12 13

14

17

21

0

5

10

15

20

25

Total Less than

high school

GED

or other

equivalency

High school

diploma

Some

college

but no

postsecondary

credential

Undergraduate

certificate

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s 

or higher 

degree

Median 

hourly wage

Highest educational attainment

$
66 LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

Figure 19. 

Median standardized hourly wage for spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently employed, by selected 

demographic characteristics: 2012

Cohort members from more socioeconomically advantaged families had higher 

median hourly wages. Sophomores from high-SES families earned a median hourly 

wage of $17 in their 2012 job, compared with $14 for those from middle-SES 

families and $12 for those from low-SES families (figure 19). Thirty-six percent of 

cohort members from high-SES families had wages in the highest quarter of the 

wage distribution, compared with 23 percent of those from middle-SES families and 

14 percent of those from low-SES families (figure 20). 

1

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other Pacific 

Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

NOTE: Earnings that were reported in a format other than dollars per hour (e.g., dollars per week) were standardized to dollars per hour. 

Estimates and standard errors are available in tables C-16a and C-16b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

15

14

15

12

14

16

14

12

14

17

0

5

10

15

20

25

Male Female White Black Hispanic Asian Other Lowest

quarter

Middle

two

quarters

Highest

quarter

Sex Race/ethnicity1 Family SES in 10th grade

Median 

hourly wage

$
LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS 67

Figure 20. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently employed, percentage distribution of standardized hourly wage, 

by selected demographic characteristics: 2012

Such high school characteristics as 10th-grade academic risk, rigor of high school 

curriculum, highest math and science courses taken, and academic GPA were all 

related to 2002 high school sophomores’ wages 10 years later (table 12). The pattern 

was consistent: sophomores with a stronger academic profile in high school (e.g., 

completed a rigorous curriculum, took calculus and advanced science courses, and 

earned a high academic GPA) earned higher hourly wages in 2012 than did their 

counterparts with a weaker academic profile. For example, 2002 sophomores whose 

highest math course was calculus had a median hourly wage of $20, and those whose 

highest math course was trigonometry, precalculus, or statistics had a median hourly 

wage of $16. In comparison, those who had taken no math more advanced than 

algebra or geometry earned a median hourly wage of $13, and those who had taken 

no math more advanced than pre-algebra earned a median hourly wage of $11. 

1

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other Pacific 

Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

NOTE: Earnings that were reported in a format other than dollars per hour (e.g., dollars per week) were standardized to dollars per hour. Detail 

may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates and standard errors are available in tables C-16a and C-16b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

22 28 21

40

28

18

29 35

25

17

51

50

50

47

55

48

50

51

53

47

27 22 28

13 17

34

21 14

23

36

0

20

40

60

80

100

Male Female White Black Hispanic Asian Other Lowest

quarter

Middle

two

quarters

Highest

quarter

Highest

quarter

Middle two

quarters

Lowest

quarter

Percent

Sex Race/ethnicity1 Family SES in 10th grade
68 LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

Table 12. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently employed, median and percentage 

distribution of standardized hourly wage for their current job, by selected student high school 

characteristics: 2012

Selected student high school characteristics

Median 

standardized 

hourly 

wage1

Lowest 

quarter

Middle two 

quarters

Highest 

quarter

Total $14.45 25.1 50.5 24.4

Academic risk in 10th grade2

Low 18.46 11.5 45.1 43.4

Moderate 14.40 24.8 52.0 23.2

High 11.36 42.7 48.1 9.2

Rigor of high school curriculum3,4

Below-standard 13.40 30.3 50.6 19.1

Standard 14.99 23.2 50.5 26.3

Moderately rigorous 15.38 18.0 52.7 29.3

Rigorous 19.99 11.0 40.0 48.9

Highest math course taken since grade 94

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 10.77 47.5 44.3 8.2

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 13.16 29.8 53.8 16.4

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 15.99 17.3 51.4 31.3

Calculus 19.98 10.4 40.4 49.1

Highest science course taken since grade 94

No science or low-level science 11.91 40.7 46.3 13.0

General biology 13.00 31.3 52.6 16.1

Chemistry I or physics I 14.80 22.0 54.1 24.0

Chemistry I and physics I 16.81 15.8 49.1 35.1

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 17.45 16.4 44.1 39.4

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 11.99 36.1 51.0 12.9

2.00‒2.49 13.27 30.1 55.3 14.5

2.50‒2.99 14.25 25.4 51.2 23.4

3.00‒3.49 16.29 16.8 50.3 32.8

3.50‒4.00 19.14 10.1 44.4 45.5

Percentage distribution of 

standardized hourly wage1

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard errors are available in table C-16b.

4

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

3

 A composite measure derived from credits earned in mathematics, biology, chemistry, physics, English, social studies, 

and foreign language reported on students’ high school transcripts. See appendix A for detailed information about this 

2

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade 

point average (GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about 

this variable.

1

 Earnings that were reported in a format other than dollars per hour (e.g., dollars per week) were standardized to dollars 

per hour.
LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS 69

Wages were also tied to occupations. Individuals working in STEM occupations had 

the highest median hourly wage, $22 (figure 21). On the other hand, individuals in 

sales occupations had the lowest median wage, $11 per hour, followed by those in 

business support/administrative professions and trade/technical occupations, with a 

median hourly wage of $13. 

Figure 21. 

Median standardized hourly wage for spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently employed, by current occupation: 

2012

NOTE: Earnings that were reported in a format other than dollars per hour (e.g., dollars per week) were standardized to dollars per hour. 

Estimates and standard errors are available in tables C-16a and C-16b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

1

 STEM occupations include life scientists, physical scientists, mathematics-related occupations, engineers, and computer/information systems 

occupations.

3

 Other occupations include air transportation professionals, artists and designers, communication professionals, information professionals, legal 

professionals, other educators, postsecondary educators, and social scientists.

2

 Due to small sample sizes, PK–12 educators and social service professionals are combined in this report. Social service professional occupations 

include counselors, social workers, religious workers, clinical and school psychologists, and other community and social service specialists.

17

22

17

16

11

13 13

16

0

5

10

15

20

25

Business/

management

occupations

STEM

occupations1

Health care

occupations

PK–12 

educators/

social service 

professionals2

Sales

occupations

Business

support/

administrative

assistants

Trade/

technical

professionals

Other3

Median 

hourly wage

$
70 LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

Alignment Between Education and Occupation

Discussions about the value of college degrees in the labor market include the topic 

of underemployment, or underutilization of workers’ human capital in the labor 

market (Abel, Deitz, and Su 2014; Robst 2007; Roksa and Arum 2012). When 

unemployment rates are high, underemployment is also a concern. There are 

generally two forms of underemployment: working fewer hours than desired and 

working in a job that does not require the level of education that the worker has 

attained.

The third follow-up survey of ELS:2002 offered two measures of underemployment. 

First, sample members who had ever worked since 2006 were asked whether their 

current or most recent job required each of the following postsecondary credentials: 

an undergraduate certificate, associate’s degree, or bachelor’s or graduate degree. 

Second, sample members who had worked since 2006 and attended college at some 

point were asked whether their 2012 or most recent job was closely, somewhat, or 

not at all related to the field they studied during their most recent postsecondary 

enrollment. These self-reported data describe sample members’ perceptions of the 

alignment between their postsecondary education and their current or most recent 

jobs. 

Among 2002 sophomores who had ever worked between 2006 and 2012, 18 percent

reported that their current or most recent job required an undergraduate certificate; 

12 percent reported that this job required an associate’s degree; and 27 percent

reported that their current or most recent job required a bachelor’s or graduate 

degree (table 13). Among the subset of cohort members who had ever worked since 

2006 and enrolled in postsecondary education at some point, 36 percent reported 

their current or most recent job was closely related to their major field of study 

during their most recent period of enrollment; another 22 percent reported that this 

job was somewhat related to that field of study; and 43 percent reported that their 

current or most recent job was not related to their most recent major field of study. 

Individuals whose educational attainment is greater than the education required for 

their jobs may be underemployed. Among those who had earned an associate’s degree, 

20 percent reported that their current or most recent job required an undergraduate 

certificate. About 35 percent of bachelor’s degree recipients may be underemployed—

16 percent worked in a job requiring an undergraduate certificate, and 19 percent

worked in a job requiring an associate’s degree. Among those who had attained a 

master’s or higher degree, approximately 30 percent reported that their current or 

most recent job required only an undergraduate certificate or an associate’s degree. 
LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS 71

Table 13. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had worked for pay, percentage reporting the perception that their current or 

most recent job required various postsecondary credentials, and of those who had also enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage indicating that their current or most recent job was closely, somewhat, or not related to their most recent 

postsecondary major: by selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics

Undergraduate 

certificate

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Closely 

related

Somewhat 

related

Not 

related

Total 18.4 11.6 26.6 35.5 22.0 42.5

Student’s highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 9.5 ‡ ‡ † † †

High school only 14.7 1.5 ! 1.8 † † †

Some college but no postsecondary credential 14.5 5.1 7.4 17.8 19.2 63.0

Undergraduate certificate 45.7 8.0 7.4 38.9 19.1 42.1

Associate’s degree 20.1 31.0 7.7 40.4 18.6 41.0

Bachelor’s degree 15.7 19.1 58.3 43.6 27.7 28.7

Master’s or higher degree 14.7 14.7 84.4 70.8 19.2 10.0

Sex

Male 16.3 9.9 24.0 33.0 22.7 44.3

Female 20.4 13.3 29.1 37.6 21.3 41.1

Race/ethnicity1

White 16.3 12.0 30.5 39.5 21.5 39.1

Black 25.3 10.2 17.0 25.4 21.4 53.2

Hispanic 20.3 10.7 17.9 28.3 22.4 49.3

Asian 17.4 14.6 41.6 37.3 27.8 35.0

Other 20.4 11.1 19.6 31.0 23.6 45.4

Occupation of current/most recent job

Business/management occupations 13.6 13.6 44.7 34.5 29.7 35.8

STEM occupations2 17.1 20.1 70.0 62.1 23.6 14.3

Health care occupations 41.1 27.2 32.9 68.8 18.8 12.4

PK–12 educators/social service professionals3 23.2 18.7 76.2 68.5 16.4 15.1

Sales occupations 10.0 4.6 12.0 9.7 21.2 69.1

Business support/administrative assistants 11.1 8.6 10.9 15.5 23.3 61.1

Trade/technical professionals 19.4 5.6 5.0 22.4 18.3 59.3

Other4 17.0 19.0 58.5 54.2 27.9 17.9

† Not applicable.

Current/most recent 

job required

Current/most recent job and 

most recent postsecondary 

major field were

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

NOTE: Standard errors are available in table C-17b.

4 Other occupations include air transportation professionals, artists and designers, communication professionals, information professionals, legal 

professionals, other educators, postsecondary educators, and social scientists.

2

 STEM occupations include life scientists, physical scientists, mathematics-related occupations, engineers, and computer/information systems 

occupations.

1

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other Pacific 

Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

‡ Reporting standards not met.

3

 Due to small sample sizes, PK–12 educators and social service professionals are combined in this report. Social service professional occupations 

include counselors, social workers, religious workers, clinical and school psychologists, and other community and social service specialists.
72 LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

In general, the higher the level of individuals’ educational attainment, the greater the 

percentage who perceived their job as closely related to their major and the lower the 

percentage who perceived their job as not related to their major. For example, 

among those who enrolled at the postsecondary level but did not earn a credential, 

18 percent reported that their job was closely related to their major, and 63 percent

reported that their job was not related (table 13). In comparison, among those with 

an associate’s degree, 40 percent reported that their job was closely related to their 

major, and 41 percent reported that their job was not related. For bachelor’s degree 

completers, 44 percent reported that their job was closely related to their degree, and 

29 percent reported that their job and major field were not closely related. Among 

master’s or higher degree holders, 71 percent indicated that their job was closely 

related to their major, the highest percentage observed across various levels of 

educational attainment.

Alignment between work and education were more frequently reported by females 

than males and less frequently reported by Blacks and Hispanics than Whites and 

Asians. For example, proportionally more females than males (38 percent vs. 

33 percent) worked in jobs closely related to their major fields. About one-half of 

Blacks (53 percent) and Hispanics (49 percent) reported that their current or most 

recent jobs were not related to their fields of study, compared with 39 percent of 

Whites and 35 percent of Asians. Additionally, proportionally fewer Blacks and 

Hispanics (25 and 28 percent, respectively) than Whites and Asians (39 and 

37 percent, respectively) reported that their current or most recent job was closely 

related to their major.

High-skill jobs (such as those related to STEM) usually require at least a bachelor’s 

degree (Carnevale, Smith, and Strohl 2010). Among 2002 high school sophomores, 

the majority of those who worked as PK–12 educators or social service professionals 

(76 percent) or in STEM occupations (70 percent) reported working in jobs that 

required a bachelor’s or graduate degree. In contrast, 5 percent of those who worked 

in trade/technical professions reported that their job required a bachelor’s or 

graduate degree.

Approximately 69 percent of those who worked in health care and as PK–12 

educators/social service professionals and 62 percent of those working in STEM 

fields reported that their jobs were closely aligned with their majors, higher than the 

percentages observed among individuals working in sales occupations (10 percent), 

as business support/administrative assistants (16 percent), and as trade/technical 

professionals (22 percent). In these latter three occupation categories, 59–69 percent

reported that their jobs were not related to their major field of study. 
LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS 73

Employment History

Employment Since 2006

Since 2006, when most cohort members were approximately age 20, just 2 percent had 

not been employed (figure 22). Eleven percent of cohort members who did not 

complete high school reported having no employment since 2006, a higher percentage 

than those observed among all other educational attainment groups (1–5 percent). 

Figure 22. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores, percentage distribution of employment since 2006, by student’s highest 

educational attainment: 2012

Unemployment Spells Since 2009

Many 2002 sophomore cohort members entered or were in the labor market during 

or in the wake of the Great Recession. In addition to their current employment 

status, the 2012 follow-up focused on cohort members’ unemployment during 

2009–12, a time generally considered to be post recession but still characterized by 

high unemployment rates (Godofsky, Zukin, and Van Horn 2011; Shierholz, Davis, 

and Kimball 2014; Shierholz, Sabadish, and Wething 2012). 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates and standard errors are available in tables C-18a and C-18b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate.

2 11 3! 5 3 1! 1 1 1

98

89

97 95 97 99 99 99 99

0

20

40

60

80

100

Total Less

than

high

school

GED

or other

equivalency

High

school

diploma

Some

college

but no

postsecondary

credential

Undergraduate

certificate

Associate’s 

degree 

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s 

or 

higher 

degree

Students

who have

worked for

pay since

2006

Students

who have

never

worked for

pay since

2006

Percent
74 LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

Overall, 41 percent of 2002 sophomores reported having been unemployed at some 

time between 2009 and 2012 (table 14). Individuals who had been unemployed reported 

an average of 10 months of unemployment, and 23 percent experienced three or more 

unemployment spells (i.e., a period of unemployment lasting at least 1 month).

Table 14. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had ever been unemployed since January 2009, and 

of those, average number of months unemployed and percentage distribution of number of unemployment 

spells since January 2009, by student’s highest educational attainment: 2012 

When examining the relationship between educational attainment as of 2012 and 

unemployment from 2009 to 2012, it is important to note that cohort members may 

have been unemployed before or after they enrolled in postsecondary education or 

completed a postsecondary credential. While unemployment has some association 

with educational attainment, it could also be a potential factor motivating individuals 

to attend college or extend their education (Shapiro et al. 2014); thus, the relationship 

between education and unemployment does not imply causation. 

With this caveat in mind, the findings of this study indicate that proportionally fewer 

cohort members with higher levels of educational attainment than those with lower 

levels of attainment had any unemployment spell between 2009 and 2012 (table 14). 

For example, 30–36 percent of those with an associate’s degree or more education 

had been unemployed at least once since 2009, compared with 53 percent of high 

school noncompleters and 58 percent of GED holders. 

Student’s highest educational 

attainment in 2012

Ever 

unemployed 

since 2009

Average 

number of 

months 

unemployed 

since 20091 One Two

Three 

or more

Total 40.6 9.9 56.1 20.7 23.2

Student’s highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 53.0 13.3 47.5 15.6 36.9

GED or other equivalency 58.2 13.3 46.5 18.4 35.1

High school diploma 45.2 11.7 51.6 21.0 27.4

Some college but no postsecondary credential 45.0 11.0 52.7 20.0 27.3

Undergraduate certificate 41.4 10.9 53.7 19.5 26.8

Associate’s degree 35.0 9.5 64.0 17.1 18.8

Bachelor’s degree 35.7 6.8 60.9 24.7 14.4

Master’s or higher degree 30.2 6.9 67.8 16.2 15.9

2

 An unemployment spell is a period of unemployment lasting at least one month.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard errors are available in table C-19b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

Number of 

unemployment 

spells since 20091,2

1

 Includes only students who have ever been unemployed since January 2009.
LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS 75

The mean number of months unemployed also decreased with increasing levels of 

education. Individuals who did not complete high school or who had a GED or 

other equivalency were unemployed for an average of 13 months between 2009 and 

2012. Those with some college but no degree or with an undergraduate certificate 

were unemployed for an average of 11 months, and those with an associate’s degree 

for an average of 10 months. Bachelor’s or higher degree holders were unemployed 

for an average of 7 months. 

About 40 percent of both males (42 percent) and females (39 percent) had been 

unemployed at least once since 2009 (figure 23), and both experienced about 10 months 

of unemployment during this period (see table C-19a). About 53 percent of Blacks 

reported having been unemployed since 2009, a higher percentage than those observed 

among all other racial/ethnic subgroups (37–44 percent). Among the various 

racial/ethnic subgroups, Whites had the lowest percentage who reported an 

unemployment spell (37 percent). Blacks and Hispanics also had slightly longer 

unemployment durations than did Whites: about 11 months for Blacks and Hispanics, 

compared with 9 months for Whites (see table C-19a).

Figure 23. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had ever been unemployed since January 2009, by selected 

demographic characteristics: 2012

1

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other Pacific 

Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

NOTE: Estimates and standard errors are available in tables C-19a and C-19b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

42 39 37

53

44

40 43 43 41

37

0

20

40

60

80

100

Male Female White Black Hispanic Asian Other Lowest

quarter

Middle

two

quarters

Highest

quarter

Percent

Sex Race/ethnicity1 Family SES in 10th grade
76 LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

Unemployment was related to high school academic experiences: those with a weak 

academic profile in high school were unemployed more frequently than their 

counterparts with a strong academic profile (table 15). For example, about one-half 

of cohort members with high academic risk (51 percent) and school disengagement 

(49 percent) in 10th grade had been unemployed for one or more spells since 2009. 

In contrast, 40 percent or fewer of those who had low to moderate levels of 

academic risk and school disengagement in 10th grade have experienced 

unemployment since 2009. Among unemployed cohort members, those at high 

academic risk or with high levels of disengagement experienced 11–12 months of 

unemployment, compared with 7–9 months among those at low academic risk and 

with a low level of disengagement.

About one-third (30–36 percent) of cohort members whose most advanced high 

school math course was trigonometry, statistics, precalculus, or calculus had been 

unemployed since 2009, compared with one-half of those who took no math higher 

than pre-algebra (50 percent). Among cohort members who had been unemployed, 

those who had not taken math more advanced than pre-algebra experienced an 

average of 13 months of unemployment. In contrast, those who had taken calculus 

in high school had been unemployed for an average of 6 months. 
LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS 77

Table 15. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had ever been unemployed since January 2009, and 

of those, average number of months unemployed and percentage distribution of number of unemployment 

spells since January 2009, by selected characteristics: 2012 

Selected characteristics

Ever 

unemployed 

since 2009

Average 

number of 

months 

unemployed 

since 20091

One 

spell

Two 

spells

Three 

or more 

spells

Total 40.6 9.9 56.1 20.7 23.2

Sex

Male 42.4 9.7 53.9 22.3 23.9

Female 38.9 10.1 58.4 19.1 22.5

Race/ethnicity3

White 36.6 9.0 58.4 20.2 21.4

Black 52.9 11.0 50.1 23.0 26.9

Hispanic 44.0 10.6 56.4 20.4 23.2

Asian 40.2 9.6 57.5 19.8 22.7

Other 43.1 12.8 51.3 18.5 30.2

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 43.1 10.9 53.8 21.8 24.4

Middle two quarters 40.7 9.7 56.7 19.9 23.4

Highest quarter 36.5 8.3 58.4 21.2 20.4

Academic risk in 10th grade

Low 32.8 6.5 64.9 21.3 13.8

Moderate 40.1 9.9 56.9 20.4 22.7

High 51.0 12.1 46.1 21.4 32.6

School disengagement in 10th grade

Low 35.7 8.8 62.0 20.1 17.9

Moderate 37.5 9.4 59.0 20.7 20.3

High 49.0 10.7 50.4 20.3 29.3

Rigor of high school curriculum4,5

Below-standard 43.6 10.8 51.6 22.1 26.3

Standard 39.7 9.9 57.8 18.6 23.6

Moderately rigorous 34.2 8.2 60.4 21.8 17.8

Rigorous 31.5 6.9 68.7 19.9 11.5

Highest math course taken since grade 95

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 50.3 13.4 43.9 21.7 34.5

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 42.4 10.8 52.9 21.3 25.8

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 36.2 8.1 61.2 21.1 17.6

Calculus 30.1 6.4 65.3 21.5 13.2

Highest science course taken since grade 95

No science or low-level science 49.2 13.0 45.6 22.5 31.9

General biology 44.9 11.4 52.1 19.8 28.0

Chemistry I or physics I 35.8 9.0 59.0 21.9 19.1

Chemistry I and physics I 35.4 7.4 60.6 23.7 15.6

Chemistry II, physics II, or 

 advanced biology 35.1 7.7 60.8 19.5 19.7

See notes at end of table.

Number of unemployment 

spells since 20091,2
78 LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

Table 15. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had ever been unemployed since January 2009, and 

of those, average number of months unemployed and percentage distribution of number of unemployment 

spells since January 2009, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

Socioeconomic Status 

In addition to 2002 sophomores’ recent and long-term labor market outcomes, 

broader measures of their SES provide information about how they were faring 

10 years after the 10th grade. This section presents two measures related to 

sophomores’ SES in 2012. The first is a composite measure of individuals’ SES 

based on their earnings from 2011 employment, the prestige of their 2012 or most 

recent job, and their educational attainment as of 2012.26 The second measure 

indicates whether cohort members or their spouses, partners, or children received 

 

26 Individuals’ SES is measured differently from the traditional measure of their parents’ SES. While 

the latter reflects the household’s SES, the former reflects individuals’ SES (i.e., excluding the 

contribution of their spouse or partner). Individuals’ SES may not reflect their true socioeconomic 

situation. For example, a physician’s stay-at-home spouse, while living in a relatively high-SES family, 

has a relatively low score of SES him/herself. In addition, there is still a lot of flux in education and 

employment at age 26. For example, individuals who pursue a doctoral or professional degree may 

have a low SES score, due to income and occupation, which does not accurately reflect their SES. The 

reader should keep this caveat in mind when interpreting data on individuals’ SES. 

Selected characteristics

Ever 

unemployed 

since 2009

Average 

number of 

months 

unemployed 

since 20091

One 

spell

Two 

spells

Three 

or more 

spells

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 52.2 11.4 49.0 20.9 30.1

2.00‒2.49 41.6 11.4 51.2 22.9 25.8

2.50‒2.99 36.9 9.6 58.4 21.3 20.2

3.00‒3.49 32.1 7.5 66.0 19.3 14.7

3.50‒4.00 30.6 6.1 65.3 20.3 14.4

Number of unemployment 

spells since 20091,2

2

 An unemployment spell is a period of unemployment lasting at least 1 month.

5

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard errors are available in table C-19b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

1

 Includes only students who have ever been unemployed since January 2009.

4

 A composite measure derived from credits earned in mathematics, biology, chemistry, physics, English, social studies, and 

foreign language reported on students’ high school transcripts. See appendix A for a detailed construction of this variable.

3

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native 

Hawaiian, other Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude 

Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.
LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS 79

federal public assistance through any of five federal anti-poverty programs.27 As with 

the labor market experience indicators, these measures show that 2002 high school 

sophomores’ 2012 SES was related to various characteristics measured in high school 

and during the subsequent 10 years.

Socioeconomic Status of 2002 Sophomores in 2012

Racial/ethnic group membership was associated with 2002 high school sophomores’ 

SES in 2012. About 30 percent of Whites and 35 percent of Asians fell in the highest 

quarter of the SES distribution, compared with 14 percent of Blacks and Hispanics 

(figure 24). On the other hand, one-third of Blacks and Hispanics fell in the lowest 

quarter of the SES distribution, compared with 18–21 percent of Asians and Whites. 

Family SES in 10th grade was also related to cohort members’ SES 10 years later. Of 

2002 sophomores whose families fell in the highest quarter of the SES distribution as 

10th-graders, 44 percent were in the highest SES quarter as adults in 2012. In 

comparison, 22 percent of 2002 sophomores from middle-SES families and 

12 percent of those from low-SES families found themselves in the top SES quarter 

as adults. Nevertheless, some students had increases in their own SES as adults 

relative to their family’s SES when they were in 10th grade. Among 2002 sophomores 

whose families were in the lowest SES quarter in 2002, apart from 12 percent in the 

highest SES quarter another 48 percent were in the two middle SES quarters as young 

adults. The remaining 40 percent, like their parents, were in the lowest SES quarter.

Cohort members who had become parents by 2012 had lower SES than did their 

peers without children. Thirty-eight percent of cohort members who had children in 

2012 were in the lowest SES quarter, and 13 percent were in the highest quarter. In 

comparison, among those who did not have children, 18 percent were in the lowest 

SES quarter, and 33 percent were in the highest SES quarter. Cohort members who 

were single parents in 2012 fared less well than did parents overall: 48 percent of 

single parents were in the lowest socioeconomic quarter, compared with 38 percent 

of all parents, and 7 percent were in the highest quarter, compared with 13 percent 

of all parents. 

 

27 The ELS:2002 survey defined “public assistance” as participation in any of the following federal 

programs: Supplemental Security Income (SSI); Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, 

also known as the Food Stamp Program); Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF); the 

Free and Reduced Price School Lunch Program (FRPL); or Special Supplemental Nutrition Program 

for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). Eligibility for public assistance programs is based on 

household income as well as the number of adults and children in the household, with WIC 

specifically targeting mothers of young children. Eligibility for some programs (e.g., WIC and FRPL) 

also depends on the age of the child. 
80 LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

Figure 24. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ socioeconomic status, by selected 

demographic characteristics: 2012

3

 Refers to students being a single parent in 2012. The base includes only those who reported that they had children in 

NOTE: Socioeconomic status (SES) of 2002 high school sophomores is measured differently from their family SES in 

2002. While the former reflects individual’s SES (i.e., excluding the contribution of their spouse or partner), the latter 

reflects their parents’ SES (including the contributions of both parents). Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

Estimates and standard errors are available in tables C-20a and C-20b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

1

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native 

Hawaiian, other Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude 

Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

2

 Includes biological and adopted children.

36

48

38

18

10

24

40

33

18

34

34

21

50

44

50

49

46

53

48

46

47

52

51

49

13

7

13

33

44

22

12

21

35

14

14

30

0 20 40 60 80 100

No

Yes

One or more

None

Highest quarter

Middle two quarters

Lowest quarter

Other

Asian

Hispanic

Black

White

Percent

Lowest

quarter

Middle two

quarters

Highest

quarter

Race/ethnicity1

Family SES in 10th grade

Parents who were single in 20123

Number of children in 20122
LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS 81

Public Assistance

In 2012, about one-fifth (19 percent) of 2002 sophomores reported that they, their 

spouses or partners, or their children received some form of federal public assistance 

in 2011 (figure 25). To provide context, 7 percent of all young adults aged 15–24 

received at least one form of federal public assistance in 2009 (Aud, KewalRamani, 

and Frohlich 2011). 

The percentage of cohort members who reported receiving public assistance varied 

with their educational attainment. For example, some 25 percent of those who 

attended some college but had not received a postsecondary credential reported 

receiving public assistance, proportionally fewer than the 48 percent of high school 

noncompleters, 38 percent of GED holders, and 31 percent of high school diploma 

holders who also reported receiving public assistance (figure 25). A smaller 

percentage of associate’s degree holders than individuals who attended some college

but had not received a postsecondary credential received public assistance 

(17 percent vs. 25 percent). Three percent of those with master’s or higher degrees 

and 5 percent of bachelor’s degree holders received public assistance.

Figure 25. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who or whose spouses, partners, or children received public assistance in 

2011, by student’s highest educational attainment

NOTE: “Public assistance” includes Supplemental Security Income (SSI), SNAP (the Food Stamp Program), TANF (the Temporary Assistance for 

Needy Families Program), the Free and Reduced Price School Lunch Program, or WIC (the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, 

Infants, and Children). Estimates and standard errors are available in tables C-20a and C-20b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

19

48

38

31

25 26

17

5 3

0

20

40

60

80

100

Total Less

than

high

school

GED

or other

equivalency

High

school

diploma

Some

college

but no

postsecondary

credential

Undergraduate

certificate

Associate’s 

degree 

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s 

or 

higher 

degree

Percent
82 LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

Differences were also observed across various demographic subgroups. 

Proportionally more females than males received public assistance (24 percent vs. 

14 percent) (table 16). Seven percent of Asians reported receiving public assistance, 

compared with 14 percent of Whites, 24 percent of Hispanics, and 35 percent of 

Blacks. The percentage of individuals from low-SES families receiving public 

assistance in 2011 was at least four times as large as that of those from high-SES 

families (31 percent vs. 7 percent). About 19 percent of those from middle-SES 

families reported receiving public assistance in 2011. 

Whether cohort members received public assistance was also related to some high 

school academic characteristics. For example, 10 percent of those whose most 

advanced math course in high school was trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus and 

4 percent of those whose most advanced math course was calculus reported 

receiving public assistance in 2011, compared with 24 percent of their counterparts 

whose most advanced course was geometry or algebra I or II and 40 percent of their 

peers who had not gotten as far as algebra I. 

Some individuals working full time received public assistance, although 

proportionally fewer than did individuals who were unemployed or out of the labor 

force. About 13 percent of cohort members working 35 hours a week or more in 

2012 received public assistance and a quarter of those working less than 35 hours a 

week received public assistance, compared with 39 percent of those who were 

unemployed and 33 percent of those who were out of the labor force. 

Higher proportions of cohort members working in low- or middle-skilled 

occupations than those working in high-skilled occupations received public 

assistance. For example, 23–27 percent of individuals who worked in sales, 

trade/technical occupations, and business support personnel/administrative 

professions received public assistance, proportionally more than did those working 

in health care occupations (15 percent), PK–12 education/social service professions 

(10 percent), business management (10 percent), and STEM fields (5 percent). 

One-third of divorced/separated/widowed cohort members (33 percent) received 

public assistance, proportionally more than did cohabitating (25 percent), single, 

never married (15 percent), and married individuals (19 percent). Forty-five percent 

of cohort members who had children received public assistance, compared with 

6 percent of those without children. Sixty-four percent of those who were single 

parents received public assistance, compared with 42 percent of those raising 

children in two-parent households. 
LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS 83

Table 16. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who received or whose spouses, partners, or children 

received public assistance in 2011, by selected characteristics

Selected characteristics Percent receiving public assistance in 20111

Total 18.9

Sex

Male 13.5

Female 23.9

Race/ethnicity2

White 14.0

Black 34.6

Hispanic 24.2

Asian 7.3

Other 29.0

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 31.4

Middle two quarters 18.7

Highest quarter 6.5

Highest math course taken since grade 93

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 39.9

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 24.4

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 9.7

Calculus 3.6

Employment status in 2012

Employed 35+ hours/week 13.1

Employed 1–34 hours/week 24.7

Unemployed 39.1

Out of the labor force 33.2

Occupation in 2012

Business/management occupations 9.7

STEM occupations4 4.6

Health care occupations 15.3

PK–12 educators/social service professionals5 10.4

Sales occupations 26.7

Business support/administrative assistants 22.5

Trade/technical professionals 23.6

Other6 9.4

Marital status in 2012

Single never married7 14.8

Married 19.3

Divorced/separated/widowed7 32.8

Living with partner 24.9

Number of children and single parenthood in 2012

None 6.1

One or more8 44.8

Single parent 64.0

Not single parent 42.0

See notes at end of table.
84 LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

Table 16. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who received or whose spouses, partners, or children 

received public assistance in 2011, by selected characteristics—Continued

NOTE: Standard errors are available in table C-20b.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

7

 Not living with any partner.

8

 Includes biological and adopted children.

1 Public assistance includes Supplemental Security Income (SSI), SNAP (the Food Stamp Program), TANF (the Temporary 

Assistance for Needy Families Program), the Free and Reduced Price School Lunch Program, or WIC (the Special 

Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children).

3

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

4

 STEM occupations include life scientists, physical scientists, mathematics-related occupations, engineers, and 

computer/information systems occupations.

6

 Other occupations include air transportation professionals, artists and designers, communication professionals, information 

professionals, legal professionals, other educators, postsecondary educators, and social scientists.

2

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native 

Hawaiian, other Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude 

Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

5

 Due to small sample sizes, PK–12 educators and social service professionals are combined in this report. Social service 

professional occupations include counselors, social workers, religious workers, clinical and school psychologists, and other 

community and social service specialists.
85

Factors Associated With Education and

Labor Market Outcomes a Decade Later

The analyses in the previous sections showed that various outcomes differed among 

subgroups defined by 2002 sophomores’ demographic, socioeconomic, and 

academic characteristics. These analyses, though informative, did not take into 

account the potentially complex relationships among these background factors. This 

section describes the results of multivariate analyses that introduce multiple factors 

simultaneously and allows examination of how each factor is independently 

associated with 2002 sophomores’ later outcomes, net of the others. This analysis 

refines the preceding bivariate analyses by identifying factors that are associated with 

the outcomes of interest, while taking into account the interrelationships among 

multiple factors. The primary focus is on whether subgroup differences observed in 

the bivariate analysis still remain in the multivariate context. 

Model Specifications

Outcome Variables

Three outcomes describing sophomores’ 2012 education achievement and labor 

market experiences were examined in the multivariate analysis:

• The highest level of educational attainment achieved as of 2012—high school 

education or less; some college but no postsecondary credential; undergraduate 

certificate or associate’s degree;

28 bachelor’s degree; and master’s or higher degree.

• Employment status in 2012—employed full time; employed part time; 

unemployed; and out of the labor force.

• Hourly wage for the 2012 job (used as a continuous variable). 

Independent Variables

Many factors have been identified in the literature as potentially important to 

education and labor market outcomes. These factors include (but are not limited to) 

demographic characteristics, family background, personal goals, and academic 

 

28 These two categories were combined because of relatively small sample sizes.
86

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EDUCATION AND

LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES A DECADE LATER

characteristics (Kuh et al. 2006; Long, Conger, and Iatarola 2012; Ross et al. 2012). 

For various labor market outcomes, educational attainment and enrollment status are 

also important (Baum, Ma, and Payea 2013; Carnevale, Stephen, and Cheah 2011; 

Hout 2012; Kingston et al. 2003; Oreopoulos and Petronijevic 2013). Marital and 

parenthood status may also affect a person’s decisions to work or stay at home

(Boden, Fergusson, and Horwood 2008; Danziger and Rouse 2009; Miller 2011). For 

salaries, job type (e.g., full-time vs. part-time), occupational field, and geographic 

location matter as well (Farber 2011; McCall and Percheski 2010; Melguizo and 

Wolniak 2012; Mouw and Kalleberg 2010; Polachek and Siebert 1993). The 

regression models specified below attempted to include as many of these factors 

(also referred to as “independent variables”) as are available in ELS:2002.

Specifically, for each outcome variable, the multivariate analysis included sex, 

race/ethnicity, family SES, students’ first spoken language, and living in a singleparent home in 10th grade as demographic and family background factors. Each

analysis also included the following variables measuring academic characteristics: 

students’ educational expectations in 10th grade, academic risk in 10th grade, school 

disengagement in 10th grade, rigor of high school curriculum, the highest level of 

math and science courses taken in high school, GPA earned in academic subjects in 

high school, and 10th-grade school sector. 

In addition to these variables, the multivariate analyses of the two labor market 

outcomes included several other variables. The analysis of 2002 sophomores’ 

employment status in 2012 introduced five variables that were found to be related to 

this outcome based on the bivariate results above: 2002 sophomores’ highest 

educational attainment; postsecondary enrollment status in 2012; the region of 

residence in 2012;

29 and current marital and parenthood status. The analysis of 

hourly wages was restricted to those currently employed in 2012 and included two 

additional variables that may potentially influence earnings—job intensity (full-time 

vs. part-time) and occupational field. 

Regression Models

Depending on the type of outcome variable (categorical or continuous), either a 

multinomial probit (MNP) regression or ordinary least squared (OLS) regression was 

used to estimate the relationships between the independent variables and each 

outcome variable. MNP is one of the statistical techniques commonly used when an 

outcome variable entails three or more mutually exclusive categories, as do the 

educational attainment and labor market outcomes in this study (Borooah 2001; 

 

29 This variable is used to attempt to control for differential job markets and opportunities across 

different regions of the country.
FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EDUCATION AND

LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES A DECADE LATER 87

Koop 2008). The model estimates the predicted probability of achieving one 

particular outcome (e.g., earning a bachelor’s degree) among several mutually 

exclusive alternatives. The results are often presented as average marginal effects, 

which measure the change in the predicted probability of having an outcome that is 

associated with a one-unit change in an independent variable while all other variables 

in the model remain constant (Liao 1994).

OLS is used when an outcome variable of interest is continuous, e.g., hourly wage in 

this study. OLS estimates the change in the predicted value of the outcome 

associated with a one-unit change in an independent variable while keeping all other 

variables in the model constant (Cohen and Cohen 1983). Detailed information on 

both the MNP and OLS regression models are provided in appendix B. 

Multivariate Results

Highest Educational Attainment

Table 17 presents the MNP regression results for the highest educational attainment 

that 2002 sophomores had achieved as of 2012, with the outcome of “high school 

education or less” as the base category. This regression yields two types of information: 

which individual factors (e.g., race/ethnicity) are significantly associated with this 

outcome after controlling for all other factors in the model; and whether the probability 

of attaining a certain level of education for a specific subgroup (e.g., Black students) 

differs from the probability of achieving the same outcome for the comparison group 

(e.g., White students) after controlling for related factors in the model. 

To quantify this information, two estimates were presented: the average marginal 

effect (AME) and the average predicted probability (APP). As mentioned earlier, an 

AME represents the average percentage point change in the predicted probability of 

achieving a specific level of educational attainment associated with a one-unit change 

in an independent variable, net of other variables in the model. A significant AME 

(indicated by an asterisk) suggests that the observed change in the predicted 

probability is significantly different from zero. As an example, the AME for 

“females” associated with earning an undergraduate certificate or an associate’s 

degree is 4.9; this means that the average predicted probability of achieving this level 

of education changes by 4.9 when the variable “sex” changes one unit from female 

(coded as “1”) to male (coded as “0”). In other words, the predicted probability of 

achieving this level of educational attainment for female students is 4.9 percentage 

points higher than that for male students, and the change is statistically significant. 
88

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EDUCATION AND

LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES A DECADE LATER

Table 17. 

Average marginal effects of various characteristics on the probability of spring 2002 high school sophomores achieving various levels of educational attainment as of 2012 and the 

average predicted probability of attaining these educational outcomes among various groups of students

Characteristics

Average 

marginal 

effect1

Average 

predicted 

probability2

Average 

marginal 

effect1

Average 

predicted 

probability2

Average 

marginal 

effect1

Average 

predicted 

probability2

Average 

marginal 

effect1

Average 

predicted 

probability2

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Female -2.9 * 30.7 * 4.9 * 21.0 * -1.7 27.2 1.8 * 7.9 *

Male † 33.6 † 16.1 † 28.9 † 6.1

Race/ethnicity3

Black 3.1 34.1 0.3 18.5 -0.8 27.4 2.3 9.4

Hispanic 3.5 34.5 1.9 20.1 -1.6 26.6 -1.2 5.9

Asian 1.5 32.5 0.3 18.5 2.9 31.1 0.0 7.0

Other -1.4 29.6 0.5 18.7 -4.3 * 23.9 * 1.8 8.9

White † 31.0 † 18.2 † 28.2 † 7.0

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 2.1 33.2 3.3 * 19.6 * -12.3 * 22.2 * -4.0 * 5.6 *

Middle two quarters 2.8 34.0 3.9 * 20.2 * -7.7 * 26.8 * -3.8 * 5.8 *

Highest quarter † 31.2 † 16.3 † 34.5 † 9.6

Family type in 10th grade

Single-parent family 0.0 32.0 -0.7 18.0 2.3 29.8 -0.9 6.4

Two-parent family † 32.0 † 18.7 † 27.5 † 7.3

Language student first learned to speak

Non-English 1.4 33.2 0.2 18.7 0.5 28.3 -0.1 7.1

English † 31.8 † 18.5 † 27.9 † 7.2

See notes at end of table.

Some college but no 

postsecondary credential 

Undergraduate certificate 

or associate’s degree

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s or 

higher degree
FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EDUCATION AND

LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES A DECADE LATER 89

Table 17. 

Average marginal effects of various characteristics on the probability of spring 2002 high school sophomores achieving various levels of educational attainment as of 2012 and the 

average predicted probability of attaining these educational outcomes among various groups of students—Continued

Characteristics

Average 

marginal 

effect1

Average 

predicted 

probability2

Average 

marginal 

effect1

Average 

predicted 

probability2

Average 

marginal 

effect1

Average 

predicted 

probability2

Average 

marginal 

effect1

Average 

predicted 

probability2

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet -0.7 34.4 -0.8 17.0 -5.1 * 24.2 * -1.1 7.1

High school diploma or less -0.9 34.2 0.0 17.8 -10.1 * 19.1 * -3.8 * 4.4 *

Some college -2.6 32.6 6.2 * 24.1 * -7.7 * 21.5 * -3.2 * 4.9 *

Bachelor’s degree -3.5 * 31.6 * 2.3 * 20.2 * 0.4 29.7 -2.2 * 5.9 *

Master’s degree or higher † 35.1 † 17.9 † 29.3 † 8.2

Academic risk in 10th grade4

Low † 33.8 † 15.6 † 30.5 † 7.0

Moderate -1.3 32.5 3.4 19.0 -2.7 27.8 0.4 7.4

High 1.3 35.0 6.6 * 22.1 * -9.1 * 21.4 * -3.8 * 3.2 *

School disengagement in 10th grade5

Low † 29.6 † 19.3 † 28.4 † 7.7

Moderate 3.0 * 32.6 * -0.8 18.5 -0.3 28.1 -0.9 6.8

High 3.4 33.0 -0.9 18.4 -1.8 26.6 -0.2 7.5

Rigor of high school curriculum6

Below-standard -5.5 32.9 2.7 18.8 -4.2 26.5 -2.9 * 6.3 *

Standard -6.6 31.7 2.6 18.7 -1.0 29.7 -2.3 6.9

Moderately rigorous -5.8 32.6 3.8 19.9 -1.9 28.8 -1.9 7.3

Rigorous † 38.3 † 16.1 † 30.7 † 9.1

See notes at end of table.

Master’s or

higher degree

Some college but no 

postsecondary credential 

Undergraduate certificate 

or associate’s degree

Bachelor’s 

degree
90

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EDUCATION AND

LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES A DECADE LATER

Table 17. 

Average marginal effects of various characteristics on the probability of spring 2002 high school sophomores achieving various levels of educational attainment as of 2012 and the 

average predicted probability of attaining these educational outcomes among various groups of students—Continued

Characteristics

Average 

marginal 

effect1

Average 

predicted 

probability2

Average 

marginal 

effect1

Average 

predicted 

probability2

Average 

marginal 

effect1

Average 

predicted 

probability2

Average 

marginal 

effect1

Average 

predicted 

probability2

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 6.7 * 34.7 * 3.0 21.5 -12.0 * 20.6 * -7.1 * 1.8 *

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 6.8 * 34.8 * 2.4 20.8 -7.8 * 24.8 * -3.7 * 5.2 *

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 5.9 * 33.9 * -1.0 17.4 -1.6 30.9 -1.5 7.5

Calculus † 28.0 † 18.5 † 32.6 † 8.9

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science -1.5 33.6 5.3 21.1 -9.7 * 20.1 * -2.7 * 5.5 *

General biology 0.1 35.2 5.3 * 21.1 * -6.1 * 23.8 * -2.9 * 5.3 *

Chemistry I or physics I -2.5 32.6 3.4 * 19.2 * -1.4 28.5 -1.6 6.6

Chemistry I and physics I -4.7 * 30.4 * 3.0 18.8 2.8 32.7 -0.3 7.9

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology † 35.1 † 15.8 † 29.9 † 8.2

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 21.1 * 44.4 * 4.2 18.7 -25.1 * 15.5 * -11.5 * 2.3 *

2.00‒2.49 16.7 * 40.1 * 6.6 * 21.2 * -19.0 * 21.6 * -10.6 * 3.3 *

2.50‒2.99 11.0 * 34.3 * 9.3 * 23.8 * -14.6 * 26.0 * -9.5 * 4.4 *

3.00‒3.49 2.1 25.4 5.9 * 20.4 * -4.6 * 36.0 * -7.1 * 6.8 *

3.50‒4.00 † 23.3 † 14.6 † 40.6 † 13.9

School control in 10th grade

Public † 32.2 † 18.7 † 27.5 † 7.0

Private 0.0 32.2 -0.1 18.7 4.9 * 32.4 * 1.5 * 8.5 *

See notes at end of table.

Some college but no 

postsecondary credential 

Undergraduate certificate 

or associate’s degree

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s or 

higher degree
FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EDUCATION AND

LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES A DECADE LATER 91

Table 17. 

Average marginal effects of various characteristics on the probability of spring 2002 high school sophomores achieving various levels of educational attainment as of 2012 and the 

average predicted probability of attaining these educational outcomes among various groups of students—Continued

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

† Not applicable for the comparison group.

* p < .05.

1

 Marginal effect measures the average percentage point change in the predicted probability of having an education outcome associated with a one unit change in an independent variable, after controlling 

for the covariation of the variables in the model.

2

 Average predicted probability of having an education outcome after controlling for the covariation of the variables in the model.

3

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races 

or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

NOTE: F statistic for the MNP regression model is 27.44 with the degree of freedom of 370 (p <.05). The italicized category in each variable is the comparison group. 

4

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average (GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See 

appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

5

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, 

being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

6

 A composite measure derived from credits earned in mathematics, biology, chemistry, physics, English, social studies, and foreign language reported on students’ high school transcripts. See appendix A 

for detailed information about this variable.
92

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EDUCATION AND

LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES A DECADE LATER

For ease of interpretation, the report also uses APP which represents the average 

predicted probability of achieving a particular outcome for a particular group of 

students. Using the variable “sex” as an example again, the average predicted 

probability of female students earning an undergraduate certificate or an associate’s 

degree as their highest educational attainment is estimated at 21.0 percent, while the

predicted probability for male students is 16.1 percent. Thus, females’ probability is 

4.9 percentage points higher than males’ probability (i.e., 21.0 − 16.1 = 4.9), 

corresponding to the AME. 

The descriptive results presented earlier (see figure 8) indicate that female students 

had a small advantage over male students in terms of earning a master’s or higher 

degree. As shown in table 17, this small advantage still held after controlling for a 

wide range of characteristics in the multivariate analysis. The APP of earning a 

master’s or advanced degree for female students was 8 percent, about 2 percentage 

points higher than males’ (6 percent). Female students also had a higher probability 

of attaining a subbaccalaureate credential, such as an undergraduate certificate or an 

associate’s degree, than did male students (21 percent vs. 16 percent). Male students, 

on the other hand, had a higher probability of having some college education 

without a degree than did female students (34 percent vs. 31 percent).

For some independent variables, significant differences in bivariate analyses did not 

correspond to significant effects in the multivariate analysis. While the bivariate 

analysis found that White and Asian students had higher educational attainment than 

did Black and Hispanic students (see figure 8), these racial/ethnic differences were 

no longer significant when other variables associated with educational attainment 

such as sex, family SES, and high school academic characteristics were controlled for

in the multivariate model. Whether students lived in a single-parent home as 10thgraders was not a significant factor after controlling for other factors, nor was the 

first language that students learned to speak. 

However, family SES remained a significant factor after controlling for other factors 

in the multivariate analysis: students from high-SES families had a higher probability 

of earning a bachelor’s or higher degree than did their peers from low- and middleSES families, while the latter two groups had higher probabilities of earning an 

undergraduate certificate or an associate’s degree than did the former group. 

Students’ educational expectations in 10th grade were associated with their later 

educational attainment net of other factors. Students who expected to earn a 

master’s or advanced degree had a higher probability of earning such a degree a 

decade later (8 percent) than did their counterparts who expected to earn a 

bachelor’s degree (6 percent), attend some college (5 percent), or complete a high 
FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EDUCATION AND

LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES A DECADE LATER 93

school education or less (4 percent). On the other hand, students who expected to 

receive some college education not beyond an associate’s degree had a higher 

probability of attaining an undergraduate certificate or an associate’s degree

(24 percent) than did those who expected to earn a master’s degree (18 percent).

Several other high school academic characteristics were also found to be uniquely 

associated with students’ educational attainment after controlling for the other 

variables in the model. For example, students who exhibited high academic risk in 

10th grade had a lower probability of earning a bachelor’s degree (21 percent) or 

master’s or higher degree (3 percent) than did their counterparts at low academic risk

(31 and 7 percent, respectively). The predicted probability of earning a bachelor’s 

degree for students who took calculus in high school was 33 percent, which was 

higher than the 21 percent for those who took no or low-level math. Similarly, the 

predicted probability of earning a bachelor’s degree for students who took advanced 

science was higher, when comparing with that of students who took no or low-level 

science courses (30 percent vs. 20 percent). In addition, the predicted probability of 

attaining a bachelor’s degree for students with an academic GPA of 3.5–4.0 in high 

school was 25 percentage points higher than that for students with an academic GPA 

of below 2.0. 

School sector in 10th grade was also found to have a unique association with 

educational attainment: compared with their public school peers, those attending 

private schools in 10th grade had a higher probability of attaining a bachelor’s degree

(32 percent vs. 28 percent) and a master’s or higher degree (9 percent vs. 7 percent). 

However, while the rigor of high school curriculum and the level of school 

disengagement were related to educational attainment in the bivariate analysis, these 

relationships largely disappeared in the multivariate analysis.

Employment Status

Table 18 presents the MNP regression results for 2012 employment status among 

2002 sophomores, with “full-time employment” as the base category in this analysis. 

The model included, in addition to the independent variables in the analysis of 

educational attainment, variables measuring 2002 sophomores’ educational attainment, 

enrollment status, geographic location, marital status, and parenthood in 2012. 
94

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EDUCATION AND

LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES A DECADE LATER

Table 18. 

Average marginal effects of various characteristics on the probability of spring 2002 high school sophomores being out of the labor force, unemployed, or working part time in 2012 

and the average predicted probability of having these labor market outcomes among various groups of students

Characteristics

Average 

marginal effect2

Average predicted 

probability (%)3

Average 

marginal effect2

Average predicted 

probability (%)3

Average 

marginal effect2

Average predicted 

probability (%)3

Highest education attainment in 2012

High school or less † 14.5 † 9.6 † 13.6

Some college but no postsecondary credential -8.0 * 6.5 * 3.0 * 12.5 * 0.2 13.8

Undergraduate or associate’s certificate -7.3 * 7.2 * -1.5 8.1 -1.1 12.5

Bachelor’s degree -9.2 * 5.2 * -2.3 7.3 -1.8 11.8

Master’s or higher degree -11.4 * 3.1 * -0.2 9.4 -1.3 12.2

Postsecondary enrollment status in 2012

Not enrolled -7.8 * 5.0 * 1.0 10.0 -9.5 * 10.4 *

Enrolled † 12.9 † 9.0 † 19.9

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Female 4.4 * 8.8 * 2.6 * 11.1 * 6.4 * 15.9 *

Male † 4.4 † 8.5 † 9.5

Race/ethnicity4

Black -3.2 * 4.2 * 3.5 * 12.1 * 2.8 14.6

Hispanic -2.2 * 5.2 * 1.9 10.6 2.1 14.0

Asian 4.8 * 12.2 * 3.4 * 12.1 * 2.7 14.5

Other 0.1 7.5 3.6 12.2 3.7 15.6

White † 7.4 † 8.6 † 11.9

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter -1.6 7.1 0.6 10.3 1.1 13.6

Middle two quarters -3.1 * 5.7 * -0.2 9.5 0.1 12.6

Highest quarter † 8.8 † 9.7 † 12.5

Family type in 10th grade

Single-parent family -0.5 6.4 -0.6 9.3 1.6 14.1

Two-parent family † 6.9 † 10.0 † 12.5

Language student first learned to speak

Non-English 1.4 8.0 0.9 10.6 -1.3 11.8

English † 6.6 † 9.7 † 13.0

See notes at end of table.

Out of the labor force Unemployed Working part time1
FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EDUCATION AND

LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES A DECADE LATER 95

Table 18. 

Average marginal effects of various characteristics on the probability of spring 2002 high school sophomores being out of the labor force, unemployed, or working part time in 2012 

and the average predicted probability of having these labor market outcomes among various groups of students—Continued

Characteristics

Average 

marginal effect2

Average predicted 

probability (%)3

Average 

marginal effect2

Average predicted 

probability (%)3

Average 

marginal effect2

Average predicted 

probability (%)3

High school characteristics

Academic risk in 10th grade5

Low † 9.0 † 9.5 † 15.3

Moderate -2.5 6.5 0.3 9.7 -2.7 12.6

High -3.5 5.5 0.6 10.1 -3.3 12.0

School disengagement in 10th grade6

Low † 5.3 † 10.0 † 14.5

Moderate 2.1 7.3 -0.6 9.4 -1.8 12.7

High 1.7 7.0 0.5 10.5 -2.7 * 11.7 *

Rigor of high school curriculum7

Below-standard -2.5 6.4 1.7 9.8 1.1 13.4

Standard -2.5 6.5 3.8 * 11.8 * -0.3 12.1

Moderately rigorous -1.8 7.2 0.7 8.7 0.1 12.4

Rigorous † 9.0 † 8.1 † 12.4

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra -0.2 7.4 7.2 * 15.0 * 2.4 12.4

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II -0.5 7.1 1.9 9.7 3.2 * 13.2 *

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus -1.7 5.9 1.0 8.9 3.8 * 13.8 *

Calculus † 7.6 † 7.9 † 10.0

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science 1.5 8.2 0.0 10.7 3.2 15.4

General biology 0.1 6.9 -0.9 9.9 -0.3 12.0

Chemistry I or physics I -1.1 5.6 -2.1 8.6 1.3 13.5

Chemistry I and physics I 1.2 8.0 0.0 10.7 -0.1 12.1

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology † 6.7 † 10.7 † 12.2

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 -1.3 6.6 3.3 11.4 4.0 14.1

2.00‒2.49 -1.3 6.6 2.6 10.7 3.4 13.5

2.50‒2.99 -1.1 6.7 1.4 9.5 4.3 14.4

3.00‒3.49 -1.4 6.4 -0.6 7.5 1.9 12.0

3.50‒4.00 † 7.9 † 8.1 † 10.1

See notes at end of table.

Out of the labor force Unemployed Working part time1
96

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EDUCATION AND

LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES A DECADE LATER

Table 18. 

Average marginal effects of various characteristics on the probability of spring 2002 high school sophomores being out of the labor force, unemployed, or working part time in 2012 

and the average predicted probability of having these labor market outcomes among various groups of students—Continued

Characteristics

Average 

marginal effect2

Average predicted 

probability (%)3

Average 

marginal effect2

Average predicted 

probability (%)3

Average 

marginal effect2

Average predicted 

probability (%)3

Region of residence in 2012

Northeast -0.2 7.1 -2.2 8.8 -3.7 * 11.8 *

Midwest -1.4 5.9 -1.1 9.8 -3.7 * 11.8 *

South -0.5 6.8 -1.4 9.5 -3.3 * 12.2 *

West † 7.4 † 10.9 † 15.5

Marital status in 2012

Single never married8 -2.6 * 6.5 * 5.3 * 12.3 * 4.1 * 14.7 *

Divorced/separated/widowed8 -6.6 * 2.5 * 5.8 * 12.8 * -0.8 9.8

Living with partner -4.4 * 4.7 * 1.4 8.4 1.6 12.2

Married † 9.1 † 7.0 † 10.6

Number of children had in 2012

None -6.0 * 4.8 * -3.8 * 8.5 * 1.4 13.4

One or more 9 † 10.7 † 12.3 † 12.0

9

 Includes biological and adopted children.

NOTE: Persons are classified as employed if they currently have a job; unemployed if they do not have a job, have actively looked for work in the prior 4 weeks, and are currently available for work; or out 

of the labor force if they are neither working nor looking for work. F statistic for the MNP regression model is 8.29 with the degree of freedom of 369 (p <.05). The italicized category in each variable is the 

comparison group. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

* p < .05.

1

 Working less than 35 hours per week.

2

 Marginal effect measures the average percentage point change in the predicted probability of being employed associated with a one unit change in an independent variable, after controlling for the 

covariation of the variables in the model.

3

 Average predicted probability of being employed after controlling for the covariation of the variables in the model.

4

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or 

Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

8

 Not living with any partner.

5

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average (GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See 

appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

6

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, 

being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

7

 A composite measure derived from credits earned in mathematics, biology, chemistry, physics, English, social studies, and foreign language reported on students’ high school transcripts. See appendix A 

for detailed information about this variable.

† Not applicable for the comparison group.

Out of the labor force Unemployed Working part time1
FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EDUCATION AND

LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES A DECADE LATER 97

The bivariate estimates in figure 14 showed that females had lower employment rates 

than males did. This finding still held after controlling for a wide range of 

characteristics in the multivariate analysis. Compared with males, females had higher 

probabilities of being out of the labor force (9 percent vs. 4 percent), being 

unemployed (11 percent vs. 8 percent), or working part time (16 percent vs. 

10 percent) in 2012 (table 18).

Educational attainment and current enrollment status were also uniquely associated 

with employment after controlling for other factors in the model. Cohort members 

who had attained a high school education or less had the highest probability of being 

out of the labor force (14 percent vs. 3–7 percent for those with higher educational 

attainment). In addition, cohort members who were enrolled in college in 2012 had a 

higher probability of being out of the labor force (13 percent) or working part time 

(20 percent) than did their counterparts who were not currently enrolled (5 and 

10 percent, respectively).

Compared with Whites, Asians had a higher probability of being out of the labor 

force (12 percent vs. 7 percent) and being unemployed (12 percent vs. 9 percent). 

While Blacks and Hispanics had lower probabilities of being out of the labor force 

(4 and 5 percent, respectively) than did Whites (7 percent), Blacks had a higher 

probability of being unemployed than did Whites (12 percent vs. 9 percent). No 

White-Hispanic gaps were found in unemployment rates when other factors were 

controlled for in the model. 

Other background characteristics (e.g., family SES, coming from a single-parent 

home, or first speaking a language other than English) and most high school 

academic characteristics were not associated with employment status in 2012 after 

controlling for other factors in the multivariate analysis. The only notable exceptions 

are that cohort members with less rigorous coursetaking in high school or who took 

low-level math courses had a higher probability of being unemployed in 2012. For 

example, the probability of being unemployed among those who completed a 

standard curriculum was 12 percent, compared with 8 percent for those who 

completed a rigorous curriculum. Cohort members who took no or low-level math 

had a 15 percent probability of being unemployed, compared with an 8 percent

probability for those who took calculus in high school. 

Both marital status and parenthood were significant factors in the multivariate analysis: 

2002 sophomores who were married or had at least one child in 2012 were more likely 

than their counterparts to be out of the labor force in 2012. While those who were 

married in 2012 had a lower probability of being unemployed than did their counterparts 

who were single or divorced/separated/widowed (7 percent vs. 12–13 percent),
98

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EDUCATION AND

LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES A DECADE LATER

those who had children had a higher probability of being unemployed than did their 

childless counterparts (12 percent vs. 8 percent). In addition, those who were single had 

a higher probability of working part time than did married ones (15 percent vs. 

11 percent).

Wages for Current Jobs

Table 19 presents the OLS regression results of the model estimating the hourly 

wages of 2002 sophomores who were employed in 2012. In addition to the 

independent variables included in the employment status analysis, this model 

included two independent variables that may influence earnings: occupation field and 

job type (full-time vs. part-time). 

As previous studies have indicated (Farber 2011; McCall and Percheski 2010; 

Melguizo and Wolniak 2012; Mouw and Kalleberg 2010; Polachek and Siebert 1993), 

hourly wages were associated with occupation field, work intensity, and geographical 

location. Individuals who were employed in STEM; worked full time; or were living 

in the western region of the United States in 201230 generally had higher hourly 

wages than did their counterparts who were employed in other occupations (except 

for health care occupations), worked part time, or were living in other regions of the 

country (except for the northeast region). For example, after controlling for other 

factors, the hourly wage for STEM workers was about $21, which was higher than 

the hourly wage earned by those in PK–12 education/social service occupations 

($15), business support/administration occupations ($15), sales ($16), trade/technical 

fields ($16), and business/management positions ($18). Only healthcare workers 

earned an hourly wage ($21) similar to that of STEM workers.

When job-related factors and such other factors as educational attainment, 

enrollment status, and marital and parenthood status are controlled for, females still 

earned less than males: the hourly wage for employed females was $16, about $2 less 

than that for employed males ($18) with comparable demographic and academic 

backgrounds, educational attainment, occupational field, region of residence, work 

intensity, and marital and parenthood status.31

 

30 ELS:2002 classified the following states as being in the western region of the United States: Alaska, 

Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, 

Washington, and Wyoming.

31 This finding was also held even after the sample was restricted to students who earned less than 

$51 per hour in their 2012 job.
FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EDUCATION AND

LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES A DECADE LATER 99

Table 19. 

Average marginal effects of various characteristics on hourly wage for current job among spring 2002 high 

school sophomores who were employed in 2012 and the average predicted hourly wage for various groups 

of students

Characteristics

Average 

marginal effect1

Average predicted 

hourly wage ($)2

Highest education attainment in 2012

High school or less † 14.88

Some college but no postsecondary credential 0.69 15.57

Undergraduate or associate’s certificate 2.00 * 16.89 *

Bachelor’s degree 3.47 * 18.35 *

Master’s or higher degree 6.53 * 21.41 *

Postsecondary enrollment status in 2012

Not enrolled † 17.38

Enrolled -1.17 * 16.21 *

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Female -2.33 * 15.97 *

Male † 18.29

Race/ethnicity3

Black -0.31 16.72

Hispanic 0.03 17.07

Asian 1.56 * 18.60 *

Other 1.01 18.05

White † 17.04

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter -1.53 * 16.40 *

Middle two quarters -0.98 * 16.95 *

Highest quarter † 17.93

Family type in 10th grade

Single-parent family -0.23 16.93

Two-parent family † 17.16

Language student first learned to speak

Non-English 0.09 17.19

English † 17.10

High school characteristics

Academic risk in 10th grade4

Low † 17.78

Moderate -0.70 17.08

High -1.51 * 16.27 *

School disengagement in 10th grade5

Low † 16.89

Moderate 0.12 17.00

High 0.74 17.63

See notes at end of table.
100

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EDUCATION AND

LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES A DECADE LATER

Table 19. 

Average marginal effects of various characteristics on hourly wage for current job among spring 2002 high 

school sophomores who were employed in 2012 and the average predicted hourly wage for various groups 

of students—Continued

Characteristics

Average 

marginal effect1

Average predicted 

hourly wage ($)2

Rigor of high school curriculum6

Below-standard -0.62 17.01

Standard -0.59 17.03

Moderately rigorous -0.46 17.17

Rigorous † 17.63

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra -2.45 * 15.99 *

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II -1.76 * 16.68 *

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus -1.16 * 17.28 *

Calculus † 18.44

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science -0.25 17.12

General biology -0.28 17.09

Chemistry I or physics I -0.40 16.97

Chemistry I and physics I -0.25 17.12

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology † 17.37

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 -0.92 * 17.01 *

2.00‒2.49 -1.16 * 16.76 *

2.50‒2.99 -1.10 * 16.82 *

3.00‒3.49 -0.87 17.06

3.50‒4.00 † 17.92

Employment characteristics

Current occupation

Business/management occupations -2.62 * 18.25 *

STEM occupations 7 † 20.87

Health care occupations 0.01 20.88

PK–12 educators/social service professionals8 -5.91 * 14.96 *

Sales occupations -4.86 * 16.01 *

Business support/administrative assistants -5.71 * 15.16 *

Trade/technical professionals -4.62 * 16.24 *

Other9 -3.50 * 17.36 *

Hours worked per week

35 or more 2.50 * 17.49 *

1‒34 † 14.99

Region of residence in 2012

Northeast -0.02 17.96

Midwest -1.46 * 16.52 *

South -1.44 * 16.54 *

West † 17.97

See notes at end of table.
FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EDUCATION AND

LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES A DECADE LATER 101

Table 19. 

Average marginal effects of various characteristics on hourly wage for current job among spring 2002 high 

school sophomores who were employed in 2012 and the average predicted hourly wage for various groups 

of students—Continued

Characteristics

Average 

marginal effect1

Average predicted 

hourly wage ($)2

Marital status in 2012

Single never married10 -2.55 * 16.17 *

Divorced/separated/widowed10 -1.98 * 16.74 *

Living with partner -1.72 * 17.00 *

Married † 18.72

Number of children had in 2012

None 0.49 17.25

One or more 11 † 16.76

† Not applicable for the comparison group.

* p < .05.

1

 Marginal effect measures the average change in hourly wage associated with a one unit change in an independent 

variable, after controlling for the covariation of the variables in the model. 2

 Average predicted hourly wage after controlling for the covariation of the variables in the model.

4 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point 

average (GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this 

variable.

5

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, 

cutting/skipping classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being 

suspended/put on probation, and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed 

information about this variable.

6

 A composite measure derived from credits earned in mathematics, biology, chemistry, physics, English, social studies, and 

foreign language reported on students’ high school transcripts. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002/12).

3

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native 

Hawaiian, other Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude 

Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

7

 STEM occupations include life scientists, physical scientists, mathematics-related occupations, engineers, and 

computer/information systems occupations.

9 Other occupations include air transportation professionals, artists and designers, communication professionals, information 

professionals, legal professionals, other educators, postsecondary educators, and social scientists.

10 Not living with any partner.

11 Includes biological and adopted children.

NOTE: F statistic for the least squares regression model is 34.47 with the degree of freedom of 386 (p <.05). The italicized 

category in each variable is the comparison group. Earnings that were reported in a format other than dollars per hour (e.g., 

dollars per week) were standardized to dollars per hour. 

8

 Due to small sample sizes, PK–12 educators and social service professionals are combined in this report. Social service 

professional occupations include counselors, social workers, religious workers, clinical and school psychologists, and other 

community and social service specialists.
102

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EDUCATION AND

LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES A DECADE LATER

Consistent with the existing literature (Baum, Ma, and Payea 2013; Carnevale, 

Stephen, and Cheah 2011; Hout 2012; Kingston et al. 2003; Oreopoulos and 

Petronijevic 2013), educational attainment was an important factor in earnings after 

controlling for many factors in the model. Employed 2002 sophomores with a high 

school education or less earned about $15 per hour, less than the recipients of an 

undergraduate certificate or an associate’s degree ($17), a bachelor’s degree ($18), and 

a master’s or higher degree ($21) did. Enrollment status also mattered: enrolled 

individuals earned about $16 per hour, compared with about $17 per hour among 

those who were not enrolled. 

After controlling for many related factors in the multivariate model, one difference 

among racial/ethnic subgroups was significant: employed Asians had a higher hourly 

wage than did employed Whites ($19 vs. $17). Cohort members from low- and 

middle-SES families had lower hourly wages ($16 and $17, respectively) than did 

those from high-SES families ($18). Two factors, however, were not significant 

factors for hourly wages 10 years later: coming from single-parent families as high 

school students or learning a language other than English as the first language: those 

who lived in a single-parent home in 10th grade or whose first language was not 

English earned $17 per hour, as did their counterparts who lived in a two-parent 

home or whose first language was English. 

Several high school academic characteristics—10th-grade academic risk, math 

coursetaking, and GPA—remained significant even after controlling for other factors 

in the multivariate analysis. Those who were at low academic risk as 10th-graders, 

earned a high academic GPA (e.g., 3.5 or higher), or took calculus in high school had 

higher hourly wages than did their counterparts who were at high academic risk, 

earned a lower GPA (e.g., 2.00–2.99), or took low-level math courses.

Although married individuals had a higher probability than others of being out of the 

labor force (table 18), if they were in the labor market, they tended to earn more than 

their unmarried peers. For example, employed individuals who were married in 2012 

earned about $19 per hour, whereas those who were never married earned about 

$16 per hour. Being a parent was not a significant factor: both parents and their 

childless counterparts earned about $17 per hour in their 2012 job. 
103

Summary

This report examined key aspects of the 2002 high school sophomores’ lives in 2012, 

when most cohort members were 26 years old. By this time, the majority of the 

cohort members had completed high school (96 percent) and made the transition to 

postsecondary education (84 percent) (see tables 1 and 3). Many of those who had 

enrolled in postsecondary education had earned a postsecondary credential 

(62 percent), including 39 percent who had earned a bachelor’s or higher degree (see 

figure 8). The majority of 2002 sophomores (93 percent) were in the workforce in 

2012—69 percent were working full time, 13 percent were working part time, and 

11 percent were unemployed but in the market looking for jobs (see figure 13). 

Fewer cohort members had taken on such adult roles as spouse and parent, however. 

By 2012, some 31 percent had married—28 percent were currently married—and 

3 percent had subsequently divorced, separated, or become widowed (see figure 11), 

and one-third had become parents (see figure 12).

The achievement of these milestones varied among subgroups of the cohort. To 

better understand subgroup differences, this study employed multivariate techniques 

to disentangle related factors and estimate the unique association between various 

factors and each of three 2012 outcomes—educational attainment, employment 

status, and hourly wages for 2012 jobs. Key findings from the multivariate analyses

are highlighted below. 

• Females achieved higher educational attainment than males even after 

controlling for demographic and academic characteristics. Despite their higher 

educational achievement, females had lower labor force participation rates and 

lower earnings. Multivariate results indicated that females were more likely than 

males to be out of the labor force, unemployed, and working part time (see 

table 18). Employed females earned a lower hourly wage in their 2012 job than 

did employed males ($16 vs. $18) even under similar circumstances with 

respect to demographic and academic characteristics, educational attainment, 

occupational field, region, work intensity, enrollment status, and marital and 

parenthood status (see table 19).

• The multivariate analysis found no significant differences between students from 

various racial/ethnic subgroups and their White counterparts in terms of 

educational attainment in 2012 (see table 17). In other words, among students 

with similar socioeconomic and academic backgrounds, Blacks, Hispanics, and 

Asians in the 2002 sophomore cohort had a similar probability of attaining various 
104 SUMMARY

levels of education as of 2012 relative to their White peers. As for labor market 

outcomes, Blacks and Hispanics were less likely than Whites to be out of the labor 

force, and Blacks were more likely than Whites to be unemployed (see table 18), 

though White-Black and White-Hispanic gaps in hourly wages were not observed 

(see table 19). The pattern was different for Asians. Asians were more likely than 

Whites to be unemployed or out of the labor force (see table 18). Once employed, 

however, Asians earned higher hourly wages than did Whites (see table 19). 

• The multivariate analysis indicated that students from low- and middle-SES 

families underperformed their peers from high-SES families in education (see 

table 17). Family SES was not a significant factor for employment status (see 

table 18), but it was for hourly wages (see table 19). Employed cohort members 

from high-SES families earned higher hourly wages in their 2012 job than did 

their counterparts from low- and middle-SES families even after controlling for 

educational attainment, occupational field, job intensity, region, and other 

characteristics including sex, race/ethnicity, first language learned, high school 

academic characteristics, and current enrollment, marital, and parenthood status.

• Sophomores’ high school academic characteristics were associated with their later 

educational attainment after controlling for various factors in the multivariate 

analysis. For example, the probability of attaining a bachelor’s or higher degree 

was higher for students who took calculus and advanced science courses in high 

school, who earned a high academic GPA (3.5 or higher), and who exhibited a 

low level of academic risk in 10th grade than for their counterparts who took 

no/low-level math and science courses, earned a low academic GPA (below 3.0), 

and exhibited a high level of academic risk (see table 17). Some of these high 

school characteristics continued to exhibit significant associations with later labor 

market outcomes, particularly hourly wages. For example, even after controlling 

for demographic backgrounds, job characteristics, highest educational attainment, 

and current status in postsecondary enrollment, marital, and parenthood, 

employed cohort members who took calculus or earned an academic GPA of 3.5 

or higher in high school earned a higher hourly wage in their 2012 job than did 

their counterparts who took no/low-level math courses or earned an academic 

GPA below 3.0 (see table 19).

• Finally, higher educational attainment was associated with higher earnings after 

controlling for various factors. Specifically, the multivariate analysis indicated 

that even under similar circumstances with respect to demographic and 

academic backgrounds, job characteristics, current enrollment status, and marital 

and parenthood status, master’s degree holders earned $6 more per hour in their 

2012 job than did those with a high school education or less (see table 19). 
105

References

Abel, J.R., Deitz, R., and Su, Y. (2014). Are Recent College Graduates Finding Good 

Jobs? Current Issues in Economics and Finance, 20(1): 1–8.

Allensworth, E.M., and Easton, J.Q. (2007). What Matters for Staying On-Track and 

Graduating in Chicago Public Highs Schools: A Close Look at Course Grades, Failures, 

and Attendance in the Freshman Year. Chicago: Consortium on Chicago School 

Research. Retrieved July 1, 2014, from 

https://ccsr.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/publications/07%20What%20

Matters%20Final.pdf. 

Alonso-Villar, O., Del Río, C., and Gradín, C. (2012). The Extent of Occupational 

Segregation in the United States: Differences by Race, Ethnicity, and Gender. 

Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society, 51(2): 179–212.

American Council on Education. (2006). Who Passed the GED Tests? 2004 Statistical 

Report. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved July 1, 2016, from 

http://www.gedtestingservice.com/educators/historical-testing-data. 

Arnett, J.J. (2000). Emerging Adulthood: A Theory of Development From the Late 

Teens Through the Twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5): 469–480.

Atanda, R.T. (1999). Do Gatekeeper Courses Expand Education Options (NCES 

1999-303). National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of 

Education. Washington, DC.

Aud, S., Hussar, W., Johnson, F., Kena, G., Roth, E., Manning, E., Wang, X., and 

Zhang, J. (2012). The Condition of Education 2012 (NCES 2012-045). National 

Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. 

Department of Education. Washington, DC. 

Aud, S., KewalRamani, A., and Frohlich, L. (2011). America’s Youth: Transitions to 

Adulthood (NCES 2012-026). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute 

of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC. 

Autor, D. (2011). The Polarization of Job Opportunities in the U.S. Labor Market: 

Implications for Employment and Earnings. Washington, DC: Center for Economic 

Progress. Retrieved July 1, 2014, from http://economics.mit.edu/files/5554. 
106 REFERENCES

Avery C., and Turner, S.E. (2012). Student Loans: Do College Students Borrow Too 

Much—or Not Enough? Journal of Economic Perspectives, 26(1): 165–192.

Balfanz, R., Bridgeland, J.M., Fox, J.H., DePaoli, J.L., Ingram, E.S., and Maushard, M. 

(2014). Building a Grad Nation: Progress and Challenge in Ending the High School Dropout 

Epidemic. Washington, DC: Civic Enterprises. Retrieved July 1, 2014, from 

http://gradnation.org/sites/default/files/17548_BGN_Report_FinalFULL_5.2.14.pdf. 

Barrow, L., Brock, T., and Rouse, C.E. (2013). Postsecondary Education in the 

United States: Introducing the Issue. The Future of Children, 23(1): 3–16.

Baum, S., Ma, J., and Payea, K. (2013). Education Pays 2013: The Benefits of Higher 

Education for Individuals and Society. New York: College Board. Retrieved July 1, 

2014, from http://trends.collegeboard.org/sites/default/files/education-pays2013-full-report.pdf. 

Bell, D.N.F., and Blanchflower, D.G. (2011). Young People and the Great 

Recession. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 27(2): 241–267. 

Berlin, G., Furstenberg, F.F., and Waters, M.C. (2010). Introducing the Issue. 

The Future of Children, 20(1): 3–18.

Blau, F.D., Brummund, P., and Liu, A.Y.H. (2013). Trends in Occupational 

Segregation by Gender 1970–2009: Adjusting for the Impact of Changes in the 

Occupational Coding System. Demography, 50(2): 471–492.

Blossfeld, H., Klijzing, E., Mills, M., and Kurz, K. (2005). Globalization, Uncertainty, 

and Youth in Society: The Losers in a Globalizing World. New York: Routledge. 

Boden, J.M., Fergusson, D.M., and Horwood, L.J. (2008). Early Motherhood 

and Subsequent Life Outcomes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(2):

151–160. 

Borooah, V.K. (2001). Logit and Probit: Ordered and Multinomial Models (Sage University 

Papers Series on Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences 07-138). 

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 

Bozick, R., and Ingels, S.J. (2008). Mathematics Coursetaking and Achievement at the End of 

High School: Evidence from the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002) 

(NCES 2008-319). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of 

Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC. 
REFERENCES 107

Bozick, R., and Lauff, E. (2007). Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002): A 

First Look at the Initial Postsecondary Experiences of the Sophomore Class of 2002 (NCES 

2008-308). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education 

Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC. 

Budig, M.J., Boeckmann, I., and Misra, J. (2011). Cross-National Patterns in 

Individual and Household Employment and Work Hours by Gender and 

Parenthood. Research in the Sociology of Work, 22(1): 169–207.

Brock, T. (2010). Young Adults and Higher Education: Barriers and Breakthroughs 

to Success. The Future of Children, 20(1): 109–132.

Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2014). How the Government Measures Unemployment. 

Washington, D.C.: Current Population Survey (CPS) Technical Documentation. 

Retrieved September 1, 2014, from http://www.bls.gov/cps/cps_htgm.pdf. 

Carnevale, A.P., Smith, N., and Strohl, J. (2010). Help Wanted: Projections of Jobs and 

Education Requirements Through 2018. Washington, DC: Georgetown University, 

Center on Education and the Workforce. Retrieved July 1, 2014, from 

http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED524310.pdf. 

Carnevale, A.P., Stephen J.R, and Cheah, B. (2011). The College Payoff: Education, 

Occupations, Lifetime Earnings. Georgetown University, Center on Education and the 

Workforce. Retrieved July 1, 2014, from 

http://www2.ed.gov/policy/highered/reg/hearulemaking/2011/collegepayoff.pdf. 

Cheremukhin, A. (2014). Middle-Skill Jobs Lost in U.S. Labor Market Polarization. 

Economic Letter, 9(5): 1–4.

Cherlin, A.J. (2005). American Marriage in the Early Twenty-First Century. The 

Future of Children, 15(2): 33–55.

Child Trends Databank. (2013). Fertility and Birth Rates. Bethesda, MD: Author. 

Retrieved July 1, 2014, from 

http://www.childtrends.org/?indicators=fertility-and-birth-rates. 

Cohen, J., and Cohen, P. (1983). Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the 

Behavioral Science. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
108 REFERENCES

Copen, C.E., Daniels, K., Vespa, J., and Mosher, W.D. (2012). First Marriages in the 

United States: Data From the 2006–10 National Survey of Family Growth. Washington, 

DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease 

Control and Prevention. Retrieved July 1, 2014, from 

http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhsr/nhsr049.pdf. 

Dalton, B., Ingels, S.J., Downing, J., and Bozick, R. (2007). Advanced Mathematics and 

Science Coursetaking in the Spring High School Senior Classes of 1982, 1992, and 2004

(NCES 2007-312). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of 

Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC. 

Danziger, S., and Rouse, C.E. (2009). The Price of Independence: The Economics of Early 

Adulthood. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. 

DeNavas-Walt, C., Proctor, B.D., and Smith, J.C. (2013). Income, Poverty, and Health 

Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2012 (Current Population Reports P60-245). 

Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau. 

Dynarski, S., and Scott-Clayton, J. (2013). Financial Aid Policy: Lessons from 

Research. The Future of Children, 23(1): 67–92.

Elsby, M.W.L., Hobijin, B., and Sahin, A. (2010). The Labor Market in the Great 

Recession (Brookings Papers on Economic Activity). Washington, DC: Brookings 

Institution. Retrieved August 1, 2014, from 

http://www.nber.org/papers/w15979.pdf. 

Farber, H.S. (2011). Job Loss in the Great Recession: Historical Perspective From the Displaced 

Workers Survey, 1984–2010 (NBER Working Paper No. 17040). Cambridge, MA: 

National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved May 1, 2014, from 

http://www.nber.org/papers/w17040. 

Finn, J.D. (1989). Withdrawing From School. Review of Educational Research, 59(2):

117–142.

Finn, J.D. (2006). The Adult Lives of At-Risk Students: The Roles of Attainment and 

Engagement in High School (NCES 2006-328). National Center for Education 

Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. 

Washington, DC. 
REFERENCES 109

Fry, R. (2016). For First Time in Modern Era, Living With Parents Edges Out Other Living 

Arrangements for 18- to 34-Year-Olds. Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center. 

Retrieved April 1, 2017, from 

http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/files/2016/05/2016-05-24_livingarrangemnet-final.pdf. 

Furstenberg, F.F. (2010). On a New Schedule: Transitions to Adulthood and Family 

Change. The Future of Children, 20(1): 67–88.

Gabriel, P.E., and Schmitz, S. (2007). Gender Differences in Occupational 

Distributions Among Workers. Monthly Labor Review, 130(6): 19–24.

Godofsky, J., Zukin, C., and Van Horn, C. (2011). Unfulfilled Expectations: Recent 

College Graduates Struggle in a Troubled Economy. New Brunswick, NJ: Edward J. 

Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy, Rutgers University. 

Goldrick-Rab, S., and Han, S.W. (2011). Accounting for Socioeconomic 

Differences in Delaying the Transition to College. The Review of Higher Education, 

34(3): 423–445.

Goldstein, J.R., and Kenney, C.T. (2001). Marriage Delayed or Marriage Forgone? 

New Cohort Forecasts of First Marriage for U.S. Women. American Sociological 

Review, 66(4): 506–519.

Heckman, J.J., and LaFontaine, P.A. (2010). The American High School Graduation 

Rate: Trends and Levels. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 92(2): 244–262.

Holmes, A.K., Rauch, R.K., and Cozza, S.J. (2013). When a Parent Is Injured or 

Killed in Combat. The Future of Children, 23(2): 143–62.

Horn, L., Cataldi, E.F., and Sikora, A. (2005). Waiting to Attend College: Undergraduates 

Who Delay Their Postsecondary Enrollment (NCES 2005-152). National Center for 

Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of 

Education. Washington, DC.

Horn, L., and Paslov, J. (2014). Trends in Student Financing of Undergraduate Education: 

Selected Years, 1995–96 to 2011–12 (NCES 2014-013). National Center for 

Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of 

Education. Washington, DC.

Hout, M. (2012). Social and Economic Returns to College Education in the United 

States. The Annual Review of Sociology, 38: 379–400.
110 REFERENCES

Howe, N., and Strauss, W. (2007). Millennials Go to College: Strategies for a New 

Generation on Campus. Great Falls, VA: LifeCourse Associates.

Hoynes, H.W., Miller, D.L., and Schaller, J. (2012). Who Suffers During Recessions?

(NBER Working Paper No. 17951). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of 

Economic Research. Retrieved May 1, 2014, from 

http://www.nber.org/papers/w17951.pdf. 

Hull, J. (2009). Better Late Than Never? Examining Late High School Graduates. 

Alexandria, VA: Center for Public Education. Retrieved July 1, 2014, from 

http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/Main-Menu/Staffingstudents/Betterlate-than-never-At-a-glance/Better-Late-than-Never-Examining-late-highschool-graduates-.html. 

Ingels, S.J., Burns, L.J., Chen, X., Cataldi, E.F., and Charleston, S. (2005). A Profile of 

the American High School Sophomore in 2002: Initial Results From the Base Year of the 

Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (NCES 2005-338). National Center for 

Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of 

Education. Washington, DC.

Ingels, S.J., Curtin, T.R., Kaufman, P., Alt, M.N., and Chen, X. (2002). Coming of Age 

in the 1990s: The Eighth-Grade Class of 1988 12 Years Later (NCES 2002-321). 

National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education. 

Washington, DC. 

Ingels, S.J., Glennie, E., Lauff, E., and Wirt, J.G. (2012). Trends Among Young Adults 

Over Three Decades, 1974–2006 (NCES 2012-345). National Center for Education 

Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. 

Washington, DC. 

Ingels, S.J., Pratt, D.J., Alexander, C.P., Jewell, D.M., Lauff, E., Mattox, T.L., and 

Wilson, D. (2014). Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 Third Follow-Up Data File 

Documentation (NCES 2014-364). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute 

of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC. 

Ingels, S.J., Pratt, D.J., Rogers, J.E., Siegel, P.S., and Stutts, E.S. (2004). Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002: Base Year Data File User’s Manual (NCES 2004-405). 

National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. 

Department of Education. Washington, DC. 

Kahn, L. (2010). The Long-Term Labor Market Consequences of Graduating From 

College in a Bad Economy. Labour Economics, 17(2): 306–316.
REFERENCES 111

Kalleberg, A.L. (2011). Good Jobs, Bad Jobs: The Rise of Polarized and Precarious 

Employment Systems in the United States, 1970s to 2000s. New York: Russell Sage 

Foundation. 

Kaufman, P., and Bradbury, D. (1992). Characteristics of At-Risk Students in NELS:88

(NCES 92-042). National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of 

Education. Washington, DC.

Kelty, R., Kleykamp, M., and Segal, D.R. (2010). The Military and the Transition to 

Adulthood. The Future of Children, 20(1): 181–208. 

Kena, G., Hussar, W., McFarland, J., de Brey, C., Musu-Gillette, L., Wang, X., 

Zhang, J., Rathbun, A., Wilkinson-Flicker, S., Diliberti, M., Barmer, A., Bullock 

Mann, F., and Dunlop Velez, E. (2016). The Condition of Education 2016 (NCES 

2016-144). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education 

Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC. 

Kienzl, G., and Kena, G. (2006). Economic Outcomes of High School Completers and 

Noncompleters 8 Years Later (NCES 2007-019). National Center for Education 

Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. 

Washington, DC. 

Kim, Y.M. (2013). Diverging Top and Converging Bottom: Labour Flexibilization 

and Changes in Career Mobility in the USA. Work, Employment & Society, 27(5):

860–879.

Kingston, P.W., Hubbard, R., Brent, L., Schroeder, P., and Wilson, J. (2003). Why 

Education Matters. Sociology of Education, 76(1): 53–70.

Koop, G. (2008). Introduction to Econometrics. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 

Kudler, H., and Porter, R.I. (2013). Building Communities of Care for Military 

Children and Families. The Future of Children, 23(2): 163–186.

Kuh, G.D., Kinzie, J., Buckley, J.A., Bridges, B.K., and Hayek, J.C. (2006). What 

Matters to Student Success: A Review of the Literature. Washington, DC: National 

Postsecondary Education Cooperative. Retrieved August 1, 2014, from 

http://nces.ed.gov/npec/pdf/kuh_team_report.pdf. 

Lauff, E., and Ingels, S.J. (2014). Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002):

A First Look at 2002 High School Sophomores 10 Years Later (NCES 2014-363). 

National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. 

Department of Education. Washington, DC. 
112 REFERENCES

Lee, V.E., and Ready, D.D. (2009). U.S. High School Curriculum: Three Phases of 

Contemporary Research and Reform. The Future of Children, 19(1): 135–156.

Liao, T.F. (1994). Interpreting Probability Models: Logit, Probit, and Other Generalized Linear 

Models (Sage University Papers Series on Quantitative Applications in the Social 

Sciences 07-101). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Livingston, G., and Cohn, D. (2010). Childlessness Up Among All Women; Down Among 

Women with Advanced Degrees. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center. Retrieved 

July 1, 2014, from http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/files/2010/11/758-childless.pdf. 

Long, M.C., Conger, D., and Iatarola, P. (2012). Effects of High School 

Coursetaking on Secondary and Postsecondary Success. American Educational 

Research Journal, 49(2): 285–322. 

Mac Iver, M.A., and Messel, M. (2013). Early Warning Indicators of High School 

Outcomes. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 18(1): 50–67.

Martin, J.A., Hamilton, B.E., Osterman, M.J.K., Curtin, S.C., and Matthews, T.J. 

(2015). Births: Final Data for 2013. National Vital Statistics Reports, 64(1): 1–65.

Martin, S.P., Astone, N.M., and Peters, H.E. (2014). Fewer Marriages, More Divergence: 

Marriage Projections for Millennials to Age 40. Washington, DC: The Urban Institution. 

Retrieved July 1, 2014, from 

http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/413110-Fewer-Marriages-More-Divergence.pdf. 

McCall, L., and Percheski, C. (2010). Income Inequality: New Trends and Research 

Directions. Annual Review of Sociology, 36(1): 329–347.

Melguizo, T., and Wolniak, G. (2012). The Earnings Benefits of Majoring in STEM 

Fields Among High Achieving Minority Students. Research in Higher Education, 

53(4): 385–405.

Miller, A.R. (2011). The Effects of Motherhood on Timing of Career Path. Journal of 

Population Economics, 24(3): 1071–1100.

Minicozzi, A. (2005). The Short Term Effect of Educational Debt on Job Decisions. 

Economics of Education Review, 24(4): 417–430.

Mouw, T., and Kalleberg, A.L. (2010). Occupations and the Structure of Wage 

Inequality in the United States, 1980s to 2000s. American Sociological Review 75(3):

402–431.
REFERENCES 113

Nord, C., Roey, S., Perkins, R., Lyons, M., Lemanski, N., Brown, J., and Schuknecht, J. 

(2011). The Nation’s Report Card: America’s High School Graduates (NCES 2011-462). 

National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. 

Department of Education. Washington, DC. 

Oreopoulos, P., and Petronijevic, U. (2013). Making College Worth It: A Review of 

the Returns to Higher Education. The Future of Children, 23(1): 41–66.

Osterman, K.F. (2000). Students’ Need for Belonging in the School Community. 

Review of Educational Research, 70(3): 323–367.

Pedulla, D.S. (2012). To Be Young and Unemployed. New Labor Forum, 21(3): 26–36.

Pedulla, D.S. (2013). The Hidden Costs of Contingency: Employers’ Use of 

Contingent Workers and Standard Employees’ Outcomes. Social Forces 92(2):

691–722.

Pew Research Center. (2010a). The Decline of Marriage and Rise of New Families. 

Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved July 1, 2014, from 

http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/files/2010/11/pew-social-trends-2010-families.pdf. 

Pew Research Center. (2010b). Millennials: Confident, Connected, Open to Change.

Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved July 1, 2014, from 

http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/files/2010/10/millennials-confidentconnected-open-to-change.pdf. 

Pew Research Center. (2014a). Millennials in Adulthood: Detached From Institutions, 

Networked With Friends. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved July 1, 2014, from 

http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/files/2014/03/2014-03-07_generations-reportversion-for-web.pdf. 

Pew Research Center. (2014b). The Rising Cost of Not Going to College. Washington, DC: 

Author. Retrieved July 1, 2014, from 

http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/files/2014/02/SDT-higher-ed-FINAL-02-11-

2014.pdf. 

Polachek, S.W., and Siebert, W.S. (1993). The Economics of Earnings. Cambridge, UK: 

Cambridge University Press.

Proulx, C.M., Helms, H.M., and Buehler, C. (2007). Marital Quality and Personal 

Well-Being: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69(3): 576–593.
114 REFERENCES

Rainie, L., and Wellman, B. (2012). Networked: The New Social Operating System. 

Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

Reskin, B.F., and Bielby, D.D. (2005). A Sociological Perspective on Gender and 

Career Outcomes. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19(1): 71–86. 

Robst, J. (2007). Education and Job Match: The Relatedness of College Major and 

Work. Economics of Education Review, 26(4): 397–407.

Roksa, J., and Arum, R. (2012). Life After College: The Challenging Transitions of 

the “Academically Adrift” Cohort. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 

44(4): 8–14.

Ross, T., Kena, G., Rathbun, A., KewalRamani, A., Zhang, J., Kristapovich, P., and 

Manning, E. (2012). Higher Education: Gaps in Access and Persistence Study (NCES 

2012-046). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education 

Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC. 

Rothstein, J., and Rouse, C.E. (2011). Constrained After College: Student Loans and 

Early-Career Occupational Choices. Journal of Public Economics, 95(1–2): 149–163.

Rouse, C.E., and Kemple, J.J. (2009). Introducing the Issue. The Future of Children, 

19(1): 3–16.

Sawhill, I.V. (2014). Generation Unbound: Drifting Into Sex and Parenthood Without 

Marriage. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.

Seastrom, M., Chapman, C., Stillwell, R., McGrath, D., Peltola, P., Dinkes, R., and 

Xu, Z. (2006). User’s Guide to Computing High School Graduation Rates, Volume 1: 

Review of Current and Proposed Graduation Indicators (NCES 2006-604). National 

Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. 

Department of Education. Washington, DC. 

Settersten, R.A., Furstenberg, F.F., and Rumbaut, R.G. (2005). On the Frontier of 

Adulthood: Theory, Research, and Public Policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Settersten, R.A., and Ray, B. (2010). What’s Going On With Young People Today? 

The Long and Twisting Path to Adulthood. The Future of Children, 20(1): 19–41.
REFERENCES 115

Shapiro, D., Dundar, A., Yuan, X., Harrell, A., and Wakhungu, P.K. (2014). 

Completing College: A National View of Student Attainment Rates–Fall 2008 Cohort 

(Signature Report No. 8). Herndon, VA: National Student Clearinghouse 

Research Center. Retrieved November 1, 2014, from 

http://nscresearchcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/SignatureReport8.pdf. 

Shierholz, H., Davis, A., and Kimball, W. (2014). The Class of 2014: The Weak Economy 

Is Idling Too Many Young Graduates (EPI Briefing Paper No. 377). Washington, 

DC: Economic Policy Institute. Retrieved August 1, 2014, from 

http://www.epi.org/publication/class-of-2014/. 

Shierholz, H., Sabadish, N., and Wething, H. (2012). The Class of 2012: Labor Market 

for Young Graduates Remains Grim (EPI Briefing Paper No. 340). Washington, DC: 

Economic Policy Institute. Retrieved August 1, 2014, from 

http://www.epi.org/files/2012/bp340-labor-market-young-graduates.pdf. 

Snyder, T.D., de Brey, C., and Dillow, S.A. (2016). Digest of Education Statistics 2015

(NCES 2016-014). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of 

Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC. 

Stetser, M., and Stillwell, R. (2014). Public High School Four-Year On-Time Graduation 

Rates and Event Dropout Rates: School Years 2010–11 and 2011–12: First Look (NCES 

2014-391). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education 

Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC. 

Stillwell, R., Sable, J., and Plotts, C. (2011). Public School Graduates and Dropouts from the 

Common Core of Data: School Year 2008–09 (NCES 2011-312). National Center for 

Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of 

Education. Washington, DC.

Taylor, P. (2011). War and Sacrifice in the Post-9/11 Era. Washington, DC: Pew 

Research Center. Retrieved January 15, 2016 from 

http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/files/2011/10/veterans-report.pdf. 

Tyler, J.H., and Lofstrum, M. (2009). Finishing High School: Alternative Pathways 

and Dropout Recovery. The Future of Children, 19(1): 77–103.

U.S. Department of Education. (2014). 2012 Revision of NCES Statistical Standards

(NCES 2014-097). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of 

Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC. Retrieved 

May 1, 2014, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2014097. 
116 REFERENCES

U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. (2011). The Post-9/11 GI-Bill. Washington, DC: 

Author. Retrieved August 1, 2014, from 

http://www.benefits.va.gov/gibill/post911_gibill.asp. 

Wang, W., and Taylor, P. (2011). For Millennials, Parenthood Trumps Marriage. 

Washington, DC: Pew Research Center. Retrieved July 1, 2014, from 

http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/files/2011/03/millennials-marriage.pdf. 

Woo, J.J. (2013). Degrees of Debt: Student Loan Repayment of Bachelor’s Degree Recipients 

1 Year After Graduating: 1994, 2001, and 2009 (NCES 2014-011). National Center 

for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of 

Education. Washington, DC.

Zhang, L. (2013). Effects of College Educational Debt on Graduate School 

Attendance and Early Career and Lifestyle Choices. Education Economics, 21(2):

154–175.
A-1 

Appendix A—Glossary

This glossary describes the variables used in this study. These variables were either 

taken directly from the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002) restricteduse data file (http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2014362) or 

derived from variables in the restricted data files. In the glossary below, the items are 

listed in alphabetical order by the variable label. The name of each variable appears 

to the right of the variable label. 

Glossary Index

Label Name 

Academic risk composite in 10th grade.........................................................................................ACALEVEL

Age when completing the first bachelor’s degree ..............................................................................BA1AGE

Cumulative federal loan amount for undergraduate and graduate education.......................F3FEDCUM3

Educational expectations in 10th grade.............................................................................................BYSTEXP

Effects of student loan debt: Had to work at more than one job at the same time ......................F3A22C

Effects of student loan debt: Had to work more hours than desired ..............................................F3A22D

Effects of student loan debt: Took a job outside field of study or training.................................... F3A22A

Effects of student loan debt: Took a less desirable job.......................................................................F3A22B

Employment status in 2012 ............................................................................................................F3EMPSTAT

Ever attended a postsecondary institution .....................................................................................F3EVRATT

Ever unemployed since January 2009 ........................................................................................................F3C07

Family’s composition in 10th grade ................................................................................................. BYFCOMP

Family socioeconomic status............................................................................................................ BYSES1QU

Grade point average (GPA) for all academic courses........................................................................F1RAGP

High school completion date ........................................................................................................... F3HSCPDR

High school completion status.......................................................................................................... F3HSSTAT

Highest level of educational attainment in 2012............................................................... F3ATTAINMENT 

Level and control of first-attended postsecondary institution ......................................................F3PS1SEC

Living arrangement in 2012 ................................................................................................................F3LIVARR

Marital status in 2012 ..............................................................................................................F3MARRSTATUS

Mathematics coursetaking pipeline................................................................................................... F1RMAPIP

Number of biological/adopted children in 2012...................................................................F3NUMCHILD

Number of months between high school exit and postsecondary entry.....................................F3HS2PS1

Number of months between postsecondary entry and first bachelor’s degree ............................F3PS2BA

Number of months unemployed since January 2009..............................................................................F3C08

Number of times unemployed since January 2009..................................................................................F3C09

Occupation for current/most recent job ..............................................................................F3ONET6CURR

Panel weight for the base-year and the third follow-up (2002 and 2012) ............................ F3BYPNLWT

Parent’s highest level of education .....................................................................................................F1PARED

Postsecondary enrollment status in 2012 ....................................................................................... F3EDSTAT 

Region of student’s residence in 2012 ............................................................................................F3REGION

Relationship between current/most recent job and major field of study ...........................................F3B31
A-2 APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

Label Name 

Rigor of high school curriculum...........................................................................................................HSCURR

School disengagement composite in 10th grade .........................................................................ENGLEVEL

Science coursetaking pipeline ..............................................................................................................F1RSCPIP

Sector of high school in 10th grade.................................................................................................... BYSCTRL 

Selectivity of first-attended postsecondary institution .................................................................... F3PS1SLC

Single-parent indicator of student in 2012 .............................................................................. F3SINGLEPAR 

Sophomore cohort member in 2001–02 school year..................................................................G10COHRT

Standardized hourly wage for current/most recent job .....................................................F3HOURWAGE

Student’s race/ethnicity......................................................................................................................F1RACE_R

Student’s sex ..................................................................................................................................................F1SEX

Student’s socioeconomic status in 2012 .............................................................................................F3SESQU

Total amount taken out in student loans.............................................................................. F3STLOANAMT 

Whether current/most recent job requires a bachelor’s degree.........................................................F3B30B

Whether current/most recent job requires a graduate degree............................................................F3B30A

Whether current/most recent job requires an associate’s degree ......................................................F3B30C

Whether current/most recent job requires an undergraduate certificate ........................................ F3B30D

Whether English is student’s native language................................................................................ F1STLANG 

Whether student ever took out a federal loan for postsecondary education.............................FEDEVER

Whether student ever took out a student loan for postsecondary education.................F3STLOANEVR

Whether student has ever been in the military .................................................................................EVERMIL

Whether student held a job for pay since January 2006 .........................................................................F3B09

Whether student owned a house, rented, or had some other living arrangement in 2012.............. F3D30

Whether student received public assistance in 2011 ..............................................................................F3D24
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY A-3 

POWERSTATS VARIABLE

Academic risk composite in 10th grade ACALEVEL

This variable was derived from students’ 10th-grade mathematics test scores (BYTXMQU), 10thgrade reading test scores (BYTXRQU), 9th-grade GPAs (F1RGP9P), 10th-grade GPAs (F1RGP0P), 

and the number of grades repeated in grades K–10 (BYGRDRPT). Students were considered to be at 

high academic risk if at least four of the following five conditions were met―10th-grade mathematics 

test score in the lowest quarter of the score distribution, 10th-grade reading test score in the lowest 

quarter of the score distribution, 9th-grade GPA of 2.50 or lower, 10th-grade GPA of 2.50 or lower, 

and repetition of at least one grade before grade 10―and if the student met none of the low-risk 

conditions described below.

Students were considered to be at low academic risk if at least four of the following five conditions 

were applied for them―10th-grade mathematics test score in the highest quarter of the score 

distribution, 10th-grade reading test score in the highest quarter of the score distribution, 9th-grade 

GPA above 3.50, 10th-grade GPA above 3.50, and no grade repetition in grades K–10―and the 

student has none of the high-risk situations described above.

Students who met neither sets of criteria above were considered to be at moderate academic risk. 

Age when completing the first bachelor’s degree BA1AGE

This variable was derived based on students’ birthdate (BYDOB_P), the first postsecondary 

attendance date (F3PS1START), and the total elapsed months between postsecondary entry and the 

first bachelor’s degree (F3PS2BA). 

Cumulative federal loan amount for undergraduate and graduate education F3FEDCUM3 

This variable was derived from the National Student Loan Data System (NSLDS) and indicates the 

cumulative federal loan amount the student borrowed for undergraduate and graduate education. It 

excludes Direct PLUS Loans to parents of undergraduate students (which are only available to the 

parents of dependent undergraduates).

Educational expectations in 10th grade BYSTEXP

This variable indicates the highest educational attainment that students thought they would achieve 

when they were asked about their educational expectations in 10th grade. The eight response options

are 1) Less than high school graduation; 2) High school graduation or GED only; 3) Attend or 

complete a 2-year school course in a community college or vocational school; 4) Attend college, but 

not complete a 4-year degree; 5) Graduate from college; 6) Obtain a master’s degree or equivalent; 

7) Obtain a Ph.D., M.D, or other advanced degree; and 8) Do not know. For this report, this variable 

was recoded into the following categories:

Do not know (BYSTEXP=8)

High school diploma or less (BYSTEXP=1 or 2)

Some college (BYSTEXP=3 or 4)

Bachelor’s or higher degree (BYSTEXP=5, 6, or 7) 

Effects of student loan debt: Had to work at more than one job at the same time F3A22C

This dummy variable (yes or no) comes directly from the third follow-up interview, in which 

respondents who indicated having ever taken out a student loan were asked whether they had to work 

at more than one job at the same time because of their student loan debt. 
A-4 APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

POWERSTATS VARIABLE

Effects of student loan debt: Had to work more hours than desired F3A22D

This dummy variable (yes or no) comes directly from the third follow-up interview, in which 

respondents who indicated having ever taken out a student loan were asked whether they had to work 

more hours than desired because of their student loan debt. 

Effects of student loan debt: Took a job outside field of study or training F3A22A

This dummy variable (yes or no) comes directly from the third follow-up interview, in which 

respondents who indicated having ever taken out a student loan were asked whether they took a job 

outside their field of study or training because of their student loan debt. 

Effects of student loan debt: Took a less desirable job F3A22B

This dummy variable (yes or no) comes directly from the third follow-up interview, in which 

respondents who indicated having ever taken out a student loan were asked whether they took a less 

desirable job because of their student loan debt. 

Employment status in 2012 F3EMPSTAT

This variable characterizes students’ employment status at the time of the third follow-up interview in 

terms of the number and type (full-time vs. part-time) of job(s) they had. If a student was working in 

multiple jobs, this variable also indicates the number of hours worked across all their jobs. If a student 

was not working for pay, this variable distinguishes between those looking for work (i.e., unemployed) 

and those not looking for work (i.e., out of the labor force). The variable was recoded into the 

following categories:

Worked 35 or more hours per week

Worked 1–34 hours per week

Unemployed

Out of the labor force

Ever attended a postsecondary institution F3EVRATT

This dummy variable (yes or no) indicates whether a student has ever attended a postsecondary institution.

Ever unemployed since January 2009 F3C07

This dummy variable (yes or no) is drawn directly from the third follow-up interview, in which 

respondents were asked whether they have ever been unemployed for a period of 1 month or more

since January 2009.

Family’s composition in 10th grade BYFCOMP

This variable is drawn from the base-year parent questionnaire and indicates students’ family 

composition when they were in 10th grade. This variable has the following categories: 1) mother and 

father; 2) mother and guardian; 3) father and guardian; 4) two guardians; 5) mother only; 6) father 

only; 7) female guardian only; 8) male guardian only; and 9) lives with student less than half time. For 

this report, these nine categories were further collapsed into the following two categories to identify 

whether students lived in a single-parent household when they were in 10th grade.

Lived in a two-parent household (BYFCOMP = 1, 2, 3, 4, or 9)

Lived in a single-parent household (BYFCOMP = 5, 6, 7, or 8) 
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY A-5 

POWERSTATS VARIABLE

Family socioeconomic status BYSES1QU

This variable describes students’ family socioeconomic status (SES) when they were in 10th grade. It 

was constructed based on five equally weighted, standardized components: father’s/guardian’s 

education (BYFATHED), mother’s/guardian’s education (BYMOTHED), family income 

(BYINCOME), father’s/guardian’s occupation (BYOCCUF), and mother’s/guardian’s occupation 

(BYOCCUM). For this report, the variable was recoded into the following categories:

Lowest quarter of the SES distribution

Middle two quarters

Highest quarter

Grade point average (GPA) for all academic courses F1RAGP

This variable was constructed from high school transcripts and indicates the student’s GPA for all 

academic courses taken since grade 9. Academic subjects include mathematics, science, English, social 

studies, fine arts, and foreign language. The variable was recoded into the following categories:

0.00–1.99

2.00–2.49

2.50–2.99

3.00–3.49

3.50–4.00

High school completion date F3HSCPDR 

This variable draws on information collected from the first follow-up early graduate questionnaire, the 

first follow-up dropout questionnaire, the second follow-up student questionnaire, the third follow-up 

student questionnaire, and high school transcripts so as to indicate each student’s high school 

completion date. This variable was recoded into the following categories:

Before 2004

During 2004

After 2004

High school completion status F3HSSTAT

This variable indicates students’ high school completion status at the time of the third follow-up 

survey and has the following categories: 1) received high school diploma (fall 2003—summer 2004 

graduate); 2) received high school diploma (post-summer 2004 graduate); 3) received high school 

diploma (pre-fall 2003 graduate); 4) received high school diploma (graduation date unknown); 

5) received certificate of attendance; 6) received GED or other high school equivalency; 7) no high 

school credential, currently working toward GED/equivalency; 8) no high school credential, not 

currently working toward GED/equivalency; 9) no high school credential, unknown if currently 

working toward GED/equivalency; and 10) unknown. For this report, this variable was recoded into 

the following categories:

Received a high school diploma (F3HSSTAT=1, 2, 3, or 4)

Received a GED or other equivalency (F3HSSTAT=5 or 6)

Received no high school credential (F3HSSTAT=7, 8, or 9)
A-6 APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

POWERSTATS VARIABLE

Highest level of educational attainment F3ATTAINMENT

This variable indicates students’ highest level of education at the time of the third follow-up interview 

and has the following categories: 1) no high school credential and no postsecondary attendance; 

2) high school credential, no postsecondary attendance; 3) some postsecondary attendance, no 

postsecondary credential; 4) undergraduate certificate; 5) Associate’s degree; 6) Bachelor’s degree; 

7) Post-baccalaureate certificate; 8) Master’s degree; 9) post-Master’s certificate; and 10) doctoral 

degree. For this report, “bachelor’s degree” and “post-baccalaureate certificate” were collapsed into 

“bachelor’s degree,” and the last three categories were collapsed into “master’s or higher degree.”

Level and control of first-attended postsecondary institution F3PS1SEC

This variable indicates the level and control of students’ first-attended postsecondary institution and 

was recoded into the following categories in this report:

Public 4-year

Private nonprofit 4-year

Public 2-year

For-profit (of all levels)

Other

Living arrangement in 2012 F3LIVARR

This variable indicates whether a student was living by him/herself or with parents; a spouse or 

partner; children; siblings; friends or roommates; or whether the student had some other living 

arrangement.

Marital status as of F3 F3MARRSTATUS

This variable indicates students’ marital status at the time of the third follow-up survey. If not 

married, students were also asked whether they were currently living with a significant other in a 

marriage-like relationship. The variable has the following categories: 1) married; 2) never married, 

currently living with partner; 3) never married, not currently living with partner; 4) divorced, currently 

living with partner; 5) divorced, not currently living with partner; 6) separated, currently living with 

partner; 7) separated, not currently living with partner; 8) widowed, currently living with partner; and 

9) widowed, not currently living with partner. For this report, the variable was recoded into the 

following categories:

Single, never married (F3MARRSTATUS=3)

Married (F3MARRSTATUS=1)

Divorced/separated/widowed (F3MARRSTATUS=5, 7, or 9)

Living with partner (F3MARRSTATUS=2, 4, 6, or 8)

Math coursetaking pipeline F1RMAPIP 

This variable indicates the highest level of mathematics for which students received nonzero credit 

while in high school and has the following categories: 1) No mathematics; 2) Nonacademic mathematics 

(basic mathematics, consumer mathematics); 3) Low academic mathematics (pre-algebra); 4) Middle 

academic mathematics I (algebra I and geometry); 5) Middle academic mathematics II (algebra II); 

6) Advanced mathematics I (trigonometry, analytical geometry, statistics); 7) Advanced mathematics II

(precalculus); and 8) Advanced mathematics III (calculus). For this report, the eight levels of this math 

pipeline variable were further collapsed into the following categories:
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY A-7 

POWERSTATS VARIABLE

Math coursetaking pipeline—continued F1RMAPIP 

No math, basic mathematics, or pre-algebra (F1RMAPIP=1, 2, or 3)

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II (F1RMAPIP= 4 or 5)

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus (F1RMAPIP=6 or 7)

Calculus (F1RMAPIP=8)

This variable was not calculated for students who did not have a high school transcript. In addition, 

the nonmissing F1RMAPIP values were converted to missing for those who had only partial high 

school transcript information. Students were considered to have a partial high school transcript record 

when all three of the following conditions were met: 1) the student in question was a high school 

diploma recipient, as indicated by F3HSSTAT; 2) the student completely lacks high school transcript 

information for either 9th grade (F1RTR09=0), 10th grade (F1RTR10=0), 11th grade (F1RTR11=0), 

and/or 12th grade (F1RTR12=0); and (3) F1RMAPIP indicates something other than “advanced 

mathematics III (calculus).” 

Number of biological/adopted children in 2012 F3NUMCHILD 

This variable provides a sum of the number of biological children born to the respondent as of the 

third follow-up survey (F3D07) and the number of children adopted by the respondent as of the third 

follow-up survey (F3D11). It was recoded into the following two categories:

None

One or more

Number of months between high school exit and postsecondary entry F3HS2PS1

This variable indicates the number of months between high school credential receipt date 

(F3HSCPDR) and the date of first postsecondary attendance (F3PS1START). The variable was 

recoded into the following categories:

3 months

4–12 months

13 or more months

Number of months between postsecondary entry and the first bachelor’s degree F3PS2BA 

This variable indicates the number of months between the date of first postsecondary attendance

(F3PS1START) and the receipt date of the first bachelor’s degree. If a student reported receipt of 

multiple bachelor’s degrees, then the earliest bachelor’s degree receipt date was used in the calculation 

of this variable. This variable was recoded into the following categories:

48 or fewer months

49–60 months

61–72 months

73 or more months

Number of months unemployed since January 2009 F3C08

This variable is drawn directly from the third follow-up interview, in which respondents were asked 

about the total number of months they have been unemployed since January 2009.
A-8 APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

POWERSTATS VARIABLE

Number of times unemployed since January 2009 F3C09

This variable is drawn directly from the third follow-up interview, in which respondents were asked 

about the total number of times they have been unemployed for a period of 1 or more month since 

January 2009. In this report, this variable was used to describe the number of unemployment spells.

An unemployment spell is defined as a period of unemployment lasting at least 1 month. This variable 

was recoded into the following categories:

One spell

Two spells

Three or more spells

Occupation for current/most recent job F3ONET6CURR

This variable stores the 2010 Standard Occupational Classification (SOC) code associated with the 

respondent’s current or most recent job as of the third follow-up. The variable is a 6-digit code with 

the first 2 digits indicating a general category, the 3rd digit indicating a mid-level category, and the last 

3 digits a specific category. For this report, this variable was recoded into the following eight 

occupational categories. For more information on the 2010 SOC, see http://www.bls.gov/soc/.

Business/management occupations

STEM occupations

PK–12 educators/social service professionals

Health care occupations

Sales occupations

Business support/administrative assistants

Trade/technical professionals

Other

Panel weight for the base-year and the third follow-up (2002 and 2012) F3BYPNLWT 

This is a panel weight for all sample members who completed a questionnaire in the base-year and the 

third follow-up surveys. This weight variable was used for all analyses of this report.

Parent’s highest level of education F1PARED 

This variable indicates the highest level of education completed by the student’s mother or father as 

of the first follow-up survey and has eight levels: 1) Did not finish high school; 2) Graduated from 

high school or GED; 3) Attended 2-year school, no degree; 4) Graduated from 2-year school; 

5) Attended college, no 4-year degree; 6) Graduated from college; 7) Completed master’s degree or 

equivalent; and 8) Completed Ph.D., M.D., or other advanced degree. For this report, this variable 

was recoded into the following categories:

High school or less (F1PARED=1 or 2)

Some postsecondary education (F1PARED=3, 4, or 5)

Bachelor’s or higher degree (F1PARED=6, 7, or 8)

Postsecondary enrollment status in 2012 F3EDSTAT

This variable indicates students’ postsecondary enrollment status at the time of the third follow-up 

survey and has the following categories: 1) currently taking courses at a 4-year school; 2) currently 

taking courses at a 2-year school; 3) currently taking courses at a less-than-2-year school; 4) currently 

taking courses, institutional level unknown; 5) not currently enrolled, but has previous postsecondary 

attendance; and 6) having no postsecondary attendance. For this report, the variable was recoded into 

the following categories:

Enrolled (F3EDSTAT=1, 2, 3, or 4) 

Not enrolled (F3EDSTAT=5 or 6)
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY A-9 

POWERSTATS VARIABLE

Region of student’s residence in 2012 F3REGION

This variable indicates the geographic region of student’s residence at the time of the third follow-up 

survey. The variable has the following categories:

Northeast Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New 

Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont

Midwest Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, 

Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, Wisconsin

South Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, 

Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North 

Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, 

West Virginia

West Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, 

New Mexico, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington, Wyoming 

Relationship between current/most recent job and major field of study F3B31

This variable comes directly from the third follow-up questionnaire, in which respondents who had 

worked for pay since January 2006 and had ever attended a postsecondary institution were asked how 

closely related their current/most recent job was to their major field of study when they were last 

enrolled in college. The variable has the following categories:

Closely related

Somewhat related

Not related

Rigor of high school curriculum HSCURR

This variable indicates the rigor of the student’s curriculum in high school and was constructed using 

credits (Carnegie units) earned in algebra I (F1RAL1_C), algebra II (F1RAL2_C), biology 

(F1RBIO_C), calculus (F1RCAL_C), chemistry (F1RCHE_C), English (F1RENG_C), geometry 

(F1RGEO_C), mathematics (F1RMAT_C), non-English language (F1RNON_C), physics 

(F1RPHY_C), precalculus (F1RPRE_C), science (F1RSCI_C), social studies (F1RSOC_C). This 

variable was constructed based on the following four curriculum levels developed for the NAEP High 

School Transcript Studies (Nord et al. 2011):

Below standard Curriculum lacks one or more requirements defined for the 

standard curriculum below. 

Standard Curriculum consists of four credits in English and three credits 

in each of social studies, mathematics, and science. 

Moderately rigorous Standard curriculum plus three additional requirements: 

mathematics credits earned must include algebra and geometry; 

science courses completed must cover two subjects among 

biology, chemistry, and physics; and one credit must be earned in 

foreign language courses. 

Rigorous Moderately rigorous curriculum plus three additional 

requirements: four credits in mathematics must be earned, of 

which one course must be precalculus or a higher level; science

courses completed must cover all three subjects of biology, 

chemistry, and physics; and three credits must be earned in 

foreign language courses. 
A-10 APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

POWERSTATS VARIABLE

Rigor of high school curriculum—continued HSCURR

This variable was not calculated for students who did not have a high school transcript. In addition, 

the nonmissing HSCURR values were converted to missing for those who had only partial high 

school transcript information. Students were considered to have a partial high school transcript record 

when all three of the following conditions were met: 1) the student in question was a high school 

diploma recipient, as indicated by F3HSSTAT; 2) the student completely lacks high school transcript 

information for either 9th grade (F1RTR09=0), 10th grade (F1RTR10=0), 11th grade (F1RTR11=0), 

and/or 12th grade (F1RTR12=0); and (3) HSCURR indicates something other than “rigorous.”

School disengagement composite in 10th grade ENGLEVEL

This variable was derived through principal factor analysis (weighted by F3BYPNLWT) using 

students’ reports on the frequencies of being late for school (BYS24A), cutting/skipping classes 

(BYS24B), being absent from school (BYS24C), getting in trouble in school (BYS24D), being put on 

in-school suspension (BYS34E), being suspended/put on probation (BYS24F), and being transferred 

for disciplinary reasons (BYS24G) during the first term of their sophomore year. Response categories 

include “never,” “1–2 times,” “3–6 times,” “7–9 times,” and “10 or more times.” Only one factor was 

extracted from the factor analysis of these seven input variables. Cases with a full set of nonmissing 

input responses were assigned a scale value, and the coefficient of reliability (alpha) for the scale is 

0.71. Students were then divided into quarters based on the scale values: those in the highest 

disengagement quarter are considered to have “high-level school disengagement;” those in the middle 

two disengagement quarters are considered to have “moderate-level school disengagement;” and 

those in the lowest disengagement quarter are considered to have “low-level school disengagement.”

Science coursetaking pipeline F1RSCPIP 

This variable indicates the highest level of science for which the student received nonzero credit 

while in high school and has the following categories: 1) No science; 2) Primary physical science; 

3) Secondary physical science/basic biology; 4) General biology; 5) Chemistry I or physics I; 

6) Chemistry I and physics I; 7) Chemistry II or physics II or advanced biology; and 8) Chemistry 

and physics, plus level 7. For this report, the eight levels of this variable were further collapsed into 

the following categories:

No science or low-level science (F1RSCPIP=1, 2, or 3)

General biology (F1RSCPIP=4)

Chemistry I or physics I (F1RSCPIP=5)

Chemistry I and physics I (F1RSCPIP=6)

Chemistry II or physics II or advanced biology (F1RSCPIP=7 or 8).

This variable was not calculated for students who did not have a high school transcript. In addition, 

the nonmissing F1RSCPIP values were converted to missing for those who had only partial high 

school transcript information. A student was considered to have a partial high school transcript record 

when all three of the following conditions were met: 1) the student in question is a high school 

diploma recipient, as indicated by F3HSSTAT; 2) the student completely lacks high school transcript 

information for either 9th grade (F1RTR09=0), 10th grade (F1RTR10=0), 11th grade (F1RTR11=0), 

and/or 12th grade (F1RTR12=0); and 3) F1RSCPIP indicates some coursework other than 

“Chemistry II or physics II or advanced biology” or “Chemistry and physics, plus level 7.” 

Sector of high school in 10th grade BYSCTRL

This variable indicates the type of high school students attended at the time of the base-year interview 

and was recoded into the following categories:

Public 

Private
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY A-11

POWERSTATS VARIABLE

Selectivity of first-attended postsecondary institution F3PS1SLC

This variable indicates the selectivity of the first-attended postsecondary institution. Selectivity was 

defined only for 4-year institutions, while all less-than-4-year institutions were lumped together as one 

group. The variable has the following categories:

Highly selective 4-year institutions Institutions whose first-year students’

entrance test scores place them in the top fifth 

of baccalaureate institutions

Moderately selective 4-year institutions Institutions whose first-year students’ 

entrance test scores place them in the middle 

two-fifths of baccalaureate institutions

Inclusive 4-year institutions Institutions whose first-year students entrance 

test scores indicated that they extend 

educational opportunity to a wide range of 

students with respect to academic preparation 

and achievement

Unclassified selectivity 4-year institutions that did not have student 

test score data

Less-than-4-year institutions All other institutions

Single-parent indicator of student in 2012 F3SINGLEPAR 

This variable identifies the third follow-up respondents as single parents if they indicated that 1) they 

were not currently married and not currently living with a significant other in a marriage-like 

relationship; 2) they had a biological child or have adopted a child; and 3) there is one or more 

children currently living in their household. This variable has the following categories:

Single parent

Not a single parent

Sophomore cohort member in 2001–02 school year G10COHRT

This cohort flag identifies spring 2002 10th-graders. For each figure/table included in this report, this 

variable was used in concert with F3BYPNLWT (the third follow-up to base-year panel/cross-round 

weight) to generate nationally representative estimates of spring 2002 10th-graders as of the third 

follow-up survey in 2012.

Standardized hourly wage for current/most recent job F3HOURWAGE

This variable indicates respondents’ earnings at their current/most recent job, standardized to dollars 

per hour. Respondents reported earnings at their current/most recent job in different ways (i.e., per 

hour, per day, per week, every 2 weeks, twice per month, per month, or per year). By using the 

number of hours respondents reported working per week, all earning responses were converted to a 

dollars-per-hour value. This variable was used both as a continuous variable and a categorical variable. 

For the categorical version, the variable was recoded into the following categories:

Lowest quarter of the hourly wage distribution

Middle two quarters

Highest quarter
A-12 APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

POWERSTATS VARIABLE

Student’s race/ethnicity F1RACE_R

This variable includes student’s race/ethnicity and has eight categories: 1) American Indian/Alaska 

Native, non-Hispanic; 2) Asian, non-Hispanic; 3) Black or African American, non-Hispanic; 

4) Hispanic, no race specified; 5) Hispanic, race specified; 6) More than one race, non-Hispanic; 

7) Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, non-Hispanic; and 8) White, non-Hispanic. For this report, the 

variable was recoded into the following categories:

White (F1RACE_R=8)

Black (F1RACE_R=3)

Hispanic (F1RACE_R=4 or 5)

Asian (F1RACE_R=2)

Other (F1RACE_R=1, 6, or 7)

Student’s sex F1SEX

This variable indicates the sex of a student (male or female).

Student’s socioeconomic status in 2012 F3SESQU

This variable is a weighted quartile coding of the composite variable for the student’s socioeconomic 

status (SES) (F3SES); F3SES is the average of three variables: the student’s 2011 earning from 

employment, the prestige score associated with the student’s current/most recent job, and educational 

attainment. Each variable is standardized to a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1 prior to 

averaging. Because this variable does not account for the income, occupation, and education of the 

student’s spouse/partner, it reflects the student’s individual SES (as opposed to his or her household 

economic status). The variable was recoded into the following categories:

Lowest quarter of the SES distribution

Middle two quarters

Highest quarter

Total amount taken out in student loans F3STLOANAMT

This variable indicates the total amount of loans that students reported taking out to pay for their 

postsecondary education (any level). 

Whether current/most recent job requires a bachelor’s degree F3B30B

This dummy variable (yes or no) comes directly from the third follow-up questionnaire, in which 

respondents were asked whether their current/most recent job required a bachelor’s degree. 

Whether current/most recent job requires a graduate degree F3B30A

This dummy variable (yes or no) comes directly from the third follow-up questionnaire, in which 

respondents were asked whether their current/most recent job required a graduate degree.

Whether current/most recent job requires an associate’s degree F3B30C

This dummy variable (yes or no) comes directly from the third follow-up questionnaire, in which 

respondents were asked whether their current/most recent job required an associate’s degree.

Whether current/most recent job requires an undergraduate certificate F3B30D

This dummy variable (yes or no) comes directly from the third follow-up questionnaire, in which 

respondents were asked whether their current/most recent job required an undergraduate certificate.
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY A-13

POWERSTATS VARIABLE

Whether English is student’s native language F1STLANG 

This variable classifies the language the student first learned to speak as either English or non-English. 

Whether student ever took out a federal loan to pay for postsecondary education FEDEVER

This dummy variable (yes or no) was derived by using two NSLDS-based variables: loan/Pell Grant 

data availability status (F3NSLDSSTAT) and cumulative federal loan amount for undergraduate and 

graduate education (F3FEDCUM3). Students are assumed to have taken out a federal loan if there is a 

positive value of the federal loan amount or if there is an indication that students have associated

records in the NSLDS loan data file.

Whether student ever took out a student loan to pay for postsecondary educationF3STLOANEVR

This dummy variable (yes or no) comes directly from the third follow-up interview, in which 

respondents were asked whether they have ever taken out a student loan to pay for their 

postsecondary education.

Whether student has ever been in the military EVERMIL

This dummy variable (yes or no) indicates whether students have ever served in the military before. 

The variable was derived from three variables related to military service: 1) F3A01H from the third 

follow-up interview, in which respondents were asked a series of questions about their current 

activities at the time of the interview, including whether they were currently serving in the armed 

forces or military; 2) F3A03H from the third follow-up interview, in which respondents were asked a 

series of questions about their June 2012 activities, including whether they were serving in the armed 

forces or military; and 3) F3B01 from the third follow-up interview, in which respondents who had 

not already indicated they were currently in the military were asked whether they have ever been in the 

military. 

Whether student held a job for pay since January 2006 F3B09

This dummy variable (yes or no) comes directly from the third follow-up interview, in which 

respondents were asked whether they have ever held a job for pay since January 2006.

Whether student owned a house, rented, or had some other living arrangement in 2012 F3D30

This variable comes directly from the third follow-up questionnaire, in which respondents were asked 

whether they paid a mortgage toward or owned a house, paid rent, or had some other living 

arrangement in 2012.

Whether student received public assistance in 2011 F3D24

This dummy variable (yes or no) comes directly from the third follow-up interview, in which 

respondents were asked whether they or their spouse/partner received any of the following benefits 

in 2011: Supplemental Security Income (SSI); SNAP (the Food Stamp Program); TANF (the 

Temporary Assistance for Needy Families Program); the Free and Reduced-Price School Lunch 

Program; or WIC (the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children). 
This page intentionally left blank 
B-1

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology

Data Sources

The analysis presented in this report is based on data from the Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002). ELS:2002 is the fourth in a series of NCES 

secondary school longitudinal studies that began in 1972. The three predecessor 

studies to ELS:2002 are the National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class of 

1972 (NLS-72); High School and Beyond (HS&B); and the National Education 

Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88). A fifth study, a successor to ELS:2002, is the 

High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 (HSLS:09). All of these studies monitor the 

transition of national samples of young people from their high school years to 

postsecondary statuses, including further education, participation in the work force, 

and the assumption of other adult roles. ELS:2002 tracks these critical transitions for 

two analysis cohorts: 2002 high school sophomores and 2004 high school seniors. 

Covering the high school years, ELS:2002 is an integrated multilevel survey involving 

multiple respondent populations. Base-year surveys were administered in 2002, 

including separate questionnaires for students, their parents, their teachers, school 

administrators, and librarians. The base-year data collection also included student 

assessments in math and reading, as well as a facilities checklist. The first follow-up 

was conducted in 2004, when base-year students were surveyed regardless of 

whether they were still in their base-year school, had transferred to a new school, or 

were out of school. High school-based data collections concluded in 2005, when 

high school transcripts were requested (from schools) and processed for each sample 

member, regardless of the sample member’s high school completion status. 

In addition to the aforementioned high school survey components, follow-up 

surveys were also administered during the sample members’ postsecondary years: the 

second follow-up was conducted in 2006 (approximately 2 years after the sample’s 

modal high school graduation date), and the third follow-up was conducted in 2012 

(when the majority of the sample was approximately 26 years old). Additional 

information about cohort members was also collected from extant data sources such 

as the American Council on Education (GED data), the U.S. Department of 

Education Central Processing System (financial aid data), and SAT/ACT 

(postsecondary entrance exam scores). Finally, postsecondary transcripts were 

collected during 2013–14.
B-2 APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

Response Rates and Bias Analysis

Base-Year School and Student Questionnaire Response Rates

Of the 1,221 eligible contacted schools, 752 participated in the survey, for an overall 

weighted school participation rate of 68 percent. These participating schools are 

nationally representative of public and private high schools in the United States in 

2002. Of 17,591 selected eligible students, 15,362 participated, for a weighted student 

response rate of 87 percent. All the weighted response rates cited here are calculated 

using the base weight appropriate for a given survey32 (Ingels et al. 2004). A 

nonresponse bias analysis was performed, which confirmed that any identified biases 

associated with nonresponse were small and that the data could be used with 

confidence. For further information on the base-year data collection results, see the 

ELS:2002 Base-Year Data File User’s Manual (Ingels et al. 2004).

Third Follow-Up Response Rates

ELS:2002 third follow-up interviews were administered between July 4, 2012, and 

February 3, 2013. A total of 15,724 were deemed to be in scope for the study after 

removing 452 ineligible members who were deceased (127), incarcerated (69), 

institutionalized (2), out of the country (230), out of scope (4), or physically/mentally 

incapable for the survey (20). A total of 13,250 individuals (of 15,724 eligible) 

responded to the third follow-up interview in 2012, for a weighted response rate of 

84 percent. This weighted response rate was calculated using the first follow-up base

weight adjusted for unknown eligibility and scope (Ingels et al. 2014). For further 

information on third follow-up data collection results, see the ELS:2002 Base-Year to 

Third Follow-up Data File Documentation (DFD) (Ingels et al. 2014). 

Item Response Rates and Bias Analysis

NCES Statistical Standard 4-4-1 states that “[a]ny survey stage of data collection with 

a unit or item response rate less than 85 percent must be evaluated for the potential 

magnitude of nonresponse bias before the data or any analysis using the data may be 

released” (U.S. Department of Education 2014). Table B-1 displays the item-level 

response rates for all variables used in this report, and all of them have an item-level 

response rate above 85 percent, except for the following five variables:

• F3A22C—Effects of student loan debt: Had to work at more than one job at the 

same time;

• F3A22D—Effects of student loan debt: Had to work more hours than desired; 

 

32 The base weight, also referred to as the design weight, is the inverse of the probability of selection; 

it reflects the selection probability but has not been adjusted for nonresponse (Ingels et al. 2004). 
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY B-3 

• F3A22A—Effects of student loan debt: Took a job outside field of study or 

training; 

• F3A22B—Effects of student loan debt: Took a less desirable job; 

• F3C09—Number of times unemployed since January 2009. 

Item nonresponse bias analysis was conducted to determine if bias was present 

depending on response status (item respondents versus item nonrespondents) to 

these five variables as required by NCES standards 4-4-1 and 4-4-3. A summary of 

item nonresponse bias analysis results for these five variables appears in table B-2. 

The degree of nonresponse error or bias is a function of two factors: the 

nonresponse rate and how much the respondents and nonrespondents differ on 

survey variables of interest. For example, in the case of item nonresponse on F3C09 

(the number of times unemployed since January 2009), a comparison of the 

characteristics of the respondents and nonrespondents can be assessed to gauge 

whether there are any systematic differences between the two groups. The general 

mathematical formulation to estimate bias for a sample mean is:

( ) ( ) m

r rt rm

t

n By y y y y n

  =−= −    

Where:

t y = the weighted mean based on all sample cases;

r y = the weighted mean based only on respondent cases;

my = the weighted mean based only on nonrespondent cases; 

nt = the weighted number of cases in the sample (i.e., nt = nr + nm);

nm = the weighted number of nonrespondent cases; 

nr = the weighted number of respondent cases. 

r y is approximately unbiased if either the proportion of nonrespondents (nm/n) is 

small or the nonrespondent mean, my , is close to the respondent mean, r y . 

The relative bias provides a measure of the magnitude of the bias. The mathematical 

formulation to estimate relative bias for a sample mean is:

( ) ( )

r

r

r y

yB Rel yB =

In general, a bias ratio of 10 percent or less has negligible effect on significance tests. 

For more information on item nonresponse bias analysis, see NCES Statistical 

Standards (http://nces.ed.gov/statprog/) or Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 Third 

Follow-up Data File Documentation (http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2014/2014364.pdf). 
B-4 APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

Table B-1. 

Item response and nonresponse rates for variables used in this study

Variable Description

Item 

response 

rate1

Item nonresponse 

rate1

ACALEVEL2 Academic risk composite in 10th grade 100.0 0.0

BA1AGE2 Age when completing the first bachelor’s degree 90.5 9.5

F3FEDCUM3 Cumulative federal loan amount for undergraduate and graduate education 100.0 0.0

BYSTEXP Educational expectations in 10th grade 100.0 0.0

F3A22C Effects of student loan debt: Had to work at more than one job at the same time 84.5 15.5

F3A22D Effects of student loan debt: Had to work more hours than desired 84.7 15.3

F3A22A Effects of student loan debt: Took a job outside field of study or training 84.7 15.3

F3A22B Effects of student loan debt: Took a less desirable job 84.5 15.5

F3EMPSTAT Employment status in 2012 100.0 0.0

F3EVRATT Ever attended a postsecondary institution 100.0 0.0

F3C07 Ever unemployed since January 2009 98.7 1.3

BYFCOMP Family composition in 10th grade 100.0 0.0

BYSES1QU Family SES in 10th grade 100.0 0.0

F1RAGP Grade point average (GPA) for all academic courses 99.9 0.1

F3HSCPDR High school completion date 99.8 0.2

F3HSSTAT High school completion status (SES) 100.0 0.0

F3ATTAINMENT Highest level of educational attainment in 2012 100.0 0.0

F3PS1SEC Level and control of first-attended postsecondary institution 97.9 2.1

F3LIVARR Living arrangement in 2012 88.2 11.9

F3MARRSTATUS Marital status in 2012 98.9 1.1

F1RMAPIP3 Mathematics coursetaking pipeline 92.9 7.1

F3NUMCHILD Number of biological/adopted children in 2012 88.9 11.1

F3B12 Number of employers since January 2006 89.4 10.6

F3HS2PS1 Number of months between high school exit and postsecondary entry 94.5 5.5

F3PS2BA Number of months between postsecondary entry and first bachelor’s degree 100.0 0.0

F3C08 Number of months unemployed since January 2009 95.4 4.6

F3C09 Number of times unemployed since January 2009 83.1 16.9

F3ONET6CURR Occupation for current/most recent job 98.9 1.1

F1PARED Parent’s highest level of education 100.0 0.0

F3EDSTAT Postsecondary enrollment status in 2012 100.0 0.0

F3REGION Region of student’s residence in 2012 98.9 1.1

F3B31 Relationship between current/most recent job and major field of study 90.1 9.9

HSCURR2,3 Rigor of high school curriculum 92.6 7.4

ENGLEVEL2 School disengagement composite in 10th grade 92.1 7.9

F1RSCPIP3 Science coursetaking pipeline 93.4 6.6

BYSCTRL Sector of high school in 10th grade 100.0 0.0

F3PS1SLC Selectivity of first-attended postsecondary institution 98.1 1.9

F3SINGLEPAR Single-parent indicator of student in 2012 94.6 5.4

G10COHRT Sophomore cohort member in 2001‒02 school year 100.0 0.0

F3HOURWAGE Standardized hourly wage for current/most recent job 93.6 6.4

F1SEX Student’s sex 100.0 0.0

F3SESQU Student’s socioeconomic status (SES) in 2012 100.0 0.0

F1RACE_R Student’s race/ethnicity 100.0 0.0

F3STLOANAMT Total amount borrowed in student loans 100.0 0.0

F3B30B Whether current/most recent job requires a bachelor’s degree 87.4 12.6

F3B30A Whether current/most recent job requires a graduate degree 85.7 14.3

F3B30C Whether current/most recent job requires an associate’s degree 85.2 14.8

F3B30D Whether current/most recent job requires an undergraduate certificate 85.8 14.2

F1STLANG Whether English is student’s native language 100.0 0.0

FEDEVER2 Whether student ever took out a federal loan for postsecondary education 100.0 0.0

F3STLOANEVR Whether student ever took out a student loan for postsecondary education 100.0 0.0

EVERMIL2 Whether student has ever been in the military 90.3 9.7

F3B09 Whether student held a job for pay since January 2006 100.0 0.0

F3D30 Whether student owned a house, rented, or had some other 

 living arrangement in 2012 85.7 14.4

F3D24 Whether student received public assistance in 2011 88.7 11.3

See notes at end of table.
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY B-5 

Table B-1. 

Item response and nonresponse rates for variables used in this study—Continued

Table B-2.

Summary of bias analysis for five variables used in this study

Weighting

All estimates in this report were weighted to compensate for unequal probability of 

selection into the survey sample and to adjust for nonresponse. The weight variable 

used for analysis of the ELS:2002 data in this report was F3BYPNLWT, a third 

follow-up panel weight for all sample members who completed a questionnaire in 

the base-year and the third follow-up surveys. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

1 “Item response rate” refers to the percentage of nonmissing values for a given variable, and “item nonresponse rate” refers to the percentage of 

missing values for a given variable. Values indicating “legitimate” skip have been excluded from both the numerator and the denominator when 

calculating these rates.

2

 This variable was derived specifically for this report and does not exist on the ELS:2002 restricted-use data file; as such, the associated item 

response rates were calculated relative to the analysis sample for this report (as opposed to relative to the entire ELS:2002 sample).

3

 As it appears on the ELS:2002 restricted-use data file, this transcript-based variable contains no missing values for high school transcript 

respondents. However, for the purposes of this report, nonmissing values were identified and excluded if associated with an ELS:2002 sample 

member for whom an incomplete transcript record was obtained (see detailed information in the glossary in appendix A of this report). The item 

response and nonresponse rates shown above for this variable reflect the level of missingness for that variable as it was used in this report.

NOTE: Except where otherwise noted, the response rates shown in this table were calculated relative to the entire ELS:2002 sample using the 

following weights: rates for base-year variables (i.e., ACALEVEL, ENGLEVEL, and all variables using the BYxxxx naming convention) are 

calculated using the base-year student weight (BYSTUWT); rates for first follow-up variables (i.e., variables using the F1xxxx naming convention) 

are calculated using the first follow cross-sectional weight (F1QWT); rates for high school transcript variables (i.e., HSCURR and all variables 

using the F1Rxxxx naming convention) are calculated using the high school transcript cross-sectional weight (F1TRSCWT); and rates for third 

follow-up variables (i.e., BA1AGE, EVERMIL, FEDEVER, and all variables using the F3xxxx naming convention) are calculated using the third 

follow-up questionnaire respondent weight (F3QWT).

Variable 

name

Median relative 

bias across 

characteristics 

in ELS:2002

Percentage of 

characteristics 

in ELS:2002 with 

significant bias Characteristic with greatest significant bias

FA22A 2.51 54.55 Student’s race/ethnicity is White, non-Hispanic

FA22B 2.51 54.55 Student’s race/ethnicity is White, non-Hispanic

FA22C 2.51 63.64 Student’s race/ethnicity is White, non-Hispanic

FA22D 2.51 54.55 Student’s race/ethnicity is White, non-Hispanic

F3C09 1.36 14.29 Student’s race/ethnicity is White, non-Hispanic

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).
B-6 APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

Statistical Procedures

Differences Between Two Estimates

The descriptive comparisons of two estimates (e.g., means and proportions) were 

tested using Student’s t statistic. Differences between estimates were tested against 

the probability of a Type I error33 or significance level. The statistical significance of 

each comparison was determined by calculating the Student’s t value for the 

difference between each pair of estimates and comparing the t value with published 

tables of significance levels for two-tailed hypothesis testing. Student’s t values were 

computed to test differences between independent estimates using the following 

formula:

E E

t

se se

1 2

2 2

1 2

− = + 

There are some hazards in reporting statistical tests for each comparison. First, 

comparisons based on large t statistics may appear to merit special attention. This 

can be misleading because the magnitude of the t statistic is related not only to the 

observed differences in estimates but also to the number of respondents in the 

specific categories used for comparison. Hence, a small difference compared across a 

large number of respondents would produce a large (and thus possibly statistically 

significant) t statistic.

A second hazard in reporting statistical tests is the possibility that one can report a 

“false positive” or Type I error. Statistical tests are designed to limit the risk of this 

type of error using a value denoted by alpha. The alpha level of .05 was selected for 

findings in this report and ensures that a difference of a certain magnitude or larger 

would be produced when there was no actual difference between the quantities in 

the underlying population no more than 1 time out of 20. When analysts test 

hypotheses that show alpha values at the .05 level or smaller, they reject the null 

hypothesis that there is no difference between the two estimates. Failing to reject a 

null hypothesis (i.e., failing to detect a difference), however, does not imply the 

values are the same or equivalent.

Multinomial Probit Regression

Two sets of multivariate analyses in this study were addressed via multinomial probit 

(MNP) regression. MNP is used because the outcome of interest has three or more 

discrete categories (e.g., the highest educational attainment containing multiple 

 

33 A Type I error occurs when one concludes that a difference observed in a sample reflects a true 

difference in the population from which the sample was drawn, when no such difference is present.
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY B-7 

categories describing each level of education that students had attained as of 2012). 

MNP is one of the most common statistical techniques used to predict the 

probability of an event that would occur or the probability of a respondent choosing 

a certain outcome out of several mutually exclusive alternatives34 (Borooah 2001; 

Koop 2008). Assuming that each individual faces a set of outcomes, an MNP model 

formulation may be written as follows: 

ij i j ij y* = + x'

β ε

where i (=1, 2, ..., N) represents an individual; j (=1, 2, ..., M) represents one of M 

different outcomes of the dependent variable yi; xi

' is a vector of independent 

variables that may be associated with or influence an individual’s outcome or choice; 

and the error term, ij ε ’s, are assumed to follow a multivariate normal distribution. 

Each individual is assumed to consider the full set of offered alternatives and choose 

the alternative with the highest utility for him-/herself. That is, an individual i

chooses the outcome j if the outcome ij y

* is the highest for j: 

The probability of an individual i choosing outcome j is conditional on or a function 

of the set of independent variables, xi

' : 

i j i i i py j F x x , ' ' ( |) ( ) = = ε (j = 1,..., M, i = 1,..., N)

where for a probit analysis, F represents a cumulative probability function based on 

the normal distribution. Only M−1 of the probabilities can be freely specified 

because the probability for all alternatives sum to one (i.e., p(yi = 1) + p(yi = 2) +... + 

p(yi = M) = 1). 

The parameters of MNP models are generally not directly interpretable. Instead, 

researchers often rely on marginal effects (ME) to interpret MNP results (Liao 1994). 

An ME for an independent variable measures the change in the probability that 

alternative j is the outcome when the independent variable changes by one unit. For 

a categorical variable, the ME measures the change in the probability of the outcome 

 

34 This report uses a probit rather than a logit model because probit models do not require an 

assumption of independence of irrelevant alternatives (IIA). IIA implies that the preferences between 

alternatives A and B depend only on the individual preferences between A and B. In other words, if 

A is preferred to B out of the choice set {A, B}, then introducing a third alternative C, and thus 

expanding the choice set to {A, B, C}, must not change the preferences between A and B (i.e., A is 

still preferred to B after including C). An MNP model relaxes this requirement and allows more 

flexibility for considering outcomes in the analysis.







 = = otherwise. 0

if )..., ,,max( **

2

*

1

*

ij ii iM

i

yyyyj

y
B-8 APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

that would occur if this categorical variable changes from 0 (reference category) to 1 

(category of interest), holding all other independent variables constant. For a 

continuous independent variable, the ME measures the instantaneous rate of change, 

which typically depends on the position or value of the continuous variable. In this 

case, the use of the average ME, which is the mean value of MEs corresponding to 

all values of this continuous independent variable, is recommended. For this report, 

average marginal effects (AME) were used. AME is derived by first calculating 

marginal effect (ME) for each individual with their observed levels of covariates in a 

regression, and then averaging these individual MEs across all sample members.

Ordinary Least Square Regression

This study also used ordinary least square (OLS) regression to examine the net 

association between each independent variable included in the model and hourly 

wage for students’ 2012 job. OLS was used because this outcome is a continuous 

variable. In general, OLS is a statistical method that attempts to find a linear function 

that most closely approximates the observed data by minimizing the sum of the 

squares of the deviations between observed and expected values. In other words, this 

method tries to find a “best-fit” line through a set of observed data points by 

minimizing the sum of the squared differences between the observed data values and 

the predicted data values based on the linear approximation. An OLS model may be 

written as follows:

where y represents an outcome variable of interest; xi is the ith independent or 

predicted variable (i=1, 2, ..., n) included in the model; the intercept, β 0 , represents 

the estimated value of y when all values of the independent variables (x1, x2, ..., xn)

are zero; the regression coefficient, βi , indicates the average change in the predicted 

value of y that is associated with a one-unit change in xi while keeping all other 

independent variables constant in the model; and the error term, ε , which is assumed 

to follow a normal distribution, be statistically independent (i.e., uncorrelated among 

cases), and have both a homogeneous variance and an expected value of zero (Cohen 

and Cohen 1983). The variable xi is said to have a significant association with the 

outcome y if βi is tested to be statistically significant from zero. More information 

on OLS can be found in Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral 

Science (Cohen and Cohen 1983).

22110 ... xxxy nn +++++= εββββ
C-1

Appendix C—Appendix Tables
C-2 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Table C-1. 

U.S. postsecondary enrollment, bachelor’s degree attainment, and unemployment rates among 

young adults in selected age groups: 1980‒2012

Year

Postsecondary 

enrollment rate 

of persons

18 to 24 years old

Bachelor’s degree 

attainment rate 

of persons 

25 years or older

Unemployment 

rate of persons 

16 years old or over

1980 25.7 17.0 7.1

1985 27.8 19.4 7.2

1990 32.0 21.3 5.6

1995 34.3 23.0 5.6

2000 35.5 25.6 4.0

2005 38.9 27.7 5.1

2006 37.3 28.0 4.6

2007 38.8 28.7 4.6

2008 39.6 29.4 5.8

2009 41.3 29.5 9.3

2010 41.2 29.9 9.6

2011 42.0 30.4 8.9

2012 41.0 30.9 8.1

NOTE: The postsecondary enrollment rate is the percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds who are enrolled in all U.S. degree-granting institutions. 

The bachelor’s degree attainment rate is the percentage of persons 25 years and older who hold a bachelor’s degree. The unemployment 

rate is the percentage of persons 16 years and older in the labor force who are jobless, looking for a job, and available for work; the labor 

force consists of people who are employed or seeking employment. 

SOURCE: Postsecondary enrollment rates and bachelor’s degree attainment rates are from Snyder, T.D., de Brey, C., and Dillow, S.A. 

(2016). Digest of Education Statistics 2015 (NCES 2016-014). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, 

U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC. Unemployment rates are from the Bureau of Labor Statistics tabulation, 

https://data.bls.gov/timeseries/LNU04000000?years_option=all_years&periods_option=specific_periods&periods=Annual+Data. 
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-3 

Table C-2a. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ high school completion status, 

by selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics

High 

school 

diploma

GED, certificate of 

attendance, or other 

equivalency1

No high

school 

credential

 Total 89.3 6.6 4.2

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 87.5 7.9 4.6

Female 91.0 5.3 3.7

Race/ethnicity2

White 92.4 5.2 2.4

Black 83.9 9.4 6.7

Hispanic 82.4 8.6 9.0

Asian 94.1 3.8 2.1

Other 84.7 10.1 5.1

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 82.4 9.2 8.4

Some college 89.7 7.0 3.3

Bachelor’s or higher degree 93.9 4.2 1.9

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 80.7 9.9 9.4

Middle two quarters 90.6 6.2 3.1

Highest quarter 96.4 2.8 0.8

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 90.9 5.6 3.5

Single-parent family 84.9 8.9 6.2

Language student first learned to speak

English 90.0 6.5 3.6

Non-English 84.9 7.1 8.0

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 84.5 7.6 7.9

High school diploma or less 64.3 19.9 15.8

Some college 81.2 11.1 7.7

Bachelor’s or higher degree 94.3 3.9 1.8

Academic risk in 10th grade3

Low 99.2 0.6 ! ‡

Moderate 91.0 6.2 2.8

High 70.3 14.5 15.2

School disengagement in 10th grade4

Low 96.8 1.6 1.6

Moderate 93.4 4.3 2.3

High 77.3 13.9 8.8

School control in 10th grade

Public 88.6 6.9 4.5

Private 97.6 2.1 0.3 !

See notes at end of table. 
C-4 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

High 

school 

diploma

GED, certificate of 

attendance, or other 

equivalency1

No high

school 

credential

Rigor of high school curriculum5,6

Below-standard 79.5 12.1 8.3

Standard 98.4 1.3 ! ‡

Moderately rigorous 99.7 ‡ ‡

Rigorous 99.9 ‡ #

Highest math course taken since grade 96

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 55.8 23.3 20.8

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 86.8 8.4 4.8

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 98.7 0.8 0.5 !

Calculus 99.7 ‡ #

Highest science course taken since grade 96

No science or low-level science 59.1 22.3 18.5

General biology 82.6 10.8 6.6

Chemistry I or physics I 96.7 2.2 1.1

Chemistry I and physics I 99.0 0.7 ! ‡

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 98.8 0.9 ‡

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 72.0 16.1 11.9

2.00‒2.49 93.3 4.4 2.3

2.50‒2.99 98.3 1.3 0.4 !

3.00‒3.49 98.6 1.2 ‡

3.50‒4.00 99.7 ‡ ‡

‡ Reporting standards not met. 

2

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other 

Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless 

specified.

3

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average 

(GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable. 4

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping 

classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, 

and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

5

 Students who attain a standard curriculum must earn 4 credits in English and 3 credits each in social studies, math, and science. 

Students who do not meet these requirements complete a below-standard curriculum. Students who attain a moderately rigorous 

curriculum must meet the standard curriculum requirements plus three additional requirements: math credits earned must include algebra 

and geometry; science courses completed must cover two subjects among biology, chemistry, and physics; and 1 credit must be earned in 

foreign language courses. Students who attain a rigorous curriculum must meet the moderately rigorous curriculum requirements plus 

three additional requirements: 4 credits must be earned in math, of which one course must be precalculus or a higher level; science 

courses completed must cover all three subjects of biology, chemistry, and physics; and 3 credits must be earned in foreign language 

courses.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

1

 A General Educational Development certificate (GED) is awarded to those who did not finish high school but who have earned the 

equivalent of a high school diploma by passing required GED exams. A certificate of attendance may be awarded when a student attended 

high school for the minimum amount of time required but did not complete all courses required for a diploma. 

Table C-2a. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ high school completion status, 

by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate.

# Rounds to zero.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

6

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-5 

Table C-2b. 

Standard errors for table C-2a: Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

high school completion status, by selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics

High 

school 

diploma

GED, certificate of 

attendance, or other 

equivalency

No high

school 

credential

 Total 0.45 0.30 0.29

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 0.54 0.41 0.36

Female 0.54 0.40 0.34

Race/ethnicity

White 0.45 0.34 0.25

Black 1.25 0.96 0.85

Hispanic 1.21 0.85 0.97

Asian 0.81 0.69 0.51

Other 1.61 1.41 1.01

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 0.92 0.62 0.66

Some college 0.61 0.54 0.36

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.45 0.37 0.25

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 0.96 0.68 0.75

Middle two quarters 0.51 0.43 0.32

Highest quarter 0.42 0.38 0.21

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 0.43 0.30 0.31

Single-parent family 0.92 0.63 0.63

Language student first learned to speak

English 0.44 0.32 0.26

Non-English 1.15 0.85 1.02

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 1.45 1.07 1.13

High school diploma or less 1.95 1.66 1.69

Some college 1.53 1.10 1.04

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.34 0.26 0.21

Academic risk in 10th grade

Low 0.27 0.24 †

Moderate 0.43 0.33 0.26

High 1.57 1.17 1.24

School disengagement in 10th grade

Low 0.51 0.37 0.35

Moderate 0.43 0.35 0.26

High 1.13 0.80 0.82

School control in 10th grade

Public 0.48 0.33 0.32

Private 0.43 0.44 0.13

Rigor of high school curriculum

Below-standard 0.96 0.65 0.64

Standard 0.37 0.32 0.17

Moderately rigorous 0.13 0.09 0.09

Rigorous 0.13 0.13 †

See notes at end of table. 
C-6 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

High 

school 

diploma

GED, certificate of 

attendance, or other 

equivalency

No high

school 

credential

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 2.35 1.66 1.80

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 0.79 0.60 0.47

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 0.27 0.21 0.17

Calculus 0.15 † †

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science 2.41 1.96 1.67

General biology 1.11 0.80 0.66

Chemistry I or physics I 0.44 0.33 0.26

Chemistry I and physics I 0.28 0.22 †

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 0.31 0.24 †

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 1.25 0.92 0.93

2.00‒2.49 0.72 0.54 0.40

2.50‒2.99 0.34 0.29 0.16

3.00‒3.49 0.33 0.29 †

3.50‒4.00 0.15 † †

† Not applicable.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

Table C-2b. 

Standard errors for table C-2a: Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

high school completion status, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-7 

Table C-3a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who received a high school credential, percentage 

distribution of their high school completion year, by selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics Before 2004 During 2004 After 2004

 Total 5.4 87.8 6.8

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 5.7 85.9 8.3

Female 5.1 89.5 5.3

Race/ethnicity1

White 3.9 91.6 4.4

Black 9.8 80.3 9.9

Hispanic 7.2 80.2 12.6

Asian 3.9 90.9 5.2

Other 7.4 82.0 10.6

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 7.6 81.6 10.8

Some college 5.5 87.1 7.4

Bachelor’s or higher degree 3.8 92.6 3.6

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 7.6 80.4 12.0

Middle two quarters 5.4 88.9 5.7

Highest quarter 2.9 94.7 2.4

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 4.9 89.6 5.5

Single-parent family 6.5 83.9 9.6

Language student first learned to speak

English 5.2 88.9 5.9

Non-English 6.7 80.6 12.8

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 5.5 85.3 9.1

High school diploma or less 11.5 68.4 20.2

Some college 8.4 81.0 10.6

Bachelor’s or higher degree 4.2 91.7 4.1

Academic risk in 10th grade2

Low 2.2 97.2 0.6 !

Moderate 5.2 88.9 5.9

High 10.3 70.0 19.6

School disengagement in 10th grade3

Low 3.1 94.7 2.2

Moderate 4.2 91.4 4.3

High 8.5 77.9 13.7

School control in 10th grade

Public 5.7 87.0 7.3

Private 2.1 96.3 1.6

Rigor of high school curriculum4,5

Below-standard 5.4 84.4 10.1

Standard 2.3 96.3 1.5

Moderately rigorous 1.3 98.5 0.2 !

Rigorous ‡ 99.6 ‡

See notes at end of table. 
C-8 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics Before 2004 During 2004 After 2004

Highest math course taken since grade 95

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 8.4 72.6 19.0

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 4.7 87.9 7.4

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 1.3 97.8 0.9

Calculus 0.9 ! 98.8 ‡

Highest science course taken since grade 95

No science or low-level science 8.5 74.3 17.2

General biology 5.5 84.9 9.7

Chemistry I or physics I 2.2 95.5 2.3

Chemistry I and physics I 1.1 ! 98.5 0.5 !

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 2.1 96.7 1.1

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 10.0 71.1 18.9

2.00‒2.49 5.0 90.7 4.2

2.50‒2.99 3.2 95.5 1.3

3.00‒3.49 2.8 96.6 0.6 !

3.50‒4.00 2.0 97.4 0.6 !

High school credential type

High school diploma 4.5 91.8 3.7

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency 18.1 32.4 49.5

Table C-3a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who received a high school credential, percentage 

distribution of their high school completion year, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

1

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other 

Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless 

specified.

2

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average 

(GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

3

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping 

classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, 

and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

‡ Reporting standards not met. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

 5 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

4

 Students who attain a standard curriculum must earn 4 credits in English and 3 credits each in social studies, math, and science. 

Students who do not meet these requirements complete a below-standard curriculum. Students who attain a moderately rigorous 

curriculum must meet the standard curriculum requirements plus three additional requirements: math credits earned must include algebra 

and geometry; science courses completed must cover two subjects among biology, chemistry, and physics; and 1 credit must be earned in 

foreign language courses. Students who attain a rigorous curriculum must meet the moderately rigorous curriculum requirements plus 

three additional requirements: 4 credits must be earned in math, of which one course must be precalculus or a higher level; science 

courses completed must cover all three subjects of biology, chemistry, and physics; and 3 credits must be earned in foreign language 

courses.
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-9 

Table C-3b. 

Standard errors for table C-3a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who received a high 

school credential, percentage distribution of their high school completion year, by selected 

characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics Before 2004 During 2004 After 2004

 Total 0.30 0.47 0.35

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 0.42 0.67 0.51

Female 0.38 0.57 0.42

Race/ethnicity

White 0.31 0.48 0.34

Black 1.02 1.53 1.17

Hispanic 0.85 1.30 1.19

Asian 0.75 1.09 0.86

Other 1.22 1.93 1.52

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 0.62 0.94 0.79

Some college 0.47 0.71 0.55

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.36 0.47 0.33

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 0.73 1.05 0.84

Middle two quarters 0.43 0.59 0.41

Highest quarter 0.38 0.52 0.37

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 0.34 0.49 0.32

Single-parent family 0.65 0.95 0.78

Language student first learned to speak

English 0.31 0.49 0.36

Non-English 0.92 1.46 1.28

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 0.90 1.52 1.22

High school diploma or less 1.40 2.12 1.89

Some college 1.20 1.46 1.12

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.30 0.41 0.28

Academic risk in 10th grade

Low 0.43 0.56 0.27

Moderate 0.32 0.51 0.37

High 1.06 1.58 1.42

School disengagement in 10th grade

Low 0.53 0.71 0.42

Moderate 0.30 0.47 0.36

High 0.69 1.15 0.98

School control in 10th grade

Public 0.32 0.51 0.39

Private 0.43 0.65 0.36

Rigor of high school curriculum

Below-standard 0.44 0.77 0.67

Standard 0.56 0.66 0.36

Moderately rigorous 0.29 0.29 0.12

Rigorous † 0.30 †

See notes at end of table. 
C-10 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics Before 2004 During 2004 After 2004

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 1.36 2.16 2.07

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 0.40 0.70 0.54

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 0.24 0.36 0.26

Calculus 0.29 0.39 †

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science 1.36 2.53 2.11

General biology 0.59 0.96 0.83

Chemistry I or physics I 0.33 0.49 0.38

Chemistry I and physics I 0.44 0.54 0.23

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 0.45 0.51 0.30

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 0.88 1.28 1.07

2.00‒2.49 0.59 0.85 0.60

2.50‒2.99 0.47 0.53 0.28

3.00‒3.49 0.47 0.51 0.20

3.50‒4.00 0.41 0.48 0.26

High school credential type

High school diploma 0.30 0.40 0.25

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency 1.52 2.15 2.25

† Not applicable.

Table C-3b. 

Standard errors for table C-3a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who received a high 

school credential, percentage distribution of their high school completion year, by selected 

characteristics: 2012—Continued

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-11

Table C-4a. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary 

education, and of those, percentage distribution of their postsecondary enrollment timing, by 

selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics

Students who 

had enrolled in 

postsecondary 

education 

by 2012

Within 3 

months 

following

high school 

completion

4−12

months 

following 

high school 

completion

13 or more 

months 

following 

high school 

completion

 Total 84.0 68.4 13.3 18.3

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 79.9 65.5 14.0 20.5

Female 87.9 70.9 12.7 16.4

Race/ethnicity1

White 86.2 72.3 12.5 15.2

Black 81.5 59.2 15.7 25.2

Hispanic 78.3 57.5 15.9 26.6

Asian 92.2 81.4 10.0 8.6

Other 76.4 63.7 13.1 23.1

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 72.0 57.5 15.5 27.0

Some college 84.0 63.3 15.1 21.6

Bachelor’s or higher degree 92.7 78.3 10.8 10.9

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 71.0 54.9 15.8 29.3

Middle two quarters 84.9 66.4 14.2 19.4

Highest quarter 96.4 82.1 9.9 8.0

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 85.3 70.7 12.9 16.5

Single-parent family 80.1 61.6 14.6 23.7

Language student first learned to speak

English 84.4 68.9 13.1 18.0

Non-English 81.3 65.1 14.6 20.4

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 73.4 54.1 13.6 32.3

High school diploma or less 51.1 35.5 17.6 46.9

Some college 71.1 48.4 18.4 33.2

Bachelor’s or higher degree 91.4 74.1 12.5 13.4

Academic risk in 10th grade2

Low 98.5 88.6 8.5 3.0

Moderate 85.8 67.6 13.6 18.8

High 59.9 37.3 20.2 42.5

School disengagement in 10th grade3

Low 90.2 79.7 10.6 9.7

Moderate 87.6 70.4 13.5 16.1

High 73.8 53.6 15.3 31.1

Enrollment timing

See notes at end of table. 
C-12 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

Students who 

had enrolled in 

postsecondary 

education 

by 2012

Within 3 

months 

following

high school 

completion

4−12

months 

following 

high school 

completion

13 or more 

months 

following 

high school 

completion

School control in 10th grade

Public 82.9 67.1 13.4 19.5

Private 97.0 81.2 12.1 6.7

Rigor of high school curriculum4,5

Below-standard 76.0 58.9 15.4 25.6

Standard 87.0 70.0 13.2 16.8

Moderately rigorous 96.3 80.8 10.5 8.7

Rigorous 99.9 90.1 8.5 1.4 !

Highest math course taken since grade 95

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 49.6 37.9 14.2 47.9

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 80.2 57.9 16.0 26.1

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 95.8 81.0 10.9 8.2

Calculus 99.0 89.4 8.6 2.1

Highest science course taken since grade 95

No science or low-level science 54.9 38.8 18.6 42.6

General biology 75.7 54.4 16.2 29.4

Chemistry I or physics I 91.2 73.5 12.4 14.0

Chemistry I and physics I 97.9 82.2 10.5 7.3

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 96.1 83.8 10.0 6.2

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 65.7 42.4 18.1 39.5

2.00‒2.49 83.2 58.0 15.4 26.6

2.50‒2.99 91.1 72.4 13.9 13.7

3.00‒3.49 95.1 83.1 9.5 7.4

3.50‒4.00 98.7 88.6 8.8 2.6

High school credential type

High school diploma 88.3 70.5 12.9 16.6

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency6 65.6 25.7 21.2 53.1

High school completion year

Before 2004 80.2 36.6 26.0 37.3

In 2004 89.3 71.8 12.3 15.9

After 2004 60.6 32.6 20.0 47.4

Table C-4a. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary 

education, and of those, percentage distribution of their postsecondary enrollment timing, by 

selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

Enrollment timing

See notes at end of table. 
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-13

1

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other 

Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless 

specified.

2

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average 

(GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

3

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping 

classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, 

and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate.

Table C-4a. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary 

education, and of those, percentage distribution of their postsecondary enrollment timing, by 

selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

4

 Students who attain a standard curriculum must earn 4 credits in English and 3 credits each in social studies, math, and science. 

Students who do not meet these requirements complete a below-standard curriculum. Students who attain a moderately rigorous 

curriculum must meet the standard curriculum requirements plus three additional requirements: math credits earned must include algebra 

and geometry; science courses completed must cover two subjects among biology, chemistry, and physics; and 1 credit must be earned in 

foreign language courses. Students who attain a rigorous curriculum must meet the moderately rigorous curriculum requirements plus 

three additional requirements: 4 credits must be earned in math, of which one course must be precalculus or a higher level; science 

courses completed must cover all three subjects of biology, chemistry, and physics; and 3 credits must be earned in foreign language 

courses.

5

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

6

 A General Educational Development (GED) certificate is awarded to those who did not finish high school but who have earned the 

equivalent of a high school diploma by passing required GED exams. A certificate of attendance may be awarded when a student 

attended high school for the minimum amount of time required but did not complete all courses required for a diploma.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 
C-14 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Table C-4b. 

Standard errors for table C-4a: Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores 

who had enrolled in postsecondary education, and of those, percentage distribution of their 

postsecondary enrollment timing, by selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics

Students who 

had enrolled in 

postsecondary 

education 

by 2012

Within 3 

months 

following

high school 

completion

4−12

months 

following 

high school 

completion

13 or more 

months 

following 

high school 

completion

 Total 0.54 0.76 0.59 0.55

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 0.74 0.97 0.80 0.78

Female 0.63 0.92 0.72 0.66

Race/ethnicity

White 0.57 0.93 0.73 0.65

Black 1.35 1.80 1.41 1.58

Hispanic 1.40 1.80 1.43 1.49

Asian 1.10 1.55 1.11 1.10

Other 1.94 2.99 1.85 2.73

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 0.99 1.37 1.04 1.19

Some college 0.69 1.18 0.90 0.95

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.55 0.96 0.76 0.66

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 1.08 1.51 1.10 1.37

Middle two quarters 0.59 1.01 0.77 0.74

Highest quarter 0.46 1.06 0.83 0.68

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 0.56 0.78 0.60 0.59

Single-parent family 1.02 1.38 1.09 1.27

Language student first learned to speak

English 0.56 0.80 0.61 0.59

Non-English 1.31 1.78 1.27 1.41

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 1.79 2.27 1.72 2.26

High school diploma or less 2.08 3.08 2.15 3.19

Some college 1.61 2.24 1.65 2.06

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.43 0.81 0.62 0.55

Academic risk in 10th grade

Low 0.35 0.91 0.80 0.50

Moderate 0.55 0.88 0.68 0.62

High 1.51 1.87 1.74 2.05

School disengagement in 10th grade

Low 0.80 1.16 0.86 0.80

Moderate 0.61 0.94 0.77 0.67

High 1.14 1.39 1.08 1.31

Enrollment timing

See notes at end of table. 
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-15

Selected characteristics

Students who 

had enrolled in 

postsecondary 

education 

by 2012

Within 3 

months 

following

high school 

completion

4−12

months 

following 

high school 

completion

13 or more 

months 

following 

high school 

completion

School control in 10th grade

Public 0.57 0.82 0.64 0.60

Private 0.50 1.45 1.29 0.82

Rigor of high school curriculum

Below-standard 0.88 1.12 0.85 0.99

Standard 1.09 1.66 1.18 1.24

Moderately rigorous 0.45 1.14 0.91 0.69

Rigorous 0.14 1.80 1.76 0.52

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 2.13 3.54 2.39 3.41

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 0.80 0.99 0.86 0.96

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 0.53 1.20 0.96 0.69

Calculus 0.32 1.25 1.12 0.43

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science 2.12 2.91 2.44 3.33

General biology 1.12 1.53 1.09 1.30

Chemistry I or physics I 0.65 1.27 0.93 0.85

Chemistry I and physics I 0.43 1.47 1.12 0.89

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 0.65 1.33 0.98 0.89

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 1.21 1.58 1.27 1.65

2.00‒2.49 1.05 1.69 1.32 1.27

2.50‒2.99 0.78 1.40 1.04 1.00

3.00‒3.49 0.55 1.28 1.03 0.83

3.50‒4.00 0.31 0.96 0.84 0.48

High school credential type

High school diploma 0.46 0.75 0.61 0.51

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency 2.30 2.56 2.78 3.05

High school completion year

Before 2004 2.08 2.73 2.85 2.76

In 2004 0.44 0.77 0.58 0.57

After 2004 2.01 2.93 2.51 3.02

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

Table C-4b. 

Standard errors for table C-4a: Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores 

who had enrolled in postsecondary education, and of those, percentage distribution of their 

postsecondary enrollment timing, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

Enrollment timing
C-16 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Table C-5a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage distribution of the level and control of the institution they first attended, by selected 

characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics

Public 

4-year 

Private 

nonprofit 

4-year

Public 

2-year For-profit1 Other

 Total 36.5 15.4 36.4 9.3 2.5

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 36.8 14.8 36.5 8.9 2.9

Female 36.2 15.8 36.2 9.6 2.2

Race/ethnicity2

White 39.6 17.9 33.8 6.9 1.8

Black 33.2 11.3 36.5 14.4 4.5

Hispanic 23.9 7.7 49.7 15.3 3.4

Asian 47.0 17.2 29.0 5.7 1.1 !

Other 35.0 15.7 34.6 10.6 4.0

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 26.4 7.4 46.2 15.5 4.4

Some college 32.9 11.8 42.4 10.2 2.8

Bachelor’s or higher degree 45.0 22.7 26.0 5.1 1.2

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 24.7 7.3 48.2 15.4 4.5

Middle two quarters 35.4 12.6 39.6 9.8 2.5

Highest quarter 47.5 26.1 22.3 3.4 0.7

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 37.8 16.3 35.4 8.3 2.3

Single-parent family 32.9 12.4 39.9 11.9 3.0

Language student first learned to speak

English 37.4 16.4 34.9 8.9 2.4

Non-English 30.3 8.3 46.0 12.2 3.2

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 25.9 7.5 48.3 15.1 3.2

High school diploma or less 12.2 2.6 50.6 23.4 11.1

Some college 17.0 5.3 55.1 17.6 5.0

Bachelor’s or higher degree 41.5 18.2 32.2 6.7 1.5

Academic risk in 10th grade3

Low 54.0 33.9 10.7 1.0 0.4 !

Moderate 35.6 12.6 40.2 9.3 2.3

High 13.1 4.6 51.1 23.3 7.9

School disengagement in 10th grade4

Low 41.8 20.3 30.7 5.7 1.5

Moderate 40.4 16.4 33.0 8.3 1.9

High 23.9 8.2 48.7 14.9 4.4

See notes at end of table. 
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-17

Selected characteristics

Public 

4-year 

Private 

nonprofit 

4-year

Public 

2-year For-profit1 Other

School control in 10th grade

Public 36.0 13.4 37.9 9.9 2.7

Private 40.9 34.9 20.2 2.9 1.0

Rigor of high school curriculum5,6

Below-standard 26.8 10.5 46.3 12.8 3.6

Standard 34.7 13.9 40.2 9.0 2.2

Moderately rigorous 49.4 19.0 26.6 4.2 0.7

Rigorous 56.3 36.8 5.9 1.0 ! ‡

Highest math course taken since grade 96

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 10.3 1.9 ! 56.4 24.1 7.3

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 23.9 8.4 51.5 12.7 3.5

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 50.5 19.1 25.4 4.3 0.7

Calculus 55.1 33.8 9.7 1.3 ‡

Highest science course taken since grade 96

No science or low-level science 10.0 4.8 55.6 20.3 9.3

General biology 21.1 6.4 54.7 14.3 3.4

Chemistry I or physics I 39.7 14.4 36.3 8.1 1.5

Chemistry I and physics I 52.8 24.0 19.8 2.7 0.7 !

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 50.0 26.9 19.2 3.0 0.9 !

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 13.1 5.7 55.2 20.1 5.9

2.00‒2.49 25.3 8.4 50.8 12.3 3.3

2.50‒2.99 40.4 12.4 38.2 7.4 1.6

3.00‒3.49 50.6 21.3 24.9 2.7 0.5 !

3.50‒4.00 54.4 30.9 12.7 1.5 0.5 !

High school credential type

High school diploma 38.1 16.1 35.5 8.3 2.1

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalence7 12.6 3.6 53.8 22.9 7.1

High school completion year

Before 2004 20.7 6.1 52.7 15.9 4.6

In 2004 39.0 16.7 34.9 7.5 1.9

After 2004 11.0 2.2 ! 49.4 29.1 8.4

Postsecondary characteristics

Timing of initial postsecondary enrollment

Within 3 months following high school completion 45.6 19.4 30.7 3.4 0.9

4–12 months following high school completion 26.8 12.0 40.2 16.7 4.3

13 or more months following high school completion 14.4 4.9 51.9 23.5 5.3

Table C-5a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage distribution of the level and control of the institution they first attended, by selected 

characteristics: 2012—Continued

See notes at end of table. 
C-18 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

2

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other 

Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless 

specified.

3

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average 

(GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable. 4

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping 

classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, 

and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate.

‡ Reporting standards not met. 

Table C-5a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage distribution of the level and control of the institution they first attended, by selected 

characteristics: 2012—Continued

1

 Includes for-profit institutions at all levels.

6

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

7

 A General Educational Development (GED) certificate is awarded to those who did not finish high school but who have earned the 

equivalent of a high school diploma by passing required GED exams. A certificate of attendance may be awarded when a student attended 

high school for the minimum amount of time required but did not complete all courses required for a diploma.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

5

 Students who attain a standard curriculum must earn 4 credits in English and 3 credits each in social studies, math, and science. 

Students who do not meet these requirements complete a below-standard curriculum. Students who attain a moderately rigorous 

curriculum must meet the standard curriculum requirements plus three additional requirements: math credits earned must include algebra 

and geometry; science courses completed must cover two subjects among biology, chemistry, and physics; and 1 credit must be earned in 

foreign language courses. Students who attain a rigorous curriculum must meet the moderately rigorous curriculum requirements plus 

three additional requirements: 4 credits must be earned in math, of which one course must be precalculus or a higher level; science 

courses completed must cover all three subjects of biology, chemistry, and physics; and 3 credits must be earned in foreign language 

courses.
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-19

Table C-5b. 

Standard errors for table C-5a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in 

postsecondary education, percentage distribution of the level and control of the institution they 

first attended, by selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics

Public 

4-year 

Private 

nonprofit 

4-year

Public 

2-year For-profit Other

 Total 0.78 0.50 0.87 0.39 0.23

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 1.05 0.66 1.14 0.53 0.34

Female 0.94 0.64 0.99 0.51 0.26

Race/ethnicity

White 0.94 0.71 1.07 0.47 0.25

Black 1.58 0.97 1.85 1.20 0.83

Hispanic 1.80 0.84 2.18 1.15 0.62

Asian 2.24 1.58 2.06 0.94 0.41

Other 2.74 2.00 2.57 1.83 1.06

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 1.10 0.64 1.48 1.03 0.57

Some college 1.07 0.65 1.25 0.64 0.36

Bachelor’s or higher degree 1.07 0.97 1.02 0.44 0.21

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 1.36 0.70 1.70 1.13 0.59

Middle two quarters 1.05 0.61 1.18 0.51 0.33

Highest quarter 1.22 1.17 1.13 0.45 0.21

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 0.80 0.58 0.96 0.39 0.24

Single-parent family 1.36 0.87 1.45 1.01 0.48

Language student first learned to speak

English 0.82 0.57 0.91 0.43 0.23

Non-English 1.53 0.81 2.02 1.21 0.64

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 2.10 1.12 2.43 1.66 0.82

High school diploma or less 1.96 0.68 2.94 2.61 1.85

Some college 1.54 0.84 2.24 1.66 0.90

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.86 0.58 0.92 0.36 0.18

Academic risk in 10th grade

Low 1.51 1.52 1.01 0.29 0.18

Moderate 0.91 0.53 0.99 0.44 0.25

High 1.43 0.83 2.25 1.77 1.14

School disengagement in 10th grade

Low 1.26 1.07 1.43 0.57 0.31

Moderate 1.03 0.69 1.02 0.48 0.27

High 1.25 0.82 1.55 1.09 0.63

See notes at end of table. 
C-20 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

Public 

4-year 

Private 

nonprofit 

4-year

Public 

2-year For-profit Other

School control in 10th grade

Public 0.84 0.51 0.95 0.42 0.25

Private 1.79 1.81 1.68 0.41 0.24

Rigor of high school curriculum

Below-standard 1.14 0.67 1.28 0.72 0.43

Standard 1.67 1.36 2.11 0.87 0.46

Moderately rigorous 1.40 0.90 1.31 0.46 0.19

Rigorous 2.28 2.16 1.07 0.46 †

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 1.86 0.86 3.48 2.58 1.82

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 1.02 0.58 1.18 0.71 0.40

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 1.31 0.82 1.32 0.48 0.17

Calculus 1.77 1.74 1.05 0.37 †

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science 1.89 1.20 2.92 2.28 1.61

General biology 1.37 0.66 1.51 0.98 0.52

Chemistry I or physics I 1.44 0.87 1.49 0.65 0.27

Chemistry I and physics I 1.63 1.41 1.55 0.60 0.29

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 1.74 1.35 1.31 0.54 0.27

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 1.08 0.67 1.60 1.17 0.68

2.00‒2.49 1.33 0.76 1.45 1.02 0.62

2.50‒2.99 1.61 0.83 1.60 0.74 0.34

3.00‒3.49 1.32 1.18 1.34 0.43 0.23

3.50‒4.00 1.56 1.41 1.14 0.38 0.19

High school credential type

High school diploma 0.79 0.52 0.89 0.38 0.21

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency 1.96 0.95 2.82 2.22 1.55

High school completion year

Before 2004 2.65 1.20 3.03 2.08 1.21

In 2004 0.82 0.53 0.90 0.37 0.20

After 2004 2.01 0.87 2.85 2.50 1.81

Postsecondary characteristics

Timing of initial postsecondary enrollment

Within 3 months following high school completion 0.97 0.68 1.01 0.27 0.16

4−12 months following high school completion 1.95 1.31 1.72 1.44 0.82

13 or more months following high school completion 1.23 0.63 1.75 1.28 0.67

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

† Not applicable.

Table C-5b. 

Standard errors for table C-5a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in 

postsecondary education, percentage distribution of the level and control of the institution they 

first attended, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-21

Table C-6a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage distribution of the level and selectivity of the institution they first attended, by 

selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics

Highly 

selective

Moderately 

selective Inclusive

Unclassified 

selectivity

Less-than4-year 

institution

 Total 16.5 22.3 8.8 7.7 44.7

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 16.9 21.0 8.8 8.9 44.5

Female 16.2 23.4 8.8 6.6 44.9

Race/ethnicity2

White 20.2 26.4 6.8 6.7 39.8

Black 6.4 15.8 19.7 8.6 49.5

Hispanic 6.3 12.5 6.7 10.3 64.2

Asian 33.3 20.2 7.1 6.0 33.5

Other 14.4 19.8 11.0 10.8 44.0

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 6.1 15.6 8.2 8.8 61.3

Some college 9.8 21.0 9.9 7.7 51.6

Bachelor’s or higher degree 27.8 27.1 8.3 7.0 29.9

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 4.5 14.2 9.3 9.0 63.0

Middle two quarters 11.7 21.9 9.7 8.5 48.2

Highest quarter 33.9 29.3 6.8 5.5 24.5

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 18.1 23.2 8.1 7.5 43.0

Single-parent family 11.3 19.6 10.9 8.5 49.7

Language student first learned to speak

English 17.2 23.7 9.0 7.5 42.6

Non-English 12.4 13.5 7.5 8.6 58.2

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 9.3 11.5 9.5 8.2 61.5

High school diploma or less 1.2 ! 7.3 4.2 11.1 76.1

Some college 2.4 7.9 6.2 10.7 72.7

Bachelor’s or higher degree 19.9 26.1 9.2 7.1 37.6

Academic risk in 10th grade3

Low 49.5 31.2 4.7 3.3 11.3

Moderate 11.2 22.6 9.6 8.5 48.1

High 1.0 ! 4.6 9.5 8.9 75.9

School disengagement in 10th grade4

Low 22.0 27.5 8.5 6.9 35.1

Moderate 18.9 24.4 9.1 7.4 40.2

High 5.5 13.5 8.8 9.8 62.4

4-year institution1

See notes at end of table. 
C-22 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

Highly 

selective

Moderately 

selective Inclusive

Unclassified 

selectivity

Less-than4-year 

institution

School control in 10th grade

Public 14.8 21.7 9.0 7.7 46.8

Private 34.4 28.4 7.1 6.9 23.2

Rigor of high school curriculum5,6

Below-standard 9.9 16.0 7.7 8.2 58.2

Standard 14.0 20.4 9.5 8.1 48.0

Moderately rigorous 18.5 34.3 11.1 6.6 29.5

Rigorous 61.4 26.0 4.6 1.9 ! 6.1

Highest math course taken since grade 96

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra ‡ 4.9 6.2 9.1 79.7

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 3.9 13.6 9.5 9.8 63.3

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 21.1 35.0 10.0 5.5 28.4

Calculus 52.4 29.1 5.1 3.2 10.2

Highest science course taken since grade 96

No science or low-level science ‡ 3.5 7.3 9.0 79.2

General biology 3.0 11.9 7.6 10.4 67.2

Chemistry I or physics I 12.8 26.3 11.6 6.7 42.5

Chemistry I and physics I 29.7 33.8 8.1 6.2 22.3

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 37.8 29.6 6.8 4.1 21.6

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 1.1 5.8 9.2 9.4 74.6

2.00‒2.49 3.2 15.4 10.5 9.9 61.0

2.50‒2.99 11.1 25.6 10.4 8.3 44.5

3.00‒3.49 25.5 34.0 8.5 5.1 26.8

3.50‒4.00 44.3 32.3 5.2 4.3 13.8

High school credential type

High school diploma 17.5 23.5 8.9 7.5 42.6

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency7 1.0 ! 3.8 ! 7.9 12.5 74.8

High school completion year

Before 2004 3.8 ! 7.0 7.9 13.7 67.7

In 2004 18.2 24.3 9.1 7.2 41.3

After 2004 ‡ 4.8 6.0 11.6 76.8

Postsecondary characteristics

Timing of initial postsecondary enrollment

Within 3 months following high school completion 22.3 29.0 9.9 5.2 33.6

4−12 months following high school completion 10.3 15.4 7.1 12.0 55.3

13 or more months following high school completion 2.4 5.8 6.4 14.0 71.4

Table C-6a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage distribution of the level and selectivity of the institution they first attended, by 

selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

4-year institution1

See notes at end of table. 
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-23

1

 Selectivity categories are based on 2010 Carnegie classifications. “Highly selective” 4-year institutions refer to those whose first-year 

students’ postsecondary entrance test scores place them in roughly the top fifth of baccalaureate institutions; “moderately selective” 

4-year institutions refer to those whose first-year students’ postsecondary entrance test scores place them in roughly the middle two-fifths 

of baccalaureate institutions; “inclusive” 4-year institutions refer to those whose first-year students’ postsecondary entrance test scores 

indicate that they extend educational opportunity to a wide range of students with respect to academic preparation and achievement; and 

“Unclassified” 4-year institutions are those that do not have information on students’ postsecondary entrance test scores. 2

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other 

Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless 

specified.

5

 Students who attain a standard curriculum must earn 4 credits in English and 3 credits each in social studies, math, and science. 

Students who do not meet these requirements complete a below-standard curriculum. Students who attain a moderately rigorous 

curriculum must meet the standard curriculum requirements plus three additional requirements: math credits earned must include algebra 

and geometry; science courses completed must cover two subjects among biology, chemistry, and physics; and 1 credit must be earned in 

foreign language courses. Students who attain a rigorous curriculum must meet the moderately rigorous curriculum requirements plus 

three additional requirements: 4 credits must be earned in math, of which one course must be precalculus or a higher level; science 

courses completed must cover all three subjects of biology, chemistry, and physics; and 3 credits must be earned in foreign language 

courses.

6

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

4

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping 

classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, 

and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

3

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average 

(GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

Table C-6a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage distribution of the level and selectivity of the institution they first attended, by 

selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

7

 A General Educational Development (GED) certificate is awarded to those who did not finish high school but who have earned the 

equivalent of a high school diploma by passing required GED exams. A certificate of attendance may be awarded when a student attended 

high school for the minimum amount of time required but did not complete all courses required for a diploma.

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate.

‡ Reporting standards not met. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 
C-24 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Table C-6b. 

Standard errors for table C-6a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in 

postsecondary education, percentage distribution of the level and selectivity of the institution 

they first attended, by selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics

Highly 

selective

Moderately 

selective Inclusive

Unclassified 

selectivity

Less-than4-year 

institution

 Total 0.70 0.64 0.41 0.50 0.92

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 0.77 0.87 0.54 0.67 1.16

Female 0.85 0.77 0.52 0.50 1.04

Race/ethnicity

White 0.94 0.80 0.45 0.55 1.13

Black 0.94 1.36 1.37 0.97 1.87

Hispanic 0.75 1.08 0.82 1.56 2.17

Asian 2.59 1.70 0.95 1.02 2.23

Other 2.00 2.26 1.76 1.79 2.90

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 0.58 0.95 0.72 0.84 1.45

Some college 0.58 0.91 0.68 0.66 1.23

Bachelor’s or higher degree 1.24 0.93 0.57 0.57 1.07

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 0.55 0.96 0.79 0.97 1.61

Middle two quarters 0.62 0.90 0.57 0.67 1.19

Highest quarter 1.39 1.07 0.59 0.51 1.19

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 0.76 0.71 0.41 0.55 1.00

Single-parent family 0.76 1.14 0.95 0.83 1.50

Language student first learned to speak

English 0.76 0.70 0.45 0.52 0.97

Non-English 1.18 1.21 0.88 1.23 1.89

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 1.29 1.34 1.37 1.43 2.38

High school diploma or less 0.50 1.48 1.21 2.01 2.66

Some college 0.61 1.06 1.14 1.47 1.92

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.77 0.77 0.48 0.52 0.96

Academic risk in 10th grade

Low 1.80 1.52 0.61 0.48 1.06

Moderate 0.64 0.72 0.48 0.57 1.05

High 0.35 0.90 1.19 1.26 1.70

4-year institution

See notes at end of table. 
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-25

Selected characteristics

Highly 

selective

Moderately 

selective Inclusive

Unclassified 

selectivity

Less-than4-year 

institution

School disengagement in 10th grade

Low 1.19 1.16 0.63 0.79 1.48

Moderate 0.89 0.89 0.58 0.53 1.10

High 0.62 0.99 0.81 1.10 1.54

School control in 10th grade

Public 0.72 0.68 0.44 0.54 1.01

Private 2.38 1.52 0.87 0.98 1.84

Rigor of high school curriculum

Below-standard 0.78 0.91 0.64 0.72 1.39

Standard 1.51 1.54 1.01 1.16 2.15

Moderately rigorous 1.00 1.29 0.77 0.73 1.40

Rigorous 2.33 2.01 1.05 0.62 1.08

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra † 1.28 1.61 1.77 2.70

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 0.45 0.74 0.74 0.81 1.19

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 1.27 1.26 0.71 0.58 1.43

Calculus 1.75 1.51 0.81 0.56 1.07

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science † 0.94 1.56 1.45 2.30

General biology 0.48 1.00 0.83 1.11 1.50

Chemistry I or physics I 0.99 1.28 0.81 0.64 1.51

Chemistry I and physics I 1.92 1.49 1.02 0.99 1.63

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 1.75 1.61 0.76 0.62 1.54

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 0.27 0.66 0.95 0.91 1.37

2.00‒2.49 0.51 1.12 0.98 0.99 1.48

2.50‒2.99 1.05 1.22 0.91 0.91 1.66

3.00‒3.49 1.54 1.34 0.79 0.61 1.34

3.50‒4.00 1.82 1.59 0.67 0.73 1.23

High school credential type

High school diploma 0.73 0.67 0.43 0.51 0.93

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency 0.46 1.15 1.62 1.95 2.36

High school completion year

Before 2004 1.14 1.38 1.61 2.33 2.88

In 2004 0.76 0.70 0.45 0.47 0.95

After 2004 † 1.33 1.33 2.05 2.44

Postsecondary characteristics

Timing of initial postsecondary enrollment

Within 3 months following high school completion 0.91 0.82 0.51 0.41 1.06

4−12 months following high school completion 1.20 1.38 1.16 1.24 2.22

13 or more months following high school completion 0.47 0.72 0.79 1.21 1.58

Table C-6b. 

Standard errors for table C-6a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in 

postsecondary education, percentage distribution of the level and selectivity of the institution 

they first attended, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

† Not applicable.

4-year institution
C-26 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Table C-7a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, percentage distribution of their highest 

postsecondary attainment, by selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics Total Certificate

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s 

or higher 

degree

No degree, 

still enrolled

No degree, 

not enrolled

 Total 61.5 12.0 10.3 31.4 7.9 14.2 24.3

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 57.6 10.5 9.9 31.1 6.1 14.2 28.2

Female 65.0 13.4 10.6 31.6 9.4 14.1 20.9

Race/ethnicity1

White 66.3 10.0 10.5 36.3 9.4 12.0 21.7

Black 50.8 17.7 9.1 19.5 4.5 19.5 29.7

Hispanic 50.7 15.7 11.5 19.9 3.6 17.2 32.1

Asian 69.9 9.3 6.1 42.6 11.9 15.4 14.7

Other 57.1 12.2 10.5 27.4 7.1 15.8 27.1

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 53.5 17.2 12.8 20.0 3.5 15.0 31.4

Some college 56.2 14.3 11.2 25.6 5.0 15.5 28.3

Bachelor’s or higher degree 70.4 7.2 8.0 42.5 12.6 12.6 17.1

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 49.4 17.8 11.4 17.1 3.1 17.6 32.9

Middle two quarters 58.7 13.1 11.5 28.5 5.6 14.9 26.3

Highest quarter 75.3 6.0 7.0 47.0 15.2 10.0 14.7

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 63.3 11.3 10.3 33.1 8.7 13.2 23.5

Single-parent family 55.2 14.7 9.8 25.7 5.0 17.4 27.4

Language student first learned to speak

English 62.3 11.7 10.2 32.3 8.2 13.8 23.9

Non-English 56.3 14.2 10.6 25.6 5.9 16.3 27.4

Highest postsecondary degree

See notes at end of table. 
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-27

Selected characteristics Total Certificate

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s 

or higher 

degree

No degree, 

still enrolled

No degree, 

not enrolled

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 50.1 15.7 10.4 19.8 4.2 16.0 34.0

High school diploma or less 38.9 22.0 9.9 6.4 ‡ 17.5 43.7

Some college 47.3 20.1 14.9 10.9 1.4 16.7 36.0

Bachelor’s or higher degree 65.7 10.2 9.6 36.5 9.4 13.4 20.9

Academic risk in 10th grade2

Low 85.0 2.9 4.1 56.3 21.7 7.2 7.7

Moderate 59.5 12.5 11.7 29.4 5.8 14.9 25.6

High 38.3 23.1 9.6 5.4 ‡ 20.0 41.8

School disengagement in 10th grade3

Low 71.7 8.0 11.2 40.4 12.1 10.1 18.1

Moderate 63.4 11.6 10.1 33.5 8.3 13.7 22.9

High 47.2 17.1 10.2 17.1 2.9 18.6 34.2

School control in 10th grade

Public 60.1 12.5 10.5 29.8 7.2 14.6 25.2

Private 75.5 6.6 7.5 47.2 14.1 9.2 15.3

Rigor of high school curriculum4,5

Below-standard 52.7 15.4 10.9 22.2 4.3 16.5 30.8

Standard 60.7 12.6 11.6 30.0 6.5 15.2 24.1

Moderately rigorous 71.3 7.9 10.6 42.0 10.7 10.5 18.2

Rigorous 85.8 2.2 3.1 56.4 24.1 7.9 6.3

Highest math course taken since grade 95

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 36.8 23.7 9.0 4.0 ‡ 20.8 42.5

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 50.6 16.9 13.3 18.2 2.3 17.1 32.3

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 70.7 7.0 9.2 43.8 10.8 11.5 17.8

Calculus 85.9 3.1 4.7 56.3 21.8 7.0 7.1

See notes at end of table. 

Table C-7a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, percentage distribution of their highest 

postsecondary attainment, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

Highest postsecondary degree
C-28 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics Total Certificate

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s 

or higher 

degree

No degree, 

still enrolled

No degree, 

not enrolled

Highest science course taken since grade 95

No science or low-level science 39.9 21.5 11.0 6.9 ‡ 19.3 40.7

General biology 47.3 18.4 12.4 14.9 1.6 17.9 34.8

Chemistry I or physics I 63.0 11.2 12.3 32.9 6.6 13.7 23.3

Chemistry I and physics I 77.2 5.6 7.8 49.6 14.2 9.5 13.4

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 76.2 5.1 6.5 48.0 16.7 10.0 13.8

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 36.4 19.4 9.5 7.0 0.5 22.8 40.8

2.00‒2.49 48.1 14.8 13.1 18.3 1.9 18.0 33.9

2.50‒2.99 62.3 13.2 13.9 30.3 4.8 12.8 24.9

3.00‒3.49 77.1 7.5 9.9 49.4 10.3 9.4 13.5

3.50‒4.00 86.6 2.8 4.8 55.7 23.3 6.0 7.3

High school credential type

High school diploma 63.4 11.4 10.4 33.2 8.3 13.4 23.2

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalence6 32.4 19.4 8.9 3.4 ‡ 28.0 39.6

High school completion year

Before 2004 46.4 15.5 10.6 17.0 3.3 17.4 36.3

In 2004 64.3 11.3 10.3 34.1 8.6 13.1 22.6

After 2004 30.7 17.9 9.6 3.0 ‡ 30.8 38.6

Postsecondary characteristics

Timing of initial postsecondary enrollment

Within 3 months following high school completion 71.2 8.5 10.2 41.8 10.7 10.0 18.8

4−12 months following high school completion 54.6 17.8 10.6 21.2 5.1 13.2 32.2

13 or more months following high school completion 34.1 18.2 9.9 5.5 0.5 28.2 37.7

Type of first-attended institution

Public 4-year 72.4 5.5 6.3 47.8 12.7 10.8 16.9

Private nonprofit 4-year 77.0 3.4 4.8 50.9 17.9 9.0 14.0

Public 2-year 47.2 14.1 15.6 16.1 1.4 18.4 34.4

For-profit7 53.0 30.3 15.4 6.6 0.7 15.2 31.8

Other 52.2 41.6 5.2 5.3 ‡ 17.3 30.5

See notes at end of table. 

Table C-7a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, percentage distribution of their highest 

postsecondary attainment, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

Highest postsecondary degree
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-29

Selected characteristics Total Certificate

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s 

or higher 

degree

No degree, 

still enrolled

No degree, 

not enrolled

Selectivity of first-attended institution8

Highly selective 4-year institution 85.2 2.4 1.7 60.8 20.4 7.7 7.0

Moderately selective 4-year institution 73.8 5.0 5.7 49.3 13.8 8.9 17.3

Inclusive 59.1 7.4 10.9 33.1 7.8 14.7 26.2

Less-than-4-year institution 49.2 19.7 14.8 13.6 1.1 17.5 33.3

‡ Reporting standards not met. 

8

 Selectivity categories are based on 2010 Carnegie classifications. “Highly selective” 4-year institutions refer to those whose first-year students’ postsecondary entrance test scores place them 

in roughly the top fifth of baccalaureate institutions; “moderately selective” 4-year institutions refer to those whose first-year students’ postsecondary entrance test scores place them in roughly 

the middle two-fifths of baccalaureate institutions; and “inclusive” 4-year institutions refer to those whose first-year students’ postsecondary entrance test scores indicate that they extend 

educational opportunity to a wide range of students with respect to academic preparation and achievement. Institutions with unclassified selectivity (i.e., those that do not have test score data) 

are included in the “Total” row but not displayed separately.

4

 Students who attain a standard curriculum must earn 4 credits in English and 3 credits each in social studies, math, and science. Students who do not meet these requirements complete a 

below-standard curriculum. Students who attain a moderately rigorous curriculum must meet the standard curriculum requirements plus three additional requirements: math credits earned 

must include algebra and geometry; science courses completed must cover two subjects among biology, chemistry, and physics; and 1 credit must be earned in foreign language courses. 

Students who attain a rigorous curriculum must meet the moderately rigorous curriculum requirements plus three additional requirements: 4 credits must be earned in math, of which one 

course must be precalculus or a higher level; science courses completed must cover all three subjects of biology, chemistry, and physics; and 3 credits must be earned in foreign language 

courses.

5

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

3

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in 

school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about 

this variable.

2

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average (GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades 

K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

Table C-7a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, percentage distribution of their highest 

postsecondary attainment, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

Highest postsecondary degree

1

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or 

more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

7

 Includes for-profit institutions at all levels.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

6

 A General Educational Development (GED) certificate is awarded to those who did not finish high school but who have earned the equivalent of a high school diploma by passing required 

GED exams. A certificate of attendance may be awarded when a student attended high school for the minimum amount of time required but did not complete all courses required for a diploma.
C-30 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Table C-7b. 

Standard errors for table C-7a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage distribution of their highest postsecondary attainment, by selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics Total Certificate

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s 

or higher 

degree

No degree, 

still enrolled

No degree, 

not enrolled

 Total 0.57 0.40 0.41 0.67 0.30 0.42 0.51

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 0.83 0.54 0.58 0.99 0.38 0.59 0.69

Female 0.77 0.54 0.57 0.82 0.46 0.61 0.65

Race/ethnicity

White 0.71 0.47 0.54 0.81 0.41 0.53 0.61

Black 1.42 1.15 0.96 1.23 0.65 1.33 1.34

Hispanic 1.63 1.06 1.08 1.43 0.60 1.36 1.70

Asian 1.74 1.03 0.96 2.11 1.03 1.28 1.35

Other 2.79 1.73 1.65 2.40 1.43 1.93 2.41

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 1.08 0.95 0.85 1.01 0.43 0.87 1.02

Some college 0.96 0.68 0.62 0.91 0.45 0.74 0.93

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.98 0.48 0.58 1.00 0.63 0.59 0.79

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 1.39 0.99 0.85 1.12 0.45 1.06 1.20

Middle two quarters 0.81 0.58 0.59 0.84 0.38 0.64 0.71

Highest quarter 1.07 0.56 0.61 1.14 0.74 0.64 0.92

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 0.67 0.44 0.48 0.73 0.34 0.49 0.55

Single-parent family 1.12 0.93 0.76 1.14 0.58 0.90 1.09

Language student first learned to speak

English 0.61 0.39 0.43 0.70 0.33 0.43 0.54

Non-English 1.52 1.14 1.03 1.46 0.71 1.26 1.50

See notes at end of table. 

Highest postsecondary degree
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-31

Selected characteristics Total Certificate

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s 

or higher 

degree

No degree, 

still enrolled

No degree, 

not enrolled

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 2.31 1.40 1.29 1.81 0.85 1.71 1.97

High school diploma or less 2.78 2.55 1.68 1.29 † 2.15 2.78

Some college 2.14 1.78 1.56 1.23 0.49 1.62 1.90

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.61 0.41 0.46 0.73 0.38 0.44 0.58

Academic risk in 10th grade

Low 0.98 0.48 0.57 1.39 1.08 0.69 0.83

Moderate 0.65 0.49 0.51 0.75 0.32 0.51 0.60

High 1.75 1.45 1.12 0.86 † 1.43 1.88

School disengagement in 10th grade

Low 1.16 0.64 0.85 1.33 0.81 0.74 1.00

Moderate 0.79 0.55 0.53 0.84 0.46 0.59 0.67

High 1.39 1.08 0.92 1.03 0.49 1.05 1.33

School control in 10th grade

Public 0.61 0.43 0.44 0.72 0.32 0.45 0.54

Private 1.13 0.65 0.70 1.39 0.93 0.69 1.09

Rigor of high school curriculum

Below-standard 1.11 0.71 0.64 0.97 0.40 0.69 0.98

Standard 1.33 1.05 0.93 1.62 0.75 0.93 1.37

Moderately rigorous 1.04 0.55 0.79 1.04 0.65 0.71 0.89

Rigorous 1.48 0.60 1.00 2.02 1.67 1.36 1.01

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 3.29 2.57 1.96 1.06 † 2.61 3.08

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 0.92 0.70 0.64 0.79 0.28 0.76 0.88

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 1.06 0.56 0.68 1.11 0.71 0.75 0.87

Calculus 1.05 0.50 0.75 1.62 1.27 0.77 0.82

Table C-7b. 

Standard errors for table C-7a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage distribution of their highest postsecondary attainment, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

Highest postsecondary degree

See notes at end of table. 
C-32 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics Total Certificate

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s 

or higher 

degree

No degree, 

still enrolled

No degree, 

not enrolled

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science 2.46 2.54 1.65 1.83 † 2.03 2.34

General biology 1.33 0.94 0.87 1.04 0.35 0.99 1.18

Chemistry I or physics I 1.15 0.74 0.79 1.24 0.60 0.73 0.94

Chemistry I and physics I 1.31 0.66 1.00 1.54 1.07 0.92 0.97

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 1.39 0.66 0.74 1.67 1.03 0.93 1.04

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 1.32 1.01 0.82 0.70 0.16 1.11 1.35

2.00‒2.49 1.30 1.02 0.98 1.09 0.36 1.10 1.36

2.50‒2.99 1.28 0.91 1.03 1.29 0.63 0.86 1.20

3.00‒3.49 1.07 0.69 0.83 1.31 0.77 0.76 0.88

3.50‒4.00 0.91 0.44 0.58 1.29 1.06 0.65 0.77

High school credential type

High school diploma 0.57 0.39 0.44 0.68 0.31 0.42 0.51

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalence 2.46 2.05 1.54 0.94 † 2.10 2.71

High school completion year

Before 2004 2.86 2.02 1.94 2.20 0.87 2.25 2.77

In 2004 0.58 0.40 0.44 0.70 0.33 0.41 0.52

After 2004 2.78 2.30 1.84 1.06 † 2.75 2.84

Postsecondary characteristics

Timing of initial postsecondary enrollment

Within 3 months following high school completion 0.65 0.40 0.48 0.80 0.42 0.44 0.61

4−12 months following high school completion 1.64 1.50 1.05 1.41 0.79 1.18 1.71

13 or more months following high school completion 1.29 1.06 0.84 0.74 0.16 1.33 1.31

Type of first-attended institution

Public 4-year 0.91 0.42 0.56 1.06 0.62 0.56 0.71

Private nonprofit 4-year 1.31 0.54 0.65 1.42 1.02 0.89 1.10

Public 2-year 0.98 0.73 0.81 0.83 0.22 0.83 0.94

For-profit 2.16 2.14 1.59 1.00 0.34 1.47 2.02

Other 4.07 4.00 1.35 1.69 † 2.82 3.48

See notes at end of table. 

Highest postsecondary degree

Table C-7b. 

Standard errors for table C-7a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage distribution of their highest postsecondary attainment, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-33

Selected characteristics Total Certificate

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s 

or higher 

degree

No degree, 

still enrolled

No degree, 

not enrolled

Selectivity of first-attended institution

Highly selective 4-year institution 1.02 0.41 0.37 1.37 0.99 0.72 0.84

Moderately selective 4-year institution 1.16 0.42 0.61 1.18 0.91 0.69 1.02

Inclusive 2.01 1.03 1.51 2.06 1.07 1.38 1.66

Less-than-4-year institution 0.84 0.75 0.71 0.71 0.17 0.75 0.83

Highest postsecondary degree

Table C-7b. 

Standard errors for table C-7a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage distribution of their highest postsecondary attainment, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

† Not applicable.
C-34 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Table C-8a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had earned a bachelor’s or higher degree, 

average total number of months between postsecondary entry and first bachelor’s degree 

attainment, percentage distribution by number of months to the first bachelor’s degree, and 

average age when they completed the first bachelor’s degree, by selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics

Average total 

months 

elapsed 

to first 

bachelor’s 

degree1

48 or 

fewer 

months

49‒60 

months

61‒72 

months

73 or 

more 

months

Average 

age when 

completing 

the first 

bachelor’s 

degree

 Total 55.3 47.3 27.2 12.8 12.7 23.1

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 56.4 42.4 28.5 15.2 13.9 23.3

Female 54.3 51.2 26.3 10.8 11.7 23.0

Race/ethnicity2

White 54.5 49.1 27.8 11.9 11.2 23.1

Black 59.0 36.3 27.0 19.1 17.5 23.4

Hispanic 58.2 40.9 25.1 14.9 19.1 23.3

Asian 54.6 51.2 22.9 12.1 13.9 23.0

Other 55.5 47.1 28.5 11.1 13.3 23.1

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 58.3 38.1 26.4 18.3 17.2 23.4

Some college 56.8 41.2 30.5 12.2 16.2 23.2

Bachelor’s or higher degree 53.8 52.3 26.0 11.7 10.1 23.0

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 58.9 38.3 23.7 18.2 19.8 23.5

Middle two quarters 56.6 41.9 30.3 12.6 15.2 23.2

Highest quarter 53.2 53.7 25.7 11.4 9.2 22.9

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 55.0 48.4 26.9 11.9 12.8 23.1

Single-parent family 56.9 39.7 30.7 16.3 13.3 23.3

Language student first learned to speak

English 55.0 48.1 27.5 12.3 12.2 23.1

Non-English 57.4 40.9 25.4 16.9 16.7 23.3

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 57.3 42.4 21.2 19.4 17.0 23.3

High school diploma or less 61.4 27.3 ! 25.7 ! ‡ 29.0 ! 23.9

Some college 59.9 36.5 23.2 19.7 20.7 23.8

Bachelor’s or higher degree 55.0 47.7 28.0 12.0 12.3 23.1

Academic risk in 10th grade3

Low 50.9 61.7 24.1 8.4 5.8 22.7

Moderate 57.2 40.7 29.0 14.6 15.7 23.3

High 65.8 23.0 ! 19.2 ! 25.9 ! 31.9 24.8

School disengagement in 10th grade4

Low 53.9 50.9 28.0 10.7 10.3 23.0

Moderate 55.2 47.2 27.0 13.2 12.7 23.1

High 60.5 32.6 28.5 15.3 23.6 23.5

See notes at end of table. 

Number of months to the first 

bachelor’s degree attainment
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-35

Selected characteristics

Average total 

months 

elapsed 

to first 

bachelor’s 

degree1

48 or 

fewer 

months

49‒60 

months

61‒72 

months

73 or 

more 

months

Average 

age when 

completing 

the first 

bachelor’s 

degree

School control in 10th grade

Public 55.4 47.0 26.7 13.0 13.3 23.1

Private 54.1 49.1 30.4 11.4 9.1 23.0

Rigor of high school curriculum5,6

Below-standard 56.9 42.6 27.8 13.4 16.2 23.2

Standard 56.1 43.5 27.1 17.8 11.7 23.2

Moderately rigorous 55.5 45.8 28.5 12.1 13.6 23.1

Rigorous 50.4 65.3 22.1 7.6 5.0 22.7

Highest math course taken since grade 96

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra ‡ 28.0 ! ‡ ‡ 33.9 ! ‡

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 61.1 30.0 29.5 17.2 23.3 23.6

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 55.1 46.7 28.4 13.0 12.0 23.1

Calculus 50.7 62.7 23.1 8.9 5.4 22.7

Highest science course taken since grade 96

No science or low-level science 65.2 32.9 ! 22.5 ! ‡ 37.1 24.2

General biology 59.7 33.3 28.9 17.4 20.3 23.6

Chemistry I or physics I 56.5 42.0 28.3 14.9 14.8 23.2

Chemistry I and physics I 54.2 50.9 27.0 11.1 11.0 23.0

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 52.9 55.3 25.3 10.7 8.8 22.9

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 66.2 23.6 24.4 18.5 33.5 24.3

2.00‒2.49 62.3 26.9 26.5 22.9 23.7 23.8

2.50‒2.99 59.7 34.8 27.5 16.2 21.5 23.5

3.00‒3.49 54.6 44.7 32.7 12.2 10.4 23.0

3.50‒4.00 50.5 63.2 23.1 8.3 5.4 22.7

High school credential type

High school diploma 55.2 47.5 27.3 12.7 12.5 23.1

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency7 ‡ 18.6 ! ‡ 26.3 ! 44.6 ‡

High school completion year

Before 2004 66.9 28.9 15.7 ! 18.0 37.4 24.2

In 2004 54.9 47.8 27.6 12.5 12.0 23.1

After 2004 ‡ ‡ ‡ 46.7 ! ‡ ‡

Postsecondary characteristics

Timing of initial postsecondary enrollment

Within 3 months following high school completion 54.9 48.7 27.2 12.1 12.1 23.0

4−12 months following high school completion 57.1 38.3 28.5 17.8 15.5 23.4

13 or more months following high school completion 54.2 54.1 14.7 17.3 14.0 24.9

See notes at end of table. 

Number of months to the first 

bachelor’s degree attainment

Table C-8a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had earned a bachelor’s or higher degree, 

average total number of months between postsecondary entry and first bachelor’s degree 

attainment, percentage distribution by number of months to the first bachelor’s degree, and 

average age when they completed the first bachelor’s degree, by selected characteristics: 2012 

—Continued
C-36 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

Average total 

months 

elapsed 

to first 

bachelor’s 

degree1

48 or 

fewer 

months

49‒60 

months

61‒72 

months

73 or 

more 

months

Average 

age when 

completing 

the first 

bachelor’s 

degree

Type of first-attended institution

Public 4-year 54.7 46.3 29.7 13.8 10.2 23.1

Private nonprofit 4-year 50.5 66.1 21.9 6.4 5.6 22.7

Public 2-year 65.2 18.9 29.4 19.8 32.0 23.9

For-profit8 52.8 57.5 16.1 ! ‡ 18.2 ! 23.4

Other ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Selectivity of first-attended institution9

Highly selective 4-year institution 50.4 64.7 23.1 7.4 4.8 22.7

Moderately selective 4-year institution 54.2 46.9 30.3 13.5 9.3 23.0

Inclusive 58.3 36.8 29.9 16.5 16.7 23.3

Less-than-4-year institution 65.2 19.3 29.2 19.3 32.2 23.9

Table C-8a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had earned a bachelor’s or higher degree, 

average total number of months between postsecondary entry and first bachelor’s degree 

attainment, percentage distribution by number of months to the first bachelor’s degree, and 

average age when they completed the first bachelor’s degree, by selected characteristics: 2012 

—Continued

Number of months to the first 

bachelor’s degree attainment

5

 Students who attain a standard curriculum must earn 4 credits in English and 3 credits each in social studies, math, and science. 

Students who do not meet these requirements complete a below-standard curriculum. Students who attain a moderately rigorous 

curriculum must meet the standard curriculum requirements plus three additional requirements: math credits earned must include algebra 

and geometry; science courses completed must cover two subjects among biology, chemistry, and physics; and 1 credit must be earned in 

foreign language courses. Students who attain a rigorous curriculum must meet the moderately rigorous curriculum requirements plus 

three additional requirements: 4 credits must be earned in math, of which one course must be precalculus or a higher level; science 

courses completed must cover all three subjects of biology, chemistry, and physics; and 3 credits must be earned in foreign language 

courses.

6

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

7

 A General Educational Development (GED) certificate is awarded to those who did not finish high school but who have earned the 

equivalent of a high school diploma by passing required GED exams. A certificate of attendance may be awarded when a student attended 

high school for the minimum amount of time required but did not complete all courses required for a diploma.

3

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average 

(GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

4

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping 

classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, 

and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

1

 Includes anyone who earned a bachelor’s or higher degree. 2

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other 

Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless 

specified.

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate.

‡ Reporting standards not met. 

8

 Includes for-profit institutions at all levels.

9

 Selectivity categories are based on 2010 Carnegie classifications. “Highly selective” 4-year institutions refer to those whose first-year 

students’ postsecondary entrance test scores place them in roughly the top fifth of baccalaureate institutions; “moderately selective” 

4-year institutions refer to those whose first-year students’ postsecondary entrance test scores place them in roughly the middle two-fifths 

of baccalaureate institutions; and “inclusive” 4-year institutions refer to those whose first-year students’ postsecondary entrance test scores 

indicate that they extend educational opportunity to a wide range of students with respect to academic preparation and achievement. 

Institutions with unclassified selectivity (i.e., those that do not have test score data) are included in the “Total” row but not displayed 

separately.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-37

Table C-8b. 

Standard errors for table C-8a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had earned a 

bachelor’s or higher degree, average total number of months between postsecondary entry and

first bachelor’s degree attainment, percentage distribution by number of months to the first 

bachelor’s degree, and average age when they completed the first bachelor’s degree, by selected 

characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics

Average total 

months 

elapsed 

to first 

bachelor’s 

degree

48 or 

fewer 

months

49‒60 

months

61‒72 

months

73 or 

more 

months

Average 

age when 

completing 

the first 

bachelor’s 

degree

 Total 0.31 1.06 0.90 0.62 0.65 0.03

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 0.42 1.39 1.32 0.98 1.02 0.04

Female 0.40 1.35 1.13 0.80 0.85 0.03

Race/ethnicity

White 0.34 1.29 1.07 0.73 0.75 0.03

Black 0.94 3.03 3.04 2.66 2.53 0.10

Hispanic 1.00 3.12 2.56 2.54 2.37 0.11

Asian 0.77 2.79 1.90 1.53 1.77 0.07

Other 1.23 4.47 4.16 2.97 2.99 0.10

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 0.81 2.55 2.54 2.03 2.13 0.07

Some college 0.56 1.75 1.66 1.04 1.39 0.05

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.37 1.37 1.08 0.82 0.76 0.04

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 0.92 2.81 2.36 2.13 2.24 0.09

Middle two quarters 0.43 1.48 1.39 0.86 1.04 0.04

Highest quarter 0.39 1.56 1.21 0.91 0.79 0.04

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 0.34 1.15 0.96 0.65 0.74 0.03

Single-parent family 0.56 2.19 2.10 1.79 1.52 0.06

Language student first learned to speak

English 0.31 1.12 0.95 0.64 0.68 0.03

Non-English 0.85 2.69 2.13 1.98 2.07 0.10

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 1.34 4.26 3.08 3.33 3.02 0.13

High school diploma or less 3.73 9.63 9.07 † 9.31 0.30

Some college 2.07 5.42 4.50 4.45 5.19 0.19

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.34 1.18 0.98 0.65 0.72 0.03

Academic risk in 10th grade

Low 0.38 1.76 1.48 0.89 0.70 0.03

Moderate 0.39 1.20 1.09 0.82 0.87 0.04

High 2.92 7.50 6.77 8.11 7.65 0.32

School disengagement in 10th grade

Low 0.53 1.84 1.50 1.11 1.18 0.05

Moderate 0.41 1.46 1.30 0.86 0.93 0.04

High 0.99 2.79 2.65 2.19 2.53 0.09

See notes at end of table. 

Number of months to the first 

bachelor’s degree attainment
C-38 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

Average total 

months 

elapsed 

to first 

bachelor’s 

degree

48 or 

fewer 

months

49‒60 

months

61‒72 

months

73 or 

more 

months

Average 

age when 

completing 

the first 

bachelor’s 

degree

School control in 10th grade

Public 0.36 1.23 1.04 0.71 0.76 0.03

Private 0.48 2.05 1.56 1.08 0.79 0.04

Rigor of high school curriculum

Below-standard 0.65 2.18 1.80 1.29 1.43 0.06

Standard 0.78 2.53 2.42 1.93 1.83 0.07

Moderately rigorous 0.49 1.68 1.42 0.99 1.14 0.05

Rigorous 0.62 2.50 1.99 1.34 1.14 0.06

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra † 13.54 † † 14.71 †

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 0.75 2.17 2.05 1.52 1.96 0.07

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 0.42 1.40 1.27 0.96 1.00 0.04

Calculus 0.43 1.86 1.51 1.24 0.74 0.04

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science 4.92 12.38 7.47 † 9.90 0.40

General biology 1.05 3.15 2.59 2.01 2.75 0.10

Chemistry I or physics I 0.55 1.87 1.54 1.22 1.21 0.05

Chemistry I and physics I 0.65 2.14 1.76 1.17 1.41 0.05

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 0.44 1.84 1.63 1.16 0.88 0.04

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 1.92 4.44 4.20 3.49 5.02 0.19

2.00‒2.49 0.93 2.49 3.10 2.85 2.48 0.09

2.50‒2.99 0.82 2.23 2.02 1.58 1.97 0.08

3.00‒3.49 0.45 1.78 1.75 1.11 1.11 0.04

3.50‒4.00 0.36 1.71 1.33 0.97 0.68 0.03

High school credential type

High school diploma 0.30 1.05 0.89 0.62 0.64 0.03

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency † 8.35 † 11.73 12.49 †

High school completion year

Before 2004 2.77 5.55 4.88 4.88 6.30 0.43

In 2004 0.30 1.06 0.91 0.63 0.65 0.03

After 2004 † † † 19.12 † †

Postsecondary characteristics

Timing of initial postsecondary enrollment

Within 3 months following high school completion 0.31 1.10 0.92 0.64 0.66 0.03

4−12 months following high school completion 1.13 3.47 2.79 2.93 2.40 0.11

13 or more months following high school completion 1.92 5.82 3.86 4.85 3.75 0.15

See notes at end of table. 

Number of months to the first 

bachelor’s degree attainment

Table C-8b. 

Standard errors for table C-8a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had earned a 

bachelor’s or higher degree, average total number of months between postsecondary entry and 

first bachelor’s degree attainment, percentage distribution by number of months to the first 

bachelor’s degree, and average age when they completed the first bachelor’s degree, by selected 

characteristics: 2012—Continued
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-39

Selected characteristics

Average total 

months 

elapsed 

to first 

bachelor’s 

degree

48 or 

fewer 

months

49‒60 

months

61‒72 

months

73 or 

more 

months

Average 

age when 

completing 

the first 

bachelor’s 

degree

Type of first-attended institution

Public 4-year 0.31 1.30 1.24 0.82 0.69 0.03

Private nonprofit 4-year 0.44 1.79 1.42 0.83 0.78 0.04

Public 2-year 0.91 2.01 2.28 1.81 2.39 0.08

For-profit 3.13 7.94 5.81 † 5.52 0.35

Other † † † † † †

Selectivity of first-attended institution

Highly selective 4-year institution 0.35 1.58 1.40 0.80 0.67 0.03

Moderately selective 4-year institution 0.40 1.73 1.37 0.97 0.88 0.04

Inclusive 0.97 3.08 2.60 2.42 2.26 0.10

Less-than-4-year institution 0.86 1.92 2.25 1.76 2.31 0.08

Table C-8b. 

Standard errors for table C-8a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had earned a 

bachelor’s or higher degree, average total number of months between postsecondary entry and 

first bachelor’s degree attainment, percentage distribution by number of months to the first 

bachelor’s degree, and average age when they completed the first bachelor’s degree, by selected 

characteristics: 2012—Continued

Number of months to the first 

bachelor’s degree attainment

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

† Not applicable.
C-40 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Table C-9a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage who had ever taken out a student loan to pay for their postsecondary education and 

average total amount of student loans, by selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics

Percent 

taking out a 

student loan2

Average total 

amount of 

student 

loans ($)3

Percent 

taking out a 

federal 

loan4

Average total 

amount of 

federal 

loans ($)5

 Total 60.2 $30,000 58.6 $24,900

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 56.5 30,600 53.8 24,300

Female 63.4 29,600 62.9 25,400

Race/ethnicity6

White 60.0 31,900 59.0 25,700

Black 66.9 25,000 69.4 23,200

Hispanic 55.3 21,600 49.0 19,300

Asian 57.6 47,300 53.6 38,700

Other 60.3 31,400 57.5 24,600

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 58.8 22,200 56.2 18,800

Some college 61.9 27,100 60.3 21,300

Bachelor’s or higher degree 59.6 36,900 58.6 31,300

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 57.9 22,000 56.3 19,400

Middle two quarters 62.4 27,400 61.2 22,100

Highest quarter 58.7 41,200 58.6 34,500

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 60.1 31,300 58.9 25,800

Single-parent family 61.3 26,200 61.0 22,700

Language student first learned to speak

English 61.2 30,300 60.2 24,900

Non-English 53.8 28,100 48.7 24,900

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 47.9 23,100 48.4 19,600

High school diploma or less 51.2 16,900 47.7 13,700

Some college 51.6 19,300 49.7 15,500

Bachelor’s or higher degree 63.3 32,400 62.4 26,900

Academic risk in 10th grade7

Low 65.6 46,600 64.7 40,600

Moderate 60.3 27,500 58.7 22,300

High 50.8 17,100 47.9 14,200

School disengagement in 10th grade8

Low 61.0 35,200 60.4 27,600

Moderate 61.5 31,700 60.7 26,800

High 56.5 22,000 54.4 18,700

Estimated from students’ 

self-reports

Estimated 

from NSLDS1

See notes at end of table. 
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-41

Selected characteristics

Percent 

taking out a 

student loan2

Average total 

amount of 

student 

loans ($)3

Percent 

taking out a 

federal 

loan4

Average total 

amount of 

federal 

loans ($)5

School control in 10th grade

Public 60.7 29,000 59.0 24,300

Private 55.0 41,400 55.2 32,300

Rigor of high school curriculum9,10

Below-standard 56.5 24,100 53.9 19,600

Standard 59.5 29,600 60.8 24,700

Moderately rigorous 64.8 33,400 64.3 26,900

Rigorous 67.1 51,100 66.6 45,800

Highest math course taken since grade 910

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 49.3 17,000 44.4 13,000

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 56.1 21,000 54.4 17,500

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 65.0 35,000 65.4 27,800

Calculus 65.5 46,900 63.6 41,400

Highest science course taken since grade 910

No science or low-level science 45.6 15,500 40.7 13,000

General biology 54.2 19,700 51.2 16,200

Chemistry I or physics I 62.2 27,900 62.1 22,400

Chemistry I and physics I 66.3 37,200 66.5 30,000

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 65.5 44,000 65.2 38,000

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 54.4 17,700 48.7 15,100

2.00‒2.49 54.8 22,200 56.1 17,800

2.50‒2.99 61.6 27,400 61.6 21,300

3.00‒3.49 65.0 35,400 64.4 28,000

3.50‒4.00 64.8 46,800 64.2 41,200

High school credential type

High school diploma 60.9 30,900 59.6 25,500

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency11 51.3 14,200 46.1 13,400

Postsecondary characteristics

Timing of initial postsecondary enrollment

Within 3 months following high school completion 63.5 34,600 62.5 28,200

4−12 months following high school completion 58.7 24,500 55.8 20,600

13 or more months following high school completion 51.6 15,600 50.1 14,500

Type of first-attended institution

Public 4-year 64.6 33,400 64.3 29,000

Private nonprofit 4-year 75.3 47,200 74.9 35,600

Public 2-year 47.8 19,600 45.4 17,200

For-profit12 74.7 18,500 74.7 12,900

Other 41.9 18,700 28.9 13,300

Table C-9a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage who had ever taken out a student loan to pay for their postsecondary education and 

average total amount of student loans, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

Estimated from students’ 

self-reports

Estimated 

from NSLDS1

See notes at end of table. 
C-42 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

Percent 

taking out a 

student loan2

Average total 

amount of 

student 

loans ($)3

Percent 

taking out a 

federal 

loan4

Average total 

amount of 

federal 

loans ($)5

Selectivity of first-attended institution13

Highly selective 4-year institution 65.4 50,900 65.0 43,200

Moderately selective 4-year institution 71.1 35,000 70.8 28,000

Inclusive 73.8 27,800 75.0 22,200

Less-than-4-year institution 50.5 18,500 47.6 15,700

Highest postsecondary attainment 

 at the time of the 2012 interview

Some college but no postsecondary credential 51.6 16,700 49.8 14,800

Undergraduate certificate 56.2 16,400 53.4 11,600

Associate’s degree 58.5 22,100 59.8 17,100

Bachelor’s degree 68.3 37,000 66.5 28,300

Master’s or higher degree 77.9 71,700 76.6 67,700

6

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other 

Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless 

specified.

1

 NSLDS refers to the National Student Loan Data System. The NSLDS database contains records of all federal loan information for 

anyone who has such a loan.

2

 Student loans, which must be paid back or forgiven, include federal Direct Subsidized and Unsubsidized Loans, federal Perkins Loans, 

state loans, institutional loans, and private or alternative loans.

3

 Includes only students who reported taking out a student loan.

4

 Includes any type of federal loan.

5

 Includes only students who took out a federal loan, as indicated by NSLDS.

Table C-9a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage who had ever taken out a student loan to pay for their postsecondary education and 

average total amount of student loans, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

Estimated from students’ 

self-reports

13 Selectivity categories are based on 2010 Carnegie classifications. “Highly selective” 4-year institutions refer to those whose first-year 

students’ postsecondary entrance test scores place them in roughly the top fifth of baccalaureate institutions; “moderately selective” 

4-year institutions refer to those whose first-year students’ postsecondary entrance test scores place them in roughly the middle two-fifths 

of baccalaureate institutions; and “inclusive” 4-year institutions refer to those whose first-year students’ postsecondary entrance test scores 

indicate that they extend educational opportunity to a wide range of students with respect to academic preparation and achievement. 

Institutions with unclassified selectivity (i.e., those that do not have test score data) are included in the “Total” row but not displayed 

separately.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

7

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average 

(GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

8

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping 

classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, 

and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

9

 Students who attain a standard curriculum must earn 4 credits in English and 3 credits each in social studies, math, and science. 

Students who do not meet these requirements complete a below -standard curriculum. Students who attain a moderately rigorous 

curriculum must meet the standard curriculum requirements plus three additional requirements: math credits earned must include algebra 

and geometry; science courses completed must cover two subjects among biology, chemistry, and physics; and 1 credit must be earned in 

foreign language courses. Students who attain a rigorous curriculum must meet the moderately rigorous curriculum requirements plus 

three additional requirements: 4 credits must be earned in math, of which one course must be precalculus or a higher level; science 

courses completed must cover all three subjects of biology, chemistry, and physics; and 3 credits must be earned in foreign language 

courses.

10 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

11 A General Educational Development (GED) certificate is awarded to those who did not finish high school but who have earned the 

equivalent of a high school diploma by passing required GED exams. A certificate of attendance may be awarded when a student attended 

high school for the minimum amount of time required but did not complete all courses required for a diploma.

12 Includes for-profit institutions at all levels.

Estimated 

from NSLDS1
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-43

Table C-9b. 

Standard errors for table C-9a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in 

postsecondary education, percentage who had ever taken out a student loan to pay for their 

postsecondary education and average total amount of student loans, by selected characteristics: 

2012

Selected characteristics

Percent 

taking out a 

student loan

Average total 

amount of 

student 

loans ($)

Percent 

taking out a 

federal 

loan

Average total 

amount of 

federal 

loans ($)

 Total 0.69 $540 0.73 $480

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 0.92 850 0.98 730

Female 0.90 680 0.94 630

Race/ethnicity

White 0.80 720 0.84 650

Black 1.59 920 1.67 920

Hispanic 1.88 1,180 1.92 1,060

Asian 1.89 3,080 1.70 2,670

Other 2.75 2,880 2.54 2,210

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 1.12 770 1.31 600

Some college 1.07 860 1.16 650

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.91 1,010 0.94 910

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 1.44 900 1.51 740

Middle two quarters 0.94 660 0.98 550

Highest quarter 1.10 1,360 1.22 1,190

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 0.78 600 0.84 530

Single-parent family 1.33 950 1.36 850

Language student first learned to speak

English 0.72 550 0.75 510

Non-English 1.52 1,670 1.76 1,500

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 1.91 1,980 1.99 1,570

High school diploma or less 2.70 1,540 2.69 1,770

Some college 2.23 1,430 2.23 1,030

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.78 630 0.80 580

Academic risk in 10th grade

Low 1.32 1,740 1.28 1,540

Moderate 0.76 550 0.82 470

High 2.08 1,070 1.99 790

School disengagement in 10th grade

Low 1.33 1,300 1.37 1,030

Moderate 0.94 810 1.01 690

High 1.54 850 1.49 760

Estimated from students’ 

self-reports

Estimated 

from NSLDS

See notes at end of table. 
C-44 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

Percent 

taking out a 

student loan

Average total 

amount of 

student 

loans ($)

Percent 

taking out a 

federal 

loan

Average total 

amount of 

federal 

loans ($)

School control in 10th grade

Public 0.76 560 0.79 520

Private 1.36 1,580 1.52 1,370

Rigor of high school curriculum

Below-standard 1.07 820 1.10 680

Standard 1.78 1,300 1.75 1,290

Moderately rigorous 1.06 920 1.11 710

Rigorous 2.21 2,800 2.32 3,160

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 2.67 1,730 2.94 1,290

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 1.15 600 1.22 480

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 1.02 990 1.07 880

Calculus 1.62 1,780 1.77 1,810

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science 2.92 1,400 2.99 1,100

General biology 1.57 770 1.56 600

Chemistry I or physics I 1.09 860 1.17 670

Chemistry I and physics I 1.33 1,500 1.39 1,450

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 1.51 1,610 1.60 1,680

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 1.49 800 1.60 610

2.00‒2.49 1.42 900 1.50 670

2.50‒2.99 1.30 870 1.27 800

3.00‒3.49 1.16 1,210 1.25 1,070

3.50‒4.00 1.42 1,760 1.37 1,680

High school credential type

High school diploma 0.70 560 0.75 500

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency 2.52 1,130 2.79 990

Postsecondary characteristics

Timing of initial postsecondary enrollment

Within 3 months following high school completion 0.80 650 0.86 600

4−12 months following high school completion 1.77 1,660 1.94 1,410

13 or more months following high school completion 1.43 690 1.38 650

Type of first-attended institution

Public 4-year 1.14 890 1.21 780

Private nonprofit 4-year 1.32 1,560 1.30 1,560

Public 2-year 1.08 680 1.17 590

For-profit 1.93 1,220 1.88 740

Other 3.77 2,620 2.94 1,580

Table C-9b. 

Standard errors for table C-9a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in 

postsecondary education, percentage who had ever taken out a student loan to pay for their 

postsecondary education and average total amount of student loans, by selected characteristics: 

2012—Continued

Estimated from students’ 

self-reports

Estimated 

from NSLDS

See notes at end of table. 
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-45

Selected characteristics

Percent 

taking out a 

student loan

Average total 

amount of 

student 

loans ($)

Percent 

taking out a 

federal 

loan

Average total 

amount of 

federal 

loans ($)

Selectivity of first-attended institution

Highly selective 4-year institution 1.48 1,690 1.52 1,640

Moderately selective 4-year institution 1.33 1,090 1.34 970

Inclusive 2.00 1,450 1.92 1,040

Less-than-4-year institution 0.98 550 1.06 490

Highest postsecondary attainment 

 at the time of the 2012 interview

Some college but no postsecondary credential 1.05 510 1.07 510

Undergraduate certificate 1.65 810 1.67 500

Associate’s degree 1.92 1,060 1.98 730

Bachelor’s degree 1.02 820 1.07 770

Master’s or higher degree 1.57 2,640 1.62 2,360

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

Estimated from students’ 

self-reports

Estimated 

from NSLDS

Table C-9b. 

Standard errors for table C-9a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had enrolled in 

postsecondary education, percentage who had ever taken out a student loan to pay for their 

postsecondary education and average total amount of student loans, by selected characteristics: 

2012—Continued
C-46 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Table C-10a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who reported ever taking out a student loan to pay 

for their postsecondary education, percentage indicating various impacts of student loan debt on 

their employment plans, by selected characteristics and student loan amount: 2012

Selected characteristics

Took a job 

outside field 

of study or 

training

Took a less 

desirable job

Had to work 

at more than 

one job at the 

same time

Had to work 

more hours 

than desired

 Total 36.7 34.3 24.5 36.1

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 36.7 34.8 22.5 35.8

Female 36.8 34.0 26.0 36.4

Race/ethnicity1

White 35.1 33.6 25.3 35.0

Black 40.9 37.6 24.1 39.5

Hispanic 38.9 33.2 23.6 39.4

Asian 36.5 34.5 19.6 32.3

Other 39.3 36.9 22.8 34.2

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 38.3 33.9 25.5 37.6

Some college 39.2 36.7 25.7 37.1

Bachelor’s or higher degree 33.9 32.6 23.1 34.5

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 37.9 34.1 21.7 36.0

Middle two quarters 39.3 36.0 26.8 37.3

Highest quarter 32.2 33.0 23.3 33.6

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 36.0 33.7 24.6 35.3

Single-parent family 40.7 38.3 25.4 38.4

Language student first learned to speak

English 36.7 34.6 24.8 35.8

Non-English 37.3 32.3 22.6 38.4

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 41.1 36.4 27.0 37.0

High school diploma or less 42.1 41.6 27.9 40.1

Some college 32.6 27.7 22.0 33.5

Bachelor’s or higher degree 36.8 34.9 24.7 35.9

Academic risk in 10th grade2

Low 29.7 29.4 20.3 29.6

Moderate 38.0 35.4 25.6 37.6

High 41.7 35.6 25.3 38.2

School disengagement in 10th grade3

Low 35.0 32.7 25.4 33.6

Moderate 36.8 34.9 23.7 35.9

High 41.4 37.1 27.9 41.7

See notes at end of table. 
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-47

Selected characteristics

Took a job 

outside field 

of study or 

training

Took a less 

desirable job

Had to work 

at more than 

one job at the 

same time

Had to work 

more hours 

than desired

School control in 10th grade

Public 37.1 34.6 24.6 36.4

Private 32.9 31.0 23.8 32.7

Rigor of high school curriculum4,5

Below-standard 38.9 34.5 23.8 34.9

Standard 38.6 37.1 27.1 39.7

Moderately rigorous 34.9 34.5 24.2 35.9

Rigorous 28.4 28.4 21.4 33.5

Highest math course taken since grade 95

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 43.0 39.5 21.6 45.7

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 41.0 35.9 26.9 38.1

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 35.0 34.9 24.5 36.2

Calculus 28.6 28.7 18.8 28.1

Highest science course taken since grade 95

No science or low-level science 38.5 32.6 18.5 34.9

General biology 38.8 34.8 24.4 36.6

Chemistry I or physics I 37.8 35.7 24.3 37.3

Chemistry I and physics I 36.2 34.5 27.2 35.8

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 31.9 32.3 22.4 32.8

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 39.5 34.8 23.8 37.5

2.00‒2.49 36.6 34.1 22.9 38.8

2.50‒2.99 42.6 38.7 30.0 40.8

3.00‒3.49 36.4 35.0 23.9 35.3

3.50‒4.00 28.2 28.6 20.7 28.8

High school credential type

High school diploma 36.6 34.2 24.8 36.2

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency6 36.9 34.5 18.5 33.8

Postsecondary characteristics

Timing of initial postsecondary enrollment

Within 3 months following high school completion 36.8 35.0 25.2 36.3

4−12 months following high school completion 35.5 32.0 22.9 34.5

13 or more months following high school completion 36.2 31.9 22.1 35.7

Type of first-attended institution

Public 4-year 35.5 34.3 23.8 34.9

Private nonprofit 4-year 34.9 36.3 28.4 35.4

Public 2-year 38.0 32.0 22.6 36.4

For-profit7 40.9 36.6 24.1 38.8

Other 46.9 37.7 37.2 60.4

Table C-10a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who reported ever taking out a student loan to pay 

for their postsecondary education, percentage indicating various impacts of student loan debt on 

their employment plans, by selected characteristics and student loan amount: 2012—Continued

See notes at end of table. 
C-48 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

Took a job 

outside field 

of study or 

training

Took a less 

desirable job

Had to work 

at more than 

one job at the 

same time

Had to work 

more hours 

than desired

Selectivity of first-attended institution8

Highly selective 4-year institution 31.9 33.4 22.1 31.6

Moderately selective 4-year institution 35.3 35.3 26.8 36.7

Inclusive 39.4 36.0 25.7 36.0

Less-than-4-year institution 38.9 32.5 23.3 37.2

Highest postsecondary attainment 

 at the time of the 2012 interview

Some college but no postsecondary credential 40.3 34.6 23.4 36.6

Undergraduate certificate 36.1 30.7 22.8 37.1

Associate’s degree 38.4 31.3 27.2 41.3

Bachelor’s degree 36.6 36.9 25.1 35.3

Master’s or higher degree 25.6 30.9 25.0 31.5

Total amount of student loans borrowed

Less than $10,000 30.0 24.9 16.6 27.7

$10,000 to $24,999 35.0 30.3 23.0 33.4

$25,000 to $49,999 43.0 41.9 29.6 42.6

$50,000 or more 41.8 45.5 32.6 45.2

Table C-10a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who reported ever taking out a student loan to pay 

for their postsecondary education, percentage indicating various impacts of student loan debt on 

their employment plans, by selected characteristics and student loan amount: 2012—Continued

5

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

6

 A General Educational Development (GED) certificate is awarded to those who did not finish high school but who have earned the 

equivalent of a high school diploma by passing required GED exams. A certificate of attendance may be awarded when a student attended 

high school for the minimum amount of time required but did not complete all courses required for a diploma.

7

 Includes for-profit institutions at all levels.

8

 Selectivity categories are based on 2010 Carnegie classifications. “Highly selective” 4-year institutions refer to those whose first-year 

students’ postsecondary entrance test scores place them in roughly the top fifth of baccalaureate institutions; “moderately selective” 

4-year institutions refer to those whose first-year students’ postsecondary entrance test scores place them in roughly the middle two-fifths 

of baccalaureate institutions; and “inclusive” 4-year institutions refer to those whose first-year students’ postsecondary entrance test scores 

indicate that they extend educational opportunity to a wide range of students with respect to academic preparation and achievement. 

Institutions with unclassified selectivity (i.e., those that do not have test score data) are included in the “Total” row but not displayed 

separately.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

3

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping 

classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, 

and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

4

 Students who attain a standard curriculum must earn 4 credits in English and 3 credits each in social studies, math, and science. 

Students who do not meet these requirements complete a below-standard curriculum. Students who attain a moderately rigorous 

curriculum must meet the standard curriculum requirements plus three additional requirements: math credits earned must include algebra 

and geometry; science courses completed must cover two subjects among biology, chemistry, and physics; and 1 credit must be earned in 

foreign language courses. Students who attain a rigorous curriculum must meet the moderately rigorous curriculum requirements plus 

three additional requirements: 4 credits must be earned in math, of which one course must be precalculus or a higher level; science 

courses completed must cover all three subjects of biology, chemistry, and physics; and 3 credits must be earned in foreign language 

courses.

1

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other 

Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless 

specified.

2

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average 

(GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-49

Table C-10b. 

Standard errors for table C-10a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who reported ever 

taking out a student loan to pay for their postsecondary education, percentage indicating various 

impacts of student loan debt on their employment plans, by selected characteristics and student 

loan amount: 2012

Selected characteristics

Took a job 

outside field 

of study or 

training

Took a less 

desirable job

Had to work 

at more than 

one job at the 

same time

Had to work 

more hours 

than desired

 Total 0.81 0.85 0.69 0.83

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 1.25 1.28 1.07 1.24

Female 0.98 1.06 0.94 1.14

Race/ethnicity

White 0.98 0.99 0.85 0.97

Black 2.10 2.00 1.81 2.07

Hispanic 2.37 2.25 2.16 2.27

Asian 2.34 2.39 1.90 2.26

Other 3.73 3.47 3.19 3.74

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 1.60 1.63 1.58 1.56

Some college 1.34 1.45 1.23 1.34

Bachelor’s or higher degree 1.11 1.18 0.89 1.20

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 1.77 1.76 1.70 1.95

Middle two quarters 1.07 1.17 1.07 1.17

Highest quarter 1.26 1.40 1.07 1.44

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 0.90 0.89 0.81 0.93

Single-parent family 1.64 1.73 1.43 1.77

Language student first learned to speak

English 0.84 0.89 0.74 0.87

Non-English 2.12 2.08 1.92 2.29

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 3.02 2.96 2.85 3.03

High school diploma or less 4.20 4.15 3.67 4.00

Some college 2.61 2.68 2.42 3.07

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.88 0.98 0.80 0.94

Academic risk in 10th grade

Low 1.67 1.63 1.37 1.70

Moderate 0.98 1.01 0.85 1.02

High 2.77 2.60 2.57 2.54

School disengagement in 10th grade

Low 1.74 1.66 1.70 1.71

Moderate 1.18 1.21 0.97 1.19

High 1.94 1.80 1.67 1.86

See notes at end of table. 
C-50 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

Took a job 

outside field 

of study or 

training

Took a less 

desirable job

Had to work 

at more than 

one job at the 

same time

Had to work 

more hours 

than desired

School control in 10th grade

Public 0.86 0.91 0.74 0.89

Private 1.28 1.56 1.32 1.49

Rigor of high school curriculum

Below-standard 1.44 1.36 1.11 1.36

Standard 2.06 2.15 1.94 2.01

Moderately rigorous 1.36 1.47 1.27 1.39

Rigorous 2.53 2.58 2.35 2.63

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 4.79 4.60 3.81 4.65

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 1.45 1.51 1.32 1.57

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 1.43 1.37 1.24 1.32

Calculus 1.61 1.69 1.45 1.75

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science 4.42 4.05 3.32 4.17

General biology 1.85 1.93 1.57 1.94

Chemistry I or physics I 1.44 1.50 1.37 1.63

Chemistry I and physics I 1.82 1.80 1.75 1.93

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 1.54 1.49 1.47 1.78

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 2.10 1.98 1.56 1.78

2.00‒2.49 2.07 2.10 1.71 2.10

2.50‒2.99 1.84 1.79 1.70 1.88

3.00‒3.49 1.70 1.66 1.49 1.69

3.50‒4.00 1.64 1.63 1.26 1.63

High school credential type

High school diploma 0.83 0.88 0.72 0.86

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency 3.84 3.87 3.13 3.74

Postsecondary characteristics

Timing of initial postsecondary enrollment

Within 3 months following high school completion 0.92 0.98 0.84 0.90

4−12 months following high school completion 2.14 2.13 1.64 2.16

13 or more months following high school completion 2.00 1.93 1.75 2.02

Type of first-attended institution

Public 4-year 1.20 1.35 1.15 1.26

Private nonprofit 4-year 1.74 1.79 1.60 1.70

Public 2-year 1.56 1.59 1.44 1.91

For-profit 2.39 2.51 2.06 2.47

Other 7.93 8.09 7.81 7.61

Table C-10b. 

Standard errors for table C-10a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who reported ever 

taking out a student loan to pay for their postsecondary education, percentage indicating various 

impacts of student loan debt on their employment plans, by selected characteristics and student 

loan amount: 2012—Continued

See notes at end of table. 
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-51

Selected characteristics

Took a job 

outside field 

of study or 

training

Took a less 

desirable job

Had to work 

at more than 

one job at the 

same time

Had to work 

more hours 

than desired

Selectivity of first-attended institution

Highly selective 4-year institution 1.62 1.67 1.26 1.64

Moderately selective 4-year institution 1.35 1.34 1.33 1.39

Inclusive 2.40 2.70 2.31 2.58

Less-than-4-year institution 1.42 1.51 1.22 1.59

Highest postsecondary attainment 

 at the time of the 2012 interview

Some college but no postsecondary credential 1.44 1.41 1.19 1.51

Undergraduate certificate 2.25 2.43 2.15 2.53

Associate’s degree 2.67 2.43 2.41 2.64

Bachelor’s degree 1.31 1.22 1.12 1.33

Master’s or higher degree 2.09 2.12 1.97 2.22

Total amount of student loans borrowed

$0.01 to $9,999 1.56 1.46 1.29 1.51

$10,000 to $24,999 1.45 1.39 1.21 1.37

$25,000 to $49,999 1.75 1.66 1.67 1.80

$50,000 or more 1.67 1.90 1.62 1.57

Table C-10b. 

Standard errors for table C-10a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who reported ever 

taking out a student loan to pay for their postsecondary education, percentage indicating various 

impacts of student loan debt on their employment plans, by selected characteristics and student 

loan amount: 2012—Continued

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).
C-52 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Table C-11a. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ marital status, by selected 

characteristics: 2012 

Selected characteristics

Single never 

married1 Married

Divorced/

separated/

widowed1

Living 

with partner

 Total 45.6 28.2 3.3 22.9

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 50.5 25.7 2.6 21.3

Female 40.9 30.7 4.0 24.4

Race/ethnicity2

White 41.4 32.3 3.3 23.0

Black 59.7 14.1 3.2 23.0

Hispanic 44.5 28.7 4.2 22.6

Asian 62.7 18.0 1.5 17.7

Other 45.2 26.2 2.9 25.7

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 41.5 30.5 3.7 24.4

Some college 42.4 30.0 3.8 23.9

Bachelor’s or higher degree 51.4 25.0 2.7 20.9

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 42.1 30.0 3.5 24.3

Middle two quarters 43.2 29.6 3.8 23.5

Highest quarter 51.9 26.0 2.3 19.8

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 44.2 30.1 3.4 22.4

Single-parent family 48.5 24.3 3.2 24.0

Language student first learned to speak

English 45.0 28.2 3.3 23.4

Non-English 48.9 28.1 3.2 19.8

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 43.4 27.5 3.5 25.6

High school diploma or less 42.2 24.9 4.4 28.4

Some college 42.1 31.4 3.7 22.8

Bachelor’s or higher degree 46.1 29.0 3.2 21.8

Academic risk in 10th grade3

Low 47.5 30.8 1.7 19.9

Moderate 44.8 28.6 3.4 23.2

High 47.7 23.9 4.4 24.0

School disengagement in 10th grade4

Low 47.0 30.9 3.4 18.6

Moderate 44.5 30.0 3.1 22.4

High 43.6 25.3 3.5 27.6

School control in 10th grade

Public 44.9 28.4 3.4 23.2

Private 53.7 25.6 1.8 18.9

Rigor of high school curriculum5,6

Below-standard 43.1 28.5 3.7 24.7

Standard 45.9 28.7 3.7 21.7

Moderately rigorous 46.2 30.1 2.4 21.3

Rigorous 57.5 20.2 ‡ 21.1

See notes at end of table. 
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-53

Selected characteristics

Single never 

married1 Married

Divorced/

separated/

widowed1

Living 

with partner

Highest math course taken since grade 96

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 45.1 25.9 4.1 24.9

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 41.9 29.5 4.2 24.4

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 47.3 27.9 2.3 22.4

Calculus 53.6 27.4 1.0 18.0

Highest science course taken since grade 96

No science or low-level science 46.8 24.3 4.2 24.7

General biology 42.3 29.0 4.6 24.1

Chemistry I or physics I 43.2 29.9 3.1 23.8

Chemistry I and physics I 49.1 27.7 1.8 ! 21.4

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 49.7 28.6 1.5 20.2

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 45.7 24.3 3.8 26.1

2.00‒2.49 45.0 27.1 4.1 23.8

2.50‒2.99 46.1 28.2 3.0 22.7

3.00‒3.49 43.4 31.7 3.0 22.0

3.50‒4.00 45.7 33.9 1.8 18.7

Highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 39.8 24.0 5.5 30.8

High school only 40.9 29.4 4.2 25.5

Some college but no postsecondary credential 45.5 26.1 3.8 24.5

Undergraduate certificate 40.6 30.8 5.4 23.2

Associate’s degree 40.4 33.6 4.8 21.3

Bachelor’s degree 50.6 28.1 1.3 20.0

Master’s or higher degree 51.9 27.8 1.1 ! 19.2

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate.

‡ Reporting standards not met. 

Table C-11a. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ marital status, by selected 

characteristics: 2012—Continued

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

1

 Not living with any partner.

6

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

4

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping 

classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, 

and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

5

 Students who attain a standard curriculum must earn 4 credits in English and 3 credits each in social studies, math, and science. 

Students who do not meet these requirements complete a below-standard curriculum. Students who attain a moderately rigorous 

curriculum must meet the standard curriculum requirements plus three additional requirements: math credits earned must include algebra 

and geometry; science courses completed must cover two subjects among biology, chemistry, and physics; and 1 credit must be earned in 

foreign language courses. Students who attain a rigorous curriculum must meet the moderately rigorous curriculum requirements plus 

three additional requirements: 4 credits must be earned in math, of which one course must be precalculus or a higher level; science 

courses completed must cover all three subjects of biology, chemistry, and physics; and 3 credits must be earned in foreign language 

courses.

2

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other 

Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless 

specified.

3

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average 

(GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.
C-54 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Table C-11b. 

Standard errors for table C-11a: Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

marital status, by selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics

Single never 

married Married

Divorced/

separated/

widowed

Living 

with partner

 Total 0.58 0.56 0.19 0.46

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 0.80 0.77 0.25 0.65

Female 0.83 0.76 0.30 0.65

Race/ethnicity

White 0.72 0.77 0.27 0.63

Black 1.45 1.12 0.52 1.18

Hispanic 1.45 1.31 0.56 1.25

Asian 1.92 1.46 0.42 1.35

Other 2.34 1.97 0.81 2.15

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 1.02 1.04 0.42 0.92

Some college 0.83 0.81 0.40 0.71

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.94 0.81 0.28 0.74

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 1.13 1.10 0.42 0.88

Middle two quarters 0.74 0.73 0.31 0.67

Highest quarter 1.09 0.96 0.36 0.96

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 0.65 0.60 0.24 0.54

Single-parent family 1.21 1.09 0.45 1.01

Language student first learned to speak

English 0.62 0.63 0.21 0.50

Non-English 1.60 1.31 0.51 1.20

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 1.82 1.69 0.66 1.65

High school diploma or less 2.07 1.61 0.84 1.82

Some college 1.92 1.79 0.72 1.37

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.70 0.67 0.22 0.53

Academic risk in 10th grade

Low 1.54 1.28 0.40 1.27

Moderate 0.68 0.67 0.22 0.55

High 1.50 1.26 0.65 1.28

School disengagement in 10th grade

Low 1.29 1.20 0.48 0.93

Moderate 0.81 0.78 0.26 0.74

High 1.12 0.99 0.46 1.08

School control in 10th grade

Public 0.63 0.61 0.21 0.48

Private 1.48 1.56 0.34 1.06

Rigor of high school curriculum

Below-standard 0.89 0.92 0.32 0.76

Standard 1.67 1.51 0.59 1.24

Moderately rigorous 1.15 1.07 0.36 0.90

Rigorous 2.32 1.74 † 1.88

See notes at end of table. 
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-55

Selected characteristics

Single never 

married Married

Divorced/

separated/

widowed

Living 

with partner

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 2.12 1.91 0.98 1.64

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 0.92 0.90 0.28 0.70

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 1.08 0.99 0.35 0.91

Calculus 1.76 1.43 0.29 1.28

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science 2.05 1.79 0.81 1.72

General biology 1.15 1.18 0.49 0.89

Chemistry I or physics I 1.15 1.02 0.36 0.91

Chemistry I and physics I 1.62 1.55 0.56 1.22

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 1.62 1.36 0.36 1.35

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 1.12 0.86 0.45 0.96

2.00‒2.49 1.29 1.09 0.50 1.21

2.50‒2.99 1.45 1.20 0.43 1.07

3.00‒3.49 1.37 1.26 0.46 1.06

3.50‒4.00 1.67 1.50 0.38 1.28

Highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 2.93 2.64 1.41 2.93

High school only 1.60 1.50 0.61 1.48

Some college but no postsecondary credential 0.89 0.87 0.38 0.77

Undergraduate certificate 1.79 1.66 0.79 1.42

Associate’s degree 1.90 1.76 0.80 1.48

Bachelor’s degree 1.08 1.06 0.24 0.90

Master’s or higher degree 2.01 1.71 0.47 1.66

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

Table C-11b. 

Standard errors for table C-11a: Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

marital status, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

† Not applicable.
C-56 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Table C-12a. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores with children, and of parents, percentage 

who were single, by selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics No Yes Single parent2

 Total 66.8 33.2 12.8

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 74.2 25.8 6.7

Female 59.9 40.1 16.5

Race/ethnicity3

White 71.4 28.6 10.4

Black 52.6 47.4 20.1

Hispanic 57.0 43.0 12.7

Asian 86.5 13.5 11.8

Other 62.8 37.2 11.7

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 54.1 45.9 13.5

Some college 62.7 37.3 13.8

Bachelor’s or higher degree 79.0 21.0 10.3

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 49.9 50.1 14.0

Middle two quarters 65.8 34.2 12.5

Highest quarter 84.1 15.9 8.0

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 68.6 31.4 12.0

Single-parent family 60.5 39.5 14.0

Language student first learned to speak

English 67.3 32.7 12.8

Non-English 63.0 37.0 12.8

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 58.8 41.2 13.1

High school diploma or less 50.8 49.2 11.7

Some college 51.9 48.1 13.5

Bachelor’s or higher degree 71.4 28.6 12.3

Academic risk in 10th grade4

Low 87.5 12.5 4.6 !

Moderate 65.9 34.1 12.6

High 47.5 52.5 15.9

School disengagement in 10th grade5

Low 75.2 24.8 9.9

Moderate 68.8 31.2 11.8

High 55.1 44.9 14.2

School control in 10th grade

Public 65.3 34.7 12.9

Private 83.7 16.3 11.7

Rigor of high school curriculum6,7

Below-standard 59.5 40.5 12.0

Standard 68.5 31.5 16.3

Moderately rigorous 76.8 23.2 11.2

Rigorous 92.8 7.2 ‡

See notes at end of table. 

Had children1
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-57

Selected characteristics No Yes Single parent2

Highest math course taken since grade 97

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 47.3 52.7 14.5

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 57.9 42.1 13.1

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 78.6 21.4 11.1

Calculus 89.7 10.3 4.1 !

Highest science course taken since grade 97

No science or low-level science 51.1 48.9 13.1

General biology 55.1 44.9 14.5

Chemistry I or physics I 69.5 30.5 10.9

Chemistry I and physics I 83.2 16.8 10.1

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 81.9 18.1 9.0

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 51.7 48.3 14.6

2.00‒2.49 57.1 42.9 14.6

2.50‒2.99 70.1 29.9 12.4

3.00‒3.49 78.1 21.9 6.8

3.50‒4.00 85.8 14.2 5.9

Highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 30.4 69.6 15.2

High school only 47.0 53.0 12.2

Some college but no postsecondary credential 59.5 40.5 14.0

Undergraduate certificate 51.6 48.4 14.3

Associate’s degree 64.6 35.4 15.0

Bachelor’s degree 87.2 12.8 5.5

Master’s or higher degree 90.9 9.1 ‡

5

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping 

classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, 

and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

6

 Students who attain a standard curriculum must earn 4 credits in English and 3 credits each in social studies, math, and science. 

Students who do not meet these requirements complete a below-standard curriculum. Students who attain a moderately rigorous 

curriculum must meet the standard curriculum requirements plus three additional requirements: math credits earned must include algebra 

and geometry; science courses completed must cover two subjects among biology, chemistry, and physics; and 1 credit must be earned in 

foreign language courses. Students who attain a rigorous curriculum must meet the moderately rigorous curriculum requirements plus 

three additional requirements: 4 credits must be earned in math, of which one course must be precalculus or a higher level; science 

courses completed must cover all three subjects of biology, chemistry, and physics; and 3 credits must be earned in foreign language 

courses.

2

 Denominator includes only cohort members who reported that they had children in 2012.

3

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other 

Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless 

specified.

4

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average 

(GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate. 

Table C-12a. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores with children, and of parents, percentage 

who were single, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

Had children1

7

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

1

 Includes biological and adopted children.

‡ Reporting standards not met. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 
C-58 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Table C-12b. 

Standard errors for table C-12a: Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores with 

children, and of parents, percentage who were single, by selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics No Yes Single parent

 Total 0.69 0.69 0.75

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 0.84 0.84 0.87

Female 0.94 0.94 1.03

Race/ethnicity

White 0.82 0.82 0.87

Black 1.67 1.67 1.87

Hispanic 1.71 1.71 1.66

Asian 1.56 1.56 3.45

Other 2.46 2.46 3.01

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 1.15 1.15 1.14

Some college 1.06 1.06 1.18

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.82 0.82 1.21

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 1.36 1.36 1.21

Middle two quarters 0.92 0.92 1.06

Highest quarter 0.93 0.93 1.44

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 0.74 0.74 0.85

Single-parent family 1.30 1.30 1.31

Language student first learned to speak

English 0.73 0.73 0.80

Non-English 1.63 1.63 1.79

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 1.96 1.96 1.95

High school diploma or less 2.07 2.07 1.95

Some college 1.90 1.90 1.88

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.74 0.74 0.95

Academic risk in 10th grade

Low 0.97 0.97 1.71

Moderate 0.77 0.77 0.86

High 1.53 1.53 1.68

School disengagement in 10th grade

Low 1.12 1.12 1.37

Moderate 0.96 0.96 0.96

High 1.30 1.30 1.31

School control in 10th grade

Public 0.74 0.74 0.78

Private 1.28 1.28 1.90

Rigor of high school curriculum

Below-standard 1.03 1.03 0.99

Standard 1.53 1.53 2.22

Moderately rigorous 1.03 1.03 1.56

Rigorous 1.21 1.21 †

See notes at end of table. 

Had children
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-59

Selected characteristics No Yes Single parent

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 2.48 2.48 2.16

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 1.05 1.05 1.18

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 1.03 1.03 1.42

Calculus 1.06 1.06 1.81

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science 1.96 1.96 1.98

General biology 1.29 1.29 1.30

Chemistry I or physics I 1.15 1.15 1.21

Chemistry I and physics I 1.29 1.29 2.06

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 1.26 1.26 2.08

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 1.11 1.11 1.25

2.00‒2.49 1.50 1.50 1.44

2.50‒2.99 1.40 1.40 1.76

3.00‒3.49 1.21 1.21 1.55

3.50‒4.00 1.11 1.11 1.73

Highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 3.20 3.20 2.80

High school only 1.75 1.75 1.50

Some college but no postsecondary credential 1.08 1.08 1.24

Undergraduate certificate 1.91 1.91 1.77

Associate’s degree 1.88 1.88 2.39

Bachelor’s degree 0.77 0.77 1.19

Master’s or higher degree 1.37 1.37 †

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

† Not applicable.

Table C-12b. 

Standard errors for table C-12a: Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores with 

children, and of parents, percentage who were single, by selected characteristics: 

2012—Continued

Had children
C-60 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Table C-13a. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ living arrangements and 

percentage who owned a home, by selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics Parents

Spouse/

partner1

Friends/

roommates2 Children3 Alone Other

Percent 

who 

owned a 

home 

 Total 22.7 42.3 10.0 2.8 18.8 3.4 20.5

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 24.9 38.8 12.6 1.8 17.6 4.3 19.6

Female 20.7 45.6 7.5 3.8 19.9 2.6 21.4

Race/ethnicity4

White 18.1 47.8 11.4 2.1 17.9 2.8 25.2

Black 28.3 30.1 6.8 5.7 24.9 4.2 8.9

Hispanic 32.2 35.0 6.8 3.3 18.4 4.3 14.9

Asian 39.2 25.8 11.6 1.9 15.4 6.1 11.9

Other 22.6 43.4 8.8 3.8 17.5 3.9 18.1

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 26.2 43.0 5.8 4.0 17.6 3.4 21.5

Some college 22.0 45.3 7.6 3.3 18.1 3.7 21.5

Bachelor’s or higher degree 20.9 39.3 14.8 1.6 20.2 3.1 19.0

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 25.9 42.0 4.7 5.0 19.1 3.3 19.3

Middle two quarters 22.4 44.8 8.7 2.8 18.0 3.3 22.2

Highest quarter 18.1 40.5 16.5 1.0 20.9 3.0 20.3

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 22.0 43.7 10.1 2.4 18.6 3.2 22.1

Single-parent family 22.5 40.3 9.1 4.4 20.3 3.4 17.3

Language student first learned to speak

English 21.0 43.7 10.5 2.9 18.8 3.1 21.3

Non-English 33.7 33.1 6.5 2.7 18.8 5.1 15.7

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 26.6 43.6 5.8 3.4 17.3 3.3 18.0

High school diploma or less 26.2 42.4 5.3 4.7 16.2 5.2 18.6

Some college 23.8 45.7 6.3 5.4 16.3 2.4 23.6

Bachelor’s or higher degree 20.9 42.6 11.3 2.2 19.9 3.1 21.3

Academic risk in 10th grade5

Low 12.8 46.3 18.0 0.6 ! 19.9 2.5 22.9

Moderate 23.6 42.4 9.2 2.8 18.7 3.3 21.1

High 29.3 37.2 4.6 5.9 17.9 5.1 14.5

School disengagement in 10th grade6

Low 21.9 41.8 10.2 1.7 20.9 3.5 23.3

Moderate 21.4 43.5 10.6 2.6 18.7 3.3 22.1

High 23.3 44.4 7.6 4.2 17.8 2.7 16.9

School control in 10th grade

Public 22.8 42.6 9.4 3.0 18.7 3.4 20.6

Private 21.6 38.6 15.8 1.3 19.6 3.1 19.4

Rigor of high school curriculum7,8

Below-standard 23.3 43.1 8.2 3.5 18.6 3.3 19.6

Standard 24.5 41.6 8.3 4.1 18.6 3.0 22.5

Moderately rigorous 21.1 42.9 12.0 1.6 18.4 4.0 23.7

Rigorous 17.8 38.1 20.9 ‡ 20.3 2.8 16.0

See notes at end of table. 

Living with
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-61

Selected characteristics Parents

Spouse/

partner1

Friends/

roommates2 Children3 Alone Other

Percent 

who 

owned a 

home 

Highest math course taken since grade 98

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 28.1 39.5 4.9 6.0 15.6 5.9 14.6

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 24.6 43.3 7.0 3.9 18.1 3.0 20.6

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 21.6 42.8 12.1 1.4 18.9 3.3 22.6

Calculus 14.0 40.4 19.6 0.6 ! 22.0 3.4 22.0

Highest science course taken since grade 98

No science or low-level science 29.5 36.6 6.6 5.0 17.2 5.0 16.2

General biology 24.4 42.2 6.7 4.5 18.8 3.4 20.3

Chemistry I or physics I 22.0 44.6 9.5 2.4 18.3 3.2 23.1

Chemistry I and physics I 20.8 42.6 14.4 0.9 18.7 2.6 20.5

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 17.5 42.7 15.4 1.2 19.8 3.5 21.8

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 28.3 39.4 6.2 4.5 17.4 4.3 14.6

2.00‒2.49 24.4 42.2 8.5 4.1 17.9 2.9 20.4

2.50‒2.99 25.1 41.5 9.0 2.6 18.8 3.0 20.6

3.00‒3.49 18.8 44.8 12.5 1.3 19.2 3.5 25.7

3.50‒4.00 12.5 46.7 16.2 0.8 21.2 2.5 26.1

Highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 28.0 42.7 2.7 ! 5.9 14.3 6.3 ! 10.7

High school only 27.3 44.0 5.8 4.5 14.4 4.0 19.6

Some college but no postsecondary credential 25.5 40.5 7.5 3.8 19.2 3.6 16.1

Undergraduate certificate 21.2 44.4 6.6 3.8 20.3 3.7 22.1

Associate’s degree 22.9 45.6 7.4 3.6 18.1 2.4 29.2

Bachelor’s degree 19.6 42.0 15.9 0.7 18.9 2.9 23.2

Master’s or higher degree 14.6 42.0 15.4 ‡ 24.5 2.9 22.0

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate. 

Living with

1

 Living with spouse/partner and not living with parents.

2

 Living with friends/roommates and not living with parents, spouse/partner, children, or siblings.

Table C-13a. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ living arrangements and 

percentage who owned a home, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

7

 Students who attain a standard curriculum must earn 4 credits in English and 3 credits each in social studies, math, and science. 

Students who do not meet these requirements complete a below-standard curriculum. Students who attain a moderately rigorous 

curriculum must meet the standard curriculum requirements plus three additional requirements: math credits earned must include algebra 

and geometry; science courses completed must cover two subjects among biology, chemistry, and physics; and 1 credit must be earned in 

foreign language courses. Students who attain a rigorous curriculum must meet the moderately rigorous curriculum requirements plus 

three additional requirements: 4 credits must be earned in math, of which one course must be precalculus or a higher level; science 

courses completed must cover all three subjects of biology, chemistry, and physics; and 3 credits must be earned in foreign language 

courses.

8

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

‡ Reporting standards not met. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

3

 Living with children and not living with parents or spouse/partner.

4

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other 

Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless 

specified.

5

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average 

(GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

6

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping 

classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, 

and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.
C-62 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Table C-13b. 

Standard errors for table C-13a: Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

living arrangements and percentage who owned a home, by selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics Parents

Spouse/

partner

Friends/

roommates Children Alone Other

Percent 

who 

owned a 

home 

 Total 0.56 0.61 0.39 0.19 0.40 0.20 0.51

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 0.78 0.78 0.61 0.22 0.66 0.30 0.72

Female 0.66 0.82 0.41 0.30 0.58 0.26 0.68

Race/ethnicity

White 0.67 0.82 0.53 0.20 0.54 0.25 0.71

Black 1.51 1.59 0.85 0.69 1.37 0.62 0.98

Hispanic 1.51 1.48 0.78 0.59 1.18 0.67 1.10

Asian 1.92 1.83 1.09 0.53 1.46 0.89 1.36

Other 2.26 2.51 1.56 0.98 1.99 0.92 1.95

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 0.96 1.23 0.59 0.42 0.83 0.40 0.87

Some college 0.90 0.97 0.47 0.35 0.79 0.34 0.85

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.86 0.92 0.73 0.23 0.64 0.30 0.70

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 1.06 1.15 0.53 0.52 0.94 0.42 0.94

Middle two quarters 0.69 0.88 0.47 0.28 0.68 0.28 0.75

Highest quarter 1.00 1.10 0.86 0.20 0.89 0.37 0.90

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 0.64 0.69 0.43 0.19 0.47 0.22 0.54

Single-parent family 1.03 1.23 0.71 0.51 1.09 0.41 1.00

Language student first learned to speak

English 0.62 0.68 0.42 0.19 0.45 0.22 0.59

Non-English 1.54 1.44 0.74 0.45 1.30 0.65 1.32

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 1.83 2.08 1.00 0.76 1.52 0.68 1.50

High school diploma or less 2.09 2.32 1.01 0.95 1.65 0.94 1.71

Some college 1.66 2.04 0.95 0.88 1.48 0.51 1.45

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.64 0.69 0.47 0.20 0.54 0.22 0.59

Academic risk in 10th grade

Low 1.00 1.49 1.06 0.20 1.12 0.45 1.24

Moderate 0.63 0.73 0.45 0.22 0.47 0.23 0.60

High 1.60 1.56 0.74 0.76 1.33 0.70 1.09

School disengagement in 10th grade

Low 1.05 1.25 0.76 0.28 0.97 0.46 1.02

Moderate 0.73 0.76 0.59 0.29 0.64 0.28 0.73

High 1.10 1.22 0.67 0.47 0.97 0.32 0.97

School control in 10th grade

Public 0.60 0.66 0.43 0.21 0.43 0.21 0.55

Private 1.12 1.32 0.95 0.28 0.87 0.36 1.13

Rigor of high school curriculum

Below-standard 0.87 0.94 0.52 0.31 0.69 0.35 0.86

Standard 1.54 1.69 0.91 0.69 1.04 0.50 1.23

Moderately rigorous 0.94 1.16 0.81 0.29 0.82 0.45 1.05

Rigorous 1.87 2.30 1.86 † 1.74 0.76 1.48

See notes at end of table. 

Living with
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-63

Selected characteristics Parents

Spouse/

partner

Friends/

roommates Children Alone Other

Percent 

who 

owned a 

home 

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 2.23 2.33 1.16 1.13 1.66 1.15 1.70

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 0.91 1.04 0.52 0.38 0.69 0.32 0.88

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 0.90 1.11 0.74 0.23 0.83 0.37 0.92

Calculus 1.23 1.60 1.35 0.23 1.30 0.58 1.29

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science 2.12 2.15 1.13 0.98 1.56 1.02 1.52

General biology 1.06 1.33 0.63 0.55 0.96 0.45 1.05

Chemistry I or physics I 0.94 1.15 0.70 0.31 0.87 0.38 1.12

Chemistry I and physics I 1.44 1.51 1.18 0.25 1.05 0.49 1.19

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 1.18 1.71 1.05 0.28 1.12 0.51 1.15

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 1.15 1.31 0.62 0.46 0.88 0.54 0.86

2.00‒2.49 1.29 1.30 0.95 0.53 1.00 0.46 1.08

2.50‒2.99 1.33 1.59 0.83 0.44 1.10 0.46 1.07

3.00‒3.49 1.00 1.47 0.95 0.30 1.10 0.47 1.06

3.50‒4.00 1.05 1.66 1.05 0.24 1.18 0.47 1.35

Highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 3.09 3.42 1.05 1.68 2.47 1.99 1.99

High school only 1.64 1.66 0.85 0.69 1.11 0.73 1.56

Some college but no postsecondary credential 0.97 1.03 0.61 0.38 0.70 0.38 0.74

Undergraduate certificate 1.78 1.88 0.98 0.73 1.63 0.68 1.62

Associate’s degree 1.69 1.96 1.18 0.71 1.55 0.59 1.79

Bachelor’s degree 0.98 1.13 0.82 0.17 0.77 0.36 0.94

Master’s or higher degree 1.52 2.13 1.53 † 1.85 0.68 1.61

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

† Not applicable.

Table C-13b. 

Standard errors for table C-13a: Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

living arrangements and percentage who owned a home, by selected characteristics: 

2012—Continued

Living with
C-64 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Table C-14a. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ employment status and 

percentage who had ever served in the military, by selected characteristics: 2012 

Selected characteristics Total

Worked 

35 or more 

hours/

week

Worked 

1–34 

hours/

week Unemployed

Out of 

the 

labor 

force

Ever 

served 

in the 

military

 Total 82.0 68.9 13.1 11.1 6.9 5.9

Highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 63.3 51.2 12.1 25.9 10.9 ‡

High school only 75.5 62.1 13.5 15.2 9.3 6.2

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency1 71.2 52.9 18.3 21.1 7.7 ‡

High school diploma 76.4 64.0 12.4 13.9 9.7 6.8

Some college but no postsecondary credential 78.7 63.9 14.8 14.2 7.1 9.5

Still enrolled in 2012 77.5 57.6 19.9 13.6 8.8 12.4

Not enrolled in 2012 79.4 67.6 11.8 14.5 6.2 7.8

Undergraduate certificate 81.1 68.0 13.2 11.8 7.0 5.2

Associate’s degree 85.3 70.8 14.5 9.7 5.0 7.3

Bachelor’s degree 88.8 77.6 11.2 5.1 6.1 3.2

Master’s or higher degree 89.8 79.9 10.0 5.8 4.4 1.8 !

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 85.7 74.9 10.8 10.4 3.9 10.1

Female 78.4 63.2 15.3 11.8 9.8 2.1

Race/ethnicity2

White 84.7 72.9 11.8 7.9 7.4 6.0

Black 78.7 62.9 15.8 18.0 3.3 5.7

Hispanic 77.9 64.2 13.7 15.5 6.6 4.9

Asian 77.2 61.1 16.1 12.7 10.1 3.2

Other 76.0 60.1 15.9 15.1 8.9 10.3

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 79.2 66.1 13.1 13.3 7.5 5.1

Some college 82.1 69.4 12.6 12.0 6.0 7.0

Bachelor’s or higher degree 84.0 70.5 13.5 8.8 7.3 5.6

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 76.7 62.7 14.0 15.2 8.0 4.9

Middle two quarters 84.0 71.2 12.8 10.0 5.9 7.1

Highest quarter 85.4 73.3 12.1 6.9 7.7 5.1

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 83.0 70.5 12.5 9.9 7.1 6.2

Single-parent family 80.7 66.0 14.7 13.2 6.1 5.4

Language student first learned to speak

English 82.8 70.0 12.8 10.5 6.7 6.2

Non-English 77.0 62.4 14.5 15.1 7.9 4.0

See notes at end of table. 

Employed
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-65

Selected characteristics Total

Worked 

35 or more 

hours/

week

Worked 

1–34 

hours/

week Unemployed

Out of 

the 

labor 

force

Ever 

served 

in the 

military

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 77.3 60.4 16.9 14.8 7.9 7.4

High school diploma or less 74.0 61.8 12.2 18.2 7.8 5.4

Some college 81.5 69.1 12.3 11.3 7.2 7.8

Bachelor’s or higher degree 84.4 71.8 12.6 9.0 6.6 5.7

Academic risk in 10th grade3

Low 85.6 74.3 11.4 5.1 9.2 3.9

Moderate 82.8 69.6 13.2 10.7 6.5 6.7

High 74.3 60.3 13.9 19.3 6.4 4.2

School disengagement in 10th grade4

Low 85.9 73.4 12.5 8.0 6.0 5.7

Moderate 83.5 70.5 13.0 9.2 7.3 5.3

High 79.2 66.3 12.9 14.5 6.3 7.8

School control in 10th grade

Public 81.8 68.6 13.2 11.5 6.8 6.1

Private 84.5 72.9 11.5 7.0 8.6 3.7

Rigor of high school curriculum5,6

Below-standard 79.4 65.7 13.7 13.3 7.3 6.1

Standard 81.1 69.9 11.1 12.5 6.4 5.9

Moderately rigorous 87.5 75.1 12.4 6.7 5.8 6.0

Rigorous 87.4 77.1 10.3 4.2 8.4 2.8

Highest math course taken since grade 96

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 67.2 54.4 12.8 24.5 8.3 4.8

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 80.6 67.0 13.6 12.2 7.1 6.9

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 87.3 74.8 12.5 7.1 5.6 5.5

Calculus 86.7 77.2 9.5 5.2 8.1 3.2

Highest science course taken since grade 96

No science or low-level science 72.7 57.5 15.2 18.9 8.4 6.6

General biology 78.0 66.3 11.7 14.8 7.2 7.1

Chemistry I or physics I 86.4 72.4 14.0 8.1 5.6 5.5

Chemistry I and physics I 86.2 74.8 11.4 6.8 7.1 4.8

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 84.7 72.9 11.8 7.7 7.6 4.5

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 76.4 62.9 13.6 17.5 6.1 7.6

2.00‒2.49 80.2 66.7 13.5 12.9 6.9 7.8

2.50‒2.99 84.4 70.3 14.1 8.9 6.7 5.7

3.00‒3.49 87.3 75.1 12.2 6.0 6.7 3.9

3.50‒4.00 86.0 75.8 10.2 5.2 8.7 3.3

Marital status in 2012

Single never married7 81.7 66.4 15.4 13.1 5.1 4.3

Married 80.6 70.5 10.1 7.9 11.5 8.5

Divorced/separated/widowed7 79.5 66.8 12.7 17.1 3.4 ! 19.8

Living with partner 84.4 72.0 12.4 10.3 5.3 3.8

Number of children had in 2012

None 86.2 72.7 13.5 8.9 4.8 5.2

One or more8 73.2 60.1 13.1 15.5 11.3 6.2

See notes at end of table. 

Table C-14a. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ employment status and 

percentage who had ever served in the military, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued 

Employed
C-66 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

1

 A General Educational Development (GED) certificate is awarded to those who did not finish high school but who have earned the 

equivalent of a high school diploma by passing required GED exams. A certificate of attendance may be awarded when a student attended 

high school for the minimum amount of time required but did not complete all courses required for a diploma.

2

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other 

Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless 

specified.

3

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average 

(GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

4

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping 

classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, 

and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

Table C-14a. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ employment status and 

percentage who had ever served in the military, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued 

! Interpret data with caution. 

7

 Not living with any partner.

‡ Reporting standards not met. 

NOTE: Persons are classified as employed if they currently have a job; unemployed if they do not have a job, have actively looked for work 

in the prior 4 weeks, and are currently available for work; or out of the labor force if they are neither working nor looking for work. Detail 

may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

8

 Includes biological and adopted children.

5

 Students who attain a standard curriculum must earn 4 credits in English and 3 credits each in social studies, math, and science. 

Students who do not meet these requirements complete a below-standard curriculum. Students who attain a moderately rigorous 

curriculum must meet the standard curriculum requirements plus three additional requirements: math credits earned must include algebra 

and geometry; science courses completed must cover two subjects among biology, chemistry, and physics; and 1 credit must be earned in 

foreign language courses. Students who attain a rigorous curriculum must meet the moderately rigorous curriculum requirements plus 

three additional requirements: 4 credits must be earned in math, of which one course must be precalculus or a higher level; science 

courses completed must cover all three subjects of biology, chemistry, and physics; and 3 credits must be earned in foreign language 

courses.

6

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-67

Table C-14b. 

Standard errors for table C-14a: Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

employment status and percentage who had ever served in the military, by selected 

characteristics: 2012 

Selected characteristics Total

Worked 

35 or more 

hours/

week

Worked 

1–34 

hours/

week Unemployed

Out of 

the 

labor 

force

Ever 

served 

in the 

military

 Total 0.47 0.54 0.35 0.40 0.26 0.30

Highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 2.75 2.86 1.92 2.89 2.15 †

High school only 1.47 1.72 1.07 1.25 0.95 0.99

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency 3.65 3.89 3.72 3.19 2.15 †

High school diploma 1.54 1.79 1.04 1.32 1.03 1.10

Some college but no postsecondary credential 0.78 0.91 0.61 0.71 0.48 0.61

Still enrolled in 2012 1.40 1.56 1.20 1.14 0.84 1.14

Not enrolled in 2012 0.93 1.25 0.81 0.88 0.55 0.69

Undergraduate certificate 1.26 1.51 1.08 1.17 0.77 0.92

Associate’s degree 1.43 1.70 1.38 1.27 0.78 1.12

Bachelor’s degree 0.58 0.82 0.65 0.43 0.46 0.45

Master’s or higher degree 1.14 1.56 1.25 0.94 0.76 0.61

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 0.65 0.68 0.46 0.58 0.30 0.53

Female 0.68 0.77 0.54 0.52 0.43 0.22

Race/ethnicity

White 0.50 0.66 0.47 0.41 0.35 0.38

Black 1.28 1.62 1.11 1.34 0.49 0.79

Hispanic 1.39 1.36 0.87 1.06 0.75 0.71

Asian 1.47 1.49 1.14 1.29 1.07 0.73

Other 1.95 2.16 1.80 1.74 1.37 1.60

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 0.74 0.84 0.60 0.71 0.50 0.53

Some college 0.78 0.94 0.66 0.69 0.44 0.54

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.68 0.83 0.59 0.57 0.43 0.45

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 0.87 1.01 0.79 0.81 0.57 0.50

Middle two quarters 0.57 0.74 0.55 0.49 0.36 0.43

Highest quarter 0.80 0.98 0.70 0.58 0.60 0.56

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 0.49 0.60 0.42 0.39 0.30 0.36

Single-parent family 0.96 1.16 0.80 0.87 0.59 0.53

Language student first learned to speak

English 0.50 0.59 0.38 0.43 0.28 0.32

Non-English 1.33 1.30 0.92 1.18 0.78 0.71

See notes at end of table. 

Employed
C-68 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics Total

Worked 

35 or more 

hours/

week

Worked 

1–34 

hours/

week Unemployed

Out of 

the 

labor 

force

Ever 

served 

in the 

military

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 1.51 1.95 1.41 1.35 0.96 0.98

High school diploma or less 1.67 1.86 1.36 1.50 1.14 0.95

Some college 1.44 1.66 1.09 1.18 0.75 1.11

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.46 0.58 0.42 0.40 0.31 0.32

Academic risk in 10th grade

Low 0.97 1.21 0.88 0.66 0.78 0.61

Moderate 0.58 0.62 0.41 0.47 0.31 0.34

High 1.32 1.54 1.09 1.22 0.72 0.71

School disengagement in 10th grade

Low 0.83 1.08 0.77 0.67 0.56 0.54

Moderate 0.61 0.77 0.54 0.49 0.38 0.45

High 0.99 0.98 0.78 0.83 0.55 0.67

School control in 10th grade

Public 0.50 0.58 0.38 0.43 0.28 0.32

Private 0.76 1.03 0.62 0.60 0.64 0.49

Rigor of high school curriculum

Below-standard 0.80 0.89 0.60 0.67 0.47 0.46

Standard 1.12 1.29 0.87 1.10 0.78 0.72

Moderately rigorous 0.70 0.96 0.68 0.60 0.50 0.58

Rigorous 1.36 1.71 1.20 0.90 1.13 0.61

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 2.09 2.12 1.38 2.07 1.25 1.07

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 0.71 0.85 0.65 0.57 0.47 0.49

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 0.72 0.88 0.64 0.59 0.44 0.49

Calculus 1.00 1.29 0.85 0.67 0.80 0.54

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science 1.97 2.13 1.40 1.83 0.98 1.16

General biology 1.08 1.15 0.64 0.93 0.60 0.64

Chemistry I or physics I 0.77 1.02 0.78 0.65 0.49 0.52

Chemistry I and physics I 1.12 1.38 0.82 0.77 0.87 0.74

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 0.96 1.31 0.91 0.76 0.64 0.62

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 0.95 1.10 0.77 0.94 0.52 0.67

2.00‒2.49 1.09 1.25 0.89 0.93 0.65 0.67

2.50‒2.99 1.05 1.26 0.95 0.75 0.63 0.62

3.00‒3.49 0.91 1.14 0.85 0.64 0.64 0.55

3.50‒4.00 0.98 1.17 0.84 0.71 0.77 0.51

Marital status in 2012

Single never married 0.66 0.80 0.57 0.61 0.31 0.32

Married 0.89 1.03 0.60 0.61 0.66 0.67

Divorced/separated/widowed 2.49 2.92 2.02 2.38 1.13 2.53

Living with partner 0.80 1.01 0.74 0.68 0.54 0.47

Number of children had in 2012

None 0.47 0.64 0.48 0.43 0.27 0.33

One or more 0.92 1.02 0.67 0.79 0.58 0.49

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

† Not applicable.

Table C-14b. 

Standard errors for table C-14a: Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

employment status and percentage who had ever served in the military, by selected 

characteristics: 2012—Continued 

Employed
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-69

Table C-15a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently employed, percentage distribution of their current occupation, by

selected characteristics: 2012 

Selected characteristics

Business/

management 

occupations

STEM 

occupations1

Health care 

occupations

PK‒12 

educators/

social service 

professionals2

Sales 

occupations

Business 

support/

administrative 

assistants

Trade/

technical 

occupations Other3

 Total 13.5 5.9 10.2 6.4 7.9 16.5 32.4 7.2

Highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 8.0 # 3.1 ! ‡ 7.6 15.2 64.5 ‡

High school only 7.2 1.0 ! 3.4 0.8 ! 9.4 18.6 57.2 2.3

GED, certificate of attendance, 

 or other equivalency4 ‡ ‡ 6.7 ! # 11.7 20.1 53.8 ‡

High school diploma 8.0 0.9 ! 2.7 1.0 ! 9.0 18.3 57.9 2.2

Some college but no postsecondary credential 12.4 3.5 5.9 3.0 9.8 19.9 41.2 4.4

Still enrolled in 2012 12.1 3.6 8.1 4.7 8.9 21.3 37.0 4.3

Not enrolled in 2012 12.5 3.4 4.6 2.1 10.4 19.1 43.5 4.4

Undergraduate certificate 8.5 1.9 22.9 2.4 5.4 14.9 41.1 2.9

Associate’s degree 9.7 4.9 17.7 3.2 7.9 20.6 30.1 5.9

Bachelor’s degree 20.7 12.3 8.2 11.0 7.7 13.9 14.6 11.5

Master’s or higher degree 13.7 7.8 23.1 23.8 1.2 ! 6.5 4.5 19.5

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 14.1 8.7 3.7 3.0 7.8 11.5 45.2 6.0

Female 13.0 3.0 16.9 10.1 8.0 21.7 18.9 8.5

Race/ethnicity5

White 14.8 7.2 10.5 6.8 7.6 14.3 30.6 8.1

Black 10.4 3.4 9.9 6.5 7.8 19.7 36.6 5.7

Hispanic 10.4 2.8 8.3 5.9 8.9 22.9 35.5 5.4

Asian 17.5 9.3 14.6 5.0 7.7 17.7 20.3 8.1

Other 12.9 4.1 9.1 4.1 8.1 14.5 42.6 4.7

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 9.8 3.4 9.8 4.9 8.6 19.4 40.4 3.8

Some college 12.9 5.0 10.0 6.3 7.1 17.9 34.9 5.9

Bachelor’s or higher degree 16.7 8.5 10.6 7.6 8.0 13.3 24.7 10.7

See notes at end of table. 
C-70 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

Business/

management 

occupations

STEM 

occupations1

Health care 

occupations

PK‒12 

educators/

social service 

professionals2

Sales 

occupations

Business 

support/

administrative 

assistants

Trade/

technical 

occupations Other3

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 9.0 3.0 10.4 5.0 8.2 18.8 41.8 3.9

Middle two quarters 13.0 5.2 10.1 5.9 7.7 17.8 34.2 6.1

Highest quarter 18.7 9.7 10.1 8.9 7.8 11.8 20.6 12.3

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 13.7 6.2 10.3 6.7 7.7 16.2 31.4 7.7

Single-parent family 12.8 4.7 9.6 5.7 8.3 17.1 36.3 5.4

Language student first learned to speak

English 13.7 6.0 10.1 6.7 7.9 15.9 32.4 7.3

Non-English 12.5 5.2 10.6 5.0 7.4 20.6 32.1 6.5

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 10.6 3.3 6.7 5.5 9.4 17.5 41.8 5.3

High school diploma or less 9.2 2.1 3.3 1.9 ! 8.0 14.1 57.8 3.5

Some college 11.7 2.9 7.9 2.6 7.6 13.9 49.9 3.6

Bachelor’s or higher degree 14.6 7.0 11.5 7.6 7.7 16.9 26.4 8.3

Academic risk in 10th grade6

Low 17.7 13.9 14.1 10.3 5.0 11.4 13.0 14.6

Moderate 13.5 5.0 10.0 6.4 8.5 17.2 33.0 6.5

High 9.1 1.7 6.6 2.2 7.9 18.5 51.2 2.9

School disengagement in 10th grade7

Low 12.9 8.1 12.9 8.7 7.5 14.1 26.5 9.2

Moderate 13.9 6.5 10.4 7.0 7.6 17.4 29.9 7.3

High 13.4 2.5 7.3 3.6 8.7 16.6 43.4 4.5

School control in 10th grade

Public 13.1 5.8 10.0 6.3 7.9 16.8 33.4 6.8

Private 19.0 7.5 11.9 8.4 7.6 13.3 20.5 11.8

See notes at end of table. 

Table C-15a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently employed, percentage distribution of their current occupation, by 

selected characteristics: 2012—Continued 
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-71

Selected characteristics

Business/

management 

occupations

STEM 

occupations1

Health care 

occupations

PK‒12 

educators/

social service 

professionals2

Sales 

occupations

Business 

support/

administrative 

assistants

Trade/

technical 

occupations Other3

Rigor of high school curriculum8,9

Below-standard 12.1 4.6 8.0 4.8 8.7 16.8 40.0 5.1

Standard 13.4 5.9 11.8 6.0 5.8 17.5 32.5 7.1

Moderately rigorous 16.1 6.3 13.0 9.8 7.7 15.9 21.9 9.2

Rigorous 19.2 15.2 14.1 10.1 4.6 9.4 12.6 14.9

Highest math course taken since grade 99

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 7.1 2.0 ! 4.8 2.1 ! 9.9 17.3 54.5 2.4 !

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 11.6 2.8 9.1 4.6 8.8 18.4 39.4 5.3

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 16.4 6.7 12.2 10.4 6.8 15.4 23.7 8.3

Calculus 18.9 17.8 13.8 7.5 4.7 10.2 13.1 14.0

Highest science course taken since grade 98

No science or low-level science 9.2 2.6 4.1 1.2 ! 7.3 16.2 56.3 3.1

General biology 10.8 2.7 9.7 3.4 8.4 17.7 42.6 4.6

Chemistry I or physics I 14.9 3.9 11.6 9.0 8.6 17.9 27.4 6.7

Chemistry I and physics I 16.4 10.6 9.7 9.5 7.1 14.1 21.1 11.6

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 16.9 13.5 13.8 8.4 5.7 12.3 18.9 10.4

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 10.5 2.7 6.6 2.1 8.8 16.4 49.4 3.5

2.00‒2.49 12.0 3.4 7.6 4.2 8.4 18.8 41.0 4.7

2.50‒2.99 13.0 5.4 10.3 7.6 10.0 18.1 29.0 6.4

3.00‒3.49 18.0 8.3 12.3 8.8 6.7 15.5 20.7 9.7

3.50‒4.00 17.5 12.4 16.4 12.3 4.0 12.0 11.9 13.6

Marital status in 2012

Single never married10 13.6 6.6 9.1 6.5 9.0 16.5 31.0 7.8

Married 12.7 6.1 12.6 8.2 5.7 15.9 32.7 6.2

Divorced/separated/widowed10 10.1 4.8 ! 8.5 2.8 ! 9.6 19.6 38.7 5.8

Living with partner 14.9 4.7 9.6 4.8 8.1 16.6 34.0 7.3

Number of children had in 2012

None 15.4 7.2 10.1 7.4 7.5 15.6 27.7 9.0

One or more11 10.2 3.3 10.9 5.6 8.6 18.4 39.6 3.6

See notes at end of table. 

Table C-15a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently employed, percentage distribution of their current occupation, by 

selected characteristics: 2012—Continued 
C-72 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

9

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

10 Not living with any partner.

6

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average (GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades 

K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable. 7

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble 

in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information 

about this variable.

8

 Students who attain a standard curriculum must earn 4 credits in English and 3 credits each in social studies, math, and science. Students who do not meet these requirements complete a 

below-standard curriculum. Students who attain a moderately rigorous curriculum must meet the standard curriculum requirements plus three additional requirements: math credits earned 

must include algebra and geometry; science courses completed must cover two subjects among biology, chemistry, and physics; and 1 credit must be earned in foreign language courses. 

Students who attain a rigorous curriculum must meet the moderately rigorous curriculum requirements plus three additional requirements: 4 credits must be earned in math, of which one 

course must be precalculus or a higher level; science courses completed must cover all three subjects of biology, chemistry, and physics; and 3 credits must be earned in foreign language 

courses.

11 Includes biological and adopted children.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

1

 STEM occupations include life scientists, physical scientists, mathematics-related occupations, engineers, and computer/information systems occupations.

3

 Other occupations include air transportation professionals, artists and designers, communication professionals, information professionals, legal professionals, other educators, 

postsecondary educators, and social scientists.

4

 A General Educational Development certificate (GED) is awarded to those who did not finish high school but who have earned the equivalent of a high school diploma by passing required 

GED exams. A certificate of attendance may be awarded when a student attended high school for the minimum amount of time required but did not complete all courses required for a 

diploma.

5

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or 

more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless specified.

Table C-15a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently employed, percentage distribution of their current occupation, by 

selected characteristics: 2012—Continued 

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate. 

# Rounds to zero.

‡ Reporting standards not met. 

2

 Due to small sample sizes, PK–12 educators and social service professionals are combined in this report. Social service professional occupations include counselors, social workers, 

religious workers, clinical and school psychologists, and other community and social service specialists.
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-73

Table C-15b. 

Standard errors for table C-15a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently employed, percentage distribution of 

their current occupation, by selected characteristics: 2012 

Selected characteristics

Business/

management 

occupations

STEM 

occupations

Health care 

occupations

PK‒12 

educators/

social service 

professionals

Sales 

occupations

Business 

support/

administrative 

assistants

Trade/

technical 

occupations Other

 Total 0.45 0.31 0.38 0.30 0.31 0.46 0.65 0.34

Highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 2.02 † 1.47 † 1.64 3.06 3.71 †

High school only 1.03 0.39 0.71 0.31 1.12 1.40 1.88 0.59

GED, certificate of attendance, 

 or other equivalency † † 2.72 † 3.28 3.88 5.21 †

High school diploma 1.09 0.39 0.61 0.37 1.20 1.59 2.05 0.63

Some college but no postsecondary credential 0.72 0.42 0.58 0.34 0.65 0.92 1.13 0.43

Still enrolled in 2012 1.36 0.69 1.02 0.76 0.93 1.50 1.91 0.76

Not enrolled in 2012 0.95 0.52 0.67 0.34 0.77 1.04 1.42 0.56

Undergraduate certificate 1.03 0.52 1.57 0.60 0.84 1.28 1.86 0.63

Associate’s degree 1.21 0.91 1.80 0.73 1.08 1.76 1.75 1.20

Bachelor’s degree 0.88 0.72 0.60 0.75 0.65 0.78 0.78 0.71

Master’s or higher degree 1.50 1.27 1.68 1.75 0.38 1.24 0.94 1.76

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 0.58 0.50 0.30 0.28 0.45 0.53 0.86 0.41

Female 0.63 0.32 0.68 0.53 0.47 0.73 0.74 0.49

Race/ethnicity

White 0.58 0.42 0.52 0.40 0.38 0.53 0.78 0.44

Black 1.04 0.58 1.06 0.82 0.79 1.24 1.61 0.75

Hispanic 0.96 0.47 0.91 0.84 0.84 1.24 1.64 0.80

Asian 1.80 1.14 1.36 0.84 1.07 1.50 1.87 1.11

Other 1.86 1.05 1.36 1.07 1.43 2.07 2.87 1.18

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 0.74 0.49 0.66 0.52 0.62 0.94 1.23 0.44

Some college 0.78 0.47 0.63 0.49 0.51 0.80 0.95 0.51

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.74 0.55 0.55 0.49 0.48 0.63 0.85 0.55

See notes at end of table. 
C-74 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

Business/

management 

occupations

STEM 

occupations

Health care 

occupations

PK‒12 

educators/

social service 

professionals

Sales 

occupations

Business 

support/

administrative 

assistants

Trade/

technical 

occupations Other

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 0.74 0.40 0.75 0.61 0.68 0.99 1.35 0.51

Middle two quarters 0.67 0.38 0.57 0.39 0.42 0.64 0.75 0.45

Highest quarter 0.93 0.74 0.64 0.69 0.65 0.76 1.00 0.77

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 0.51 0.35 0.44 0.35 0.36 0.52 0.71 0.40

Single-parent family 1.03 0.56 0.76 0.60 0.64 0.99 1.34 0.62

Language student first learned to speak

English 0.48 0.33 0.41 0.32 0.33 0.48 0.70 0.36

Non-English 1.06 0.71 1.12 0.76 0.78 1.26 1.72 0.86

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 1.32 0.73 1.10 0.96 1.11 1.64 1.95 1.01

High school diploma or less 1.32 0.57 0.89 0.69 1.18 1.67 2.35 0.87

Some college 1.34 0.66 1.05 0.58 1.00 1.50 2.04 0.65

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.53 0.39 0.45 0.37 0.38 0.56 0.72 0.43

Academic risk in 10th grade

Low 1.22 1.02 1.03 0.86 0.67 0.97 1.13 1.20

Moderate 0.53 0.34 0.45 0.38 0.36 0.53 0.71 0.36

High 0.99 0.50 0.93 0.54 0.94 1.33 1.86 0.60

School disengagement in 10th grade

Low 0.96 0.67 0.94 0.70 0.68 0.87 1.26 0.74

Moderate 0.64 0.45 0.55 0.47 0.46 0.74 0.81 0.54

High 0.90 0.46 0.70 0.52 0.73 0.95 1.30 0.57

School control in 10th grade

Public 0.47 0.33 0.41 0.32 0.33 0.50 0.70 0.35

Private 0.93 0.58 0.80 0.60 0.67 0.84 1.07 0.93

See notes at end of table. 

Table C-15b. 

Standard errors for table C-15a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently employed, percentage distribution of 

their current occupation, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued 
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-75

Selected characteristics

Business/

management 

occupations

STEM 

occupations

Health care 

occupations

PK‒12 

educators/

social service 

professionals

Sales 

occupations

Business 

support/

administrative 

assistants

Trade/

technical 

occupations Other

Rigor of high school curriculum

Below-standard 0.61 0.43 0.54 0.46 0.49 0.73 0.97 0.46

Standard 1.07 0.73 1.17 0.78 0.72 1.17 1.73 0.81

Moderately rigorous 0.87 0.60 0.79 0.71 0.65 0.97 1.04 0.67

Rigorous 1.84 1.70 1.43 1.53 0.85 1.34 1.78 1.65

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 1.52 0.83 1.20 0.73 1.30 1.88 3.00 0.76

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 0.59 0.32 0.59 0.43 0.52 0.86 1.00 0.52

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 0.85 0.52 0.75 0.71 0.52 0.79 1.00 0.60

Calculus 1.30 1.30 1.11 0.83 0.80 0.98 1.13 1.15

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science 1.40 0.76 0.86 0.50 1.17 1.56 2.44 0.78

General biology 0.82 0.48 0.79 0.50 0.70 1.08 1.43 0.59

Chemistry I or physics I 0.86 0.46 0.79 0.65 0.58 0.92 1.14 0.61

Chemistry I and physics I 1.20 0.96 0.96 0.98 0.79 1.04 1.50 1.16

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 1.26 1.07 1.00 0.87 0.65 0.96 1.39 1.08

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 0.77 0.44 0.70 0.34 0.71 0.98 1.26 0.47

2.00‒2.49 0.99 0.52 0.71 0.62 0.81 1.15 1.35 0.69

2.50‒2.99 0.85 0.65 0.92 0.78 0.79 1.11 1.32 0.77

3.00‒3.49 1.15 0.90 0.98 0.78 0.70 0.98 1.26 0.87

3.50‒4.00 1.19 1.02 1.10 0.97 0.63 0.99 0.98 1.10

Marital status in 2012

Single never married 0.66 0.46 0.51 0.42 0.51 0.72 0.89 0.50

Married 0.74 0.54 0.72 0.63 0.55 0.77 1.07 0.53

Divorced/separated/widowed 1.82 1.58 1.96 1.04 2.22 2.65 3.63 1.73

Living with partner 1.00 0.50 0.72 0.52 0.64 0.93 1.25 0.66

Number of children had in 2012

None 0.55 0.42 0.43 0.40 0.41 0.60 0.78 0.47

One or more 0.76 0.48 0.77 0.53 0.62 0.85 1.19 0.40

† Not applicable.

Table C-15b. 

Standard errors for table C-15a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently employed, percentage distribution of 

their current occupation, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).
C-76 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Table C-16a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently employed, median and 

percentage distribution of standardized hourly wage for their current job, by selected 

characteristics: 2012 

Selected characteristics

Median 

standardized 

hourly wage ($)1

Lowest 

quarter

Middle two 

quarters

Highest 

quarter

 Total 14.4 25.1 50.5 24.4

Highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 10.0 53.2 41.5 5.3 !

High school only 12.0 36.4 51.6 12.0

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency2 10.5 49.9 42.4 7.7 !

High school diploma 12.8 33.8 53.4 12.8

Some college but no postsecondary credential 12.3 34.6 51.7 13.7

Still enrolled in 2012 12.0 37.4 49.6 13.0

Not enrolled in 2012 12.5 33.0 52.9 14.1

Undergraduate certificate 13.1 28.8 53.2 18.0

Associate’s degree 14.3 20.2 56.3 23.5

Bachelor’s degree 17.3 12.8 49.2 38.0

Master’s or higher degree 20.9 6.5 41.2 52.3

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 15.0 22.1 51.0 26.9

Female 14.0 28.2 50.0 21.8

Race/ethnicity3

White 15.0 21.3 50.4 28.3

Black 12.0 40.0 47.1 12.9

Hispanic 13.6 28.1 54.5 17.4

Asian 16.3 17.7 47.8 34.5

Other 13.9 28.9 50.3 20.8

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 13.4 30.2 52.3 17.5

Some college 14.0 25.5 53.6 20.8

Bachelor’s or higher degree 15.7 21.2 46.5 32.3

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 12.5 35.3 50.7 14.0

Middle two quarters 14.2 24.7 52.5 22.7

Highest quarter 16.7 17.1 46.6 36.3

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 15.0 23.4 50.5 26.1

Single-parent family 13.0 31.6 50.6 17.8

Language student first learned to speak

English 14.5 24.8 50.5 24.7

Non-English 14.0 26.8 50.7 22.5

See notes at end of table. 

Standardized hourly wage in1
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-77

Selected characteristics

Median 

standardized 

hourly wage ($)1

Lowest 

quarter

Middle two 

quarters

Highest 

quarter

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 12.8 33.1 50.8 16.0

High school diploma or less 12.0 37.9 49.5 12.6

Some college 12.8 32.7 51.2 16.2

Bachelor’s or higher degree 15.0 22.0 50.6 27.5

Academic risk in 10th grade4

Low 18.5 11.5 45.1 43.4

Moderate 14.4 24.8 52.0 23.2

High 11.4 42.7 48.1 9.2

School disengagement in 10th grade5

Low 15.4 20.9 49.1 30.0

Moderate 14.5 24.5 50.3 25.2

High 13.6 29.3 52.9 17.8

School control in 10th grade

Public 14.1 26.0 50.6 23.4

Private 17.0 14.8 48.7 36.4

Rigor of high school curriculum6,7

Below-standard 13.4 30.3 50.6 19.1

Standard 15.0 23.2 50.5 26.3

Moderately rigorous 15.4 18.0 52.7 29.3

Rigorous 20.0 11.0 40.0 48.9

Highest math course taken since grade 97

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 10.8 47.5 44.3 8.2

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 13.2 29.8 53.8 16.4

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 16.0 17.3 51.4 31.3

Calculus 20.0 10.4 40.4 49.1

Highest science course taken since grade 97

No science or low-level science 11.9 40.7 46.3 13.0

General biology 13.0 31.3 52.6 16.1

Chemistry I or physics I 14.8 22.0 54.1 24.0

Chemistry I and physics I 16.8 15.8 49.1 35.1

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 17.5 16.4 44.1 39.4

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 12.0 36.1 51.0 12.9

2.00‒2.49 13.3 30.1 55.3 14.5

2.50‒2.99 14.3 25.4 51.2 23.4

3.00‒3.49 16.3 16.8 50.3 32.8

3.50‒4.00 19.1 10.1 44.4 45.5

See notes at end of table. 

Standardized hourly wage in1

Table C-16a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently employed, median and 

percentage distribution of standardized hourly wage for their current job, by selected 

characteristics: 2012—Continued 
C-78 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

Median 

standardized 

hourly wage ($)1

Lowest 

quarter

Middle two 

quarters

Highest 

quarter

Current occupation

Business/management occupations 17.5 11.3 52.5 36.1

STEM occupations8 22.3 5.6 38.9 55.6

Health care occupations 17.0 13.2 47.2 39.6

PK–12 educators/social service professionals9 16.0 15.0 59.1 25.9

Sales occupations 11.1 43.5 44.8 11.7

Business support/administrative assistants 12.6 30.4 59.9 9.8

Trade/technical professionals 13.0 34.2 47.8 18.1

Other10 16.0 18.2 50.4 31.4

Marital status in 2012

Single never married11 13.7 29.4 48.2 22.4

Married 16.0 16.0 52.6 31.4

Divorced/separated/widowed11 12.0 40.0 43.3 16.8

Living with partner 14.0 25.8 52.8 21.4

Number of children had in 2012

None 15.0 21.3 49.9 28.8

One or more12 13.0 32.5 50.3 17.3

1

 Earnings that were reported in a format other than dollars per hour (e.g., dollars per week) were standardized to dollars per hour.

4

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average 

(GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

2

 A General Educational Development (GED) certificate is awarded to those who did not finish high school but who have earned the 

equivalent of a high school diploma by passing required GED exams. A certificate of attendance may be awarded when a student 

attended high school for the minimum amount of time required but did not complete all courses required for a diploma.

Table C-16a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently employed, median and 

percentage distribution of standardized hourly wage for their current job, by selected 

characteristics: 2012—Continued 

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate. 

5

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping 

classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, 

and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

3

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other 

Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless 

specified.

7

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

6

 Students who attain a standard curriculum must earn 4 credits in English and 3 credits each in social studies, math, and science. 

Students who do not meet these requirements complete a below-standard curriculum. Students who attain a moderately rigorous 

curriculum must meet the standard curriculum requirements plus three additional requirements: math credits earned must include algebra 

and geometry; science courses completed must cover two subjects among biology, chemistry, and physics; and 1 credit must be earned 

in foreign language courses. Students who attain a rigorous curriculum must meet the moderately rigorous curriculum requirements plus 

three additional requirements: 4 credits must be earned in math, of which one course must be precalculus or a higher level; science 

courses completed must cover all three subjects of biology, chemistry, and physics; and 3 credits must be earned in foreign language 

courses.

11 Not living with any partner.

9

 Due to small sample sizes, PK–12 educators and social service professionals are combined in this report. Social service professional 

occupations include counselors, social workers, religious workers, clinical and school psychologists, and other community and social 

service specialists.

12 Includes biological and adopted children.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

10 Other occupations include air transportation professionals, artists and designers, communication professionals, information 

professionals, legal professionals, other educators, postsecondary educators, and social scientists.

8

 STEM occupations include life scientists, physical scientists, mathematics-related occupations, engineers, and computer/information 

systems occupations.

Standardized hourly wage in1
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-79

Table C-16b. 

Standard errors for table C-16a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently 

employed, median and percentage distribution of standardized hourly wage for their current job, 

by selected characteristics: 2012 

Selected characteristics

Median 

standardized 

hourly wage ($)

Lowest 

quarter

Middle two 

quarters

Highest 

quarter

 Total 0.18 0.61 0.73 0.64

Highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 0.33 3.99 3.82 1.89

High school only 0.39 2.01 2.00 1.27

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency 0.59 5.16 4.96 2.53

High school diploma 0.40 2.16 2.25 1.38

Some college but no postsecondary credential 0.22 1.08 1.18 0.86

Still enrolled in 2012 0.28 1.72 1.67 1.30

Not enrolled in 2012 0.25 1.31 1.48 1.09

Undergraduate certificate 0.31 1.65 1.94 1.52

Associate’s degree 0.36 1.83 2.22 1.89

Bachelor’s degree 0.26 0.78 1.20 1.21

Master’s or higher degree 0.56 1.08 2.08 2.07

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 0.05 0.82 0.98 0.89

Female 0.15 0.94 1.04 0.79

Race/ethnicity

White 0.20 0.70 0.89 0.87

Black 0.29 1.67 1.88 1.25

Hispanic 0.37 1.63 1.79 1.26

Asian 0.60 1.52 2.09 2.32

Other 0.72 2.68 2.85 2.38

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 0.24 1.09 1.37 0.95

Some college 0.13 0.96 1.16 0.82

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.33 0.80 1.04 1.07

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 0.29 1.35 1.41 0.93

Middle two quarters 0.19 0.79 0.95 0.75

Highest quarter 0.34 0.93 1.31 1.41

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 0.20 0.63 0.82 0.74

Single-parent family 0.19 1.26 1.36 1.02

Language student first learned to speak

English 0.21 0.63 0.76 0.69

Non-English 0.28 1.62 1.92 1.42

See notes at end of table. 

Standardized hourly wage in
C-80 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

Median 

standardized 

hourly wage ($)

Lowest 

quarter

Middle two 

quarters

Highest 

quarter

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 0.41 2.23 2.15 1.62

High school diploma or less 0.31 2.32 2.37 1.55

Some college 0.28 1.82 2.02 1.59

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.03 0.65 0.81 0.73

Academic risk in 10th grade

Low 0.43 1.11 1.63 1.66

Moderate 0.20 0.71 0.89 0.72

High 0.33 1.85 2.07 1.11

School disengagement in 10th grade

Low 0.33 1.21 1.48 1.37

Moderate 0.24 0.75 0.96 0.82

High 0.33 1.43 1.66 1.20

School control in 10th grade

Public 0.18 0.65 0.79 0.69

Private 0.24 1.04 1.19 1.33

Rigor of high school curriculum

Below-standard 0.24 1.00 1.18 0.98

Standard 0.27 1.59 1.81 1.77

Moderately rigorous 0.30 0.97 1.34 1.14

Rigorous 0.61 1.50 2.76 2.70

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 0.54 2.68 2.76 1.59

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 0.18 1.02 1.20 0.84

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 0.19 0.85 1.23 1.16

Calculus 0.41 0.92 1.57 1.64

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science 0.41 2.50 2.73 1.58

General biology 0.15 1.29 1.41 1.15

Chemistry I or physics I 0.24 0.99 1.28 1.05

Chemistry I and physics I 0.35 1.18 1.73 1.76

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 0.42 1.20 1.61 1.54

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 0.17 1.20 1.27 0.82

2.00‒2.49 0.27 1.36 1.56 1.10

2.50‒2.99 0.34 1.30 1.56 1.30

3.00‒3.49 0.33 1.04 1.67 1.59

3.50‒4.00 0.49 0.96 1.76 1.72

See notes at end of table. 

Standardized hourly wage in

Table C-16b. 

Standard errors for table C-16a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently 

employed, median and percentage distribution of standardized hourly wage for their current job, 

by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued 
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-81

Selected characteristics

Median 

standardized 

hourly wage ($)

Lowest 

quarter

Middle two 

quarters

Highest 

quarter

Current occupation

Business/management occupations 0.31 1.08 1.60 1.60

STEM occupations 0.71 1.14 2.39 2.41

Health care occupations 0.54 1.36 2.03 1.95

PK–12 educators/social service professionals 0.42 1.65 2.36 2.29

Sales occupations 0.34 1.96 2.13 1.41

Business support/administrative assistants 0.24 1.44 1.57 0.95

Trade/technical professionals 0.15 1.09 1.23 0.93

Other 0.56 1.81 2.67 2.37

Marital status in 2012

Single never married 0.22 0.92 1.06 0.83

Married 0.28 0.94 1.36 1.25

Divorced/separated/widowed 0.63 3.44 3.65 2.90

Living with partner 0.18 1.25 1.36 1.16

Number of children had in 2012

None 0.23 0.67 0.87 0.75

One or more 0.19 1.13 1.26 1.07

Table C-16b. 

Standard errors for table C-16a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who were currently 

employed, median and percentage distribution of standardized hourly wage for their current job, 

by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued 

Standardized hourly wage in

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).
C-82 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Table C-17a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had worked for pay, percentage reporting the 

perception that their current or most recent job required various postsecondary credentials, and 

of those who had also enrolled in postsecondary education, percentage indicating that their 

current or most recent job was closely, somewhat, or not related to their most recent 

postsecondary major field: by selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics

Undergraduate 

certificate

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Closely 

related

Somewhat 

related

Not 

related

 Total 18.4 11.6 26.6 35.5 22.0 42.5

Highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 9.5 ‡ ‡ † † †

High school only 14.7 1.5 ! 1.8 † † †

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency1 19.4 ‡ ‡ † † †

High school diploma 13.6 1.2 ! 2.0 † † †

Some college but no postsecondary credential 14.5 5.1 7.4 17.8 19.2 63.0

Still enrolled in 2012 16.6 7.4 12.1 24.9 20.5 54.6

Not enrolled in 2012 13.3 3.6 4.4 13.3 18.4 68.2

Undergraduate certificate 45.7 8.0 7.4 38.9 19.1 42.1

Associate’s degree 20.1 31.0 7.7 40.4 18.6 41.0

Bachelor’s degree 15.7 19.1 58.3 43.6 27.7 28.7

Master’s or higher degree 14.7 14.7 84.4 70.8 19.2 10.0

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 16.3 9.9 24.0 33.0 22.7 44.3

Female 20.4 13.3 29.1 37.6 21.3 41.1

Race/ethnicity2

White 16.3 12.0 30.5 39.5 21.5 39.1

Black 25.3 10.2 17.0 25.4 21.4 53.2

Hispanic 20.3 10.7 17.9 28.3 22.4 49.3

Asian 17.4 14.6 41.6 37.3 27.8 35.0

Other 20.4 11.1 19.6 31.0 23.6 45.4

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 19.0 9.5 13.8 32.5 20.0 47.6

Some college 19.4 11.2 20.6 33.1 21.0 45.9

Bachelor’s or higher degree 17.1 13.5 40.5 39.0 23.8 37.2

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 19.9 10.0 12.4 30.4 20.4 49.3

Middle two quarters 19.3 11.1 22.0 33.7 21.8 44.6

Highest quarter 15.3 14.0 47.7 41.6 24.0 34.4

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 17.7 12.0 28.3 36.6 22.1 41.3

Single-parent family 20.7 10.0 20.3 30.8 22.1 47.1

Language student first learned to speak

English 18.0 11.6 26.9 36.1 21.9 42.0

Non-English 21.2 11.9 24.8 31.4 22.5 46.2

See notes at end of table. 

Current/most recent job 

and postsecondary 

Current/most recent job required major field were
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-83

Selected characteristics

Undergraduate 

certificate

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Closely 

related

Somewhat 

related

Not 

related

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 18.2 7.3 14.5 24.7 20.9 54.5

High school diploma or less 17.3 5.1 3.9 22.8 20.2 56.9

Some college 21.0 6.6 7.5 32.0 20.1 48.0

Bachelor’s or higher degree 18.2 13.4 32.9 37.5 22.6 39.9

Academic risk in 10th grade3

Low 12.6 14.5 59.1 49.3 23.5 27.3

Moderate 18.4 11.7 23.3 33.7 22.1 44.2

High 25.0 7.6 6.3 23.9 17.8 58.3

School disengagement in 10th grade4

Low 16.8 14.6 36.5 41.0 23.4 35.7

Moderate 18.9 12.2 29.2 36.2 23.1 40.7

High 18.1 6.9 11.9 26.3 18.9 54.8

School control in 10th grade

Public 18.5 11.2 24.9 34.8 21.9 43.3

Private 16.7 16.0 46.5 42.6 22.5 34.9

Rigor of high school curriculum5,6

Below-standard 18.9 9.7 16.5 30.8 20.8 48.3

Standard 20.5 13.1 26.6 35.1 24.2 40.7

Moderately rigorous 17.3 15.0 37.6 39.7 21.9 38.4

Rigorous 12.2 13.9 69.6 52.6 23.3 24.1

Highest math course taken since grade 96

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 19.5 6.1 3.9 24.2 18.2 57.6

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 20.4 10.4 12.8 27.1 21.3 51.6

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 17.6 15.1 39.4 41.7 22.3 36.1

Calculus 11.8 13.7 63.3 51.0 24.0 25.1

Highest science course taken since grade 96

No science or low-level science 21.4 7.3 4.7 22.7 16.9 60.4

General biology 20.1 9.2 11.6 28.1 20.7 51.2

Chemistry I or physics I 19.3 13.9 27.2 35.3 22.3 42.4

Chemistry I and physics I 16.4 15.7 47.4 43.5 24.2 32.4

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 13.4 12.6 49.3 44.7 22.4 32.9

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 19.7 7.0 6.7 23.4 17.4 59.2

2.00‒2.49 20.5 8.8 12.2 26.4 22.0 51.6

2.50‒2.99 18.2 12.2 23.9 32.1 22.4 45.6

3.00‒3.49 18.1 16.6 41.4 42.9 24.0 33.0

3.50‒4.00 13.7 16.7 61.4 53.0 22.9 24.1

See notes at end of table. 

Current/most recent job required

Current/most recent job 

and postsecondary 

major field were

Table C-17a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had worked for pay, percentage reporting the 

perception that their current or most recent job required various postsecondary credentials, and 

of those who had also enrolled in postsecondary education, percentage indicating that their 

current or most recent job was closely, somewhat, or not related to their most recent 

postsecondary major field: by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued
C-84 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

Undergraduate 

certificate

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Closely 

related

Somewhat 

related

Not 

related

Occupation of current/most recent job

Business/management occupations 13.6 13.6 44.7 34.5 29.7 35.8

STEM occupations7 17.1 20.1 70.0 62.1 23.6 14.3

Health care occupations 41.1 27.2 32.9 68.8 18.8 12.4

PK–12 educators/social service professionals8 23.2 18.7 76.2 68.5 16.4 15.1

Sales occupations 10.0 4.6 12.0 9.7 21.2 69.1

Business support/administrative assistants 11.1 8.6 10.9 15.5 23.3 61.1

Trade/technical professionals 19.4 5.6 5.0 22.4 18.3 59.3

Other9 17.0 19.0 58.5 54.2 27.9 17.9

Marital status in 2012

Single never married10 17.8 10.9 28.6 34.2 22.3 43.5

Married 18.5 12.4 27.3 40.7 21.5 37.8

Divorced/separated/widowed10 18.1 10.7 11.4 29.9 19.1 51.0

Living with partner 19.4 12.0 23.7 32.7 22.4 44.9

Number of children had in 2012

None 17.0 13.0 34.8 37.8 23.2 38.9

One or more11 21.3 8.8 9.9 30.1 19.0 51.0

5

 Students who attain a standard curriculum must earn 4 credits in English and 3 credits each in social studies, math, and science. 

Students who do not meet these requirements complete a below-standard curriculum. Students who attain a moderately rigorous 

curriculum must meet the standard curriculum requirements plus three additional requirements: math credits earned must include algebra 

and geometry; science courses completed must cover two subjects among biology, chemistry, and physics; and 1 credit must be earned in 

foreign language courses. Students who attain a rigorous curriculum must meet the moderately rigorous curriculum requirements plus 

three additional requirements: 4 credits must be earned in math, of which one course must be precalculus or a higher level; science 

courses completed must cover all three subjects of biology, chemistry, and physics; and 3 credits must be earned in foreign language 

courses.

6

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

7

 STEM occupations include life scientists, physical scientists, mathematics-related occupations, engineers, and computer/information 

systems occupations.

8

 Due to small sample sizes, PK–12 educators and social service professionals are combined in this report. Social service professional 

occupations include counselors, social workers, religious workers, clinical and school psychologists, and other community and social 

service specialists.

1

 A General Educational Development (GED) certificate is awarded to those who did not finish high school but who have earned the 

equivalent of a high school diploma by passing required GED exams. A certificate of attendance may be awarded when a student attended 

high school for the minimum amount of time required but did not complete all courses required for a diploma.

2

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other 

Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless 

specified.

3

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average 

(GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable. 4

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping 

classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, 

and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

† Not applicable.

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate. 

Table C-17a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had worked for pay, percentage reporting the 

perception that their current or most recent job required various postsecondary credentials, and 

of those who had also enrolled in postsecondary education, percentage indicating that their 

current or most recent job was closely, somewhat, or not related to their most recent 

postsecondary major field: by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

‡ Reporting standards not met. 

Current/most recent job required

Current/most recent job 

and postsecondary 

major field were

10 Not living with any partner.

11 Includes biological and adopted children.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

9 Other occupations include air transportation professionals, artists and designers, communication professionals, information professionals, 

legal professionals, other educators, postsecondary educators, and social scientists.
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-85

Table C-17b. 

Standard errors for table C-17a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had worked for 

pay, percentage reporting the perception that their current or most recent job required various 

postsecondary credentials, and of those who had also enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage indicating that their current or most recent job was closely, somewhat, or not related 

to their most recent postsecondary major field: by selected characteristics: 2012

Selected characteristics

Undergraduate 

certificate

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Closely 

related

Somewhat 

related

Not 

related

 Total 0.53 0.38 0.70 0.76 0.53 0.75

Highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 2.14 † † † † †

High school only 1.28 0.47 0.44 † † †

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency 3.53 † † † † †

High school diploma 1.26 0.37 0.50 † † †

Some college but no postsecondary credential 0.83 0.49 0.56 0.93 0.80 1.14

Still enrolled in 2012 1.48 0.94 1.25 1.63 1.30 1.87

Not enrolled in 2012 0.90 0.53 0.49 1.01 0.99 1.31

Undergraduate certificate 2.01 1.16 0.99 1.89 1.59 1.84

Associate’s degree 1.60 1.79 1.15 2.04 1.53 2.13

Bachelor’s degree 0.90 0.86 1.06 1.10 0.99 0.96

Master’s or higher degree 1.75 1.78 1.43 1.78 1.51 1.19

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 0.71 0.48 0.85 1.00 0.80 1.02

Female 0.70 0.59 0.86 0.92 0.67 0.91

Race/ethnicity

White 0.66 0.54 0.87 0.93 0.64 0.90

Black 1.44 0.97 1.23 1.49 1.63 1.85

Hispanic 1.39 1.21 1.42 1.77 1.25 1.90

Asian 1.54 1.52 2.29 1.86 1.74 1.91

Other 2.14 1.62 2.22 2.93 2.52 3.22

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 0.94 0.74 0.88 1.36 1.01 1.33

Some college 0.87 0.59 0.92 1.03 0.87 1.14

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.76 0.65 1.06 1.05 0.78 1.01

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 1.05 0.81 0.87 1.46 1.01 1.43

Middle two quarters 0.78 0.51 0.82 0.94 0.82 1.01

Highest quarter 0.83 0.80 1.25 1.22 0.91 1.16

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 0.59 0.44 0.80 0.84 0.61 0.88

Single-parent family 1.05 0.76 1.02 1.27 1.08 1.43

Language student first learned to speak

English 0.56 0.43 0.75 0.82 0.58 0.82

Non-English 1.18 1.04 1.55 1.71 1.46 1.91

See notes at end of table. 

Current/most recent job required

Current/most recent job 

and postsecondary 

major field were
C-86 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

Undergraduate 

certificate

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Closely 

related

Somewhat 

related

Not 

related

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 1.52 1.04 1.46 2.38 2.20 2.57

High school diploma or less 1.71 1.07 1.05 2.75 2.41 3.34

Some college 1.68 0.98 0.88 2.15 1.95 2.31

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.60 0.48 0.84 0.82 0.57 0.82

Academic risk in 10th grade

Low 0.96 1.03 1.53 1.52 1.12 1.41

Moderate 0.59 0.45 0.77 0.86 0.65 0.83

High 1.49 1.00 0.86 1.84 1.59 2.21

School disengagement in 10th grade

Low 1.00 0.88 1.33 1.58 1.22 1.45

Moderate 0.74 0.61 0.94 1.00 0.74 1.06

High 1.02 0.71 0.88 1.35 1.20 1.59

School control in 10th grade

Public 0.57 0.40 0.75 0.83 0.58 0.81

Private 0.96 1.01 1.56 1.35 1.12 1.28

Rigor of high school curriculum

Below-standard 0.87 0.60 0.80 1.05 0.88 1.14

Standard 1.19 0.99 1.70 1.94 1.46 1.70

Moderately rigorous 0.88 0.83 1.24 1.29 0.87 1.37

Rigorous 1.43 1.55 2.22 2.59 2.01 1.91

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 1.78 1.38 0.93 2.87 2.64 3.33

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 0.84 0.67 0.71 0.95 0.87 1.12

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 0.84 0.84 1.28 1.18 0.88 1.16

Calculus 1.00 1.21 1.54 1.55 1.38 1.31

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science 1.87 1.20 0.97 2.27 2.05 2.72

General biology 1.11 0.78 0.95 1.50 1.23 1.61

Chemistry I or physics I 1.01 0.78 1.08 1.32 0.94 1.24

Chemistry I and physics I 1.18 1.20 1.78 1.83 1.32 1.59

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 1.00 1.10 1.86 1.53 1.15 1.47

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 1.02 0.66 0.64 1.37 1.15 1.58

2.00‒2.49 1.22 0.90 0.94 1.40 1.29 1.62

2.50‒2.99 1.17 0.92 1.31 1.50 1.19 1.53

3.00‒3.49 1.09 1.01 1.54 1.54 1.18 1.51

3.50‒4.00 1.05 1.15 1.54 1.38 1.11 1.17

See notes at end of table. 

Current/most recent job required

Current/most recent job 

and postsecondary 

major field were

Table C-17b. 

Standard errors for table C-17a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had worked 

for pay, percentage reporting the perception that their current or most recent job required various 

postsecondary credentials, and of those who had also enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage indicating that their current or most recent job was closely, somewhat, or not related 

to their most recent postsecondary major field: by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-87

Selected characteristics

Undergraduate 

certificate

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Closely 

related

Somewhat 

related

Not 

related

Occupation of current/most recent job

Business/management occupations 1.17 1.15 1.73 1.75 1.50 1.72

STEM occupations 1.99 2.10 2.18 2.60 2.17 1.64

Health care occupations 1.97 1.84 1.66 1.82 1.44 1.30

PK–12 educators/social service professionals 2.29 1.91 1.83 2.07 1.87 1.48

Sales occupations 1.22 0.75 1.24 1.27 1.84 2.00

Business support/administrative assistants 0.94 0.81 0.86 1.06 1.18 1.56

Trade/technical professionals 0.86 0.49 0.42 1.12 1.06 1.22

Other 1.65 1.67 2.25 2.17 2.07 1.53

Marital status in 2012

Single never married 0.76 0.56 0.94 1.03 0.77 1.07

Married 0.91 0.77 1.01 1.18 0.92 1.24

Divorced/separated/widowed 2.59 2.06 2.08 3.41 2.84 3.75

Living with partner 1.04 0.76 1.21 1.39 1.09 1.31

Number of children had in 2012

None 0.60 0.47 0.85 0.85 0.61 0.83

One or more 0.91 0.63 0.58 1.11 0.93 1.16

† Not applicable.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

Table C-17b. 

Standard errors for table C-17a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores who had worked 

for pay, percentage reporting the perception that their current or most recent job required various 

postsecondary credentials, and of those who had also enrolled in postsecondary education, 

percentage indicating that their current or most recent job was closely, somewhat, or not related 

to their most recent postsecondary major field: by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued

Current/most recent job required

Current/most recent job 

and postsecondary 

major field were
C-88 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Table C-18a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores, percentage distribution of employment since 2006, 

by selected characteristics: 2012 

Selected characteristics

Students who have never 

worked for pay since 2006

Students who have 

worked for pay since 2006

 Total 2.4 97.6

Highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 11.2 88.8

High school only 4.8 95.2

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency1 3.5 ! 96.5

High school diploma 5.1 94.9

Some college but no postsecondary credential 2.8 97.2

Still enrolled in 2012 3.0 97.0

Not enrolled in 2012 2.7 97.3

Undergraduate certificate 1.4 ! 98.6

Associate’s degree 1.3 ! 98.7

Bachelor’s degree 0.9 99.1

Master’s or higher degree 1.0 99.0

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 1.7 98.3

Female 3.0 97.0

Race/ethnicity2

White 1.4 98.6

Black 3.5 96.5

Hispanic 4.1 95.9

Asian 5.8 94.2

Other 3.3 96.7

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 3.8 96.2

Some college 1.8 98.2

Bachelor’s or higher degree 2.0 98.0

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 4.1 95.9

Middle two quarters 1.6 98.4

Highest quarter 1.4 98.6

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 2.0 98.0

Single-parent family 3.3 96.7

Language student first learned to speak

English 5.2 94.8

Non-English 1.9 ! 98.1

See notes at end of table. 
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-89

Selected characteristics

Students who have never 

worked for pay since 2006

Students who have 

worked for pay since 2006

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 3.7 96.3

High school diploma or less 3.6 96.4

Some college 3.0 97.0

Bachelor’s or higher degree 1.7 98.3

Academic risk in 10th grade3

Low 1.1 98.9

Moderate 1.9 98.1

High 6.5 93.5

School disengagement in 10th grade4

Low 1.8 98.2

Moderate 2.1 97.9

High 2.4 97.6

School control in 10th grade

Public 2.5 97.5

Private 1.6 98.4

Rigor of high school curriculum5,6

Below-standard 3.2 96.8

Standard 2.8 97.2

Moderately rigorous 0.8 99.2

Rigorous 1.3 98.7

Highest math course taken since grade 96

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 7.4 92.6

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 2.8 97.2

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 1.0 99.0

Calculus 1.2 98.8

Highest science course taken since grade 96

No science or low-level science 6.4 93.6

General biology 3.4 96.6

Chemistry I or physics I 1.3 98.7

Chemistry I and physics I 0.9 ! 99.1

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 1.6 98.4

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 3.7 96.3

2.00‒2.49 3.0 97.0

2.50‒2.99 1.6 98.4

3.00‒3.49 1.5 98.5

3.50‒4.00 1.2 98.8

See notes at end of table. 

Table C-18a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores, percentage distribution of employment since 2006, 

by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued 
C-90 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

Students who have never 

worked for pay since 2006

Students who have 

worked for pay since 2006

Marital status in 2012

Single never married7 2.9 97.1

Married 2.2 97.8

Divorced/separated/widowed7 ‡ 98.4

Living with partner 1.7 98.3

Number of children had in 2012

None 1.6 98.4

One or more8 3.0 97.0

2

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other 

Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless 

specified.

3

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average 

(GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate. 

4

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping 

classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, 

and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

1

 A General Educational Development (GED) certificate is awarded to those who did not finish high school but who have earned the 

equivalent of a high school diploma by passing required GED exams. A certificate of attendance may be awarded when a student 

attended high school for the minimum amount of time required but did not complete all courses required for a diploma.

‡ Reporting standards not met. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

8

 Includes biological and adopted children.

5

 Students who attain a standard curriculum must earn 4 credits in English and 3 credits each in social studies, math, and science. 

Students who do not meet these requirements complete a below-standard curriculum. Students who attain a moderately rigorous 

curriculum must meet the standard curriculum requirements plus three additional requirements: math credits earned must include algebra 

and geometry; science courses completed must cover two subjects among biology, chemistry, and physics; and 1 credit must be earned in 

foreign language courses. Students who attain a rigorous curriculum must meet the moderately rigorous curriculum requirements plus 

three additional requirements: 4 credits must be earned in math, of which one course must be precalculus or a higher level; science 

courses completed must cover all three subjects of biology, chemistry, and physics; and 3 credits must be earned in foreign language 

courses.

6

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

7

 Not living with any partner.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

Table C-18a. 

Among spring 2002 high school sophomores, percentage distribution of employment since 

2006, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued 
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-91

Table C-18b. 

Standard errors for table C-18a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores, percentage 

distribution of employment since 2006, by selected characteristics: 2012 

Selected characteristics

Students who have never 

worked for pay since 2006

Students who have 

worked for pay since 2006

 Total 0.20 0.20

Highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 2.25 2.25

High school only 0.68 0.68

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency 1.36 1.36

High school diploma 0.79 0.79

Some college but no postsecondary credential 0.40 0.40

Still enrolled in 2012 0.61 0.61

Not enrolled in 2012 0.46 0.46

Undergraduate certificate 0.45 0.45

Associate’s degree 0.43 0.43

Bachelor’s degree 0.19 0.19

Master’s or higher degree 0.26 0.26

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 0.24 0.24

Female 0.29 0.29

Race/ethnicity

White 0.19 0.19

Black 0.62 0.62

Hispanic 0.64 0.64

Asian 0.78 0.78

Other 0.95 0.95

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 0.44 0.44

Some college 0.27 0.27

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.26 0.26

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 0.51 0.51

Middle two quarters 0.22 0.22

Highest quarter 0.25 0.25

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 0.19 0.19

Single-parent family 0.48 0.48

Language student first learned to speak

English 0.18 0.18

Non-English 0.66 0.66

See notes at end of table. 
C-92 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

Students who have never 

worked for pay since 2006

Students who have 

worked for pay since 2006

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 0.69 0.69

High school diploma or less 0.79 0.79

Some college 0.69 0.69

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.18 0.18

Academic risk in 10th grade

Low 0.27 0.27

Moderate 0.21 0.21

High 0.88 0.88

School disengagement in 10th grade

Low 0.32 0.32

Moderate 0.24 0.24

High 0.39 0.39

School control in 10th grade

Public 0.21 0.21

Private 0.33 0.33

Rigor of high school curriculum

Below-standard 0.34 0.34

Standard 0.49 0.49

Moderately rigorous 0.19 0.19

Rigorous 0.31 0.31

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 1.14 1.14

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 0.35 0.35

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 0.21 0.21

Calculus 0.26 0.26

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science 1.05 1.05

General biology 0.45 0.45

Chemistry I or physics I 0.29 0.29

Chemistry I and physics I 0.28 0.28

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 0.31 0.31

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 0.49 0.49

2.00‒2.49 0.50 0.50

2.50‒2.99 0.33 0.33

3.00‒3.49 0.29 0.29

3.50‒4.00 0.31 0.31

Marital status in 2012

Single never married 0.28 0.28

Married 0.33 0.33

Divorced/separated/widowed † 0.89

Living with partner 0.33 0.33

Number of children had in 2012

None 0.18 0.18

One or more 0.35 0.35

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

Table C-18b. 

Standard errors for table C-18a: Among spring 2002 high school sophomores, percentage 

distribution of employment since 2006, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued 

† Not applicable.
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-93

Table C-19a. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had ever been unemployed since 

January 2009 and of those, average number of months unemployed and percentage distribution of 

unemployment spells since January 2009, by selected characteristics: 2012 

Selected characteristics

Ever 

unemployed 

since 2009

Average 

number of 

months 

unemployed 

since 20091

One 

spell

Two 

spells

Three 

or more 

spells

 Total 40.6 9.9 56.1 20.7 23.2

Highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 53.0 13.3 47.5 15.6 36.9

High school only 45.2 11.7 51.6 21.0 27.4

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency3 58.2 13.3 46.5 18.4 35.1

High school diploma 42.4 11.2 53.1 21.8 25.1

Some college but no postsecondary credential 45.0 11.0 52.7 20.0 27.3

Still enrolled in 2012 45.6 11.0 54.3 19.4 26.2

Not enrolled in 2012 44.6 11.0 51.7 20.4 27.9

Undergraduate certificate 41.4 10.9 53.7 19.5 26.8

Associate’s degree 35.0 9.5 64.0 17.1 18.8

Bachelor’s degree 35.7 6.8 60.9 24.7 14.4

Master’s or higher degree 30.2 6.9 67.8 16.2 15.9

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 42.4 9.7 53.9 22.3 23.9

Female 38.9 10.1 58.4 19.1 22.5

Race/ethnicity4

White 36.6 9.0 58.4 20.2 21.4

Black 52.9 11.0 50.1 23.0 26.9

Hispanic 44.0 10.6 56.4 20.4 23.2

Asian 40.2 9.6 57.5 19.8 22.7

Other 43.1 12.8 51.3 18.5 30.2

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 41.4 10.7 53.1 21.8 25.1

Some college 41.6 10.3 56.6 19.7 23.7

Bachelor’s or higher degree 39.1 8.9 57.9 20.7 21.4

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 43.1 10.9 53.8 21.8 24.4

Middle two quarters 40.7 9.7 56.7 19.9 23.4

Highest quarter 36.5 8.3 58.4 21.2 20.4

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 38.7 9.4 57.6 20.6 21.7

Single-parent family 45.4 10.7 52.6 20.7 26.7

Language student first learned to speak

English 40.4 9.9 56.0 20.8 23.2

Non-English 42.2 10.1 57.2 19.5 23.2

See notes at end of table. 

Number of unemployment 

spells since 20091,2
C-94 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

Ever 

unemployed 

since 2009

Average 

number of 

months 

unemployed 

since 20091

One 

spell

Two 

spells

Three 

or more 

spells

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 44.8 11.2 47.5 22.5 30.1

High school diploma or less 46.9 11.9 46.1 20.2 33.6

Some college 42.5 10.3 59.2 19.3 21.6

Bachelor’s or higher degree 38.6 9.1 58.5 20.7 20.8

Academic risk in 10th grade5

Low 32.8 6.5 64.9 21.3 13.8

Moderate 40.1 9.9 56.9 20.4 22.7

High 51.0 12.1 46.1 21.4 32.6

School disengagement in 10th grade6

Low 35.7 8.8 62.0 20.1 17.9

Moderate 37.5 9.4 59.0 20.7 20.3

High 49.0 10.7 50.4 20.3 29.3

School control in 10th grade

Public 41.1 10.0 55.9 20.6 23.5

Private 35.1 8.3 59.2 21.1 19.7

Rigor of high school curriculum7,8

Below-standard 43.6 10.8 51.6 22.1 26.3

Standard 39.7 9.9 57.8 18.6 23.6

Moderately rigorous 34.2 8.2 60.4 21.8 17.8

Rigorous 31.5 6.9 68.7 19.9 11.5

Highest math course taken since grade 98

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 50.3 13.4 43.9 21.7 34.5

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 42.4 10.8 52.9 21.3 25.8

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 36.2 8.1 61.2 21.1 17.6

Calculus 30.1 6.4 65.3 21.5 13.2

Highest science course taken since grade 98

No science or low-level science 49.2 13.0 45.6 22.5 31.9

General biology 44.9 11.4 52.1 19.8 28.0

Chemistry I or physics I 35.8 9.0 59.0 21.9 19.1

Chemistry I and physics I 35.4 7.4 60.6 23.7 15.6

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 35.1 7.7 60.8 19.5 19.7

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 52.2 11.4 49.0 20.9 30.1

2.00‒2.49 41.6 11.4 51.2 22.9 25.8

2.50‒2.99 36.9 9.6 58.4 21.3 20.2

3.00‒3.49 32.1 7.5 66.0 19.3 14.7

3.50‒4.00 30.6 6.1 65.3 20.3 14.4

See notes at end of table. 

Number of unemployment 

spells since 20091,2

Table C-19a. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had ever been unemployed since 

January 2009 and of those, average number of months unemployed and percentage distribution 

of unemployment spells since January 2009, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued 
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-95

Selected characteristics

Ever 

unemployed 

since 2009

Average 

number of 

months 

unemployed 

since 20091

One 

spell

Two 

spells

Three 

or more 

spells

Marital status in 2012

Single never married9 44.9 10.1 55.0 20.5 24.5

Married 31.2 9.6 62.4 18.5 19.0

Divorced/separated/widowed9 43.8 10.9 54.5 19.1 26.4

Living with partner 43.3 9.5 53.0 23.3 23.7

Number of children had in 2012

None 38.1 8.9 57.2 21.0 21.8

One or more10 43.5 10.9 54.3 20.0 25.6

8

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

1

 Includes only students who have ever been unemployed since January 2009.

2

 An unemployment spell is a period of unemployment lasting at least one month.

3

 A General Educational Development (GED) certificate is awarded to those who did not finish high school but who have earned the 

equivalent of a high school diploma by passing required GED exams. A certificate of attendance may be awarded when a student attended 

high school for the minimum amount of time required but did not complete all courses required for a diploma.

9

 Not living with any partner.

10 Includes biological and adopted children.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

4

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other 

Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless 

specified.

5

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average 

(GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

6

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping 

classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, 

and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

7

 Students who attain a standard curriculum must earn 4 credits in English and 3 credits each in social studies, math, and science. 

Students who do not meet these requirements complete a below-standard curriculum. Students who attain a moderately rigorous 

curriculum must meet the standard curriculum requirements plus three additional requirements: math credits earned must include algebra 

and geometry; science courses completed must cover two subjects among biology, chemistry, and physics; and 1 credit must be earned in 

foreign language courses. Students who attain a rigorous curriculum must meet the moderately rigorous curriculum requirements plus 

three additional requirements: 4 credits must be earned in math, of which one course must be precalculus or a higher level; science 

courses completed must cover all three subjects of biology, chemistry, and physics; and 3 credits must be earned in foreign language 

courses.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

Number of unemployment 

spells since 20091,2

Table C-19a. 

Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had ever been unemployed since 

January 2009 and of those, average number of months unemployed and percentage distribution 

of unemployment spells since January 2009, by selected characteristics: 2012—Continued 
C-96 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Table C-19b. 

Standard errors for table C-19a: Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had 

ever been unemployed since January 2009 and of those, average number of months unemployed 

and percentage distribution of unemployment spells since January 2009, by selected 

characteristics: 2012 

Selected characteristics

Ever 

unemployed 

since 2009

Average 

number of 

months 

unemployed 

since 2009

One 

spell

Two 

spells

Three 

or more 

spells

 Total 0.52 0.17 0.92 0.75 0.89

Highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 2.91 1.07 5.06 3.85 4.43

High school only 1.52 0.55 2.60 2.04 2.19

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency 3.74 1.07 5.22 3.88 5.25

High school diploma 1.65 0.64 2.85 2.37 2.40

Some college but no postsecondary credential 0.87 0.33 1.48 1.34 1.51

Still enrolled in 2012 1.70 0.53 2.38 1.93 2.21

Not enrolled in 2012 1.16 0.43 2.00 1.69 1.87

Undergraduate certificate 1.72 0.61 2.99 2.27 2.81

Associate’s degree 1.75 0.61 3.41 2.80 2.61

Bachelor’s degree 0.94 0.20 1.67 1.58 1.28

Master’s or higher degree 2.05 0.48 3.54 2.77 2.98

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 0.79 0.24 1.23 1.15 1.23

Female 0.68 0.26 1.34 0.99 1.20

Race/ethnicity

White 0.69 0.24 1.32 0.96 1.21

Black 1.45 0.46 2.72 2.01 2.47

Hispanic 1.41 0.46 2.39 2.16 2.00

Asian 1.63 0.62 3.01 2.28 2.88

Other 2.39 0.88 3.66 3.09 3.63

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 0.94 0.33 1.84 1.48 1.58

Some college 0.95 0.32 1.53 1.19 1.39

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.88 0.27 1.36 1.27 1.29

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 0.99 0.39 1.92 1.58 1.62

Middle two quarters 0.80 0.28 1.31 1.08 1.18

Highest quarter 1.12 0.32 1.79 1.51 1.67

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 0.61 0.21 1.10 0.86 1.01

Single-parent family 1.13 0.35 1.70 1.49 1.61

Language student first learned to speak

English 0.57 0.20 0.98 0.82 0.94

Non-English 1.41 0.45 2.36 1.98 1.94

See notes at end of table. 

Number of unemployment 

spells since 2009
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-97

Selected characteristics

Ever 

unemployed 

since 2009

Average 

number of 

months 

unemployed 

since 2009

One 

spell

Two 

spells

Three 

or more 

spells

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 1.75 0.73 2.89 2.58 2.95

High school diploma or less 2.02 0.63 3.37 2.79 3.12

Some college 1.71 0.59 3.15 2.21 2.36

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.59 0.20 1.15 0.90 1.05

Academic risk in 10th grade

Low 1.29 0.30 2.24 1.88 1.82

Moderate 0.58 0.20 1.09 0.85 0.94

High 1.57 0.54 2.61 2.24 2.56

School disengagement in 10th grade

Low 1.04 0.42 2.08 1.67 1.72

Moderate 0.75 0.27 1.42 1.16 1.39

High 1.16 0.33 2.02 1.52 1.63

School control in 10th grade

Public 0.54 0.18 0.97 0.81 0.93

Private 1.07 0.32 2.16 1.39 1.78

Rigor of high school curriculum

Below-standard 0.92 0.29 1.42 1.28 1.31

Standard 1.36 0.51 2.46 1.87 2.31

Moderately rigorous 1.09 0.31 1.63 1.50 1.46

Rigorous 1.89 0.54 4.54 3.62 2.67

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 1.85 0.79 3.60 2.87 3.78

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 0.88 0.27 1.40 1.22 1.29

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 0.97 0.26 1.68 1.48 1.34

Calculus 1.36 0.35 2.92 2.37 2.01

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science 2.05 0.67 2.83 2.48 3.15

General biology 1.17 0.42 2.03 1.64 1.81

Chemistry I or physics I 1.13 0.31 1.72 1.44 1.40

Chemistry I and physics I 1.61 0.37 2.51 2.14 1.82

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 1.30 0.37 2.31 1.75 2.08

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 1.08 0.32 1.93 1.58 1.60

2.00‒2.49 1.32 0.47 2.21 1.92 2.14

2.50‒2.99 1.27 0.47 2.17 1.93 1.86

3.00‒3.49 1.24 0.37 2.16 1.78 1.74

3.50‒4.00 1.26 0.25 2.09 1.84 1.72

See notes at end of table. 

Number of unemployment 

spells since 2009

Table C-19b. 

Standard errors for table C-19a: Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had 

ever been unemployed since January 2009 and of those, average number of months unemployed 

and percentage distribution of unemployment spells since January 2009, by selected 

characteristics: 2012—Continued 
C-98 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

Ever 

unemployed 

since 2009

Average 

number of 

months 

unemployed 

since 2009

One 

spell

Two 

spells

Three 

or more 

spells

Marital status in 2012

Single never married 0.78 0.25 1.31 1.03 1.19

Married 0.90 0.43 1.97 1.57 1.63

Divorced/separated/widowed 3.06 0.84 4.84 3.57 3.93

Living with partner 1.15 0.29 2.13 1.68 1.77

Number of children had in 2012

None 0.67 0.23 1.12 0.95 1.09

One or more 0.88 0.36 1.49 1.17 1.35

Number of unemployment 

spells since 2009

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

Table C-19b. 

Standard errors for table C-19a: Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had 

ever been unemployed since January 2009 and of those, average number of months unemployed 

and percentage distribution of unemployment spells since January 2009, by selected 

characteristics: 2012—Continued 
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-99

Table C-20a. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ socioeconomic status in 2012 

and percentage who or whose spouses, partners, or children received public assistance in 2011, 

by selected student characteristics

Selected characteristics

Lowest 

quarter

Middle two 

quarters

Highest 

quarter

Percent 

receiving 

public 

assistance 

in 20111

 Total 25.2 49.8 24.9 18.9

Highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 86.3 13.5 ‡ 47.5

High school only 63.4 35.9 0.7 ! 32.5

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency2 76.9 23.1 # 38.3

High school diploma 60.6 38.6 0.9 ! 31.3

Some college but no postsecondary credential 39.1 58.0 2.9 25.2

Still enrolled in 2012 39.4 57.5 3.1 24.0

Not enrolled in 2012 38.8 58.3 2.9 25.9

Undergraduate certificate 15.1 75.0 10.0 26.3

Associate’s degree 2.0 72.7 25.4 16.9

Bachelor’s degree # 44.1 55.9 5.1

Master’s or higher degree # 9.4 90.6 2.9

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 24.2 52.3 23.4 13.5

Female 26.2 47.4 26.4 23.9

Race/ethnicity3

White 20.5 49.4 30.1 14.0

Black 34.4 51.1 14.5 34.6

Hispanic 34.0 52.4 13.6 24.2

Asian 18.4 46.6 35.0 7.3

Other 32.8 46.1 21.0 29.0

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 37.0 48.5 14.4 27.2

Some college 26.5 53.6 19.9 21.4

Bachelor’s or higher degree 15.6 47.3 37.1 11.1

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 40.3 47.6 12.1 31.4

Middle two quarters 24.4 53.3 22.3 18.7

Highest quarter 10.1 46.2 43.7 6.5

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 22.7 50.2 27.2 16.4

Single-parent family 32.7 49.3 18.1 26.5

Language student first learned to speak

English 24.6 49.6 25.8 18.7

Non-English 29.5 51.0 19.5 20.5

See notes at end of table. 

Sophomores’ socioeconomic 

status in 2012
C-100 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

Lowest 

quarter

Middle two 

quarters

Highest 

quarter

Percent 

receiving 

public 

assistance 

in 20111

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 37.8 47.4 14.7 27.6

High school diploma or less 51.9 44.1 4.0 34.3

Some college 36.2 54.8 9.0 28.2

Bachelor’s or higher degree 18.4 50.5 31.2 14.5

Academic risk in 10th grade4

Low 5.7 35.7 58.5 4.6

Moderate 23.9 53.5 22.7 19.3

High 51.6 45.1 3.3 33.5

School disengagement in 10th grade5

Low 17.0 46.7 36.3 11.7

Moderate 21.8 51.3 26.9 16.6

High 34.8 53.0 12.2 27.8

School control in 10th grade

Public 26.5 50.2 23.3 20.0

Private 10.4 45.3 44.3 6.2

Rigor of high school curriculum6,7

Below-standard 34.1 49.8 16.0 24.7

Standard 23.1 52.8 24.1 17.4

Moderately rigorous 11.3 51.0 37.7 10.7

Rigorous 4.1 33.5 62.5 1.6

Highest math course taken since grade 97

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 59.2 38.9 1.9 ! 39.9

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 31.3 55.5 13.2 24.4

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 11.8 50.3 37.9 9.7

Calculus 4.6 33.5 61.9 3.6

Highest science course taken since grade 97

No science or low-level science 52.8 43.4 3.8 36.4

General biology 35.9 53.1 11.0 26.5

Chemistry I or physics I 18.0 54.2 27.8 15.4

Chemistry I and physics I 8.8 47.2 44.0 7.8

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 10.9 41.2 47.9 7.7

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 45.1 49.1 5.8 31.6

2.00‒2.49 29.9 58.0 12.1 24.9

2.50‒2.99 19.8 57.5 22.7 16.9

3.00‒3.49 11.1 47.1 41.8 9.3

3.50‒4.00 4.8 34.6 60.6 4.6

See notes at end of table. 

Table C-20a. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ socioeconomic status in 2012 

and percentage who or whose spouses, partners, or children received public assistance in 2011, 

by selected student characteristics—Continued

Sophomores’ socioeconomic 

status in 2012
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-101

Selected characteristics

Lowest 

quarter

Middle two 

quarters

Highest 

quarter

Percent 

receiving 

public 

assistance 

in 20111

Current occupation

Business/management occupations 0.7 ! 54.4 44.9 9.7

STEM occupations8 # 25.5 74.5 4.6

Health care occupations 4.9 45.8 49.3 15.3

PK–12 educators/social service professionals9 # 34.8 65.2 10.4

Sales occupations 46.5 49.2 4.3 26.7

Business support/administrative assistants 32.0 63.2 4.8 22.5

Trade/technical professionals 41.5 52.2 6.3 23.6

Other10 ‡ 45.5 54.0 9.4

Employment status in 2012

Employed 35 or more hours/week 15.6 53.1 31.3 13.1

Employed 1–34 hours/week 38.6 47.5 13.9 24.7

Unemployed 55.9 37.1 7.0 39.1

Out of the labor force 46.6 42.0 11.4 33.2

Marital status in 2012

Single never married11 26.5 48.7 24.8 14.8

Married 19.8 51.1 29.1 19.3

Divorced/separated/widowed11 33.0 53.3 13.7 32.8

Living with partner 28.6 49.5 21.9 24.9

Number of children had in 2012

None 17.6 49.0 33.4 6.1

One or more12 37.8 49.7 12.5 44.8

Single parenthood in 201213

Yes 48.1 44.5 7.4 64.0

No 36.2 50.5 13.3 42.0

See notes at end of table. 

Table C-20a. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ socioeconomic status in 2012 

and percentage who or whose spouses, partners, or children received public assistance in 2011, 

by selected student characteristics—Continued

Sophomores’ socioeconomic 

status in 2012
C-102 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

# Rounds to zero.

Table C-20a. 

Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ socioeconomic status in 2012 

and percentage who or whose spouses, partners, or children received public assistance in 2011, 

by selected student characteristics—Continued

‡ Reporting standards not met. 

1 “Public assistance” includes Supplemental Security Income (SSI), SNAP (the Food Stamp Program), TANF (the Temporary Assistance 

for Needy Families Program), the Free and Reduced Price School Lunch Program, or WIC (the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program 

for Women, Infants, and Children). Includes sample member as well as sample member’s spouse (if married) or partner (if living with 

significant other in a marriage-like relationship).

! Interpret data with caution. Estimate is unstable because the standard error is between 30 and 50 percent of the estimate. 

6

 Students who attain a standard curriculum must earn 4 credits in English and 3 credits each in social studies, math, and science. 

Students who do not meet these requirements complete a below-standard curriculum. Students who attain a moderately rigorous 

curriculum must meet the standard curriculum requirements plus three additional requirements: math credits earned must include algebra 

and geometry; science courses completed must cover two subjects among biology, chemistry, and physics; and 1 credit must be earned 

in foreign language courses. Students who attain a rigorous curriculum must meet the moderately rigorous curriculum requirements plus 

three additional requirements: 4 credits must be earned in math, of which one course must be precalculus or a higher level; science 

courses completed must cover all three subjects of biology, chemistry, and physics; and 3 credits must be earned in foreign language 

courses.

7

 Excludes about 15 percent of students with no or partial transcript information.

2

 A General Educational Development (GED) certificate is awarded to those who did not finish high school but who have earned the 

equivalent of a high school diploma by passing required GED exams. A certificate of attendance may be awarded when a student 

attended high school for the minimum amount of time required but did not complete all courses required for a diploma.

3

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, other 

Pacific Islander, and individuals who indicated Two or more races or Other. All race categories exclude Hispanic or Latino origin, unless 

specified.

4

 A composite measure derived from 10th-grade reading and math achievement test scores, 9th- and 10th-grade grade point average 

(GPA), and the number of grades repeated in grades K‒10. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable. 5

 A composite measure derived from students’ reports on frequencies of having such behaviors as being late for school, cutting/skipping 

classes, being absent from school, getting into trouble in school, being put on in-school suspension, being suspended/put on probation, 

and being transferred for disciplinary reasons while in 10th grade. See appendix A for detailed information about this variable.

8

 STEM occupations include life scientists, physical scientists, mathematics-related occupations, engineers, and computer/information 

systems occupations.

10 Other occupations include air transportation professionals, artists and designers, communication professionals, information 

professionals, legal professionals, other educators, postsecondary educators, and social scientists.

11 Not living with any partner.

12 Includes biological and adopted children.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

9

 Due to small sample sizes, PK–12 educators and social service professionals are combined in this report. Social service professional 

occupations include counselors, social workers, religious workers, clinical and school psychologists, and other community and social 

service specialists.

13 Includes only those who reported that they had children in 2012.
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-103

Table C-20b. 

Standard errors for table C-20a: Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

socioeconomic status in 2012 and percentage who or whose spouses, partners, or children 

received public assistance in 2011, by selected student characteristics

Selected characteristics

Lowest 

quarter

Middle two 

quarters

Highest 

quarter

Percent 

receiving 

public 

assistance 

in 2011

 Total 0.65 0.60 0.64 0.50

Highest educational attainment in 2012

Less than high school 2.12 2.10 † 3.63

High school only 1.60 1.58 0.28 1.60

GED, certificate of attendance, or other equivalency 3.50 3.50 † 4.17

High school diploma 1.72 1.71 0.34 1.62

Some college but no postsecondary credential 0.94 0.99 0.36 0.88

Still enrolled in 2012 1.50 1.57 0.60 1.42

Not enrolled in 2012 1.25 1.28 0.43 1.18

Undergraduate certificate 1.21 1.63 1.10 1.58

Associate’s degree 0.48 1.88 1.78 1.63

Bachelor’s degree † 1.15 1.15 0.46

Master’s or higher degree † 1.10 1.10 0.72

Demographic characteristics

Sex

Male 0.76 0.81 0.82 0.58

Female 0.84 0.72 0.77 0.76

Race/ethnicity

White 0.72 0.77 0.82 0.52

Black 1.51 1.50 1.10 1.38

Hispanic 1.54 1.59 1.28 1.47

Asian 1.50 1.72 2.00 1.18

Other 2.18 2.57 1.95 2.28

Highest education of parents

High school diploma or less 1.11 1.08 0.75 1.11

Some college 0.90 0.98 0.78 0.79

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.67 0.88 0.97 0.60

Family SES in 10th grade

Lowest quarter 1.26 1.21 0.75 1.27

Middle two quarters 0.78 0.73 0.70 0.71

Highest quarter 0.61 1.21 1.27 0.53

Family type in 10th grade

Two-parent family 0.69 0.70 0.71 0.55

Single-parent family 1.06 1.16 0.94 1.04

Language student first learned to speak

English 0.69 0.65 0.68 0.52

Non-English 1.53 1.53 1.36 1.46

See notes at end of table. 

Sophomores’ socioeconomic 

status in 2012
C-104 APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES

Selected characteristics

Lowest 

quarter

Middle two 

quarters

Highest 

quarter

Percent 

receiving 

public 

assistance 

in 2011

High school characteristics

Student’s educational expectations in 10th grade

Do not know yet 1.89 1.72 1.49 1.68

High school diploma or less 1.98 2.03 0.75 2.18

Some college 1.89 1.89 1.04 1.67

Bachelor’s or higher degree 0.60 0.69 0.73 0.54

Academic risk in 10th grade

Low 0.62 1.47 1.51 0.60

Moderate 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.59

High 1.62 1.59 0.49 1.55

School disengagement in 10th grade

Low 0.89 1.20 1.19 0.83

Moderate 0.75 0.82 0.84 0.61

High 1.13 1.20 0.83 1.13

School control in 10th grade

Public 0.69 0.65 0.68 0.55

Private 0.87 1.22 1.33 0.66

Rigor of high school curriculum

Below-standard 1.04 0.89 0.80 0.82

Standard 1.28 1.50 1.55 1.20

Moderately rigorous 0.72 1.16 1.19 0.80

Rigorous 0.91 1.88 1.94 0.48

Highest math course taken since grade 9

No math, basic math, or pre-algebra 2.04 1.98 0.60 2.63

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 0.91 0.85 0.66 0.77

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 0.67 1.01 1.15 0.83

Calculus 0.65 1.33 1.43 0.60

Highest science course taken since grade 9

No science or low-level science 2.11 1.98 0.86 2.05

General biology 1.18 1.06 0.83 1.19

Chemistry I or physics I 0.93 1.13 1.10 0.88

Chemistry I and physics I 0.82 1.46 1.55 0.93

Chemistry II, physics II, or advanced biology 1.02 1.35 1.66 0.77

Cumulative academic GPA

0.00‒1.99 1.20 1.16 0.53 1.18

2.00‒2.49 1.39 1.38 0.86 1.17

2.50‒2.99 1.10 1.34 1.19 1.07

3.00‒3.49 0.77 1.29 1.45 0.89

3.50‒4.00 0.64 1.35 1.38 0.68

See notes at end of table. 

Sophomores’ socioeconomic 

status in 2012

Table C-20b. 

Standard errors for table C-20a: Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

socioeconomic status in 2012 and percentage who or whose spouses, partners, or children 

received public assistance in 2011, by selected student characteristics—Continued
APPENDIX C—APPENDIX TABLES C-105

Selected characteristics

Lowest 

quarter

Middle two 

quarters

Highest 

quarter

Percent 

receiving 

public 

assistance 

in 2011

Current occupation

Business/management occupations 0.25 1.67 1.65 0.98

STEM occupations † 2.14 2.14 1.09

Health care occupations 0.83 1.69 1.83 1.32

PK–12 educators/social service professionals † 2.00 2.00 1.41

Sales occupations 2.19 2.17 0.76 1.70

Business support/administrative assistants 1.35 1.42 0.61 1.25

Trade/technical professionals 1.02 1.02 0.51 0.94

Other † 2.07 2.05 1.30

Employment status in 2012

Employed 35+ hours/week 0.59 0.71 0.78 0.52

Employed 1–34 hours/week 1.53 1.56 1.13 1.30

Unemployed 1.61 1.64 0.78 1.65

Out of the labor force 2.03 1.99 1.13 1.92

Marital status in 2012

Single never married 0.88 0.80 0.75 0.65

Married 0.91 1.06 1.03 0.93

Divorced/separated/widowed 2.72 2.83 2.20 3.04

Living with partner 1.12 1.27 1.12 1.22

Number of children had in 2012

None 0.63 0.77 0.80 0.34

One or more 1.10 1.08 0.71 1.03

Single parenthood in 2012

Yes 2.88 2.90 1.44 2.65

No 1.11 1.11 0.78 1.10

† Not applicable.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002/12).

Table C-20b. 

Standard errors for table C-20a: Percentage distribution of spring 2002 high school sophomores’ 

socioeconomic status in 2012 and percentage who or whose spouses, partners, or children 

received public assistance in 2011, by selected student characteristics—Continued

Sophomores’ socioeconomic 

status in 2012