U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT 

IN POLICING

COPS COMMUNITY ORIENTED POLICING SERVICES

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE

by 

T. Dave Chavez, Jr., M.S.,

Michael R. Pendleton, Ph.D., 

and Chief Jim Bueerman

www.cops.usdoj.gov

KNOWLEDGE 

MANAGEMENT 

IN POLICING

The research papers presented here were produced under grant number 

1999CKW0097 awarded to the Seattle Police Department by the Office of 

Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) as part of the COPS Office of 

Program, Policy, Support & Evaluation (PPSE) Division Fellowship Program, 

U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ). Findings and conclusions of the research are 

those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the 

U.S. Department of Justice or the Seattle Police Department. 

by 

T. Dave Chavez, Jr., M.S.,

Michael R. Pendleton, Ph.D., 

and Chief Jim Bueerman

Table of Contents Introduction i

TABLE OF CONtENtS

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

By T. Dave Chavez, Jr., M.S.

Chapter 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

On the Threshold of an Innovation:

Police and the Management of Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

By Michael R. Pendleton, Ph.D.

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Chapter 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Anatomy of a Police Innovator:

A Case Study of Knowledge Management in Policing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

By Michael R. Pendleton, Ph.D., and Chief Jim Bueerman

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Chapter 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Creating an Innovation-Centric Police Department:

Guidelines Knowledge Management in Policing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

By Michael R. Pendleton Ph.D., and T. Dave Chavez, Jr., M.S.

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Understanding Police Knowledge Management:

A Methodological Note on the Outcomes of a Police Research Journey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

By Michael R. Pendleton Ph.D.

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

CHAPTER 3 - Creating an Innovation-Centric Police Department: Guidelines for Knowledge Management in Policing iii

INtRODUctiON

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN POLICING

By T. Dave Chavez, Jr., MS, Seattle Police Department

Arguably, the most neglected topic in the recent era of police innovation 

has been the central role of "knowledge", particularly "implicit knowledge" 

or knowledge stored in the minds of rank and file police officers. Such 

knowledge, usually gained from years of experience, can be crucial in 

providing an effective means for analyzing problems and efficiently 

performing various police functions. Operating on the premise that 

such knowledge represents extremely vital and essentially priceless 

"intellectual capital", it is suggested that, perhaps, this knowledge should 

be more strongly considered and managed as part of any law enforcement 

organization. In the following articles the authors provide information 

and insights from various research inquiries that may be helpful for any law 

enforcement organization. 

In the article entitled, "On The Threshold Of An Innovation: Police And The 

Management Of Knowledge" the author undertook a study of Knowledge 

Management (KM) in the arena of policing advanced on the informed 

assumption that police may be engaged in KM activities and that these 

activities may actually form what has been termed "innovation clusters", 

that when taken together, comprise a police model of KM. Results 

suggest that police are much more involved in collaborative activities 

(i.e., Knowledge Management) than the conventional view of the police 

would suggest.

The article entitled, "Anatomy of A Police Innovator: A Case Study of 

Knowledge Management In Policing" the authors undertake a case study of 

the Redlands Police Department to examine innovation leadership. The 

research reported addresses the lack of focused research on the process 

of innovation in policing and specifically addresses the question: What 

is the nature of innovation leadership and specifically the nature of a 

police innovator? Results suggest that the police innovator is more than 

an individual who is intrigued with new ideas, but is an organizational place

where innovation happens. The study also indicates that the next step 

in police Knowledge Management is to address the need to integrate the 

various KM techniques into an interrelated system. 

The article entitled, "Creating An Innovation-Centric Police Department: 

Guidelines for Knowledge Management in Policing", provides a series of 

guidelines for adopting and implementing Knowledge Management as an 

organizational development and management strategy for innovation in a 

police organization. 

Introduction

CHAPTER 1 - On the Threshold of an Innovation: Police and the Management of Knowledge 1

CHAPTER 1

ON THE THRESHOLD OF AN INNOVATION: 

POLICE AND THE MANAGEMENT OF KNOWLEDGE

by: Michael R. Pendleton, Ph.D.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The author undertook a study of Knowledge Management in the 

arena of policing advanced on the informed assumption that police 

may be engaged in Knowledge Management activities and that these 

activities may actually form what has been termed “innovation 

clusters”, that when taken together, comprise a police model of 

Knowledge Management. Study methodology included an extensive 

review of the literature, field observations and interviews, secondary 

data analysis and case study analysis. One of the most interesting 

and universal findings in this research was a three-part response from 

participants when informed of the nature of the project. First, in 

all cases police participants expressed a complete lack of awareness 

of Knowledge Management and its meaning. Second, when more 

fully explained, participants could quickly identify efforts within their 

respective agencies and or areas that would “qualify” as knowledge 

management. Finally, when explained as a potential organizing 

strategy that could reshape and empower problem solving and other 

efforts, participants were quickly intrigued and often began to pursue, 

actively, a more comprehensive understanding of how Knowledge 

Management might “work” in their own professional venues. The 

results of this research show that there are Knowledge Management 

activities occurring within the police profession. These activities can 

be loosely organized into a Knowledge Management Model, which 

can be adopted as an organizing management strategy within a police 

organization. Perhaps the most surprising finding is that the police are 

much more involved in collaborative activities than the conventional 

view of the police would suggest.
2 Knowledge Management in Policing

ON THE THRESHOLD OF AN INNOVATION: 

POLICE AND THE MANAGEMENT OF KNOWLEDGE

Arguably, the most neglected topic in the Problem Oriented Policing 

era of policing has been the central role of “knowledge” in problem 

solving. This omission is significant for at least two reasons. First, 

knowledge and its management, is consistently viewed as a “bed 

rock necessity” for innovation in police problem solving (Geller and 

Swanger, 1995 pp 154). Herman Goldstein, in his seminal work on 

Problem Oriented Policing (POP) consistently emphasized the critical 

role of knowledge to the problem solving approach. Goldstein (1990) 

noted the difficulties of tapping implicit knowledge “stored in the 

minds of rank and file police officers” to analyze problems (pp 93), 

the importance of sharing knowledge with citizens as one aspect of 

solving problems (pp 114), the lack of a “tradition of proceeding 

logically from knowledge gained...to the fashioning of an appropriate 

response” (pp 15), and the importance of creating new knowledge 

through self critique (pp15) cross system knowledge sharing 

(pp 168-171) and research (pp 171-172). Quite simply, the 

management of knowledge is at the heart of Problem Oriented 

Policing.

Second, in an “internet world” where information flows at the 

“speed of thought,” managing knowledge becomes a key determinant 

in an organizations ability to meet conventional expectations for 

organizational viability. Failure to effectively manage organizational 

knowledge can quickly define a public safety organization as inept 

and in need of reform, as the issuance of student visas well after 

the September 11th attack to dead hijackers by the Immigration and 

Naturalization Service clearly illustrated (Ross, 2002). In today’s world 

of “e-government”(Williams, 2001) managing knowledge is no longer 

viewed as a cutting edge activity; it is now a shared expectation.
CHAPTER 1 - On the Threshold of an Innovation: Police and the Management of Knowledge 3

THE INNOVATION OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

Knowledge management (KM) as an innovation and applied area of 

expertise has clearly been recognized by the private sector 

(Hansen, et. al. 1999, Gore and Gore, 1999, Hickins, 1999). While 

various definitions of KM are found in a rapidly developing literature 

on knowledge management (Loughridge, 1999), all rest on the 

recognition that organizations contain vast amounts of untapped 

knowledge and create knowledge that is not simply a resource, but 

an essential ingredient for competitive advantage and organizational 

success. Knowledge management is viewed as a central “management 

activity” to capitalize on the intellectual assets held by employees, 

databases, process knowledge, and other organizational expertise 

(Bukowitz and Williams, 1999). In this respect, the management of 

organizational knowledge is not a passive activity commonly associated 

with data storage, or other isolated information strategies, but a 

proactive strategy that is tightly integrated with operational processes 

and integrally related to organizational activities (Darwin, 2001). 

The fundamental management task of KM is the transformation 

of tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge. In effect, KM is the 

purposeful and strategic transformation of information and expertise 

into organizational action. Predictably, computer technology 

and rapidly developing software specifically to facilitate KM have 

advanced Knowledge Management as a central management strategy 

(Goodridge, 2001).

While some observers have been inclined to dismiss KM as yet 

another transient management fad (Holtham, 1997), there is little 

evidence that this is the case. In 1996, U.S. business spent $1.5 billion 

on KM and by mid 1999 it was estimated that this expenditure would 

increase to $5 billion (Newcombe, 1999). By 2001, it was estimated 

that expenditures could reach as high as $12 billion by the year 2004 

(Williams, 2001). In 2001, a Knowledge Management Certification 

Board was established, as well as a KM certification program 

with core curriculums requiring over 60 hours of course study 

(Knowledge Center, 2002). 

Knowledge Management is also becoming evident across the 

public sector, fueled by the demands of electronic government, a 

shrinking workforce (Williams, 2001) and social crisis. In the wake 

of the September 11th, 2001 attacks, several significant KM efforts 

have been observed. By October of 2001, the Global Knowledge 

Economics Council had established the Volunteer Organization of 

Certified Knowledge Managers to work with the Federal Emergency 

Management Agency (FEMA) to provide training and assistance for 

the Homeland Security programs to counter the effects of terrorism 
4 Knowledge Management in Policing

(Global Knowledge Economics Council, 2001). In December of 

2001, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) added $1 million to its 

ongoing investment in emerging technologies to enhance KM software 

development designed to track employee expertise via e-mail with the 

clear potential for application outside the CIA organization 

(University of Southern California, 1997; Goodridge, 2001). 

While the government interest in KM is clearly growing, particularly in 

the area of national defense and public safety, it is unknown to what 

extent or if knowledge management as a management innovation 

has found its way into the policing profession. The research 

reported below addresses the lack of focused research on knowledge 

management in policing and specifically addresses the question: What 

is the nature of knowledge management in the police profession, 

particularly in a problem-solving context? The theoretical framework 

for this inquiry is the Diffusion of Innovations Model.

THE DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS MODEL AND POLICE INNOVATION

Over the last fifty years, the interest in innovation has converged into 

a field of study best represented by the Diffusion of Innovations Model, 

developed by Everett Rogers (1995). The Diffusion of Innovations Model

provides a useful model for examining the innovations in policing, 

such as Problem Oriented Policing and, in this case, Knowledge 

Management. The model provides a comprehensive framework for 

understanding how a new idea, technique, or invention is generated, 

defined and finally adopted. Originally, the model focused upon how 

innovations were communicated linearly throughout a social system to 

lead to the adoption of the innovation. The model has evolved, now 

stressing the importance of the iterative nature of social interaction 

as an innovation traverses the various stages in an innovation process. 

The theory rests on the view that “uncertainty is generated by an 

innovation”(“Rogers, 1995, xvii) which creates new, possibly superior 

alternatives to existing approaches to solving problems, thus leading 

to the search for information. This search is manifested in a social 

process that eventually determines the meaning of the innovation. 

Rather than information flowing in a linear fashion, the theory now 

stresses a convergence model where “participants create and share 

information with one another to reach a mutual understanding” of 

the innovation and its implementation (Rogers, 1995 xvi). Predictably, 

if not ironically, the theory stresses the central role of knowledge in 

the Diffusion of Innovations Model. Is it possible that the innovation of 

Knowledge Management is actually a key factor in our understanding, 

if not determining, the outcome of the innovation process?
CHAPTER 1 - On the Threshold of an Innovation: Police and the Management of Knowledge 5

POLICE AS INNOVATORS: 

ON THE THRESHOLD OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT 

It has long been recognized that the most valued police knowledge has 

been acquired and organized around situational or street experience 

(Rubinstein, 1973). Goldstein notes both the importance and the 

difficulty of tapping and processing this tacit knowledge as central to 

solving numerous police problems (1990, pp93). Strong professional 

norms operate to constrain the sharing of this knowledge in any overt 

formal way, making the KM problem in policing not simply a “know 

how” problem but also a “know who” challenge. 

Historically, knowing who to go to in policing was learned as an 

informal sharing among officers through story telling and other 

mechanisms. Formal methods, such as the Field Training Officer 

(FTO) coaching programs, were the outgrowth of informal mentoring 

systems. The impact of the closed nature of this system was that 

knowing who had what knowledge required not only time to learn, 

but also the willingness to tell. Knowledge seeking was linked to 

knowledge brokers and often held hostage for the empowerment of a 

police subculture. 

 In the beginning of the 1990’s, the police profession experienced a 

dramatic shift from what was commonly considered a conservative 

profession resistant to change to what some see as on the “forefront 

of innovation in criminal justice” (Weisburd, 2001). Defined as a 

“philosophical revolution” (Malcolm, 1989) and the “most significant 

redefinition of police work in the past half century (Wilson and 

Kelling, 1989), Community Oriented Policing and Problem Oriented 

Policing became dominant themes in policing. As a dramatic response 

to a period of crisis where police activities had little impact on the 

rapid rise in crime, these innovations were diffused and adopted by the 

profession. Combined with the rapid rise and diffusion of computer 

technology, this period of innovation has been facilitated by research 

which in turn, has led to the adoption of even more sophisticated 

innovations such as computer based crime mapping (Weisburd, 

2001). This transformation has not replaced the informal knowledge 

management system but has clearly expanded it to include a more 

open organizational system. In effect this move has democratized 

organizational knowledge.
6 Knowledge Management in Policing

Rogers (1995, pp 165) notes that the first step in the innovation 

decision process is not simply an awareness of the need for an 

innovation, but also the awareness of an innovation. One effect of 

the period of police innovation has been the increased importance 

of developing, accessing and applying professional knowledge to 

police problems (Goldstein, 1990). The knowledge-centric nature of 

recent police innovations, clearly establishes the need for a Knowledge 

Management Innovation, but has yet to produce the actual innovation. 

In effect, KM as a police innovation remains as part of the “untapped 

potential” in police administrators, for managing the innovations in 

policing (Geller and Swanger, 1995). It is apparent however, that 

individuals are beginning to recognize the need for a management 

commitment to an organizational based strategy for developing and 

applying knowledge. Geller (1997), in his address to a National 

Institute of Justice (NIJ) cluster conference, noted the importance of 

police departments becoming “learning organizations” that capitalize 

on their own and others experiences. This view is consistent with a 

now famous quote that summarizes early stages of the Knowledge 

Management Innovation where the focus was on institutionalizing 

employee knowledge, then CEO of Hewlett Packard, Lew Platt noted: 

“if HP knew what HP knows, we would be three times as profitable” 

(Fryer, 1999, pp 60). 

The Diffusion of Innovations Theory treats individual level awareness 

of innovation as a threshold for adoption, which is a prelude for 

community or organizational level awareness considered an end point 

known as critical mass (Rogers, 1995 pp320-321). As the salience 

of an innovation crosses the individual threshold and is adopted, 

numerous people adopt and, at a point, reach a critical mass where 

the innovation has been institutionalized. Is it possible that the 

police profession is on the threshold of the Knowledge Management 

Innovation? If so, the next critical step will be to define the nature of 

the Police Knowledge Management Innovation. 
CHAPTER 1 - On the Threshold of an Innovation: Police and the Management of Knowledge 7

THE STUDY

The Diffusion of Innovations Model has been effectively applied 

to study police innovation with a particular focus on the process 

of adoption. Rogers (1993) study of the Los Angels D.A.R.E. 

program illustrated the need, nature, rate of adoption, and ultimately 

the reformation of the program. More recently, the model has 

been successfully applied to study both the rate of adoption and 

the role of research in the diffusion of crime mapping in police 

departments (Weisburd, 2001). In these cases, the model was used 

as a retrospective analysis or what Rogers refers to as “tracer studies” 

(Rogers, 1995 pp 154) to follow the innovation development process. But, 

as Rogers’s notes, very little research has been devoted to the attributes 

of innovation. As Rogers’s points out, “this type of research can be of 

great value in predicting peoples reactions to an innovation” (Rogers, 

1995 pp 204). Research on the nature of innovation is increasingly 

seen as critical to understanding what factors affect the process of 

adoption and ultimately the consequences of adopting an innovation. 

It is important, however, not to commit what Rogers calls the 

“empty vessel fallacy” by assuming that potential adopters lack 

relevant experience with which to associate the new idea. Indeed 

the police profession has a long history of transferring experience 

and information into what Muir (1977) terms “judgment and 

understanding”. This educational process “takes place constantly, 

sometimes formally and authoritatively, sometimes informally and 

extra-departmentally” (Muir, 1977pp183). Rogers notes that it is 

important to search these “indigenous knowledge systems” which 

function as a “bridge for innovations” (Rogers, 1995 pp240). This 

study is advanced on the informed assumption that the police may be 

engaged in Knowledge Management activities and that these activities 

may actually form what Rogers (1995, pp235) has termed “innovation 

clusters”, that when taken together, comprise a police model of 

Knowledge Management. 
8 Knowledge Management in Policing

METHODOLOGY

A multi-modal methodology was selected to accommodate the 

emerging nature of the research focus. This approach features 

qualitative methods that are of particular value when researching 

issues that are emerging and simply cannot be captured with a 

quantitative approach such as the issue under study (Atkinson and 

Hammersley, 1994; Pendleton, 1997). The strategy that guided 

collection and utilization of data was analytical induction (Glasser and 

Strauss, 1980), in which a researcher, upon entering the research data 

field, builds and revises a conception or model as empirical evidence is 

confronted (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). In this regard, model building 

was the outcome of a “data journey” guided by the Knowledge 

Management and Diffusion of Innovation frameworks. Initial data 

was linked to subsequent data until no new data was confronted and 

data stability was realized. Data stability is based on the triangulation 

of both methods and sources (Denzin, 1978).

Literature Review

An extensive review of existing literature on Knowledge Management 

and its application in a variety of sectors including the police 

profession was conducted. This review included both electronic and 

hard copy reviews.

Field Observations and Interviews 

The author is also a principal investigator on a NIJ funded project 

known as the Community Mapping, Planning and Analysis for Safety 

Strategies (COMPASS) Initiative. The COMPASS project features the 

development and application of a multidisciplinary data “warehouse” 

within a GIS crime-mapping framework, to analyze crime and disorder 

problems. Police departments in three different sites in the United 

States are participating in this pilot project considered to be on the 

“cutting edge” of data driven analysis and application. In the course 

of working on this project it became clear that it was directly related 

to the topic under study and provided both a venue for examination 

of this issue.

Using standard ethnographic protocols both observations and 

interviews were conducted with key participants in this project from 

all three pilot sites. Participants included research colleagues, police 

personnel, and other professionals. These interviews occurred at 

several national conferences, and specific project “cluster meetings” 

where the participants in this project convened to discuss key issues 

surrounding the project. This approach for studying innovation is 

supported by recent analysis of crime mapping as a police innovation. 

In this research, it was found that the “early adopters” (Rogers 1995, 

pp 264) of this innovation, were more likely to attend professional 

conferences, have access to academic publications, and were more 

likely to be aware of recent research (Weisburd, 2001 pp19-21).
Secondary Data Analysis 

A Department of Justice COPS Office grant funded a Research 

Fellowship that was initiated but not completed by another researcher 

to examine the application of Knowledge Management to solving 

street level police problem solving across the country1 . This data was 

provided by the grantee agency and was used for secondary analysis. 

Specifically, 58 police departments from around the United States were 

surveyed using a phone questionnaire methodology. Data from the 

interview text was reviewed to determine the nature and characteristics 

of KM techniques currently in use in these departments. In addition, 

this data was reviewed to identify specific departments that could 

serve as a case study for this research effort.

In addition, past research and project data were reviewed and 

analyzed. This method included the analysis of process evaluation 

data from the now defunct SeattleWatch Program, formerly a Seattle 

Police Department (SPD) data driven managerial accountability 

process that was patterned after the COMSTAT process used around 

the country. Also, data from an organizational analysis of the 

Research, Grants & Corporate Support Unit of SPD was reviewed. 

The author, who was the principal process evaluator for both of these 

projects, collected these data.

Case Study and Interviews

Based upon the findings from the above analysis specific police 

departments and two outside agencies, the National Park Service and 

the United States Forest Service were identified as case studies for 

a more in-depth inquiry on the nature of Knowledge Management 

in Police and related public safety organizations. These cases were 

selected based upon either their comprehensive efforts in KM 

activities, and/or their “goodness of fit” to a particular aspect of the 

emerging Knowledge Management model. During the case study 

period, direct observations and interviews were conducted. Finally, 

written records and materials were collected and reviewed from the 

case study sites. Individual participants in this portion of the inquiry 

included the Chief of Police and other command, line and civilian 

employees within the selected police department. Key participants 

within the United States Park Service and Forest Service included fire 

suppression managers, law enforcement personnel, and key leaders in 

the “lessons learned” program.

1 A very special acknowledgement and

thank you to Ms. Colleen Laing who, as

a COPS Fellow, conducted preliminary

research on this topic and to the Seattle

Police Department who freely shared the

data for use in this effort.

CHAPTER 1 - On the Threshold of an Innovation: Police and the Management of Knowledge 9
10 Knowledge Management in Policing

RESULTS

One of the most interesting and universal findings in this research 

was a three-part response from participants when informed of the 

nature of the project. First, in all cases police participants expressed 

a complete lack of awareness of Knowledge Management and its 

meaning. Second, when more fully explained, participants could 

quickly identify efforts within their respective agencies and or areas 

that would “qualify” as knowledge management. This response is 

similar to the initial response when Community Oriented Policing 

and Problem Oriented Policing were first introduced in that many 

participants would indicate; “we have been doing that for years”. 

Finally, when explained as a potential organizing strategy that could 

reshape and empower problem solving and other efforts, participants 

were quickly intrigued and often began to pursue, actively, a more 

comprehensive understanding of how Knowledge Management might 

“work” in their own professional venues. 

Although Knowledge Management activities were encountered, and 

participants could agree that Knowledge Management, in some form 

was present in the police world, interim analysis suggested a mixed 

and varied definition of these activities. To facilitate initial data 

organization and analysis, the Diffusion of Innovations Model was applied 

to the data. Specifically, this model notes that innovations follow a 

path that ultimately must move beyond individual based adoption and 

become established within the organizational setting and ultimately 

the social or institutional system (Rogers, 1995). This transformation 

from an individual to a system based adoption and access is also at 

the heart of Knowledge Management where tacit knowledge becomes 

explicit. The classification of innovations into organizational and 

institutional categories, when applied to the study of KM, provides 

a loose organizing framework for the data encountered. In addition, 

the Diffusion of Innovations Model encourages one to be alert for what 

Rogers’s calls innovation clusters which together can be “useful to 

promote a cluster or package of innovations” (Roger, 195, pp 235). 

Subsequent pattern analysis of the data using these loosely defined 

categories (Strauss and Corbin, 1990), revealed four Knowledge 

Management clusters, that when linked together form a distinct and 

potentially powerful model.
CHAPTER 1 - On the Threshold of an Innovation: Police and the Management of Knowledge 11

CAPTURING KNOWLEDGE: KNOWING WHAT WE KNOW

The Diffusion of Innovations Model clearly establishes that most 

innovations are a response to a basic need or problem (Rogers, 1995, 

pp 132). The literature on Knowledge Management reveals that the 

innovation first responded to the simple realization that organizations 

contain knowledge that is largely unavailable. In part, the lack 

of availability stemmed from the simple fact that there was little 

understanding of what knowledge actually exists within and around 

organizations. In effect, many organizations don’t know what they 

know (O’Dell and Jackson, 1998). Much of the early efforts in KM 

have been focused upon what has been termed the “yellow paging” or 

cataloging of organizational knowledge and experiences that reside at 

the individual level. The purpose of this effort was to identify which 

individuals within the organization had what type of knowledge and 

to make that known and available throughout the organization.

Knowing Who: Competency Management 

While participants in this study acknowledged that the informal system 

of individual knowledge is still well established, they consistently 

noted that computer technology in a web-based format, has 

produced the ability to expand Knowledge Management from simply 

an individual based system, to an organizational based approach. 

Software innovations along with programmatic developments in 

related professional areas were identified as having significant potential 

as KM applications in policing. 

• “Yellow Paging.” There is little data to show that police 

departments have adopted systematic protocols for identifying, 

cataloging and then making available the special skills, expertise, 

and experience of police employees. A process approach such 

as this, often referred to as “Yellow Paging,” provides the first 

rudimentary step in allowing members of an organization to 

know whom to contact to access knowledge on specific topics. 

In policing, yellow-paged knowledge can refer to specific skills 

or expertise and/or specific case or problem specific knowledge. 

While there is no data demonstrating police application of 

yellow paging techniques, there is data that suggests that police 

are moving toward yellow paging and/or the beginnings of a 

framework for such a system.

• Software Solutions: The Internet search identified training 

management software specifically for police that provides a 

way to track and manage the training and skill development of 

police officers. Known as CopTrak, this software allows for 

documentation and tracking of training and skill development 

linked to specific officers. There are, however, no indications that 

this software allows for an indexing and search capability to allow 

department wide employees access to specific knowledge areas by 

individual officers.
12 Knowledge Management in Policing

• Expertise Data Banks: The Department of Interior, in 

cooperation with the Department of Agriculture, has developed 

a programmatic approach to yellow paging. This program, 

known as the Shared Applications Computer system or SAC’s, 

is a database that stores data on training, experience and specific 

federal land management agency for all permanent employees 

within the Department of Interior. There is a specific focus on 

fire fighting experience and training. This database is searchable 

using a key word and indexing system that allows a user to identify 

and contact specific individuals who have the desired skills 

and expertise. This system was observed in action during the 

interview process when the participant received a phone call from 

a colleague in another state requesting his assistance on a project. 

The participant was located using the SAC system. The system 

is web based, and supervisors of employees enter the data when 

they have completed specific training, received certifications or 

gained qualified experience. 

This system is currently being re-engineered into a web-based 

application that links both the Department of Interior and 

Department of Agriculture with possible links to equivalent state 

agencies that house the national “fire community”. This system has 

both passive and active application where individuals can be accessed 

for training and other routine projects (i.e., passive) or during times of 

major fire events when expertise is required (i.e., active).

Police departments identified in the Fellowship survey, report keeping 

data banks that link officers to specific events over time, which makes 

possible the identification of officers who are linked to specific police 

events. While virtually every police department with an automated 

information system has this capability, only one was identified that 

actually uses this system as a way to link officer knowledge on related 

aspects of a problem (suspect, victims, location, time, etc.) to a 

problem solving strategy. This system allows employee access to this 

data bank, to search for other officers who have had contact with 

specific suspects over any specified period of time. This allows for a 

“mind mining” process, such as face-to-face or electronic discussions 

between the initiating officer and other officers who have been 

identified using this system.

• E-Mail Mapping: Perhaps one of the most innovative, if not 

controversial knowledge capturing approaches identified in this 

study, is the rapidly growing emphasis on e-mail management and 

specifically e-mail mapping. While initially focused on managing 

the volume of e-mail, which is expected to increase 40% by 2004, 

the software applications are now turning to mapping or searching 

of e-mail content. The Central Intelligence Agency has recently 

invested in technologies such as Knowledge Mail, that uses 
CHAPTER 1 - On the Threshold of an Innovation: Police and the Management of Knowledge 13

keywords or phrases in employee e-mail to track expertise. When 

the user seeks colleagues who are knowledgeable about a topic, 

the system connects the employees by e-mail. Currently there is 

no data showing that police departments have access or are using 

this approach to capturing individual level knowledge.

While these individual based knowledge systems provide links to 

immediate problems and issues, they are clearly “person dependent”. 

Given the current demographic trends and the systematic transition 

into retirement of large cohort groups from the police profession, 

police organizations are clearly vulnerable to the “brain drain” 

effect. As the “baby boomers” retire, the importance of creating 

organizational based knowledge management systems is 

becoming clear.

Knowing How: Creating Organizational Memory 

Data from this research also revealed several efforts to capture and 

make available organizational “know how”. These efforts focused 

not only on specific problem solutions that were effective, but also 

organizational processes that are important to problem solving. 

•Problem Solving Case Books and Records. Some departments 

identified in the Fellowship survey reported using problem solving 

casebooks to record the nature, interventions, and outcomes of 

specific problem solving activities. These books ranged from formal 

3 ring binders to one-page memos. While considered a mainstay 

process in the formal Problem Oriented Policing approach, these 

updated versions of the time honored briefing log, were used in 

paper form by only 54% of the departments surveyed. Electronic 

versions to include e-mail based problem solving information sharing 

were utilized by only 23% of the survey participants. In the Boston 

Police Department, monthly crime analysis meetings known as CAM, 

incorporates presentation and data banking of successful problem 

solving strategies. These ‘best practices’ are available to the entire 

department for review in an electronically assessable data bank.

• Process Documentation and Mapping. The importance of 

documenting and evaluating organizational processes is evident 

in police programs. In Seattle, a recent effort to create a data 

driven managerial accountability program known as SeattleWatch 

included resources to retain an outside consultant to observe, 

document, and then evaluate the process. Reports and 

presentations on the process evaluation were built into the 

on-going process.
14 Knowledge Management in Policing

The Los Angeles Police Department has recently purchased software 

known as ProcessBook that maintains a knowledge bank of 

organizational processes. This system can be applied to both physical 

process, such as plant systems, or administrative activities, such as 

budget or personnel processes. This software allows any employee 

to contribute their experiences, work processes, job procedures, 

task instructions for specific projects, and allow on-line access to 

background information. In effect, this system can document all 

relevant organizational processes and make them available throughout 

the organization.

PROCESSING KNOWLEDGE: SHARING WHAT WE KNOW

A fundamental feature of the Diffusions of Innovations approach 

is the sharing or diffusion of the innovation among individuals 

and eventually throughout the system. Research on Knowledge 

Management has revealed that a key ingredient to successful 

implementation, or diffusion, is an organizational culture that 

practices and encourages collaboration and openness (Greengaard, 

1998; Hansen, et.al., 1999; Matway and Andrews, 2000). Conversely, 

obstacles to effective knowledge management are common in closed 

organizational cultures where information ‘hoarding and ‘command 

and control’ management methods are practiced (Botkin, 1999). 

Given the longstanding view of policing as a closed profession 

steeped in authority based traditions, it was surprising to find the most 

evidence of police KM devoted to the sharing of knowledge.

Building Organizational Intelligence: 

Internal Sharing and the Push for Sharing Knowledge 

Numerous police KM systems were discovered that were designed to 

process information and transform it into knowledge in preparation 

for application to selected problems. The packaging of these data has 

logically led to an increased interest in sharing of this knowledge.

• Crime Mapping and Analysis. The evolution of crime analysis 

from “offender based” knowledge to a “place based” knowledge 

approach coincides with the diffusion of crime mapping software 

and the focus on ‘hot spot policing’. In a 2001 survey of the 

diffusion of computerized crime mapping, 65% of the top 100 

police agencies with 100 or more officers claim to have adopted 

computerized crime mapping (Weisburd, 2001). The initial effect 

of crime mapping in most departments participating in this 

research has been to ‘package’ data within a geographic context. 

Crime mapping has become a very effective way to present data 

and communicate the meaning of data as it relates to geographic 

space. In this respect, crime mapping, as it is currently practiced 

by police agencies, predominately focuses on the ‘what, when, and 

where’ of crime. Based on these parameters, crime mapping is 

used to create descriptive knowledge. 
CHAPTER 1 - On the Threshold of an Innovation: Police and the Management of Knowledge 15

Although some participants report the routine use of maps in shift 

briefings and other information forums to create knowledge about 

their respective geographic beats, wide spread sharing on a routine 

basis was not reported by a majority of participants. In part, attempts 

to create routine sharing protocols have been defeated by the ability 

to produce and distribute timely maps. The New York City Police 

Department has addressed this issue by recently purchasing an internet 

based software known as Map Info Map Extreme, which will allow 

40,000 officers across 76 precincts to access and share and map the 

latest available data. In the Redlands, California Police Department, 

routine shift briefings are soon to include projected maps with real 

time data allowing for in-briefing interactive analysis that will inform 

subsequent deployments. While crime analysis of data has been a long 

standing tool to support police tactical operations, with the advent 

of crime mapping it is now clear that multiple data sets can also be 

analyzed to support a wide range of law enforcement activities. The 

essential ingredient is the sharing of data both within an organization 

and between organizations.

• Data Base Scanning. A significant portion of police time 

is devoted to gathering information and banking it within 

organizational databases. While access to this data is facilitated 

by software and user access systems, much of the data is subject 

to the “silo effect” that limits cross-organizational access. New 

software called Knowledge Insight is now available and in use in the 

Surrey Police Department in British Columbia, Canada. This 

software learns about a users data requirements the more it is 

used. By tracking topics in e-mails, frequently visited websites, 

letters etc, information is continually processed to create a 

personal profile against which all knowledge delivery from the 

departments data bases takes place. The system, in effect, 

second-guesses the users knowledge needs, searches the 

department data banks and delivers data proactively. This software 

will also examine current cases that an officer is working, and 

then automatically search the department databases and deliver 

the most relevant documents and information sources. This 

system will perform “modus operandi” analysis on new cases as 

they are entered and search the organization databases for related 

cases. The system can also be set to report on crimes that exceed 

a predetermined number in a certain location on seven-day rolling 

period and then alert users when these offenses exceed the crime 

spree number.
16 Knowledge Management in Policing

• Lap Top Knowledge Systems. There is clear data showing a 

predominate trend to putting knowledge systems into the field 

setting. The primary vehicle for this effort is the laptop computer. 

A leader in this effort is the Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police 

Department in North Carolina. Taking a “systems approach”, 

this police department is integrating custom built databases, 

an enhanced CAD system, a field interview system, trend alert 

system, and internal affairs case management system. The basis 

for this approach is working officers in the field build a long-term 

view of policing around information management and use. The 

operating objective is to move from an organizational that simply 

stores information to an organization that interacts with the data 

to create operational knowledge on a day-to-day basis in the field 

(Pilant, 1999). Data sharing is at the heart of this system.

• Data Warehousing. Law enforcement agencies have been 

sharing data for sometime. Specialized databases such as the 

HITS system in Washington State, for tracking serial killers and 

sex offenders have been based on the similar sharing agreements 

that have support national databases such as the FBI’s Automated 

Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) and more recently the 

Combined DNA Index System (CODIS). New systems are now 

becoming evident that center on web-based applications that 

create data warehouses using data from a wide variety of law 

enforcement agencies that span virtually all types of data. 

In Arizona, a system called COPLINK initially focused upon database 

consolidation and warehousing for the Tucson Police Department. 

The software merges stand-alone databases such as mug shot files, 

vehicle identifications, and crime locations within the department’s 

databases and intra organizational searches. The system creates a new 

or “mega data base” often called a data mart or warehouse and has 

evolved to include surrounding police departments enabling 

inter-organizational sharing and access of each other’s data. A 

subsequent phase of the project has employed artificial intelligence 

techniques to help users discover hidden links between people, 

organizations, locations, vehicles and weapons across all the data in the 

data warehouse. By 2002, COPLINK is expected to cover 70 percent 

of the police organizations in Arizona. A similar data warehouse 

system has been in operation in Delaware since 1997, as well as in the 

Baltimore County Police Department (Groff and LaVigne (1998).

While the Arizona and Delaware cases seem to be successful, other 

attempts to create data warehouses are still developing. A system 

developed by GTE, known as the Bastille, also creates a data 

warehouse from a variety of agencies that share their data. This 

system is constructed as a subscriber system where participating 

agencies pay a fee and are linked to each other in a web based 
CHAPTER 1 - On the Threshold of an Innovation: Police and the Management of Knowledge 17

private network. A recent evaluation of this system notes what has 

been termed the ‘chicken and egg challenge’. Until there is useful 

information in the system it is difficult to get agencies to subscribe. 

Larger agencies are reported to be joining the system but smaller 

agencies have yet to become involved (Davis, 1999).

• Community Internet Access. Many law enforcement agencies 

are making selected portions of their data available to the 

community over the Internet. While the majority of data are 

crime statistics, several departments are now providing maps on 

line as well (Boba, 1999). Some departments are now providing 

user-friendly ‘front-end’ systems to enable citizens to construct 

their own maps in conjunction with the department’s communitypolicing program (Rich, 1998).

• Knowledge Banks. One of the more important developments 

in policing over the last 20 years has been the growing 

participation of the police profession in university-based research. 

During this period, an extensive knowledge base has developed 

and is currently available in abstract form through a CD ROM 

subscription service that is also linked to a standard quarterly hard 

copy journal. None of the participants in this study were aware 

of or reported using this service. In a recent national survey of 

police departments, participants did report awareness of 

crime-mapping hot spot research and the availability of academic 

books on crime mapping and analysis within the department 

(Weisburd, 2001).

While the majority of knowledge sharing has been confined to intra 

and inter law enforcement agency initiatives, there is a clear move 

to cross the traditional boundaries of the police profession. The 

willingness of law enforcement to share data, not just internally within 

the organization and profession but also to include other government 

agencies and the community is evident in the findings of this research. 
18 Knowledge Management in Policing

APPLYING KNOWLEDGE: USING WHAT WE KNOW

Innovation-process research stresses the application or implementation 

stage involved in putting an innovation to use within an organization 

(Rogers, 1995). Indeed, the ultimate purpose of Knowledge 

Management is not simply to make knowledge available, but to apply 

it to reach organizational objectives (Williams, 2001). This research 

clearly provides data that knowledge derived from K M techniques are 

being applied to address crime and disorder as well as 

organizational issues.

Crime and Disorder Applications 

There is long standing evidence that Knowledge Management 

techniques are used in the routine police activities to address crime 

and disorder problems. The success of using dedicated data base 

searches such as AFIS or the HITS programs discussed above is 

well known. Data driven patrol staffing and allocation models have 

been in place for twenty years. Yet participants universally agree that 

these applications represent but a small fraction of the organizational 

knowledge that is available to inform the day-to-day police patrol. 

The more visible and growing use of Knowledge Management 

techniques is in the area of targeted crimes. 

• Targeted Crime Mapping: The use of crime mapping has 

evolved rapidly and is now used in front line police operations 

(crime and hotspot analysis) and investigations by officers (Groff 

and LaVigne, 1998). While crime analysis has always included 

“categorical” analysis, such as time of day, day of week and 

location, there has not been a more comprehensive approach that 

would take into account the ‘crime dynamic’. Such an analysis 

is more detailed, taking into account patterns of movement, 

types of offenders and offenses within the crime, etc. There 

is specific case study data that demonstrates the successful use 

of this Knowledge Management technique to address a wide 

range of issues from auto theft, burglary, rape, homicide, traffic 

accidents, and gang activity (LaVigne and Wartell, 1998; LaVigne 

and Wartell, 2000). Evaluation research reveals significant crime 

control effectiveness based upon interventions that use the hot 

spot analysis approach (Sherman and Weisburd, 1995; Weisburd, 

et.al, 2001)

While crime mapping technologies make such analysis possible, they 

are yet to be fully developed and implemented. At this point, it is 

unclear to what extent this knowledge management approach has 

or will become a routine police practice rather than a targeted or 

crime specific application. As efforts to create mapping models that 

predict the location of crime (Weisburd and McEwen, 1997) become 

viable, it is likely that more departments will follow the lead of the 
CHAPTER 1 - On the Threshold of an Innovation: Police and the Management of Knowledge 19

Redlands, California police department to integrate this knowledge 

into the routine briefing and deployment strategies currently under 

development. Direct observations and interviews with participants in 

the Redlands project reveal, however, the importance of making these 

applications time sensitive (real time data), effective (place officers 

at the predicted location to greet the offender) and process efficient 

(analytical up-front work that reflects the crime dynamic).

Administrative and Organizational Applications 

Less apparent, but emerging in the data, is the application of 

Knowledge Management in the administration and operation of 

the police organization. Within the last five years the use of crime 

mapping and analysis has been utilized to both inform police 

administrative decision making about crime and disorder problems, 

and also as a means to hold upper level police managers accountable 

for decisions. In addition, there is emerging evidence that crime 

mapping is being used for other administrative decisions.

• Accountability Models 

 Initiated in New York City, COMSTAT (computerized statistics) 

places crime mapping in a ‘command and control’ role. Mapping 

is used in conjunction with bi-weekly precinct meetings, whereby; 

the police commander is questioned on the nature of problems in 

their area and how they are responding. The COMSTAT process 

is conducted in an open forum and includes police command 

staff in a group setting. The G.I.S. presentation is a ‘real time’ 

analysis enabling crime analysts to identify crime hotspots, 

convene a meeting to craft, and explain proposed responses 

(Groff and LaVigne, 1998). In the Fellowship survey, 43% of 

the departments reported using some form of a COMSTAT 

type process. Data is collected, mapped and then presented in 

the COMSTAT setting as a means to provide knowledge about 

both the nature of the problem and the efficacy of the response. 

Initial versions of this program were criticized for focusing only 

on the manager’s relative success often leading to “heavy handed” 

treatment of managers, rather than on a collaborative approach 

to problem solving. Subsequent versions have been designed to 

focus more on developing data and applying knowledge about a 

problem and its location through the collaborative process in the 

group setting to create a meaningful solution (Pendleton, 1999).
20 Knowledge Management in Policing

Evaluations of the COMSTAT process has suggested that while 

this approach is successful in packaging and presenting knowledge 

about problems and their solutions, the success of the process 

has been limited by a lack of leadership, limited application to the 

day-to-day activities, and limited “process knowledge” (Pendleton, 

1999). While one by-product has been increased collaboration and 

integration between divisions and other units within the organization, 

the accountability focus seems to have overshadowed the actual 

problem solving or tactical focus (Pendleton, 1999). As a result, these 

accountability programs seem to be treated more as an administrative 

event rather than a routine process that was part of regular organizational 

practice designed to address crime and disorder.

The limitations of the “event approach” to COMSTAT has been 

recognized and addressed within the Boston Police Department 

(BPD). The BPD has revised their initial program to focus more 

upon the process before and after each of their monthly meetings, 

rather than on just the monthly meeting. This process goes beyond 

simply holding managers accountable, but features problem solving 

process and a “best practices” approach to presenting and data 

banking strategies that have proven successful. 

• Resource Allocation Models 

 The Charlotte-Mecklenburg, NC police department was formed 

in 1994 by combining the Mecklenburg County and City of 

Charlotte police systems. Using a ‘citizen demand for service 

model rather than an officer per population model (Lumb, 1996), 

crime mapping technology was utilized to support a process to 

define, assess, and ultimately select police patrol and resource 

allocation districts (Neese, 2000). 

• Organizational Philosophy and Structure Models 

 One department in this study, the Redlands Police Department in 

Redlands, California, has specifically searched existing university 

based knowledge systems to inform the design and adoption 

of an organizational philosophy to guide the delivery of police 

services. In this instance, the Redlands Police Department has 

relied heavily on the Risk and Protective Factors Model 

developed at the University of Washington. This approach 

stresses a community-based approach to crime prevention that 

focuses on community building and partnerships. This 

research-based approach has shaped the operational philosophy 

and organizational structure of the police department. To 

facilitate this approach the city consolidated the Parks and 

Recreation and Public Housing Departments into the Police 

Department. The Chief of Police directs these functions, as well 

as the Redlands Police Department. The effect of this approach 

has been to stress problem solving and prevention using a more 

comprehensive approach to both prevention and the traditional 

arrest response.
CHAPTER 1 - On the Threshold of an Innovation: Police and the Management of Knowledge 21

CREATING KNOWLEDGE: INCREASING WHAT WE KNOW

The creation of innovation is intimately linked to basic and 

applied research process (Rogers, 1995, pp135). This research 

and development process not only will focus on new and original 

knowledge, but on the evaluation of adopted innovations and an 

adjustment or ‘re-invention’ process to adapt innovations based 

upon lessons learned during initial applications, often known as 

pilot programs (Rogers, 1995). The creation of knowledge is clearly 

identified as a ‘core’ feature of Knowledge Management (Gore and 

Gore, 1999). 

The Knowledge Management challenge encompasses both how to 

learn from organizational experience and how to create knowledge 

through original research and development activities (Davenport and 

Prusak, (1997). Past assessments of the police professions approach 

to creating knowledge are consistent, if not encouraging leading one 

respected analyst to conclude that police departments are plagued with 

“learning disorders” (Geller, 1997). The prevailing view is that police 

departments do little to learn from their own experience (Goldstein, 

1990) and rarely undertake research that might lead to development 

(Reiss, 1991). Data from this research, while supporting many of 

these views, also provide indications that the profession is evolving in 

this important KM area.

Creating Knowledge: Police and Research

• Research Guinea Pig vs. Research Partner 

 The 1970’s are a benchmark period in the history of policing for 

many reasons including the opening of the police departments as 

venues, and subjects of academic research. These early studies 

not only spawned knowledge, they also laid the groundwork for 

an on-going involvement of the police in the research activity. 

While initially the subjects of research, the police have evolved into 

research partners sharing the responsibility for selecting topics, 

managing the process, and disseminating the results (McEwen, 

1999). These ‘locally initiated research partnerships’ are supported 

by the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) and have produced 

many of the knowledge management innovations identified in 

this research (Weisburd, 2001). Several publications such as the 

NIJ Journal and other federally sponsored publications regularly 

disseminate the results of this very aggressive research program. 

In addition, the NIJ regularly sponsors a research and evaluation 

conference each summer, and numerous other annual professional 

conferences, such as the Crime Mapping Conference. Survey 

research indicates that adoption of innovations such as crime 

mapping is linked to such research based activities as attendance at 

conferences, and academic publications (Weisburd, 2001). 
22 Knowledge Management in Policing

• Research and Development 

The next logical step in the creation of police knowledge is for 

the police to take the lead role in the creation of knowledge. 

The typical organizational model for this role is found in classic 

research and development units or departments. Little evidence 

exists to suggest that the police are developing R & D units 

to go beyond simply providing a statistical description of the 

department to actually employing trained researchers to both 

conduct research and liaison with Universities to do the same 

(Reiss, 1991; Geller, 1997). Yet there are some indications 

that police departments may be moving in the direction to 

establish meaningful knowledge creation role. The Seattle 

Police Department (SPD) recently commissioned a review of 

its Research, Grants & Corporate Support (RGCS) Unit with an 

eye toward changing the unit from simply a money acquisition 

function (grants) to more of a research unit. The assessment 

advanced nineteen (19) recommendations that would establish a 

research and development unit that would be directed by a trained 

researcher who would be elevated to senior leadership status and 

report directly to the Chief of Police. The work plan for this unit 

would reflect city police policy issues, anticipated social trends 

within the city, as well as a linkage to current and future police 

science issues (Pendleton, 2000a). Additionally, this research, 

while supported by NIJ, was originally sponsored by the SPD and 

managed through the RGCS Unit office.

Creating Knowledge: Learning from Doing

• Police After Action Reviews 

Data from this study indicates that many police departments 

conduct After Action Reviews or Critical Incident Reviews in the 

wake of police events or situations. Typically, these events are 

large in nature, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) 

Riots in Seattle in 1999, or when officers are involved in incidents 

of a serious nature. In both types of events, the reviews are 

conducted within the context of pending litigation and/or 

discipline. While these reviews can produce knowledge, there are 

powerful incentives to mitigate a full and complete understanding 

to limit financial, legal, and professional exposure. Predictably, the 

outcomes of these reviews are rarely accessible and/or deposited 

in a knowledge repository for further review. In effect, there 

is little or no evidence that After Action Reviews, as they are 

currently conducted, have contributed in a visible and meaningful 

way to expanding police knowledge.
CHAPTER 1 - On the Threshold of an Innovation: Police and the Management of Knowledge 23

• Lessons Learned and After Action Reviews 

 The United States Army and federal land management agencies 

like the Department of Interior for many years have practiced 

creating knowledge from events or organizational experience. 

These relatively simple but disciplined learning forums have 

become standard practice within these organizations and have 

led to national repositories for lessons learned from events. The 

National Advance Resource Technology Center (NARTC) has 

been developed to support Fire Management agencies across the 

nation. One of their programs is known as “Lessons Learned” 

and is designed to use after incident reports to create and share 

knowledge from fire related events. The reporting system is web 

based and is accessible by anyone. Those wishing to report on an 

event, fill out a web-based form that includes identifying/contact 

information and then a response to the following questions:

1. What was the most notable success at the incident that 

others may learn from?

2. What were some of the most difficult challenges faced 

and how were they overcome?

3. What changes, additions or deletions are recommended 

to various training curriculums?

4. What issues were not resolved to your satisfaction and 

need further review? Based on what was learned, what is 

your recommendation for resolution?

This form is then submitted electronically and, along with all other 

reports, is shared with the ‘wild land fire community’. These reports 

are compiled and used to spot trends or common areas that need 

more in-depth attention from the fire fighting community. The After 

Action Review approach is expanding to the corporate and nonprofit 

sectors (Darling and Parry, 1999).

• Place Based Learning 

An interesting version of after action learning that focuses on the 

location or place of critical events has been in practice since 1906. 

Known as a ‘Staff Ride’, the U.S. Army initiated this process as a 

learning exercise that require new officers to travel to the actual 

battlefields to learn from the events that took place during great 

battles. This learning technique features not simply the battle, 

but the geographic location and dynamics of the battle. This 

case study approach is highly structured with numerous learning 

objectives that feature the interaction between the geography and 

the case dynamics (Robertson, 1987). The cases that are selected 

for this intensive learning process represent landmark battles that 

represent knowledge turning points in the profession of war.
24 Knowledge Management in Policing

• Integrating Events and Space After Action Reviews 

 On August 5th, 1949, a crew of fifteen elite Forest Service 

Smokejumpers responded to a remote fire in the Montana 

wilderness. In less than an hour after they jumped into that 

fire, all but three of these men were mortally burned. This 

event represents a landmark case in the long history of the fire 

management community. Obsessed with this tragedy, the renown 

Professor and acclaimed author Norman Mclean (A River Runs 

Through It and other stories) began an exhausting review of this 

event to answer key fire science and management questions that 

simply were not addressed in the review that immediately followed 

the event. Using a multimodal process that included document 

review, interviews with key participants and finally two site visits 

to this remote area with two remaining survivors of the fire, 

Maclean was able to answer key questions which, in turn, have 

transformed both the science of fire management and operational 

protocols (Maclean 1992). 

While the purpose of Maclean’s work was not to advance a knowledge 

creation model based on critical incident review, a careful analysis of 

Macleans approach to this event informs such a purpose. While most 

critical incident reviews occur in built professional environments, 

and most staff rides occur in the field, rarely are they joined in the 

way that Maclean conducted his review. This blended approach 

seems particularly relevant to policing today with the emphasis on a 

crime and place model that features a more integrated approach to 

understanding and addressing crime and disorder (Eck and Weisburd, 

1995). 

Most recently, the Rochester, New York Police Department has 

developed an integrated after action review process to address the problem 

of homicide within a relatively small inner city area that accounted for 

over 80% of homicide in Rochester. A stepwise process was used to 

identify and map homicides to locate the ‘target place’ within the city. 

Then an after action review was conducted of all the recent homicides 

within the target place. All the key participants, both within the 

community and within the police department, were invited to meetings 

where a facilitated process was used to analyze the recent homicide 

cases in the target area. The process was guided by the following 

questions:

1. Do you know anything about this case?

2. What do you know about the victim?

3. What do you know about associates of the victim?

4. Was the victim part of a group of active offenders?

5. What do you know about the suspect(s) /offenders?

6. What do you know about the associates of 

 suspects/offenders?
CHAPTER 1 - On the Threshold of an Innovation: Police and the Management of Knowledge 25

7. What do you know about the relationship between 

the victims and suspect?

8. What do you know about the location of the event?

9. What do you know about the motive in this case?

10. Was the incident drug related? How?

11. What do you think was behind the event 

 (final summary)?

Following the after action review session, a place based analysis 

including site visits were conducted to understand fully the nature of 

the location of each of the homicides. This place analysis included 

the location of the homicide and visits to the homes of relatives and 

other key participants within the geographic space surrounding 

the location. 

Based upon this process the crime dynamic of homicide in this area was 

developed that included a focus on motive, relational dynamics and 

the characteristic of the places in which these homicides occurred. 

In particular, the criminal career of drug houses was discovered to 

reveal that at a particular threshold point, a drug house is “out of 

the control” of the residents, and become inevitable locations of 

homicides. In addition, prior to the homicides, most of the members 

of the neighborhood in which the participants lived knew that the 

event was going to happen, often weeks in advance of the homicide. 

Finally, the tracking of suspects and victims over a several year period 

revealed that suspects/offenders in one year were ultimately victims of 

subsequent homicides in subsequent years. Based upon this analysis, 

interventions were crafted to address three distinct types of homicides 

that occur in the target area.

COMPASS: A Total Knowledge Management System 

In 2000, the NIJ launched COMPASS, a Community Mapping, 

Analysis and Planning for Safety Strategies (COMPASS) Initiative. 

This cutting edge experiment is based on the recent shift in criminal 

justice policy development toward a more collaborative, strategic 

approach to analyzing the nature of public safety problems to 

develop strategic interventions to reduce them. COMPASS has four 

components: (1) A collaborative policy group spanning a broad array 

of agencies and community interests; (2) A comprehensive data 

infrastructure that will house a broad set of data collected from a 

variety of sources (criminal justice, demographic, social and health, 

schools, hospitals, physical infrastructure, business data, etc.); (3) 

Strategic analysis of data both spatially and temporally through the use 

of a user-friendly information systems; and (4) Research partners to 

assist in the analysis of data, the development of interventions, and to 

provide on-going corrective feedback on the COMPASS process and 

the impact of the interventions.
26 Knowledge Management in Policing

The COMPASS project has been under observation since its inception 

and became a focal point early in this research. Three sites have been 

selected including Milwaukee, WI, Seattle, WA and the East Valley 

Project, a consortium of participants led by the Redlands, CA Police 

Department. It was clear early in the observations as the COMPASS 

project began to take shape that it was to be a comprehensive 

approach to Knowledge Management (Pendleton, 2002). As 

one leading participant noted: “COMPASS is Total Knowledge 

Management”. The following Seattle based data illustrate what is 

emerging as a total knowledge management system to address crime 

and disorder.

• Capturing What We Know 

 The very first phase of the COMPASS project focused on 

identifying and soliciting large data banks from diverse number 

of agencies and organizations. In effect, the first step was 

creating a data center that held vast amounts of data from diverse 

settings that, when taken together, provides a comprehensive 

understanding of all the possible factors related to crime and 

disorder. This data was collected and organized using a G.I.S. 

format to enable a “crime and place” analytical approach (Eck 

and Weisburd, 1995). This “capturing process” required detailed 

discussions, legal analysis, and an access agreement process to 

include a privacy council review before these data from these very 

diverse sources was acquired and indexed (Pendleton, 2002).

• Sharing What We Know 

 Early in the COMPASS process, a leadership team was formed to 

provide guidance in the design and implementation of the project. 

Members were selected based upon their representative role in the 

larger community. This team also facilitated the sharing of data 

from their respective agencies. As part of this process, a privacy 

council was formed to review data requests prior to acquiring 

data to determine both the nature of the data to be acquired and 

how it could subsequently be shared. Additional access protocols 

were developed to both guarantee data security and privacy, as 

well as to facilitate data use. In two of the three sites, web-based 

access will be developed for the community at large, as well as 

other agencies within the criminal justice field. In Redlands, over 

30 stakeholder agencies have been identified that will actively 

participate and share information. These agencies cross a broad 

spectrum from criminal justice, schools, universities, social service 

agencies, health care agencies, local governments, and the private 

sector.
CHAPTER 1 - On the Threshold of an Innovation: Police and the Management of Knowledge 27

• Applying What We Know 

 Once the basic COMPASS structure was established, and data 

base acquisition underway, the Leadership Team went through a 

facilitated process to select a problem for the COMPASS process. 

This problem was selected from an array of issues that were 

identified as critical problems for the Seattle area. The Leadership 

Team selected auto theft. The COMPASS research partner, 

discussed below, next conducted an extensive literature review 

using the CD ROM knowledge bank of abstracted research. Over 

270 abstracted articles on auto theft were reviewed. Based upon 

the literature review, a comprehensive analytical plan featuring a 

crime and place and hotspot approach was designed and followed. 

This process is currently in progress (Pendleton, 2002). A 

COMPASS team comprised of the project director, administrative 

assistant, G.I.S. analyst, a crime analyst from the Seattle Police 

Department, and the Research Partners selected for the project 

conducts the analytical process. Based upon the outcome of the 

analysis, an intervention will be crafted, implemented 

and evaluated.

• Increasing What We Know 

 An integral component of the COMPASS initiative is the 

selection of research partner(s) to participate in all phases of 

the project as discussed above. In addition, the research partner 

also is documenting and evaluating the process (Pendleton, 

2002) and providing advice in all phases of the project, based 

upon an on-going assessment. Known as "action research" the 

partners provide advice as the project is developing rather than 

waiting until it is completed, thus losing the opportunity to profit 

from the understanding that the project develops (Lewin, 1948; 

McEwen, 1999). The project teams from all three COMPASS 

sites gather on a quarterly basis in 'cluster meetings' to share 

cross-site experiences and other key project issues. In addition, 

as the project proceeds, papers are developed, presented at 

conferences and published to share lessons learned from the 

project (Pendleton, 2000b; Pendleton, 2001). 
28 Knowledge Management in Policing

INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Rogers (1995), in his study of the attributes of innovations, notes 

that innovations are often not viewed in a singular way but may be 

perceived as an interrelated bundle of new ideas. The elements that 

comprise an innovation may be tightly or loosely bundled based on 

the degree of interrelatedness between elements (Koontz, 1976). The 

findings from this research suggest that together police Knowledge 

Management might be usefully viewed as an innovation cluster that is 

loosely bundled where the boundaries are not necessarily clear cut and 

distinct, but when taken together form an interconnected Knowledge 

Management Model as illustrated on page 26 in Figure 1.

Activities in one area of the model logically connect or lead to 

activities in another. The data suggests that there are Knowledge 

Management vehicles that bring together one or more of the 

four areas in the model. The crime mapping framework and the 

COMPASS initiative can be viewed as Knowledge Management 

vehicles as they both include KM activities in all four areas, but then 

create functional linkages between the four elements of the 

KM model. 

The degree of collaboration and the level of adoption involved 

in their application can usefully distinguish the approaches to 

Knowledge Management observed in this study. In effect, the level 

of collaboration and the number of types utilized by the participants 

define the stages or types of police Knowledge Management. 

Knowledge Management as Levels of Collaboration 

Levels of collaboration refer to the amount of sharing and 

cooperative interaction with others involved in the utilization of KM 

strategies. Some participants report the utilization of KM strategies, 

such as problem solving casebooks or particular software solutions 

that are confined to individual users with little interpersonal or interorganizational interaction. This level of collaboration is minimal 

and generally confined to individual users. Another approach to 

collaboration is intra-organizational and involves sharing knowledge 

within the organization and often working in teams in one or more 

of the types of KM observed in this study. The Redlands Police 

Department's plan to implement real time data sharing in the patrol 

briefing setting is an example of intra-organizational collaboration and 

team strategies to utilize knowledge. The COMSTAT approach to 

data driven decision-making and accountability is another example of 

intra-organizational collaboration. Collaboration was also observed 

that involved sharing knowledge and working in teams that cross over 

organizational and jurisdictional boundaries. The COPLINK project 

in Arizona, the COMPASS project in the three pilot sites, and the 

construction of community access websites are examples of a system 

wide approach to collaboration.
CHAPTER 1 - On the Threshold of an Innovation: Police and the Management of Knowledge 29

Figure 1.

POLICE KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT MODEL

I. Capturing Knowledge

 “Knowing What We Know”

II.Processing Knowledge

“Sharing What We Know”

IV. Creating Knowledge

KNOWLEDGE-CENTRIC “Increasing What We Know”

III. Applying Knowledge 

“Using What We Know”

IV. Creating Knowledge

“Increasing What We Know”
30 Knowledge Management in Policing

During this research, the degree of collaboration associated with 

Knowledge Management varied along a continuum from very low 

to very high. Some participants seem to confine their Knowledge 

Management efforts to time honored traditional approaches that Muir 

(1997) and others have identified decades ago. Other participants are 

strongly committed to sharing knowledge within and between police 

organizations. Still others have, as one participant stated, taken a 

“shine the light of day on it” approach to knowledge and are actively 

sharing knowledge within their entire social system. Redlands Police 

Department is an example of such an approach.

Collaboration, often viewed as the ‘neglected side of KM’ (Matway 

and Andrews, 2000), is not an attribute commonly associated with 

the police profession that is considered closed. Yet there is clear 

evidence that the police profession is engaging in cross boundary 

knowledge management activities. Specifically, data suggest that the 

police are open to collaborating with other departments, with other 

institutions, and the community at large. This collaboration, while the 

continuation of a trend toward openness, is important as it signals a 

willingness to share information and knowledge that simply has not 

been part of the long standing police tradition. In contrast, however, 

the data also suggests that there is less interest in KM strategies that 

share, apply and create knowledge within the police organization. 

Knowledge Management as Levels of Adoption

While the diffusion of innovations model has addressed the rate and 

type of adoptions of innovations, there seems to be little evidence of 

research that addresses the comprehensiveness of adoption that might 

be associated with innovation clusters. Rogers (1995: 236) notes the 

need ‘to analyze complexes of innovations, to study new ideas in an 

evolutionary sequence’ to determine compatibility among interrelated 

ideas and adoption rates of innovation packages. 

Findings from this research suggest that the number of KM types 

may define Knowledge Management that police organizations have 

adopted. Some participants’ report the adoption of KM strategies 

that fall into only one of the four types observed in this study. 

Others, such as those reviewed in the Weisburd (2001) study of crime 

mapping, report the adoption of several of the KM strategies. Others 

report KM activities in all four of the areas observed in this study 

such as the Redlands Police Department, who is a lead participant in 

the COMPASS initiative. What was not evident from the findings in 

this study, but what might be possible is a cumulative or “Guttmann 

scale effect” where if a participant reports Knowledge Management 

activities in one area, such as the COMPASS initiative, they will have 

reported activities in all four areas (Kerlinger, 1973). In this respect, 

determining police adoption of the KM innovation would not simply 

refer to when it was adopted but by how much it was adopted.
CHAPTER 1 - On the Threshold of an Innovation: Police and the Management of Knowledge 31

As Figure 2 suggests, the two dimensions of police Knowledge 

Management can be viewed as an innovation continuum. 

Figure 2.

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT CONTINUUM 

Using this continuum, it is possible to place or evaluate police 

Knowledge Management strategies. In addition, these dimensions may 

be utilized to determine their impact on the rate of adoption and other 

factors such as the re-invention of the KM model that was observed in 

the D.A.R.E. innovation (Rogers, 1993).

Implications For Adoption

While the findings in this research suggest that the Knowledge 

Management Model may be an important innovation for policing, 

findings from this research seem to have implications for adoption. 

Rogers (1995) has identified several attributes of innovations that 

affect their rate of adoption. On factor is compatibility, which is 

the degree to which an innovation is perceived as consistent with 

existing values, past experiences and needs of the potential adopters. 

Data from this research shows that very few of the participants 

were actively engaged in individual based Knowledge Management 

strategies, such as e-mail mapping and yellow paging, to track individual 

officers and their areas of expertise. In part, this approach may 

simply reflect a lack of awareness or resources to adopt this form of 

Knowledge Management. Another possibility, however, is that such an 

approach would be inconsistent with the professional norms against 

sharing individual officer information and monitoring officer behavior. 

Throughout the KM literature it is clear that if KM is used to police 

employees, then adoption will be unlikely (Lim, et.al., 1999). There 

is a long tradition in the police culture, to resist efforts to monitor 

police behavior. This cultural tradition would suggest a less than an 

enthusiastic approach to KM strategies that propose to monitor, even 

map inter-officer communication (Skolnick and Fyfe, 1993). It is not 

surprising that data on accountability efforts like COMSTAT show 

limited success, suggesting that other KM efforts like e-mail mapping 

would not be well received.

Low 

Individual

Low

Collaboration

Organization

(KNOWLEDGE CENTRISM)

Levels of Adoption 

High

Social System

High
32 Knowledge Management in Policing

Yet another reason that Knowledge Management efforts to capture 

police knowledge may be slowly adopted is that police culture is based 

in face-to-face situational interactions. Hansen and his colleagues 

(1999) identified two strategies for KM that are linked to the nature 

of the adopting organization. One, known as the codification strategy

relies on documenting and storing knowledge for reuse by others. 

The other strategy is tied to person to person sharing and known as 

the personalization strategy. The long standing history of passing along 

the police culture via word of mouth and situational story telling 

when combined with the police aversion to 'paper work' suggests that 

a codification approach would not be quickly adopted in the police 

profession. Such a view is consistent with the data from this study 

where there was little enthusiasm for police problem solving "beat 

books" and other programs requiring the documentation of problem 

solving outcomes and approaches. Conversely, the data indicating 

more adoption of Sharing and Application KM strategies seems more 

consistent with the personalization character of the police culture.

CONCLUSION

The results of this research show that there are Knowledge 

Management activities occurring within the police profession. These 

activities can be loosely organized into a Knowledge Management 

Model, which can be adopted as an organizing management strategy 

within a police organization. Perhaps the most surprising finding is 

that the police are much more involved in collaborative activities than 

the conventional view of the police would suggest. This outward 

looking approach suggests that the police are open to learning from 

other sectors in society, such as the private sector and those land 

management agencies who are currently adopting the KM innovation. 

The fact that there is much less collaboration within police 

organizations than between organizations deserves additional study. 

There is little evidence, however, that the police profession is aware 

of Knowledge Management as an overall management strategy but is 

involved in KM activities in an incremental way. In this respect, the 

police profession might be termed a 'late adopter' using Rogers (1995) 

categorization of types of adopters. 

It would be wrong to suggest however that there are no 'innovators 

or early adopters' of the KM strategy. Those police agencies involved 

in the COMPASS initiative are clearly committed to cross system 

Knowledge Management. In this regard, the Knowledge Management 

Model may be important to police innovation and innovators given 

the central nature of knowledge in the innovation process. There are, 

however, few police participants that were Knowledge-centric in the 

internal management of the police organization. The Redlands Police 

Department stands in stark contrast in this regard and seemingly has 

distinguished itself as a Knowledge Management innovator. A fuller 

understanding of this Knowledge Management innovator will follow 

in subsequent publications from this research.
CHAPTER 1 - On the Threshold of an Innovation: Police and the Management of Knowledge 33

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CHAPTER 2 - Anatomy of a Police Innovator: A Case Study of Knowledge Management in Policing 39

CHAPTER 2

ANATOMY OF A POLICE INNOVATOR: A CASE STUDY OF KNOWLEDGE 

MANAGEMENT IN POLICING

by: Michael R. Pendleton Ph.D. and Chief Jim Bueerman

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

If the police profession is to remain open to innovation, and remain 

relevant to the problems of the future, a more strategic understanding 

of innovation leadership is essential. The research reported here 

addresses the lack of focused research on the process of innovation 

in policing and specifically addresses the question: What is the nature 

of innovation leadership and specifically the nature of a police 

innovator? The case study approach (selected for this research and 

which provides the benefit of looking within a specific organization 

rather than across numerous organizations) has provided valuable 

insight into the process of innovation and the characteristics of an 

innovative organization. Utilizing the Police Knowledge Management 

(KM) Model, the Redlands Police Department (RPD) in Redlands, 

California was identified as a police Knowledge Management 

Innovator and was selected as a case study of innovation leadership. 

The RPD was selected by reviewing data from a COPS funded 

research fellowship that was initiated but not completed by another 

researcher to survey how Knowledge Management was applied 

to street level police problems in police departments across the 

country. Results from this inquiry suggest that the police innovator 

is more than an individual who is intrigued with new ideas, but is an 

organizational place where innovation happens. In this respect, the 

organization becomes known as the innovator where leadership is but 

one part of a larger innovation system. Knowledge Management, as a 

purposeful organizational strategy, is more than an innovation in itself, 

but is a fundamental part of the innovation process that is essential 

to sustaining an organizational culture that is based in innovation. 

The study also indicates that the next step in police Knowledge 

Management is to address the need to integrate the various KM 

techniques into an interrelated system.
40 Knowledge Management in Policing

ANATOMY OF A POLICE INNOVATOR: A CASE STUDY OF KNOWLEDGE 

MANAGEMENT IN POLICING

Since the early 1990's the police profession has been immersed in 

innovation. Defined as a "philosophical revolution" (Malcolm, 1989) 

and the "most significant redefinition of police work in the past half 

century" (Wilson and Kelling, 1989) Community Oriented Policing and 

Problem Oriented Policing became dominant approaches to policing. 

As a dramatic response to a period of crisis where police activities had 

little impact on the rapid rise in crime, these innovations were diffused 

and adopted by the profession. Combined with the rise and diffusion 

of computer technology, this period of innovation has been facilitated 

by research, which in turn, has led to the adoption of even more 

sophisticated innovations such as computer based crime mapping. 

Known as a conservative profession resistant to change the police are 

now viewed as on the "forefront of innovation in criminal justice" 

(Weisburd, 2001). 

In spite of the transformation of the policing profession and the 

subsequent role of innovation, little is known about the nature of 

the police as innovators. This omission is significant for at least two 

reasons. First, it has been suggested, that this period of innovation 

may be slowing. As optimistic research and the declining crime trends 

relieve the pressure for what has been termed 'radical innovation' 

there are indications that police departments may becoming more 

resistant to innovation (Weisburd, 2001). Absent an understanding of 

the innovation process in policing it is difficult to accurately assess and 

then address barriers to innovation. Secondly, in an "internet world" 

where information flows at the "speed of thought" keeping pace with 

a rapidly changing world is not enough. As the September 11th , 2001 

World Trade Center attacks illustrate, it is now essential to anticipate 

and prepare for problems in the future. Innovation is not just about 

keeping up, but essential to getting ahead on public safety. If the police 

profession is to remain open to innovation, and remain relevant to the 

problems of the future, a more strategic understanding of innovation 

leadership is essential. The research reported below addresses the lack 

of focused research on the process of innovation in policing and 

specifically addresses the question: What is the nature of innovation 

leadership and specifically the nature of a police innovator? The 

theoretical framework for this inquiry is the Diffusion of 

Innovations Model.
CHAPTER 2 - Anatomy of a Police Innovator: A Case Study of Knowledge Management in Policing 41

THE DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS MODEL AND POLICE INNOVATION

Over the last fifty years, the interest in innovation has converged into 

a field of study best represented by the Diffusion of Innovations Model. 

Developed by Everett Rogers (1995), the Diffusion of Innovations Model

provides a useful model for examining the process of innovation 

in policing because it provides a comprehensive framework for 

understanding how a new idea, technique, or invention is generated, 

defined and finally adopted. Originally, the model focused upon how 

innovations were communicated linearly throughout a social system to 

lead to the adoption of the innovation. The model has evolved, now 

stressing the importance of the iterative nature of social interaction 

as innovation traverses the various stages in an innovation process. 

The theory rests on the view that "uncertainty is generated by an 

innovation"("Rogers, 1995, xvii) which creates new, possibly superior 

alternatives to existing means for solving problems, thus leading to the 

search for information. This search is manifested in social process 

that eventually determines the meaning of the innovation. Rather 

than information flowing in a linear fashion, the theory now stresses a 

convergence model where "participants create and share information 

with one another to reach a mutual understanding" of the innovation 

and its implementation (Rogers, 1995 xvi). 

A central feature of the Diffusion of Innovations Model is the role of 

innovativeness in the process of adopting an innovation. Innovativeness 

is the degree to which an individual or other unit of adoption 

implements new ideas before other members of a system (Rogers, 

1995, 252). Innovativeness indicates observable behavioral change 

that demonstrates the adoption of an innovation and is considered a 

"bottom-line" type of behavior in the diffusion process. Based upon an 

innovativeness score or measure, adopters of innovations can be placed 

into one of five "adopter categories" ranging from those who have the 

highest innovation score to those with the lowest. These categories are 

defined as: 1) Innovators-venturesome; 2) Early Adopters-respect; 3) 

Early Majority-deliberate; 4) Late Majority-skeptical; and 5) Laggardstraditional. Both individuals and organizations can be located within 

adopter categories and distinguished by factors such as economic 

status, personality- traits, communication behavior, organizational size, 

organizational openness, leadership, etc. (Rogers, 1995).

One key factor in the diffusion of innovations process is innovation 

leadership. This leadership role is generally assumed by an individual 

or an organization that "launches" new ideas into a system generally 

from outside the system boundaries. Categorized as the Innovator, 

this individual or organization plays a gate-keeping role in the flow of 

ideas into a system (Rogers, 1995, pp 264). Examples of organizational 

Innovators in policing are the Los Angeles Police Department and their 

role in launching the D.A.R.E. program (Rogers, 1993), and the New 

York Police Department in their role in introducing COMSTAT to the 

police profession (Pendleton, 2002b). 
42 Knowledge Management in Policing

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT AS A POLICE INNOVATION

One effect of the recent period of police innovation has been 

the increased importance of developing, accessing and applying 

professional knowledge to police problems. Knowledge and its 

management, is consistently viewed as a "bed rock necessity" for 

innovation in police problem solving (Geller and Swanger, 1995 pp 

154). Herman Goldstein in his seminal work on Problem Oriented 

Policing (POP) consistently emphasized the critical role of knowledge 

to police problem solving. Goldstein (1990) noted the difficulties 

of tapping implicit knowledge "stored in the minds of rank and 

file police officers" to analyze problems (pp 93), the importance of 

sharing knowledge with citizens as one aspect of solving problems (pp 

114), the lack of a "tradition of proceeding logically from knowledge 

gained...to the fashioning of an appropriate response" (pp 15), and 

the importance of creating new knowledge through self critique 

(pp15) cross system knowledge sharing (pp 168-171) and research (pp 

171-172). Quite simply, knowledge management is at the heart of 

Problem Oriented Policing.

The knowledge-centric nature of recent police innovations, clearly 

establishes the need for Knowledge Management as an innovation 

in and of its self. While Knowledge Management (KM) as an 

innovation has been recognized in the private sector (Hansen, et. al. 

1999, Gore and Gore, 1999, Hickins, 1999), it is only now emerging in 

the police profession. Pendleton (2002b), in his study of knowledge 

management in policing, has developed a model that seems relevant 

to innovation leadership. Pattern analysis of the data supports a 

police knowledge management model that is a loosely bundled but 

interconnected set of management activities designed to capitalize 

on the intellectual assets (Pendleton, 2001). Knowledge management 

in this model is not a passive activity, but a purposeful organizational 

strategy that is integrally related to organizational activities. Known as 

an innovation cluster (Rogers, 1995), the four-part police knowledge 

management model provides a useful framework for understanding 

how knowledge is captured, shared, applied and created in public 

safety organizations (Figure 1). 
CHAPTER 2 - Anatomy of a Police Innovator: A Case Study of Knowledge Management in Policing 43

Figure 1.

POLICE KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT MODEL

I. Capturing Knowledge

 “Knowing What We Know”

II.Processing Knowledge

“Sharing What We Know”

IV. Creating Knowledge

“Increasing What We Know” KNOWLEDGE-CENTRIC

III. Applying Knowledge 

“Using What We Know”
44 Knowledge Management in Policing

THE STUDY

Innovation leadership is not just an individual attribute. Rather, 

innovation is both an individual as well as an organizational 

characteristic (Rogers, 1995). Early studies of organizational 

innovation simply transferred models and methods used to understand 

individual innovativeness to organizational research with little 

regard for the differences. While many of the factors that predict 

innovativeness in an individual also have counter parts within 

organizations, some, like system openness and formalization, are found 

only within the organizational context. It is important, therefore, that 

organizational innovation research is guided by analytical strategies 

that are sensitive to the nature of organizational innovation. One 

important feature of organizational innovation is its stage or process 

nature. Organizational innovations generally follow a multi-step 

process from initiation to implementation (Rogers, 1995, pp392). The 

Police Knowledge Management Model, as an innovation cluster, allows 

for such a phase based analysis because its four parts are synergistically 

linked, so if one part of the KM model is adopted it facilitates 

adoption of the others (Rogers, 1995, pp 381).

Another useful application of the Police Knowledge Management 

Model is to assess the degree of KM innovativeness adopted by 

police organizations. Pendleton (2002), in his study of Knowledge 

Management in police departments, noted that police departments 

are distinguished by the level of adoption and degree of collaboration 

that are utilized within each of the areas in the model. Some police 

organizations can adopt KM strategies that fall in only one of the 

four types of Knowledge Management, while others have adopted 

Knowledge Management in several of the areas. Some police 

departments may engage in KM activities in all of the areas of the 

model but do not utilize a collaborative approach in their application. 

It was rare, however, to find a police department that had adopted 

Knowledge Management as a purposeful organizational strategy 

with activities in all four areas of the model with an emphasis on 

collaboration. Such an organization can be classified as a Knowledge 

Management Innovator and could provide valuable insight into 

innovation leadership.
CHAPTER 2 - Anatomy of a Police Innovator: A Case Study of Knowledge Management in Policing 45

THE CASE STUDY METHOD

One of the most valuable strategies for understanding organizational 

innovativeness is to look within a specific organization rather than across

numerous organizations. This case study approach (selected for this 

research) has provided valuable insight into the process of innovation 

and the characteristics of an innovative organization (Rogers 1995). 

By utilizing the Police Knowledge Management Model, the Redlands 

Police Department (RPD) in Redlands, California was identified as 

a police Knowledge Management Innovator and was selected as 

a case study of innovation leadership. The RPD was selected by 

reviewing data from a COPS funded research fellowship that was 

initiated but not completed by another researcher to survey how 

Knowledge Management was applied to street level police problems 

in police departments across the country . Specifically, 58 police 

departments from around the United States were surveyed using a 

phone questionnaire methodology. Narrative data was reviewed to 

determine the nature and characteristics of KM techniques currently 

in use in these departments. Since the fellowship research data was 

collected, the Redlands Police Department was also selected as the 

lead agency in an innovative pilot project known as the COMPASS 

(Community, Mapping, Planning, and Analysis for Safety Strategies) 

initiative. Defined as a total knowledge management system, COMPASS is 

a new criminal justice initiative to address crime and disorder, which 

involves multiple policy partners, diverse data sources, strategic analysis 

and interventions (Pendleton 2002). 

An ethnographic methodology, the mainstay of the Anthropological 

Research tradition, was selected to accommodate the (emerging) 

nature of the research topic and the qualitative nature of available data 

(Atkinson and Hammersley, 1994). This approach is common in the 

study of diffusion of innovations research (Rogers, 1995). During 

a 12-month research period the principal investigator utilized three 

approaches to data collection. Data collection was guided by specific 

questions that were organized by the four components of the Police 

Knowledge Management Model (see Appendix 1).

Direct Observation

Three site visits were conducted to observe the social system and 

organizational setting in which knowledge management occurs. Specific 

Knowledge Management activities such as COMSTAT meetings, staff 

meetings, and COMPASS meetings were attended and observed. In 

addition, a police ride along was conducted to observe the community 

in which policing occurs.
46 Knowledge Management in Policing

Key Informant Interviews

Numerous interviews and informal conversations were conducted 

during site visits, phone conversations, and meetings at jointly attended 

conferences in which participants from the organization under study 

attended. Participants included the Chief of Police, command officers, 

patrol officers, professional staff, and community members.

Secondary Data 

Numerous reports, maps, crime data, and documents within the Police 

Department library, were collected and reviewed. 

THE COMMUNITY AND ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT FOR INNOVATION

The Redlands Police Department (RPD) is located within a population 

of 70,000 people that is located in San Bernardino County, the 

largest county in the United States (20,000 sq. mi.), 60 miles east 

of Los Angeles. It has contiguous boarders with five other cities 

and together this area known as "East Valley" has a population of 

approximately 350,000 people. Located within Redlands, or within 

the immediate vicinity are four universities, two junior colleges and 

the world's largest producer of geographic information system (GIS) 

software. These institutions create an environment rich in learning 

opportunities as each has a different emphasis. For instance, the 

University of Redlands, a nationally acclaimed liberal arts school, has a 

strong emphasis on the use of GIS as a community-wide endeavor to 

create sustainable communities and provides the RPD with a endless 

supply of interns. Loma Linda University' School of Public Health 

has a focused interest in crime and public safety as a component of its 

holistic orientation to "community health." California State 

University at San Bernardino has a strong criminal justice program as 

does the University of California, Riverside. Finally, while 

Redlands-based Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) is 

a private corporation, it has a distinct emphasis on learning within the 

context of developing more powerful and useful software tools.

Innovation As An Applied Professional Philosophy 

The RPD has a long-standing commitment to innovation. This 

commitment is formally established in Department documents as a 

written organizational value that is further articulated by written belief 

statements. This self-description of the Department and its natural 

inclination for knowledge management illustrates this commitment: 

 "The Redlands Police Department's commitment to the city 

is best captured in a quote by Albert Einstein: 'The world 

we created today has problems which cannot be solved 

by thinking the way we thought when we created them'. 

Determining new and innovative techniques based on 

research that drives strategies we pursue is an integral 

aspect of Risk-Focused Policing (Community Report, 2000 

pp6)." 
CHAPTER 2 - Anatomy of a Police Innovator: A Case Study of Knowledge Management in Policing 47

The Department was an early adopter (1993) of Community 

Policing and Problem Oriented Policing innovations. In 1998, these 

innovations were further developed with the implementation of Risk 

Focused Policing. Risk Focused Policing is defined as "data and 

results-driven, community oriented policing and problem solving 

strategy which focuses on those factors in a community which places 

its youth and families most at risk for criminal and other problem 

behaviors" (Bueerman, 2000, pp26). This approach relies on the 

extensive research on adolescent behavior and the application of 

assessment and intervention techniques that address the risk factors 

that underlie most youth problem behaviors. The adoption of the 

Risk Focused Policing innovation is based on collaboration, the first 

of five formally stated core values of the Department. In 2000, the 

Redlands Risk Focused Policing Program was selected as one of the 

25 finalists from 1300 applicants to the Innovations in American 

Government Award Program. The Program started in 1986, is 

administered by the Harvard University's John F. Kennedy School 

of Government in partnership with the Council for Excellence in 

Government to honor innovative public service. 

The RPD is unique in its organizational structure. In 1997, the 

Department initiated a proposal to consolidate the city's Human 

Services Department into the Police Department as a means to 

advance Community Policing. This restructuring placed the Housing 

Division and the Recreation Division under the structure and control 

of the RPD. This innovative organizational structure reflects a 

"front-end" public safety philosophy that is directed at the causes of 

crime rather than the traditional reactive approach that relies solely 

on command and control techniques. The inclusion of recreational 

programs and housing resources gives the Department the ability to 

direct resources at preventing youth crime and attacking neighborhood 

blight. This organizational structure explains the unusually high 

number of civilian employees (85) relative to sworn police officers (86) 

that respond to 45,000 annual calls for service, of which approximately 

7,000 are reported crimes.
48 Knowledge Management in Policing

THE NATURE AND ROLE OF INNOVATION LEADERSHIP

The innovation process in organizations consists of two broad sets of 

activities known as Initiation processes and Implementation processes. 

Initiation processes include the activities leading up to the decision to 

adopt an innovation such as information gathering, conceptualizing 

and planning. Implementation processes are those events, actions and 

decisions involved in putting the innovation to use (Rogers, 1995). In 

most innovation processes, the decision to adopt an innovation creates 

a "bright line" between these two sets of processes. 

One key factor in the diffusion of innovations process is innovation 

leadership. This leadership role is generally assumed by an individual 

or an organization that "launches" new ideas into a system generally 

from outside the system boundaries. Categorized as the Innovator, this 

individual or organization plays a gate-keeping role in the flow of ideas 

into a system (Rogers, 1995, pp 264). The research on innovations 

in organizations is consistent and clear, that innovation leadership is 

determined, in part, by the involvement of an innovation champion 

(i.e., one who overcomes resistance to a project and leads in the 

design and adoption of an innovation) (Rogers, 1995). A Knowledge 

Management champion is a charismatic individual who throws his/her 

weight behind the innovation to overcome resistance to become an 

effective organizational sponsor for adoption of the idea. 

The Knowledge Management Champion may or may not be the 

person who first encounters the innovation. The distinction between 

initiation leadership and implementation leadership is important to the 

ultimate application of an innovation. The selection of a Knowledge 

Management Champion can be purposeful to reflect the demands of 

both the initiation phase (decision to adopt) and the implementation 

phase. Yet the leadership demands during the initiation phase may be 

quite different than those required during implementation. If the RPD 

Knowledge Management Initiative was to be adopted it would require 

both initiation and implementation leadership. 

Initiation Leadership: The Chief As An Innovation Champion

In 1998, the City of Redlands retained a new Chief of Police who 

had served for twenty years in the RPD. The RPD police chief has 

acted as the Department's change agent since his promotion to captain 

in 1993. Among the core principals of the new Chief's leadership 

philosophy was a commitment to collaboration, data driven decisions, 

knowledge based service, and innovation. As such, considerable effort 

has been focused developing the personal skills necessary to promote 

organizational innovation and change. The Chief, as an innovation 

leader, has shaped his approach around three key beliefs: 1) It is better 

to define your own future than allow outside influences to do it for 
CHAPTER 2 - Anatomy of a Police Innovator: A Case Study of Knowledge Management in Policing 49

you; 2) Albert Einstein's belief that "the problems we face today 

cannot be solved using the same thinking we employed at the time they 

were created" became his professional, innovation anchor; and 3) The 

principle of "displacement of concept", which is the notion that ideas 

in one discipline can be applied in another field to yield new learning. 

Central to this last principle is the "scanning" multiple sources of 

information to identify new ideas that can be "displaced" to policing.

Two specific areas of interest have defined innovation leadership 

within RPD: community policing and the use of geographic 

information systems. By finding analogies in public health services to 

policing the chief has become involved in discussions and projects at 

the regional, state and national levels relative to developing "healthy 

cities" and "livable communities." When the Chief initiated the move 

to consolidate housing, recreation and senior services within the 

police department, and then adopting "risk and protective focused 

prevention" as a community policing paradigm, he became networked 

with innovators in health, community development, recreation, senior 

services, education, drug rehabilitation, prisoner re-entry and family 

strengthening. This innovation network became a source for ideas 

that could be appropriated as part of the evolving RPD's community 

policing strategy.

Central to RPD's innovation leadership strategy is the commitment to 

partnerships, collaboration, researched-based and data-driven decisions, 

and the belief that a lack of immediately identifiable funds with which 

to accomplish innovative organizational goals is not a valid excuse 

for not pursuing the innovation. This latter point has helped the 

RPD explore a wide breadth of funding sources that range from state 

and federal grants, foundation funds, community resources and an 

aggressive orientation to the department's budget simply as a "tool" to 

be used to expand organizational horizons and not as a controlling end 

onto itself.

The displacement of concept scanning includes searching for possible 

applications of for-profit business practices and paradigms to the 

non-profit, governmental enterprise of policing. This has resulted 

in the introduction into the department's culture of value alignment, 

the identification of value drivers as a way to increase organizational 

effectiveness, knowledge management, personal strategic development, 

customer surveys, and multiple marketing approaches to 

community safety.
50 Knowledge Management in Policing

Finally, the chief has clearly accepted the role of "chief marketer" 

of innovative ideas and frequently employs stakeholder analysis and 

building critical mass techniques for moving more public innovations 

across the community's social-political landscape. For example, when 

the Chief became aware of the number of seniors that lived alone, 

with alarmingly little contact with the community, he setout to create a 

senior transportation bus system operated by the Community Service 

Division of the RPD. Initially, this idea met with extensive opposition 

from a faction of the City Council and other city staff. Their 

opposition focused on funding and the expanding role (e.g. power 

base) of the police department. To counter this opposition, the chief 

analyzed the relevant stakeholders and their position on the issue. He 

then developed a strategy designed to move the individuals constituting 

the project's "critical mass" to positions where they minimally allowed 

the project to go forward. For example, to counter the "lack of funds" 

issue, he brokered an agreement with the local transportation agency to 

supply two used buses to the RPD, at no cost - instead of selling them 

at auction - and he used budgetary salary savings to fund the drivers. 

To counter the role expansion argument he spent considerable time 

marketing the concept to service clubs, retired citizen's groups, etc. 

so that by the time the proposal came before the City Council there 

was a groundswell of support that made it acceptable for the police to 

implement the project. This strategy has worked on a variety of other 

Department issues that range from the introduction of automatic 

external defibrillators in patrol cars, to employing business practices in 

recruiting experienced police officers, to purchasing a motel to open 

a city-operated prisoner re-entry facility as a means of controlling 

parolee-related crime.

From Innovation Leader To Innovation Liberator 

While the Chief of Police is personally engaged in innovation 

leadership, there is a clear recognition that innovation is not simply 

within the purview of "management" but often has its roots in 

many other areas within an organization. To tap this vital source of 

innovation, the Chief of Police routinely joins patrol team briefings 

once-a-month, meets with individual officers over coffee, and does 

ride-along with officers to tap into the knowledge individuals "at 

the line level" about how to do things better. During a recent "ridealong" with a new officer, the Chief asked how they might improve 

operations. The officer then demonstrated a very unique street 

location tool he put together to help him find his way through the 

very confusing south side of Redlands. The Chief asked the officer 

why more people didn't use it and he said as a new officer he was 

told by a veteran that he could not propose the idea. With the 

officer's permission and ensuring that the officer received the credit, 

the Department has now issued his system to all new officers. This 

is but one example of how the Chief is increasingly serving as an 

"innovation liberator" of ideas from employees who find innovation 

barriers within the organization. 
CHAPTER 2 - Anatomy of a Police Innovator: A Case Study of Knowledge Management in Policing 51

Innovation Implementation Leadership: The Deputy Chief As An 

Innovation Champion

One of the more common complaints expressed by police chiefs of 

small and medium sized police departments is their lack of time to 

focus on strategic, innovative or course altering organizational issues. 

A frequent metaphor invoked by these chiefs is that they have become 

more like firefighters than police officers, constantly "extinguishing" 

organizational or political "fires" that ultimately consume tremendous 

amounts of their time - and perhaps more importantly - their creative 

energy. The majority of these organizations have a management 

position directly subordinate to the chief - typically a captain or 

lieutenant. However, the organizational focus of these positions is 

usually division-specific (e.g. field operations or administration) and 

precludes their systemic view of the day-to-day operations. In smaller 

departments, where there may only be one manager between line 

operations and the police chief, the culture of the department or city is 

typically such that there is an expectation that the chief will personally 

oversee these daily activities, thereby dooming him or her to the role 

of organizational firefighter rather than innovation or change agent.

The RPD's Deputy Police Chief plays an integral role in pushing 

the Department's orientation toward innovation and knowledge 

management. The police chief's intent has long been to inject private 

sector business practices into the governmental model of policing. 

Accordingly, the relationship of Police Chief and Deputy Chief is 

akin to that of a Chief Executive Officer to a corporate President. 

The RPD Deputy Chief, acting as the "President" of the RPD 

"corporation," focuses the majority of his energies on managing the 

day-to-day activities of the department, "putting out" unavoidable 

organizational "fires" that must be dealt with but do not generally 

advance organizational development. This allows the Chief, as CEO, 

to focus on issues that move the Department forward in an innovative, 

strategic direction.

As an added bonus to the RPD, the Deputy Chief also acts as the 

Department's Chief Technology Officer (CTO). As a personal 

interest he has been involved in the use of computer technology as a 

means of leveraging the community's investment in the RPD. Since 

assuming the role of CTO, he has also been tasked with examining 

and experimenting with other types of innovative technology to 

increase the Department's effectiveness. To facilitate this role, 

he spends a considerable amount of time researching innovative 

approaches to the use of technology by reviewing publications, 

technology-focused websites, visiting a diverse range of public and 

private organizations and attends a variety of trade shows. It is clear 

that without the Deputy Chief's contributions, the RPD's ability 

to innovate would be significantly limited. He directly facilitates 

the Police Chief's ability to consider and implement innovative 

organizational and community strategies. 
52 Knowledge Management in Policing

Innovation Implementation Leadership: Change and 

Organizational Resistance 

Like most law enforcement organizations, the RPD experienced 

internal resistance to change prior to 1998 when the current 

police chief was appointed. By appropriating the concept of "self 

examination" from the field of psychology and applying it to the 

RPD, along with many of the techniques used by family-marriage 

therapists, resulted in many, and sometimes uncomfortable, discussions 

at multiple levels within the Department about the organization's 

tolerance for ambiguity, change and innovation. The outcome was 

a collective understanding of the Department's present capacity for 

tolerating change and more importantly, an awareness and acceptance 

that the department, 1) was going to change; 2) it was absolutely 

acceptable to express frustration, concern and even fear of the 

organizational "unknowns; and 3) with frequent opportunities for input 

and non-judgmental dialogue about the state of the Department's 

progress, each member would be able to understand where he or 

she fit into the Department's future. The police chief ensured that 

Department members knew that there would be considerable change 

in the Department's orientation, what the nature of the change was 

likely to be, and what values and skills members would be required to 

exhibit to be successful in the new organizational environment. The 

Chief repeatedly articulated the notion that not everyone would find 

this level of change acceptable. It became clear that there would be 

no organizational consequence or ill will if any member found these 

changes unacceptable and chose to seek employment elsewhere. 

Further, assistance was provided to those members who chose to leave 

the Department and it was made clear they would be welcome as part 

of the extended "RPD Family" anytime. As a result, several police 

officers left the Department for a nearby, more traditional department, 

with the chief's assistance, and remain friendly and welcome at the 

RPD. Interestingly, it was only police officers that chose to leave 

during this 18-24 month evolutionary period.

One of the skills the Department's managers had to learn was their 

own tolerance for dealing with the frustrations and fear of department 

members who behaved in ways inconsistent with the Department's 

direction. They had to learn to deal with the behaviors by first 

understanding that they were usually the result of the members' 

confusion, frustration and fears that were driven by the organizational 

change. In every case, this lead to Department members making 

decisions that were "good for them" and resulted in either better, 

happier performance on their part or moving to another department 

where they believed they would be more content.
CHAPTER 2 - Anatomy of a Police Innovator: A Case Study of Knowledge Management in Policing 53

Today, entry or lateral candidates for the Department, and employees 

competing for promotions, must demonstrate a high tolerance 

for ambiguity and change to be successful. This has dramatically 

reduced the natural tension associated with organizational change 

and has resulted in the RPD developing a reputation as "being about 

change." This allows most candidates to self-select relative to seeking 

employment in a change-friendly organization.

Innovation Implementation Leadership: A Shared 

Organizational Strategy 

Central to the philosophy of innovation leadership is the view that 

innovation is a shared value among groups within the Redlands Police 

Department. Accordingly, the Chief has instituted Department focus 

groups (i.e. women officers, lateral officers, dispatchers, records clerks, 

etc.) to determine ways to improve Department operations. A recent 

"women's officer" focus group was convened to learn 1) what is it like 

to be a woman cop at the RPD; 2) what could we do to improve their 

professional experience and, 3) what could be done to recruit more 

women. This resulted in an interesting discussion about how women 

officers are frequently made to make a choice between careers and 

having children. During the meeting officers indicated their intention 

to resign within the next two years so they could start families. Their 

belief was that the RPD would not allow part time work and they 

would have to put their careers on hold, or abandon them, in order to 

become mothers. As part of this effort it was decided to figured out 

how to allow officers to work part time (as little as two days per week) 

to keep their careers going and deal with family issues such as having/

raising Children or dealing with illnesses. An outcome of the focus 

group was a series of policies such as flex scheduling to better enable 

women police officers to balance their family and career demands. 

These policy innovations are now used as recruiting tools to attract 

women officers that had to leave the field because the paradigm of 

California police departments is such that they do not allow officers to 

work part time. 
54 Knowledge Management in Policing

THE REDLANDS POLICE DEPARTMENT'S KNOWLEDGE 

MANAGEMENT INITIATIVE

The Redlands Police Department in northern California agreed 

to serve as a case study site for this research after reviewing a 

participation proposal. While reviewing the proposal, the leaders in 

the Department recognized that the Department had been involved in 

a variety of activities that are clearly Knowledge Management in their 

nature and purpose. While many of these knowledge management 

activities had been established for a period of time, and others were 

under development, these efforts had yet to be recognized or formally 

defined as Knowledge Management innovations. The convergence 

of this study with the on-going Department activities led to the 

specific adoption of the Police Knowledge Management Model 

(Pendleton, 2002) as the primary organizing vehicle for a subsequent 

purposeful knowledge management strategy. As this case study began, 

the Redlands Police Department launched the RPD Knowledge 

Management Initiative.
CHAPTER 2 - Anatomy of a Police Innovator: A Case Study of Knowledge Management in Policing 55

STAGE I

CAPTURING KNOWLEDGE: KNOWING WHAT WE KNOW

The starting point for the Knowledge Management Initiative is making 

knowledge that exists within and around the organization both known 

and available. This fundamental task is built on assessment and 

collaboration that transcends a knowledge management continuum 

(Pendleton 2002) from individual knowledge to organizational 

knowledge and finally community or social system based knowledge. 

Knowing what others know is at the heart of this first step in the 

Knowledge Management Model.

Knowing What We Know, Recruiting What We Don't 

One of the least discussed but more profound trends that is impacting 

policing in America, is the retirement of large groups of officers from 

the policing profession. This group of officers, who were hired in 

the sixties and seventies, are now eligible for retirement. This rather 

large cohort of police professionals will be leaving en masse over a 

relative short period of time. The impact of this cohort effect is the loss 

of a large body of professional knowledge and experience. Interim 

measures are currently being considered by state legislatures, such as 

California's proposition 350 which will allow retiring police personnel 

the option to collect both their retirement pensions and return to their 

departments for a specified period to stem the tide of this professional 

"brain drain". The leadership in the Redlands Police Department has 

recognized this problem and has crafted a portion of their Knowledge 

Management Initiative to address this issue over a long period of time.

The RPD has started a two-step process called the Knowledge 

Inventory. Using a knowledge inventory form, supervisors will 

interview each of the personnel under their assigned areas and record 

the various skills, experience, and expertise of all the employees in 

the Department. The form collects information directly related to 

Department-sponsored training of its members as well as information 

about their non-traditional expertise. For example, the form asks 

members what licenses, certificates or ratings they hold that may or 

may not relate directly to their duties (e.g. scuba diving, martial arts, 

racing, etc,), what skills they may have that they feel proficient in 

(e.g. wood working, language skills, photography) and even asks what 

special talents they possess (e.g. musical, artistic, etc.). This data will 

be entered into a searchable data-base for use within the Department 

allowing others to identify and access their colleagues when there is a 

need for particular types of knowledge and experience.
56 Knowledge Management in Policing

The second step in the process is to create a knowledge profile of 

the Department to determine the areas of knowledge strengths 

and weaknesses. This analysis will be conducted and then formally 

integrated into the recruitment and selection process for new 

personnel within the Department. Based upon the knowledge profile 

the Department can implement in an organizational engineering strategy 

(Pendleton, 1999) that would include targeted hiring and targeted 

training of personnel to fit the needs of the organization as a whole. 

As a starting point for both the assessment and subsequent selection 

of new employees, new candidates must demonstrate abilities in 

10 core competency areas that include a collaborative orientation, 

knowledge seeking, and a sense of vision, all of which 

support innovation.

Knowing Who Knows Who: Case Knowledge Teams 

The leadership of the RPD has known for some time that the 

Department actually has much more data and knowledge stored 

than is ever harnessed for the delivery of police service. The 

underutilization of data is common in the policing profession and in 

many departments has rendered existing data banks as dustbins of data 

far removed from daily problem solving. The Community Analysis 

Unit (discussed below) of the RPD has reversed this professional 

phenomenon by making both the unit and existing data banks 

accessible. One innovative application of the data centers on knowing 

who in the Department has had contact with specific individuals and/

or places of interest in the delivery of police services. All reports 

and calls for service are stored in data banks as "event fields" that 

correspond to numerous characteristics of the case or event. Officers 

who want to know who in their department knows the people related 

to the case are harnessing this standard data acquisition and storage 

protocol. In some instances, investigators can actually identify in 

chronological sequence which of their colleagues has had contact with 

an individual of interest and then convene this group of officers for 

a discussion concerning the case. The searching of the Department 

data banks and creation of knowledge teams about cases is but one of 

several applications of the ability to identify and link police personnel 

to a wide range of case characteristics. Another innovative use of 

this data is to create "after action knowledge teams" which will be 

discussed below.
CHAPTER 2 - Anatomy of a Police Innovator: A Case Study of Knowledge Management in Policing 57

Knowing Who Knows What: Utilizing Knowledge 

Management Vehicles 

The leadership of RPD recognized that most data systems in 

existence are not linked and most collaborative partners are not yet 

familiar with the notion that their data may be of extreme value to 

others and vice versa. For instance, the schools in the Redlands 

community have long collected data of at risk youth in the forms of 

suspensions and expulsions. But it was not until the East Valley went 

through the Communities That Care ® community building process, 

and introduced the Risk and Protective Focused Protection as a 

"community operating system" that school officials realized the police 

had a vested interest in student data. As a result, the school district 

reworked some of its data fields and now shares data with RPD. 

Using this community collaboration model, the RPD is utilizing its 

participation in the COMPASS initiative as a knowledge management 

vehicle for introducing the concept of integrated community data and 

learning what data these agencies and institutions have that already 

collaborate programmatically, but do not yet share data to identify 

and analyze problems related to public safety. This first step in the 

COMPASS process was a "stakeholder analysis" to identify and then 

approach over 34 entities spanning the criminal justice system, local 

governments, health care providers, housing officials, social service 

providers, schools, and other community based organizations to learn 

more specifically the nature of their data and the requirements for data 

sharing. This assessment will provide the first data framework for the 

COMPASS data system.
58 Knowledge Management in Policing

STAGE II

PACKAGING KNOWLEDGE: SHARING WHAT WE KNOW

The second step in the Knowledge Management Model is packaging 

and sharing of knowledge to empower its application to problems 

and issues. The Redlands Police Department utilizes a range of 

approaches to sharing knowledge that, again, ranges from individual to 

community level applications. 

Organizational Knowledge Places 

The Department conference room has been selected as a repository 

for key articles, reports and other documents that provide a knowledge 

frame of reference for the organization. The conference library is 

more than just a place for information, it is a place that is purposefully 

intended to communicate very specific organizational messages. A 

memorandum from the Chief of Police entitled "Suggested Reading 

List" serves as a prelude and organizing document for the library. The 

defining nature of the library and related literature is clear:

 "It is my intention that we develop a common understanding 

of the organizational values that are important to the 

citizens of Redlands and the members of this department 

and that these values are reflected in our promotional 

processes. To this end, I have modified our existing 

Suggested Reading List to clarify our focus on critical values 

and beliefs. This list will serve as the official 'study guide' 

relating to the philosophical aspects of each promotional 

opportunity within the department. It will be modified 

annually to reflect the evolution of our understandings and 

the advances in these pertinent fields of study."

The roster of 36 books and articles cover major topics such 

as Problem and Community Oriented Policing, Leadership, 

Organizational Change, and Creativity. Numerous articles in 

the library that promote innovation such as "How to Think Like 

An Innovator", "Managing Creativity", and "The Advantages of 

Partnering" signal and support the expectation of innovation and 

collaboration within the Department. Finally, historical documents 

that trace the development of organizational programs, structural 

changes and other key aspects of the Department are located in the 

conference room. Timely research documents, and publications of 

contemporary police articles along with monthly and annual reports 

are placed in the conference room library for easy reference. 
CHAPTER 2 - Anatomy of a Police Innovator: A Case Study of Knowledge Management in Policing 59

From Crime Analysis To Community Analysis: The Community 

Analysis Unit. As a result of innovation leadership the RPD has 

adopted the view that "crime" is more accurately a result of multiple 

social dynamics and that "crime analysis" should more appropriately 

be a subset of "community analysis." Based on this view, the RPD 

transformed and broadened its Crime Analysis Unit to become a 

Community Analysis Unit. The community analysis unit (CAU) 

plays a prominent role in the Department and is a place where 

data is transformed into knowledge. The CAU produces a set of 

standard monthly crime reports that are eventually compiled into a 

year-end report. These reports do much more than simply document 

Department crime activities, but go beyond to summarize significant 

events, repeat calls for services by each event, and trends over time. 

A central feature of the CAU is the production of crime maps 

using the latest crime mapping technology. The mapping function 

supports both standard report production and specialized knowledge 

management process such as COMSTAT and COMPASS, discussed 

below. The CAU is more than a function, however, it is also a 

knowledge place where people go to obtain specific analysis of data 

that can be used on specific projects, cases and issues at hand. The 

location of CAU near the investigative units seems to facilitate use, 

although it is reported that many officers request CAU assistance. 

Officers and other Department employees were observed constantly 

in the CAU offices working with the staff to develop additional 

knowledge on specific projects and cases.

Knowledge Sharing Processes and Forums

RPD has, for some time, recognized the importance of sharing 

knowledge, particularly between individuals within the Department. 

One approach to individual sharing has been the policy of mandatory 

"post conference" and/or training presentations to the Department. 

This policy requires employees attending conferences to make a formal 

presentation on the nature of the conference, including knowledge 

gained by the experience. These presentations can take many forms 

with no limits on the forums within which they occur, ranging from 

Department-wide presentations, to unit or squad based sharing of 

lessons learned and knowledge gained. 

Leadership Forums

The unique structure of the RPD that includes the Housing and 

Recreation-Parks divisions of the City of Redlands creates a unique 

forum for knowledge sharing. Weekly leadership staff meetings 

include members from not just the police, but also directors of Parks 

and Recreation and Housing. Information is blended during these 

meetings to form a more global view of leadership issues that redefine 

classic crime and disorder issues into community safety and well being 

issues. This approach transforms information into knowledge that 

places arrest and other command and control approaches at the service 

of often, larger strategies that emphasize prevention. 
60 Knowledge Management in Policing

Tactical Forums

The RPD is currently in the process of implementing a crime mapping 

based format for patrol shift briefings. The goal is to utilize data that 

is current within 3 hours, to map, analyze and discuss crime in the 

different geographic locations within Redlands. The standard shift 

briefing will be an analytical forum focused on projected maps, which 

will lead to discussions designed to inform patrol officer assignments 

across the City. While still in the formative stage, this approach to 

knowledge management will bring a new perspective to the traditional 

patrol briefing on crime and disorder data. 

Computer Statistics

The RPD has also adopted the COMSTAT process to address 

large-scale crime and disorder issues. Initiated in New York City, 

COMSTAT (computerized statistics) places crime mapping in a 

'command and control' role. Mapping is used in conjunction with biweekly precinct meetings whereby the police commander is questioned 

on the nature of problems in their area and how they are responding. 

The COMSTAT process is conducted in an open forum and includes 

police command staff in a group setting. The G.I.S. presentation is a 

'real time' analysis enabling crime analysts to identify crime hotspots 

and convene a meeting to craft and explain proposed responses (Groff 

and LaVigne, 1998).

COMSTAT in the RPD has just been initiated and is in its formative 

stages. The process is a facilitated review and discussion of projected 

maps and other crime data that is focused on a particular problem. 

Sworn police managers currently attend the process from the rank 

of sergeant and above, crime analysts, and specific employees that 

have a relevant role in the Department. One such employee is a state 

probation officer who is a member of the Department but carries 

a state caseload. This employee works closely with the police in the 

supervision and monitoring of known offenders that are living within 

the community. The COMSTAT process in Redlands is different 

than other programs as it places a higher value on creating knowledge 

about an issue over the heavy handed even demeaning approach 

to accountability that characterizes other such programs around 

the country. As this process is evolving the need for a much more 

structured and step-wise approach to the mapping and analysis of 

data has emerged along with the need for specific facilitation strategies 

during the process. 
CHAPTER 2 - Anatomy of a Police Innovator: A Case Study of Knowledge Management in Policing 61

COMPASS 

The sharing of knowledge that crosses organizational boundaries 

occurs freely in the RPD. The COMPASS process, which is also just 

in its formative stages, will include data from a wide range of agencies 

and their participation in the formation and implementation of the 

project. The plan for data sharing includes the formation of an 

"Information Management Committee" comprised of representatives 

from the Initiatives partners. The key to this collaborative partnership 

is in the unique nature of the long-term relationships among the 

participating partners, which is centered on trust and respect. 

Information Management Committee meetings will be an essential 

forum for crafting data sharing agreements, privacy protocols, and data 

use guidelines.

East Valley Community Analysis Center (EVCAC) 

As part of the COMPASS process, the RPD will lead the way in 

developing the EVCAC. This center will be staffed full time to 

provide technical assistance to the members of the COMPASS project 

to facilitate timely exchange and analysis of COMPASS data. The 

purpose of the center will be to train and assist participants in the use 

of the COMPASS data.

Redlands Neighborhood Improvement Teams (RNIT) 

The RNIT is a multidisciplinary team of City representatives that 

meet monthly to identify problems throughout Redlands that requires 

a "whole patient" approach to diagnosis and intervention. The 

RNIT consists of Community Policing Officers, Fire Inspectors, 

Code Enforcement Officers, Building and Safety Inspectors, the City 

Attorney, Housing Specialists, the Department Crime Analyst, and the 

Municipal Utilities Department. The RNIT meetings are used to both 

nominate and then share knowledge about a specific problem. Field 

tours of the problem location follow the initial meeting as a means 

to gain additional knowledge based upon the geographic space of the 

problem. A knowledge profile of the problem is crafted which then 

leads to interventions. 
62 Knowledge Management in Policing

Community Service Policy 

The RPD has implemented a policy that requires Department 

employees, Lieutenant rank and above, to join the board of directors 

of a community organization of their choice. This requirement 

is designed to not only provide service to the community, but to 

create linkages with community agencies to facilitate the sharing 

of knowledge and perspective on community issues. In effect, the 

community boardrooms become forums for sharing of knowledge 

across the entire community.

Web-based Knowledge Forums 

The RPD has constructed a website that provides detailed information 

about the Department and its activities. A specific page has been 

devoted to CAU and provides the community with the ability to both 

view and/or request maps of crime and other police related activities 

throughout the community. The plan for the COMPASS project is 

to develop a "Citizens COMPASS" website that can be utilized using 

appropriate software to provide public access to community and public 

safety information deemed appropriate from the COMPASS data 

warehouse. Additional software and protocols will be provided to 

guide citizens in an intuitive approach to access and map 

COMPASS data. 
CHAPTER 2 - Anatomy of a Police Innovator: A Case Study of Knowledge Management in Policing 63

STAGE III

APPLYING KNOWLEDGE: USING WHAT WE KNOW

The central feature to the RPD's Risk Focused Policing is the 

application of knowledge to inform intervention and problem solving 

strategies. Indeed, the ultimate purpose of Knowledge Management 

is not simply to make knowledge available, but to apply it to reach 

organizational objectives (Williams, 2001). In this case, the application 

of knowledge is focused on both external public safety problems, as 

well as internal organizational issues.

Applying Knowledge To Morph the Organization 

As indicated earlier, the RPD is basing future recruiting and hiring 

decisions, in part, on the existing and desired knowledge inventory 

within the Police Department. One example of this process has been 

the recent hiring of a correctional probation officer as a member of 

the Department. It was determined that one approach to addressing 

the chronic offender was to link correctional probation officer 

knowledge with police knowledge. This employee carries a caseload 

of convicted offenders that have been released back into the Redlands 

community. In addition to providing guidance to the offenders, the 

officer also monitors their location and behavior. As an employee 

of the Department, the officer meets regularly with police officers to 

assist in crime analysis (see COMSTAT discussion below) to determine 

the relationship between offender behavior and current public 

safety problems.

Resource Allocation 

One of the central features of Risk Focused Policing is the use of 

Geographic Information System software to map community risk 

factors to identify those neighborhoods with highest risk profiles and 

effectively focus on those areas with the greatest potential for change. 

Based upon this information, strategies have been developed to both 

prevent problems as well as to respond to problems. Recreation 

programs, under the control of the Police Department, are now taken 

into these neighborhoods, and a police officer is now assigned to 

drug court to assist with effective parental involvement. In addition 

the crime mapping G.I.S. system, has resulted in the Department 

eliminating static patrol districts traditionally utilized in the allocation 

of police patrols. Based upon crime mapping data, street level 

supervisors now establish street patrol assignments to fit the 

ever-changing crime map.
64 Knowledge Management in Policing

Crime and Disorder Applications 

The application of Knowledge Management processes is evolving in 

the RPD. The use of both internal and cross boundary knowledge 

management vehicles such as COMSTAT, and COMPASS are in 

various stages of development. 

• COMSTAT

 Although the COMSTAT process is just in its development 

stage, it has been used to address persistent crime trends. One 

such application was focused on the problem of commercial 

burglaries. The CAU unit completed a series of standard analysis 

of this rash of burglaries and a COMSTAT forum was convened 

to analyze, discuss, and then craft an intervention to apprehend 

the offenders. The presentation included location, time of day, 

and other standard crime analysis assessments. The facilitated 

discussion including over 20 officers probed the nature of the 

crimes to include a discussion led by the RPD probation officer 

on the possible role of known offenders in the community. Based 

upon the analysis and discussion, patrol officer special assignments 

were crafted to optimize the potential of apprehending and/or 

preventing the suspects from continuing the trend.

• COMPASS 

While still in its developmental stage at the time of this research, 

the RPD's selection as a COMPASS site is based, in part, on 

the commitment to identify a problem to be solved by using the 

COMPASS process. Once again, the guide for this effort is the 

RPD's Risk Focused Policing, which is centered on 

solving problems
CHAPTER 2 - Anatomy of a Police Innovator: A Case Study of Knowledge Management in Policing 65

STAGE IV

CREATING KNOWLEDGE: INCREASING WHAT WE KNOW

A critical component of the Police Knowledge Management Model 

is creating new knowledge. This commitment to increasing what 

we know is clearly evident in both the philosophy and practice of 

the Redlands Police Department. Creating knowledge in the RPD 

includes both learning from experience and from involvement in an 

independent research process.

Experience as Research and Development 

There has been a long-standing police tradition of valuing experience. 

This tradition has been focused upon individuals and the experience 

they gain throughout their careers. More recently, there has been a 

recognition that organizations can also learn from experience if they 

have a commitment to continuous improvement. The Redlands Police 

Department is actively involved in creating knowledge in both of 

these areas.

Creating Knowledge Depth and Knowledge Breadth 

The value of police experience, at the individual level, has been diluted 

over time by a primary focus on the general principal that time in the 

profession equates automatically to expertise. This view has failed 

to take into account that the road to promotion has featured a 'get 

your ticket punched" approach to career development. The effect has 

been to create, in many police departments, a cadre of dilatant's who 

have a breath of experience as they move rapidly through assignment, 

but no depth. RPD recognized this problem and has implemented a 

'time in assignment' policy that requires officers who are promoted or 

assigned to a specific role, to remain in that role a minimum of 3 years 

and no more than 5. This policy has been implemented to assure that 

employees acquire both knowledge depth and breadth. 

Creating Knowledge Linkage 

RPD has also addressed the problem of knowledge silos. When 

officers transfer to another assignment they take with them all the 

experience and specific knowledge gained in their past assignment. To 

address this problem, RPD has a transition management protocol that 

requires transition assessments and briefings between the outgoing 

and incoming employees to a particular position. This process is 

designed to create both an understanding of the issues at hand but 

also a working relationship between the employees based on the 

understanding that they can call when experiential knowledge would 

inform subsequent efforts to manage issues.
66 Knowledge Management in Policing

After Action Reviews 

One of the nine principles of management adopted by the RPD is 

creating a learning organization by seeking new knowledge as the 

result reviewing and assessing organizational activities and events. 

Accordingly, the RPD has developed an After Action Review process 

to learn from key events that occur within the organization. An After 

Action Review Form has been created that provides a basic outline 

of the information needed to learn from an event. A synopsis of the 

event is created to include descriptive information (time, location etc.). 

Key questions guide the process such as, what did we do right? What 

could we do better next time? How do we share this learning? One 

of the constraints on this process is the legal liability and the related 

personnel actions that often accompany reviews of difficult actions. 

These constraints often impede a complete and full understanding of 

an event (Pendleton, 2002) because of legal and personnel exposure. 

Redlands has recognized these constraints and is developing protocols 

to limit exposure to the Department and its personnel.

Creating Knowledge Through Research 

The recent period of police innovation has been a journey from a 

closed profession with little research involvement, to being the subject 

of research, to being a partner with researchers. The next logical step 

in the police research experience is to move into a leading role, where 

the police conduct their own original research (Pendleton, 2002). 

It is important to note that the Risk Focused Policing context for 

innovation within the RPD is grounded in a long program of research 

and features a research component in virtually all of the process 

related to its application. The RPD has been involved in both local and 

national research projects and as part of the Knowledge Management 

Initiative, there are plans to either employ or retain a 

department researcher. 

• The Innovation Exchange 

The leadership of the RPD has recognized the opportunity to 

learn from other organizations and the expense associated with 

"re-inventing the wheel". While many police organizations are 

plagued with a bias of rejecting others approaches because it 

was "not invented here", that is not the case in Redlands. The 

leadership of RPD has sponsored and implemented a program 

called the Innovation Exchange. This is a collaborative program 

involving the law enforcement agencies of San Bernardino 

County. The purpose of the program is to allow employees from 

each of the participating departments to conduct a site visit to 

any department for 5-6 hours to observe how other departments 

operate and/or provide law enforcement services in areas that 

have been problematic in the employees department. The intent 

is to maintain "our competitive edge" by discovering how "our 

colleagues" are doing things better than "we are". Employees are 
CHAPTER 2 - Anatomy of a Police Innovator: A Case Study of Knowledge Management in Policing 67

specifically instructed to abandon the mind set that "I know we 

do this better than they do" but to focus how "they do things 

better than we do". The program material provides a guide of 

potential areas for examination to help employees focus on 

specific areas during the observation.

• The Staff Researcher 

Historically, police have partnered with researchers at universities 

and other research organizations. Redlands has had a long 

history of work with both the local University of Redlands, and 

other organizations like the police foundation. The COMPASS 

project has a research component in which the RPD and other 

participants will participate as partners. However, the leadership 

of the RPD see the need for taking the lead on research and are 

making plans to address this need. Currently, the Department is 

planning to employ an "in house" Ph.D. researcher to conduct 

police research. While the specifics of this role and the type 

of research to be conducted is currently being developed, it is 

clear that the purpose is to create both an R& D function within 

the Department, as well as taking a lead in conducting original 

research applicable to the larger police profession.

INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Data from this case study adds to our understanding of organizational 

innovation in policing and also provides additional insight into the 

nature of the Knowledge Management Innovation. The adoption 

of the Knowledge Management Initiative is related to the specific 

leadership of the Chief of Police, the organizational philosophy and 

structure of the Department, and the desire to collaborate effectively 

with the community within which RPD is located. The adoption 

of the Knowledge Management innovation, however, was not just a 

response to a specific need or problem to be solved, but also to the 

more global goal of being an innovator. In effect, the potential of 

the Knowledge Management innovation as an overt or purposeful 

management strategy was recognized as a way for the organization to 

effectively institutionalize its core values and beliefs about 

being innovative. 
68 Knowledge Management in Policing

In some respects, this case departs from other research on 

organizational innovation. In the vast majority of research the 

size of an organization has consistently been positively related to 

innovativeness. Larger organizations are more innovative (Rogers, 

1995, pp. 379), yet the Redlands Police Department can be considered 

to be a medium to small police organization. In this respect, data 

from this case study may usefully be applied to distinguish the 

difference between the initiation phase of the innovation process and the 

implementation phase. In this case, the data suggest that Innovation 

Leadership is weighted toward initiation of innovation, while a balance 

between initiation and actual implementation may actually better serve 

Organizational Innovativeness.

INNOVATION LEADERSHIP AND THE INITIATION OF INNOVATION

Innovation Leadership As Opportunistic Surveillance 

It is common for innovative organizations to engage in what is termed 

opportunistic surveillance by scanning the environment for new ideas 

that might benefit the organization (Rogers, 1995, pp 393). One 

characteristic of innovation leadership is the active seeking of awareness 

knowledge. Rogers (1995, pp 165) notes that the first step in the 

innovation decision process is either an awareness of the need for an 

innovation or the awareness of an innovation. Awareness knowledge 

soon blends with what Rogers terms "how to" and "principles" 

knowledge and together creates a knowledge management role for the 

innovator as the process of innovation progresses through its various 

stages (Rogers, 1995) 

In this case, the discovery of the Police Knowledge Management 

Model occurred because the Chief of Police was alert to new 

innovations. Rogers (1995) terms these surveillance behaviors 

as cosmopolitan in nature, which take the Chief far outside the 

organizational boundaries of the police department. Innovation 

leaders, like the Redlands Chief of Police, are characterized by vibrant 

communication networks that include a high degree of exposure to 

mass media, extensive interpersonal contacts, internet connectivity, 

and a range of other activities that place them at the forefront of 

knowledge about new ideas (Rogers, 1995; Weisburd, 2001). Data 

from this study show that a long-standing interpersonal network of 

multi-discipline leaders within the Redlands community facilitates 

many of the Knowledge Management activities. This network 

is characterized by collaboration, mutual trust, and joint efforts 

at problem solving within the community. Both the Chief and 

numerous members of the RPD are members in this vibrant network. 

Accordingly, data from this study demonstrates a willingness to 

successfully appropriate ideas from a variety of sectors within 

the network.
CHAPTER 2 - Anatomy of a Police Innovator: A Case Study of Knowledge Management in Policing 69

The Innovation Champion and The re-invention of innovation 

A central factor to innovation process within organizations is the role 

of an Innovation Champion. The innovation champion is often the 

most powerful person in the organization such as a CEO, or in this 

case the Chief of Police. An innovation Champion can champion a 

specific innovation and/or create an organizational environment that 

nurtures innovation (Rogers, 1995). Data from this case study show 

that the Chief of Police was active in both respects. 

The Chief did more than simply discover and adopt the Police 

Knowledge Management Model; he re-invented it to fit the nature 

of the Redlands Police Department. Termed the RPD's Knowledge 

Management Initiative, the original innovation was reinvented to both 

organize and link what had been separate activities, to capture, share, 

apply and create knowledge as a means to advance the organizations 

commitment to innovation. Specifically, the Knowledge Management 

Initiative stressed the linkage between components of the model, and 

how activities in one area would segway into activities in another. This 

re-invention process is common particularly among "loosely bundled 

innovations" like the Police Knowledge Management Model because 

of the inherent flexibility for adaptation to suit the unique conditions 

of the adopters (Rogers, 1995, pp. 178).

The Innovation Champion, Organizational Engineering and the 

Decision To Adopt 

In organizations, the decision to adopt an innovation can be 

characterized be the number of individuals making the decision 

and the degree to which the decision is mandatory or optional 

(Rogers, 1995). In this case, the decision to adopt the Knowledge 

Management Innovation was made by the Chief to advance his vision 

of innovation within the organization. While the power to make 

organizational decisions is inherent in the role of Police Chief, without 

an organizational recognition of the Chief's innovation expertise 

both the desire to innovate and the implementation of innovation 

would be seriously undermined. In part, the "authority 

innovation-decision" (Rogers, 1995, pp 372) is possible because of 

the Chief's past success as an innovation leader. The successful reorganization of the police department to subsume the parks-recreation 

and housing functions in the city to facilitate the full application of the 

COP and POP innovations is both locally and nationally recognized as 

a unique accomplishment. The adoption of the Risk Focused Policing, 

which is also recognized nationally as unique within the profession, has 

led to a wide variety of innovations such as enhanced crime mapping, 

and the COMPASS project that have advanced the organization. 

These past accomplishments have combined to generate an influx of 

federal grant funds to further advance the development of the police 

department.
70 Knowledge Management in Policing

It is important to note, however, that the Knowledge Management 

Initiative is, in part, designed to shape the nature of the police 

department. As an organizational development tool, the Knowledge 

Inventory will be used to recruit and hire future police personnel 

while the Innovation Exchange is designed to advance the operations 

of the organization. The restructuring of the RPD to accommodate 

COP and POP innovations is consistent with other knowledge-centric

recommendations for changing police department structure. Such 

ideas include turning Research and Grants Units in police departments 

into Research and Development Sections (Pendleton, 2000a) and 

changing the traditional police "training officer" into an Organizational 

Development Administrator (Pendleton, 1999). Both of these 

functions would report directly to the Chief of Police to facilitate an 

organization that is intrinsically innovative.

Organizational Innovativeness and the Implementation of 

Knowledge Management 

As a social system, organizations provide the context within which 

organizational innovation occurs. Data from this case study show 

that the context for the Knowledge Management innovation in the 

RPD can be viewed as a three-part system that progresses from a 

general to specific orientation to innovation see Figure 2 on next 

page. The organizational context for innovation in the Redlands Police 

Department is fundamentally established as a general philosophy that 

is articulated in the written value and belief statements. A second 

tier of context is the defined operational philosophy of Risk Focused 

Policing that determines and empowers the organizational structure of 

the police department. Finally, the specific innovation of Knowledge 

Management along with others, are initiated within this context, but 

more importantly are measured within the criteria established by these 

organizational frames of reference. While the general organizational 

philosophy establish the expectation of innovation, the specific 

operational philosophy determines the nature of innovation.
CHAPTER 2 - Anatomy of a Police Innovator: A Case Study of Knowledge Management in Policing 71

Figure 2

ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT OF INNOVATION

“THE EXPECTATION TO INNOVATE”

General Organizational Philosophy of Innovation 

Established In Articulated Values and Beliefs

(Organizational Mission and Belief Statements)

“THE INNOVATION EVENT”

Adoption of Specific Innovation:

Knowledge Management Initiative That is 

Operationally Integrated

“THE INVITATION TO INNOVATE”

Organizational Operational Philosophy of Innovation: 

Risk Focused Policing
72 Knowledge Management in Policing

Beyond Initiation: The Implementation of Innovation 

Rogers has noted the importance of distinguishing between the 

initiation phase of innovation and the implementation phase. Many 

of the same factors that actually facilitate initiation in organizations 

can operate to defeat implementation of the innovation (Rogers, 

1995, 381). In this study, the adoption of the Police Knowledge 

Management Model is too new to determine the final adoption 

outcomes. Yet the nature of the Knowledge Management Initiative 

as a cluster innovation that links both existing activities with new 

knowledge management activities suggest a strong likely hood that the 

activities in the model will ultimately be developed and utilized. 

There is data, however, that suggests the implementation process will 

be impacted by limited resources and in particular the time necessary 

for implementation. Several organizational participants interviewed 

in this study noted that the organization is involved in so many 

innovative activities that there is a backlog of work to be accomplished 

to implement the innovations. In effect, the ability to implement is 

being outdistanced by the ability to fund and initiate innovations. In 

part, this may be the outcome of the "authority innovation-decision" 

style that can translate newly discovered innovations into directives, 

but without sufficient uncommitted resources, the innovations must 

wait in an implementation "take-off line" before becoming operational. 

The results of several organizational innovation studies show that the 

degree of organizational slack, or uncommitted resources is a causal 

factor in high levels of organizational innovativeness 

(Rogers, 1995, pp381).

As other Knowledge Management activities were being launched, 

several "bugs" have been identified that need to be addressed before 

meaningful implementation is possible. For example, the use of crime 

mapping in briefings and as a daily staffing tool has been limited by 

the time required to utilize the technology. In addition, the analytical 

facilitation process that was utilized in the COMSTAT process was 

awkward and needed refinement. These issues were being address as 

this study was being conducted.

Finally, as is the case with many cluster innovations, the 

implementation of one suggests the need for yet another. As the 

various components of the Knowledge Management Initiative have 

been linked, there is a clear need for an integration of the various 

components of the model. This integration model is currently being 

designed as an outcome of this research, and will feature a process that 

links, COMPASS, COMSTAT, Investigative Unit Analysis and Shift 

Briefings. In addition, there is a clear need for an Investigative Unit 

Knowledge Management Problem Solving Model that uses a four part 

strategy to address crime and disorder under consideration. 
CHAPTER 2 - Anatomy of a Police Innovator: A Case Study of Knowledge Management in Policing 73

Data from this study has also provided a more specific understanding 

of Knowledge Management as a purposeful strategy within a police 

organization. Data suggest the importance of understanding and 

managing the linkage of the various components of a Knowledge 

Management strategy. Specifically, the Knowledge Management 

Initiative in the RPD illustrates the importance role of Knowledge 

Management packages. 

Knowledge Management Process as Vehicles of Innovation 

A fundamental feature of the RPD's Knowledge Management 

Initiative is the packaging of the knowledge management process 

within programs or projects. Several programs such as COMPASS, 

COMSTAT, RNIT, and After Action Reviews are utilized as 

knowledge management vehicles that create an occasion and processes 

for implementing one or more features of the Police Knowledge 

Management Model. In the case of COMPASS all of the components 

of the Knowledge Management Model are contained in the project, 

while others like After Action Reviews focus only a particular part of 

the model. Again, COMPASS is perhaps the complete Knowledge 

Management Vehicle not only because it contains all four of the 

elements of Knowledge Management, but its process is also designed 

to traverse agenda setting, matching, restructuring, clarifying and 

achieving a level of routine operation, that are the five stages of the 

organizational innovation process (Rogers, 1995,pp 392).

Knowledge Management Places 

This study has also demonstrated that Knowledge Management is 

not just a process but it also can be a place. The RPD Library and 

the CAU office area are places in the organization where knowledge 

"happens". The linkage of the library with the conference room is 

interesting as it has both a static feel of a repository of documented 

organizational knowledge, but also a dynamic quality where decisions 

are made by putting knowledge into action. 

In the case of the CAU, its central function, combined with its location 

in a pathway, facilitates the "place" nature of knowledge. Unlike the 

conference room, where one must "belong" in meetings, CAU is 

a completely open place where anyone can go during all hours of 

operation. As the Department becomes increasingly knowledge-centric it 

is likely that the CAU will become more of a gathering place as its role 

becomes increasingly more prominent. 
74 Knowledge Management in Policing

It is also possible, however, that the knowledge places of the future 

for the RPD may be more individualized as web-based and other 

computer technologies are utilized to store data and create knowledge. 

Such a possibility seems to highlight the importance, or not, of an 

interpersonal process in the development of knowledge. During this 

study, numerous "spontaneous discussions" were observed between 

the staff of the CAU and officers around the meaning of data and its 

ultimate application. This iterative exchange seemed vital to both an 

understanding of information and its ultimate application. This same 

exchange was observed as a critical component of the COMSTAT 

process and in the COMPASS project (Pendleton, 2002a, Pendleton, 

1999), although in both cases was viewed as a weak area in need 

of development. 

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that the police innovator is more than an 

individual who is intrigued with new ideas, but is an organizational 

place where innovation happens. In this respect, the organization 

becomes known as the innovator where leadership is but one part of 

a larger innovation system. Knowledge Management, as a purposeful 

organizational strategy, is more than an innovation in itself, but is 

a fundamental part of the innovation process that is essential to 

sustaining an organizational culture that is based in innovation. 

The study also indicates that the next step in police Knowledge 

Management is to address the need to integrate the various KM 

techniques into an interrelated system. Such a system would link 

very specific crime type analysis with daily patrol strategies, monthly 

COMSTAT process and the larger COMPASS process that extends 

beyond the boundaries of the police department. Such a system is 

currently being designed and will be the focus of the next paper from 

the on going study of Knowledge Management in Policing.
CHAPTER 2 - Anatomy of a Police Innovator: A Case Study of Knowledge Management in Policing 75

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Untapped Potential of the Middle Manager, Washington, D.C.: Police 

Executive Research Forum.

Goldstein, H. (1990). Problem Oriented Policing. New York: McGraw-Hill 

Publishing Company.

Gore, C. and Gore, E. (1999) 'Knowledge Management: the way 

forward' Total Quality Management July, 554-560.

Groff, E. and LaVigne, N. (1998) 'The Use of Geographic 

Information Systems (G.I.S.) For State and Local Crime Analysis' 

Presented at the Conference of European Statisticians, Ottowa, 

Canada, October, 5-7, 1998.

Hansen, M., Nohria, N., Tierney, T. (1999) 'What's Your Strategy For 

Managing Knowledge? Harvard Business Review 77 (2): 106-112.

Hickins, M. (1999) 'Xerox Shares Its KNOWLEDGE', Management 

Review, September: 40-45.

Malcolm, A. (1989) 'Cities try out new approach to police work', New 

York Times, March 29.

Pendleton, M. (1999) "Understanding Organizational Change: The 

Achilles Heel of the Contemporary Executive". Presented at an 

Executive Leadership Seminar for the Washington State Criminal 

Justice Training Commission, April 22nd, 1999

Pendleton, M (2001). 'Charting a Course: Innovation Amidst the 

Perfect Storm'. Presented at the Annual Conference on Criminal 

Justice Research and Evaluation: Enhancing Police and Practice. 

Washington D.C., July 22-25, 2001.

Pendleton, M. (2002) 'On The Threshold Of An Innovation: Police 

And The Management Of Knowledge'. 
76 Knowledge Management in Policing

Rogers, E. (1993) 'Diffusion and the Re-invention of Project D.A.R.E.', 

in Thomas E. Backer and Everett M. Rogers (eds.), Organizational 

Aspects of Health Communication Campaigns: What Works? Newbury Park, 

CA, Sage, pp. 139-162.

Rogers, E. (1995) Diffusion of Innovations, 4th edn. New York: The 

Free Press.

Weisburd, D. (2001) 'Translating Research Into Practice: Reflections on 

the Diffusion of Crime Mapping Innovation'. Presented at the Fifth 

Annual International Crime Mapping Research Conference. National 

Institute of Justice.

Wilson, J Q., and Kelling, G. 'Making neighborhoods safe". The Atlantic 

Monthly, 134: 46-52.
CHAPTER 2 - Anatomy of a Police Innovator: A Case Study of Knowledge Management in Policing 77

APPENDIX ONE

DATA COLLECTION QUESTIONS

I. CAPTURING WHAT WE KNOW

1. Do you use a "yellow paging" system for tracking and sharing 

employee expertise, experience, 

training etc.? Is it indexed and searchable? How does it work?

2. Do you use a searchable data base system for entering, indexing 

and searching documents 

related to specific police projects such as problem solving, 

neighborhood improvement teams, etc.? How does it work?

3. Do you use computer-based technology such as Lotus Notes, 

Intraspect, or other programs to 

record, track and re-use documents, e-mails etc.?

4. What face-to-face protocols are used to share information?

5. Is there a formal personnel transfer/transition protocol to pass 

along learning/information/knowledge?

6. Do you have a mentoring program?

7. Other questions as identified through a collaborative process with 

the department.

II. SHARING WHAT WE KNOW

8. Do you use intranet communication/chat rooms/communities of 

interest to share knowledge 

among members of the department? Nature of this system?

9. Do you use Lotus or some other e-mail mapping system or other 

systems to establish 

 communities of interest? Nature of this system?

10. Do you use a COMSTAT process? Nature of this process?

11. How does CAU share data?

12. Do you have web-based access of police data for the public? 

Nature of this system?

13. What are other formal and the informal ways that knowledge 

is shared?

14. How are you linked to other city departments/agencies to share 

knowledge?

15. Other questions as identified through a collaborative process with 

the department.
78 Knowledge Management in Policing

III. USING WHAT WE KNOW

16. Does the department use the COMSTAT process to determine 

tactical and/or policy 

responses? Nature of this process?

17. What is the role of CAU and crime mapping in determining 

tactical and/or policy decisions?

18. Does the department have a systematic way to search, review and 

use prior efforts, solutions, research, evaluations, approaches etc. 

in specific areas to inform current-future policy-tactical decisions? 

Nature of this system?

19. How will/does COMPASS propose to use cross organizational 

data/processes to address 

selected issues?

20. What is/will be the police role in the COMPASS project/process?

21. Other questions as identified through a collaborative process with 

the department.

IV. INCREASING WHAT WE KNOW

22. Is there a systematic sharing of individual based knowledge such 

as performance analysis, conference report backs, problem solving 

debriefs and solution sharing etc.? Nature of these efforts?

23. What formal problem solving assessment protocols exist and how 

are they applied and shared?

24. Is the organization actively involved in professional research? 

Nature of the involvement?

25. How will the efforts of the COMPASS project be documented 

and shared?

26. How is existing research in the police and related fields utilized to 

inform on going and future tactical and policy issues? 

27. Is/how are assessment efforts used in the COMSTAT process?

28. Is there a critical incident and/or case study review process used 

within the organization? 

29. What is the relationship between the knowledge community 

(universities, private sector, etc.)?

30. How is city-community wide department/agency integration 

utilized to create knowledge, learning and additional understanding 

within the police department?

31. Other questions as identified through a collaborative process with 

the department.
CHAPTER 3 - Creating an Innovation-Centric Police Department: Guidelines for Knowledge Management in Policing 79

CHAPTER 3

CREATING AN INNOVATION-CENTRIC POLICE DEPARTMENT: GUIDELINES 

FOR KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN POLICING

By Michael R. Pendleton Ph.D. and T. Dave Chavez, Jr., MS.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

If the police profession is to remain relevant to the challenges of the 

future, a more innovation-centric approach to organizational design and 

process may be required. One approach and supporting guidelines for 

designing an innovative police organization are offered. Specifically, 

this paper advances twelve guidelines for adopting and implementing 

Knowledge Management (KM) as an organizational development and 

management strategy for innovation in a police organization. These 

guidelines are based upon an extensive body of research of innovation 

and recent research on the nature of Knowledge Management and 

its potential application in the police profession. The guidelines are 

presented as a five part purposeful organizational strategy focused 

on: A.) Creating an Environment for Organizational Innovation; B.) 

Capturing Knowledge and Knowing What we Know; C.) Packaging 

Knowledge and Sharing What we Know; D.) Applying Knowledge 

and Using What We Know; and E.) Creating Knowledge and 

Increasing What We Know. Knowledge Management, as a purposeful 

organizational strategy, is more than an innovation in itself, but is 

a fundamental part of the innovation process that is essential to 

sustaining an organizational culture that is based in innovation. If the 

police profession is to sustain its position on the "cutting edge" of 

innovation, there is a need to integrate the various KM techniques into 

an interrelated system within the police department framework.
80 Knowledge Management in Policing

CREATING AN INNOVATION-CENTRIC POLICE DEPARTMENT: 

GUIDELINES FOR KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN POLICING

It is surprising, in an era of unprecedented innovation, that it is 

suggested that American police departments are showing signs of 

resisting innovation and change (Weisburd, 2001). While this view 

may seem to support conventional views of the police profession as 

intransigent and monolithic, it is inconsistent with the recent history 

of policing. Since 1990, the police profession has been immersed in 

innovation. Defined as a "philosophical revolution" (Malcolm, 1989) 

and the "most significant redefinition of police work in the past half 

century" (Wilson and Kelling, 1989) Community Oriented Policing 

and Problem Oriented Policing have become the dominant approaches 

to policing. Fueled by a crisis in policing these philosophical 

innovations along with management innovations such as COMSTAT 

and technological innovations such as crime mapping, have vaulted the 

police profession to the "cutting edge of criminal justice innovation" 

(Weisburd, 2001, pp 22). How then, could such a transformation 

be reversed? 

David Weisburd (2001) has argued that such a reversal may be the 

result of declining crime rates and research evidence indicating 

police success in addressing crime and disorder. This view suggests 

that the crime and disorder problem is no longer the problem it 

once was to police. In effect, there is no longer a need to innovate. 

While aggregate measures of crime might suggest the police have 

mastered their craft, the relentless occurrence of high profile events 

sustains quite an opposite view. The 9-11 (2001) World Trade Center 

catastrophes, the Washington D.C. sniper, WTO riots and other high 

profile events are but a few of the on-going reminders that policing 

is an ever changing environment requiring a constant commitment 

to innovation. An alternative view of why police might appear 

less committed to innovation may be found not in what causes an 

organization to be innovative, but in the distinction between adopting 

innovation and implementing innovation. 
CHAPTER 3 - Creating an Innovation-Centric Police Department: Guidelines for Knowledge Management in Policing 81

Over the last fifty years, the interest in innovation has exploded to 

make this area of research one of the most comprehensive fields 

of behavioral science study in history (Rogers, 1995 pp. xv). One 

outcome of thousands of studies has been the clear finding that 

innovation occurs as a process with distinct stages or phases. The 

innovation process in an organization is a five-stage process that 

is broadly segmented into two areas that focus upon initiation and 

implementation. This process begins and is subsequently advanced 

by the acquisition and use of knowledge and is formally known as 

the Knowledge Stage (Rogers, 1995). Discovery of innovations 

require organizations to constantly scan their environment to create 

awareness knowledge as the first step in the organizational innovation 

process. Implementation of an innovation requires "how to" 

knowledge especially in the case of complex innovations. While most 

organizations focus upon developing awareness knowledge, "how 

to" knowledge is essential to effective implementation of innovation 

(Rogers, 1995, pp 166). 

Absent organizational structures and processes that facilitate 

innovation, organizations can operate in ways that defeat innovation, 

often at the implementation stage (Van de Ven and Rogers 1988)). 

Such may be the case with recent police innovations such as 

Community Oriented Policing and COMSTAT type accountability 

programs where there are indications that these innovations struggle 

to move beyond rhetoric (decision to adopt) to reality (meaningful 

implementation) (Pendleton 2002,Weisburd et.a.l, 2001, Pendleton, 

1999, Taylor, Fritsch and Caeti 1998). In effect, police resistance 

to innovation may be more the result of inattention to building 

organizational policy and processes that effectively link the initiation 

and implementation process of innovation. If the police profession is 

to remain relevant to the challenges of the future, a more innovationcentric approach to organizational design and process may be required. 

The purpose of this paper is to offer one approach and supporting 

guidelines for designing an innovative police organization. Specifically, 

this paper advances twelve guidelines for adopting and implementing 

Knowledge Management as an organizational development and 

management strategy for innovation in a police organization. These 

guidelines are based upon an extensive body of research of innovation 

and recent research on the nature of Knowledge Management and its 

potential application in the police profession (Rogers, 1995: Pendleton, 

2002; Pendleton and Bueermann, 2003).
82 Knowledge Management in Policing

INNOVATION AND KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT: 

BUILDING AN INNOVATIVE POLICE DEPARTMENT

Arguably, the most neglected topic in the recent era of police 

innovation has been the central role of "knowledge". This omission 

is significant for at least two reasons. First, knowledge and its 

management, is consistently viewed as a "bed rock necessity" for 

innovation in police problem solving (Geller and Swanger, 1995 pp 

154). Herman Goldstein, in his seminal work on Problem Oriented 

Policing (POP) consistently emphasized the critical role of knowledge 

to the problem solving approach. Goldstein (1990) noted the 

difficulties of tapping implicit knowledge "stored in the minds of rank 

and file police officers" to analyze problems (pp 93), the importance 

of sharing knowledge with citizens as one aspect of solving problems 

(pp 114), the lack of a "tradition of proceeding logically from 

knowledge gained...to the fashioning of an appropriate response" 

(pp 15), and the importance of creating new knowledge through self 

critique (pp15) cross system knowledge sharing (pp 168-171) and 

research (pp 171-172). Quite simply, the management of knowledge is 

at the heart of Problem Oriented Policing.

Second, the recent adoption of innovations in policing, have 

followed rapidly growing trends that are knowledge-centric. Such 

trends include the expansions in computer based technology that 

facilitates processing and accessing vast amount of information 

to facilitate "data driven" decision making (Anselin, et.al., 2000). 

Tactical innovations have been implemented based upon the growth 

of knowledge about "what works" in addressing crime and disorder 

(Braga, 2001, Sherman, et.al., 1998), and the trend of research based 

knowledge dissemination which has been a central factor in the 

diffusion of police innovations (Weisburd, 2001). 

The knowledge-centric nature of recent police innovations, clearly 

establishes the need for Knowledge Management as an innovation 

in and of its self. While Knowledge Management (KM) has been 

recognized as an innovation in the private sector (Hansen, et. al. 1999, 

Gore and Gore, 1999, Hickins, 1999), it is only now emerging in 

the police profession. Pendleton (2002,) in his study of knowledge 

management in policing has developed a model that identifies and 

links the initiation and implementation phases of innovation through 

the management of knowledge. Police knowledge management is 

a loosely bundled but interconnected set of management activities 

designed to capitalize on the intellectual assets of the police workforce 

(Pendleton, 2002). Knowledge management in this model is defined 

as a five part purposeful organizational strategy that is designed to:
CHAPTER 3 - Creating an Innovation-Centric Police Department: Guidelines for Knowledge Management in Policing 83

1.) Create an Innovation Environment

2.) Capture Knowledge

 3.) Package-Share Knowledge

 4.) Apply Knowledge

 5.) Create Knowledge 

Knowledge Management is not a passive activity, but is a set of 

organizational design features and processes that are integrally 

related to organizational activities. This model recognizes that police 

departments contain vast amounts of untapped, often specialized, 

knowledge and routinely create knowledge through organizational 

action that is vital to successfully addressing contemporary public 

safety challenges. Knowledge management is all about having the ability to 

share that specialized knowledge when another member of the organization 

needs it. Quite simply, knowledge is viewed as an asset. One of the 

fundamental tasks of this model is to transform tacit knowledge, 

obscured within or around the organization, to explicit knowledge 

available for use and application. 

Tacit knowledge has "an important cognitive dimension. It consists of 

mental models, beliefs, and perspectives so ingrained we take them 

for granted, and, therefore, cannot easily articulate. These implicit 

models shape how we perceive the world around us" (Nonaka, 1999). 

Tacit knowledge has tremendous value for others in an organization 

because it represents expertise. When less experienced, skilled and 

knowledgeable employees have access to the tacit knowledge of experts 

and experienced specialists, they can perform at the level of those 

experts more often and more effectively (Bukowitz and Williams, 

1999). Tacit knowledge can be shared either by being converted into 

explicit knowledge (e.g., a set of policies and procedures, or a set 

of documented facts) and documented, or through transfer as tacit 

knowledge, for example through a mentor, on the job training, 

or apprenticeships. 
84 Knowledge Management in Policing

Known as an innovation cluster (Rogers, 1995), the four-part police 

knowledge management model provides a useful framework for 

understanding how knowledge can be purposefully managed to 

promote innovation in public safety organizations 

(see Figure 1 below). 

Figure 1.

POLICE KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT MODEL

I. Capturing Knowledge

 “Knowing What We Know”

II.Processing Knowledge

“Sharing What We Know”

IV. Creating Knowledge

“Increasing What We Know” KNOWLEDGE-CENTRIC

III. Applying Knowledge 

“Using What We Know”
CHAPTER 3 - Creating an Innovation-Centric Police Department: Guidelines for Knowledge Management in Policing 85

GUIDELINES FOR CREATING THE ENVIRONMENT 

FOR ORGANIZATIONAL INNOVATION

Organizational innovation occurs for two reasons, crisis and/or a 

natural interest in being innovative Rogers (1995). In a crisis situation, 

such as that facing the police in the 1980's, organizations need to 

be innovative at least until the problems are solved. In this case, 

innovation is viewed more as an outcome or product. While police 

departments may have adopted recent innovations because they need to, 

the relative rapidity of the adoption of recent innovations (Weisburd, 

2001, Weisburd et.al. 2001) and emergence of intrinsically innovative 

police organizations (Pendleton, 2002) also suggest a growing natural 

interest in innovation. Some police departments now want to be 

innovative because of their natural interest and view innovation as an 

on-going process that is reflected in organizational values, leadership, 

and structure. In this respect, the organizational environment is 

specifically designed to provide an established context for innovation. 

In effect, the organization becomes an innovation environment.

GUIDELINE ONE: FORMALLY ADOPT AND PROMOTE AN ORGANIZATIONAL 

MISSION AND VALUES THAT FACILITATE KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

The literature and research data clearly establish the fundamental role 

of organizational values that facilitate rather than impede knowledge 

management. By formally adopting organizational values and 

beliefs that support Knowledge Management, there becomes a clear 

"expectation to be innovative."

The" Collaboration Value"

The most important value in the mission of an innovative police 

department is collaboration. Collaboration is the core element in 

capturing, sharing, applying and creating knowledge. Collaboration 

leads to key partnerships within and outside the police organization 

that includes individuals, groups and other organizational entities. Joint 

efforts, access to decision making and meaningful participation and 

exchange are evidence of collaboration. Collaboration leverages existing 

expertise, locates best practices, and eliminates redundancy. Both internal and 

external collaboration transcends the limitations of technology and 

other unilateral approaches to knowing. 
86 Knowledge Management in Policing

The "Openness Value" 

Although police departments have traditionally been viewed as 

closed organizational environments, there is clear evidence that this 

is changing. Organizational openness is evident in the increasing 

access given to citizens (e.g., ride-a-longs and other avenues of 

participation) and to researchers from universities and other agencies. 

An organizational environment that is open to meaningful interaction 

with others facilitates collaboration. One of the most difficult barriers 

to accessing and sharing knowledge are the internal organizational 

boundaries within organizations. Often called the "silo effect", the 

inability of organizations to defeat the physical boundaries (separate 

office buildings, precinct stations etc.) and the cultural boundaries 

(knowledge hoarding and inter-agency competitiveness) that 

prevent sharing and collaboration must be overcome. Creating an 

organizational value of openness clearly establishes the expectation 

that police departments will not only be open to others, but will inturn reach out and become involved with others. The connectivity 

that results from pro-active openness is the key component of 

awareness knowledge that is essential for 

organizational innovativeness. 

The Knowledge Context for Police Services 

One of the most important features of the recent era of police 

innovation has been the simple fact that all the innovations are 

based in knowledge gained from research. The data driven nature 

of policing has been established and will continue to provide a 

knowledge-centric approach to policing. It is important to recognize 

that a knowledge based approach to delivering police services is not 

static but is being refined to the next generation of the models that 

were first introduced. A "knowledge management" based police 

department must adopt a service delivery philosophy that is data 

driven. An example of such an approach is the Risk Focused Policing 

Model. Risk Focused Policing is defined as "data and results-driven, 

community oriented policing and problem solving strategy which 

focuses on those factors in a community which places its youth 

and families most at risk for criminal and other problem behaviors" 

(Bueerman, 2000, pp26). This approach relies on the extensive 

research on adolescent behavior and the application of assessment 

and intervention techniques that address the risk factors that underlie 

most youth problem behaviors. Models like this provide a "knowledge 

context" within which all organizational activities can be organized. 
CHAPTER 3 - Creating an Innovation-Centric Police Department: Guidelines for Knowledge Management in Policing 87

GUIDELINE TWO: PRACTICE AND PROMOTE INNOVATION LEADERSHIP THAT 

IS CENTERED ON KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

For Knowledge Management to become a core management activity 

in a police department, it must be adopted and implemented as a 

purposeful leadership innovation. Specific leadership behaviors are 

required to adopt and implement knowledge management.

The Cosmopolitan Leader 

Because knowledge and its management are key ingredients to 

innovation, it is critical that innovative police departments establish 

and empower leaders who are cosmopolitan in their leadership style. 

Specifically, this requires police leaders to become firmly oriented 

and affiliated with a meaningful "outside" or external network. This 

network is most vibrant when it is not confined to the criminal justice 

system but extends to other sectors in the larger social system to 

include the private sector. The cosmopolitan police leader is on the 

"front line" of innovation through attendance to key conferences, 

special publications, regular interaction with the research community, 

and other connections often requiring extensive travel and interaction. 

In effect, the cosmopolitan leader is positioned to develop "awareness 

knowledge" as a key component in the management of knowledge.

The Innovation Champion 

If Knowledge Management as an innovation is to succeed within 

an organization, it, along with any other police innovation, requires 

an innovation champion. Without a Knowledge Management 

champion the innovation will die. A Knowledge Management 

champion is a charismatic individual who throws his/her weight 

behind the innovation to overcome resistance to become an 

effective organizational sponsor for adoption of the idea. The 

Knowledge Management Champion may or may not be the person 

who first encounters the innovation. The selection of a Knowledge 

Management Champion should be purposeful to reflect the 

demands of both the initiation phase (decision to adopt) and the 

implementation phase. It is important that police organizations 

recognize and empower innovation champions within the organization, 

as they are often the risk takers who are most willing to initiate 

new ideas. 
88 Knowledge Management in Policing

The 'Authority Decision to Adopt-'Collective Design' 

of Implementation 

The organizational innovation process is most accurately viewed as 

a five stage process spanning two distinct decision phases known as 

the initiation and implementation phases. Findings from innovation 

research have revealed that often the very organizational processes 

that facilitate the adoption of an innovation during the initiation 

phase, can work against efforts during the implementation phase 

of the innovation process. Several styles of decision-making are 

available to organizations for the adoption and implementation of 

Knowledge Management. These approaches need to be tailored to 

reflect both the nature of the organization and the goal to both adopt 

and implement Knowledge Management. While police organizations 

have embraced contemporary management approaches that are based 

upon collaboration, they are still a paramilitary system that is based 

upon power, status and technical expertise. Police departments are 

not democratic organizations. Yet, it is critical to recognize that 

the police Knowledge Management innovation is an innovation cluster

comprised of many distinct activities that are loosely bundled where 

the boundaries are not necessarily clear cut but are interconnected. 

Accordingly, the decision to adopt the Knowledge Management 

innovation should be what is known as an authority decision made 

by the Chief of Police and his/her command staff. However, the 

implementation process and subsequent decisions should be based 

in collaboration and freedom to adjust and mold the Knowledge 

Management initiative to fit the specific needs of the organization. 

Known as a collective decision-making, this process should feature 

consensus and participation among the relevant members of the 

police department. 
CHAPTER 3 - Creating an Innovation-Centric Police Department: Guidelines for Knowledge Management in Policing 89

GUIDELINE THREE: RE-STRUCTURE THE POLICE DEPARTMENT TO FACILITATE 

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

The adoption and implementation of the Knowledge Management 

innovation is both determined by and subsequently can affect the 

structure of the police department and its processes. While police 

departments have adopted new innovations, they have been reluctant 

to alter their basic structures to implement these innovations; if 

the Knowledge Management innovation is effectively adopted and 

implemented it will be important to remain open to altering existing 

organizational structures and/or creating new approaches. 

Research and Development as an Executive Function

One such structural change is the clear need to create research and 

development units within police departments that report directly 

to the Chief of Police. Typically, police research units are viewed 

as grant-making machines focused upon bringing money into the 

police department. While grant making is a part of a Research and 

Development function, in a KM approach, the primary focus is the 

development of knowledge. These units can be structured to include 

crime analysis units as well as proactive research projects and serve 

both a tactical, as well as a policy function. 

External Re-Structuring

One of the most innovative police departments in the country 

has recently assumed responsibility for the parks, recreation and 

public housing functions of the city. This consolidation under the 

directorship of the Chief of Police was done to advance a more 

integrated approach to the implementation of Community Oriented 

Policing. In an era of scarce resources where innovation is clearly 

linked to both efficiency and effectiveness, bold new approaches that 

are consistent with the "community integration" movement can be a 

part of a KM restructuring strategy. 

The Organizational Engineering Approach

A fundamental feature of Knowledge Management is the recognition 

that employees' expertise is organizational capital. Accordingly, the 

recruitment, retention and development of police personnel should be 

a strategic effort that is designed to enhance the knowledge base of 

the organization. Such an effort requires a knowledge profile of the 

police department that reflects strengths, weaknesses and gaps in the 

organizational knowledge profile. Based upon the knowledge profile 

the police department can implement an organizational engineering 

strategy that includes targeted hiring and targeted training for 

personnel to fit the needs of the organization as a whole.
90 Knowledge Management in Policing

As a social system, organizations provide the context within which 

organizational innovation occurs. This context for the Knowledge 

Management innovation can be viewed as a three-part system that 

progresses from a general to specific orientation to innovation see 

Figure 2 on next page. The organizational context for innovation is 

fundamentally established as a general philosophy that is articulated 

in the written value and belief statements. A second tier of context 

is innovation leadership that scans and champions KM within the 

police department. Finally, Knowledge Management initiated within a 

purposeful structure defines the operational implementation of KM. 

Figure 2

ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT OF INNOVATION

“THE EXPECTATION TO INNOVATE”

General Organizational Philosophy of Innovation 

Established In Articulated Values and Beliefs

(Organizational Mission and Belief Statements)

“THE INNOVATION EVENT”

Adoption of Specific Innovation:

Knowledge Management Initiative That is 

Operationally Integrated

“THE INVITATION TO INNOVATE”

Organizational Operational Philosophy of Innovation: 

Knowledge Management as an Applied Innovation
CHAPTER 3 - Creating an Innovation-Centric Police Department: Guidelines for Knowledge Management in Policing 91

GUIDELINES FOR CAPTURING KNOWLEDGE: KNOWING WHAT WE KNOW

The starting point for a Knowledge Management Initiative is making 

knowledge that exists within and around the organization both known 

and available. This fundamental task is built on assessment and 

collaboration that transcends a knowledge continuum (Pendleton 2002) 

ranging from individual knowledge to organizational knowledge and 

finally community or social system based knowledge. Establishing a 

knowledge network as the focus of the "opportunistic surveillance" 

that is required for innovation is an important beginning of the 

Knowledge Management Innovation. Knowing what others know is at 

the heart of this first step in the Knowledge Management Model.

GUIDELINE FOUR: CONDUCT A KNOWLEDGE INVENTORY AND ESTABLISH A 

KNOWLEDGE REPOSITORY

The literature on Knowledge Management reveals the simple 

realization that organizations contain and have access to knowledge 

that is largely unavailable. In part, the lack of availability stemmed 

from the simple fact that there was little understanding of what 

knowledge actually exists within and around organizations. In effect, 

many organizations don't know what they know (O'Dell and Jackson, 

1998). To address this need it is important to conduct strategic 

knowledge inventories that encompass the both the internal and 

external police department environment. This assessment should 

document and then link "know who" knowledge with "know how" 

knowledge in four key knowledge areas: professional expertise, tactics, 

administrative process, and political-community understanding. The 

goal is to transform the implicit knowledge of the police in these areas 

to explicit knowledge that is available.

Individual Knowledge Inventories

Much of the early efforts in KM have been focused upon what has 

been termed the "yellow paging" or cataloging of organizational 

knowledge and experiences that reside at the individual level. The 

purpose of this effort was to identify which individuals within the 

organization had what type of knowledge and to make that known 

and available throughout the organization. A process approach such 

as this, known as "Yellow Paging," provides the first rudimentary step 

in allowing members of an organization to know whom to contact 

to access knowledge on specific topics. In policing, yellow-paged 

knowledge can refer to specific skills or expertise and/or specific 

case or problem specific knowledge. Supervisors who use software 

solutions can conduct the knowledge assessment and other technology 

based programs to establish searchable expertise data banks. 
92 Knowledge Management in Policing

Creating Knowledge Capacity within the Police Department

It is well known that police departments have more data and 

knowledge stored than is ever harnessed for the delivery of police 

service. The underutilization of data is common in the policing 

profession and in many departments has rendered existing data 

banks as dustbins of data far removed from daily problem solving. 

The crime analysis unit of the police department can reverse this 

professional phenomenon by making both the unit and existing data 

banks accessible. One innovative application of police department 

data centers on knowing whom in the department has had contact 

with specific individuals and/or places of interest in the delivery of 

police services. All reports and calls for service are stored in data 

banks as "event fields" that correspond to numerous characteristics 

of the case or event. This standard data acquisition and storage 

protocol can be harnessed by officers who want to know who in their 

department knows the people related to the case. In some instances, 

investigators can actually identify in chronological sequence which 

of their colleagues has had contact with an individual of interest and 

then convene this group of officers for a discussion concerning the 

case. The searching of the department data banks and creation of 

knowledge teams about cases is but one of several applications of the 

ability to identify and link police personnel to a wide range of 

case characteristics. 

Technology for e-mail mapping known as Knowledge Mail, is now 

available to allow the use of keywords or phrases in employee 

e-mail to track expertise. When the user seeks colleagues who are 

knowledgeable about a topic, the system connects the employees 

by e-mail creating a knowledge community within the organization. 

Similar technology known as Process Book is available to establish 

a knowledge bank of organizational processes. This system can 

be applied to both physical process, such as plant systems, or 

administrative activities such as budget or personnel processes. This 

software allows any employee to contribute their experiences, work 

processes, job procedures, task instructions for specific projects, and 

allow on-line access to background information. In effect, this system 

can document all relevant organizational processes and make them 

available throughout the organization.
CHAPTER 3 - Creating an Innovation-Centric Police Department: Guidelines for Knowledge Management in Policing 93

Creating Knowledge Capacity from Outside the Police Department 

One of the most important changes in the police culture during 

the recent period of innovation has been an assertive willingness to 

expand the police social system to include the surrounding community 

and organizational environments. Implicit in this expanded police 

community is the potential availability of a vast array of data and 

knowledge within various sectors of this external environment. 

Increasingly, it is possible and important to gain access to these 

knowledge repositories. The COMPASS project, recently funded by 

the National Institute of Justice is an example of access data from 

outside a police department. The very first phase of this project 

focused on identifying a diverse number of community agencies 

and organizations and forming a knowledge consortium that include 

the sharing of each others data to establish a comprehensive data 

infrastructure. This data warehouse includes data collected from a 

variety of sources (criminal justice, demographic, social and health, 

schools, hospitals, physical infrastructure, business data, etc.). In 

effect, the first step was creating a data center that held vast amounts 

of data from diverse settings that, when taken together, provides a 

comprehensive understanding of all the possible factors related to 

crime and disorder. 

Appropriating Knowlede Banks

One of the more important developments in policing over the last 20 

years has been the growing participation of the police profession in 

university-based research. During this period an extensive knowledge 

base has developed and is currently available in abstract form through 

a CD ROM subscription service that is also linked to a standard 

quarterly hard copy journal. This and other electronic knowledge 

banks are now available for search and review. Literature searches and 

reviews of this vast reservoir of knowledge about policing are essential 

elements in capturing what we know. 
94 Knowledge Management in Policing

GUIDELINE FIVE: UNDERSTAND, PROMOTE AND ACCOMMODATE THE 

PROTOCOLS FOR ACCESSING DATA AND KNOWLEDGE

While knowing what we know is important, getting what we know we 

know is the ultimate objective of the first phase in the Knowledge 

Management innovation. It is critical to understand that gaining 

access to data and knowledge is often constrained by legal, cultural 

and practical barriers. Knowledge ownership, privacy protections, 

legal limitations, and the cost of retrieval and delivery must be 

accommodated in both formal and informal agreements to 

capture knowledge.

Care the Most About Privacy and other Legal Constraints

In an age of computer automation and technological advance, the 

ability to access knowledge has far out distanced protocols to protect 

privacy of individual. While criminal justice data is often constrained 

by law, even the best-intentioned user can easily be in possession 

of data that is in violation of the law. Legal research and the use 

of an Institutional Review Board type process to address both 

privacy protocols and address legal issues is an established process 

for guaranteeing appropriate possession and use of knowledge. A 

genuine interest in this important social issue should begin with the 

police department.

Accommodate Cultural Characteristices 

Yet another reason that Knowledge Management efforts to capture 

police knowledge may be slowly adopted is that police culture is based 

in face-to-face situational interactions. Hansen and his colleagues 

(1999) identified two strategies for KM that are linked to the nature 

of the adopting organization. One, known as the codification strategy 

relies on documenting and storing knowledge for reuse by others. 

The other strategy is tied to person to person sharing and known 

as the personalization strategy. The long standing history of passing 

along the police culture via word of mouth and situational story telling 

when combined with the police aversion to 'paper work' suggests that 

a codification approach would not be quickly adopted in the police 

profession. Such a view is consistent with the data from this study 

where there was little enthusiasm for police problem solving "beat 

books" and other programs requiring the documentation of problem 

solving outcomes and approaches as a KM effort (Pendleton, 2002).
CHAPTER 3 - Creating an Innovation-Centric Police Department: Guidelines for Knowledge Management in Policing 95

Quid Pro Quo 

It is important to realize that the process of a KM inventory 

and accessing data demands resources and has associated costs. 

Both individuals and organizations may be reluctant or limited in 

their willingness to provide data and knowledge without either 

compensation, or a return on their effort. Ultimately, the true value of 

KM is in its application. It is important that individual, organizational 

and community participants understand how they will be able to use 

Knowledge Management to further their interests. Often, the giving 

of knowledge is contingent on the receiving of knowledge. 

Guidelines for Packaging Knowledge: Sharing What We Know

Obstacles to effective knowledge management are common in closed 

organizational cultures where information 'hoarding' and 'command 

and control' management methods are practiced (Botkin, 1999). While 

police departments are increasingly opening up to new knowledge 

and the sharing of information, this represents a cultural change that 

is only emerging. For KM to be effective it is important to package 

knowledge in meaningful ways that naturally promote sharing. In this 

respect, sharing knowledge requires both Knowledge Management 

structure and process to facilitate application and access.
96 Knowledge Management in Policing

GUIDELINE SIX: STRUCTURE POLICE KNOWLEDGE INTO POLICY, 

ORGANIZATIONAL AND TACTICAL PACKAGES TO 

PROMOTE MEANING AND USE

Police knowledge can be usefully categorized into Policy Knowledge, 

Organizational Knowledge and Tactical Knowledge and police KM 

needs to address these various types. Police KM systems need to be 

designed to process information and transform it into knowledge 

packages in preparation for application to selected problems. The 

packaging of these data will logically lead to an increased interest in 

sharing of this knowledge.

The Policy Knowledge Commons

It is both possible and important to package data within a broad 

community based program or process such as COMPASS, which is led 

by a multi agency and community based leadership team. Data from 

across the institutional spectrum can be placed in a data warehouse 

that is accessible in a variety of formats blending inter and intra net 

access with web-based software using G.I.S. mapping capability and 

analysis. The data can be pre-packed by blending key variables in 

a map format creating and promoting knowledge of those factors 

related to crime and disorder. The packaging of this knowledge can 

easily inform policy debates, problem selection and implementation 

of multi-modal solutions. In effect, this approach "democratizes 

knowledge" allowing access and linkages with the larger community 

and policy makers. While police departments are currently placing 

data about crime on websites, only through more comprehensive KM 

projects is that data being combined with a wide range of other data 

to create knowledge about the causes and potential solutions to crime.

The Organizational Knowledge Package

Crime and disorder data can be usefully packaged to inform 

organizational policy issues. The most well known packaging of 

knowledge is the COMSTAT program that uses crime mapping as 

a means to understand crime trends and was specifically designed 

to hold police leaders accountable for addressing these trends. The 

packaging of organizational data, however, is in its infancy. Other 

more specific knowledge packaging is possible to focus on use of 

force, officer safety, budget and fiscal issues, training and

education etc.
CHAPTER 3 - Creating an Innovation-Centric Police Department: Guidelines for Knowledge Management in Policing 97

The Tactical Knowledge Package

While crime mapping has been adopted by most police organizations 

as a means to display and understand crime and disorder, there are 

much more that can be done to package crime and disorder data to 

inform tactical strategy. KM for detectives should start with a specific 

understanding of the crime dynamic of the specific unit. Exhaustive 

literature reviews should be conducted to create crime types/profiles 

and associated dynamics as an organizing framework within which 

all situational case knowledge is understood. All unit data should 

be arranged to create a knowledge base what is available to analysis 

using place (mapping) and crime dynamic analysis (movement and 

interaction). Database downloads along with department wide "yellow 

page" scanning can create knowledge teams that are best suited for 

addressing specific cases (see Figure 3). Patrol KM should focus 

on packaging data for use in real time mapping and crime dynamic 

analysis in preparation for each daily patrol briefing.
98 Knowledge Management in Policing

GUIDELINE SEVEN: CREATE ROUTINE KNOWLEDGE SHARING PROCESS

NOT EVENTS

An essential feature of Knowledge Management is the sharing of 

knowledge with others as the means to desired outcomes and the 

successful application of all aspects of KM. Recent research clearly 

shows that when Knowledge Management is treated primarily as an 

"event" it acts to defeat establishing knowledge sharing as a normal 

organizational routine. Knowledge sharing is most effective when 

incorporated as ongoing routines that have specific processes designed 

to facilitate sharing.

Figure 3.

A POLICE UNIT BASED KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT PROBLEM 

SOLVING MODEL

KNOWLEDGE 

MANAGEMENT PROCESS

DEPARTMENT UNITS

Auto theft, Burglary, Assault, Sex Crimes, 

Domestic Violence, Narcotics, Homicide, 

etc.

1.) LITERATURE REVIEW Establish an understanding of knowledge 

within existing research and professional 

literature. Informs database and analysis 

process. Each unit in the department 

builds starts their crime analysis model 

based on literature.

2.) DATABASE 

DOWNLOADS FROM 

RMS AND DEPARTMENT 

"YELLOW PAGING"

Establish a crime specific data bank 

download from RMS and other 

department data. This data will be specific 

to crime. Informed by literature and 

knowledge.

3.STEPWISE GIS AND 

OTHER CRIME-PLACE 

BASED ANALYSIS

Establish a stepwise crime analysis process 

that includes all the crime dynamic 

variables and is plotted in a GIS format. 

Analysis used to plot past, current and 

projected crime activities. May purchase or 

develop analytical software.

4.) INTEGRATED 

INTERVENTION PLAN

Craft an intervention strategy that has 

both long term and tactical elements. Plan 

blends a wide range of interventions from 

policy to tactical responses.
CHAPTER 3 - Creating an Innovation-Centric Police Department: Guidelines for Knowledge Management in Policing 99

The Knowledge Management Vehicle

A fundamental feature of police Knowledge Management process is 

the creation of knowledge management process within programs or 

projects. Several examples, such as COMPASS, COMSTAT, and After 

Action Reviews, have specific process that defines the program, leading 

to specific application. In the case of COMPASS, there are processes 

for all of the components of the Knowledge Management model, 

while others, like After Action Reviews focus on only one part of the 

KM model. For sharing to occur the process should include multidiscipline participants and specifically require sharing and discussion of 

knowledge. Professional facilitation of the specific knowledge sharing 

process is important.

The Knowledge Management Place

Recent research suggests that Knowledge Management sharing is not 

just a process, but is also a place. The police department library, the 

Research, Grants & Corporate Support Unit, and the Crime Analysis 

Unit (CAU) are examples of where knowledge "happens". The 

observed linkage of a department library with the conference room 

is an interesting example of both the static feel of a repository of 

documented organizational knowledge, but also a dynamic quality 

where decisions are made by putting knowledge into action. In the 

case of the CAU, its central function, combined with its potential 

location in pathways, facilitates the "place" nature of knowledge. 

Unlike the conference room, where one must "belong" in meetings, 

CAU can be a completely open place where anyone can go during all 

hours of operation. 

GUIDELINES FOR APPLYING KNOWLEDGE: USING WHAT WE KNOW

The ultimate purpose of Knowledge Management is not simply to 

make knowledge available, but to apply it to reach organizational 

objectives (Williams, 2001). The application of knowledge can be 

focused on both external public safety problems, as well as internal 

organizational issues. Finally, police KM can be used to both select 

potential applications but also to select subsequent interventions or 

course of action.
100 Knowledge Management in Policing

GUIDELINE EIGHT: USE KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT PACKAGES AND 

PROCESSES TO SELECT APPLICATIONS

The selection of applications should follow Knowledge Management 

process designed to identify and prioritize crime and disorder 

problems and organizational issues. 

Community Process 

Many knowledge management processes include a role for community 

participation and input. Leadership teams that guide a COMPASS 

selection process include community members. Other Community 

Policing forums provide specific processes that engage the community 

in identifying specific problems. Other key government process 

that inform political decision-making and policy development are 

predominate ways to select KM applications.

Organizational Process

While police departments rarely engage in long range planning, those 

that do engage in a process to establish long-term goals and objectives. 

KM process can both inform and follow from these 

long-range planning processes.

Crime Analysis Process 

Most police departments utilize sophisticated crime analysis methods 

such as hotspot mapping to identify and select key problems for 

KM application. 

GUIDELINE NINE: AVOID USING KNOWLEDGE 

MANAGEMENT TO POLICE THE POLICE

Throughout the Knowledge Management literature it is clear that if 

KM is used to police employees, then adoption will be unlikely (Lim, 

et.al., 1999). There is a long tradition in the police culture, to resist 

efforts to monitor police behavior. This cultural tradition would 

suggest a less than an enthusiastic approach to KM strategies that 

propose to monitor, even map inter-officer communication (Skolnick 

and Fyfe, 1993). It is not surprising that data on accountability efforts 

like COMSTAT show limited success, suggesting that other KM 

efforts like e-mail mapping would need to be carefully crafted. Failure 

to address this key issue is likely to result in the failure of any 

KM effort.
CHAPTER 3 - Creating an Innovation-Centric Police Department: Guidelines for Knowledge Management in Policing 101

GUIDELINE TEN: USE KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT TO SELECT AND DESIGN 

INTERVENTIONS AND SOLUTIONS

There is long standing evidence that Knowledge Management 

techniques are used in routine police activities to address crime and 

disorder problems. More recently, KM processes have been utilized to 

address police organizational issues. The use of comprehensive KM 

processes will allow for multi-modal interventions that will not only 

inform reactive strategies, but will facilitate preventive, more 

proactive approaches.

Crime and Disorder Applications

The more visible and growing use of Knowledge Management 

techniques are in the area of targeted crimes. The use of crime 

mapping has evolved rapidly and is now used in front line police 

operations (crime and hotspot analysis) and investigations by officers 

(Groff and LaVigne, 1998). There is specific case study data that 

demonstrates the successful use of this Knowledge Management 

technique to address a wide range of issues from auto theft, burglary, 

rape, homicide, traffic accidents, and gang activity (LaVigne and 

Wartell, 1998; LaVigne and Wartell, 2000). As efforts to create 

mapping models that predict the location of crime (Weisburd and 

McEwen, 1997) become viable, it is likely that more departments will 

integrate this knowledge into the routine briefing and deployment 

strategies. It will be critical to make these applications time sensitive 

(real time data), effective (place officers at the predicted location to 

greet the offender) and process efficient (analytical up-front work that 

reflects the crime dynamic).

Administrative and Organizational Applications

Less apparent, but emerging is the application of Knowledge 

Management in the administration and operation of the police 

organization. Applications of KM like COMSTAT have met with 

limited success, primarily because of a focus on "policing the 

police" and the police "event" process. Many other applications 

are possible ranging from Yellow paging for training purposes, to 

resource allocation decisions, to implementation of specific policing 

models, such as the Risk Focused Policing approach (Pendleton and 

Bueermann, 2002).
102 Knowledge Management in Policing

Guidelines for Creating Knowledge: Increasing What We Know

The creation of knowledge is clearly identified as a 'core' feature of 

Knowledge Management. The Knowledge Management challenge 

encompasses both how to learn from organizational experience and 

how to create knowledge through original research and 

development activities.

GUIDELINE ELEVEN: ESTABLISH SPECIFIC PROGRAMS AND PROTOCOLS 

FOR LEARNING FROM ORGANIZATIONAL EXPERIENCE

There has been a long-standing police tradition of valuing experience. 

This tradition has been focused upon individuals and the experience 

they gain throughout their careers. More recently, there has been 

a recognition that organizations can also learn from experience if 

they have a commitment to continuous improvement. Learning 

from experience can include both the experiences from within the 

organization and experiences that others outside the organization have 

also encountered.

After Action Reviews

After Action Reviews or Critical Incident Reviews occur after police 

events or situations. These events can be large in nature or when 

officers are involved in incidents of a serious nature. A review 

process is created to include a synopsis of the event to include 

descriptive information (time, location etc.). Key questions guide the 

process such as, "what did we do right?" "What could we do better 

next time?" How do we share this learning? One of the constraints 

on this process is the legal liability, and related personnel actions that 

often accompany reviews of difficult actions. These constraints often 

impede a complete and full understanding of an event (Pendleton, 

2002) because of legal and personnel exposure. It is important to 

develop protocols to neutralize factors that impede full and complete 

participation and disclosure.
CHAPTER 3 - Creating an Innovation-Centric Police Department: Guidelines for Knowledge Management in Policing 103

Lessons Learned

A "Lessons Learned" program is designed to use after incident 

reports to create and share knowledge from police related events. The 

reporting system is web based and is accessible by anyone. Those 

wishing to report on an event, fill out a web-based form that includes 

identifying/contact information and then a response to the following 

questions:

• What was the most notable success at the incident that others may 

learn from?

• What were some of the most difficult challenges faced and how 

were they overcome?

• What changes, additions or deletions are recommended to various 

training curriculums?

• What issues were not resolved to your satisfaction and need 

further review? Based on what was learned what is your 

recommendation for resolution?

Place Based After Action Review

Place Based After Action Review is a version of "after action" learning 

that focuses on the location or place of critical events. This learning 

exercise requires travel to the actual locations of critical incidents 

to learn from the events in their location. This learning technique 

features not simply the event, but the geographic location and 

dynamics of the event. This case study approach is highly structured 

with numerous learning objectives that feature the interaction between 

the geography and the case dynamics (Robertson, 1987). 

Integrated after Action Review

This technique uses a stepwise process to identify and map chronic 

and critical problems such as homicides to locate the 'target place' 

within the city. Then an after action review is conducted of all the 

recent homicides within the target place. All the key participants, 

both within the community and within the police department, are 

invited to meetings where a facilitated process is used to analyze the 

recent homicide cases in the target area. The process is guided by the 

following questions:

1.) Do you know anything about this case?

2.) What do you know about the victim?

3.) What do you know about associates of the victim?

4.) Was the victim part of a group of active offenders?

5.) What do you know about the suspect(s) /offenders?

6.) What do you know about the associates of suspects/offenders?

7.) What do you know about the relationship between the victim 

and suspect?

8.) What do you know about the location of the event?

9.) What do you know about the motive in this case?

10.) Was the incident drug related? How?

11.) What do you think was behind the event (final summary)?
104 Knowledge Management in Policing

Following the after action review session, a place based analysis 

including site visits are conducted to understand fully the nature of 

the location of each of the homicides. This place analysis includes 

the location of the homicide and visits to the homes of relatives and 

other key participants within the geographic space surrounding 

the location. 

Based upon this process the crime dynamic of homicide in this area 

is developed that included a focus on motive, relational dynamics and 

the characteristic of the places in which these homicides occurred. 

Based upon this analysis, interventions are crafted to address three 

distinct types of homicides that occur in the target area.

The Innovation Exchange

This is a collaborative program involving multiple law enforcement 

agencies. The purpose of the program is to allow employees from 

each of the participating departments to conduct a site visit to any 

department for 5-6 hours to observe how other departments operate 

and/or provide law enforcement services in areas that have been 

problematic in the employees department. The intent is to maintain 

"a competitive edge" by discovering how "our colleagues" are doing 

things better than "we are". Employees are specifically instructed to 

abandon the mind set that "I know we do this better than they do" 

but to focus how "they do things better than we do". The program 

material provides a guide of potential areas for examination to help 

employees focus on specific areas during the observation.

GUIDELINE TWELVE: ESTABLISH A SPECIFIC RESEARCH AND 

DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

While initially the subjects of research, the police have evolved into 

research partners sharing the responsibility for selecting topics, 

managing the process, and disseminating the results. The next logical 

step in the creation of police knowledge is for the police to take the 

lead role in the creation of knowledge. The typical organizational 

model for this role is found in classic research and development units 

or departments. Police research must go beyond simply providing a 

statistical description of the department to actually employing trained 

researchers to both conduct research and liaison with Universities to 

do the same.
CHAPTER 3 - Creating an Innovation-Centric Police Department: Guidelines for Knowledge Management in Policing 105

CONCLUSION

There is little evidence that the police profession is aware of 

Knowledge Management as an overall management strategy, but 

is involved in KM activities in an incremental way. Knowledge 

Management, as a purposeful organizational strategy, is more than 

an innovation in itself, but is a fundamental part of the innovation 

process that is essential to sustaining an organizational culture that is 

based in innovation. If the police profession is to sustain its position 

on the "cutting edge" of innovation, there is a need to integrate the 

various KM techniques into an interrelated system (see Figure 4). Such 

a system would link very specific crime type analysis with daily patrol 

strategies, monthly COMSTAT process and the larger COMPASS 

process that extends beyond the boundaries of the police department. 

While police departments may have adopted recent innovations 

because they need to, the relative rapidity of the adoption of 

recent innovations (Weisburd, 2001, Weisburd, et.al. 2001) and the 

emergence of intrinsically innovative police departments (Pendleton, 

2002) suggest a growing natural interest in innovation. When 

police departments want to be innovative, they will re-craft their 

organizational structure, policy and practice. In effect, innovation will 

become an intrinsic value.
106 Knowledge Management in Policing

Figure 4.

A KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT INTEGRATED 

INTERVENTION MODEL

Inform Community Policy Process and Decisions:

Place-Based Marco Analysis Using COMPASS Format

Monthly COMSTAT Process:

Place-Based Marco Analysis Using COMPASS Format

Crime Unit Based Analysis:

(Auto theft, Burglary, Sex Crimes, Domestic Violence, Assault, 

Narcotics, Homicide) KM Process: 1.) Literature Review; 2.) Data 

Base Downloads-Yellow Paging Search; 3.) Stepwise GIS and 

Crime-Place Based Analysis; 4.) Intervention Plan

Daily Shift Briefings:

Shift briefings conducted using 3 to 4 hour old crime and activity 

data and informed by both COMSTAT and Unit Based Analysis. 

Two to three projected screens to view mapped data. Three part 

briefing to include viewing overall crime trends and activity, one 

or two specific unit presentations, and then design of patrol 

suppression strategy-goals.
CHAPTER 3 - Creating an Innovation-Centric Police Department: Guidelines for Knowledge Management in Policing 107

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APPENDIX

UNDERSTANDING POLICE KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT: A METHODOLOGICAL 

NOTE ON THE OUTCOMES OF A POLICE RESEARCH JOURNEY

By Michael R. Pendleton Ph.D. 

When the research on police knowledge management (KM) was 

first proposed, it was conceived as a first step in the ultimate design 

of a police "Problem Solving Knowledge Management Model" 

(Chávez, 2001). It was clearly recognized that while knowledge and 

its management is at the core of contemporary policing, it is the 

least understood and most neglected aspect of the Problem Oriented 

approach to policing (Pendleton, 2002). Although this research 

effort was always envisioned as an exploratory effort into a neglected 

area, it was assumed that KM was in fact, occurring in the police 

profession, and that it was an information "prioritization" process. It 

was further assumed that the practice of KM in policing would yield 

both a roster of "best practices" and specific cases or departments that 

had implemented KM as a purposeful organizational strategy. As is 

common with a new research area, these initial assumptions were not 

entirely accurate. What emerged from this effort was a different picture 

with different outcomes. What was initially envisioned as a "first step" 

became a research journey that opened the way to discovering KM in 

policing as an emerging innovation. This is a brief research note on 

the research process and the modifications that occurred along the way.

Appendix - Understanding Police Knowlede Management: A Methodological Note on the Outcomes of a Police Research Journey 111
112 Knowledge Management in Policing

THE RESEARCH JOURNEY

The strategy that guided collection and utilization of data was 

analytical induction (Glasser and Strauss, 1980), in which a researcher, 

upon entering the research data field, builds and revises a conception 

or model as empirical evidence is confronted (Strauss and Corbin, 

1990). This approach features qualitative methods that are of 

particular value when researching issues that are emerging and simply 

cannot be captured with a quantitative approach, such as the issue 

under study (Atkinson and Hammersley, 1994; Pendleton, 1997). In 

this regard, the Police Knowledge Management Model (Pendleton, 

2002) was the outcome of a "data journey" guided by the literature 

on Knowledge Management and Diffusion of Innovation. A review 

of both general knowledge management and police knowledge 

management literature was treated as qualitative data. While phone 

survey data was collected, only narrative findings were utilized. 

Subsequent key informant interviews and discussions were also 

conducted as part of the data collection effort. Initial data was linked 

to subsequent data until no new data was confronted and data stability 

was realized. In effect, the data led this journey and determined 

the outcomes. The effect was a modification of the initial set of 

assumptions and the corresponding "deliverables" initially envisioned.

POLICE AS LATE ADOPTERS

There was little evidence, that the police profession is aware of 

Knowledge Management as an overall management strategy. This 

lack of awareness is in stark contrast to organizations in both the 

private sector and other areas in government who have been using 

Knowledge Management (KM) as a specific innovation since the 

early 1990's. In this respect, the police profession might be termed 

a 'late adopter' using Rogers (1995) categorization of types of 

adopters. In all cases, police participants expressed a complete lack 

of awareness of Knowledge Management and its meaning. There 

were no new or innovative means for acquiring information on 

crime and disorder problems that extend beyond the classic police 

information systems. In this respect, policing remains primarily a 

reactive information management system. When KM was more 

fully explained, participants could quickly identify efforts within their 

respective agencies and or areas that would "qualify" as knowledge 

management. This response is similar to the initial response when 

Community Oriented Policing and Problem Oriented Policing were 

first introduced, in that, many participants would indicate, "we have 

been doing that for years". 
Appendix - Understanding Police Knowledge Management: A Methodological Note on the Outcomes of a Police Research Journey 113

It would be wrong to suggest however that there are no 'innovators 

or early adopters' of the KM strategy. While few police participants 

were Knowledge-centric in the internal management of their police 

organization, the Redlands Police Department has distinguished itself 

as a Knowledge Management innovator. Accordingly, it was decided to 

forgo a compilation of case studies on police knowledge management 

and focus instead, on the one case where Knowledge Management as a 

purposeful innovation (Pendleton and Chávez 2002) had been adopted 

(Pendleton and Bueermann, 2002). 

POLICE KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT AS AN INNOVATION CLUSTER

Without question, one of the most exciting and unexpected outcomes 

of this research was the development of a Police Knowledge 

Management Model. What was thought to be a "first step" toward 

a model actually produced the model. Ironically, this model 

emerged from the disappointment of discovering little evidence that 

the police profession is aware of Knowledge Management as an 

organizational innovation. Although Knowledge Management activities 

were encountered, and participants could agree that Knowledge 

Management, in some form was present in the police world, interim 

analysis suggested a mixed and varied definition of these activities. 

To facilitate initial data organization and analysis the Diffusion of 

Innovations model was applied to the data. Rogers (1995), in his 

study of the attributes of innovations, notes that innovations are often 

not viewed in a singular way but may be perceived as an interrelated 

bundle of new ideas. The elements that comprise an innovation may 

be tightly or loosely bundled based on the degree of interrelatedness 

between elements (Koontz, 1976). The findings from this research 

suggest that together police Knowledge Management might be usefully 

viewed as an innovation cluster that is loosely bundled where the 

boundaries are not necessarily clear cut and distinct, but when taken 

together form an interconnected Knowledge Management Model. The 

Diffusion of Innovations approach notes that innovations follow a 

path that ultimately must move beyond individual based adoption but 

become established within the organizational setting and ultimately 

the social or institutional system (Rogers, 1995). The classification of 

innovations into individual, organizational and institutional categories, 

when applied to the study of KM provides a loose organizing 

framework for how tacit knowledge becomes explicit. Subsequent 

pattern analysis of the data (Strauss and Corbin, 1990) using these 

loosely defined categories, revealed four Knowledge Management 

clusters, that when linked together form a distinct and potentially 

powerful model (see Figure 1).
114 Knowledge Management in Policing

What was initially conceived as a "prioritization process" of 

information, had emerged as a complex set of inter-related 

organizational activities that form a purposeful strategy to manage 

knowledge (Pendleton and Bueermann, 2002; Pendleton and Chávez, 

2002). Accordingly, it was decided to use case data to support a much 

broader set of activities that define Police Knowledge Management 

rather that simply focus on information prioritization, which is a very 

small part of the model (Pendleton, 2002).

TOWARD POLICE INNOVATION: CONCLUDING COMMENTS

By definition, pilot or exploratory research is an exploration of the 

unknown. Implicit in that journey is the need for adjustment and, in 

particular, alertness for opportunity. The police profession is engaged 

in knowledge management activities as dispersed organizational 

behaviors designed to accomplish incremental outcomes. The 

discovery of the Police Knowledge Management Model provides, 

for the first time, a purposeful management strategy for linking these 

activities to leverage larger and more strategic outcomes. 

The question remains, how to implement the model. One outcome 

of this project has been a set of guidelines that address each of the 

four components of the KM model (Pendleton and Chávez, 2002). 

Unfortunately, there is little experience to date, with the application 

of the KM innovation in policing. In part, these guidelines are the 

product of lessons learned from the case study of the one and only 

in-depth application of KM as a purposeful strategy. However, 

these guidelines are primarily the outcome of what has worked in the 

private sector and other government agencies as discovered during 

an exhaustive literature review and case follow-ups (Pendleton, 2002). 

While some have suggested that the police are on the cutting edge 

of innovation in criminal justice (Weisburd, 2002), it is clear that, 

as a profession, "ground can be gained" when compared to other 

institutional sectors. Like new research where adaptation is important, 

it seems clear that greater efforts to become more innovative are 

necessary in the police profession. The adoption of a purposeful 

knowledge management strategy that spans the police KM model is 

clearly an important means to that end. 
Appendix - Understanding Police Knowledge Management: A Methodological Note on the Outcomes of a Police Research Journey 115

Figure 1.

POLICE KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT MODEL

I. Capturing Knowledge

 “Knowing What We Know”

II.Processing Knowledge

“Sharing What We Know”

IV. Creating Knowledge

“Increasing What We Know” KNOWLEDGE-CENTRIC

III. Applying Knowledge 

“Using What We Know”
116 Knowledge Management in Policing

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Institute of Justice.

www.cops.usdoj.gov

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1100 Vermont Avenue, NW

Washington, D.C. 20530

To obtain details on COPS programs, call the

COPS Office Response Center at 800.421.6770

Visit the COPS Online by the address listed below.

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