UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460

OFFICE OF 

PREVENTION, PESTICIDES

AND TOXIC SUBSTANCES

January 12, 2007

MEMORANDUM

SUBJECT: Crop Grouping – Part IV: Analysis of the USDA IR-4 Petition to Amend 

the Crop Group Regulation 40 CFR § 180.41 (c) and Commodity

Definitions [40 CFR 180.1 (h)] Related to the New Crop Group 20

Oilseed. MRID 467896-01.

FROM: Bernard A. Schneider, Ph.D., Senior Plant Physiologist

Chemistry and Exposure Branch 

Health Effects Division (7509P) 

THRU: William Donovan, Ph.D. and Michael Doherty, Ph.D., Chairpersons

HED Chemistry Science Advisory Council (ChemSAC)

Health Effects Division (7509P) 

TO: Barbara Madden, Minor Use Officer

Risk Integration, Minor Use, and Emergency Response Branch 

(RIMUERB) 

Registration Division (7505P)

cc: IR-4 Project, Hong Chen, Jerry Baron, Dan Kunkel

REQUEST:

Dr Hong Chen, Crop Grouping Project Coordinator, USDA Interregional 

Research Project No. 4 (IR-4), State Agricultural Experiment Station, Rutgers University

has submitted a petition (February 7, 2006) on behalf of the IR-4 Project, and the 
2

Oilseeds Workgroup of the International Crop Grouping Consulting Committee (ICGCC) 

to amend the Crop Group Regulation 40 CFR § 180.41 (c) (20) to amend the crop group 

20 for Oilseeds and the Commodity Definitions 40 CFR 180.1 (h) for rapeseed. 

The above mentioned Oilseed crop group petition requested the following four 

amendments:

1. Add a new crop group to 40 CFR 180.41 (c) as “Oilseeds Group 20”. 

2. Amend the Oilseeds crop group to include the following 27 members:

1. Borage, Borago officinalis (LINN.) (Boraginaceae) 

2. Castor oil plant, Ricinus communis (LINN.) (Euphorbiaceae) 

3. Chinese tallowtree, (tallowtree; popcorntree; candleberry-tree), Triadica sebifera 

(Euphorbiaceae)

4. Cottonseed, Gossypium arboreum L. (Malvaceae)

5. Crambe, Crambe hispanica; Crambe abyssinica Hochst. (Brassicaceae)

6. Cuphea, Cuphea hyssopifolia (Lythraceae)

7. Euphorbia, Euphorbia esula L. (Euphorbiaceae)

8. Evening primrose/common, Cenothera biennis (LINN.) (Onagraceae)

9. Flax seed, Linum usitatissimum (Linaceae)

10. Gold of pleasure, Camelina sativa (Brassicaceae)

11. Hare's ear mustard, (hare's-ear cabbage), Conringia orientalis (Brassicaceae) 

12. Jojoba, Simmondsia chinensis (Link) C.K. Schneider (Simmondsiaceae; Buxaceae)

13. Lesquerella, Lesquerella recurvata, (Brassicaceae)

14. Meadowfoam, Limnanthes alba Benth. (Limnanthacae)

15. Mustard seed, Brassica hirta, spp. (Brassicaceae)

16. Niger seed, Guizotia abyssinica (Compositae)

17. Oil radish (fodder radish), Raphanus sativus var. oleiformis (Brassicaceae)

18. Poppy seed, Papaver somniferum L. ssp. somniferum (Papaveraceae) 

19. Rapeseed, Brassica spp.; Brassica napus (Brassicaceae)

20. Rose hip, Rosa eglanteria (Rosaceae) 

21. Safflower, Carthamus tinctorious (Asteraceae)

22. Sesame, Sesamum indicum L.; Sesamum radiatum (Pedaliaceae)

23. Sunflower, Helianthus annus (Asteraceae)

24. Sweet rocket, (dame's-violet; dame's rocket; damask-violet), Hesperis matronalis

(Brassicaceae)

25. Tallowwood, (tallow nuts; false sandalwood), Ximenia americana (Olacaceae)

26. Tea oil plant, Camellia oleifera (Theaceae) 

27. Vernonia, Vernonia galamensis (Asteraceae)

3. Amend the representative commodities for the Oilseeds crop group to be: the following 

three commodities: “Rapeseed (canola varieties only); Sunflower, seed; and Cottonseed”.

4. Establish three new subgroups under the Oilseeds crop group as follows:

1. Rapeseed Subgroup (Representative commodity: Rapeseed, canola varieties only): 

Borage, Crambe, Cuphea, Flax seed, Gold of pleasure, Hare's-ear mustard, Lesquerella, 

Meadowfoam, Mustard seed, Oil radish, Poppy seed, Rapeseed, Sesame, Sweet rocket.
3

2. Sunflower Subgroup (Representative commodity: Sunflower): Castor oil plant, Chinese 

tallowtree, Euphorbia, Evening primrose/common, Jojoba, Niger seed, Rose hip, 

Safflower, Sunflower, Tallowwood, Tea oil plant, Vernonia. And 

3. Cottonseed Subgroup (Representative commodity: Cottonseed): Cottonseed.

Each of these proposals will be reviewed in the following analysis:

BACKGROUND:

In the last major revisions to the Crop Grouping regulation in 1995, the Agency

received public comments from the California Department of Agriculture and the Dupont 

Agricultural Products Company requesting the Agency to consider adding a new crop 

group for oilseed commodities. The Agency response (Schneider, 1995) stated that new 

crop groups were beyond the scope of the 1995 revisions but new crop groups/subgroups 

would be considered in the future as part of harmonization efforts with CODEX and 

NAFTA. On July 27, 2000, Dr. Michael Braverman and George Markle, USDA 

Interregional Research Project No. 4 (IR-4) submitted a proposal to amend the Crop 

Group Regulation (40 CFR § 180.41) to add a new Crop Group for Oilseeds. The 

petition was part of an effort to harmonize with Canada which has an Oilseed Crop 

Group in their Crop Group Regulation (Pest Management Regulatory Agency-PMRA. 

Residue Chemistry Guidelines. Section 15. Crop Groups. Regulatory Directive - Dir. 98-

02, 15-41). The Canadian and U.S. Oilseed Crop Groups differ only with IR-4 requesting 

that borage and crambe be added to the group. Crambe and borage are two very minor 

oilseed crops which are only about 0.2% and < 0.1 %, respectively of the total acreage of 

the crops in the proposed group. 

According to the USDA IR-4, the additional expense to conduct magnitude of 

residue studies for these very minor crops is burdensome for the oilseed commodity

industry, because there is no economic incentive for the research invested. Letters of 

support for the establishment of the oilseed crop group were also submitted by scientists 

from the North Dakota State University Department of Plant Sciences. These letters 

discussed the growing importance of oilseed crops as alternative revenue crops to 

soybeans and wheat in their state, and also that the oilseed crops are lacking viable pest 

control agents. This crop group proposal was approved by the HED ChemSAC on July

8, 2002 (Bernard A. Schneider, Analysis of the proposal to amend the crop group petition 

by adding new oilseed crop group, DP Barcode #D272785) and included ten oilseed 

commodities listed in Table 1. In addition to these oilseed crops being members of 

Canadian Crop Group 20, they are also classified by CODEX as Oilseed Crops in their 

Food and Animal Feed Classification as Group 23. Therefore, this proposal will not only

increase harmonization with the Canadian Crop Grouping system, but the international 

system of CODEX. The Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 placed increased emphasis 

on using the CODEX maximum residue limits (MRLs) in establishing U.S. tolerances for 

pesticides. Future considerations for oilseed crop subgroups would be considered in 

future crop grouping petitions.
4

Table 1. Oilseed Crop Group Commodities that were approved by the US EPA 

HED ChemSAC on July 8, 2002.

This proposal by IR-4 is to amend the 40 CFR 180.41 by adding a new Crop 

Group 20: Oilseed Crops - Commodities as listed below:

Crop Group 20. Oilseed Crop Group.

Representative commodities. Rapeseed (edible Canola oilseed varieties) and Sunflower.

The following is a list of all the commodities included in Crop Group 20:

Common Name Scientific Name

Rapeseed Brassica napus var. napus

Rapeseed, Indian Brassica rapa ssp. oleifera

Mustard seed, Black Brassica nigra

Mustard seed, Indian Brassica juncea var. 

juncea

Mustard seed, Field Brassica rapa ssp. 

trilocularis

Flax, Linseed Linum usitatissimum

Sunflower seed Helianthus annuus

Safflower Carthamus tinctorius

Crambe seed Crambe abyssinica

Borage seed Borage officinalis

During the USDA/IR-4 Crop Grouping Symposium in Washington, DC, October 

2002, the Oilseeds Workgroup, Chaired by IR-4 Coordinator Frederick Salzman and CoChaired by Felicia Fort and William Smith, EPA, and Rich Zollinger, North Dakota State 

University recommended adding over 60 oilseeds commodities to the oilseeds group. 

Among those commodities proposed, some are tropical or subtropical fruits, tree nuts or 

ornamental species, and some are primarily used as food or ornamentals other than 

oilseeds, such as macadamia nut, apricot, pistachio, and coconut and other palms. The 

recommendations from the Symposium was further discussed and developed within the 

Oilseeds Workgroup of the International Crop Grouping Consulting Committee 

(ICGCC), which consists of more than 180 U.S. and international crop or regulatory

experts from agriculture commodity groups, universities, agrichemical industry, IR-4 

Project, and regulatory agencies representing over 40 countries. 

Oilseed Crop Definition:

Oilseeds include those crops from which oil is extracted from their seed and used 

to produce edible or inedible oils as well as a high-protein livestock meal. Oils may be 

extracted from plants by applying pressure to the seed, or by dissolving parts of the plants 

in water or another solvent, and distilling the oil, or by infusing parts of the plant in base

oil. The oilseeds are primarily soybeans, sunflower seed, canola, rapeseed, safflower, 
5

flax seed, or castor bean, mustard seed, peanut and cottonseed, used for the production of 

cooking oils, protein meals for livestock and industrial uses. For purposes of the 

Agricultural Market Transition Act, oilseeds refer to soybeans, sunflower seed, flax seed, 

safflower seed, rapeseed, canola, mustard seed, and "other" oilseeds as designated by the 

USDA (Hoffman, 1996). There are also many crops that are a source of oil such as 

various tree nuts such as pecan, almond, macadamia, hazelnut, and walnut; tropical crops 

such as palm and coconut, vegetable and fruits such as pumpkin and avocado, apricot, 

and grape seed. The two major world oilseed crops are soybean that is grown on over 91 

million hectares and cottonseed that is grown on over 31 million hectares. However, for 

purposes of this oilseed crop group various oilseeds were not included in this analysis 

because the ICGCC felt that they better fit within other crop groups such as walnut oil in 

the Tree nut crop group 14, corn oil in the Cereal grain crop group 16, palm oil in a 

tropical oil crop group, and soybean oil and peanut oil in the Legume vegetable crop 

group 6. 

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Each of the four proposals and recommendations will be discussed below, followed 

by a series of other recommendations on terminology, database development, and 

harmonization with CODEX. The EPA would like to commend the valuable and high 

quality input of the ICGCC, all its members, leader, and the Workgroup Chairperson. 

IR-4 Proposal 1:

“Add a new crop group to 40 CFR § 180.41 (c) as Oilseeds Group”.

HED Recommendation for Proposal 1:

I recommend that ChemSAC concur to amend the Crop Group Regulation [40 

CFR 180.41 (c)] to establish a new crop group for Oilseeds. The name of the new crop 

group will be Oilseed group 20. Oilseeds include those crops from which oil is extracted

from their seed and used to produce edible or inedible oils as well as a high-protein

livestock meal and are primarily soybeans, sunflower seed, canola, rapeseed, safflower, 

flax seed, castor bean, mustard seed, peanut and cottonseed, used for the production of 

cooking oils, protein meals for livestock and industrial uses. There are also many crops 

that are a source of oil such as various tree nuts such as pecan, almond, macadamia, 

hazelnut, and walnut; tropical crops such as palm and coconut, vegetable and fruits such 

as pumpkin and avocado, apricot, and grape seed. The two major world oilseed crops are 

soybean that is grown on over 91 million hectares and cottonseed that is grown on over 

31 million hectares. However, for purposes of this oilseed crop group various oilseeds 

were not included in this analysis because the ICGCC felt that they better fit within other 

crop groups such as walnut oil in the Tree nut crop group 14, corn oil in the Cereal grain 
6

crop group 16, palm oil in a tropical oil crop group, and soybean oil and peanut oil in the 

Legume vegetable crop group 6. 

IR-4 Proposal 2. 

2. Amend the Oilseeds crop group to include the following 27 members:

1. Borage, Borago officinalis (LINN.) (Boraginaceae) 

2. Castor oil plant, Ricinus communis (LINN.) (Euphorbiaceae) 

3. Chinese tallowtree, (tallowtree; popcorntree; candleberry-tree), Triadica sebifera 

(Euphorbiaceae)

4. Cottonseed, Gossypium arboreum L. (Malvaceae)

5. Crambe, Crambe hispanica; Crambe abyssinica Hochst. (Brassicaceae)

6. Cuphea, Cuphea hyssopifolia (Lythraceae)

7. Euphorbia, Euphorbia esula L. (Euphorbiaceae)

8. Evening primrose/common, Cenothera biennis (LINN.) (Onagraceae)

9. Flax seed, Linum usitatissimum (Linaceae)

10. Gold of pleasure, Camelina sativa (Brassicaceae)

11. Hare's ear mustard, (hare's-ear cabbage), Conringia orientalis (Brassicaceae) 

12. Jojoba, Simmondsia chinensis (Link) C.K. Schneider (Simmondsiaceae; Buxaceae)

13. Lesquerella, Lesquerella recurvata, (Brassicaceae)

14. Meadowfoam, Limnanthes alba Benth. (Limnanthacae)

15. Mustard seed, Brassica hirta, spp. (Brassicaceae)

16. Niger seed, Guizotia abyssinica (Compositae)

17. Oil radish (fodder radish), Raphanus sativus var. oleiformis (Brassicaceae)

18. Poppy seed, Papaver somniferum L. ssp. somniferum (Papaveraceae) 

19. Rapeseed, Brassica spp.; Brassica napus (Brassicaceae)

20. Rose hip, Rosa eglanteria (Rosaceae) 

21. Safflower, Carthamus tinctorious (Asteraceae)

22. Sesame, Sesamum indicum L.; Sesamum radiatum (Pedaliaceae)

23. Sunflower, Helianthus annus (Asteraceae)

24. Sweet rocket, (dame's-violet; dame's rocket; damask-violet), Hesperis matronalis

(Brassicaceae)

25. Tallowwood, (tallow nuts; false sandalwood), Ximenia americana (Olacaceae)

26. Tea oil plant, Camellia oleifera (Theaceae)

 27. Vernonia, Vernonia galamensis (Asteraceae)

HED Recommendation for Proposal 2:

Based on similarities in cultural practices, edible food and animal feed portions, 

residue levels, geographical location, pest problems, and international harmonization 

purposes, I recommend that ChemSAC concur to amend and establish a new Crop Group 

20 - Oilseed Crops. The representative commodities for the Oilseed Crop Group will be 

rapeseed (canola varieties only), sunflower, and cottonseed. In addition to the IR-4 

oilseed crop group proposal with 27 commodities, HED is recommending to add four 

others commodities that meet the oilseed criteria to the group. The four commodities are: 

echium, lunaria, milkweed, and stokes aster. Lunaria, milkweed, and stokes aster, as well 
7

as several of the other minor oilseeds such as cuphea, meadowfoam, and lesquerella are 

being researched by the USDA Agricultural Research, New Crops and Processing 

Technology Research Unit, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Peoria, 

Illinois, and the Food and Industrial Crops Research Unit. These groups are identifying 

alternative oilseed crops for food and industrial uses and generating market demand by 

developing new uses and by improving the quality and functionality of these vegetable 

oils

1. Borage, Borago officinalis (L.) (Boraginaceae)

2. Castor oil plant, Ricinus communis (L.) (Euphorbiaceae) 

3. Chinese tallowtree, Triadica sebifera (L.) Small (Euphorbiaceae)

4. Cottonseed, Gossypium spp. (Malvaceae)

5. Crambe, Crambe hispanica L.; Crambe abyssinica Hochst. ex R.E. Fr.

(Brassicaceae)

6. Cuphea, Cuphea hyssopifolia Kunth (Lythraceae)

7. Echium, Echium plantagineum L (Boraginaceae)

8. Euphorbia, Euphorbia esula L. (Euphorbiaceae)

9. Evening primrose, Oenothera biennis (L.) (Onagraceae)

10. Flax seed, Linum usitatissimum L. (Linaceae)

11. Gold of pleasure, Camelina sativa L. Crantz (Brassicaceae)

12. Hare's ear mustard, Conringia orientalis Dumort. (Brassicaceae) 

13. Jojoba, Simmondsia chinensis (Link) C.K. Schneid. (Simmondsiaceae;

Buxaceae)

14. Lesquerella, Lesquerella recurvata (Engelm. ex A. Gray) S. Watson 

(Brassicaceae)

15. Lunaria, Lunaria annua L., (Brassicaceae)

16. Meadowfoam, Limnanthes alba Hartw. Ex Benth. (Limnanthacae)

17. Milkweed, Asclepias spp. L. (Asclepiadaceae, subfamily Apocynaceae)

18. Mustard seed, Brassica hirta, spp. (Brassicaceae)

19. Niger seed, Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass. (Asteraceae)

20. Oil radish, Raphanus sativus var. oleiformis Pers.(Brassicaceae)

21. Poppy seed, Papaver somniferum L. subsp. somniferum (Papaveraceae) 

22. Rapeseed, Brassica spp.; Brassica napus L. (Brassicaceae)

23. Rose hip, Rosa rubiginosa L. (Rosaceae) 

24. Safflower, Carthamus tinctorious L. (Asteraceae)

25. Sesame, Sesamum indicum L.; Sesamum radiatum Schumach. & Thonn. 

(Pedaliaceae)

26. Stokes aster, Stokesia laevis (Hill) Greene (Asteraceae)

27. Sunflower, Helianthus annuus L. (Asteraceae)

28. Sweet rocket, Hesperis matronalis L. (Brassicaceae)

29. Tallowwood, Ximenia americana L. (Olacaceae)

30. Tea oil plant, Camellia oleifera C. Abel (Theaceae) 

31. Vernonia, Vernonia galamensis (Cass.) Less. (Asteraceae)
8

IR-4 Proposal 3:

“Select the following three commodities as representative crops for Oilseeds Group: 

Rapeseed (canola varieties only); Sunflower, seed; and Cottonseed”.

HED Recommendation for Proposal 3:

I recommend we concur to adopt rapeseed (canola varieties only); sunflower, seed; 

and cottonseed as the representative commodities for the Oilseed crop group 20. The 

representative commodities, except for cottonseed are identical to those approved by the 

HED ChemSAC on July 8, 2002 (Analysis of the proposal to amend the crop group 

petition by adding new oilseed crop group, B. Schneider). The representative 

commodities are based on whether the seeds such as sunflower are partially exposed to 

pesticides applied during the growing season, or like rapeseed (canola varieties) 

completely enclosed in pod-like capsules (see Figure 1 for a picture of a canola seed 

pod), as well as their high production (both acres and yield) and consumption. 

Cottonseed is also selected as the warm season oilseed crop as well as being in a separate 

subgroup. These three representative commodities account for > 95 % of the harvested 

acres for the Oilseed crop group.

IR-4 Proposals 4A, 4B, and 4C.:

“Establish three new subgroups under the Oilseeds crop group as follows:

1. Rapeseed Subgroup (Representative commodity: Rapeseed, canola varieties only): 

Fourteen commodities proposed in this subgroup are: Borage, Crambe, Cuphea, Flax 

seed, Gold of pleasure, Hare's ear mustard, Lesquerella, Meadowfoam, Mustard seed, 

Oil radish, Poppy seed, Rapeseed, Sesame, Sweet rocket.

2. Sunflower Subgroup (Representative commodity: Sunflower): Twelve commodities 

proposed in this subgroup are: Castor oil plant, Chinese tallowtree, Euphorbia, 

Evening primrose/common, Jojoba, Niger seed, Rose hip, Safflower, Sunflower, 

Tallowwood, Tea oil plant, Vernonia. And 

3. Cottonseed Subgroup (Representative commodity: Cottonseed): One commodity 

proposed in this subgroup are: Cottonseed.”

HED Recommendation for Proposal 4A – Rapeseed subgroup 20A:

Rapeseed Subgroup 20A (Representative commodity: Rapeseed, canola varieties only): 

I recommend that ChemSAC concur to establish three new subgroups, and the first 

subgroup will be the Rapeseed subgroup 20A with rapeseed, canola varieties only being 

the representative commodity.

The members of this subgroup are all like the representative commodity rapeseed 
9

(canola varieties) in that the seeds are completely enclosed in pods or pod-like capsules. 

The members are the same as those proposed by USDA IR-4 and include these other 

three commodities: echium, lunaria, and milkweed. 

The eighteen members of this subgroup include:

Borage, Crambe, Cuphea, Echium, Flax seed, Gold of pleasure, Hare's-ear mustard, 

Lesquerella, Lunaria, Meadowfoam, Milkweed, Mustard seed, Oil radish, Poppy seed, 

Rapeseed, Sesame, Stokes aster, and Sweet rocket.

HED Recommendation for Proposal 4B – Sunflower subgroup 20B:

Sunflower Subgroup 20B (Representative commodity: Sunflower):

I recommend that ChemSAC concur to establish the Sunflower subgroup 20B with 

sunflower being the representative commodity.

The members of this subgroup are all similar to the representative commodity

sunflower based on whether the seeds are partially exposed to pesticides applied during 

the growing season. The members are the same as those proposed by USDA IR-4 and 

include one other commodity stokes aster. 

The thirteen members of this subgroup include:

Castor oil plant, Chinese tallowtree, Euphorbia, Evening primrose, Jojoba, Niger seed, Rose 

hip, Safflower, Stokes aster, Sunflower, Tallowwood, Tea oil plant, and Vernonia. 

Recommendation for Proposal 4C – Cottonseed subgroup 20C:

Cottonseed Subgroup (Representative commodity: Cottonseed): Cottonseed.

The representative commodity cottonseed is ties are based on many different 

species of cotton (Gossypium spp.) all having the seeds in a pod-like structure 

called a boll, as well as being a warm season crop, with a similar geographical 

distribution and high food consumption. There are over 55 separate species in the 

Gossypium genus, and include many types that can be hybridized with other 

species, so the scientific name for cotton will be Gossypium spp. Cotton is also a 

member of the Malvaceae family and while having only one commodity in the 

subgroup it is made up of many cotton species with unique botanical properties, 

and members of this family have a capsular fruit. The establishment of the 

subgroup allows options for adding other Malvaceae family members that will be 

developed like cotton or hybridized with cotton. For example, the Plants for a 

Future Database (http://www.pfaf.org/index.html) considers one member of the 

Malvaceae called marsh mallow (Althea officinalis L.) as a potential oilseed for 
10

industrial use as well as a medicinal herb. Also by being a member of a crop 

group, cotton can take advantage of a 25% field trial reduction. 

Additional HED Recommendations/Conclusions:

Recommendation 5:

The EPA commodity definition [40 CFR180.1 (h)] for “Rapeseed = Brassica

napus, B. campestris and Crambe absyssinica (oilseed-producing varieties only which 

include canola and crambe” does not need to be revised except that the scientific names 

need to be updated. 

Recommendation 6:

Guidance for HED SOP 99.6 - “Classification of Food Forms with Respect to 

Level of Blending” issued August 20, 1999, and HED SOP 2000.1 – “Guidance for 

Translation of Field Trial Data from Representative Commodities in the Crop Group 

Regulation to Other Commodities in Each Crop Group/Subgroup” issued September 12, 

2000 can be updated to reflect the establishment of the Oilseed crop group 20.

Recommendation 7:

Guidance on expressing tolerance terminology for the Oilseed crop group 20 and 

the three proposed subgroups (Rapeseed subgroup 20A; Sunflower subgroup 20B; and 

the Cottonseed crop group 20C) are discussed under the “Tolerance expression guidance 

section of this analysis.

Recommendation 8:

The Health Effects Division Dry Matter and Seeding Rate Database prepared by

Dr’s. NG and B. A. Schneider, was updated on June 2006 in Table 25 for the Oilseed 

Crop Group .

Recommendation 9:

New lookup and preferred EPA terms for the members of the Oilseed crop group 

are listed in the EPA Food and Feed Commodity Vocabulary section of this report and 

these terms should be added to the updated EPA Food and Feed Commodity Vocabulary

website. 
11

ANALYSIS OF THE USDA IR-4 PROPOSAL TO ESTABLISH A NEW OILSEED 

CROP GROUP

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PROPOSED COMMODITIES:

The 16 plant families for the 31 proposed members of the Oilseed Crop Group 

include the following:

Asclepiadaceae, Milkweed

Asteraceae, Sunflower, safflower, stokes aster, Niger seed, vernonia, 

Boraginaceae, Borage seed, echium. 

Brassicaceae, Rapeseed, mustard, gold of pleasure, hare's-ear mustard, lesquerella,

lunaria, oil radish, sweet rocket, and crambe, 

Euphorbiaceae, Castor oil plant, Chinese tallowtree, euphorbia,

Limnanthacae, Meadowfoam

Linaceae, Flax, 

Lythraceae, Cuphea

Malvaceae, Cottonseed

Olacaceae, Tallowwood

Onagraceae, Evening primrose

Papaveraceae, Poppy seed

Pedaliaceae, Sesame

Rosaceae, Rose hip

Simmondsiacea; Buxacae, Jojoba

And

Theaceae, Tea oil plant

The main oilseed families for this crop group are the Brassicaceae which includes 

rapeseed and eight other members and the Asteraceae, which includes sunflower and four

other commodities, the Euphorbiaceae, which includes the castor oil plant and two other 

commodities, the Boraginaceae which includes , borage seed and echium, and several 

others such as the Asclepiadaceae, Limnanthacae, Linaceae, Lythraceae, Malvaceae,

Olacaceae, Onagraceae, Papaveraceae, Pedaliaceae, Rosaceae, Simmondsiacea; 

Buxacae, and the Theaceae that include one commodity. 

Utilization of all these oilseed crops is similar in that they are grown for their oil, 

seed and meal. Borage, castor oil plant, cottonseed, cuphea, echium, evening primrose, 

flax, gold of pleasure, hare’s ear mustard, milkweed, mustard, oil radish, poppy seed, 

rapeseed canola varieties, safflower, sesame, sunflower, and tea oil plant are used to 

produce edible oils, while crambe, Chinese tallowtree, euphorbia, jojoba, lesquerella, 

lunaria, meadowfoam, rose hip, stokes aster, tallowwood, and non-canola rapeseed are 

generally used for industrial purposes. 
12

The seeds from these oilseeds fall basically into two groups based on whether the 

seeds are partially exposed to pesticides applied during the growing season or whether 

they are completely enclosed in pod-like capsules. Sunflower, borage, and safflower 

seeds are partially exposed to pesticides applied during the growing season, while flax, 

crambe, mustard, and rapeseed are completely enclosed in pod-like capsules. Therefore, 

one of the representative commodities for the oilseed crop group would be sunflowers 

based on the seeds being partially exposed to the pesticides, its high production (both 

acres and yield) and consumption. The second representative commodity would be 

canola based on the seeds being completely enclosed that protect them from being fully 

exposed to pesticide applications and its high production (both acres and yield) and 

consumption. The third subgroup will be for cotton which is seeds form in a unique pod 

or boll, and based on its high production and possibility of additional members of the 

Malvaceae family. See the recommendations for Proposal 4A – Rapeseed subgroup 20A;

proposal 4B – Sunflower subgroup 20B; and proposal 4C – Cottonseed subgroup 20C for 

a list of members for each of the subgroups. 

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE OILSEED CROPS

Understanding how the oilseed crops grow and develop is a key part of developing 

a pest control strategy for optimum oilseed yield and quality and a helpful reference for 

analysis of residue field trials by EPA scientists. Proper timing of pesticide applications, 

based on crop growth stage and pest growth cycle can improve a product’s efficacy and 

prevent crop injury and yield losses. Pesticide labels often use crop growth stages and 

codes to identify when to apply a pesticide. Some of the recognized growth stages for the 

following oilseed crops rapeseed (oilseed rape or canola), sunflower, cotton, and 

safflower are discussed in the below Tables. 

The developmental stages for the rapeseed canola varieties (adapted from Meier, 

2001, Sylvester-Bradley, 1984, Lancashire, 1991) are shown in Table 2 and in Table 3 

(adapted ND States University, 2004), the sunflower in Table 4 (adapted from Meier, 

2001, Lancashire, 1991) and Table 5 (Schneiter and Miller, 1981), cotton in Table 6

(adapted from . Meier, 2001, Hutmacher, 2002) and growth and development of cotton in 

Table 7 (adapted from Wright and Sprenkel, 2005 and Hutmacher, 2002), and safflower 

in Table 8 (adapted from University Calif. Dept. Agronomy and Range Science, 2000).
13

Table 2. Selected Growth Stages of Oilseed Rape (Canola Varieties) Using BBCH 

Identification Codes (Adapted from Sylvester-Bradley, 1984, Lancashire, 1991, Harper 

and Berkenkamp, 1975, Meier, 2001). 

BBCH Code Growth Stage General Description

00 Seed planted Germination and emergence 

(00 – 09)

05 Radicle emerged from root

09 Cotyledons emerge from the soil Emergence occurs 4 – 10 days 

after seeding

10 Cotyledons completely emerged Leaf development (10 – 19)

11 First leaf unfolded First true leaves develop 4 – 8 

days after emergence.

19 Nine or more leaves unfolded

30 Beginning of stem elongation Stem elongation (30 – 39)

39 Nine or more visibly extended 

internodes

50 Flower buds present but still enclosed 

by leaves

Inflorescence emergence 

(50 – 59)

59 First petals present, flower buds still 

closed

Vegetative stage from seedling 

to first bud cluster for B. napus

ranges from 40 – 60 days.

60 First flowers open Flowering (60 – 69)

65 Full flowering, 50% flowers open 

older petals falling

Flowering continues from 4 –

21 days.

69 End of flowering 

71 10 % of pods reach final stage Fruit Development (71 – 79)

79 Nearly all pods have reached final 

stage

80 Beginning of ripening seed green and 

pod cavity is filling

Ripening (80 – 89). Seed fill is 

complete in 35 – 45 days after 

flower initiation. 

85 50 % of the pods are ripe, seeds are 

dark and hard

89 Fully ripe nearly all pods are ripe and 

seeds are dark and hard

97 Plant dry and dead Senescence (91 – 99)

99 Harvested product Spring varieties of B. napus

mature in 85 – 110 days after 

planting.
14

Table 3. Canola Five Principal Growth Stages Developed in Canada. (ND State University 

Extension Service ProCrop (http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/procrop/rps/growth06.htm).

Canola Growth Stages 

Stage Description of main flowering raceme

0 Pre-emergence

1 Seedling

2 Rosette 2.1 First true leaf expanded

2.2 Second true leaf expanded

2.3 Continue for each additional leaf

3 Bud 3.2 Flower cluster visible at center of rosette

3.3 Lower buds yellowing

4 Flower 4.1 First flower open

4.2 Many flowers opened, lower pods elongating

4.3 Lower pods starting to fill

4.4 Flowering is complete, seed enlarging in lower pods. 

Flowering continues from 14 to 21 days.

5 Ripening 5.1 Seeds in lower pods full size, translucent

5.2 Seeds in lower pods green

5.3 Seeds in lower pods green-brown or green-yellow 

mottled (1)

5.4 Seeds in lower pods yellow or brown (1) Seed filling 

the pod is complete after 35 – 40 days after flowers open. 

Mature pods contain 15 to 40 seeds. After 40 – 60 days 

after first flower the seeds in the lower pods have ripened 

and fully changed color.

5.5 Seeds in all pods are brown, plant dead. Average seed 

moisture is 30 -35%. Mature pods are easily split along the 

center membrane and the seed is lost.

(1). Canola in the 5.3 to early 5.4 stages should be near or at swathing stage. These stages change 

very rapidly during the ripening period if temperatures are warm and under dry conditions.
15

Table 4. Selected Growth Stages of Sunflower Using BBCH Identification Codes 

(Meier, 2001, Lancashire, 1991). 

BBCH Code Growth Stage General Description

00 Seed planted Germination and emergence 

(00 – 09)

05 Radicle emerged from root

09 Cotyledons emerge from the soil

10 Cotyledons completely emerged and 

unfolded

Leaf development (10 – 19)

12 Two leaves unfolded

19 Nine or more leaves unfolded

30 Beginning of stem elongation Stem elongation (30 – 39)

39 Nine or more visibly extended 

internodes

51 Inflorescence just visible between 

younger leaves

Inflorescence emergence 

(51 – 59)

59 Ray florets visible between the bracts, 

flower still closed

61 Beginning of flowering Flowering (61 – 69)

65 Full flowering

69 End of flowering 

71 Seeds on outer edge of the 

inflorescence are grey and have 

reached final size

Fruit Development (71 – 79)

79 Seeds on inner third of the 

inflorescence are grey and have 

reached final size

80 Beginning of ripening seed on outer 

third of anthocarp are black and hard

Ripening (80 – 89)

85 Seeds on middle third of anthocarp are 

black and hard, yellow bracts are 

brown and seeds about 60 % dry

matter

89 Fully ripe, seeds on inner third of 

anthocarp are dark and hard, and seeds 

about 85 % dry matter

92 Seeds over 90 % dry matter Senescence (92 – 99)

99 Harvested product
16

Table 5. Selected Growth Stages of Sunflower Developed by North Dakota State 

University Extension Service (Schneiter and Miller, 1981). 

Stage Designation Growth Stage Name General Description

VE Vegetative Emergence Seedling has emerged; first leaf beyond 

the cotyledon is < 4 cm long.

V – 1 Vegetative Stages Stage determined by counting the 

number of true leaves at least 4 cm in 

length. Stage numbers in order V - 1, 

V - 2, V - 3, etc.).

R – 1 Reproductive Stages Terminal bud forms a miniature floral 

head. 

R - 3 The immature bud elongates more than 

2 cm above the nearest leaf. 

R – 4 The inflorescence begins to open. 

Immature ray flowers are visible. 

R – 5.1, - 2, etc. Beginning of flowering. The stage can 

be divided into substages dependent 

upon the percent of the head area (disk 

flowers) that is completed or is in 

flowering. Ex. R – 5.3 (30%). 

R – 6 Flowering is complete and the ray

flowers are wilting.

R – 7 The back of the head has started to turn 

a pale yellow. 

R – 8 The back of the head is yellow and 

flower bracts are still green. 

R – 9 The bract becomes yellow and brown. 

The back of the sunflower head may

turn brown. This stage is physiological 

maturity.
17

Table 6. Selected Growth Stages of Cotton Using BBCH Identification Codes and Growth Stage 

Dates in Missouri (Albers, 1993, Meier, 2001, Hutmacher, 2002). 

BBCH Code Growth Stage General Description

00 Seed planted Germination and emergence (00 –

09). May 1.

05 Radicle emerged from root

09 Cotyledons emerge from the soil “crook 

stage”

May 12.

10 Cotyledons completely emerged and 

unfolded

Leaf development (10 – 19)

12 Two leaves unfolded

19 Nine or more leaves unfolded

31 Beginning of crop cover, 10 % of plants 

meet between rows

Main stem elongation (31 – 39)

39 Canopy closure, 90 % of the plants meet 

between rows

51 First floral buds detectable “pin head 

stage”

Inflorescence emergence 

(51 – 59) In San Joaquin Valley 

time from emergence to first 

square ranges from 35 to 55 days

June 17.

59 Petals visible, floral buds still closed

60 First flowers open Flowering (60 – 69). In San 

Joaquin Valley time from 

emergence to first bloom ranges 

from 60 to 82 days. July 6.

65 Full flowering, “mid bloom” In San Joaquin Valley time from 

emergence to full bloom ranges 

from 82 to 95 days.

69 End of flowering, flowers faded 

71 About 10 % of the bolls have attained 

their final size

Fruit and seed development 

(71 – 79). August 20.

79 About 90 % of the bolls have attained 

their final size 

80 First open bolls on the fruiting branches Ripening of fruit and seeds 

(80 – 89). In San Joaquin Valley 

time from emergence to first open 

boll ranges from 120 to 145 days.

85 About 50 % of bolls open In San Joaquin Valley time from 

emergence to 60% open bolls 

ranges from 155 to 185 days.

89 About 90 % of the bolls open 

91 About 10 % of the leaves discolored or 

fallen 

Senescence (91 – 99)

95 About 50 % of the leaves discolored or 

fallen

99 Harvested product bolls and seeds September 21.
18

Table 7. Typical Growth and Development of a Cotton Plant (Adapted from Wright and 

Sprenkel, 2005, Kohel, 1984, and Hutmacher, 2002)*. 

Growth Stages Time Required (Range of Days)

Average Time 

Required 

(Days)

Planting to emergence 5 - 14 7

Planting to first true leaf 13 – 30 21

Emerge to first square 35 - 55 45

Emerge to first bloom or flower 60 - 82 68

Pinhead square to white flower 20 - 35 23

White flower to pink flower 1 1

Pink flower to open boll 50 - 60 55

Emerge to first open boll 115 - 145 130

Emerge to 60% open boll 155 - 185 165

(*) The number of days can vary by variety and daytime temperatures. 

Table 8. Selected Growth Stages of Safflower (University Calif. Dept. Agronomy and 

Range Science, 2000). 

Safflower Growth Stage Days Since Emergence 

Emergence 0 

Rosette – Leaves are Flat to Ground 30

Stem Elongation –Bud Formation 50

Initial Branching – Flowering Petal 

Formation – Plant 8 – 15 in tall

62

Full Branching – Stamen, Pistil, and 

Pollen Formation

75

Flowering – Plant height from 18 in to 

5 ft. 

100

Seed Mature 150
19

U.S./NAFTA AND WORLD PRODUCTION AND GEOGRAPHICAL 

DISTRIBUTION OF THE OILSEEED COMMODITIES: 

Proposed members of the oilseed crop group find widespread distribution 

throughout the world. Table 9 provides a list of the hectares and production from 

countries that grow linseed (flaxseed), mustard seed, rapeseed, safflower seed, sesame 

seed, and sunflower seed in 2004, while Table 10 has world production and yield/hectare 

for cottonseed in 2003/2004. The most widely grown oilseed worldwide is cottonseed at 

31,222,000 hectares and 35,532,000 Mt, followed by rapeseed (canola varieties) on over 

26, 400,000 ha and 46,255,508 Mt, then sunflower seed on 21,436,397 ha and 26,108,358 

Mt, and then sesame seed at 6,665,787 ha and 3,257,448 Mt. The U.S. does not lead the 

world in hectares in any of these oilseeds but is a major producer of sunflower seed and 

cottonseed. The world yield/hectare for cottonseed is 1.14 Mt. Canada is a major world 

leader in rapeseed production (4,937,800 ha and 7,728,100 MT) and flaxseed (528,100 ha 

and 516,900 MT). The NAFTA countries (Canada and U.S.) combined hectares leads the 

world in mustard seed production (331,809 ha).

Table 9. Major World Oilseed Crop Production in 2004 

(FAO STATISTICS 2004)

Countries/

Regions

Linseed Mustard seed Rapeseed Safflower seed Sesame seed Sunflower seed

U.S. 208,820 Ha1

265,980 Mt2

27,800 Ha

25,530 Mt

338,240 Ha

612,530 Mt

64,350 Ha

79,730 Mt

0 Ha

0 Mt

692,420 Ha

928,900 Mt

Australia 7,000 Ha

6,000 Mt

200 Ha

200 Mt

1,141,000 Ha

1,496,000 Mt

35,000 Ha

30,000 Mt

NA 46,000 Ha

58,000 Mt

Canada 528,100 Ha

516,900 Mt

304,000 Ha

305,500 Mt

4,937,800 Ha

7,728,100 Mt

2,000 Ha

2,000 Mt

NA 58,600 Ha

54,400 Mt

New Zealand 500 Ha

1,000 Mt

NA 2,000 Ha

4,000 Mt

NA NA 0 Ha

0 Mt

Africa 168,861 Ha

105,063 Mt

2,500 Ha

1,500 Mt

46,098 Ha

60,784 Mt

87,000 Ha

43,000 Mt

1,952,582 Ha

888,559 Mt

982,080 Ha

889,443 Mt

C. America 5 Ha

3 Mt

9 Ha

19 Mt

10,500 Ha

14,000 Mt

85,000 Ha

212,765 Mt

111,417 Ha

67,418 Mt

900 Ha

680 Mt

NAFTA 736,925 Ha

782,883 Mt

331,809 Ha

331,049 Mt

5,286,540 Ha

8,354,630 Mt

151,350 Ha

294,495 Mt

44,209 Ha

22,593 Mt

751,920 Ha

983,980 Mt

S. America 39,495 Ha

39,668 Mt

NA 55,926 Ha

98,000 Mt

30,000 Ha

18,000 Mt

111,835 Ha

72,446 Mt

2,254,784 Ha

3,693,170 Mt

Asia 1,312,620 Ha

735,400 Mt

289,601 Ha

198,245 Mt

14,757,337 Ha

20,465,848 Mt

462,670 Ha

217,815 Mt

4,475,146 Ha

2,223,390 Mt

4,996,811 Ha

4,930,830 Mt

Europe 354,995 Ha

232,674 Mt

260,641 Ha

172,744 Mt

5,136,484 Ha

15,776,246 Mt

1,101 Ha

847 Mt

307 Ha

1,835 Mt

12,404,802 Ha

15,552,935 Mt

World Total 2,620,396 Ha

1,902,688 Mt

884,751 Ha

703,738 Mt

26,425,385 Ha

46,255,508 Mt

767,121 Ha

604,157 Mt

6,665,787 Ha

3,257,448 Mt

21,436,397 Ha

26,108,358 Mt

 

1 Ha = Hectare

2 Mt = Metric ton
20

Table 10. Major World Cottonseed Production and Yield/Hectare in 2003/2004 

(FAO STATISTICS 2004, USDA Agricultural Statistics.)

Countries/

Regions

Cottonseed Yield/hectare (Mt)

U.S. 4,858,000 Ha3

6,046,000 Mt4

1.24 Mt

Australia 196,000 Ha

480,000 Mt

2.00 Mt

Mexico 62,000 Ha

122,000 Mt

1.97 Mt

Africa 4,276,000 Ha

2,814,000 Mt

0.66 Mt

NAFTA 4,920,000 Ha

6,168,000 Mt

1.25 Mt

S. America 1,590,000 Ha

2,531,000 Mt

1.30 Mt

Asia 17,738,000 Ha

18,795,000 Mt

1.06 Mt

Europe and 

former Soviet 

Union

2,900.000 Ha

3,420,000 Mt

1.23 Mt

World Total 31,222,000 Ha

35,532,000 Mt

1.14 Mt

In the U.S., oilseed commodities are widely consumed but the individual oilseed 

crops are not reported separately on a per capita consumption by the USDA Economic 

Research Service. They report the oilseeds together as “salad and cooking oils” with a 

U.S. per capita consumption in 2004 as 40.8 lb/capita (USDA ERS, 2006; Buzby and 

Farah, 2006). Salad and cooking oil consumption has almost doubled on a per capita 

basis since 1979 (20.9 lb/capita). Cottonseed oil made up 2.8% and canola oil 7.5% of 

the total salad and cooking oil manufactured in 2004. Cottonseed oil and soybean oil are 

predominating baking and frying oils at 2.4% and 87.6%. Based on the USDA CSFII 

1994 – 1996, 1998 survey, using two day individual consumption for determined oilseed 

consumption (g/day) is listed in Table 11. 

 

3 Ha = Hectare

4 Mt = Metric ton
21

Table 11. Consumption of the Oilseed Crops. 

(USDA CSFII 1994 – 1996, 1998 survey.)

COMMODITY CONSUMPTION 

(g/day) 

Cottonseed, oil 1.38

Cottonseed, oil, babyfood 0.00065

Flaxseed, oil 0.0013

Rapeseed, oil 1.37

Rapeseed, oil, babyfood 0.000181

Safflower, oil 0.035

Safflower, oil, babyfood 0.038

Sunflower, oil 0.146

Sunflower, oil, babyfood 0.29

Sunflower, seed 0.265

Sesame, oil 0.00885

Sesame, oil, babyfood 0.0414

IMPORTS/EXPORTS OF THE OILSEEDS:

Despite the U.S. being a major producer of oilseed crops (Tables 2, 3, and 10) 

significant amounts of some of the oilseeds are still imported. The amount of a

commodity can vary widely from year to year based on differences in U.S. production, 

weather effects, and consumer demand. The USDA Foreign Agriculture Trade Statistics 

(FATUS) reported that in 2005 over 11,600 MT of sesame seed refined oil was imported 

from other countries with Japan accounting for 37%, Mexico for 26% and Taiwan and 

the Peoples Republic of China for 27%. Sunflower refined oil imports were over 20,371 

MT with Mexico accounting for 45%, Argentina for 35% and Germany at 7%. Safflower 

refined oil imports were 772 MT with Mexico accounting for 65%, Spain for 27% and 

Canada for 6%. Niger seed is imported from Ethiopia, India, Myanmar, and Nepal. 

Approximately 5,021 Mt of poppy seed was imported to the U.S. in 2003. Cottonseed 

imports were 4212 MT from China at 48%, Australia at 24% and Mexico at 12%. 

Flaxseed oil was imported at over 86,744 MT with Canada accounting for 97% and 

Peoples Republic of China at 2%. Cottonseed oil imports for 2004 were only from 

Canada at 88.6 MT. No jojoba oil has been imported since 1999.

The U.S. is also a major exporter of oilseed commodities. For example, in 1995 

(USDA FATUS) approximately 120,363 MT of sunflower seed was exported with Spain 

accounting for 28%, Canada for 17%, Germany for 15% and Mexico for 8%. Cotton 

refined oil was exported at over 14,725 MT to Canada at 86% and Mexico t 8%. Over 

2003 Mt of mustard seeds were exported to Mexico at 53%, Canada at 27%, Japan at 

10% and Germany at 5%. Approximately 894 MT of castor bean oil was exported to 

Canada at 33%, Mexico at 31%, Peoples Republic of China at 11% and Ireland at 7%. 

Safflower seed at over 1907 MT were exported to Canada at 47%, Japan at 25% and 

Mexico at 24%. Over 1443 MT of sesame seed was exported to Canada at 68%, Japan at 
22

27% and the Netherlands at 4%. In 2004 cottonseed oil exports were over 47,404 MT 

and were exported to Canada at 56%, Japan at 24% and Mexico at 18%.

U.S. Oilseed Production:

Production in the U.S. is based on the USDA 2005 Agricultural Statistics, FAO 

Statistics, 2005, USDA ERS 2005 Oilseed 2005 Summary, and the U.S. Agricultural 

Census, 2002: The harvested acreages for the oilseed crops in the United States are

listed in Table 12. Cottonseed has the highest acreages of the oilseed crops at over 13

million acres (80.4 %) followed by sunflower at over 1.5 million acres (9.4 %) and 

rapeseed canola varieties at over 860,000 acres (5.3 %). If the cottonseed acres were not 

counted, sunflower would account for 48.3 % of the oilseed acres followed by rapeseed

canola varieties at 27.1 %, flax at 16.5 %, safflower at 6.2 % and the rest of the oilseeds 

at 1.9%. 

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND U.S. PRODUCTION:

Table 12. Harvested Oilseed Crop Acreage in the United States for 2005.*

OILSEED CROP ACREAGE (A) PERCENT OF 

TOTAL OILSEED 

ACREAGE

 Cottonseed 13,057,000 80.4 %

 Sunflower (oil varieties) 1,533,000 9.4 %

 Rapeseed (canola varieties) 862,000 5.3 %

 Flax 523,000 3.2 %

 Safflower 197,000 1.2 %

 Crambe 29,705 0.2 %

 Mustard seed 22,900 0.1 %

 Sesame 3,145 < 0.1 %

 Rapeseed (non-canola varieties) 2,000 < 0.1 %

 Jojoba 1,607 < 0.1 %

 Borage 1,000 < 0.1 %

 Other oilseed crops** <1,000 < 0.1 %

TOTAL 16,232,357 > 99.9 %

* Based on Food and Feed Crops of the United States and the USDA Agricultural Statistics, and 

USDA NASS, 2006. 

**Other oilseed crops include: castor oil plant, Chinese tallowtree, cuphea, echium, euphorbia, 

evening primrose, gold of pleasure, hare's-ear mustard, lesquerella, lunaria, meadowfoam, milkweed, 

Niger seed, oil radish, poppy seed, rose hip, stokes aster, sweet rocket, Tallowwood, tea oil plant, 

and Vernonia. 
23

Specific Oilseed Crop Production:

Borage:

Borage is being grown under contract in North Dakota (EPA Regions 5 and 7 for its 

seed that is extracted to make edible oil high in gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) that has 

been found to lower cholesterol. The average seed yield for borage is 300 lb/A. It is 

native to the Mediterranean region. Borage is a rather coarse annual plant grown for 

culinary use in Europe, but little grown presently in the U.S. for culinary uses. 

Castor oil plant:

No castor oil plant production data is reported in the U.S. More than 40,591 Mt 

of castor oil was imported to the U.S. in 2004 from India. It is naturalized in the tropics 

and warm regions such as eastern Africa. Main producing countries are India, Brazil, and 

Thailand in 2004. In Asia the leaves are also fed to silkworms and cattle.

Chinese tallowtree:

Chinese tallowtree is a subtropical plant native to China and was introduced into the 

United States as an ornamental. It is a prolific seed producer and has escaped from 

cultivation and become naturalized. It is naturalized from southernmost Cameron and 

Hidalgo County in Texas northward to southern Oklahoma and northwestern Arkansas 

eastward to North Carolina and Florida. Plants grow in abandoned fields, pastures, waste 

areas, and forests. The species grows in a wide range of environmental conditions: wet to 

dry and shade to full sun. The plant is a fast-growing tree, hence its popularity as a shade 

tree and as an oilseed.

Cotton: 

Production in the U.S. of cottonseed in 2004 was 8,242,000 tons harvested from 

13,057,000 acres with 81 % of the total production is reported from seven states - Texas, 

California, Mississippi, Arkansas, Georgia, Tennessee, and North Carolina, and Arizona 

(USDA 2005). These States are commonly refereed to as the “Cotton Belt States”. See 

Figure 3 for a map of the harvested cotton acres for 2002. Average yield of cottonseed 

for 2004 was 1262 lb/A, 1,068, million lb of cottonseed oil was produced, and 1,439,000 

t of meal were produced from the oilseed crushing. In the U.S. approximately 51 % are 

grown for oil production, 44 % for fiber, and 2 % for planting seed. Cotton is grown 

primarily for its fibers or lint, but the oil containing seeds are highly important. World 

production of cottonseed oil averaged 35,532,000 Mt in 2004 on over 32,200,000 

hectares. 
24

Crambe:

Crambe production in the U.S. in 2002 was reported at 13,262,400 lb on 12,320 A. 

The production is in Montana (39%) and North Dakota (61%) which includes EPA 

Regions 5 and 7. Crambe is best grown in areas of Midwest, upper plains states and 

northwest U.S. Seed yields for crambe have ranged from 1,076 to 1,700 lb/A. Crambe is 

best grown in areas of Midwest, upper plains states and northwest. Other production 

regions: Mediterranean region. Crambe is believed to have originated in the TurcoIranian region and to have spread into the Mediterranean and Europe and through 

Ethiopia into East Africa. C. hispanica occurs naturally in Mediterranean Europe, 

Morocco and the Middle East. Its native distribution extends into the highlands of 

Ethiopia, Eritrea, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda and easternmost parts of the 

Democratic Republic of Congo. In Ethiopia it is traditionally grown on a small scale as a 

medicinal plant and minor oil crop. Crambe was first tested as an oil crop in the former 

USSR in the 1930s, and consequently it spread to Sweden and Poland and later to other 

parts of Europe, North America (1940’s) and China. Thus, crambe is being developed as 

a cool-temperate oil crop although it occurs naturally in the subtropics and tropics.

Crambe, with about 35 species, is one of the largest genera of the tribe Brassiceae. C.

hispanica is generally referred to as C. abyssinica in agricultural literature. 

Cuphea:

Cuphea is a temperate and subtropical plant occurs naturally in Central and South 

America. It has been grown in trials in Germany and USA. The genus Cuphea comprises 

some 260 herbaceous or perennial species. The seeds of Cuphea spp. weigh about 2 mg.

There is no production for the U.S., but it could be adapted to Midwest U.S. and western 

U.S. There is a current USDA research project (#3620-4100-115-07) to develop cuphea 

into a commercial crop with high capric fatty acid content with reduce seed shattering at 

harvest. It is widely distributed in Mexico and Brazil. 

Echium:

Echium like borage is an herbaceous biennial crop in the Boraginaceae family

that produces a refined oil rich in omega-6 and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. It is 

being grown in the UK and Canada as a novel food ingredient crop. It is distributed in 

the U.S. in NY PA, MA, CA and OR. The Bioriginal Food and Science Corporation, 

Saskatoon, Canada has applied to the Food and Drug Administration for approval of 

Echium oil as a new dietary ingredient. In UK, the Croda Chemicals Europe Ltd., East 

Yorkshire has also applied for approval for use of echium oil in foods. Echium is also 

distributed across Europe, the Mediterranean region, Madeira, the Canaries and the 

Azores. 
25

Euphorbia:

Euphorbia is an annual or biennial latex-bearing plant. It requires a long growing 

period for seed set. There is no production data for the U.S., but it is naturalized in North 

America. Other production regions include Europe and they have produced yields up to 

5t/ha. 

Evening primrose:

Common evening primrose is an evening flowering winter biennial herb. In 

Canada the seed oil is an approved dietary supplement. The oil contains gamma linolenic 

acid. In 1994, 150 acres of evening primrose were grown for oil in Washington State 

which accounted for about 70% of the acreage in U.S. It is native to North America and 

Canada.

Flax seed:

Flax production in the U.S. for 2004 was 10,368,000 bushels planted on 523,000

acres. More than 94% of the acreage is grown in North Dakota, South Dakota 

Minnesota, and Montana (EPA Regions 5 and 7). The average yield is 20.3 bu/A. Over 

62% of the flax seed is utilized for oil production. About 36 % of the total flax seed 

utilized was imported. Approximately, 13,600,000 bushels of flaxseed was crushed for 

oil in 2004 with a resultant 245,000 tons of meal. Canada reported 1,239,730 acres 

grown for flax in 1995. Yields of flax have ranged from 1,000 to 1,500 lb/A. 

Two types of flax are grown, the seed flax for oil in its seed and fiber flax for 

fiber in the stems. Producers in the upper Midwest and the Prairie Provinces of Canada 

grow the flax for oil. Flax mostly grown for fiber is in Europe and Asia. The fiber is 

used to make fine linen cloth. Linseed oil, obtained from seed of the flax plant, is 

primarily used in industry; but some is used for edible purposes in Eastern Europe. Flax 

seed for oil was grown in the U.S. on an average of about 2.7 million acres, 1964-66 but 

down in 1993 to 206,000 acres. World production of linseed oil is down and last reported 

1991-92 at 569,800 tons. The downward production trend for flax may be reversed with 

the recent introduction of solin (so-lin) which is a low (< 5%) linolenic acid flax. Solin 

oil is good for salad dressing and cooking oil. These varieties are called ‘linola’. 

Gold of pleasure:

Gold of pleasure is an annual oilseed crop originated in southwest, Central Asia and 

Central Europe and well adapted to Minnesota. Cultivation probably began in Neolithic 

times, and by the Iron Age in Europe. It is also called camelina and was commonly used 

as an oil-supplying plant. It is listed as being adapted to the flax-growing regions of the 

northern Midwest (Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota). 
26

Hare's ear mustard:

Hare's ear mustard is grown in Europe to Mediterranean. It is hardy to USDA plant 

hardiness zone 0, and is distributed throughout eastern North America.

Jojoba:

Jojoba is a slow growing evergreen perennial desert shrub native to the Sonora 

Desert. The 2002 AG CENSUS reported 88,578 lb produced on 1,607 acres harvested in 

U.S. with 99% of the reported acres in California and Arizona (EPA Regions 9 and 10). 

In 1997 there were 1,551,385 lb produced on 4,919 A in California and Arizona. Jojoba 

is grown in the southwestern U.S. and Mexico.

Lesquerella:

Lesquerella is a perennial desert plant native to the Southwest (West Texas, New 

Mexico, Arizona, Colorado and Utah) that produce seed containing a hydroxyl vegetable 

oil. Its cultural practices are similar to winter wheat or other small grains. All species of 

lesquerella are native to North and South America with 83 of 95 known species 

indigenous to North America. There are limited fall plantings in Texas and Arizona; and 

spring plantings in Oregon. It is also grown in Canada. In the Netherlands limited plantings 

have produced yields up to 1390 kg/ha. There is a current USDA research project (#3620-

4100-115-03) to develop lesquerella into a commercial crop for lesquerolic acid, a 

hydroxyl fatty acid as an alternative to imported castor oil plant. 

Lunaria:

Lunaria is a biennial adapted to a temperate climate that is being grown in 

England and western Asia and can produce from 1800 - to 2,600 kg seed/ha. The oil 

content can be up to 47.8%. The long chained fatty acids are similar to those in 

meadowfoam. Lunaria is also grown as an ornamental crop as a dried flower known as 

the money plant. 

Meadowfoam:

Production in U.S.: Willamette Valley in Oregon with about 400 acres in 1986. 

In 1993, about 1,000 acres were produced with a goal of about 3,000 acres in 1994. 

Other production regions: West coast of North America. It was originated from upland 

pasture in northern California and southern Oregon, and is endemic to North America

which includes EPA Crop Production Region 12. Meadowfoam can be grown as a winter 

annual crop. It has been grown to a limited extent in parts of the eastern U.S. and Alaska. 
27

Meadowfoam is well adapted to cool wet Mediterranean climate of the Pacific 

Northwest. 

Milkweed:

Milkweed is a native U.S. perennial herbaceous dicot plant, adapted to USDA plant 

hardiness zone 3. It is found mainly in areas between the Rocky and Appalachian 

Mountain ranges and from southern Canada to northern Mexico. It is usually considered 

a weedy pest, but its seed oil is being researched as a biodiesel fuel and for cosmetic uses. 

Mustard:

Mustard grown for seed in the U.S. has produced 47,198 tons of seed on 144,337

acres as reported in 2002 AG CENSUS. More than 96% of the U.S. production is in 

North Dakota, Montana, Idaho and Washington (EPA Regions 5, 7, and 11 with an 

average yield of 834 lb/A. Canada produces about 250,000 tons of seed on about 

540,109 acres and is the U.S. largest importer. 

Niger seed:

Niger seed is an important annual herb oil crop in Ethiopia and parts of India. It

is native to Ethiopia. India and Ethiopia produces 350,000 – 375,000 t annually. Niger 

seed oil has potential for edible and industrial uses, and the press cake for animal feed. It 

is being produced in Minnesota and North Dakota. The seed is also sold for birdseed, 

especially for finches. 

Oil radish:

Young flower clusters can be eaten raw or cooked. A spicy flavor with a crisp 

pleasant texture, they make a nice addition to salads or can be used as a broccoli 

substitute. They have a hot spicy flavor and go well in salads. Edible oil is obtained 

from the seed. Young seed pods can be eaten raw. This crop is also used as a livestock 

feed and in Michigan as a cover crop.

Poppy seed:

Annual herb that is native to Mediterranean region and Central Asia. Poppy seed 

is produced in the Netherlands, Australia, Romania, and Turkey. U.S. imported about 

5,284 tons from Australia, Netherlands and Turkey in 1992. 
28

Rapeseed:

Rapeseed grown in the U.S. was planted on only 90,000 acres of canola in 1992 and 

in 2004 over 862,000A was produced. In 2003 there were 1,082,000 A of canola 

(99.7%), 3,900 A of rapeseed (0.3%), and 22,900 A of mustard seed. It is mainly grown 

in Idaho, North Dakota, Washington, Minnesota, and Michigan (EPA Regions 5, 7, 11 

and 12) and North Dakota accounted for over 88% (780,000A) of the total production. 

About 10,040,000 acres of canola in Canada for 1995 produced 1,008,475 t and rapeseed 

was grown on 5,750,000 A. See Figure 6 for a map of the harvested canola acres for 

2002. The average yield in 2004 for canola established a new record at 1,618 lb/A. Over 

1,976 million lb of canola was crushed for oil with 776 million lb oil produced, and 

605,000 short tons of meal. In 2000, rapeseed (non-canola) production was 2,750 t. 

Rapeseed oil is obtained from the seeds primarily of the species Brassica. napus, B. 

juncea, and B. rapa and the oil from different species are not distinguished on the market, 

since all have similar properties. Production in the U.S. is limited, but rapeseed oil is of 

major importance in Europe, Canada and Asia. The term "colza" refers to refined oil. 

Low glucosinolate and erucic acid levels are now defined as “double low” or canola 

quality, which is less than 2 percent erucic acid and having less than 30 micromoles of 

aliphatic glucosinolates per gram of defatted meal and are called low erucic acid rapeseed 

(LEAR). Rapeseed oil (non-canola type) is not usable as edible oils.

Rose hip:

The Sweetbrier or Eglantine rose forms an arching shrub 2-3 m high. It is native 

to Britain and northern Europe. In addition to its beautiful pink flowers, it is valued for 

the strong apple-like fragrance of its foliage, and the hips that form after the flowers and 

persist well into the winter. The flowers are followed by bright orange rose hips very

high in Vitamin C.

Safflower:

Acreage of safflower has ranged from 400,000 in 1968 to less than 100,000 acres in 

1980. Safflower production in U.S. in 2002 was 192,490 tons of seed on 197,000 acres. 

The average yield is 1,434 lb/A. The top four safflower producing states are California, 

North Dakota, Montana, and South Dakota (EPA Regions 5, 7, 9, and 10). Canada 

produced 500 tons of safflower seed on 2,719 acres in 1995. EPA Crop Production 

Regions 7 and 10 account for 97 % of U.S. 
29

Sesame:

The sesame plant is an erect growing annual, 3 to 6 feet high grown for the small, 

seeds, which are widely used on bread, rolls and other culinary items, and are also 

extracted for the oil. The genus consists of about 36 species of which 19 are indigenous 

to Africa. In Nigeria, three species, S. alatum (Thonn), S. indicum L. and S. radiatum

Schum & Thonn, are widely cultivated. Besides the U.S. sesame is grown in India, 

China, Russia, Turkey, Mexico, South America, and Africa. Approximately 3,145 acres 

of sesame for seed were reported in the U.S. in the 2002 AG CENSUS, and 1,358,364 lb 

was produced. Over 70% of the sesame seed production was in Texas with the rest in 

California and Oklahoma (EPA Crop Production Regions 6, 8 and 10). It grows well in 

areas adapted for cotton. Sesame for oil is a major crop in Asia and Mexico. The oil is 

usually expressed in Europe and Asia. Culture and exposure are similar to those of 

soybean. U.S. imported about 37,348 Mt of seed in 2004 and in 2005 the USDA Foreign 

Agriculture Trade Statistics (FATUS) reported that over 11,600 MT of sesame seed 

refined oil was imported from other countries with Japan accounting for 37%, Mexico for 

26% and Taiwan and the Peoples Republic of China for 27%. 

Stokes Aster:

Stokes aster is an herbaceous perennial plant native to Southeastern U.S. States 

that can also be an industrial oilseed crop. It is adapted to the USDA plant hardiness 

zones 5 – 10. The seeds contain large amounts of vernolic acid (12, 13-epoxy-cis-9-

octadecenoic acid) which is a source of epoxy oil products to manufacture plastics and 

adhesives. Most of the U.S. epoxy oil is derived from petrochemicals and processing of

linseed and soybean oil. It may be developed to replace some of the petrochemical use.

There are no specific production data for stokes aster.

Sunflower:

Sunflower oilseed varieties were planted in 2004 on 1,533,000 acres with non-oil 

varieties planted on 340,000 acres. More than 89% of the oil varieties are produced in 

North Dakota, South Dakota, Kansas, and Colorado (EPA Regions 5, 6, 7, and 8). 

Approximately, 89% of the non-oil varieties are produced in North Dakota, Colorado, 

and Minnesota also in EPA Regions 5, 6, 7, and 8. See Figures 4 and 5 for a map of the 

harvested sunflower oil varieties and non-oil varieties, respectively for 2002. Average 

yields of sunflower oilseed varieties were 1238 lb/A, and 997 lb/A for non-oil varieties. 

In 2004, 609 million lb were crushed for oil resulting in265 million lb of oil, and 147,000 

short tons of sunflower meal from the oil crushing, 1390 million lb were used for non-oil 

types and seed production (Ash and Dohlman, 2006a). Canada reported 95,000 hectares 

of sunflower grown in 2003/2004. 

Sunflower is native to the western U.S., but principal commercial production of

the seed for oil is in other countries, especially the former Soviet Union. World

production of sunflower oil averaged from 2003 to 2004 near 169,758 Mt on 22,639 ha

with a yield of 1.17 Mt/ha. Sunflowers are grown from southern Canada south through

Mexico and Argentina. 
30

Sweet rocket:

Sweet rocket is an evergreen biennial or perennial grows to 90-120 cm tall. It is native 

to Europe, and can be grown in all regions of North America. 

Tallowwood:

Tallowwood is a 3 m shrub originated in African tropics and is widespread in 

the tropics including Africa, India, Southeast Asia, Australia, New Zealand, West 

Indies, and Central and South America. The plant has pale grey bark, purple-red 

branches with waxy bloom, and yellow/red edible fruit. The large seed contains a nutlike kernel. It is a thorny little tree with small leaves up to 5 - 7 m height. It is found in 

almost all regions in dry, moist and wet low- and midlands (500 - 2,100m) and rarely be 

found in places up to 2,450 m. The wood is heavy, hard and very durable. The bark is 

brown-black. Twigs bear small scales, spines, 1cm, thin and strait. Leaves up to 7 x 

3cm, blue-gray-green, folding upwards along midrib, tip round or notched. Flowers are 

very fragrant, small green-white. Fruits are oval to 2.5cm, thin skin red, yellow to 

orange pulp, around one large seed containing oil. The seed contains non-drying oil 

suitable for soap and lubrication. It is a Florida native. Frequent in hammocks, scrub 

and flatwoods of peninsular Florida, also Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Blooms 

spring through fall, with 3 cm berry-like fruit turning from green to yellow when 

mature.

Tea oil plant:

The tea oil plant is an exceptionally hardy evergreen plant (USDA Plant Hardiness 

Zones 6 – 9), fall blooming, tea-oil camellia that can tolerate temperatures as low as -10° 

F. Seeds have been utilized in China for more than 1000 years. Tea oil is the main 

cooking oil in China’s southern provinces, especially Hunan where more than 50% of the 

vegetable cooking oil is from tea oil plant. The crop can grow from 18° to 34° North 

latitude and grows on acidic soils where January mean temperatures do not drop below 

2°C. Other production regions: It is estimated that the need for tea oil in the year 2000 in 

China will range from 485,000 to 551,000 t/year. Approximately one-seventh of China’s 

population uses tea oil for cooking. 

Vernonia:

Vernonia is grown as a perennial herb in North America. It is native to equatorial 

Africa. There is limited acreage of Vernonia in Puerto Rico and Arizona. Current USDA 

research shows that veronica can be grown in the Mid-Atlantic region. It is also grown in 

Central America
31

COMPARISON OF OILSEED CULTURAL PRACTICES:

Borage

Borage is a rather coarse annual plant grown for culinary use in Europe, but little is 

grown in the US for this purpose. Recently, borage is being grown for its edible oil 

because it is a good source of gamma linoleic acid (GLA) that is used to reduce 

cholesterol. The crop contains edible oil 30 - 38% of which 20-30% is GLA. The plant 

is hairy and grows 1 1/2 to 3 feet high. Leaves are oval to oblong and up to 4 to 5 inches 

long. Only the young leaves are palatable and used in salads and test like cucumber. In 

the US, borage is also grown as an ornamental. Borage flowers are used for flavoring, 

mainly in drinks, such as lemonade and other fruit juice drinks and teas, as well as an 

ornamental crop. The flowers are blue or purple, borne in large racemes, and the 

resulting fruit each have 3 to 4 seeds. Borage is planted with a grain drill at a rate of 10 

to 12 lb/A at 18 inches between rows. The seeds begin to emerge in 10 days, flower in 

50 days, and mature at 105 days. Borage yields range from 80 to 800 lb/A with an 

average of 300 lb/A.

Castor Oil Plant:

The plant is herbaceous to 15 feet perennial that acts as an annual in temperate 

regions, but may become a small tree in the tropics. The wild types are large perennials 

while the cultivated crops are short and annual. The leaves are large and palmate in 

shape with 5 - 7 lobes. The plant varies in its growth, foliage and stem color, seed size, 

color and oil content. The color has led to the development of cultivars for ornamental 

purposes. While often called castor bean it is not a legume. Highest yields occur in areas 

with annual rainfall between 600 – 700 mm, but acceptable yields are found in areas 

receiving 375 – 500 mm of rain. It is adapted to almost every soil and prefers sandy

loams but not heavy clays and poorly drained soils with a soil pH of 5.0 – 6.5. Planting 

dates in northern areas range from March – May and in southern areas January – March. 

Dwarf varieties have been developed that grow to a height of 5 ft. The seedbed for dwarf 

castor oil plant is similar to that for cotton and corn and it can be planted with a corn or 

cotton planters with seeds planted to 5 cm deep. Giant seeded varieties are seeded by 

hand and they are transplanted about the middle of May since it is susceptible to frost in 

the early growing season. There are 2,240 seeds/lb. The row spacing is 25 – 30 cm for 

dwarf and 30 – 40 cm for larger hybrids for about 25,000 to 30,000 plants/ha. Weeds are 

major problem to establish dwarf varieties and can be controlled with mechanical 

cultivation or herbicides. In the U.S. planting to emergence time averages 13 days but 

may range from 10 -123 days depending upon planting date; to flowering 47 days; and to 

harvest 150 – 160 days. Oil formation in the seed begins 20 days after flowering in 

Canada. Fruits are harvested in about 95-180 days depending on cultivar. The seeds are 

borne in globular shaped capsules, generally covered with soft spines. Some varieties 

have been developed that have soft non-irritating spines. The capsules split, sometimes 
32

explosively, at ripening, but less so with dwarf varieties. Each capsule normally has 

three seeds, ovoid in shape, variable in size, shinny seed color, generally from 1 to 3.5 

grams in weight. In the U.S. harvest begins in October. Commercial plantings of dwarf 

hybrids are fully mechanized. Capsules fall on a conveyer and are dehulled. Two row 

harvesters moving at 5 km/hr can harvest 0.75-1.5 ha/hr and yield up to 3000 kg/ha. 

Yields in the U.S. can range from 1776 – 2290 kg/ha on irrigated and on non-irrigated 

field from 936 – 1370 kg/ha. The shelled beans contain 35 to 60 percent of oil, which is 

extracted by pressure or by solvents. The nondrying oil is used as a medicine and 

extensively in industry, rarely in cookery. In Asia the leaves are fed to silkworms and 

cattle. Whole seeds before processing are poisonous to animals and humans because of 

the toxin ricin. Food grade oil is used as an antistick agent in candy molds, and a flavor 

component in baked goods, beverages and candies. The untreated meal is used as 

fertilizer or as a fish feed. It needs to be detoxified before it is fed to livestock. In the 

U.S., the meal is an insignificant livestock feed. The recent isolation of high oleic/low 

ricinoleic mutations is an important advance in developing ricinoleic acid free/high oleic 

cid castor oil line that may increase its potential use in industrial and food applications.

Chinese tallowtree:

Chinese tallowtree is a subtropical plant recently domesticated in China and is 

primarily grown for their large oily seeds. Chinese tallow tree was introduced into the 

United States as an ornamental by Ben Franklin in 1776. It is a prolific seed producer 

and has escaped from cultivation and become naturalized. Chinese tallow tree is a small 

to medium-sized monoecious tree and can grow to 50 ft. The leaves are alternate, simple, 

and net-veined 1.5 – 3.5 in long. The petiole is long with two glands on the upper side 

near the blade. The blade is rhombic-ovate, entire, with an acuminate apex and a round 

to truncate base. Leaves of Chinese tallow tree turn red in the fall, making it a popular 

ornamental. The plant is a fast-growing tree, hence its popularity as a shade tree 

ornamental. In Texas, 200,000 to 300,000 trees are being grown for ornamental uses. 

Tallowtree is also used for furniture making and incense. The flowers are imperfect, with 

green sepals and no petals, and are produced in a terminal spike. The staminate flowers 

are terminal in the spike and the pistillate ones are near the base. Flowering starts in 

April - May and matures in September - October. The fruit is a three-lobed capsule about 

1⁄2 - 3⁄4 in long and 3⁄4 in wide with three seeds. The seeds are globose-flattened, 6-9 mm 

in diameter, turn white with age, and often persist on the tree into winter. The plant can 

be toxic to cattle and the milky sap can cause dermatitis. Plants grow in abandoned 

fields, pastures, waste areas, and forests. It can easily become a weedy species especially 

in Florida and the Gulf coast states, if not managed as a crop. The species grows in a 

wide range of environmental conditions: wet to dry and shade to full sun. It reproduces 

by seeds only, but one mature tree can produce over 100,000 seeds. The seeds seem to 

have a tremendous ability to germinate under adverse conditions. Chinese tallowtree oil 

is a source of vegetable tallow or drying oil and a protein food. The outer seed coat is a 

source of solid fat known as Chinese vegetable tallow and the kernels produce a drying 

oil called Stillingia oil. Candles, soap, varnishes, and fuel are made from the tallow. 

Seeds contain about 20% oil, 24% tallow, and 11% extracted meal. The oil is extracted 
33

the residual presscake is used as for manure in tobacco fields. Fruits and seeds are 

harvested by hand in November or December after the leaves have fallen. Mechanical 

harvesting methods appear to be readable adaptable. Trees can be planted at a rate of 400 

trees/ha. The tree is also being researched for its biomass and oil to be used as a 

petroleum substitute. Yields of 4,000 to 10,000 kg/ha which could produce 25 barrels of 

oil/year. Chinese tallowtree is also used as for medicinal uses. 

Cottonseed:

Cotton is grown primarily for the fibers or lint, but the oil containing seeds are 

highly important. The cotton plant is a stiff growing herbaceous annual outside the 

tropics, with fairly large, lobed leaves, and an indeterminate growth habit. In the tropics 

a mature cotton plant can grow to 15 – 20 ft, but in the U.S. it attains a height of 2- 5 ft. 

Seed size of different cultivars range from 4000 – 5500/lb, and an adequate plant 

population is at least 30,000 - <60,000. Fruiting flower buds are called a square. The 

fruits are capsules which dehisce as they ripen. There is a 21 day period from square to 

bloom and several recognized developmental stages. The ‘pinhead” square is the first 

stage which identifies a square. The period of square development prior to bloom is 

called “squaring”. Once the cotton plant begins to bloom it is the flowering growth stage. 

Bloom last 5 – 7 days before they dry and fall exposing a small boll. Boll development 

has three phases called enlargement, filling, and maturation. The boll enlargement stage 

last 3 weeks to allow the fibers or lint on the seed to develop. The boll filling phase 

begins the fourth week after flowering and continues into 6 weeks after pollination and 

the fibers on the seed stop elongating. Boll maturation phase begins as the boll meets its 

maximum size. The fiber and seed maturation is completed and the bolls dehiscence 

occurs. Each capsule or boll contains up to 40 or 50 obovate, rounded or angular seeds, 

to which are attached the fibers or lint. Cotton bolls are made up of 4 to 5 locks. When 

mature the bolls dry out and fluff open. The lint and seeds are commercially harvested 

from the dehisced bolls, partly by stripper or mechanical picker. The longer lint is 

removed from the seeds mechanically at cotton gins and then baled. The seeds of most 

varieties are still covered with short fibers or linters after the ginning. The seeds consist 

about half of hull and half of kernel. The kernels contain 28 to 40 percent oil. In

extracting the oil the seeds are cleaned, delinted, and pressed or put through expellers 

either whole or after dehulling. With each 100 lb of fiber, the plant produces 165 lb 

cottonseed. It takes about 1470 lb of freshly picked cotton from a spindle picker to 

produce 480 lb bale of lint, 780 lb seed, and 210 lb of gin byproducts. It takes about 

2350 lb of seed cotton from stripper harvesters to produce the same amount of lint and 

seed, since strippers have more leaves, stems, and burs. A two row stripper harvester can 

perform at the rate of 1.7 hours/ha, while the two row picker harvester can perform at 2.3 

hours/ha. A two row spindle harvester can perform at 1.85 hours/ha (0.75 hours/A). 

Normally, 100 – 120 bolls are required to produce a pound of seed cotton (160 – 170 for 

a pound of lint). One ton of seeds yield around 325 pounds of oil, 920 lb meal, 510 lb 

hulls, 167 lb linters, and 78 lb manufacturing loss. The meal or press cake is valuable

high protein livestock feed and the cotton fields, after the harvest, may be used for 
34

livestock pasturage. The oil is used mainly for shortenings. Smaller quantities are used 

for cooking and salad oils, margarines, and soap manufacture. Cotton emerges in 4 to 20 

days after planting, and begins to flower about 60 days after planting. At 50 days after 

planting the cotton plant is 14 inches tall. Flowering continues for about 45 days and 

individual bolls mature in about 55 days. Planting to harvest days can range from 140 –

160 days after planting to harvest. Most of the cottonseed is processed in four months 

from October – January. Cottonseed products derived from the kernel, outer hulls, and 

linters have many commercial uses. The hulls are used for livestock feed, mulch, poultry

litter, oil well drilling mud, and to make furfural to make synthetic rubber and plastic. 

Products from the linters include cellulose nitrate to make plastics, use in food casings, 

rayon, cosmetics, paint, toothpaste (cellulose esters) felts for automobile upholstery, 

mattresses, cushions, yarns for lamps , twine and mops, medical grade cotton balls, paper, 

use in making film and yarns for fabrics. The kernel is used to make the meal and press 

cake for livestock feed and fertilizer, fish bait, and crude oil to make refined oil for salad 

dressing and cooking oil,, soaps, glycerin for cosmetics, and fatty acids for soaps, rubber, 

and pesticides.

Crambe

Crambe is a cool season erect annual herb with numerous branches growing to 3 

feet tall with leaves large, oval and smooth adapted to the Great Plains. Crambe is seeded 

in the spring and produces white blossoms and light-colored seeds. The seeds yield about 

35% oil (dry matter basis). Seeds containing more than 25% oil, such as crambe and 

rapeseed, typically warrant use of pre-press/solvent extraction for processing. Dehulling 

the seed near the point of production reduces volume and eases transportation costs. 

Presently, the hull is considered part of the harvested product. The seed pod protects the 

seed from direct contact with pesticide residues. Harvest should be while the lower stem 

is still green to prevent shatter losses. Crambe matures from 90 to 120 days after seeding, 

with seed yields ranging from 1,070 to 1,700 lb/A. There is approximately 86,000 

crambe seeds/lb with a test weight of 22 - 27 lb/bushel. Crambe is seeded in the spring

(Texas – early Feb., Iowa – early April). It can be grown on a variety of soils, with best 

yields well drained on sandy loam soils with a soil pH between 6.0 and 7.5. It is very

sensitive to herbicides and easily affected by herbicide drift. Cultivation is similar to 

small gains, and it can be seeded with a grain drill. Seeding to harvest takes about 90 

days. Crambe has seeds with usually about 4 month dormancy. Once the dormancy is 

broken, the seeds take 1–2 weeks to germinate at temperatures of 10 – 20°C.

Germination is retarded below 8°C and inhibited below 5°C, and takes 10 – 14 days to 

germinate. Early growth is rapid, and flowering starts 33 – 42 days after germination. 

Physiological maturity is reached after about 80 days. Crambe is propagated by seed.

The weight of 1000 seeds is about 7 g. Seed rates vary from 10–25 kg/ha for unhulled 

seeds. A fine, firm seedbed is required for even germination and vigorous seedling 

growth. Seed is placed at a depth of 1.5 – 2.5 cm, at 20 - 30 cm row spacing. Flower 

buds develop at the 10 – 13 leaf stage. When crambe fruits approach maturity, the leaves 

turn yellow and drop; a few days later the fruits and small branches turn straw-colored. 
35

When the last seed-bearing branches have turned color and the seed capsules are yellow 

usually at 90 – 100 days after planting, the crop is ready to harvest. Each capsule 

contains a single spherical seed and is windrowed with a moisture content of 25 – 30%, 

and should not be threshed until the moisture content has dropped below 15%. Crambe is 

cut, windrowed and threshed with a combine, similar to canola harvesting. Timely

harvesting is important to avoid excessive shattering, and harvest should be done while 

lower stem is still green. Once established, crambe tolerates periods of drought as long 

as soil moisture is adequate during the flowering and fruit setting stages. A dry period 

prior to fruit maturity is beneficial. Crambe is more tolerant of drought than maize, 

soybean and mustard crops. Crambe seed must be cleaned and dried to 10% moisture for 

storage before processing. Processing is similar to canola oil processing. 

Use of crambe meal at a concentration not to exceed 4.2% of the ration can be used 

as beef cattle feed. With pre-cooking during processing or other methods to reduce 

glucosinolates before it can be fed. Oil is used for industrial purposes such as industrially

as a lubricant and cooling agent. Erucic acid is easily modified and its chemical 

derivatives are valuable raw materials in the production of lubricants (erucamide), 

plasticizers, surfactants, corrosion inhibitors, rubber additives, nylons, paints, hydraulic

and dielectric fluids, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. The press cake, rich in 

glucosinolates, can be used as a feedstuff for ruminants, and also applied as a fertilizer. 

Glucosinolates extracted from the seed are being tested pharmaceutically. In Ethiopia, 

the fruits are used in traditional medicine to treat snake bites, and in Kenya the leaves are 

eaten.

Cuphea:

Cuphea is an annual plant that grown to about 31⁄2 feet tall. In the U.S. Cuphea is 

grown as a summer annual crop in Oregon and Minnesota. Leaves are simple, entire and 

opposite or whorled. The stems, leaves and flowers are covered with sticky or glandular 

hairs. The genus Cuphea comprises some 260 herbaceous or perennial species. The 

seeds of Cuphea spp. weigh about 2 mg. Cuphea is propagated from seeds or 

vegetatively by stem cuttings. Cuphea oil is a rich source of medium-chained fatty acids 

with similar use like coconut or palm kernel oil for its lauric and capric fatty acids. The 

feed value of the defatted meal is being studied. Yields up to 900 kg/ha were obtained in 

CA, Minnesota, and OR trials. Oil contents of seeds ranges from 28 – 33%, with capric 

acid ranging from 67 to m73% of the total oil. Cultivars are being designed for candy 

and chewing gum, as well as in detergents and cosmetics. There is a current USDA 

research project (#3620-4100-115-07) to develop cuphea into a commercial crop with 

high capric fatty acid content with reduce seed shattering at harvest,
36

Echium:

Echium like borage is an herbaceous vegetable crop in the Boraginaceae family

that produces from its seeds a refined oil rich in omega-6 and omega-3 polyunsaturated 

fatty acids and a source of stearidonic acid. Stearidonic acid is useful in treating skin 

conditions such as eczema. Echium is planted by a grain drill in 10cm rows in the spring 

from the end of March through mid-May and germinates in 7 – 14 days. It is grown as a 

biennial crop 20 - 60 cm tall hairy stems and produces clusters of blue – pink flowers. It 

is harvested in August through late September. Postharvest seed moisture content is in 

the range of 10-18%. Echium is also considered a weedy pest in pastures in areas such as 

Australia, and it can be used as a source of pollen for bee production in Australia. The 

plant is a prolific seed produces up to 30,000 seeds/sq meter, and contains oil content 

about 20%. The seed nutlets are three cornered and 2.5 to 3 mm long. Potential yield is 

over 600 kg/ha, but in most cases ranges from 250-400 kg/ha. It is being grown in the 

UK and Canada as a novel food ingredient crop. It is distributed in the U.S. in NY PA, 

MA, CA and OR and in Canada. The Bioriginal Food and Science Corporation, 

Saskatoon, Canada has applied to the Food and Drug Administration for approval of 

Echium oil to be marketed as a new dietary ingredient. Croda Chemicals Europe Ltd., 

East Yorkshire is applying to sell echium oil in Europe. If the ingredient is approved it 

will be used as an ingredient in milk and yogurt based drinks, cereals, nutritional bars and 

food supplements. 

Euphorbia:

Euphorbia is an annual or biennial latex-bearing plant to 3 feet tall. Stem leaves 

are green 4-ranked and 2 to 6 inches long. The seed has oil content of about 50% of 

which oleic acid makes up 80 to 90%. It can be grown as a winter or spring crop and 

requires a long growing period for seed set. Its use is like lard and tallow, in soaps, 

detergents, cosmetics, paints and lubricants. No data available on the palatability of the 

meal for livestock. 

Evening primrose:

The common evening primrose is an evening flowering winter biennial herb 1 to 

6 feet tall which normally germinate the first year, making a taproot for the winter, then 

flowers the second season. The stems are branched with lance-shaped leaves 4 to 12 

inches long. Roots may be eaten as a vegetable, and the shoots in salads. Evening 

primrose blooms from June to September. In Canada the seed oil is an approved dietary

supplement. The oil contains gamma linolenic acid. The tufted evening primrose is a 

stem less perennial with leaves 1 to 4 inches long. It can be fall or spring seeded. Fall 

seedlings in August with over wintering are harvested for seeds the following August (12 

months). Spring seedlings in late March to early April are harvested for seed in 

November. Its use is for the roots are sweet, somewhat resembling salsify or parsnips 

and eaten boiled or added to soups and stews. Young shoots used in salads or as pot 

herb. Evening primrose in Washington State is grown under a contract. Seed used for oil 

or confectionary as substitute for poppy seed. 
37

Flax seed:

Flax is a broadleaf crop with narrow < 1 inch long, and grows to a height ranging 

from 30 – 36 in. Two types of flax are grown, the seed flax for oil in its seed and fiber 

flax for fiber from the straw. Producers in the upper Midwest and the Prairie Provinces 

of Canada grow the flax for oil. Flax mostly grown for fiber is in Europe and Asia. The 

fiber is used to make fine linen cloth. Fiber flax varieties are very tall with few branches 

and low seed production, while the seed flax varieties are short with several branches has 

high seed yields. The fiber in the seed flax stems can be used to make paper or furniture 

padding and cigarette paper. Linseed oil is obtained from seed of the flax plant and it has 

been primarily used for industrial purposes such as a drying agent for paints, varnishes, 

lacquer, linoleum floor tiles, and printing inks; some is used for edible purposes in 

Eastern Europe. The flax plant is an erect growing, with a single stem from 2 to 4 feet 

with narrow leaves annual plant. The fruit is a pod or capsule about 1/3 in diameter is 

similar to other Brassicas and contains 6 to 10 seeds/pod. The seeds contain around 35 to 

44 percent of drying oil. In Eastern Europe, the seed is generally first cold pressed, the 

cold-press oil being used in foods. A later hot press yields additional industrial oil. In 

the U.S., oil extraction is generally hot press, followed by solvent extraction, and the oil 

is not used as food. The press cake from hot pressing is a valuable livestock’s feed. 

Flax in Minnesota is a spring annual crop with a 90 – 110 day growing season, and 

is adapted to fertile, well drained medium textured soils, with a soil pH in the range of 6.0 

– 6.5. Management of flax is much like spring oats. The prepared seedbed is similar to 

small seeded grasses or legumes. Flax is planted with a cereal crop drill planter March 

through April at a rate of 25 to 50 lb/A, a row spacing of 6 to 8 inches, and a plant 

population of 750,000 plants/A. Seedlings emerge from 7 to 12 days after planting, with 

a vegetative stage of 45 – 60 days followed by a flowering period of 15 to 25 days, and 

30 – 40 day maturation, and the plant matures from 90 to 120 days after seeding with 

yields ranging from 1,000 to 1,500 lb/A. Yields of linola in Washington and Idaho 

ranged from 980 – 2300 lb/A. In 1998, 1500 acres were planted in Washington and 

Idaho. Flax has a yield that ranges from 14 to 20 bu/A. The flax flower contains a fivecelled boll or capsule that may contain from 6 to 10 seeds. When the 90% of the bolls 

turn brown the crop is ready for harvest. The crop is ready to harvest when the bolls and 

tops parts of the plant are dry and the seed is < 9%. There are about 82,000 seeds/lb with 

a bushel test weight of 56 lb/bu. Flax is harvested similar to small grains at 12% 

moisture. Seed needs to be stored at 8 – 10 % moisture. 

The downward production trend for flax because of the increase use of acrylic paint 

and vinyl flooring may be reversed with the recent introduction of solin (linola) 

developed in Canada and Australia in 1992-3, which is a low (< 5%) linolenic acid flax

compared to 50% in wild type varieties, and its use of flax seed in human diets to reduce 

cholesterol. Solin oil is good for salad dressing and cooking oil. It is light yellow color 

oil with high linoleic acid around 65 – 75%. These varieties are called linola and are a 

good source of omega-3. The generally recognized as safe (GRAS) petition (5G0416) 

was filed with the U.S. FDA by the Flax Council of Canada proposing that the low 
38

linolenic acid flaxseed soil be GRAS for use as a food oil (27 MAR 96 Federal Register: 

61:13505-6). The seed of linola is golden yellow in color, while other linseed varieties 

are brown. The inedible linseed oil is a dark brown color. Other uses of flax seed is for 

medicinal uses. Flaxseed’s high dietary fiber content can play a role in reducing diabetes, 

lowering blood cholesterol levels and coronary heart disease risk, preventing colon and 

rectal cancer, and reducing the incidence of obesity. Seed oil is used primarily for 

industrial purposes. Flaxseed is also used in a variety of baked goods. Solin is used as 

cooking oil, and as poultry feed to produce eggs with enriched omega-3 fatty acids. The 

meal which remains after oil extraction contains about 35 % protein is fed to livestock. 

The seed is used as a condiment in some breads and a feed supplement for laying hens. 

Straw cannot be fed to livestock because it is high in prussic acid. The straw is used for 

fiber in linen garments, webbing, and linen paper, e.g. cigarette paper. Linola appears to 

be well adapted to the Pacific Northwest. 

Gold of pleasure:

Gold of pleasure is an annual oilseed crop originated in southwest, Central Asia and 

Central Europe and well adapted to Minnesota. It was known as "gold of pleasure" to 

ancient European agriculturists. Cultivation probably began in Neolithic times, and by

the Iron Age in Europe Camelina was commonly used as an oil-supplying plant, and as 

birdseed and industrial oil. It is used as cooking oil in China. It grows as a large bush to 

30 to 90 cm tall and has branched smooth or hairy stems that become woody at maturity.

Leaves are arrow-shaped, sharp-pointed, 5 to 8 cm long with smooth edges. It produces 

small, pale yellow or greenish-yellow flowers with 4 petals. Seed pods are 6 to 14 mm 

long and superficially resemble the bolls of flax. Seeds are small (0.7 mm x 1.5 mm), 

pale yellow-brown, and oblong with a ridged surface with 345,000 – 465,000 seeds/lb. 

The bushel weight is 50 lb. Seeds contain 29 to 43 % oil, and a protein content of 23 –

30%. Seeding rates range from 6 – 14 kg/ha. It is listed as being adapted to the flaxgrowing regions of the northern Midwest (Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota)

and Montana and being researched in Georgia as an alternative crop. Unlike flax, 

camelina can be surface-sown on frozen ground in the late fall or winter or early spring 

and produce good stands and yields comparable to conventionally-sown Brassica crops.

The crop is short-seasoned (85 to 100 day) so that it could be incorporated into double 

cropping systems during cool periods of growth, possibly in more tropical environments. 

It is harvested in October or November. Seed yields range from 600 – 2381 kg/ha and oil 

yields range from 604 – 1011 kg/ha, depending upon whether the crop is irrigated. Gold 

of pleasure meal is similar to soybean meal, containing 45 – 47% crude protein and 10-

11% fiber. The erucic acid is much lower than crambe or high erucic acid rapeseed. The 

fatty acids in camelina oil are primarily unsaturated, with only about 12% being 

saturated. About 54% of the fatty acids are polyunsaturated, primarily linoleic (18:2) and 

linolenic (18:3), and 34% are monounsaturated, primarily oleic (18:1) and eicosenoic 

(20:1). Camelina oil is less unsaturated than linseed (flax) oil and more unsaturated than 

sunflower or canola oils. The balance of saturated vs. unsaturated fats is similar to that of

soybean, but camelina contains significantly higher proportion of C18:3 fatty acids. The 

gold of pleasure oil has been used in skin care products like creams, in production of 
39

soaps and detergents, in birdseed, as a replacement for marine oils and as a natural source 

of antioxidants (gamma- tocopherols). It along with canola and flax is an excellent 

source of heart healthy omega-3 fatty acids, and is being used in a wide range of foods 

from pure oil, salad dressings, and crushed oilseed cake. The oil has an almond or sweet 

olive - like flavor. Gold of pleasure is also being researches as a source of liquid 

biofuels, and as an ingredient for fish food. 

Hare's ear mustard:

Hare’s ear mustard is grown in Europe to the Mediterranean. It is hardy to plant 

hardiness zone 0. The flowers are hermaphrodite and are pollinated by moths, butterflies, 

and flies. It is distributed throughout eastern North America. Flowers pale yellow, 

arranged in a small, terminal cluster. Seed pods elongate, thin, without an apical beak. 

Stem and leaves smooth, covered with a white, waxy bloom. Leaves are ovate, pale 

green, with a smooth outer margin. Upper leaves clasping the stem. Plant grows to 1 to 

2.5 feet in height. Flowering occurs from May to July approximately 4 – 6 weeks after 

planting. The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and 

requires moist soil. It prefers acid, neutral and basic soils and can grow in very alkaline 

soil. It cannot grow in the shade. The plant can tolerate strong winds but not maritime 

exposure. Seed pods are about 5 cm in length. Yields range from 549 – 901 kg/ha in 

central North Dakota. Light-yellow oil obtained from the seed is used for cooking. 

Leaves and stems can be eaten raw. 

Jojoba:

Jojoba is a slow growing evergreen perennial semi-arid desert shrub native to the 

Sonora Desert and Arizona may grow to 10 feet tall with a natural life span of over 100 

years. It can grow in areas with 75 – 450 mm annually. Jojoba requires a well drained 

sandy soil with a soil pH ranging from 5 – 8, and is salt tolerant. The plant can be direct 

seeded or replanted from nursery seedlings. Seedlings can be transplanted in 8 – 10 

weeks. The crop can be maintained like an orchard with 5 m spacing between rows and 2 

– 1.6 m between plants. Emergence may take place in 5 – 7 days, but the shoot may not 

emerge until 20 – 25 days after seeding. The plant produces fruit capsules that contain 1-

3 oily brown seeds about the size of a hazelnut or peanut. Plants normally flower in 20 –

24 months. Fruits can mature 3 – 6 months after flowering. A mature plant averages 5 

pounds of seeds (dry weight) per year. The fruit is a green, elongated, oval capsule 

containing 1 – 3 seeds. When ripe the capsule splits to expose the seed for harvest. 

Irrigated plants can produce seed within three years with maximum yields after 6 – 8 

years. The jojoba seed resembles a pecan nut and is 12 – 18 mm long and 6 – 12 mm 

diameter. The seeds are extracted for its oil which is 50 – 60 % of the seeds dry weight, 

and is used for shampoo, in cosmetics, and as a sperm oil and carnuba wax substitute. 

The liquid wax is a clear golden color, and is a replacement for sperm whale oil in the 

cosmetic market. The extracted oil seed meal has potential as an animal feed supplement 

in lamb rations at 5%. The treatment of the meal with Lactobacillus increases its 

palatability for livestock. The seed can be roasted and eaten or used as a coffee 
40

substitute. Harvesting small areas may be done manually. Collecting seeds from the 

ground by vacuum appears the most promising for mechanical harvesting. In southern 

California, flower from November to February with the first ripe fruit on the plant in 

May. Yields of 0.5 kg/bush have been recorded. The growers wait until all mature fruits 

fall and vacuum them up in August. Planting to first commercial harvest is about 5 years. 

Harvested seed needs cleaning and drying to around 10 – 12 % moisture. 

Lesquerella:

Lesquerella is a perennial desert plant native to the Southwest (West Texas, New 

Mexico, Arizona, Colorado and Utah) that are grown as a winter annual. It grows to a 

height of about 14 to 16 inches with several stems. Capsules develop along the stem and 

contain numerous small, flat seeds. Its cropping system is similar to winter wheat or 

other small grains. Oil is very similar to castor oil. Protein content in the meal runs to 

35% and can be used for cattle feed when thioglucosidase enzyme is inactivated. Oil is a 

substitute for castor oil. The seed is harvested when it is 5 – 6% moisture and contains 

25% oil by weight. Oil is extracted by extrusion followed by solvent extraction and the 

meal high in protein is being researched as an animal feed. Yields range from 950 – 1129 

kg/ha. All species of Lesquerella are native to North and South America with 83 of 95 

known species indigenous to North America. Interest in developing lesquerella began in 

the 1960s when three new hydroxy fatty acids (HFA), lesquerolic, densipolic, and 

auricolic, were discovered in Lesquerella species. Seeding of the crop to harvest takes 

about 7 to 8 months. Most species occurring in the western U.S. contain lesquerolic acid 

(C20:1-OH) as the primary fatty acid in its seed-oil. This HFA is very similar to 

ricinoleic acid, the primary HFA of castor. Most species in the eastern U.S. contain 

densipolic acid (C18:2-OH) as their primary seed-oil component. There is a current 

USDA Research Project (#3620-4100-115-03) to develop lesquerella into a commercial 

crop for lesquerolic acid, a hydroxyl fatty acid as an alternative to imported castor oil 

plant. It also appears to be useful in cosmetics such as lipsticks. 

Lunaria:

Lunaria is a member of the mustard family that can produce seed oil that is 

greater than 90% of the acids are monounsaturated. The oil content of the seed varies 

from 30 – 40%. It can successfully be established into a standing crop of winter wheat. 

Wheat is harvested in August leaving the young Lunaria to grow from the stubble. 

Lunaria is a biennial plant adapted to a temperate plant that grows to a height of 30 – 100 

cm and it is being grown in England and can produce from 1800 to 2,600 kg seed/ha. It 

is seeded in mid-July to August. The plant flowers in April and May and has purple or 

white flowers. The seed pods are large, circular and attached to the plant. Seeds are 

large and compressed in the pod in two rows. The flat, thin walled translucent silicula are 

dried to be used in floral arrangements. The oil content can be up to 47.8%. The oil has 

potential industrial uses similar to meadowfoam such as a lubricant and for nylon. It is 

also commonly grown as an ornamental plant known for its dried flowers called the 

money plant. 
41

Meadowfoam:

Meadowfoam can be grown as a winter-spring annual crop. It is a small erect 

herbaceous crop, 10 to 18 inches tall, native to northern California and southern Oregon. 

Leaves are pinnately dissected, and flowers are solitary 1 inch across. The seeds (nutlet) 

are pear-shaped, striated and tiny, and yield about 1,000 pounds per acre and the seeds 

produce only 16 to 32% oil. It has been grown to a limited extent in parts of the eastern 

U.S. and Alaska. Meadowfoam is well adapted to cool wet Mediterranean climate of the 

Pacific Northwest and is commercially grown in the Willamette Valley of Oregon. The 

seeds can be harvested with the same equipment used in grass seed production and is cut 

when 90% of the seeds are mature. It is allowed to dry in windrows for 7 to 10 days to a 

seed moisture content of 12 to 16%. The meal can be feed to beef cattle. The 

meadowfoam oil unlike other seed oils consists almost entirely of long-chain fatty acids 

(more than 18 carbons). The oil is in direct competition with rapeseed oil as an industrial 

source. It also can be a substitute for sperm whale oil and jojoba oil. It was originated

from upland pasture in northern California and southern Oregon, and is endemic to North 

America. The name is derived from the typical white blooming canopy of plants which 

give the image of white foam covering the soil. It grows in a rosette from which 

flowering stems arise in late winter/early spring. Planting rates are 23 kg/ha with a grain 

drill yielding a plant populations are 400 plants/sq m. Meadowfoam is a prolific 

flowering plant and can produce up to 5.5 million flowers/ha over the 16 day period. 

Each flower can produce a 5 seeded nutlet, but 2-3 seeds are the norm. Equipment used 

for grass seed production is well adapted to meadowfoam production and harvest, and 

cultural practices are similar to a grass seed crop or cereal grains. Meadowfoam is 

planted in the fall in early October and harvested in early summer, June-July. Over a 16 

day period the plant produces masses of white flowers with an estimated 5.5 million 

flowers/ha daily over the 16 days. The recommended planting date is early-mid October, 

seed rate 30-35 lb/A (23 kg/ha), drilling depth 3-8 mm, row spacing 6 – 8 in, and an 

optimal plant population is 400 plants/m2. Low populations produce prostrate plants, 

difficult to harvest, high populations lead to lodging. The cultivar ‘Floral’ has a seed 

count ranging from 44,000 to 68,000 seeds/lb and averages 50,000. Seeds are ready to 

harvest when the moisture content is 42%. The plants are cut and placed in windrows for 

7 – 10 days before they are threshed. Commercial seed yield ranges from 400 – 1200 

lb/A. The seed oil ranges from 18-35% and 16 - 25% protein. The meal produced after 

crushing has a fiber content of 22% and protein content of 25%. The amino acid content 

is similar to rapeseed. Meadowfoam oil is used similar to jojoba in several commercial 

products like hair care, lip products, and body lotions. 

Milkweed:

Milkweed seed oil is being researched by USDA (Holser and O’Kuru, 2006) as a 

potential alternative fuel for diesel use. It has passed standard diesel fuel tests. Common 

milkweed is a perennial herb that grows from a rhizome and grows 2 – 6 ft tall and is 

adapted to sandy, clayey, or calcareous soils. In each inflorescence there are 20 – 120 

small flowers (11 - 17 mm). The inflorescence produces seed pod clusters which can 

generate three types of products: a fine silky fiber, seed for oil, and the pod hulls. 
42

Currently, the seed floss or fiber is being used as a non-allergic fill to replace imported 

goose and down feathers in comforters and for making ropes. When used for fiber the 

milkweed is collected in the autumn after the leaves have begun to fall off. Milkweed 

seed oil is high in vitamin E. Most of the milkweed seed oil development is being 

conducted in the Midwest. Milkweed is a sole source of food for the Monarch butterfly. 

The seeds must be dehulled before oil extraction and contain 20 - 25% oil by weight. Its 

seed oil also can reduce fatty deposits in arteries, and can be used as cooking oil. The 

seed oil is highly unsaturated and high in oleic and linoleic fatty acid. Nonfood uses for 

the seed oil are for use as a moisturizer in cosmetics, as soap, and as a lubricant, and in 

paints. The seed meal can control nematodes and contains 36% protein. The milkweed 

oil is highly unsaturated and is cardenolide-free. The main source of milkweed oil is 

obtained from Natural Fibers Corporation, Ogallala, NE. In the Nebraska area, milkweed 

is seeded in the spring to obtain a population of 248,000 plants/A. It can be propagated 

by seed and rhizome cuttings. It flowers from May to October depending on location, 

and has a fragrance similar to lilacs. The seed pods are spindle shaped and contain small, 

round hairy seeds (0.2 – 0.3 mm) in diameter. Harvest is usually begins at the end of 

summer by a modified ear corn picker. Milkweed oil could become a profitable crop in a 

value added niche market. The unopened flower buds can be cooked and taste like peas. 

Pink flowers and young buds are used as a flavoring agent and a thickener in soups. The 

indigenous groups of eastern and Midwestern America would boil young shoots, stems, 

flower buds, and roots to eat as a vegetable. The pods look like large okra. There are 

several medicinal uses from the dried roots and leaves. 

Mustard

The condiment mustards of commerce are the ground seeds of these three annual 

plants which grow from 30 to 45 inches tall, mainly with the seed coats removed. The 

seeds are near round, 1/10 inch or less in diameter, and produced two in a pod, which are 

removed by threshing. Three types of mustards the yellow, brown, and oriental are 

grown in North America. Black mustard seed is yellow inside and is the kind of major 

commercial production. The ground brown or black mustard seeds exhibit a strong odor 

while the white or yellow does not. The mustard is a specialty crop usually grown under 

contract. The oilseed is protected from pesticides applied during the growing season by

the pod or shell. The seed contains up to 30% oil. At 5%, the oil has the lowest saturated 

fat of the edible oils. Oil may be extracted by three methods. Fixed oil is extracted by

cold press, and the remaining press cake is steam distilled or solvent extracted for the 

essential oil. There are basically four types of condiment mustard-whole mustard seed; 

ground mustard mainly for the meat industry; mustard flour for sauces, salad dressings, 

baked beans, and Chinese or hot English mustard; and oleoresin mustard. Mustard 

prefers a well drained sandy loam soil with a pH of 7.0. Yellow mustard is seeded with a 

grain drill at 8 to 14 lb/A, oriental and brown mustards are seeded at 4 to 7 lb/A. The 

crop emerges from 7 to 10 days after planting, flowers 30 40 days after planting and 

yellow mustard matures in 80 to 85 days and oriental mustard matures in 90 to 95 days. 

At harvest the crop is windrowed and dried n the field for 10 – 14 days. The average 

mustard seed yields range from 800 to 1,500 lb/A with 180,000 seeds/lb
43

Niger seed:

Niger seed is an important oil crop in Ethiopia and parts of India. The annual 

crop is tolerant to high salinity, high boron and low soil oxygen levels, and prefers sandy 

clay and clayey loam soils with a soil pH range of 5.5 – 6.5. Row widths vary from 30 –

50 cm. Oil content of the Niger seeds ranges from 35 to 45% and improved varieties are 

to 50 - 60%. Niger is an annual herb that grows from 3 to 7 feet tall, and cultural 

practices and seeding are similar to cereal grain crops. The seeding rate ranges 6.5 to 12 

kg/ha and germination occurs from 3 to 10 days. A single plant often bears 20 to 40 

flower heads with yellow flowers and small black seeds. The weight of 1,000 seed is 

approximately is approximately 3.25g. Flower heads are 5 – 50 mm wide with 5 – 20 

mm long ray flowers. Flowering begins 50 to 110 days after sowing, and can last for 15 

to 30 days. Flowers can include both yellow disc and ray florets similar to sunflower and 

safflower, and the fruit is an achene. The seeds are shinny black about 1/8. There are 

usually 15 to 40 mature seeds/head. In Ethiopia, generally 120 to 180 days are required 

from emergence to maturity. The crop is normally planted in July, flowers in early 

October and is harvested in December or January. In India the crop matures in 75 to 150 

days. The Niger seed oil is pale yellow with a nutty taste and is used as a substitute for 

sesame seed oil. The crop is harvested manually in Ethiopia and India or threshed similar 

to in harvesters. Seed yields range from 500 – 1000 kg/ha. Clean Niger seed stores well 

when dried to a moisture content of 12%. Harvesting Niger is the U.S. is similar to 

canola. In most of the world Niger seed is harvested as an oilseed crop. Domestic 

consumption of Niger is about 70 million lb. The oil is used in foods, soaps, and as an 

illuminant, and as an olive oil substitute. In India seeds can be fried or used as a 

condiment, and pressed into cakes with honey. The meal may make an animal feed since 

its protein content is about 33%. Niger seed in the U.S. is often called thistle seed and 

used as birdseed, especially for finches. Most Niger seed sold in the U.S. for birdseed is 

imported. 

Oil radish:

The oil radish is an annual plant growing from 1 – 3 ft tall. Oil radish can be 

planted in the spring, late summer, r early fall and is a rapid grower. Seeding rates range 

from 10 -20 lb/A, and is planted with a seed drill or broadcast 1⁄4 - 1⁄2 in depth. Radish 

seeds germinate in 3 - 14 days. It is not frost tender, and the flowers are hermaphrodite 

and are pollinated by bees and flies. It flowers from June to August, and the seeds ripen 

from July to September. The root is best harvested before the plant flowers. The plant 

prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and neutral and basic 

(alkaline) soils and requires moist soil. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no 

shade. 6. The young leaves can be eaten raw or cooked and are used in salads and as a 

cooked greens. Young flower clusters can also be eaten raw or cooked. A spicy flavor 

with a crisp pleasant texture, they make a nice addition to salads or can be used as a 

broccoli substitute. Seeds can be eaten raw. The seed can be soaked for 12 hours in 

warm water and then allowed to sprout for about 6 days. They have a hot spicy flavor 

and go well in salads. Young seed pods can be eaten raw. Edible oil is obtained from the 

seed; originally the root was also used for oil production. In Michigan and Canada the oil 
44

radish is widely used as a cover crop and produces up to 4 T/A for grazing in about 60 

days. While it can be used for forage for early and late season, it is considered an 

insignificant livestock feed. 

The oil radish also has several medicinal uses such as the roots stimulate the 

appetite and digestion, having a tonic and laxative effect upon the intestines and 

indirectly stimulating the flow of bile. The plant can be used in the treatment of intestinal 

parasites. The leaves, seeds and old roots are used in the treatment of asthma and other 

chest complaints. The juice of the fresh leaves is diuretic and laxative. The seed is 

carminative, diuretic, expectorant, and laxative. The root is crushed and used as a 

poultice for burns and bruises. The plant contains raphanin, which is antibacterial and

antifungal, and it inhibits the growth of Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, streptococci, 

Pneumococci, etc. The plant may also show anti-tumor activity. 

Poppy seed:

Poppy seed is an annual herb native to the Mediterranean region and Central Asia. 

The poppy seed is not narcotic. Generally, blue-seeded cultivars are superior in seed oil 

yield to white-seeded ones. White-seeded ones are used more in confectionery trade. 

Seeding to harvest takes about 7 months. Dried seeds as a topping for baked goods, fill 

for pastry, seed oil for use in salads and cooking oil and seed cake is also used as food. 

Seeds also added to curry paste, pasta, salads and vegetables. 

Rapeseed/Canola:

Rapeseed is grown as annual crop for its edible oil and as a livestock feed. Some 

non-oil uses of rape (Brassica napus) are for its young edible leaves that are specifically

grown as a pot herb. In exposure of edible parts young rape plants used as pot herbs are 

similar to spinach. Rape greens are currently a member of the Brassica leafy vegetable 

crop group 5. As a forage crop, rapeseed can produce 1 – 2 tons dry matter in a growing 

season, but when grown for its seed, canola is not used as forage. 

Leaves of canola are generally lobed, 4 to 12 inches long, half as wide, near 

glabrous, but with scattered hairs. Flower stems are much branched with a height of 3 to 

5 feet, and pods are 3 to 5 inches long. Rapeseed oil is obtained from the seeds primarily 

of the species B. napus (Argentine canola), B. juncea (quality canola brown mustard),

and B. rapa (Polish canola) and the oil from different species is not distinguished on the 

market, since all have similar properties. The oil is high in polyunsaturated fatty acids 

such as oleic, linoleic, and linolenic. The term "colza" refers to refined oil. Canola is 

similar to soybean in high quality protein and oil contents. Low glucosinolates and 

erucic acid levels are now defined as “double low” or canola quality, which is less than 2 

percent erucic acid and having less than 30 micromoles of aliphatic glucosinolates per 

gram of defatted meal and are called low erucic acid rapeseed (LEAR). Rapeseed oil 

(non-canola type) is not usable as edible oils, but a small demand for high erucic acid 

rapeseed (HEAR) still remains for use in plastics, lubricants, lacquers and detergents. 
45

Canola has become major edible oil in the U.S. in a short time period. In 1992 only

90,000 acres of canola were produced and in 2004 over 862,0000A was produced. 

Canola is adapted to cool temperate regions and grows best on medium textured well 

drained soils with a pH as low as 5.5. The small, near globular seeds are borne in 

elongated, closed capsules. The pods or capsules are 1/2 – 3 in long, 1/8 in wide and 

contain 15 – 30 small brown to black seeds. They contain 30 to 45 percent of semidrying oil. The oil is separated either by solvent extraction or by cold or hot pressing. 

Canola can be seeded in either fall or spring depending upon the variety. There 

are both spring and winter annual rapeseed varieties that are used depending upon 

cultivar either in industrial or edible oils. Only spring cultivars are grown in the north to 

survive the winter. Canola is seeded with a grain drill at 4 to 6 lb/A with 6 to 12 inches 

between the rows and a plant population of 250,000 plants/A. Canola can be grown in 

either a conventional tillage or no-tillage system. In canola, the seed accounts for 23 to 

31% of the total plant dry weight. Seeds germinate in 4 - 21 days, depending upon the 

soil temperature. Flowers are bright yellow. Flowering at growth stage 4 begins form 43 

to 59 days after planting and continues for 14 to 21 days. Brassica napus varieties can 

vary from the other varieties in maturity by 10 days or more. Depending upon the 

variety, canola matures in 80 to 100 days, and yields average 1322 lb/A. The canola at 

harvest is cut into windrows and a stubble height of 10-15 inches is left. It is cured in the 

windrow for 10-14 days before combining. Yields depend upon planting rates can range 

from 500 to 2200 lb/A under optimum growing conditions. Brassica napus varieties 

have seeds at 3.5 – 4.5 g/1,000 seeds (222,000 to 286,000 seeds/kg) or 101,000 to 

130,000 seeds/lb, while Brassica rapa varieties have seed weights at 2 to 3 g/1,000 seeds 

(333,000 to 500,000 seeds/kg or 150,000 to 227,000 seeds/lb). Bushel test weight varies 

from 43 – 52 lb, and the seed weight varies from 116,000 to 250,000/lb. Storing canola 

seed for longer than six months should be kept at < 8% moisture. Canola is the second 

most consumed vegetable oil following soybean oil in the U.S. 

Rose hip:

The Sweetbrier or Eglantine rose forms an arching shrub 2-3 m high and across. It 

is native to Britain and northern Europe. In addition to its beautiful pink flowers, it is 

valued for the strong apple-like fragrance of its foliage, and the hips that form after the 

flowers and persist well into the winter. The stems are armed with many sharp, hooked 

thorns. It has a pale pink flower and can grow up to 10 to 12 feet tall. The sweetbrier 

rose (R. rubinigosa) is a favorite in England, is a large, arching shrub of 6-8', armed with 

hooked thorns-ideal where an impenetrable hedge is wanted. The foliage has the 

fragrance of apples, particularly noticeable when crushed or in a damp breeze. The 

flowers are followed by bright orange hips very high in Vitamin C. The oil is a light 

bluish wine colored and extremely high in essential fatty acids. The oil can be extracted 

as cold pressed and is high in essential fatty acids and is used as a skin lotion. 
46

Safflower

Safflower is an annual grown from seed, and is 1.5 to 6 feet (0.4 to 2.0 cm) tall 

with spiny thistle-like leaves, which are almost as broad as long. It is grown on a wide 

range of soils and prefers a sandy loam at pH of 5 – 8. Safflower is mechanized similar 

to the small grain cultural practices. It develops a dense flower-head which tapers 

upward, and has 20 to 180 flowers/head; each head has one seed/flower and each flower 

can produce seeds. The yellow to orange flowers are used to color and flavor foods. The 

flower-heads yield a dyestuff that is used on fabrics, especially silk. The seeds yield a 

valuable salad and cooking oil. Flower heads to color and flavor foods; the primary use 

is for the edible oil from the seed. Seeds are borne partially exposed in globular heads, 

with 15 to 50 seeds per head and 1 to 5 heads per plant with each flower head producing 

20 to 100 seeds. Seeds are elongated, 1/4 to 1/3 inch long and a third as much in 

diameter. Hulls around the seed make up 35 to 38% of the seed dry matter. The seed 

contains 32 to 40 percent oils and 15% protein. Seed moisture for storage is between 5 –

8 %. The seed coats are fibrous, so seeds are decorticated before pressing or putting 

through expellers to obtain the oil. Most of the oil is used for edible purposes, but it is 

also comparable to linseed oil for industrial use, and for birdseed. The birdseed varieties 

produce mostly white seeds, and they are grown primarily in Canada and the Midwest

High oleic fatty acid (similar to olive oil) and linoleic acid cultivars and are harvested 

separately. The press cake is a valuable high protein feed supplement for cattle, sheep 

and poultry. Seeding rates average 30 kg/ha and 60 kg/ha on irrigated fields, with row 

widths ranging from 76 – 150 cm. Planting rates with a grain drill range from 15 to 40 

lb/A with a 15 to 30 cm row spacing, and the final plant population is 130,000 to 140,000 

plants/A. There are approximately 13,000 seeds/lb. The crop emerges 7 to 10 days after 

planting and begins to head at 60 days, flower 30 days later, and mature 30 days after 

flowering. Harvesting can begin 35 – 40 days after flowering when the seed moisture is 

< 8%. Most cultivars require a minimum growing period of 110 days, while in central 

California the growing period extends to 150 days, while yields range from 800 to 2,000 

lb/A, with a test weight of 45 lb/bushel (range from 39 to 46 lb). In North Dakota 

safflower is planted in late April to early May and is harvested in late summer to late 

September. Harvesting safflower which does not lodge is by grain combines. The press

cake is a valuable high protein feed supplement for cattle, sheep and poultry. Most 

cultivars require a minimum growing period of 120 days. In central California the 

growing period extends to 150 days.

Sesame:

Sesame is one of the oilseeds first domesticated for cultivation. The genus 

consists of about 36 species of which 19 are indigenous to Africa. In Nigeria, three 

species, S. alatum (Thonn), S. indicum L. and S. radiatum Schum & Thonn, are widely 

cultivated (IPGRI). The sesame plant is a broadleaf erect growing annual, 3 to 6 feet 

high, grown for the small, obovate, flattened seeds, which are widely used on bread, rolls 

and other culinary items, and are also extracted for the oil. It grows on sandy to medium 
47

well drained soils with a pH ranging from 5.0 – 8.0. The leaves are entire, 3 to 5 inches 

long, oblong or lanceolate, and somewhat roughened. Flowering begins 36 – 45 days 

after planting and is completed 70 – 90 days after planting. Seeds are produced in 

capsule pods 1-1.5 inches long with eight rows of seed in each capsule with 50 to 80 

seeds/capsule. Approximately 15,000 seeds are in one pound. The plant requires a fairly 

long, warm growing season ranging from 80 to 160 days depending upon the cultivar. 

Sesame is planted in rows between 15 in (38 cm) to 40 in.(102 cm), at a recommended 

plant population of at least 300,000 plants/ha at a rate of 2.5 – 4.5 lb/A (3 – 4 kg/ha). 

Only the seeds are utilized. The small, flattened seeds are borne in two-valved pods or 

capsule, and have a content of semi-drying oil of 50 percent or more, up to 25% protein, 

and a moisture percent less than 6 %. The number of capsules per plant is directly related 

o the number of flowers. It is usually planted in May in the U.S. Cultural practices are 

similar to the small cereal grain crops. Yields of sesame seed can range from 2000 –

2500 kg/ha. About 3,145 acres of sesame for seed were reported in the U.S. in the 2002 

AGCENSUS. In the U.S. the sesame crop is mechanically harvested, while over 90% of 

other countries still manually harvest the crop. Sesame for oil is a major crop in Asia and 

Mexico. The oil is usually expressed in Europe and Asia in three stages. The first is a 

cold press, followed by hot presses. Hot pressed oil is refined before being suitable for 

edible use. Sesame seed is a high value dual purpose crop being harvested both for 

whole seed used for baking and on top of loafs of bread or bagels and for its cooking oil 

extracted from the seed. Sesame oil is used mainly as a salad and cooking oil, and in the 

manufacture of margarine and shortening. Culture and exposure are similar to those of 

soybean. Non-shattering or shatter resistant varieties have been developed for direct 

harvesting. 

Stokes aster:

Stokes aster is an herbaceous perennial plant that growth ranges from 6 to a 

height of 28 inches (70 cm), native to Southeastern coastal plain of the U.S. that has

potential to be used as an industrial oilseed crop. It also prefers a well-drained soil with 

a pH 5.6 – 6.6 and it can grow in semi-shade or full sun. Leaves can be 4 – 12 in long

and up to 2 inches wide. The flower head are typically 3 – 4 inches in width has white,

lavender to blue-violet flowers. It can be propagated by seed, divisions, or root cuttings. 

Seeds can germinate in 14 – 21 days, and are propagated in individuals cell plugs in the

greenhouse. Root cuttings can be made anytime during the year. The plants are spaced 

12-15 in (30-38cm) apart. It's seeds contain large amounts of oil 36-49% and vernolic 

acid (12, 13-epoxy -cis-9-octadecenoic acid) which is a source of epoxy oil products to 

manufacture plastics and adhesives. Seed yields are estimated from 300 – 1000 lb/A.

Most of the U.S. epoxy oil is derived from petrochemicals and processing of linseed and

soybean oil. It may be developed to replace some of the petrochemical use
48

Sunflower

The sunflower is native to the western U.S (Nebraska), but principal commercial 

production of the seed for oil is in other countries, especially Russia. Even though 

sunflower was native to North America, it did not become a major crop in the U.S. until 

1979. Oilseed sunflowers have been a crop in the U.S. since 1986. Sunflower is adapted 

to well-drained soils with a pH of 6.5 – 7.5. The plant is a large, rough annual, broadleaf 

plant with a stiff stem from 3 to 7 feet tall, depending upon the cultivar and adapted to 

sandy loam soils. Semi-dwarf sunflower are 25 – 35% shorter than normal height 

sunflower. Leaves are rough and up to 12 inches long. The angular seeds are up to 1/2 

inch long, and are densely packed in the flat, terminal heads, which may be more than a 

foot across, and contain 1,000 to 2,000 individual flowers. The yellow flowers around 

the edge of the head are individual ray flowers, and the face of the head is comprised of 

hundreds of disk flowers that each one forms into a seed called an achene. Seeds are 

exposed in the head during growth. Seeds normally contain about 25 percent of the semidrying oil, but this has been increased by breeding to above 40 percent. High oleic acid 

varieties called ‘NuSun’ have been developed. Oil is usually expressed by an initial cold 

press, followed by hot pressing. The cold-press oil is used as a salad and cooking oil and 

for the margarine, the hot-press mainly for industrial purposes. The meal is a very 

valuable livestock feed. Hulls can be used as a roughage, poultry litter, or fireplace 

kindling. Seeds are also consumed like nuts with the non-oil varieties for human food 

and feeding birds. Industrial uses of sunflower oil are for paints, plastics, soaps, 

detergents, and as a pesticide carrier, surfactant and lubricant. Use as a snack food has 

grown over the last 20 years, the non-oil varieties with larger seeds are used for snacking. 

Confectionary types are grown under contracts with smallest seeds being used for bird 

seed markets. The confectionary types have a large striped seed with low oil content, 

sometimes called non-oil sunflower types. Oil types have a smaller black seed containing 

up to 40% oil and have 20 – 25% hulls. Sunflowers can also be used as a silage crop and 

can be doubled cropped in areas with small grains or vegetables and the season is too 

short to produce mature corn for silage. They are also used as an ornamental crop. 

Sunflowers are usually planted with a corn planter or grain drill from April through midJuly at a rate of 3 – 4 lb/A with a final population of 15,000 to 25,000 plants/A. 

Sunflowers grown for confectionary uses are seeded at 17,000 to 20,000 plants/A. There 

is about 5,000 to 8,000 seeds/lb and this seed size range has test weights for oilseed 

varieties ranging 24 – 32 lb/bushel. The minimum U.S. Grade test weight per bushel is 

25 lb. They germinate 4 - 7 days after planting, and are harvested with grain combines 

30 to 45 days after blooming. Plants are ready to harvest when the back of the flower 

heads turns yellow or brown and the seed moisture is 10 – 12%. Harvesting can be done 

with the use of combines suitable for harvesting small grains. Short varieties of 

sunflowers mature 90 to 120 days after planting, and tall varieties 120 – 160 days after 

planting and yields average 1363 lb/A with a range of 1.5 – 4 t/ha. In 2004 yields of 

sunflower seed was 1,119/A. Sunflower seed needs to be stored at 8 - 10% moisture or 

less. Sunflower varieties for snack food (confectionary) markets must be free of insect 

damaged and cleaned well to meet food safety standards. 
49

Sweet rocket:

Sweet rocket is an evergreen biennial or perennial grows to 36-48 in. (90-120 cm) 

tall. It blooms at late spring to early summer with violet/lavender or white flowers. It is 

native to Europe, and can be grown in all regions of North America. This wildflower 

likes moist conditions, but is quite adaptable. It is a short-lived perennial or biennial that 

remains in the garden for years as a result of prolific self-seeding. It can grow in a wide 

range of soil types with a pH > 7.0. It is planted from seed outdoors in fall with a plant 

spacing of 15-24 in (38-60 cm) under full sun to partial shade. Germination takes up to 

three weeks. It is easily grown from seed in average, medium wet, well-drained soil in 

full sun to part shade. It grows best in partial shade in hot summer climates. Flowers 

have a clove-like fragrance. Prompt removal of spent flowers may encourage a second 

flush of bloom. Plants can become woody at the base and persist for a number of years, 

but are best replaced with new seedlings. The seed contains 50% of edible oil. The 

essential oil can be used in perfumes. The young leaves are edible and can be used as a 

substitute in salads. Sweet rocket is also used as an ornamental crop. 

Tallowwood:

Tallowwood is a 3 m shrub originated in African tropics that has pale grey to brown 

black bark, purple-red branches with waxy bloom, and yellow/red edible fruit. The large 

seed contains a nut-like kernel. It is a thorny little tree whose zigzag branches with small

leaves up to 5 - 7 m height, with a trunk diameter < 10 cm, and it is found in almost all of 

the regions in dry, moist and wet low and midlands (500 - 2,100m) and rarely be found in 

places up to 2,450 m with a rainfall exceeding 500mm. Soil pH range from 6.1 to 7.8,

and can be grown in sandy, sandy loam or clay loam soils. Recommended row spacing 

are 90 -120 cm. It can be used as an ornamental. The tree can produce fruit at 3 years 

old. The wood is heavy, hard and very durable. Twigs bear small scales, spines, 1cm, 

thin and straight. Leaves are up to 7 x 3cm, blue-gray-green, folding upwards along 

midrib with the tip round or notched. Flowers are very fragrant, small green-white and 5 

-10 mm long. Fruits are drupes oval to 2.5cm, thin skin red, yellow to reddish-orange 

pulp, around one large seed containing oil. The seeds are 1.5 cm by 1/0 cm and have a 

thousand weight of 600 – 800g. The fruit can be eaten raw or used to make beer and the 

pulp to make a jelly. The seed contains non-drying oil up to 60% suitable for soap, 

leather softener, skin ointment, and for lubrication. The wood is hard and used for tool 

handles. It is a Florida native and also common in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands.

Blooms spring through fall, with 3 cm berry-like fruit turning from green to yellow when 

mature. The large seed contains a nut-like kernel that can be roasted. Fruits are 

harvested by hand or by shaking the branches. The root, bark and leaves are used for 

medicinal purposes.
50

Tea oil plant:

The tea oil plant is an exceptionally hardy (USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 6 – 9), fall 

blooming, tea-oil that can tolerate temperatures as low as -10° F. Smooth, velvety, 

cinnamon brown bark and fragrant white flowers appear in the fall and winter garden. It 

is a large evergreen shrub or small flowering tree which can provide garden pleasure 

throughout the year. It can grow to 23 feet tall and 20 feet wide at 50 years with a growth 

rate of 6-12 inches per year when young and 4-6 inches per year at maturity. Glossy, 

deep forest green leaves approximately 3 inches long and 1.5 inches wide. Flowers open 

sequentially at tips of branches. The fruit is a shiny green capsule and the seeds have 

been utilized in China for more than 1000 years. Tea oil is the main cooking oil in 

China’s southern provinces, especially Hunan where it is more than 50% of the vegetable 

cooking oils. Tea oil residues have been used for effective control of the following pests: 

rice blast, sheath and culm blight of rice, wheat rust, rice hopper, cutworms, cotton 

aphids, certain scale insects, long-horned beetles, and leeches. Extracts of the seed cake 

left over after processing are known to deter larval development in insects. There is a 

possibility of developing new biologically-based pesticides exists for this extract. Tea oil 

prefers acidic, well-drained soil with ample organic matter and consistent moisture. 

Requires partial shade and flowers best in very light shade. Little pruning is required. 

Plant in a location protected from early fall frosts to avoid damage to flowers. The crop 

roots easily from cuttings in late spring or early summer in a mixture of sand and peat 

under shade. Camellia oleifera occurs from 18° to 34° North latitude and grows on

acidic soils where January mean temperatures do not drop below 2°C. Tea oil is high 

quality cooking oil which is comparative to olive oil and it stores well at room 

temperature. Oil content of the seed is 40% to 50% and oleic acid constitutes up to 88% 

of the fatty acids. The triterpenoid saponin from tea oil has been shown to improve 

immune function, enhance antibacterial and antiviral activities, and to have anti-mutation 

and antioxidation properties in humans and animals. Tea oil is a good raw material for 

industrial uses and is used to manufacture soap, margarine, hair oil, lubricants, paint, 

synthesis of other high-molecular weight compounds, and rustproof oil. Camellia oil has 

been proven to have its place in all emulsions used in the cosmetology and dermatology

fields. Uses include day or night creams, anti-wrinkle compounds, lipstick, hair creams, 

make-up, anti-sun preparations, rouge, and make-up remover products. Extraction of the 

fruit hulls also yields useful compounds such as saponin, tannin, and pentosan. Saponin 

is used as an emulsifying agent in pesticides, for foam-forming fire extinguishers and in 

detergents. Extracts from the residues of tea oil processing have also been used to feed 

livestock and are used to formulate pesticides, feeds, and fertilizers.

Vernonia:

Vernonia is a perennial herb native to eastern and southeastern parts of Ethiopia and 

grows well in North America. Leaves are alternate and the flowers are usually purple and 

in terminal clusters in late summer. Plant height ranges from 0.2 m to 5.0 m depending 

on the subspecies and the geographic location. V. galamensis differs from other annual 

species of Vernonia in leaf and flower forms and sizes and grow as an annual crop. It is 

easily cultivated and propagated by division, seeds or cuttings. It prefers a sandy loam 
51

with a pH ranging from 5.1- 8.5. There is an advantage to space plants closer to provide 

support for other plants. The days to emergence range from 9 – 11 days, days to heading 

97 – 114, days to flowering 105 – 131 and days to maturity range from 162 – 257 days. 

The closer spacing may also force flowering on the top and outside canopy, achieving 

better plant architecture for ease of harvesting. Seeds yield in Virginia from 490 – 1934

kg/ha, while in Ethiopia yield can be over 4000 kg/ha. The seed contains 38% oil with 

about 72% as vernolic acid. It produces oil high in epoxy fatty acids and is used as 

drying agent in paints and plastics and reduces the emissions of volatile chemicals. The 

mid-Atlantic region appears to be feasible. Further research is needed on using the 

defatted meal for livestock feed. 

COMPARISON OF HARVESTING, RAW AGRICULTURAL COMMODITY 

(RAC), EDIBLE PORTIONS, AND PROCESSED FOOD ITEMS FOR THE 

OILSEEDS:

Mechanical harvesting is used for all the oilseed crops, none are hand harvested, 

and grain combines are adapted to planting and harvesting Brassica oilseed crops, as well 

as the other oilseed crops. Cotton is harvested by a stripper or mechanical picker

combine. A two row stripper harvester can perform at the rate of 1.7 hours/ha, while the 

two row picker harvester can perform at 2.3 hours/ha. A two row spindle harvester can 

perform at 1.85 hours/ha (0.75 hours/A). 

The raw agricultural commodity (RAC) and processed foods for all the 

commodities in the proposed oilseed crop group are the same. The following members of 

the proposed Oilseed group are listed in the Residue Chemistry Guidelines, Table 1, 

OPPTS 860.1000: canola, cotton, flax, safflower, sesame, and sunflower. The RAC is 

the seed and the processed foods are meal and refined oil (see Table 13). Most of the 

meals are edible to livestock but are not considered significant feedstuffs because of here 

limited national production. Codex guidance for portion of the commodity to analyze is 

the seed or kernel after removal of the shell or husk.
52

Table 13. Oilseed Portion Analyzed for the Raw Agricultural Commodity (RAC) and the 

Processed Commodity (40CFR Vol. 58, No. 187, 9/29, 1993, pp. 50888 – 50893. Portion 

of Food Commodities Analyzed Pesticide Residues: Proposed Rule), and Table 1 Raw 

Agricultural and Processed Commodities Derived from Crops (EPA Residue Chemistry

Guidelines OPPTS 860.1000).

Commodity Portion Analyzed (RAC), Use as a 

Feedstuff (F)

Processed Commodity 

and Use as a Feedstuff 

(F) 

Canola Analyze the seed. Refined oil

Meal (F)

Cotton Analyze the undelinted seed (F) and 

the cotton gin byproducts (F).

Meal (F)

Hulls (F)

Gin byproducts (F)

Refined oil

Flax seed Analyze the seed. Meal (F)

Refined oil*

Rapeseed Analyze the seed and the forage (F). Meal (F)

Safflower Analyze the seed. Meal (F)

Refined oil

Sesame Analyze the seed. Refined oil

Sunflower Analyze the seed. Meal (F)

Refined oil

All of the other 

twenty oilseed 

members**

Analyze the seed Meal (F)

Refined oil

* Flax seed refined oil is not in the current Table 1, but since the Table was proposed the 

refined oil from flax seed solin or linola has become a popular oil.

** Not all of the edible oils require meal, since they are not significant livestock feeds.

Other uses for the specific commodities include the young leaves, stems, and 

flowers of borage as a salad garnish; the straw of flax is used for fiber in garments and 

linen paper, e.g., cigarette paper; the flower heads of safflower are used to color and 

flavor foods; sunflower seeds are also used as a snack food and as birdseed, as well as an 

ornamental flower; safflower seeds are also used as birdseed. Several oilseeds such as 

sunflower are being researched as potential sources of biodiesel fuel. Some specific uses 

of the oilseed crops are listed below:

Borage: Borage seed is extracted to make edible oil high in gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) 

that has been found to lower cholesterol. Borage is grown for culinary use in Europe, but 

little grown presently in the U.S. for culinary uses. Only the young leaves are palatable and 

used in salads and taste like cucumbers. In the US, borage is also grown as an 

ornamental. Borage flowers are used for flavoring, mainly in drinks, such as lemonade 

and other fruit juice drinks and teas, as well as an ornamental crop. 
53

Canola: Canola oil is lower in saturated fats (6 -7%) than any other vegetable oil such as 

safflower – 9%, sunflower – 11%, and cottonseed – 27% (See Figure 2).

Castor oil plant: Castor oil has medicinal and ornamental uses. In Asia the leaves are 

fed to silkworms and cattle. Commercially, the oil is used in paints, plastics, printing 

inks, cosmetics, greases, and hydraulic fluids.

Cottonseed: Cottonseed products derived from the kernel, outer hulls, and linters have 

many commercial uses. The hulls are used for livestock feed, mulch, poultry litter, oil 

well drilling mud, and to make furfural to make synthetic rubber and plastic. Products 

from the linters include cellulose nitrate to make plastics, use in food casings, rayon, 

cosmetics, paint, toothpaste (cellulose esters) felts for automobile upholstery, mattresses, 

cushions, yarns for lamps , twine and mops, medical grade cotton balls, paper, use in 

making film and yarns for fabrics. The kernel is used to make the meal and press cake 

for livestock feed and fertilizer, fish bait, and crude oil to make refined oil for salad 

dressing and cooking oil,, soaps, glycerin for cosmetics, and fatty acids for soaps, rubber, 

and pesticides.

Chinese tallowtree: Chinese tallowtree oil is a source f vegetable tallow or drying oil 

and a protein food. The outer seed coat is a source of solid fat known as Chinese 

vegetable tallow and the kernels produce a drying oil called Stillingia oil. Candles, soap, 

varnishes, and fuel are made from the tallow. 

Common evening primrose: Common evening primrose is an evening flowering winter 

biennial herb. In Canada the seed oil is an approved dietary supplement. The oil 

contains gamma linolenic acid.

Flax: Two types of flax are grown, the seed flax for oil in its seed and fiber flax for fiber 

in the stems. Flax mostly grown for fiber is in Europe and Asia. The fiber is used to 

make fine linen cloth. Flax seed used in a variety of bakery products. Flax has a high 

fiber content and sometimes used as a laxative. It is used in fruit juice drinks and 

sprinkled on cereals or salads. The recent introduction of solin (so-lin) which is a low (< 

5%) linolenic acid flax may increase its importance. Solin oil is good for salad dressing 

and cooking oil. Linseed oil, obtained from seed of the flax plant, is primarily used in 

industry; but some is used for edible purposes in Eastern Europe.

Gold of Pleasure: Gold of pleasure or camelina oil is less unsaturated than linseed (flax) 

oil and more unsaturated than sunflower or canola oils. The balance of saturated vs. 

unsaturated fats is similar to that of soybean, but camelina contains significantly higher 

proportion of C18:3 fatty acids. It along with canola and flax is an excellent source of 

heart healthy omega-3 fatty acids, and is being used in a wide range of foods from pure 

oil, salad dressings, and crushed oilseed cake. The oil has an almond or sweet olive - like 

flavor. The gold of pleasure oil has been used in skin care products like creams, in 

production of soaps and detergents, in birdseed, as a replacement for marine oils and as a 

natural source of antioxidants as gamma- tocopherols, and is being researched as a source 

of liquid biofuels, and as an ingredient for fish food.
54

Mustard Seed: Besides being grown for oil, mustard produces four types of condiment 

mustard-whole mustard seed; ground mustard mainly for the meat industry; mustard flour 

for sauces, salad dressings, baked beans, and Chinese or hot English mustard; and 

oleoresin mustard. 

Oil radish: The oil radish, young flower clusters can be eaten raw or cooked. A spicy

flavor with a crisp pleasant texture, they make a nice addition to salads or can be used as 

a broccoli substitute. They have a hot spicy flavor and go well in salads. Young seed 

pods can be eaten raw. 

Safflower: Safflower is grown for its edible oil and use as birdseed. It is excellent for 

cooking oil. 

Sunflower: Sunflower oil is light in taste and has more vitamin E than any other 

vegetable oil and is good for frying and has health benefits. It is a combination of 

monosaturated and polysaturated fats with low saturated fat levels (< 11%) see figure --. 

There are three types of sunflower oil (National Sunflower Association) and are called 

NuSun®, linoleic, and high oleic acid content each developed by plant breeders. 

Sunflower oil – only safflower oil contains a higher level of linoleic cid. The main use of 

sunflower oil is as a salad oil and some in margarine. NuSun® oil is also used for frying, 

baking, popping corn, and for deep frying. Industrial uses of sunflower oil are for paints, 

plastics, soaps, detergents, and as a pesticide carrier, surfactant and lubricant. The nonoil sunflower varieties with larger seeds are used.

Tea oil plant: Tea oil is the main cooking oil in China’s southern provinces, especially 

Hunan where more than 50% of the vegetable cooking oil is from tea oil plant. Seeds are 

cold pressed to make the pale amber green oil. Also used for stir frying, salad dressings, 

condiments and marinade. 

Processing of the Oilseed Crops for Their Oil:

Oilseed crops are processed by one of three methods. The methods are batch 

hydraulic pressing in which the oil is expressed by hydraulic pressure at a high 

temperature; continuous mechanical pressing a cold press method; and the third is by

solvent extraction followed by boiling, bleaching, deodorizing, and heating to remove the 

solvents. Since the processing methods are fairly similar the processing of three crops: 

canola, cotton, and sunflower are discussed below:

Canola oil: -

Canola seeds are crushed into an oil and meal. Clean seed which will be processed 

into oil and meal is first preconditioned with mild heat and then crushed and flaked for oil 

recovery. Then the canola flakes are prepressed in screw presses or expellers to reduce 

the oil content from about 42% in the seed to between 16 – 20%. Screw pressing 

compresses the flakes into denser flakes called press cake. The press cake is either 
55

subjected to a solvent extraction with hexane or a cold pressed or expeller pressed 

without solvents. Oil extraction with hexane is approximately 96%. Cold pressed canola 

oil is generally marketed in specialty food stores. Impurities from the crude oil re 

removed and then bleached to a purer color and then deodorization by steam distillation 

to remove any residual compounds such as chlorophyll which could affect the taste and 

odor of the oil. This oil is then called refined and is used as a salad or cooking oil. 

Canola meal commonly used in livestock feeds. 

Cottonseed oil:

After harvest the cotton bales are taken to the cottonseed processors for the first 

step to clean seeds to remove leaves, stems, broken bolls or sand picked up from the 

fields. After screening the trash, the seed go to the lint room where short fibers (linters) 

are removed and the seeds separated. After the linters are removed the seed moves to the 

hullers, who cut off the hulls and the seeds pass through a series of screens and shakers. 

The hulls are bagged and saved for other uses, and the seed kernels are ready for oil 

extraction. Oil is removed by mechanical screw, by solvent extraction or a combination 

of the two processes. The kernels are rolled into flakes and move to a cooker or 

conditioner where the moisture is reduced. The flakes then are exposed to high pressure 

and the oil is forced from the kernel, where the oil is then piped through a filter to remove 

impurities. The extracted flakes are cut and ground into a meal used for livestock feed. 

The meal contains about 3-4% oil. If the cottonseed is extracted by a solvent such as 

hexane it is then put through a series of evaporators to remove the solvent. Extracted 

flakes are then put through a deodorizer to remove the last traces of solvent. He flakes 

can be ground or toasted and ground into meal or processed into pellets. The crude 

cottonseed oil then is refined by adding sodium hydroxide and removes impurities and 

soapstock that are separated form the oil. Most cottonseed oil is bleached to remove 

coloring agents and is then filtered. It is then deodorized with steam under a partial 

vacuum to remove any off flavors. 

Sunflower oil:

First processing step is to dehull the seeds and the hulls can be used for livestock 

feed or as a fuel source. The sunflower seeds are crushed and then extracted with hexane. 

The kernels are then flaked and pressed containing 15 – 20% oil. The resultant meal 

contains about 1.5% oil. The next step is degumming the crude oil by removing the 

phosphatides with hot water and centrifugation. The oil is then refined by caustic 

refining or by physical refining. The caustic refining by low temperatures removes 

waxes and physical refining by steam by adding phosphoric acid and then bleach. 

Additional dewaxing and deodorization is then completed to further refine the oil. 
56

LIVESTOCK FEED ITEMS:

There are livestock feed items associated with many of the oilseed crops. Most 

have a meal high in protein used for a feedstuff (See Table 13). Besides the meal, cotton 

has hulls and gin byproducts as animal feed items. Rapeseed, non-canola varieties also 

has forage as a feedstuff. While some of the oilseeds have other items that can be feed to 

livestock like sunflower hulls, they are considered insignificant feedstuffs (Table 1 Raw 

Agricultural and Processed Commodities Derived from Crops EPA Residue Chemistry

Guidelines OPPTS 860.1000). The oilseed crops that meet the criteria for significant 

livestock feeds are canola, flax, safflower, sunflower, and cotton. The main livestock 

feed items for most of the members of the proposed crop group would be the meal. 

The meal of oilseeds is a very valuable livestock feed. Crambe meal at a 

concentration not to exceed 4.2% of the ration can be used as beef cattle feed. With 

precooking during processing or other methods to reduce glucosinolates, the meal can be 

used for all livestock and poultry. Many oilseed meals such as sunflower or cotton can 

substitute for soybean meal for a protein source of livestock diet. Sunflower hulls can be 

used as roughage, and its seeds are also consumed as nuts with the non-oil varieties for 

human food and feeding birds. Sunflowers can also be used as silage crop and can be 

doubled cropped in areas with small grains or vegetables and the season is too short to 

produce mature corn for silage. Sunflower, safflower, Niger seed, and flax seed are also 

used as birdseed. 

PEST PROBLEMS: (Developed from USDA Crop Profiles from AL, AR, AZ, CA, 

GA, KS, LA, MN, MO, MS. MT, NB, NC, OK, OR, SD, TN, and TX, Extension 

Bulletins, and Research Literature). 

The proposed members of the Oilseed Crop Group share many of the same pest 

problems. Because of the similarity in the botany, cultivars and culture among these 

crops, they have similar pest problems in both the U S and Canada. This further justifies 

the need to increase the harmonization of crop groups and pesticides’ tolerances, because 

the availability of adequate pest control measures could also prevent the spread of new 

pests across the border. Availability of a similar set of pest control options for the U S 

and Canada would be useful in promoting integrated pest management (IPM) strategies 

for the oilseeds. 

All of the commodities are generally weak competitors with both grassy and 

broadleaf weeds at germination and early growth development stages. Oilseeds all share 

the same annual and perennial grassy and broadleaf weed problems because of their 

similarities in cultural practices such as their seeding methods. Some of these pests will 

be listed. The Brassicas (rapeseed, mustard, and crambe) share the same plant diseases 

as flax (Fusarium wilt, aster yellows, rusts, Sclerotinia white mold, Alternaria stem rot, 

etc.), and seed diseases (damping off, Phytophtora root rot, etc.), and insect problems 

(cutworms, maggots, wireworms) are common to all the seeds of this proposed group. 
57

Insects that attack the leaves and flowers are also common to most members of the group 

such as grasshoppers, aphids, thistle caterpillars, armyworms, flea beetles, and weevils. 

Nematodes are also a problem and include root knot nematode; leaf and stem nematode, 

cyst nematode, root lesion, and dagger nematode. Weeds include quackgrass; foxtail, 

barnyardgrass, Bermudagrass, Johnsongrass, and many broadleaf annual, biennial, and 

perennial weeds such henbit, chickweed, dandelion, lambsquarter, nettle, wild carrot, 

burdock, hairy nightshade, mustards, common purslane, morningglory, plantains, 

ragweed, cocklebur, nutsedge, and redroot pigweed. Animal pest problems include 

meadow voles, birds, squirrels, deer, raccoons, bears, and rabbits.

Proposed oilseed commodities that are being added to the crop group share many of 

the same pest problems because of their similar cultural practices and their highly 

desirable seeds to many pests. 

The three subgroups also share many similar pest problems. From the available 

information collected, major pest species associated with the Rapeseed Subgroup are 

insect pests such as aphids, Aster leafhopper, flea beetles diamondback moth; cabbage 

seedpod weevil, crucifer flea beetle, armyworm, cutworms, grasshoppers, blister beetles, 

cabbage aphids, and lygus bugs; diseases such as Aster yellows, root rot, Sclerotinia stalk 

rot, black leg disease (Leptosphaeria maculans), Sclerotinia stem rot, Alternaria black 

spot, white rust, and downy mildew; and weeds including annual grass weeds, annual 

broadleaf weeds and perennial weeds such as Canada thistle, barnyardgrass, and wild 

oats. Seed treatments are also necessary for the subgroups. The Sunflower subgroup: has 

insect pests such as cutworms, grasshoppers, mole crickets, scabs, sunflower head moth, 

wireworm, maggot, sunflower beetles, spotted sunflower stem weevil, and banded 

sunflower moth; diseases such as Sclerotinia diseases (stem and root rots), Rhizopus head 

rot, red rust (Puccinia helianthi) , Alternaria diseases (leaf spots), mildew, white mold, 

and weeds including foxtail species, kochia, wild mustard, lambsquarter, thistle, and 

some annual weed species. Stem borers, foliage eaters, bollworm, aphids, whiteflies, 

leafworm, bird control is difficult. Also viruses like aster yellow virus, and tobacco curl 

virus. Weeds are a major problem for reducing sunflower yields. Birds are major pests 

by eating the exposed seeds, deer, rabbits, and mice are also pests. The Cottonseed 

subgroup pests include insects such as boll weevil, bollworm, fleahoppers, aphids, and 

thrips, as well as some occasional species such as cutworms, beet armyworms, spider 

mites, and other foliage feeders; diseases such as bacterial blight, cotton root rot, 

Fusarium wilt, and nematodes; and weeds including winter annuals, summer annuals, and 

perennials species.

Information on pest problems in some of the other members of the oilseed crop 

group is:

Niger seed has many weed pest problems including grassy and broadleaf weeds. 

Leaf eating caterpillars, aphids, mole crickets, grasshoppers, and cutworms are often 

pests. Bollworms and leaf worms, thrips and aphids may damage the flower head. 
58

Diseases include leaf spots (Cercospora and Alternaria spp.). Also bacterial blight 

(Pseudomonas spp.) and a root rot (Phytophthora spp.) and powdery mildew has been 

reported as problems. Birds are also pests to the exposed seed heads. 

Jojoba – Weed control is needed during establishment of the crop. Insect pests are 

scales, mealy bugs, and false cinch bugs, browsing animals are a threat as well as rodents 

that eat the seeds, and ants that remove leaves of seedlings. Fusarium spp. and 

Phytophthora spp. can be very damaging seedling diseases. 

Castor oil plant - seedling diseases need control similar to other oilseeds such as 

Fusarium spp., Fusarium spp., and Phytophthora spp. Leaf spots and rust diseases can 

cause damage. Southeastern U.S. seed capsules and cotton root rot are attacked by

Alternaria spp. and Botryris spp. Weeds are major problem when establishing crop, 

especially for dwarf varieties. It is attacked by many insect pests such as the sucking 

bugs, stem borers, cutworms, mole crickets and grasshoppers, bollworms. 

Crambe – false cinch bug, moths, flea beetle aphids, lygus bug, similar to canola in 

pest problems like clubroot, stem rot, leaf black spot weeds such as ragweed, pigweed, 

kochia, lambsquarter, and foxtail can be a major problem, as well as being susceptible to 

turnip mosaic virus. 

Flax - has weeds such as both grassy and broadleaf as a major problem. Disease 

problems include rust, wilt, root rot, seedling blight and aster yellows. Common insect 

pests are cutworms, armyworms, wireworms, aphids, aster leafhopper, mites, grubs, 

tarnished plant bug, grasshopper, and the beet webworm. 

Gold of Pleasure – pest problems include downy mildew, turnip mosaic virus, flea 

beetle, and the same weed problems as canola. Weed problems include wild mustards 

sow thistle, and the perennial and biennial weeds are harder to control. 

Mustard seed – pests include seedpod weevil, aphid, cutworm, wireworms, cabbage 

maggot, looper, and several annual and perennial broadleaf weeds and grasses. 

Meadowfoam – flies (Scaptomyza) , grey mold (Botrytis cinerea) and weeds need to 

be controlled. 

Oil radish has several fungal diseases such as clubfoot and insects such as cabbage 

root maggot and the flea beetle.
59

Safflower – aphids, lygus bugs, mites, leafworm (Spordoptera litura) attacks lower 

leaves; cutworms (Agrotis spp.) stem borers can also cause significant damage, 

bollworms are common pests. Plant parasites occasionally cause important (Orobanche 

spp.) Diseases wide range of seed and leaf diseases such as rusts (Puccinia spp.), root 

rots (Phytopthora spp.), leaf spots Alternaria spp., Cercospora spp.), Verticillium and 

Fusarium wilt, damping off (Pythium spp.) Viruses such as cucumber mosaic, aster 

yellows, and nematodes such as root knot. 

Sesame pests – weeds include grassy like crabgrass and Johnsongrass and broadleaf 

weeds like groundcherry. Sesame attacked by many insects that like flower head and 

fruit and foliage eaters. Cutworms widespread, rasshoppers, stem borers, leafworms, 

thrips, white fly, green peach aphids, caterpillars and moths attack flower heads, aphids 

attack all growth stages, and as virus vectors, leafhoppers, whiteflies the most 

economically important pests are those that attack flowers, fruit, or seed. Stink buds 

attack developing seed capsules. Storage pests are a problem to stored seed such as the 

red flour beetle, khapa beetle and the tropical warehouse beetle. Diseases Cotton root rot 

(Phymatotrichum omnivorum) and other root rots (Fusarium spp., Phytopthora spp, 

bacterial leaf spots (Pseudomonas sesami) is a worldwide pest, bacterial leaf spot 

(Alternaria sesami)and Cercospora leaf spot wilts by Fusarium oxysporum, blight, 

charcoal; rot, stem anthracnose , mildew, Phyllody virus deforms flowers, little leaf 

disease.

Stokes aster – susceptible to head blight (Botrytis cinerea) and leaf spot, powdery

mildew, aphids, white flies, and mosaic virus. 

CROP ROTATIONS:

Crop rotations are important for the oilseed crop group to help reduce weed 

problems and disease and insect severity, and essential to promote integrated pest 

management (IPM) practices. 

Typical crop rotations for the proposed oilseed crops in the United States are listed 

in Table 14.
60

Table 14. Typical Crop Rotations for the Proposed Oilseed Crops in the United States. 

OILSEED COMMODITY ROTATIONS NOTES

Canola Canola follows cereal grains such 

as corn or wheat or fallow. 

Up to a four year rotation is 

recommended to avoid pest 

problems. Avoid planting 

sunflower, dry bean, other 

Brassicas, and chickpea before 

canola. Recommended crop 

rotations for weeds in canola are 

to rotate with crops that have 

different life cycles; for root 

maggots, Sclerotinia, Alternaria, 

staghorn, brown girdling rot, and 

blackleg grow not more than one 

year in every four. 

Castor oil plant Field crops such as corn. Do not plant more than two years 

in the same field.

Cotton Rotate to corn or wheat or 

soybean, sudangrass, sorghum, 

alfalfa, onion, or fallow.

Fallow commonly used in 

dryland areas. Three year 

rotations can be cotton, winter 

legume, corn, and then soybean. 

Crambe Rotate with wheat.

Flax Corn, small grains, forage 

legume, buckwheat should 

precede flax. 

Use at least a three year rotation 

before replanting to flax. Do not 

follow potatoes, canola, or sugar 

beets.

Gold of Pleasure Rotate follow a small grain crop 

like wheat.

Use 3 – 4 year rotations to avoid 

pest buildups. 

Lunaria Rotate with wheat

Meadowfoam Rotate with a grass seed crop.

Mustard seed Rotate with wheat or any other 

small grain

Avoid rotations with flax, canola, 

clover, soybean, lentil, and 

sunflower.

Niger seed Rotated to corn or millet or 

follows a rice crop or dry pea or 

bean. 

Often grown two – three years in 

a row then rotated.

Oil Radish Can only be grown in same field 

for two years before rotating to 

non-Brassica crops. Rotate with 

snap beans. Rotate after wheat, 

rye, potato, celery, or cucumber.

Do not rotate to any Brassica crop 

group 5 members. 

Safflower Wheat, barley or millet, grasses, 

corn, rice, cotton, follows fallow. 

Do not plant after grain sorghum. 

In San Joaquin Valley commonly 

rotated to cotton. Use in three 

year crop rotations.

Sesame Cotton, peanut, wheat, alfalfa, 

sorghum, or soybean.

Recommend using 2 – 3 year 

rotations with sesame. 

Sunflower Wheat then sunflower or wheatfallow and then sunflower. 

Frequent with cereal grain such 

as wheat, soybean, safflower, 

sorghum, legumes, and corn.
61

COMPARISON OF POTENTIAL RESIDUE LEVELS:

Magness, Markle, and Compton in 1971 classified food and feed crops based on 

predicting the potential for pesticide residues based on exposure of the edible parts to 

applied pesticides, which led to the development of the crop groups. The oilseeds were 

classified in the Edible Food Oil Crop Category I and II. Category I and II includes the 

food oil crops in which the source of oil is the seeds. Category I oil crops have the seeds 

completely enclosed in capsules, pods, or other plant structures during development. 

These include castor oil plant, rapeseed and canola, cottonseed oil, flax, seed, mustard 

seed, and sesame seed. Category II oil crops have the seeds partially exposed during 

development and include sunflower and safflower. One would expect pesticide residues 

to be similar in most of the members of the oilseed crop group, and distinct oilseed crop 

subgroups may be based on potential of residue to be deposited on the seed. 

We expect that all proposed members of the oilseed crop group will have similar 

residue levels based on similarities of the raw agricultural commodities (RAC’s), cultural 

practices, and pest problems. A comparison of established tolerances on oilseed 

commodities also supports that residue levels will be similar between members of the 

group (See Tables 15, 16, 17, and 18). 

Rapeseed, sunflower, and cottonseed represent over 95% of the acreage of the 

crops in this group and they also tend to be an equal or more conservative estimate of 

tolerances and potential residues. Based on existing tolerances in 40 CFR, a comparison 

of these tolerances for the representative commodities is listed in Table 15, and for the 

Canadian MRL’s in Table 16. Table 17 compares established tolerances between 

members (canola, borage, flax, and mustard) of the proposed Rapeseed crop subgroup 

20A. In all cases the tolerance levels for the representative commodity rapeseed, canola 

varieties were identical or higher than the other three commodities in the subgroup. 

Table 18 compares established tolerances between members (sunflower and safflower) of 

the proposed Sunflower crop subgroup 20B. Again, in all cases the tolerance levels for 

the representative commodity sunflower were higher than the other member of the 

subgroup safflower. Some of the differences in tolerances is caused by dissimilar use 

patterns (preharvest vs. postharvest) with the 8.0 ppm being associated with a postharvest 

application while the rest are preharvest applications. The glyphosate tolerance for 

rapeseed at 10.0 ppm, but this is greater than 5X. However, the use patterns for 

glyphosate are not similar, since it was established for use on “Roundup-Ready Canola,” 

which is applied directly on the plant as opposed to directed spray in the row middles. 
62

Table 15. MRLs Established in U.S. on Representative Oilseed Crops 

Compound Rapeseed

(Canola)

Sunflower Cotton, 

undelinted 

seed

Azoxystrobin 1 0.5 0.02

Bifenthrin 0.05 - 0.5

Boscalid 3.5; 5 (oil) 0.6 -

Carbaryl - 1 5

Carfentrazoneethyl

0.1 0.1 0.2

Clethodim 0.5; 1 (meal) 5; 10 (meal) 1, 2 (meal)

Clopyralid 3; 6 (meal) 3 -

Cyfluthrin 1, 2 (oil) 0.02 -

Deltamethrin 2.5 0.1 0.04

Endosulfan 0.2 2 1

EPTC - 0.1 0.1

Ethalfluralin 0.05 0.05 -

Fludioxonil 0.01, 0.01 (meal) 0.01 0.05

Glyphosate 10; 15 (meal) 0.1 35

Imidacloprid 0.05 0.05 6, 8 (meal)

Lambda 

cyhalothrin

1, 2 (oil) 0.2, 0.3 (oil) 0.05

Malathion - 8 2

Metalaxyl - 0.1 0.1

Methidathion - 0.5 0.2

Methyl 

parathion

0.2 0.2 0.75

Oxadiyl - 0.1 0.1

Paraquat 

dichloride

- 2 0.5

Pendimethalin - 0.1 0.1

Phosphine - 0.1 0.1

Sethoxydim 35, 40 (meal) 7; 20 (meal) 5

Tebufenozide 2, 4 (meal) - 1.5

Thiamethoxam 0.02 0.02 0.1

Tralomethrin - 0.5 0.2

Tribenuron 0.02 - 0.02

Trifluralin 0.05 0.05 0.05
63

Table 16. MRLs Established in Canada on Oilseed Crops.



Compound Rapeseed 

(Canola)

Flax 

seed

Mustard 

seed

Sunflower

Clethodim 0.05 0.30 0.40 0.20

Difenoconazole 0.03 – 0.05 –

Diquat 1.00 0.50 1.00 0.05

Fluazifop-butyl – 0.20 0.30 –

Fludioxonil 0.01 0.05 0.05

Glyphosate 10.00 3.00 –

Imidacloprid 0.05 – 0.05 –

Lambda-cyhalothrin

0.30 

(seed); 

0.50 (oil)

0.02

– –

Metalaxyl 0.10 – 0.10 0.10

Quizalofop-ethyl 0.05 0.05

Sethoxydim – 0.20 2.00 7.00

Tepraloxydim – 0.10 – –

Thifensulfuron-methyl 0.02 0.02 – –

Tribenuron-methyl 0.02 0.02

Trimethylsulfonium cation 10.00 3.00 – –

Table 17. Tolerance Comparison Between Members of the Rapeseed Subgroup 20A. 

(Based on 40 CFR Part 180, and EPA OPPIN 8/11/2006). 

Compound Rapeseed 

(Canola)

Borage Flax seed Mustard seed

Acetamiprid 0.01 – – 0.01

Boscalid 3.5; 5 (meal) – 3.5 –

Carfentrazone-ethyl 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Clethodim 0.5; 1 (meal) - 0.5; 1 (meal) 0.5

Clopyralid 3; 6 (meal) - 3; 6 (meal) 3

Endosulfan 0.2 - - 0.2

Fludioxonil 0.01 - 0.05 -

Glyphosate 10; 15 (meal) 0.1 8; 4 (meal) 0.1

Imidacloprid 0.05 - - 0.05

Lambda cyhalothrin 0.1 - 0.1 -

Methyl parathion 0.2 - 0.2 0.2

Sethoxydim 35, 40 (meal) 6.0, 10 (meal) 5; 7 (meal) -

Thiamethoxam 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02

Thifensulfuron 0.02 - 0.02 -

Tribenuron 0.02 - 0.02 -

Trifluralin 0.05 - - 0.05

 



For the purposes of comparison this list only includes MRLs on multiple commodities for each ingredient.
64

Table 18. Tolerance Comparison Between Members of the Sunflower

Subgroup 20B. (Based on 40 CFR Part 180, and EPA OPPIN 8/11/2006).

Compound Sunflower* Safflower

Aluminum 

phosphide

0.1 0.1

4-Aminopyridine 0.1 0.1

Azoxystrobin 0.5 0.5

Carbamothioic 

acid, dipropyl-, Sethyl ester

0.1 0.01

Carfentrazoneethyl0.1 0.1

Endosulfan 2 0.2

EPTC 0.1 0.1

Ethalfluralin 0.05 0.05

Fludioxonil 0.01 0.01

Glyphosate 0.1 0.1

Imidacloprid 0.1 0.1

Malathion 8 (postharvest) 0.2

Methidathion 0.5 0.5

Paraquat 

dichloride

2 0.05

Phosphine 0.1 0.1

Sethoxydim 0.1 0.1

S-Metolachlor 0.5 0.1

Tebuconazole 0.5; 1 0.1

Thiamethoxam 0.3 0.02

Thifensulfuron 0.02 0.02

Trifluralin 0.05 0.05

* Representative commodity for Crop subgroup 20B.
65

REQUIRED NUMBER OF CROP FIELD TRIALS FOR CROP GROUP 20 AND 

COMPARISON OF EPA CROP PRODUCTION REGIONS WITH THE NAFTA 

CROP PRODUCTION REGIONS:

A reevaluation of crop production data fro the 2002 USDA Agricultural Census 

shows that the new Oilseed crop group 20 may require additional field trials because the 

acreage for sunflower, canola, cotton, and flax has increase significantly from the 1991 

data used in the current field trial guidelines (EPA OPPTS 860.1500). The proposed 

number of crop field trials for Crop group 20 Oilseed, as well as the required number of 

crop field trials for Crop subgroups 20A, 20B, and 20C is listed in Tables 19, 20 and 21, 

respectively. 

Table 19. Minimum Number of Field Trials and Minimum Number of Treated 

Samples for Individual Oilseed Crops [OPPTS 860.1500, Table 2). 

Oilseed Commodity Minimum Number of 

Residue Field Trials

Minimum Number of Treated Samples

Sunflower** 8 in current 

guidelines needs to 

be raised to 12*

16 raise to 24

Rapeseed* 3 6

Canola* 8 in current 

guidelines may need 

to be raised to 12*

based on new 

AGCensus data.

16 may be raised to 24

Cotton 12 in current 

guidelines may need 

to be raised to 16 

based on new 

AGCensus data.

24 may be raised to 36

Flax 5 in current 

guidelines may need 

to be raised to 8 

based on new 

AGCensus data.

10 may be raised to 16

Safflower 5 10

Sesame 3 6

* Rapeseed non-canola varieties need 3 field trials and canola varieties need 8 field trials.

** Attachment 7. Methodology for Determining Number of Field Trials, in Appendix A 

of the EPA OPPTS 860.1500 Crop Field Trials.
66

The oilseed crops in this group are adapted best to the cool temperate growing 

season areas of the US. Generally, all of these oilseed crops are grown as annuals, 

primarily in the upper Midwest (U S EPA Crop Group Regions 5 and 7), which are 

adjacent to the areas where these crops are grown in Canada. These crops are well 

adapted to the semiarid cropping areas of the northern and central Great Plains. 

Specifically, for canola greater than 92 % of the US crop is grown in EPA regions 5 and 

7 (B. Schneider, 1999), and these adjoin Canadian regions 5A, 5B, 7, 7A, 9, 11, and 14 

which contain about 98% of the Canadian canola acreage. For sunflowers, about 93% of 

the U.S. crop is grown in EPA Regions 5 and 7. These regions correspond to Canadian 

regions 5, 5A, 5B, 7, 7A, and 14 which account for about 99% of Canadian sunflower 

acreage. 

Table 20. Required Number of Field Trials for Oilseed Commodities to Establish An

Oilseed Crop Group 20. (40 CFR 180.41) [OPPTS 860.1500, Table 2). 

Representative 

Commodity

Number of Field Trials for 

Commodities if Not Part of 

the Crop Group

Number of Field Trials for 

Commodities as Part of the 

Crop Group Based on 2002 

AGCensus

Rapeseed (canola varieties 

only)

8 in current guidelines 

needs to be raised to 12*

9

Sunflower 8 in current guidelines 

needs to be raised to 12*

9

Cotton 12 9

Total 28* updated to 36 Was 28 updated to 27 

* Attachment 7. Methodology for Determining Number of Field Trials, in Appendix A of 

the EPA OPPTS 860.1500 Crop Field Trials.

Table 21. Required Number of Field Trials for Crop Subgroup 20A, 20B, and 20C. 

(40 CFR 180.41) [OPPTS 860.1500, Table 3). 

Crop 

Subgroup

Representative 

Commodity

Production Acres 

2002

Number of Field 

Trials

20A Rapeseed (Canola 

varieties only) 

 1,208,251 8 in current 

guidelines may need 

to be raised to 12*

20B Sunflower (oilseed 

varieties) 

 1,833,435 8 in current 

guidelines needs to 

be raised to 9*

20C Cotton 12,456,162 12

* Attachment 7. Methodology for Determining Number of Field Trials, in Appendix A of 

the EPA OPPTS 860.1500 Crop Field Trials.
67

Table 22A. EPA Crop Production Regions for the Oilseed Crop. Representative 

Commodities (*) for the Crop Group.

Commodity** 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Borage X X X X X X X

Canola* X X

Castor oil X X X X X

Chinese 

tallowtree

X X X X X X

Cottonseed* X X X X X

Crambe X X X

Cuphea X X X

Echium X X X

Euphorbia X X X X X X

Evening 

primrose

X X X X X X X X X X

Flax seed X X

Gold of 

pleasure

X X X X X XX X X

Hare’s ear 

mustard

X X X X X X X X X X X

Jojoba X X X X

Lesquerella X X X X X

Lunaria X X X X X X X

Meadowfoam X X X X X

Milkweed X X X X X X X

Mustard seed X X X

Niger seed

Oil radish X X X X X X X

Poppy seed X X X X X X X X X X X

Rapeseed* X X

Rose hip X X X X X X X X

Safflower X X

Sesame X X

Stokes aster X X X

Sunflower* X X X

Sweet rocket X X X X X X X X X X X

Tallowwood X

Tea oil plant

Vernonia X X X X X X X X

** Commodities that are not representative commodities have field trial regions generally 

based on the USDA Plants Database, 2006. 
68

Table 22B. NAFTA Field Production Regions for the Oilseed Crop Group. 

Representative Commodities (*) for the Crop Group.

Commodity 1 1a 2 3 4 5 5a 5b 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 14

Canola* X X X X

Flaxseed X X X

Mustard 

seed

X X

Safflower X X

Sunflower* X X X

The NAFTA Regions (Table 22B) vary some from the EPA Crop Production 

Regions by having three additional regions (Region 1a, 5b, 14). The NAFTA Regions 

are currently being updated, and any regional differences may be lessened with the new 

update. Any conflict in testing between regions can generally be resolved by having the 

ChemSAC review the test protocol regions before residue trials are initiated and any 

differences can be resolved by the International Crop Grouping Consulting Committee 

(ICGCC). 

Table 22 C. EPA Crop Production Regions Suggested Distribution of the Oilseed Crop 

Field Trials > 3. Representative Commodities (*) for the Crop Group.

Commodity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Canola – 8 

trials*

4 4

Canola - 6 

trials* 

3 3

Cottonseed*-

12 trials 

3 3 1 4 1

Cottonseed*-

9 trials

2 2 1 3 1

Rapeseed 1 2

Safflower 2 3

Sesame seed 3

Sunflower* -

8 trials

4 3 1

Sunflower* -

6 trials

3 2 1
69

AVAILABILITY AND STORAGE LIFE OF THE OILSEED CROP GROUP 

MEMBERS IN THE MARKETPLACE:

The oil from the oilseed crops is plentiful enough to be available in the marketplace for 

the entire year. Oils are sensitive to heat, light, and exposure to air. They are best stored 

in a refrigerator after opening the container. Refined oils that are high in monosaturated 

fats can be stored up to one year, while refined oils high in polyunsaturated acids can be 

stored for about six months. Specific food uses for the oilseeds are discussed under the 

Comparison of harvesting, raw agricultural commodity (RAC), edible portions, and 

processed food item section of this report. 

COOKING PREPARATION AND COOKING METHODS FOR THE OILSEED 

CROP GROUP:

Oilseeds are a source of edible cooking oil and are liquid at room temperature. 

Saturated fats are unhealthy in excess, but small amounts of these oils are essential. 

Unsaturated fats include monosaturated and polyunsaturated oils are generally considered 

healthy oils. 

The culinary uses of oilseed crops are used in cooking, baking, condiments, 

sautéing, sauce, flavoring, flavoring, margarine, salad dressings, fried products, and 

shortenings. Characteristics of the cooking oils are listed in Table 23, while Figure 2 

shows comparison of the dietary fats and their fatty acid contents for some of the 

oilseeds. Smoke points are the temperature, at which the oil begins to smoke, become 

discolored, and decompose and will burn the food. The smoke point can vary by the type 

of test used to evaluate it. 

Table 23. Types of Some of the Edible Oils and Their Characteristics (Adapted from 

Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org), the Canola Organization, and Cooking for Engineers 

(http://www.cookingforengineers.com).. 

Type of Oil 

or Fat

Saturated 

fat

Monounsaturated fat Polyunsaturated fat Smoke 

point* 

Uses

Canola oil 6% 62% 32% 238°C 

(460°F)

Frying, baking, 

sautéing, salad 

dressings

Corn, oil** 13% 27% 60% 232°C 

(450°F)

Frying, stir fry, 

grill, broil, 

baking, salad 

dressing, 

margarine, 

shortening

Cottonseed 

oil

24% 26% 50% 216°C 

(420°F)

Margarine, 

shortening, 

salad dressings, 
70

commercially 

fried products

Flax seed oil 9% 16% 75% 107°C 

(225°F)

Cooking, 

frying, salad 

dressing, 

condiment

Margarine, 

hard

80% 14% 16% 150-

160°C 

(300-

320°F)

Cooking, 

baking, 

condiment

Margarine, 

soft

20% 47% 33% 150-

160°C 

(300-

320°F)

Cooking, 

baking, 

condiment

Olive oil** 14% 77% 9% 190°C 

(375°F)

Frying, 

cooking, broil, 

grill, stir frying, 

salad dressings, 

condiments

Peanut oil** 19% 51% 30% 232°C 

(450°F)

Baking, grilling, 

stir frying, 

sautéing, deep 

frying, 

margarine

Safflower, 

oil

10% 13% 77% 265°C 

(509°F)

Cooking, 

baking, frying, 

salad dressings, 

margarine

Sesame seed 

oil

13% 46% 41% 210°C 

(410°F)

Stir frying, 

sautéing, 

baking, salad 

dressing, 

marinades.

Soybean, 

oil**

15% 24% 61% 241°C 

(466°F)

Cooking, stir 

frying, sautéing, 

baking, broil, 

grilling, salad 

dressings, 

margarine, 

shortening

Sunflower, 

oil

11% 20% 69% 246°C 

(475°F)

Cooking, 

baking, frying, 

sautéing, salad 

dressings, 

margarine, 

shortening

* There is a general lack of consensus on the smoke points of many popular oils, as well as a lack of 

standardization for qualifiers such as "refined". Empirical tests are heavily dependent on the qualities of 

the particular samples (brand, composition, process) available, but appear to be the major source of 

available data. A crude guide is that lighter, more refined oils have higher smoke points.

** Olive and soybean while not part of the proposed Oilseed crop group 20 are in the Table for comparison 

use only.
71

CHANGES TO EPA DATABASES:

The proposed new Oilseed Crop Group 20 will affect the need to update many

Risk Assessment Models, Residue Chemistry Guidelines, OPP databases, and/or HED 

Standard Operating Procedures (SOP).

The affected EPA databases may include the following:

(1) Risk Assessment Models - The terminology in the Food Exposure Modules of 

our current Risk assessment Models from DEEM-FCID, Lifeline, and Cares will need to 

be updated to reflect new terminology and the new Crop Group terminology.

(2) EPA Residue Chemistry Test Guidelines (OPPTS 860.1000, Background),

Table 1 Raw Agricultural and Processed Commodities and Feedstuffs Derived from 

Crops and EPA Residue Chemistry Test Guidelines (OPPTS 860.1000, Background), 

EPA Residue Chemistry Test Guidelines (OPPTS 860.1500, Crop Field Trials), Table 5 

Suggested Distribution of Field Trials by Region for Crops Requiring > 3 trials and Table 

6 Regional Distribution of Crop Production. 

Any differences between the EPA and NAFTA Crop Production Regions after the 

NAFTA Regions are updated will be addressed by the ICCGR Workgroup. The EPA 

Residue Chemistry Test Guidelines (OPPTS 860.1500, Crop Field Trials) Table 5 

Suggested Distribution of Field Trials by Region for Crops Requiring >3 trials and Table 

6 Regional Distribution of Crop Production will be updated to reflect more recent crop 

production information. 

(3) Health Effects Division Standard Operating Procedures: HED SOP 99.3 -–

“Translation of Monitoring Data” issued March 26, 1999. This policy provides guidance 

on translating pesticide monitoring data from one commodity to other similar 

commodities. The policy is based on the crop groupings in the 40 CFR 180.41.

Members of the Oilseed crop group were not included in the policy and this 

policy does not need to be updated at this time.

(4) HED SOP 99.6 - “Classification of Food Forms with Respect to Level of Blending” 

issued August 20, 1999. This SOP provides rationale and guidance to HED on revised 

criteria for inputting residue values and pesticide usage information into acute dietary

exposure and risk assessments based on commodities. These revisions permit the 

Agency to more fully utilize data generated by the USDA Pesticide Data Program.
72

Some of the Oilseed crop group members are included in the HED SOP 99.6. See 

Table below. Other members not in the original SOP will need to be added to the HED 

SOP 99.6. All of the oils are considered refined and blended, while the seeds can be 

uncooked, cooked, baked, or boiled.

TABLE 24. Classification of Food Forms with Respect to Level of Blending for the 

Oilseed Crop Group. (HED SOP 99.6). 

COMMODITY FOOD FORM CLASSIFICATION

Castor bean 12 - Cooked : NFS B - blended

Cottonseed, meal 13 - Baked B - blended

Cottonseed, oil 98 - Refined B - blended

Safflower, seed 11 - Uncooked B - blended

Safflower, oil 98 - Refined B - blended

Sesame, seed 11 - Uncooked B - blended

Sesame, seed 13 - Baked B - blended

Sesame, seed 14 – Boiled B - blended

Sesame, seed 42 – Frozen: Cooked B - blended

Sesame, oil 98 - Refined B - blended

Sunflower, seed 11 - Uncooked PB – Partially blended

Sunflower, seed 13 - Baked PB – Partially blended

Sunflower, oil 98 - Refined B - blended

(5) HED SOP 2000.1 – “Guidance for Translation of Field Trial Data from 

Representative Commodities in the Crop Group Regulation to Other Commodities in 

Each Crop Group/Subgroup” issued September 12, 2000.

There is no guidance in the SOP for the new Oilseed crop group, so the following 

guidance for translation of the representative commodities to other members of the 

group/subgroups will be provided below:
73

Crop Group 20: Oilseed

Representative Commodities: Rapeseed (canola varieties only); Sunflower, and 

Cotton, undelinted seed. 

CROP GROUP COMMODITY REPRESENTATIVE COMMODITY

Borage Rapeseed*

Castor oil plant Sunflower

Chinese tallowtree Sunflower

Cottonseed Cotton, undelinted seed

Crambe Rapeseed*

Cuphea Rapeseed*

Echium Rapeseed*

Euphorbia Sunflower

Evening primrose Sunflower

Flax seed Rapeseed*

Gold of pleasure Rapeseed*

Hare's-ear mustard Rapeseed*

Jojoba Sunflower

Lesquerella Rapeseed*

Lunaria Rapeseed*

Meadowfoam Rapeseed*

Milkweed Rapeseed*

Mustard seed Rapeseed*

Niger seed Sunflower

Oil radish Rapeseed*

Poppy seed Rapeseed*

Rapeseed Rapeseed*

Rose hip Sunflower

Safflower Sunflower

Sesame Rapeseed*

Stokes aster Sunflower

Sunflower Sunflower

Sweet rocket Rapeseed*

Tallowwood Sunflower

Tea oil plant Sunflower

Vernonia Sunflower

* Rapeseed use canola varieties only.

________________________________________________________________________
74

The proposed new translations of field trials from the representative commodities 

to other commodities in the Rapeseed subgroup 20A would be as follows:

Crop Subgroup 20A: Rapeseed subgroup

Representative Commodity: Rapeseed, canola varieties only

CROP SUBGROUP COMMODITY REPRESENTATIVE COMMODITY

Borage Rapeseed*

Crambe Rapeseed*

Cuphea Rapeseed*

Echium Rapeseed*

Flax seed Rapeseed*

Gold of pleasure Rapeseed*

Hare's-ear mustard Rapeseed*

Lesquerella Rapeseed*

Lunaria Rapeseed*

Meadowfoam Rapeseed*

Milkweed Rapeseed*

Mustard seed Rapeseed*

Oil radish Rapeseed*

Poppy seed Rapeseed*

Rapeseed Rapeseed*

Sesame Rapeseed*

Sweet rocket Rapeseed*

* Rapeseed use canola varieties only.

________________________________________________________________________

The proposed new translations of field trials from the representative commodities 

to other commodities in the Sunflower subgroup 20B would be as follows:
75

Crop Subgroup 20B: Sunflower subgroup

Representative Commodity: Sunflower

SUBGROUP COMMODITY REPRESENTATIVE COMMODITY

Castor oil plant Sunflower

Chinese tallowtree Sunflower

Euphorbia Sunflower

Evening primrose Sunflower

Jojoba Sunflower

Niger seed Sunflower

Rose hip Sunflower

Safflower Sunflower

Stokes aster Sunflower

Sunflower Sunflower

Tallowwood Sunflower

Tea oil plant Sunflower

Vernonia Sunflower

________________________________________________________________________

The proposed new translations of field trials from the representative commodities 

to other commodities in the Cottonseed subgroup 20C would be as follows:

Crop Subgroup 20C: Cottonseed subgroup

Representative Commodity: Cottonseed (cotton, undelinted seed)

CROP SUBGROUP COMMODITY REPRESENTATIVE COMMODITY

Cottonseed Cotton, undelinted seed

_____________________________________________________________________
76

(5) Health Effects Division Dry Matter and Seeding Rate Database for the Oilseed Crop 

Group, prepared by Dr’s. NG and B. A. Schneider, June 2006, are shown in Table 24 

below:

Table 25. Health Effects Division Dry Matter and Seeding Rate Database. 

Oilseed Crop Group. Prepared by Dr’s. NG and B. A. Schneider. June 2006. 

Commodity % Dry Matter

Canola, seed 90.0, 91.0, 92.0

Canola, meal 88.0, 89.0, 90.0, 90.4

Canola, refined oil 0.0

Castor oil plant 92.0, 92.9, 93.5, 94.2, 94.9, 

95.5, 96.9

Cotton, undelinted seed 88.0, 91.0

Cotton, meal 89.0

Cotton, refined oil 0.0

Cotton, hulls 90.0

Cotton gin, byproducts 90.0

Crambe, seed 93.5

Flax, seed 96.0

Flax, meal 88.0, 90.0

Jojoba, seed 95.3

Mustard seed, meal 93.0

Niger seed 92.2, 93.8, 94.0, 94.5 

Rapeseed, seed 90.0, 91.0, 92.0

Rapeseed, meal 88.0, 90.0

Rapeseed, forage 30.0

Safflower, seed 93.0, 94.0, 94.3

Safflower, meal 91.0, 92.0

Safflower, refined oil 0.0

Safflower, hay 91.0

Sesame seed 94.3, 94.6, 95.0

Sesame meal 92.0

Sesame, flour, high fat 98.9

Sesame, flour, low fat 92.9

Sesame, oil 0.0

Sunflower, seed 93.0, 95.0

Sunflower, meal 92.0

Sunflower, refined oil 0.0
77

CODEX CLASSIFICATION OF PROPOSED COMMODITIES AND EPA FOOD 

AND FEED COMMODITY VOCABULARY: See Table 26. Comparison of Oilseed 

Crop Groups: CODEX (023) and EPA (20) (Data prepared by Dr’s. Yuen-Shaung 

NG, Hong Chen, and Dr. Bernard A. Schneider, US EPA and USDA IR-4, 2004, 

2006).

EPA is proposing 31 commodities for the Oilseed Crop Group, and CODEX has a 

current Oilseed crop group 23, which has 28 commodity terms. Sixteen CODEX 

commodity terms match those in the proposed EPA Food and Feed Commodity

Vocabulary (See Table 26). CODEX has nine commodities in their group that will be 

considered by EPA as members of other crop groups such as the tropical /subtropical fruit 

groups. Borage is classified by CODEX as an herb (HH 723) and a dried vegetable (DH 

724). CODEX at the time only had borage leaves as a commodity, since then its edible 

oil has become a commercial product. Crambe is also not in the CODEX system and is a 

fairly new crop. In addition the proposed EPA Oilseed Crop Group has fifteen 

commodities not in the CODEX Oilseed Group. In the next proposed revision to the 

CODEX Classification of Foods and Animal Feeds we would expect both to be 

considered as an oilseed crop. Therefore, this proposal will not only increase 

harmonization with the Canadian and NAFTA crop grouping system, but it is compatible 

with the international system of CODEX. The Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 

placed increased emphasis on using CODEX MRLs in setting U. S. tolerances for 

pesticides.

The individual listing of the oilseed commodities (Group 23-SO) for the CODEX 

classification is as follows: flax, seed is listed as linseed (SO 693); mustard, seed is SO 

485; field mustard seed is SO 694; Indian mustard seed is SO 478; Indian rapeseed is SO 

4721; rapeseed is SO 495; safflower seed is SO 699; sunflower seed is SO 0702.

Table 26. EPA/Codex Oilseeds Group Comparison 

(Based on Ng and Schneider, 2006).

Codex 

Group 

#

Codex Commodity Name Current 

EPA 

Group #

Proposed 

EPA Group 

#

EPA Commodity Name

023 Colza, see rape seed 99 20 Rapeseed

023 Colza, Indian, see mustard 

seed, field

99 20 Rapeseed

023 Cotton seed 99 20 Cotton, undelinted seed

023 Flax-seed, see linseed 99 20 Flax, seed

023 Linseed 99 20 Flax, seed

023 Mustard seed 19 20 Mustard, seed

023 Mustard seeds19 20 Mustard, seed

023 Mustard seed, field* 99 20 Rapeseed, seed

023 Mustard seed, Indian1* 19 20 Mustard, seed

023 Niger seed 99 20 Niger seed, seed

 

 Duplicated commodities.
78

Codex 

Group 

#

Codex Commodity Name Current 

EPA 

Group #

Proposed 

EPA Group 

#

EPA Commodity Name

023 Poppy seed* 19 20 Poppy, seed

023 Rape seed 99 20 Rapeseed, seed

023 Rape seed, Indian, see mustard 

seed, field*

99 20 Rapeseed

023 Safflower seed 99 20 Safflower, seed

023 Sesame seed 99 20 Sesame, seed

023 Sunflower seed 99 20 Sunflower, seed

NA NA NA 20 Borage

NA NA NA 20 Castor oil plant

NA NA NA 20 Chinese tallowtree

NA NA NA 20 Crambe

NA NA NA 20 Cuphea

NA NA NA 20 Echium

NA NA NA 20 Euphorbia

NA NA NA 20 Evening primrose

NA NA NA 20 Gold of pleasure

NA NA NA 20 Hare's ear mustard

NA NA NA 20 Jojoba

NA NA NA 20 Lesquerella

NA NA MA 20 Lunaria

NA NA NA 20 Meadowfoam

NA NA NA 20 Milkweed

NA NA NA 20 Oil radish

NA NA NA 20 Rose hip

NA NA NA 20 Rose hip

NA NA NA 20 Stokes aster

NA NA NA 20 Sweet rocket

NA NA NA 20 Tallowwood

NA NA NA 20 Tea oil plant

NA NA NA 20 Vernonia

023 Ben moringa seed 99 Tropical/ 

subtropical

Ben moringa seed

023 Coconut, see Group 022: Tree

nuts

99 Tropical/ 

subtropical

Coconut

023 Desert date, see Group 005: 

Assorted tropical and sub-tropic

99 Tropical/ 

subtropical

Date, dried fruit

023 Drumstick tree seed, see ben 

moringa seed

99 Tropical/ 

subtropical

Ben moringa seed

023 Groundnut, see peanut 99 Other group 

to be 

determined

Peanut

023 Horseradish tree seed, see ben 

moringa seed

99 Tropical/ 

subtropical

Ben moringa seed

023 Kapok 99 Tropical/ 

subtropical

Kapok, oil

023 Olive, see Group 005: Assorted 99 Tropical/ Olive
79

Codex 

Group 

#

Codex Commodity Name Current 

EPA 

Group #

Proposed 

EPA Group 

#

EPA Commodity Name

tropical and sub-tropical subtropical

023 Pala nut 99 Tropical/ 

subtropical

Palm, oil

023 Peanut 99 Other group

to be 

determined

Peanut

023 Peanut, whole* 99 Other group Peanut

023 Shea nuts 99 Tropical/ 

subtropical

Shea butter tree

023 Soya bean (dry), see Group

015: Pulses

06 Legume 

vegetables

Soybean, seed

TOLERANCE EXPRESSION GUIDANCE:

Until the Federal Register Notice is issued revising the Crop Group Regulation to 

establish the new Oilseed Crop Group 20 with three Crop subgroups the commodities 

approved for the crop group and subgroups will have to be listed as separate commodities 

at the same tolerance level. This also applied to the new Crop subgroups, the individual 

commodities will have to be listed separately with each at the same tolerance level. 

When ChemSAC approves the new Oilseed crop group 20, the Risk Integration, Minor 

Use, and Emergency Response Branch (RIMUERB) of the Registration Division can 

immediately implement the new Crop Group and Crop Subgroups with new tolerance 

expressions located in the Section F submissions. The seven tolerance expression 

examples will provide an expedited way to establish tolerances in or on oilseed crops, 

especially for new reduced risk pesticides, without requiring additional residue data for 

all the crops noted. This will create a practice in the United States which is already

formalized in Canada and promote international harmonization. Several tolerance 

expression examples for guidance purposes for use by RIMUERB and HED reviewers 

will be listed below:

Example 1. What is the tolerance expression for the new Oilseed Crop Group 

20?

Answer to Example 1:

The tolerance expression for the new Oilseed Crop Group 20 will be “Oilseed 

group 20.”
80

Example 2. What is the correct Section F tolerance expression for the three new 

Oilseed Crop Group Subgroups?

Answer to Example 2:

The tolerance expression for the eight Berry and Small Fruit Crop Group subgroups is as 

follows:

Name of Crop Subgroup Tolerance Expression for the Crop 

Subgroup

Rapeseed subgroup 20A Rapeseed subgroup 20A

Sunflower subgroup 20B Sunflower subgroup 20B

Cottonseed subgroup 20C Cottonseed subgroup 20C

Example 3: How will the Crop group and subgroups appear in the Federal 

Register for the proposed crop group regulation [40CFR 180.41(c)]? This example is for 

the Field and External Affairs Division (FEAD) use in preparing the new Federal 

Register Regulation. The example follows the same format as the current Crop Grouping 

Regulation Federal Register Notice (FR 60, No.95, 5/17/95, 26626-26643). 

Answer to Example 3:

“Crop Group 20: Oilseed Crop Group.

(i) Representative commodities. Rapeseed, canola varieties only;

sunflower, and cottonseed, undelinted seed. 

(ii) Table. The following Table 1 lists all the commodities listed in Crop 

Group 20 and identifies the related crop subgroups and includes cultivars and/or varieties 

of these commodities.

TABLE 1 -Crop Group 20: Oilseed Crop Group

Commodities Related crop 

subgroups

Borage, Borago officinalis (L.) 20A

Castor oil plant, Ricinus communis (L.) 20B

Chinese tallowtree, Triadica sebifera (L.) Small 20B

Cottonseed, Gossypium spp.L. 20C

Crambe, Crambe hispanica L.; Crambe abyssinica Hochst. ex R.E. 

Fr.

20A

Cuphea, Cuphea hyssopifolia Kunth 20A

Echium, Echium plantagineum L 20A

Euphorbia, Euphorbia esula L. 20B

Evening primrose, Oenothera biennis (L.) 20B
81

Commodities Related crop 

subgroups

Flax seed, Linum usitatissimum L. 20A

Gold of pleasure, Camelina sativa L. Crantz 20A

Hare's ear mustard, Conringia orientalis Dumort. 20A

Jojoba, Simmondsia chinensis (Link) C.K. Schneid. 20B

Lesquerella, Lesquerella recurvata (Engelm. ex A. Gray) S. 

Watson

20A

Lunaria, Lunaria annua L. 20A

Meadowfoam, Limnanthes alba Hartw. Ex Benth. 20A

Milkweed, Asclepias spp. L. 20A

Mustard seed, Brassica hirta, spp. 20A

Niger seed, Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass. 20B

Oil radish, Raphanus sativus var. oleiformis Pers 20A

Poppy seed, Papaver somniferum L. subsp. somniferum 20A

Rapeseed, Brassica spp.; Brassica napus L. 20A

Rose hip, Rosa rubiginosa L. 20B

Safflower, Carthamus tinctorious L. 20B

Sesame, Sesamum indicum L.; Sesamum radiatum Schumach. & 

Thonn.

20A

Stokes aster, Stokesia laevis (Hill) Greene 20B

Sunflower, Helianthus annuus L. 20B

Sweet rocket, Hesperis matronalis L. 20A

Tallowwood, Ximenia americana L. 20B

Tea oil plant, Camellia oleifera C. Abel 120B

Vernonia, Vernonia galamensis (Cass.) Less. 20B

(iii) Table. The following Table 2 identifies the crop subgroups for Crop Group 20, 

specifies the representative commodities for each subgroup and lists all the 

commodities included in each subgroup.

TABLE 2 -Crop Group 20: Subgroup Listing

Representative commodities Commodities

Subgroup 20A: Rapeseed subgroup.

Rapeseed, canola varieties only.

Borage, Crambe, Cuphea, Echium, Flax seed, 

Gold of pleasure, Hare's ear mustard, 

Lesquerella, Lunaria, Meadowfoam, Milkweed, 

Mustard seed, Oil radish, Poppy seed, 

Rapeseed, Sesame, Sweet rocket, cultivars 

and/or hybrids of these.

Subgroup 20B: Sunflower.

Sunflower.

Castor oil plant, Chinese tallowtree, Euphorbia, 

Evening primrose/common, Jojoba, Niger seed, 

Rose hip, Safflower, Stokes aster, Sunflower, 

Tallowwood, Tea oil plant, Vernonia.

Subgroup 20C: Cottonseed subgroup.

Cotton, undelinted seed.

Cottonseed
82

Example 4: How will I express the tolerances on an interim basis until the 

Federal Register Notice is final for the Oilseed crop group 20, for example at a tolerance 

level of 1.5 ppm? This example will be useful for the Registration Division (RD) and 

Health Effects Division (HED) to prepare tolerance tables. All the new proposed 

commodities will have to be listed separately from the crop group tolerance and at the 

same level as the crop group.

Answer to Example 4:

Commodity Parts per million (ppm)

Borage, seed 1.5

Castor oil plant, seed 1.5

Chinese tallowtree, seed 1.5

Cotton, undelinted seed 1.5

Crambe, seed 1.5

Cuphea, seed 1.5

Echium, seed 1.5

Euphorbia, seed 1.5

Evening primrose, seed 1.5

Flax, seed 1.5

Gold of pleasure, seed 1.5

Hare's ear mustard, seed 1.5

Jojoba, seed 1.5

Lesquerella, seed 1.5

Lunaria, seed 1.5

Meadowfoam, seed 1.5

Milkweed, seed 1.5

Mustard, seed 1.5

Niger seed, seed 1.5

Oil radish, seed 1.5

Poppy, seed 1.5

Rapeseed, seed 1.5

Rose hip, seed 1.5

Safflower, seed 1.5

Sesame, seed 1.5

Stokes aster, seed 1.5

Sunflower, seed 1.5

Sweet rocket, seed 1.5

Tallowwood, seed 1.5

Tea oil plant, seed 1.5

Vernonia, seed 1.5

Cultivars and/or hybrids of those above commodities 
83

Example 5: How will I express the tolerances on an interim basis until the 

Federal Register Notice is final for the Rapeseed subgroup 20A for example at a 

tolerance level of 1.5 ppm? This example will be useful for the Registration Division 

(RD) and Health Effects Division (HED) to prepare tolerance tables.

Answer to Example 5 for the Rapeseed subgroup 20A:

Commodity Parts per million (ppm)

Borage, seed 1.5

Crambe, seed 1.5

Cuphea, seed 1.5

Echium, seed 1.5

Flax, seed 1.5

Gold of pleasure, seed 1.5

Hare's ear mustard, seed 1.5

Lesquerella, seed 1.5

Lunaria, seed 1.5

Meadowfoam, seed 1.5

Milkweed, seed 1.5

Mustard, seed 1.5

Oil radish, seed 1.5

Poppy, seed 1.5

Rapeseed, seed 1.5

Sesame, seed 1.5

Sweet rocket, seed 1.5

Cultivars and/or hybrids of those above commodities 

Example 6: How will I express the tolerances on an interim basis until the 

Federal Register Notice is final for the Sunflower subgroup 20B, for example at a 

tolerance level of 1.5 ppm? This example will be useful for the Registration Division 

(RD) and Health Effects Division (HED) to prepare tolerance tables.

Answer to Example 6 for the Sunflower subgroup 20B:

Commodity Parts per million (ppm)

Castor oil plant, seed 1.5

Chinese tallowtree, seed 1.5

Euphorbia, seed 1.5

Evening primrose, seed 1.5

Jojoba, seed 1.5

Niger seed, seed 1.5

Rose hip, seed 1.5

Safflower, seed 1.5

Stokes aster, seed 1.5

Sunflower, seed 1.5

Tallowwood, seed 1.5

Tea oil plant, seed 1.5

Vernonia, seed 1.5

Cultivars and/or hybrids of those above commodities 
84

Example 7: How will I express the tolerances on an interim basis until the 

Federal Register Notice is final for the Cottonseed subgroup 20C, for example at a 

tolerance level of 1.5 ppm? This example will be useful for the Registration Division 

(RD) and Health Effects Division (HED) to prepare tolerance tables.

Answer to Example 7 for the Cottonseed subgroup 20C:

Commodity Parts per million 

(ppm)

Cotton, undelinted seed 1.5

EPA FOOD AND FEED COMMODITY VOCABULARY FOR THE OILSEED 

CROP GROUP:

The following terms for the oilseed commodities will be incorporated to the EPA 

Food and Feed Commodity Database (http://www.epa.govopp/foodfeed). The Table 

below is identical to the current Food and Feed Commodity Vocabulary format. A search 

of the lookup terms will link to the EPA preferred tolerance/commodity term, and the 

Base crop/Animal term is the specific crop animal terms associated with the preferred 

term. The tolerance terms for oil, and meal are not listed in this Table, they will be the 

same as the preferred term without the seed, and for example the correct meal term for 

crambe is crambe, meal. Until the Federal Register Notice for the Crop Group is final, 

the Crop Group designation on each term will be listed as no crop group or crop subgroup 

and given the crop group 99 for the present. 

EPA FOOD AND FEED COMMODITY VOCABULARY

SEARCH LOOKUP TERM FOR 

OILSEED COMMODITIES

PREFERRED 

TOLERANCE 

TERM

BASE 

CROP/ANIMAL 

TERM

Borage; Borage, seed; Seed, borage; 

Beebread; Beeplant; Talewort; Borraja; 

Common borage; Borage, common; 

Bourrache; Bouragem; Boretsch; 

Starflower; Gurkenkraut 

Borage, seed Borage

Canola; Canola, seed; Seed, canola; Edible 

oil rape; Rape, edible oil

Canola, seed Canola

Castor, oil plant; Oil, castor; Castorbean; 

Koli; Pa’aila; La’au-’aila; Palma christi; 

Wonder tree; Higuerilla; Ricin; Herba 

Castor oil plant, seed Castor oil plant 
85

SEARCH LOOKUP TERM FOR 

OILSEED COMMODITIES

PREFERRED 

TOLERANCE 

TERM

BASE 

CROP/ANIMAL 

TERM

mora; Castor bean; Bean, castor; Castor; 

Ricino; Rizinus; Kasterolieboom; Tick 

hemp; Mbono; Gulo; Bedanjir; Kiewa; 

Ruvuka; Eranda; Mahung; Pi-ma; Castor 

oil plant, seed

Chinese tallow tree; Tallowtree, Chinese; 

Popcorntree; Candleberry-tree; Tree, 

candleberry a suif; Boire; Arbol del sebo; 

Chinesischer talgbaum; Florida aspen; 

Popcorn tree; Chinese tallowtree, seed

Chinese tallowtree, 

seed

Chinese 

tallowtree

Cottonseed; Cotton, seed; Seed, cotton; 

Cotton, undelinted seed; Undelinted seed, 

cotton; Cotton; Algodonera; Algodon; 

Algodociro Americano; AmericanEgyptian; American pima cotton; Brazilian 

cotton; Egyptian cotton; Gallini cotton; 

Cotton, gallini; Kidney cotton; Peruvian 

cotton; Pima cotton; Sea island cotton; 

Extra-long staple cotton; Long-staple 

cotton; Cottonseed oil; Upland cotton; 

American cotton; American upland cotton; 

Bourbon cotton; Cotton, bourbon; 

Brazilian cotton; Hawaiian cotton; Shortstaple cotton; Arabian cotton;, Lecant 

cotton; Levant cotton; Cotton, levant; 

Coton velu; Cotton des Indes occidentals; 

Oak leaf cotton; Short staple cotton; 

Maltese cotton; Syrian cotton; Tree cotton

Cotton, undelinted seed Cottonseed

Crambe; Crambe, seed; Seed, crambe; 

Colewort; Krambe; Abyssium kale; 

Crambe, seed

Crambe, seed Crambe

Cuphea; Waxweed; Mexican heather; 

Cuphea, seed

Cuphea, seed Cuphea

Echium; Echium oil; Salvation Jane; 

Pattersons curse; Purple vipers bugloss; 

Patersons curse; Riverina bluebell; 

Blueweed; Purple buglosa; Purple bugloss; 

Sonaja; Echium, seed

Echium, seed Echium

Euphorbia; Leafy spurge; Euphorbia, seed Euphorbia, seed Euphorbia

Evening primrose, common; Common

evening primrose; Onagre; Onagra; 

Nachtkerze; German rampion; Tufted 

evening primrose; Evening primrose, seed

Evening primrose, seed Evening primrose

Flax seed; Seed, flax; Flaxseed; Solin; 

Linsed; Saatlein; Linho; Linseed oil; Oil, 

linseed; Lino; Lin; Lein; Flachs; Linaza; 

Flax, seed

Flax, seed Flax
86

SEARCH LOOKUP TERM FOR 

OILSEED COMMODITIES

PREFERRED 

TOLERANCE 

TERM

BASE 

CROP/ANIMAL 

TERM

Gold of pleasure; False flax; Linseed 

dodder; Big seed false flax; Leindotter; 

Camelina; Camelina pilosa; Tea oil 

camellia; Gold of pleasure, seed

Gold of pleasure, seed Gold of pleasure

Hare’s–ear mustard; Mustard, hare’s–ear; 

Hare's-ear cabbage; Orientalischer 

akerkohlnelt; Hare’s ear mustard, seed; 

Hare’s ear mustard

Hare’s ear mustard, 

seed

Hare’s ear 

mustard

Jojoba; Goatnut; Deernut; Bucknut; Pignut; 

Jojoba, seed

Jojoba, seed Jojoba

Lesquerella; Bladderpod; Fendler’s 

bladderpod; Lesquerella, seed

Lesquerella, seed Lesquerella

Lunaria; Honesty; Mongviole; Annual 

honesty; Honesty, annual; Moneyplant; 

Silver penny; Lunaria, seed

Lunaria, seed Lunaria

Meadowfoam; Meadowfoam, seed Meadowfoam, seed Meadowfoam

Milkweed; Common milkweed; Milkweed, 

common; Virginia silk; Algodoncillo; Silky 

swallowwort; Herbe a la ouate; 

Seidenplanze Butterfly milkweed; 

Milkweed, butterfly; Milkweed, seed

Milkweed, seed Milkweed

Mustard, seed; Seed, mustard; Yellow 

mustard; Mustard, yellow; Mustard, seed,

Indian; Indian mustard seed; Seed, Indian 

mustard; Mustard seed; Brown mustard; 

Mustard, brown; Oriental mustard; 

Mustard, oriental; Mustard, seed, field; 

Field mustard seed; Seed, field mustard; 

Brown sarson; Sarson, brown; Toria; 

Indian rape; Rape, Indian; Mustard, seed, 

black; Black mustard seed; Seed, black 

mustard

Mustard, seed Mustard

Niger seed; Seed, Niger; Nug; Neuk; 

Noog; Noug; Ramtil; Niger thistle; 

Abiscini negrillo; Ramtilla; Nigerseed; 

Nigersaat; Kalatil; Karala; Sarguia; Nigrt; 

Niger pea; Niger seed, seed

Niger seed, seed Niger seed

Oil Radish; Fodder radish; Radish, fodder; 

Radis fourrage; Rabano oleaginosor; Oil 

radish, seed

Oil radish, seed Oil radish

Poppy seed; Seed, poppy; Poppy, seed; 

Opium poppy; Oeillette papoula; 

Schlafmohn; Dormideira

Poppy, seed Poppy

Rapeseed, seed; Seed, rapeseed; Colza, 

Colsat

Rapeseed, seed Rapeseed

Rose hip; Hip. Rose; Sweetbrier rose; 

Shakespeare's rose; Eglantine rose; Sweet

Rose hip, seed Rose hip
87

SEARCH LOOKUP TERM FOR 

OILSEED COMMODITIES

PREFERRED 

TOLERANCE 

TERM

BASE 

CROP/ANIMAL 

TERM

Briar; Sweetbriar; Sweetbrier; Wilderoos; 

Rose hip, oil

Safflower; Safflower, seed; Seed, 

safflower; False saffron; Cartamo

Safflower, seed Safflower

Sesame; Sesame seed; Seed, sesame; 

Benne; Benneseed; Beniseed; Simsim; 

Sesamo; Sesame oil; Oil, sesame; Ellu; 

Sesam; Ajonjoli

Sesame, seed Sesame

Stokes aster; Aster, stokes; Cornflower 

aster; Aster, cornflower; Stokes aster, seed

Stokes aster, seed Stokes aster

Sunflower; Sunflower, seed; Seed, 

sunflower; Sunflower seed oil; Oil, 

sunflower seed; Hopi sunflower; 

Sunflower, hopi; Girasol; Polocote; 

Girasole; Sunseed; Sunoil; Sunmeal

Sunflower, seed Sunflower

Sweet rocket; Dame's-violet; Dame's 

rocket Damesviolet, Violette; Garden 

rocket; Damastbloem; Dammask violet; 

Sweet rocket, seed

Sweet rocket, seed Sweet rocket

Tallowwood; Tallow nuts; False 

sandalwood; Monkey Plum; Tallow Nut;

Tallownut; Seaside Plum; Hog plum tree; 

Blue sour plum; Hai tan mu; Mutoywo; 

Mtundakula; Madarau; Miehtta; 

Tallowwood, seed

Tallowwood, seed Tallowwood

Tea oil plant; Oil, tea plant; Lu shan snow;

Camellia; Himalayan; Oltee; Abura –

tsubaki; Tea oil plant, seed

Tea oil plant, seed Tea oil plant

Vernonia; Ironweed; Vernonia oil; 

Vernonia, seed

Vernonia, seed Vernonia
88

REFERENCES:

ADAMS: Adams, J. 1982. Sunflower. National Sunflower Association. Bismarck, North Dakota. 40 pp.

ALBERS: Albers, D.W. 1993. Cotton Plant Development and Plant Mapping. Univ MO State Extension 

Agricultural Publications. G4268. 

AMARICAN MEADOWS: http://www.americanmeadows.com/bulk_ind_detail.cfm?itemid=91

ANONYMOUS 1990: Anonymous. 1990. Cottonseed and Its Products. Ninth Ed. National Cottonseed 

Products Association. Memphis, TN 24pp.

ANONYMOUS 1997a: Anonymous. 1997. Minn-Dak Growers, Ltd. Mustard. Production. MinnDak 

Growers Ltd. 5 pp.

ANONYMOUS 1997b: Anonymous. 1997. Minn-Dak Growers, Ltd. Yellow Mustard Production. 

MinnDak Growers Ltd. 5 pp.

ANONYMOUS 1997b: Anonymous. 1997. Anonymous. 1997. Minn-Dak Growers, Ltd. Flax Production. 

MinnDak Growers Ltd. 1 p.

ANONYMOUS 1997c: Anonymous. 1997. Anonymous. 1997. Minn-Dak Growers, Ltd. Confectionary 

Sunflower Production. MinnDak Growers Ltd. 2 pp.

ANONYMOUS 1997d: Anonymous. 1997. Anonymous. 1997. Minn-Dak Growers, Ltd. Safflower 

Production. MinnDak Growers Ltd. 5 pp.

ANONYMOUS 1997e: Anonymous. 1997. Anonymous. 1997. Minn-Dak Growers, Ltd. Oriental Mustard 

Production. MinnDak Growers Ltd. 2 pp.

ANONYMOUS 2001: Anonymous. 2001. Mustards. University of California SAREP Online Cover Crops 

Database. (http://www.sarep.ucdavis.edu).

ARBORETUM: The United States National Arboretum. http://www.usna.usda.gov/

ASH 1999: Ash, M. 1999. Oil Crops Yearbook. Oil Crops Situation and Outlook Economic Research 

Service. US Economic Research Service OCS. 1999.

ASH 2006a: Ash, M. and E. Dohlman. 2006. Oil Crops Situation and Outlook Handbook. USDA Economic 

Research Service. US Economic Research Service. May. OCS -2006.

ASH 2006b: Ash, M. and E. Dohlman. 2006. Oil Crops Outlook. USDA Economic Research Service. US 

Economic Research Service. Oct. 13. OCS -06i.

AULD: Auld, R., D. Anderson, J. Butler, G. Brocke, and E. Charles. 1986. Winter Rapeseed. Growing 

Industrial Materials. USDA Office of Critical Materials. 2pp.

AYRES: Ayres, D. 2003. Spartina foliosa (Poaceae) – A common Species on the Road to Rarity? Madrono 

50(3): 209-213.

BACHMAN: Bachmann, J. 2001. Small-Scale Oilseed Processing. Appropriate Technology Transfer for 

Rural Areas (ATTRA). Fayettsville, AR. Feb.
89

BAGLEY: Bagley, M. 1992. Uses for Vegetable Oils. Chapter 23, Pages 154 – 159 In New Crops, New

Uses, New Markets. USDA 1992 Yearbook of Agriculture. US Government Printing Office. 

Washington, DC.

BAILEY 1976: Bailey, L.H. and E.Z. Bailey. 1976. Hortus Third, A Concise Dictionary of Plants 

Cultivated in the United States and Canada. MacMillian Publishing Company, New York, NY. 

1290 pp.

BALL: Ball. D.M.. C.S. Hoveland and G.D. Lacefield. 1991. Southern Forages. Potash. Phosphate Institute 

and Foundation. Agronomy Research. Atlanta. GA.

BALLARAT: Ballarat, C.B. 1995. Linseed and Linola. Agriculture Notes. State Victoria Dept. Primary 

Industries. AGO418. 3pp.

BALLMOOS: Ballmoos, P. von and C. Köppel. Crop Information on Brassica rapa subsp. Campestris. 

http://www.s2you.com/euromed/species.sheet.php?speciesID=598

BARNES(a): Barnes. R.F.. D.A. Miller and C.J. Nelson. 1995. Forages. Volume 11: The Science of 

Grassland Agriculture. Iowa Slate University Press. Ames. IA. 357 pp.

BAYE: Baye, T. 2001. Agronomic Evaluation of Vernonia galamensis Germplasm Collected from Eastern 

Europe. Ind. Crop Prod. 14(3):179-190.

BAYER: Bayer AG. 1992. Important Crops of the World and their Weeds (2nd Edition). Scientific and 

Common Names, Synonyms and WSSA/WSSJ Approved Computer Codes. Bayer AG Business 

Group Crop Protection, Leverkusen, Germany. 1682 pp. Also Internet link: 

http://cipm.ncsu.edu/names/index.cfm

BEATTY: Beatty, D. E. Leonard, K. Lessman, and K. Carlson. 1986. Crambe. Growing Industrial 

Materials. USDA Office of Critical Materials. 2pp.

BEDNARZ: Bednarz, C., R. Leonard, J. Banks, G. Lorenz, and J. Bradley. 2005. The First 40 Days. The 

Most Critical Period in Cotton Production. Bayer Corporation. Bayer Crop Science AG. Research 

Triangle Park, NC.

BERGLUND 1998: Berglund, D.R., N. Riveland, and J. Bergman. 1998. Safflower Production. North 

Dakota State University Extension Service A-870. 8 pp.

BERGLUND 1999. Berglund, D. R., M. D. Peel, and R. K. Zollinger. 1999. Flax Production in North 

Dakota. North Dakota State University Extension Service. A-1038.

BERGLUND 2002. Berglund, D. R. and R. K. Zollinger. 2002. Flax Production in North Dakota. North 

Dakota State University Extension Service.. A-1038 . Revised April 2002.

BERGLUND 2005. Berglund, D. R. 2005. Canola Production Guide. North Dakota State University 

Extension Service. A-1280.

BERKENKAMP: Berkenkamp, B. 1973. A Growth Stage Key for Rape. Can. J. Plant Sci. 53(2):415.

BHARDWAJ: Bhardwaj, H., A. Hamama, M. Rangappa, and D. Dierig. 2000. Vernonia Oilseed 

Production in the Mid-Atlantic Region of the United States. Ind. Crop Prod. 12(2):119-124.

BLOCK: Block, J. 1984. Growing Industrial Materials: Renewable Resources from Agriculture and 

Forestry. USDA Office of Agricultural Industrial Materials. 30pp. 
90

BOOTE: Boote. K. 1982. Growth Stages of the Peanut (Arachis hypogoea L.). Peanut Science 9 :3S-40.

BOSISIO 1989: Bosisio. M. 1989. Meadowfoam: Pretty Flowers. Pretty Possibilities. Agricultural 

Research. Agricultural Research Service. USDA. Washington. D.C. February. 1989: 10- 1 1.

BRAVERMAN and MARKLE: Braverman, M. P. & G. P. Markle. 2000. Crop Definition 40 CFR 180.41 

Technical Amendment: Crop Group 20 Proposal. New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station 

Publication No. A-27200-38-00

BRIGGS: Briggs, L. 1985. Echium; Curse or Salvation. Edited Gibbs, A. and H. Meischke. In Pp 152-159 

Pests and Parasites as Migrants. Ambridge University Press.

BRIGHAM: Brigham, R.D. 1993. Castor: Return of an Old Crop. In J. Janick and J. Simon, Eds. New

Crops. Pp. 380 -393. Wiley Publ. NY.

CAMPBELL 1983: Campbell, T.A. 1983. Chemical and Agronomic Evaluation of Common Milkweed, 

Asclepias. Potential Whole Plant Source of Polyphenol Oil. Econ. Bot. 37(2): 174-180. 

CAMPBELL 1986: Campbell, T.A., R. Kleinman, L. Princen, and G. White. 1986. Stokes Aster. Growing 

Industrial Materials. USDA Office of Critical Materials. 2pp.

CANOLA: Canola Council. 2000. Growth Stages of the Canola Plant. Canola Council of Canada Canola 

Connection.

 (http://www.canola-council.org/manual/growstag.htm). 

CARR: Carr, P.M. 1993. Potential of Fanweed and Other Weeds as Novel Industrial Oilseed Crops. Pp 

384 – 388. Wiley . NY.

CAAGELLI: Cavagelli, M., T. Martin, and D. Mutch. 1994. Oilseed Radish. New Farm: 16: 24 – 26.

CARLSON: Carlson, K. D., S. Knapp, A. Thompson, J. Brown, and G. Jolliff. 1992. Nature’s Abundant 

Variety: New Oilseed Crops on the Horizon. Chapter 19, Pages 124 - 133 In New Crops, New

Uses, New Markets. USDA 1992 Yearbook of Agriculture. US Government Printing Office. 

Washington, DC.

CERMAK 2004: Cermak, S., H. Kuru, T. Isbell, and M. Evangelista. 2004. Research Project: Industrial 

Products from New Crops. U.S. USDA ARS New Crops and Processing Technology Research. 

Project Number: 3620-41000-115-00. 7/29/04 – 7/28/09.

CERMAK 2005: Cermak, S., T. Isbell, M. Evangelista, and R. Behle. 2005. Cuphes Progress in Great 

Lakes Region. I. American Chemical Society Symposium. P. 198. Great Lakes Regional 

Research Project: Industrial Products from New Crops. U.S. USDA ARS Industrial Food from 

New Crops. 

CHEMSAC 06142002: US EPA Memorandum: Reviewer’s Guide and Summary of HED ChemSAC 

Approvals for Amending Commodity Definitions [40 CFR §180.1(h)] and Crop Group/Subgroups 

[40 CFR §180.41] 

CHRISTMAS: Christmas, E. P., and S. S. Hawkins. 1992. Winter Canola - An Alternative Crop in Indiana. 

Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service. Agronomy Guide AY272. 8pp.

CODEX: CODEX. 1989. Guide to Codex Recommendations Concerning Pesticide Residues, part 4, Codex 

Classification of Foods and Animal Feeds (Second Edition). Food and Agriculture Organization 

of the United Nations World Health Organization, Rome. CAC/PR4-1989. 139 pp.
91

COLEMAN: Coleman, B. 2001. Letter Crambe in North Dakota to R. Keigwin, EPA. American 

Renewable Oil Association. March 18

CONNECTICUT: http://florawww.eeb.uconn.edu/acc_num/199900266.html

COOKE: Cooke. L. and D.A. Konstant. 1991. What's New in Oilserds? Check Out Crambe! Agricultural 

Research. Agricultural Research Science. USDA. Washington. D.C. March Issue: 16-17.

COWIESON: Cowieson, A.J. and T. Acamovic. 2002. The Nutritive Value of Lunaria biennis Seeds for 

Broiler Chickens. British Poultry Sci. 43 (Suppl. 5): 531-532. 

CRAIG: Craig, C., G. Jolliff, and J. Rothfus. 1986. Meadowfoam. Growing Industrial Materials. USDA 

Office of Critical Materials. 2pp.

CROISSANT 1999: Croissant, R. L., D.L. Johnson, and J. F. Shanahan. 1999. Safflower Production. 

Colorado State University Extension Bulletin No. 0.111. 3pp

CROISSANT 2001: Croissant, R. L. and J. W. Echols. 2001. Planting Guide for Filed Crops. Colorado 

State University Extension Bulletin No. 0.103. 4pp

CROP PROFILES: USDA Crop Profiles. http://cipm.ncsu.edu/CropProfiles/cropprofiles.cfm

CROISSANT: Croissant, R.L., D.L. Johnson, and J.F. Shanahan. 1999. Safflower Production. Colorado 

State University Extension Bulletin No. 0.111. 3 pp. 

CUPHEA: Interpretive Summary, Cuphea Grower's Guide. USDA ARS, 

http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/Publications.htm?seq_no_115=165545

DAVE’S GARDEN: Dave’s Garden, Online Information, http://davesgarden.com/pf/go/1189/index.html

DIERIG 1993: Dierig, D.A. and A.E. Thompson. 1993. Vernonia and Lesquerella Potential for 

Commercialization. In J. Janick and J. Simon, Eds. New Crops. Pp. 362 -371. Wiley Publ. NY.

DIERIG 2006 Dierig, D., N. Adam, B. Mackey, B. Dahlquist, nd T. Coffelt. 2006. Temperature and 

Elevation Effects on Plant Growth, Development, and Seed Production of Two Lesquerella 

Species. Industrial Crops and Products 24(1): 17-25., 

DUKE 1983a: Duke. J.A. and J.L. Ducellier. 1983. CRC Handbook of Alternative Cash Crops. CRC Press. 

Boca Raton. FL. 537 pp.

DUKE 1983b: Duke. J.A. 1983. Handbook of Legumes of World Economic Importance. Plenum Press, 

NY. 345 pp.

DUKE 1983c: Duke, J. A. 1983. Brassica nigra (L.) Koch. Handbook of Energy Crops. Unpublished. 

Book. 4 pp.

DUKE 1983d: Duke, J. A. 1983. Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. Handbook of Energy Crops. Unpublished. 

Book. 5 pp.

DUKE 1983e: Duke, J. A. 1983. Sinapis alba L. Handbook of Energy Crops. Unpublished. Book. 4 pp

DUKE 1983f: Duke, J. A. 1983. Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.)Cass. Handbook of Energy Crops. Unpublished. 

Book. 4 pp

DUKE 1983g: Duke, J. A. 1983. Sapium sebiferum (L.) Roxb. Chinese Tallowtree. Handbook of Energy 

Crops. Unpublished. Book. 4 pp
92

DYCK: Dyck, E. 2000. Flax. Mustard. Alternative Field Crops Manual. University Wisconsin and 

Minnesota Cooperative Extension Service.9 pp.

EDMINSTEN: Edminsten, K.L., A.C. York, and J.M. Ferguson. 1993. 1993 Cotton Information. North 

Carolina Cooperative Extension Service Bulletin AG-417. 145 pp.

EHRENSING 1994: Ehrensing, D. 1994. Personal Communications Concerning Meadowfoam. Department 

of Crop and Soil Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis. 19 July. 1994.

EHRENSING 1997: Ehrensing, D., G. Jolliff, J. Crane, and R. Karow. 1997. Growing Meadowfoam in the 

Willamette Valley. Oregon State University. Department of Crop and Soil Science. Publ ECM 

8567. 

ENVIRONMENTAL: Environmental Laboratory. US Army Corps of Engineers. 

http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/index.cfm

EROMOSELE: Eromosele, I., C. Eromosele, A. Akintoye, and T. Komolafe. 1994. Characterization of Oils 

and Chemical Analyses of the Seeds of Wild Plants. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 46: (4): 

361-365.

EVANGELISTA: Evangelista, R. 2004. Partial Dehulling of Milkseed for Oil Extraction. Assoc. 

Advances. Industrial Crops Conference.

FACCIOLA: Facciola, S. 1990. Cornucopia: A Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publ. Vista, CA. 

677 pp.

FAO Statistics: FAO Statistics 2004. http://faostat.fao.org/faostat/form?collection=Production. Crops.

FAMINE FOOD: http://www.africa.upenn.edu/faminefood/category3/Cat3_Ximenia_americana.htm

FARRELL: Farrell. K.T. 1985. Spices. Condiments, and Seasonings. First ed. AVI Book. Van Nostrand 

Reinhold Company. NY. 414 pp.

FLAX COUNCIL OF CANADA 1995: The Flax Council of Canada. 1995. Flax Focus. 465-467. Lombard 

Ave.. Winnipeg Manitoba, Canada. Spring 1995. Vol. 8, No. 2.

FOISTER: Foister, R., J. Graham, J. Hoeck, R. Perdue, and K. Carlson. 1986. Vernonia. Growing 

Industrial Materials. USDA Office of Critical Materials. 2pp.

FOLLE'IT: Follett, R.H. and J.W. Echols. 1982. Sunflower Production in Colorado. Service in Action 

Publication No. 102. Colorado State University. Fon Collins. 3 pp.

FORCELLA: Forcella, F. 2005. Seed ield, Oil, and Fatty Acids of Cuphea in the Northwetern Corn Belt. 

Crop Sci 45(6): 2195 – 2202.

FOSTER: Foster, S. 1993. Herbal Renaissance. Gibbs-Smith Publishers, Salt Lake City. 234 pp.

FRANK: Frank, J.R. 1997. Personal Communications on Book Review. USDA-ARS (Retired), Font 

Detrick, Frederick, MD.

GANTZ: Gantz, H. 2006. Rotating Cotton and Wheat. Cotton Grower 42(9): 30-39. 
93

GARLAND: Garland, S. 1993. The Complete Book of Herbs and Spices. The Reader's Digest Association, 

Inc. Pleasantville, NY. 288 pp.

GETTYS: Gettys, L.A. 2002. Stokes Aster. HortTechnology 12(1): 138 – 142.

GLASER: Gkaser, L.K., J.C. Roetheli., A. Thompson, R. Brigham, and K. Carlson. 1992. Castor and 

Lesquerella: Sources of Hydroxy Fatty Acids. Chapter 17, Pages 111 – 117. In New Crops, New

Uses, New Markets. USDA 1992 Yearbook of Agriculture. US Government Printing Office. 

Washington, DC.

GODFREY: Godfrey, L., P. Goodell, L. Natwick, D. Haviland, E. Crafton-Cardwell, and N. Toscano. 

2005. Cotton Crop Rotations. Univ CA Pest Management Guidelines.

(http://www.ucdavis.edu/PMG/r114900611.html).

GREEN: Green. R.J. 1985. Peppermint and Spearmint Production in the Midwest. The Herb. Spice, and 

Medicinal Plant Digest 3 (I): 1-2.5.

GREENSEEDS: Cucurbit seed as possible oil & protein sources. Vegetables & herbs. Green-Seeds.com. 

http://www.green-seeds.com/cucurbit_sfo.html

GREGOIRE 1999: Gregoire, T. 1999. Canola Stands and Yields. North Dakota State University Extension 

Service. ProCrop. (http:www.ag.ndsu.edu/procrop/rps/rpsprd05.htm).

GREGOIRE 2001: Gregoire, T. 2001. Canola Flowering and Fungicide Application Timing. North 

Dakota State University Extension Service. Bulletin A-1208. 

(http:www.ag.ndsu.edu/pups/plantsci/crops/a1208w.htm).

GRINTAXONOMY: GRIN Taxonomy Homepage. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/index.pl

GRIN: Germplasm Resources Information Network. 1997. Plant Taxonomy. USDA-ARS, National 

Germplasm Resources Laboratory. Beltsville, MD. Database.

GROMBACHER 1992: Grombacher, A. and L. Nelson. 1992. Canola Production. University of Nebraska. 

Cooperative Extension NebGuide. G 92-1076-A. 7pp.

GROMBACHER 1993: Grombacher, A., L. Nelson, and D. Baltensperger. 1993. Crambe Production. 

University of Nebraska. Cooperative Extension. NebGuide. G 93-1126-A. 5 pp.

GUIL-GUERRERO 2001: Guil-Guerrero, J., F. Garcia Maroto, and G. Gimenez. Fatty Acid Profiles from 

Forty-nine Plant Species that are Potential New Sources of Gamma-linolenic Acid. J Am Oil 

Chemist Soc. 78(7): 677-684.

GUIL-GUERRERO 2006: Guil-Guerrero, J., J. Lopez-Martinez, R. Navarro-Juarez, and F. GomezMercado.2006. Gamma-linolenic Acid from Cape Verdian Borginaceae. Natural Product 

Research 20(1): 9-12.

HAIRE: Haire, B. 2002. Camellia Cousin Could Become Georgia Farm Crop. University of Georgia 

College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences. Georges Faces Newsletter. Nov. 5.
94

HANNAWAY: Hannaway. D.B.. H.W. Youngberg. and W.S. McGuire. 1982. Growing Rape and Kale for 

Forage. Oregon State University Extension Service. FS 287.

HARPER: Harper, F. and B. Berkenkamp. 1075. Revised Growth Stage Key for Brassica campestris and 

B. napus. Can. J. Plant Sci. 55:657-678.

HARRISON: Harrison, B. 2005. Curse or Salvation? The Weed is Spreading Quickly in the U.S. American 

Bee J 145(11):899-901.

HARRY-O’KURU 1997: Harry-O’kuru. 1997. Cardenolide Analysis of Cold-Pressed Milkweed Oil. 

Industrial Crops and Products 7(1): 53-58. 

HARRY-O’KURU 2002a: Harry-O’kuru, R. Holser, T. Abbott, and D. Weisleeder. 2002. Synthesis, and 

Characterizatics of Polyhydroxy Triglycerides Derived from Milkweed Oil. J. Agri Food Chem 

50(11): 3214-3221. 

HARRY-O’KURU 2002b: Harry-O’kuru. 2002. Synthesis, Rheological Chararacterization, and 

Constitutive Modeling of Polyhydroxy Triglycerides from Milkweed Oil. Industrial Crops and 

Products 15: 51-58. 

HARRY-O’KURU 2005: Harry-O’kuru, R. 2005. 4-Hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamate Esters of Milkweed 

Oil: Synthesis and Characterization. Lipids 40: 1179-1183. 

HERBEK: Herbek, J.and D. Hirshman. 1992. Canola Production and Management. University KY 

Agriculture Cooperative Extension Service. Bull. ID 114.

HINMAN: Hinman, C.W. 1986. Potential New Crops. Scientific America 255(1): 32 – 37. 

HOFFMAN: Hoffman, L. and B. Just. 1996. Agricultural Market Transaction Act. USDA, ERS. AIB-729. 

http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/aib729/aib729b.pdf.

HOFLAND: Hofland, C. 1990. Sunflower Kernels in Bakery Foods. QIB National Sunflower Associaton 

Research Technical Bulletin. 12(5):1-7. May.

HOLMAN: Holman, D. and R.J. Van Dam. 1991. Spring Canola Production Manual. InterMountain 

Canola. Idaho Falls, ID. 51 pp.

HOLSER: Holser, R. and H. Kuru. 2006. Transesterified Milkweed (Asclepias) Seed Oil As a Biodiesel 

Fuel. Fuel 85(14/15): 2106 – 2110.

HUTMACHER: Hutmacher, B., M. Keeley, and R. Delgado. 2002. Cotton Guidelines: Heat Units 

Averages and Time to Mature Bolls. University of CA Cotton Cooperative Extension Service 

Website. (http://cottoninfo.ucdavis.edu). 

INNVISTA: Innvista online information on seeds. http://www.innvista.com/health/foods/seeds/default.htm

IPGRI: Crop information. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute.

http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/index.htm

IR-4 REQUEST DATABASE 19%: IR-4 State Request Database. 1996. IR-4 Food-Use Requests by State 

Provided by D.K. Infante, IR-4, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, Cook College. 

Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ. 30 April 1996.
95

ISBELL 2001: Isbell, T. 2001. Research Project: Development of Lesquerella as an Industrial Oilseed for 

the U.S. USDA ARS New Crops and Processing Technology Research. Project Number: 3620-

41000-115-03. 11/20/01- 9/30/06.

ISBELL 2006: Isbell, T. and W. Philppen. 2006. Research Project: Cuphea Development. USDA ARS 

New Crops and Processing Technology Research. Project Number: 3620-41000-115-07. 4/18/06 –

4/4/11.

JANICK 1990: Janick, J. AND J.E. Simon. 1990. Advances in New Crops. Proceedings of the First 

National Symposium. New Crops: Research, Development, Economics. Timer Press, Inc. 

Portland, OR. 560 pp.

JANICK 1996: Janick, J. (Editor). 19%. Progress in New Crops. ASHS Press, 600 Cameron Street, 

Alexandria, VA. 660 pp.

JERADO: Jerado, A. 2003. Import Share of the U.S. Food Consumption Stable at 11 Percent. USDA 

Economic Research Service. USDA ERS. FAU-79-01. July.

JOHNSON 2000: Johnson, D.L. and R.L. Croissant. 2000. Rapeseed/Canola Production. Colorado State 

University Extension Bulletin No. 0.110. 3pp.

JOHNSON 2005: Johnson, D.L. and R.L. Croissant. 2005. Mountain Camelina Production Montana State 

University Extension Service Newsletter. 

(http://extn.msu.montana.edu/countries/Rooseveltarticles/ag/camelina.htm).

JOHNSTON: Johnston, A.M., D.L. Tanaka, P.R. Miller, S.A. Brandt, D.C. Nielsen, G.P. Lafond, and N. 

Riveland. 2002. Oilseed Crops for Semiarid Cropping Regions in the Northern Great Plains. 

Agronomy Journal 94:231-240.

KAFFKA: Kaffka, S. R. and T. E. Kearney, P. D. Knowles, and M.D. Miller. Safflower 

Production in California. Department of Agronomy and Range Science. University Davis. Publ

. 21565.

KANDEL 2002: Kandel, H. P. and P. Porter. 2002. Niger (Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass.) Production in 

Northwest Minnesota. University of Minnesota Extension Service. 

KANDEL 2004: Kandel, H. P. Porter, B. Johnson, R. Henson, B. Hanson, S. Weisberg, D. LeGare. 2004. 

Plant Population Influences Niger Seed Yield in the Northern Great Plains. Crop Sci. 41 190-197.

KAPOOR: Kapoor, R. 2004. New Dietary Ingredient Notification for Echium Oil. Bioriginal Food and 

Science Corp. Saskatoon, Saskatchewan Canada. Letter to FDA. January 8. :

KNAPP 1988: Knapp, S.J. 1988. New Temperate Oilseed Crops. Advances in New Crops. Proceedings of 

the First National Symposium New Crops. Jules Janick and J.E. Simon, Ed. Pp. 203-210.

KNAPP 1993: Knapp, S.J. 1993. Breakthroughs Towards the Domestication of Cuphea. Pp. 372 – 379. In 

Jules Janick and J.E. Simon, Ed New Crops. Wiley, NY. 

KNEHR: Knehr, E. 2002. Canola Good for Every Body. Canola Council Organization. (http:www.canolacouncil.org)

KNUDSEN: Knudsen, H.D. and R. Sawler. 1992. Milkweed: The Worth of a Weed. Chapter 18, Pages 118 

– 123. In New Crops, New Uses, New Markets. USDA 1992 Yearbook of Agriculture. US 

Government Printing Office. Washington, DC.
96

KOHEL: Kohel, R.J. and C.F. Lewis. 1984. Cotton. American Society of Agronomy. Madison, WI. 

Agronomy Series No 24. 605 pp. 

KURU 2002: Kuru, H. and C. Craig. 2002. Synthesis, Rheological Characterization, Constitutive 

Modeling Polyhydroxy Triglericides Derived from Milkseed Oil. USDA ARS. Research.

KURU 2004: Kuru, H., Abdellatif, and T. Abbott. 2004. Research Project: Synthesis of Novel Ultraviolet 

Filters from New Crop Jojoba oil. USDA ARS New Crops and Processing Technology Research. 

Project. Association Advancement of Industrial Crops Conference. p. 16

LANCASHIRE: Lancashire, P., et al. 1991. An Uniform Decimal Code for Growth Stages of Crops and 

Weeds. Ann. Applied Biology 119: 561- 601.

LANGHAM: Langham, D.R., G. Smith, T. Wiemers, and J. Riney. 2006. Southwest Sesame Grower’s 

Pamphlet 2006 (http://www.sesaco.net/pamphlet206.htm). 

LEAF FOR LIFE: Leaves For Life online crop information. http://www.leafforlife.org/index.htm

LEIDNER: Leidner, J. and J. Link. 1992. Minor Oilseeds Face Major Challenges. Progressive Farmer 

107(4): 48-50.

LEWIS: Lewis, Y.S. 1984. Spices and Herbs for the Food Industry. Food Trade Press. Orpington, 

England. 208 pp.

LIVINGSTON: Livingston, S. D., J. E. Bremer, R. D. Parker, and T. D. Miller. 1999. Key to Canola 

Production in South Texas. Texas Agricultural Experiment Service. L- 5148. Agr8.

LUNDY: Lundy. R. 1997. Personal Communications on Mint Production. Mint Industry Research Council. 

Washington.

LYON 1991: Lyon, D.J.and D.D. Baltensperger. 1991. Growing Safflower in Nebraska. Nebraska 

Cooperative Extension Service Agricultural Publication. G4290. 6pp.

LYON 1995: Lyon, D.T., D.D. Balensperger, R. Sall, and E. Kern. 1995. Growing Safflower in Nebraska. 

Nebfacts. Nebraska Extension Service. NF 91-36. 4 pp.

MAGNESS: Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle and C.C. Compton. 1971. Food and Feed Crops of the United 

States. NJAES Bulletin 828, Rutgers University, New Brunswick. 255 pp.

MANOS 1986: Manos. C.G., P.J. Schrynrmeeckers. D.E. Hogue. J.N. Telford. G.S. Stoewsand. D.H. 

Beerman. J.G. Babish. J.T. Blue. B.S.Shane. and D.J. Lisk. 1986. Toxicologic Studies with Lambs 

Fed Jojoba Meal Supplemented Rations. Journal Agricultural Food Chemistry. 34. 801-805.

MALTA: MaltaWildPlants.com. http://www.maltawildplants.com/WildPlants_Index.html; 

http://www.maltawildplants.com/CRUC/Brassica_rapa_silvestris.html 

MAREK ET AL.: Marek, L. F., D.M. Brenner, J. H. McCoy, and C.A.C. Gardne. Germplasm Resources 

for New Crops Research: North Central regional plant introduction station, AMES, IA U.S.A. 

http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/Place/36251200/Posters/NewCrops2005.pdf

MARKLE: Markle, G.M., J.J. Baron, and B.A. Schneider. 1998. Food and Feed Crops of the United States. 

517 pp. Second Edition. MeisterPro Reference Guides. Willoughby, Ohio

MARTIN 1987: Martin. F.W.. C.W. Campbell. and R.M. Ruberte. 1987. Perennial Edible Fruits of the 

Tropics: An Inventory. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Handbook No. 642. 252 pp 

(Illus.)
97

MARVIN 2000: Marvin, H.J.P., H.D. Mastebroek, D. Becu, R. Janssen. 2000. Outlook on Agriculture 29 

(1): 47-53.

MARVIN 2005: Marvin, H.J.P. & H.D. Mastebroek. 2005. Breeding of Crambe and Lunaria. Online 

publication. http://www.dainet.de/fnr/ctvo/lubricants/Marvin.doc

MCCORMICK: Mccormick. 2006. Spice Encyclopedia – Sesame Seed, Poppy Seed, Mustard Seed. 

http://www.mccormick.com/contents/cfm. 

MEIER: Meier, U. 2001. Growth Stages of Mono- and Dicotyledonous Plants. BBCH Monograph Federal 

Biological Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry Second Ed.

MELNICOE 1996c: Melnicoe. R.S. 1996~. Personal Communications on Jojoba. University of California. 

Davis. 27 August. 1996. 

MELNICOE 1996e: Melnicoe, R.S. 1996a. Personal Communications on Review for Crop Acreages in 

California. IR-4, University of California, Davis. November, 1996.

MELNICOE 1997b: Melnicoe, R.S. 1997b. Unpublished data. California Crop List. IR-4, University of 

California, Davis. 8 pp.

MINOR OIL CROPS: Online crop information on cuphea. 

http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5043E/x5043E0d.htm

MOBOT: http://www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/plantfinder/Plant.asp?code=D200

MUNDEL: Mundel, Hans-Henney, R .J. Morrison, R.E. Blackshaw, and B. Roth. 1991

Safflower Production on the Canadian Prairies. Agricultural Agdex. 145/33-2. 6pp.

MUNGER: Munger, P. Et al. 1998. Phenological Growth Stages of the Cotton Plant (Gossypium hirsutum 

L.) Codification and Description of the BBCH Scale. J. Agronomy and the Crop Science 180: 101 

– 107. 

MUNSEN: Munsen, P. 1981. Contributions to Osage and Lakota Ethnobotany. Plains Anthropology 26: 

229-240.

MYERS 1993: Myers, R. L. and H.C. Minor. 1993. Sunflower: An American Native.

University Missouri Cooperative Extension Service. Agricultural Publication G4290. 6pp. 

MYERS 2004: Myers, R. L. 2004. Sesame: A high Value Oilseed. Small Farm 

Today 21(3): 24-27. 

MYERS 2005: Myers, R. L. 2005. Sunflower: A Native Oilseed with Growing Markets. Part I. Small Farm 

Today 22(3): 23-27.

NALEWAJA 1996: Nalewaja. J.D. 1996. Personal Communi- cations on Flaxseed. North Dakota State 

University. Fargo. 14 August. 1996.

NATIONAL FIBERS CORPORATION: National Fibers Corporation. 2006. National Fibers Corporation. 

Ogalla, NB. (http:www.buymilkweed.com). 

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL 1975: National Research Council. 1975. Products from Jojoba: A 

Promising New Crop for Arid Lands. National Academy of Sciences. Washington. D.C. 30 pp.
98

NC STATE: NC State online information 

http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/consumer/factsheets/roses/sweetbrierrose.htm

NEAL: Neal, M.C. 1965. In Gardens of Hawaii. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 924 pp.

NEARCTICA: Online information on Conringia orientalis. Nearctica.com, Inc.

http://www.nearctica.com/flowers/brassic/Corient.htm

NG: Ng. Y-S. 2005. Codex and U.S. Crop Classification Database. US EPA, Washington, DC.

NGONUAJIO: Ngonuajio, M., D. Mutch, and W. Kellogg. 2004. Oilseed Radish: A New Cover Crop for 

Michigan. Michigan State Extension Service Bull. E 2907.

NICHOLLS: Nicholls, F.H. 1995. Progress in New Crops from Concept to Bottomline Profits. 21-26.

NKANG: Nkang A et al. Variations in fatty acid proportions during desiccation of Telfairia occidentalis 

seeds harvested at physiological and agronomic maturity. University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria. 

African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 2 (2), pp. 33–39, February 2003. 

http://www.academicjournals.org/AJB/PDF/Pdf2003/FebruaryPDFs2003/Nkang%20et%20al.pdf 

NOPA: National Oilseed Processors Association. 2004. http://www.nopa.org. 

NUTRANEWS: Health Benefits of Commodity Crops: Oilseeds. Ag-West Bio Inc. April 2005 Volume 2 

Issue 2. http://www.agwest.sk.ca/publications/documents/NNApr05.pdf

O’CONNELL 1999: O’Connell, S. 1999. Linola Production Under Direct Seeding. Idaho. 

(http:pnwsteep.wsu.ed/directseed/conf99/DSPROPSO). 

OELKE 1990: Oelke. E.A.. E.S. Oplinger. C.V. Hanson, and K.A. Kelling. 1990. Meadowfoam. 

Alternative Field Crops Manual. Universities of Wisconsin and Minnesota Cooperative Extension 

Service. 4 pp.

OELKE 1992: Oelke, E.A., E.S. Oplinger, T. M. Teynor, D.H. Putnam, J. D. Doll, K.A. Kelling, B.R. 

Durgan, and D.M. Noetzel. 1992. Safflower. Alternative Field Crops manual. University Wisconsin and 

Minnesota Cooperative Extension Service.

OPLINGER 1989: Oplinger, E. S., L.L. Hardman, E.T. Gritton, J. D. Doll, and K.A. Kelling. 1989. 

Sunflower. Alternative Field Crops manual. University Wisconsin and Minnesota Cooperative Extension 

Service. 10 pp.

OPLINGER 1990: Oplinger, E. S., E. A. Oelke, J. D. Doll, L.G. Bundy, and R.T. Schuler. 1990. Flax. 

Alternative Field Crops Manual. University Wisconsin and Minnesota Cooperative Extension Service. 

BioOptions 2(1): 2-3.

OPLINGER 1991a: Oplinger, E. S., E. A. Oelke, A. R. Kaminski, D.H. Putnam, T. M. Teynor, J. D. Doll, 

K.A. Kelling, B.R. Durgan, and D.M. Nortzel. 1991. Crambe. Alternative Field Crops Manual. 

University Wisconsin and Minnesota Cooperative Extension Service. 6pp.

OPLINGER 1991b: Oplinger, E. S., E. A. Oelke, D.H. Putnam, K.A. Kelling, A. R. Kaminski, T. M. 

Teynor, and B.R. Durgan. 1991. Mustard. Alternative Field Crops Manual. University Wisconsin and 

Minnesota Cooperative Extension Service. 8 pp.

ORION FARM: Orion Farm webpage. http://www.orionfarm.com/default.asp
99

PALZKILL: Palzkill, D., H. Purcell, and J. Rothfus. 1986. Jo joba. Growing Industrial Materials. USDA 

Office of Critical Materials. 2pp.

PATRICK: Patrick, C. D. 1998. Managing Insect Pests of Texas Sunflower. Texas Agricultural Extension 

Service. B-1488. 7pp.

PATTEE: Pattee, H.E. and C.T. Young. 1982. Peanut Science and Technology, American Peanut and 

Research & Ed. Yoakum, TX. 825 pp.

PENZEY: Penzey. W. 1995. Merchants of Quality Spices. Penzeys Ltd. Catalogue, P.O. Box 1448. 

Waukesha. WI. 34 pp.

PHIPPEN 2000: Phippen, W. and T. Abbott. 2000. Alternative Crop Breeding and Production Program for 

Western Illinois. Ill Council Food and Agri. Res. Project # OiI-006-6-WIU.

PLANT NATIONAL DATABASE: Plant National Database. 2004. http://plants.usda.gov/

PLANTS FOR A FUTURE: Plants For A Future, Online Information, http://www.pfaf.org/index.html

PRINCEN: Princen, L.H. 1984. Development of New Crops for Industrial Raw Materials. J. AM. Oil 

Chem Soc. 61(2): 281-289. 

PROTABASE: Protabase published species vernacular names. 

http://database.prota.org/publishedvernacularsEnAB.htm

PUBMED: PubMed online information. National Library of Medicine. 

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?DB=pubmed

PURDUE: Purdue Homepage, http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/default.html

PUTNAM 1990: Putnam, D.H., E.S. Oplinger, D.R. Hicks. B.R. Durgan, D.M. Noetzel. R.A. Meronuck. 

J.D. Doll. and E.E. Schulte. 1990. Sunflower. Alternative Field Crops Manual. Universities of 

Wisconsin and Minnesota Cooperative Extension Service. 8 pp.

PUTNAM 1993: Putnam, D.H., J. Budin, L. Field, and W. Breene. 1993. Camelina: A Promising LowInput Oilseed. Pp. 314-322. In J. Janick and J. Simon, Eds. New Crops. Wiley Publ. NY.

REHM: Rehm, S. 1994. Multilingual Dictionary of Agronomic Plants. Kluwer Academic Publishers. 101 

Philip Drive. Nonvell, MA. 286 pp.

RICHE: Riche, M. 1994. 1992 Census of Agriculture. Volume 1, Geographic Area Series, Part 51. United 

States Summary and State Data. U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. 463 pp.

RITCHIE: Ritchie, G., C. Bednarz, P. Jost, and S. Brown. 2004. Cotton Growth and Development. 

University of Georgia. Cooperative Extension Service Bulletin 1252.

ROBBELEN: Robbelen, G., R.K. Downey, and A. Ashri. 1989. Oil Crops of the World. McGraw-Hill 

Publishing Company. New York. 554 pp.

ROBBELEN 1989: Robbelen. G... R.K. Downey, and A. Ashram. 1989. Oil Crops of the World. McGrawHill Publishing Company. New York. 554 pp.

ROBINSON: Robinson. R.G. 1986. Amaranth. Quinoa, Ragi. Tef. and Niger: Tiny Seeds of Ancient 

History and Modern Inter- est. university of Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 

AD-SB-2949.
100

ROETHELI 1989: Roetheli. J.C. and M. Blasé. 1989. Vegetable Oils High in Erucic Acid- Crambe and 

Industrial Rapeseed. USDA Office of Agricultural Industrial Materials. Washington. D.C. 4 pp.

ROETHELI 1991: Roetheli. J.C. 1991. Lesquerella as a Source of Hydroxy Fatty Acids for Industrial 

Products. Growing Industrial Materials Series. USDA-CSRS. Office of Agricultural Industrial 

Materials. Washington. D.C. 46 pp.

ROETHELI 1992: Roetheli. J.C., K. Carlson, J. Gardner, and K. Schneeberger. 1992. Rapeseed and 

Crambe: Developing Useful Products from Oils that are High in Erucic Acid. Chapter 16, Pages 

105 - 111 In New Crops, New Uses, New Markets. USDA 1992 Yearbook of Agriculture. US 

Government Printing Office. Washington, DC.

ROTHWELL 1996a: Rothwell, J.D. and M. Beaith. 1996a. Personal Communications. Comprehensive 

Canadian Crop List. Health Canada. Ontario. 8 FEB 96.

ROTHWELL 1997: Rothwell. J.D. and L. D'Costa. 1997. Area & Dollar Statistics on Grain Crops in 

Canada (1991-1996) and Value to Area of Vegetables in Canada 1996 Summary. Unpublished 

data. Pest Management Regulatory Agency. Health Canada. Ontario.

RUBATZKY: Rubatzky. V.E. and M. Yamaguchi. 1997. World Vegetables. Second Ed. Chapman & Hall. 

NY. 843pp.

SCHILD: Schild, J. D., D. Baltensperger, D. Lyon, G. Hein, and E. Kerr. Sunflower Production in 

Nebraska. University of Nebraska. Cooperative NebGuide. G 91-1026-A.

SANDBAKKEN: Sandbakken, J. and D. Lilleboe. 1999. 1998 U.S. Sunflower Crop Quality Report. 

National Sunflower Association. Bismark, ND. 11 pp. 

SCHNEIDER 1993: Schneider. B.A. 1993. Response to Commodities, Subcommodities, and Commodity 

Groups Not Yet Included in the New DRES Vocabulary. Pans I-V: A-R. Entries 1- 663. US-EPA

(Unpublished). 20 July. 20 August. 14 September and 17 September. 1993.

SCHNEIDER 1995: Schneider, Bernard A. 1995. Response to Public Comments on Pesticide Tolerance: 

Crop Grouping Regulation: Proposed Rule (40CFR180). Part II. Evaluation of Supporting Data Concerning 

Commodity Names and Proposed Additions to Several Crop Groups. CB No. 12776. DP Barcode D 

196598. February 2.

SCHNEIDER 1999. Schneider, B.A. 1999. Location of U.S. Canola Production. Memo. US EPA. 3 pp.

SCHNEIDER 2002: Schneider, Bernard A. 2002. Analysis of the Proposal to Amend the Crop Group

Regulation (40 CFR § 180.41) By Adding a New Oilseed Crop Group. ID# 293788. DP 

Barcode # D272785. June 12.

SCHNEITER: Schneiter, A. and J. Miller. 1981. Description of Sunflower Growth Stages. Crop Sci. 21: 

901 – 903

SCHELD: Scheld, H., R. Kleinman, A. Krikorian, N. Sontag, and E. Schultz. 1986. Chinese Tallow Tree. 

Growing Industrial Materials. USDA Office of Critical Materials. 2pp.

SCHREIBER: Schreiber, A. and L. Ritchie. 1995. Washington Minor Crops. Food and Environmental 

Quality Lab, Washington State University. 325 pp.

SEA-BEANS: A Sea-Bean Guide. http://www.seabean.com/locations/Brunei/

SENFT 1994: Senft, D. 1994. Onward Vernonia! Agricultural Research. Agricultural Research Service. 

USDA, Washington. D.C. September, 1994: 16-17.
101

SHAHIDI. Shahidi, F. 1990. 1990. Canola and Rapeseed: Production, Chemistry, Nutrition, and Processing 

Technology. AVI Book. Van Nostrand Reinhold. Co., NY, NY. 355 pp.

SHROYER: Shroyer, J. and D. Erickson. 1997. Specialty and Nontraditional Crops. Kansas State 

University Cooperative Extension Service. MF 844. 6 pp.

SIMON: Simon, J. N. Bearbaire, S. C. Webber, and J. Janick. 1990. Borage - A Source of Gamma 

Linolenic Acid. P. 528 In J. Janick and J. Simon, eds. Advances in New Crops. Timber Press. 

Portland, OR.

SMITH 1978: Smith. A.K. and J.J. Circle. 1978. Soybeans: Chemistry and Technology. Vol. I. Proteins. 

2nd Edition. AVI Publishing Co. Westport, CT. 470 pp.

SMITH 1995: Smith, C.W. 1995. Crop Production: Evolution, History. and Technology. First Edition. John 

Wiley & Sons. NY. 467 pp.

SPRINGDALE: Online information on Meadowfoam. Springdale Crop Synergies Ltd

http://www.ienica.net/crops/meadowfoam.htm

STEINER: Steiner, J., G. Mueller-Warrant, S. Griffith, G. Banowetz, and G. Whittaker. 2006. 

Conservation Practices in Western Oregon Perennial Grass Sysyem. II. Meadowfoam Rotation 

Crop Management. Agronomy J. 98: 1501-1509.

STEPHENS 1988: Stephens, J.M. 1988. Manual of Minor Vegetables. Florida Cooperative Extension 

Service. Bulletin SP-40. University of Florida, Gainesville. 123 pp.

STEVENS: Stevens, M. 2003. Common Milkweed Asclepias syriaca L. USDA NRCS Plant Guide. 3 pp.

SULLIVAN: Sullivan. G.A. 1996. Peanut Information. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. 

North Carolina State University Bulletin. AG-331. 83 pp.

SURETTE: Surette, M., M. Edens, F. Chilton, and K. Tramposch. 2004. Dietary Echium Oil Increases 

Plasma and Neutrophil Long Chain (n-3) Fatty Acids and Lowers Serum Triacylglycerols in 

Hypertriglyceridemic Humans. Am Soc Nutritional Sciencs J. Nutr. 134:1406-1411.

SWEARINGIN: Swearingin, M. L. 1984. Sunflower Production in Indiana - Questions and Answers. 

Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service. AY-227. 11pp.

SYLVESTER-BRADLEY: Sylvester-Bradley, R. and R. Makepeace. 1984. A Code for Development in 

Oilseed Rape (Brassica napus L.). Aspects of Applied Biology 6: 399 – 419. 

THEXTON: Australia online health store website. http://www.thexton.com.au/index1.php

THOMPSON 1986a: Thompson, A., L. Princen, and K. Lessman. 1986. Lesquerella. Growing Industrial 

Materials. USDA Office of Critical Materials. 2pp.

THOMPSON 1986b: Thompson, A., S. Knapp, J. Boggs, S. Graham, and R. Kleiman. 1986. Cuphea. 

Growing Industrial Materials. USDA Office of Critical Materials. 2pp.

URBATSCH 2005: Urbatsch, L. 2005. USDA, NRCS Plant Guide Chinese Tallowtree. USDA-NRCS. 

The Plants database. Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation 

Service). National Plant Data Center, U.S. Dept. of Agr., Baton Rouge, LA. .

USDA 1993a: USDA. 1993a. U.S. Spice Trade. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Foreign 

Agricultural Service. Circular Series FTEA 1-93. Prepared by Rex E.T. Dull HTPD. 49 pp.
102

USDA 1996b: USDA. 1996~. Crop Production 1995 Summary National Agricultural Statistics Service. 

USDA. Washington. D.C. January. 1996.

USDA 1997c: USDA. 1997b. Agricultural Statistics. National Agricultural Statistics Service. United States 

Government Printing Office. Washington. D.C.

USDA. 2000. USDA. 2000. Grain Stocks. USDA NASS. GR lg 11-1 (9-00).

USDA 2005: USDA 2005. Agricultural Statistics. National Agricultural Statistics Service. US 

Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C. 486 pp.

USDA, ERS: ERS. 2001. Oil Crops Outlook. 2/9/01. USDA. Economic Research Service. Oilseed Crop 

Situation. 0201.

USDA, NRCS 1995: USDA, NRCS. 1995. The Plants database. Natural Resources Conservation Service 

(formerly Soil Conservation Service). National Plant Data Center, U.S. Dept. of Agr., Baton 

Rouge, LA. 1008 pp.

US EPA 1994: US EPA. 1994. Pesticide Reregistration Rejection Rate Analysis Residue Chemistry. 

Follow-up Guidance for: Updated Livestock Feeds Tables, and Number and Location of Domestic 

Crop Field Trials. U.S. Government Printing Office. EPA 738-K-94-01.

US EPA 1995: US EPA. 1995. Title 40-Protection of Environment. Parts 150 to 189. Code of Federal 

Regulations. Office of the Federal Register. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C. 

720 pp.

US EPA 1995a: US EPA. 1995a. Table II (September 1995): Raw Agricultural and Processed 

Commodities and Feedstuffs Derived from Field Crops. Subdivision O, Residue Chemistry, 

Pesticide Assessment Guidelines OPP/HED/EPA, Washington, DC. 22 pp.

US EPA 1995b: US EPA. 1995. Summer Squash; Definitions and Interpretations, 40 CFR 180.1(h), 

Chayote. Federal Register, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C. (16 August, 1995) 

60:158:42447-9.

VOLLMAN: Vollman, J., A. Damboeck, A. Eckl, H. Schrems, and P. Ruckenbauer. 1996. Improvement of 

Camelina sativa, An Underexploited Oilseed. Pp. 357-362. In J. Janick, ed. Progress in New 

Crops. ASHS Press. Alexandria, VA. 

WEISS: Weiss, E.A. 2002. Oilseed Crops. Second Ed. Blackwell Science. Alden, MA. 363 pp

WELLENSIEK: Wellensiek, S., W. Craig, and R. Kleiman. 1986. Lunaria. USDA Office of Critical 

Materials. Growing Industrial Materials. 2pp. 

WIKIPEDIA: Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia Online information. 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page

WILDPHOTO: Wild Florida Photo. http://www.wildflphoto.com/index.htm

WRIGHT: Wright, D.L. and R.K. Sprenkel, 2005. Cotton Growth and Development. Univ. FL IFAS 

Extension Service AG 235.

YAMAGUCHI 1983: Yamaguchi, M. 1983. World Vegetables. Van Nostrand Reinhold company Ltd., 

New York, NY. 415 pp.
103

YANG S-H: Yang S-h. Online article abstract. Studies on the Development of Pistillate Flowers and 

Staminate Flowers in Hodgsonia macrocarpa Cogn. Journal of Integrative Plant Biology. 

Xiangshan, Beijing. http://www.chineseplantscience.com/earticle_read.asp?id=3609

YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE 1992: Yearbook of Agriculture. 1992. New Crops, New Uses. New 

Markets. Office of Publishing and Visual Communications, USDA. Washington, D.C. 302 pp. 
104

Figure 1. Typical Seed Pods of Canola Typical for the Proposed Rapeseed Subgroup.
105

Figure 2. Comparison of Dietary Fats of Various Oilseed Crops. 
106
107

Figure 3. Harvested Cotton Acres in 2002 Ag Census. 
108

Figure 4. Harvested Sunflower Seed (Oil Varieties) Acres in 2002 Ag Census.
109

Figure 5. Harvested Sunflower Seed (Non-Oil Varieties) Acres in 2002 Ag Census.
110

Figure 6. Harvested Canola Acres in 2002 Ag Census.