COMMERCIAL

STANDARDS

MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

ISSUED BY THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE UNITED

STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D. C., U. S. A.

Photographed by Army Air Corps AIRPLANE VIEW OF NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS (LOOKING SOUTH)

Vol. 8, No. 7 JANUARY, 1932

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. See page 3 of cover for prices
u. s. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GEORGE K. BURGESS, Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY, S. F. Tillman, Editor

The Commercial Standardization Group

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE

Edwin W. Ely

The division of simplified practice cooperates with industrial and commercial groups to reduce wa^te, usually through

eliminating unnecessary variety of produtfi, method, or

pracftice. Its funtfiion is to bring together all parties inter- ested in a projedt of this charadler, and to coordinate their

work in developing a simplified pradlice recommendation.

Such work includes surveys of current pradtice, formulation of a simplified pradlice program, and presentation of

that program for adlion by a general conference representing

all interests. The division then transmits to all concerned

a full report of the general conference, with a requeSl for written acceptance of the adlion taken. When the volume

of acceptances is sufficient to indicate initial success, the

Department of Commerce indorses the program and publishes

the recommendation. The division thereafter cooperates

with a Standing committee appointed by the induStry concerned, in condudling periodic surveys to determine the

degree of adherence, to maintain and extend support of the

recommendation, and to secure data for reaffirmation or

revision. Simplified pradlice may be applied to any com- modity or adlivity in which it will reduce

waSle. The division Stands ready to render

service in developing and making effedlive any application of simplified pradlice which

will reduce waSle, Stabilize business, or extend commerce.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION

J. S. Taylor

The division of building and housing,

formed in 1921, cooperates with business,

technical, and professional groups in furthering conSlrudlion adlivities. It works to modernize building codes and to encourage improved Standards for the quality of building conSlrudlion, and the practical application of the lateSl development in design and use of building materials.

It encourages home ownership through the development

of an enlarged. Steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating demand for dwellings—the largeSl single class of

buildings which the construction industries provide.

The division also cooperates with other governmental

agencies and with many private business and professional

groups in efforts to distribute building adlivity more evenly

throughout the year and to secure less fludluation from

year to year. The work on city planning and zoning has the broad

objedlive of making buildings more useful through proper

location with respedl to other Slrudlures, Stabilizing of land

values and property uses, well coordinated thoroughfare

systems, and well laid out public works.

STANDARDIZATION

..IS.. A CONTINUING PROCESS

ITS AIM IS NOT FIXITY OR STAGNATION

..BUT.. TO ADD SERVICEABILITY

AS OFTEN AS THE

POTENTIAL GAIN

MAKES IT WORTH WHILE

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS

A. S. McAllister

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote

and facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so it carries on adlivities involving cooperation with

technical societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and

municipal Government specifications making and using

agencies; producers, distributors, and consumers; and teSling

and research laboratories. It ascertains the Standardization

and specifications promoting adlivities of the associations and societies, and brings to their attention the work being

done by the commercial Standardization group. It brings the

Federal specifications and commercial Standards to the atten- tion of the maximum number of producers and users of commodities complying with these Standards and specifications.

It compiles and distributes liSts of sources of supply of materials guaranteed to comply with the Standards and specifi- cations. It shows both buyers and sellers the benefits from

handling nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The division prepares directories of governmental and

nongovernmental teSting laboratories and the Directory of

Specifications, and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the firSl two volumes of which

have been issued, namely, “Standards and

Specifications in the Wood-Using Industries”

and “Standards and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and their ProduCls.” It also

aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook.

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS

I. J. Fairchild

The division of trade Standards, on requeSl,

assists industrial and commercial groups in the voluntary establishment of Standards

covering grades, quality, dimensional inter- changeability, or other acceptance criteria as a national

basis for marketing manufactured commodities.

The detail criteria are selected or determined voluntarily

by interested buyers or sellers, without any Government

dictation or domination, and adjusted at a general confer- ence of producers, distributors, and users so as to represent

the composite views of all branches. The division functions

chiefly as a neutral agency to sec that all interested elements

are given full opportunity to be heard and satisfied; to

solicit and record acceptances; and to publish and promulgate

the Standard when a satisfactory majority of acceptances is obtained and provided there is no aCtive opposition.

Industries are encouraged to apply self-certifying labels to products meeting the commercial Standard requirements, as a means of protecting the consumer and the scrupulous seller from misrepresentation or unfair methods of marketing.

Provision is made for regular revision of the Standard

through the appointment of a Standing committee to consider periodically any necessity for revision of the Standard

in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with

progress in the industry.

Address BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Washington, D. C., for further information
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 8 WASHINGTON, D. C., JANUARY, 1932 Number 7

SUBJECT ANALYSIS

BUILDING AND HOUSING

President’s Conference on Home Building and Home

Ownership

Reaffirmation of brass-pipe nipples

Standardization aids home building

Staple vitreous china plumbing fixtures reaffirmation Testing of materials

Page

195 215

209

224

199 ELECTRICAL

Labeled cords for portable electrical appliances 218

Telegraph communication 219

GLASS AND PAPER

Commercial forms recommendation reaffirmed 222 Cottage cheese and sour cream jars 204

Simplification in the dental field 214 Wall paper standard reaffirmed 223

GROUP ACTIVITIES

Activities of American Standards Association during

1931 ^ 220

American Standards Association 198

Certification and labeling 223

Federal Trade Commission’s annual report 222

Federal specifications 217 Radio engineering 210

S. A. E. considering 75 standards 223

Standard means of communication for the deaf 217 INTERNATIONAL AND FOREIGN

British Standards Association expands scope of its work _ _ 221

International standardization of petroleum test methods

planned 202

Lumber standards developed in Soviet Union 222 Phosphor-bronze castings and gear blanks 223

Planned research necessar\' for standardization in Russia 211 Standard sizes of tanks provided for in British specifi- cation 221 The Danish Standards Council 202

Tokyo Industrial Institute 216

LUBRICANTS

International standardization of petroleum test methods

planned 202

Specifications for free wheeling lubricants being drafted- - 216

LEATHER AND TEXTILES Men’s shirts 220

METALS

Page Phosphor-bronze castings and gear blanks 223

Reaffirmation of brass pipe nipples 215

Sheet metal gages (publications) 224 Standard recommended for center-to-face dimensions

for ferrous flanged valves 217 Standard sizes of tanks provided for in British specifi- cation 221

Staple vitreous china plumbing fixtures reaffirmation..- 224 MANAGEMENT

Federal Trade Commission’s annual report

Many groups seek aid in untangling conflicting terms,

grades, ratings, and test methods 194

Simplified practice in container field 203

Standardization a problem for management 221 Standards for the retail trade 220

The specification writer’s job 207 MARITIME ACTIVITIES Communication at sea 213

Lighthouse communication 206

Navy’s achievements in radio standardization 215

PUBLICATIONS

How to own your home 224 Recommended minimum requirements for plumbing 224

Sheet metal gages 224 QUALITY MARKS AND LABELS

Labeled cords for portable electrical appliances 218

Certification and labeling 223

Standardization aids home building 209

RADIO

Navy’s achievements in radio communication 215

Radio engineering 210

SAFETY

Communication at sea 213

Communication system of railways 205

Lighthouse communication 206 New food standards for Pennsylvania 212 WOOD

Lumber standards developed in Soviet Union 222

Simplifying singletrees, doubletrees, etc 224 Wooden butter tubs 223

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A cordial invitation is extended to all interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories of

the Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at 2.15 j). ni daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may be arranged at other times b}'^ writing to the

bureau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s Manual may be had for the asking. This lists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of typical

discoveries and inventions which have been notable, basis contril)utions to radio, aviation, and other

modern arts and industries.

94297—32 1 ]!)::
Many Groups Seek Aid in Untangling Conjiicting

Terms, Grades, Ratings, and Test Methods

T

he rapid introduction of new materials, processes, and inventions has been accompanied by an increasing realization of the

need for a better understanding between buyer and seller. This is true not only when the buyer is the final user, but even more so, perhaps, when he purchases materials for remanufacture or

for resale. The buyers and sellers want to know about commodities

covered by their transactions: (1) The real significance of the terms

employed to describe each commodity, (2) definitions or specifications

for the various grades or ratings, (3) recognized methods of tests, (4) dimensional standards and tolerances to provide interchangeability or to prevent skimping, and (5) any other criteria for use by

the consumer as a guide to acceptance or rejection of the commodity.

Industries are frequently confronted by a situation brought upon

them by short-sighted manufacturers who produce inferior merchandise to sell at a low price. While this price may be lower than that

required to purchase the standard quality, it is frequently high in - relation to value. Dissatisfaction in the use of this inferior merchandise brings discredit to the whole industry and users are driven

from the product in question to another competing product in spite

of all the leaders of the industry may do to restore public confidence

in their goods. Forward-looking groups of producers have therefore found it advisable to cooperate in the formulation and promulgation of specifications and methods of test sponsored by the industry

as a whole as a basis for marketing.

Homemade specifications, used by an increasing number of contract buyers in an attempt to control quality, complicate the marketing situation. Manufacturers are forced to produce a multiplicity

of varieties of their products to meet the whims of specification

writers who may have no real knowledge of the commodity; mass

production is interfered with.

The task of untangling the maze of conflicting terms, grades,

ratings, test methods, arriving at a generally acceptable understanding thereof, and “ putting it over ” with the buying public, seems

colossal to the manufacturers and beyond the range of possibility by means at their immediate disposal.

So it is but natural that many groups have sought the aid of the

Bureau of Standards for this purpose.

194
JANUARY, 1032 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY^ 195

PRESIDENT’S CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP

Results and Objects as Summarized by Dr. Ray Lyman Wilbur, Secretary of the Interior, Cochairman

of the Conference, on the Evening of December 4, 1931

By Dr. Ray Lyman Wilbur, Secretary of the Interior, Cochairman of the President's Conference on Home Building and Ho-me

Otonership

For the first time in the historj- of America, representatives of each of the many professional and commercial groups interested in one way or another in

home building and home ownership, or any of the other

aspects of the problems of housing and homemaking,

have assembled to pool their wisdom and woi’k out co- operatively their best suggestions for the solution of

the problems which they face in common. Many of

the 31 committees of the President’s Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership have worked

for a half year or more to arrive at the recommendations which they so carefully jirepared and laid before

the conference for discussion. Through our common

deliberations on these problem's, the solution of which

is so urgent for the protection and development of

American citizenship, certain fundamentals stand out which may properly be presented as the findings of the

conference. These are outlined below.

1. Each city and community should have a master

flan. —Since our contemporary problems have so largely grown out of lack of foresight and of proper

regard for the public interest, the necessity of judicious and well-conceived planning of cities and of their

outlying areas throughout the metropolitan region is indicated as a first essential for the coxTection of old

evils and the pi’evention of new. Such planning in- volves a thoi’ough understanding of human needs and

of the natui'e of the public interests involved. It I’e- quires a knowledge of trends in urban developments

and a vi.sion of a city which will be a source of in- siiiration and pride to its citizens as well as an efficient center for interests of commercial, industrial, or civic nature. The layout of streets, blocks, lots, utilities,

transit systems, parkways, plaj^grounds, and centers

for business, industry, or civic affairs should be conceived in such a way as to render homes accessible to places of work or recreation on the one hand while

protecting them from the confusion and bustle of in- dusti’y and the dangers of through traffic on the other.

Careful attention to planning and the layout of new

subdivisions will make possible the most desirable

type of setting and approach for each home and will

at the same time make I'easonable the charges for land,

utilities, and other seiwices which under haphazard

development may prove too heavy for the home owner

of modest means.

2. Each city should he zoned.-—^By zoning of new

areas and the rezoning whei’e necessaxy of old, it is possible to iix-otect homes from undesirable neighbors

and land values from instabilit3L Areas for ixxdustx’y

and comxnerce as well as for residexxce should be carefully delineated, but in a way which will xnake the

neighborhood store accessible for service but not a neighborhood nuisance.

The free standing dwelling can be protected from

the invasion of the mxiltifamilj" dwelling or apartment

house and the charm and integx’ity of each neighborhood unit may be preserved. Carefully drawn provisioxxs for setback of homes and definite requix'emexxts

of specific and adequate reservatioxxs of land about

each dwellixxg xnay preserve a beauty in x’esidexxtial neighbox’hoods which otherwise would be lost under

conditions of unwise and reckless land subdivision.

3. All nexo homes., h'resfective of the income of

the family., can and should he of good design and

sound constmction.—The fxxx’ther coxistruction of

Aims}" houses of axx uninteresting or even ugly design

is xiot xiecessarjL Beauty is not a veneer to be ajxplied at added cost but lies rather ixx the lixies of a

liouse, its proportioxis, the relations of its parts one

to axxother and of the whole to its settixxg. A onerooxn log cabixx may be a thing of beauty. Professional pride axxd responsibility oxx the part of ax'chi- tects axxd carefully drawn programs to elicit by joint

coxxnsel the cooperatioxi of coxxtractors and bxxilders,

the xxxaxxufactux-ers and distributox-s of xnaterial, the

x’ealtor and subdivider, may produce a radical change

in the quality of the sxnall home that is the x’esult of mass production, while carefxxl programs for the edxxcation of the taste of the home bxxj'er may cx’eate an

intelligexxt dexnand for good design and workmanship

on the part of the hoxxxe buj'er. It is demonstrable

that quality pays, both by endearing the home to the

family and bv the enhaxxcexnent of px’operty and

comxnuxxity values.

4. Soundly huilt homes can and should he reirdered

availahle to all home hityers. —Through the use of

proper xnaterials and processes and through mass production, and stabilized, j^ear-x’ound coxistruction, bet- ter hoxnes may be px'oduced at less cost than is at present paid for homes that rapidly deteriorate. The

developmexit of jiride in worlonanship and of high

standards on the part of producex’s of materials axxd builders of homes caxx bring good new housing within

the x’eaclx of a xnuch larger buying public than is at present served and xvill at the same time serve all customex’s better.

5. Home ownership should he a possihility at some

time in the life of every thrifty family. —The stability

and safety of the Nation require the well-advised

developmexit of individually owned homes. The fix'st necessity for the px’onxotion of well-advised home

ownex'ship is a systenx of home financing, adequate ixx amount and operated in the public intex-est so as to permit thrifty people to secure for themselves such

a home. It should be possible for every thrifty and

honest family at the proper time, not oidy to own its home, but also to secux’e disintex'ested and coixxpetent

advice oxx all mattei’S i-elating to such ownership.

Home information centers accessible to families in

need of such advice and wise in their counsel ax-e therefore desirable.

C. An adequate system of credit for the financing of

homes shot.dd he established. —Any thrifty family in
196 COMMERCIAL STAND.ARDS MONTHLY JANUARY, 1932

city or country should be al)le to borrow money at a reasonable rate of interest with a reasonably long pe- riod of amortization under adequate protection from

unreasonable foreclosure. The system for the financing of homes should be so organized that the interests

of the home purchaser, the lender, and the general

public will all be amply protected. Some device for

the better mobilization of home financing credit and

to render it more fluid, for the protection of lending

institutions in times of depression, and to further

facilitate sound home ownership at all times is clearly

needed.

7. Old homes should he hrowght up to standard.

Since the majority of families are now living in old

houses far from convenient or comfortable in their

planning or equipment, and far from modern in their

sanitation, it is necessary that such advice and skilled

service should be available as to make it possible for

each family to discover what should be the next steps

in the improvement of its own home and the most

efficient ways of going about its repair or extensive

remodeling and modernizing. Since incomes limit the

amount that may be expended on home improvement

it should be borne in mind that no excuse lies therein

for inaction. Landlords can be helped to see their

responsibility and can contribute greatly to the quality

of homes at relatively slight expenditure. Home

owners and tenants whose incomes are small may still make improvements by their own personal labor during such moments as they may find free for this type

of work and bit by bit bring about changes that rid

the home, one by one, of its inconveniences and

sources of irritation, and render it a wholesome and

attractive environment and a source of family interest

and pride.

8. Slums and hlighted areas should he eliminated. —

Since public neglect and a variety of other causes have produced blighted areas and slums in our cities which have become an economic liability and where

conditions of living have become a social menace, the

need is clearly indicated for measures which go beyond the home dweller to the community and which

may involve complete demolition in case reconditioning of individual dwellings should not jirove feasible. Unless this problem can be met by private enterprise

there should be public participation at least to the extent of the exercise of the power of eminent domain.

If the interest of business groups can not be aroused

to the point where they will work out a satisfactory

solution of the problem through adequate measures

for equity financing and large-scale operations, a further exercise of some form of governmental powers

may be necessary in order to prevent these slums

from resulting in serious detriment to the health and

character of our citizens.

9. Industry so far as practical should he decentralized. —A basic evil in bad housing is land overcrowding. One of the most fundamental ways of reaching

this problem is through broad policies for the decentralization of industry with px'ovision for the rehousing of industrial laborers’ families in the new industrial communities in individual private dwellings.

To accomplish this it is necessary to distinguish

among the many industries and businesses those for

which such relocation is most desirable and to see that

those factors which now block such decentralization are brought properly under control. This may involve special study on the freight rate structure and ' special measures to eliminate the factors which now

' penalize desix’able xnovemexxt of iixdustry.

But in new ixxdustrial villages as well as in new j resideixtial subdivisions special pains xnust be taken

'

to prevexxt the repetition of the mistakes of the past.

The x-elatioxx of ixxdustrial and coxnxxxercial districts to those that are residential ixeeds most careful plan-

' xxing and so also does the layoxxt of streets, blocks, and > lots to facilitate the bxxilding of free-standing homes

with ample and px’otected settixxg properly served by

public ixtilities, and all this at a total cost within the i reach of the industrial worker. i 10. Well-advised large-scale housing operations i should he facilitated.—Ixx view of the ecoxxomies which

should be available to each dwelling uxxit in lax'ge- scale o^xerations needless obstructions in the forixi i of restrictive legislation, ixxappropriate taxation axxd | difficulties ixx securing adequate finaxxcial underwriting | should receive such attexxtioxx by business gx’oups axxd public agencies as will remove all xxeedless handicaps

j xxpoix the px’ovisioxx of good housing through mass ! productioxx for the lower-iixconxe groups. It should

be wholly possible to do this ixx a ixxanner which xvill i protect all public interests involved and at the saxxxe I tinxe x’elease finaxxcial x'esources, busixxess acumexx, axxd i social visioxx for housing operatioxxs of a type and ' quality that will attract sound, conservative ixxvest- i nxeixt into this field in which the huxnan needs are so i gx’eat. To this end the leadiixg business groixps of

‘ our cities ixxakiixg use of the best available advice axxd

'

collective experiexxce can ixxake a contribution vastly ' greater thaxx that which ixow characterizes busixxess i efforts in the field of housing for the lower-income i gx’oups.

11. Homes should he freed from excessive burdens

of taxation.—Existixxg practices in the assessmexxt of

real property axxd in the levying of taxes upon dwellings, especially those of the single family house type, | have resulted in sxxch heavj^ and inequitable burdexxs

that hoxxxe owxxership has beexx discouraged. The ixeed i is appareixt for xxxethods of assessment which will xxot I penalize the sixxall hoxxxe owner in coixxparison with ' the apartment dweller or the busixxess or industrial

plaxxt, axxd for forms of taxation which will xxot penalize or discourage impx*ovemeixt ixx homes already i built. A program based upoxx thorough study of this

subject is iixdicated as desirable iix the large xnajority

of our cities axxd States, as well as in x'xxral districts, ! and alterxxative xxxethods of raisixxg public revenue should ixx each instaxxce be coixsidered with x’efex’ence ! to their relative equity and their ixxerit from the fiscal poiixt of view. ; 12. Beauty as well as utility should he made availahle within the home and in its su/rroundings.—Furniture of good design and of sturdy, durable construction caxx be xxxade available at px-ices xxot greater thaxx are xxow paid for the ugly axxd flimsy furniture at present so widely sold. To solve the problem of ' xxxaking good furniture accessible to faxnilies of modest ixxcoixxe there will be needed cooperation on the

jxart of the varioixs professioxxal, xxxanxxfactux-ixxg, axxd trade groxxps involved. They have an oppox-tunity out of their professional knowledge, experience and

x-esources to xnake a contribution which will have a ixxarked effect upoxx the lives and happiness of mil- i lioxxs of families.
JANUARY, 1032 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 197

Similarly the professions and trades involved in the

landscape planning and planting of home yards and

gardens and in the provision of the accessories for

children’s play have an opportunity through cooperative study and action to bring charm in residential

neighborhoods and the joys of outdoor living within

the reach of all families irrespective of their

income.

13. The conveniences^ protection^ and opportunities

enjoyed hy city dwellers should he rendered availahle

as rapidly as possible to the residents of rural districts . —Needless drudgery due to imperfect and inadequate equipment or to serious lack of equipment is found in the homes of millions of rural families.

Though richly endowed in natural setting, the farm

home may fail to enjoy some or all of the facilities which modern science and invention have brought

within the reach of urban populations. Ignorance,

imperfect trade organization, low incomes, and many

other factors may contribute individually or collec- tively to this end. Systematic educational programs,

universal provision of home demonstration services,

general' cooperation of civic leaders in rural communities in better-homes demonstrations, increase of facilities for extension training and demonstration of equipment and utilities appropriate to the rural home, and

the cooperation of trade organizations and power companies and of public departments can be made rapidly

to overcome these deficiencies and bring convenience,

comfort, and safety within the reach of ever-expanding circles of rural life. 14. Worh centers for household operations should he

efficiently planned and equipped. —Needless fatigue

and waste motion and restricted leisure are the result

of haphazard or inappropriate planning and equipment of the work centers of the home. The cooperation of home economists, architects, and engineers is essential for more efficient planning which may result

in the elimination of needless burdens. Better organization of household activities requires study and help

from competent centers of advice and experimentation.

The objectives of home and family life must be considered at every step in the jjrocess so that there 'will be

a maximum opportunity for the fulfillment of interests and well-rounded development of each member

of the household.

L5. There is need of better framed and better en- forced legislation with regard to all types of housing

for the protection of the home and the community.

The jiresent laws are often hampering to new tjqjes of

construction. States and cities profit little by one another’s experience. The etfects of existing legislation

and enforcement have been inadequately studied.

Greater uniformity, once adequate .standards and objectives for legislation have been devised, Avould be desirable with due reference to local adaptations where

necessary. The factors which interfere with elfective

enforcement of well-framed legislation need constant study which should lead to constructive cooperation by

the public’s representatives Avith the officials charged

Avith the enforcement of the laAv. No laAv is self-en- forcing, and it is only through the exercise of the

rights of citizenship that the most desirable types of

administration can be achicA'ed. Although a large

part of the problem of housing is to be met by study

and education, high minimum standards can be

achieved only by legislation that is based upon scientific study free from inequities and discrimination and

administered Avith a vieAV to eliminating those evil fac- tors in the home environment Avhich may interfere in

any way with individual development.

16. The need of development of further research.^ in- formation service, and public education.—Experienced

leaders in each field have pointed to the need of further

study of the problems Avith Avhich they Avere concerned.

The best programs ai’e based on adequate and accurate

knoAvledge, Avhich still is often not to be had. Much

Avaste of time, energy, and resources can be avoided by

the establishment of a Avell-endoAved central agency for

the correlation of past and present researches and the

initiation of studies in those fields Avhich are most fundamental to Avise policy. Such a center might serve

also for the dissemination of the findings of research

and accurate information to indhuduals or agencies

Avhich seek it, and through it, or in cooperation Avith it, should be developed Avell thought out measures for

public education in all branches of this subject.

Local home information centers, schools and col- leges, and civic agencies for the improvement of homes

should be able to secure from such an agency the help

and advice Avhich are necessar}^ in the furtherance of

their programs. The findings of laboratories working upon problems of fundamental equipment, utilities, construction, and more especially on tests of neAv inventions, processes, and technological developments,

should through it be rendered available to those who

should make use of them without needless lapse of

time. By this means progress in the deA^elopment of

sound knoAvledge in the field of housing Avould be

rendered much more rapid, and through the dissemination of such findings Ave AA'ould get rid of the present

lag betAveen discovery and aA^ailability for use.

IT. The promotion of home ownership and better

homes in the prerogative of all civic leaders and of

citizens.—The interest and cooperation of ]uiblic de- partments, business men, commercial and industrial

organizations, professional and civic groups, should

be aA^ailable in the planning of well-judged measures and policies to remoA’e influences that interfere Avith the uniA^ersal provision of desirable conditions of

housing and to provide as rapidly as possible for desirable conditions of liAung for all families irresjAectiA’e of income, race, occupation, or otlier factors. The conference opened up a number of questions of

vital importance to the Avelfare of our Nation. Tlie

contributions from the various committees liaA^e been

outstanding. The Avork of the confeience has by no means been completed; in fact it is just aa’cII started. It is jAlanned to have a continuation committee ap- pointed Avhich Avill not onh’’ further summarize the

results of the conference, but Avill bring the reports

of the committees and the findings to pidilic attention

in all parts of the country. It is ho]>ed that in about

a A’’ear, a second confeience can be held. Some of the

most ini])ortant jAroblems of housing associated Avith the slums and blighted areas of our cities need technical and financial solution. 'Ihe promising reports

that AAere placed before this confeience indicate the

probability of unusually satisfactory results if ucav conceptions and neAv methods can be put into practical application.

In Porto Rico cooperative efi'orts for the building

of homes have been unusually successful AA'hen combined Avith small tracts of land for cultivation. Simi-
198 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JANUARY, 1032

lar experiments need to be tried in various parts of

the country.

Broadly speaking, proper housing is vital to Avhole- some living. Upon wholesome living depends the

success of our democracy. Health, happiness, and

good citizenship are furthered by proper housing.

Unhappiness, delinquency, and crime are furthered by

bad housing. We have still to determine the effect of our methods of housing upon our primary biological

needs, but we can be sure that we can not change materially the essentials of human habitation without re- acting biologically. We can learn from the birds.

The shiftless, careless robins who pick poor places for

their nests, who huild poor nests, raise but few young

who become full-fledged successful robins. We are endeaimring within a few decades to remold the mass

through individual changes brought to us in an almost

overwlielming manner by science and inA^ention.

No matter hoAV greatly our mobility has increased, our human needs for home Avith its joys and comforts

and children remain unchanged. While electricity,

the telephone, and the radio, and perhaps now tele- vision, bring the homes closer in contact Avith the

world, they make it all the more important psychologically and physiologically to have a place of retreat and comfort that Ave can call “ Home, sweet home.”

AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

News of Associational Activities During Month of December

Current deA^elopments of the folloAA’ing standardization projects under the auspices and procedures of the

American Standards Association have been furnished

bj^ that association

Methods for screen testing of ores.—The final draft

of the proposed standard on methods for screen test- ing of ores has been approved by the Milling Committee of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, Avhich has had charge of the

pi'eparation of the standard. The institute is proprietary sponsor for the project. It is expected that the

standard will be presented to the institute in the near

future for indorsement and transmission to the

American Standards Association for approval.

Goal-mine troths, signals., and switches.-—Revision

of this standard is going forward under the direction

of several subcommittees, notably that on frogs and

turnouts for coal-mine tracks, and that on AA’ood mine

ties. Plans for standardizing and simplifying frogs

and turnouts for coal-mine tracks for both gathering

and main-line haulage purposes have been discussed

and specifications for certain details have already been

prejjared; these Avill shortly be published for general

circulation and criticism.

Glassification of coal.—-A study of this subject, cov- ering scientific classification, use classification, and

marketing practice, is now going foi'Avard through

subcommittees of the sectional committee. The studies

undertaken include investigations to determine the

adaptability of different coals to various uses, to study

the occurrence of North American coals and their composition and origin, and to consider suggested systems

of classification. At the last meeting of the committee, held in Pittsburgh on November 10, the technical committee on use

classification reported that several papers covering coal

used in the cement, ceramics, and metallurgical industries have been completed. The committee also re- ported progress on studies of coal for domestic fuels. At the same meeting the technical committee on sci- entific classification presented a progress report cov- ering studies of graphical presentation of data Avhich

may serve as a basis for classification of coals. A

comprehensiA^e study of all existing systems for classi- fying coals has been completed and a scheme has been

Avorked out for comparing the position of the A’arious

coals in these systems by means of the Rose multibasic

coal chart.

Reports and papers have already been published by

the sectional committee and its subcommittees cover- ing the nature, mode, and occurrence of coals; classi- fication systems; physical and chemical characteristics; coal for gas and coke production; marketing

practices in different sections of the country; railroad

fuel; and coal for metallurgical purposes.

The project on classification of coals Avas inaugurated upon the request of the Coal Mining Institute of

America, and the American Society for Testing Materials is sponsor for the project.

Mine tinibering.—The organization of suhcommittees of the sectional committee to deA^elop timber specifications and recomniendations for mine-timbering

practice is noAv under way. Reports of these subcommittees will sexA^'e as a basis for the fornudation

of standards.

Although difficulties have been encountered in the

organization of the sectional committee on mine timbering, a program outlining the project has been pre- pared. The earlier program has been revised and it

is noAV proposed to handle the problem of mine timbering from a geographical as well as a subject standpoint. Several months ago a draft covering preservative treatment of mine timber Avas completed and Avas circulated for comment and criticism. Action on the

draft has been held up, hoAvever, pending the comijlete

organization of the sectional committee.

Safety rules for installing and using electrical

equiiyinent in metal, mines.—The circulation to the sec- tional committee in charge of this project, of changes

suggested in the third draft proj)osed for this standarcl has resulted in favorable comments from several

members of the committee. A digest of these proposed changes Avas considered by the sectional committee at a meeting held in Washington on December

4. The draft of the standard is now considered practically complete, and letter ballot of the sectional committee will be taken shortly on the changes recently

made, to supplement a previous letter ballot on the

document.
JANUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 199

TESTING OF MATERIALS

To Determine Value of a Material for a Given Purpose, Its Properties Must Be Measured

By Henry D. Hubbard, Bureau of Standards

To determine the value of any material for a given

purpose, its properties must be measured, assuming of

course that the properties upon which its use depends

are known and are measurable. Again, these j)roperties may have limiting values which must be re- garded or the material may prove worthless, costly, or even harmful for the purpose intended. The test- ing of materials may prove a needless waste of time

and money unless due consideration has been given

to the nature of the tests to be applied, the conditions

under which they are to be made, and the interpretation of results. It includes measurements of both

quantity and quality. These may vary from a simple

visual inspection to an investigation involving laboratoi’y and technical work of the most difficult and

precise nature. The growing appreciation of the vast waste due

to the use of defective materials and the misuse of

good materials has raised the question of efficiency and

made it the object of

a searching inquiry in

many different fields. In the industries, the so- lution of the problem

has for its key the sci- entific testing of materials. The testing of materials serves two important and distinct purposes; first, to ascertain Avhether or not they comply

with specifications, and second, to add to the general

fund of knowledge regarding them. Vlien done with

both objects in view it ceases to be of merely transient

value for the immediate case in hand, important as

this may be, but adds to the Avorld’s useful knowledge

of the materials. Data accumulate rapidly in the

regular work of tlie testing laboratory and when properly correlated will yield information of permanent

value in the industries.

Classes of materials. —Materials may be classified

in many different ways, for example : Chemically,

physically, according to their technical applications,

and likewise by any other aspect selected as a cri- terion. The fundamental classes of material, viewed

chemically, are: (1) Elements which contain only

similar atoms; for example, iron, mercury, hydrogen; (2) compounds, of which the molecule contains

unlike atoms or groups of atoms, such as salts, Avater, or carbon dioxide; and (3) mixtures, such as coal,

petroleum, or the atmosphere, which contain unlike

molecules. The physical classification into solids,

liquids, and gases is technically important, since the

methods of handling, measuring, weighing, and test- ing demanded by each are quite different.

Classification according to the use of the material is especially significant, since the testing of materials is primarily with a AueAV to their efficient use. Special

classes of materials grouped according to their use are, for example, electrical materials, refractories, lubricants, illuminants, colorants, abrasiA^es, optical materials, and many others. There the materials Avithin

each group possess related properties useful for a specialized purpose. An important group, based upon

use, is “ structural materials,” such as metals, stone,

cement, brick, Avood, protectiA^e coatings, paints, etc. Structural materials haA^e for their practical function

to maintain predetermined space relations of the parts

of a structure under service conditions, or to protect a structure from the action of unfaAmrable agencies.

Strength and rigidity usuall3^ characterize structural

materials, since these qualities enable structures to resist deformation. In manj" cases rigidity alone woiild

be detrimental, and here the material must be yielding

under the combined stresses of high pressure and temperature.

Another group includes materials in which ])liability or flexibility is a desirable quality. This class in- cludes textiles, paper, rubber, leather, and similar materials. Here the practical function is to per- mit change of si^ace relations of the parts of an article Avithin desired

ranges Avithout rupture.

For example, a leather

shoe or a cloth garment

should yield with bodily

motion, a rubber tire should be resilient under

shock, and paper flexible enough to be folded. Such

materials, lioweA^er, may be hardened where rigidity as

Avell as elasticity is important. Thus paper maA’ l)e made into car wheels, cloth into stiff collars, and hardened rubber into many articles in daily use. Another group consists of materials Avhich form the

surface upon other materials by adhesion or absorption. These include, for example, protective coating.s,

such as metallic coatings and paints, of which orna- ment—usually incidental—is often the main purpose

;

inks, used to impress, design, or print upon paper and

other materials; stains and dyes, Avhich may incidentally penetrate the materials; oils and varnishes, which

may serve to protect as well as beautify.

Many other groupings might be mentioned as examples, since the modes of classifying materials found in

nature or in the industries are practically numberless.

Tlie A'arieties of their uses are equally limitless. The

utilit}^ of materials depends upon the nature, magnitude, and stability' of their properties. To determine

these is the object of the testing of materials.

Properties of materials. —The ]iroperties of matel ials are displayed in their behavior under varied conditions and relations. Among primary properties may

be cited extension, impenetrability, porosity, divisibility, cohesion, expansion, and adhesion. The properties of matter are, hoAvever, as numerous and varied as the relations or aspects of matter and energv. The

modes of classifying these properties are again A^ery numerous. Geometrical projAerties relate to form, size.

The Bureau of Standards circular (No. 45) entitled “ The Testing of Mateiials ” is now out of print.

The introductor}' discussioi; of standards of quality

and the measurement of quality are subjects of such

interest that it is printed in full in this issue for the

benefit of the readers of the Coaimercial Standards

Monthly'.
200 COMMEECIAL STANDAEDS MONTHLY JANUARY, 1932

and spatial relations ; physical properties may involve

also mass, time, and energy ; chemical properties, molecular structure and reactions, and so on. The groups

of properties usually considered for any one application are, however, not numerous. For a complete study of the properties of a material

all of its properties would have to be studied through

all ranges of conditions. Considerations of economy

generally make such full tests impracticable, although

the conviction is growing that the systematic study of

the properties of materials would be a most effective means of technical progress. The economic value of any given propert}^ depends

upon its relative effect upon the net efficiency of the

material for a given purpose. For some uses a property may be of great value, while for others the same

property may make the material useless or even dangerous. The close correlation of property wdth use

jS, then, the main problem in the modern testing of

materials.

Determination, of the froferties of maierials. —An

adequate measure of a given property is possible when

(1) the property can be defined with sufficient exactness, (2) the material is of known composition or

purity, (3) the attending conditions are standard or

are known, (4) the experimental methods are theoretically correct, (5) the observations and their re- ductions are made with due care, and (6) the order of

accuracy of the result is known.

This ideal is rarely if ever reached, but as it is striven for the results pass from the qualitatiA^e to the

quantitative stage and are called “ constants ” because

redeterminations will not yield sensibly different results. Approximate results are imiDroved upon

steadily as more precise instruments and methods are

devised.

The degree of accuracy to be sought becomes a very

practical matter in a testing laboratory. The time

and labor involved in such tests increase out of proportion as the limits of attainable accuracy are ap- proached. For the determination of physical constants or fundamental properties of materials the degree of accuracy sought may be the maximum possible. For examjAle, a minute may suffice to determine

the density of alcohol for commercial purposes b}^ means of a hydrometer. Months, lioweA^er, may be

well spent in a precise determination of its density as a physical constant of great technical importance. In

general, the degree of accuracy striA^en for should be

that Avhich is strictly good enough for the puiqjose in

hand—Avhether the Avork be routine testing or scientific research. The selection of the degree of accuracy

to be sought for in each case requires the experience

and judgment of the specialist.

The measure of quality. —Quality in the sense here

used is that which fits a material for a given use. A

material is not simply good—it is good for a certain

purpose, and the Avord quality is meaningless apart

from the use in vieAV. Good quality means good for

a definite use. The test of the material is to detennine

how good for that iise. This measure may be made

directly by a service test, indirectly by a test under

simulated service conditions, or still less directly by a laboratory test of separate properties upon AAdiich the

quality is knoAvn or assumed to depend.

As the scientific method is applied to the study of

materials, the quality is foundjto be not a A^ague characteristic which could only be judged by experienced

users, but rather as the utility aspect of a material in

terms of a property or group of properties, each of

AAhich is measurable. The variation in these constitu- ent properties causes differences in quality. Personal

opinion as to a quality may differ Avidely. Intelligent

judgment, eA^en, has no sure foundation until measured data are available Avith sufficient fullness to practically determine the conclusion. The personal fac- tor is eliminated in direct ratio as a true measure of

quality is deA’eloped. When this is complete, quality

may be graded numerically as utility efficiency in

terms of some ideal standard selected. The quality

of coal is specified and measured for a given use whether for direct combustion or gas production by

finding the net utility per pound for the purpose in

view. The heat efficiency depends directly upon the

combustible matter and is expressed in heat units per

pound of fuel. Many qualities of materials are already placed more or less definitely upon such a measurable basis. The ultimate aim is to define all qualities in terms of units of measure.

It is also known that there is usually a certain magnitude for each property Avhich is best for a given use and Avhich may be ascertained by investigation or

serAuce experience. To obtain in practice this best

magnitude of each pertinent property is the object of

technical specifications. Such specifications usually

fall short of the ideal OAving to obvious limitations

economy of production, sources of materials, and

other conditions which can not be ignored. These

considerations necessitate the fixing of suitable limits

for each property Avithin Avhich it may A'ary. The

maximum and minimum to be set become the subject

of experiment in order to assign limits of tolerance

to restrict the properties Avithin acceptable ranges. These correspond to the size limits alloAved in making

machine parts where such A^ariation in size of each

part as conduces to economy in manufacturing the

machine Avithout unduly impairing the efficiency of

the assembled machine. In fixing these limits of tol- erance for material, care must be exercised to avoid

too narroAv ranges on the one hand and too wide A^ari- ations or poor quality on the other. These limits

often involve safety and generally invoh’e durability

and efficiency.

Too much stress can not be laid upon the economic

value of testing the quality of materials before their

use. The integrity of steel used for rails is of great

importance in the railroad and steel industries, and

a study of the effects of slight additions of other

metals or change in heat treatment or mode of making

may be of great economic advantage to the railroads.

On the other hand, the failure of a rail due to brit- tleness may involve more than merely the cost of a ncAv rail. Serious accidents Avith great loss of life may be avoided if the properties which determine the

I’eliability of tlie rail are knoAvn and if the rails are tested for such properties. The length of service of

the rail could then be restricted by the limits of safety

exactly as it is now restricted of necessity by the wear- ing doAvn of the rail in service. In other words, a failure of matei’ial may in some cases merely re- quire replacement and the expense for the new material—a loss Avhich must not be ignored—but far more

serious are those cases which inAmlve human life or where the replacement is only a small part of the

damage caused. Needless risk of life should not be

incurred by the waiAung of any essential requirement.
JANUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 201

The time has passed when the strength of materials can be left to guesswork or even to intelligent opinion

alone. With the rapid increase in the height of buildings, length of span for bridges, and speed of trans- portation, new problems in safetj' and efficiency ai'ise. The measure of the quality of structural materials in

advance of their use thus becomes a matter of supreme

importance, for the safety of buildings, bridges, rail- roads, dams, car ivlieels, and similar constructions

must not depend upon merely estimated strength and

durability. They must be guaranteed by specification and test; for example, an engineer assumes a stated strength of the structural materials called for

in his design. The testing laboratory, however, can

test tliese materials by sample in advance of their

use. and by means of the strain gage can determine

the net strain of the structure during its construction

and after erection or assembling. The strength of the

material may be ample in certain cases, but through

fault of construction or design undue strain may

be introduced which leaves but slight margin for the

working load. The steel in a locomotive driving tire may be amply strong, but if the fit on the wheel center

is so snug as to require excessive heating to expand it sufficiently to go in place internal strains may be developed which may cause failure in service. Suitable

tests during and after construction might be prescribed in building or inspection regulations and made

part of the original specification in all cases. Under

these circumstances the responsibility for failure of

structures must rest with those who knowingly omit

adequate tests where such are available.

Specifcatiom or standards of quality. —While the

testing of materials in the modern sense is now a most

important factor in the industries, such testing is still in its initial stage with respect to the establishment of rigorous standards of quality. Standards of

quality can be developed only by research with the

aim of correlating the properties of the material with

specific qualities or utilities which they determine.

The relation of the properties of a material to its use, which is so apparent in the simpler cases, must be as- certained for the more complex cases if quality is to be measured or determined. The measure of quality

has not yet attained the higher position of simpler

kinds of measure, because material testing has been so largely limited to separate properties or to experimental trial under simulated service conditions.

A specification is in a sense a working standard of

quality—at least for purchase and sale—and indicates

the quality desired and the conditions needed to in- sure it. A siJecification is too often not a real standard of quality at all. It ma}' be narrow and exclude

efficient material or so loose as to admit material of

poor quality. To specify a particular composition for

a bearing metal might exclude even the best on the

market, and to simply specify “ Babbitt metal ” may

admit the poorest. A specification, too, may require

tests which do not gage any desirable property and

yet omit tests of vital importance; for example, a

paint specification may limit the ratio of hydrate of

lead to carbonate of lead and yet omit any test of optical covering power—a property of utmost importance. Defect may be due to lack of knowledge or, too

often, to an effort merely to duplicate material once found satisfactory. This is done by prescribing a

special brand and adding the words “ or equal ” or by

minutely describing tlie proiierties of the accejitable

94297—32 2

brand. Both methods are used in place of specifying

the use required of the material—a practical recourse where a definite standard is still impracticable.

Defective specifications, whether due to compromise

of quality for economy or through lack of data, should

be replaced by those in which the best magnitude of

each property involved is so specified as to i^redetermine the definite quality best meeting the need.

This is strictly analogous to specifying the dimensions

of a bridge member. Each dimension called for in

the design must be met by the part submitted. The

quality specification should be just as definite to suit

the conditions of use which it must meet. Each essential dimension, whether of size or quality, must be

correct within certain limits or the article is unsatisfactory or useless for the purpose.

An ideal specification for material regards both

economy and efficiency and does not ignore depreciation, rejilacement, repair, and service, which equally

with the first cost enter into the net cost per unit

of utility. For example, in judging rubber tires for

automobiles a tire-mile ” might be viewed as a unit

of utility. If the cost of the tires is reduced to the

cost per “ tire-mile,” a comparison is then possible. If

first cost alone governs, inefficiency is almo.st certain,

whereas if economic quality is the criterion the ideal

specification and the true standard of quality coincide. High cost may make the best material for a given puiqjose impracticable, but, as the lowest price is often associated with the poorest quality, a compromise may be necessaiy for economic reasons. It is as

false economy, however, to require too good as too poor a quality ; that is, the materials which are strictly

“ good enough ” should compete for selection on the

basis of net cost per unit of utility. Mature judgment

is needed to decide the relative stress to be placed

upon econom}^ and upon efficiency, since one may be

lost by undue emphasis upon the other.

Improvement of specifcations. —The basis of specifications shoidd be made the subject of constant study,

and changes should be made as soon as new technical

knowledge necessitates. In such work standardizing

institutions, technical societies, individual investigators, and industrial laboratories cooperate, with the

result that the ideal specification is becoming a truer standard of quality. As this result is gained and

anethods of test are perfected, the testing of materials

becomes a real test of fitness. With the active co- operation of manufacturer, seller, user, and technical

testing laboratory, the specification becomes a means

of steady progress in the industr}^ concerned, and

combined with service experience facilitates the moi’e

efficient adaptation of materials to their uses. Service

experience, viewed in the light of the laboratory

test, must, however, be tlie criterion for judging the

adequacy of the specifications themselves.

Iclearstandards of quality in most cases are still impracticable through lack of data, and the practical

stej) has been the tentative specification. The specification is designed to obtain the quality best suited

to the case in hand, and usually reflects the status of

knowledge upon the subject. To the extent that it embodies the results of experience, it is the best that can be done until rigorous standards of quality are developed. Inflexible specifications retard technical

progress; but if allowed to advance apace with new

technical knowledge, the specification becomes a distinct aid to such progress.
202 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JANUARY, 1932 THE DANISH STANDARDS COUNCIL

Brief Outline of the Standardization Work, as Carried Out in Denmark, Given by Secretary of Dansk

Standardiseringsraad

By H. E. Glahn, Secretary, Dansk Standardiseringsraad

In Denmark the national organization for standardization is known as the Dansk Standardiseringsraad,

or, as one would say in English, the Danish Standards

Council. Its organization was preceded by four

years of activity on the part of technical and trade

associations in developing the need for standardization, and deciding the best manner in which such an

organization could function. Fortified by facts, a petition for the creation of the Dansk Standardiseringsraad was jiresented by the Federation of Danish

Industries and the Danish Engineering Association,

to the Ministry for Trade and Industry, which was

approved in January, 1926. At the present time the council consists of 24 members appointed by the Ministry for Trade and

Industiy, of which number six represent Government

dejiartments, while the rest are representative of the

technical, industrial, and trade bodies. The ministry

appoints the secretary and the council appoints an

engineer whose function is that of technical secretary

and who has immediate charge of its activities. The council is financed half by the Government

and half by private industrial and technical associations. The members of the council and the committee

serve without pay. In procedure, the proposed standards are developed by committees and subcommittees,

and then published for criticism for two months.

After this the standards are returned to the respective

committee or subcommittee, for further study. Upon

recommendation of the responsible committee the

project may be adopted as a

“ Dansk Standard ” by

INTERNATIONAL STANDARDIZATION OF

PETROLEUM TEST METHODS PLANNED

National standardizing bodies of 21 industrial

countries have been invited to take part in efforts to attain greater uniformity in methods of testing

petroleum products and lubricants under the auspices

of the International Standards Association.

Invitations have been forwarded to the foreign

standardizing agencies asking for the appointment

of petroleum technologists as official representatives on an international committee to deal with the subject. The nomenclature of petroleum products will

also be studied by the committee. The American

Standards Association is doing the secretarial work

in connection with the proposed international action.

The widespread commerce between nations in gasolines and lubricating and fuel oils has made the need

for international uniformity in nomenclature and

in methods of determining physical and chemical

properties increasingly important during the last few

years. Invitations have been issued to these nations : Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czechoslovakia,

two-thirds vote of the council. So far the council has

approved 93 standards and there are now 150 proposals in the hands of the various committees. The

apiiroved standards may be divided into the following groups or classification : General, mechanical en- gineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering,

ferrous metallurgy, textile industry, agriculture,

paper industry, and miscellaneous.

The proposals now in the hands of the committees

include : Symbols for drawings (architective, mechanical, and electrotechnical drawings, and drawings for

sanitary installations, railways and streets, building

materials, and reinforced concrete) : technical drawings (special rules for statement of dimensions and

measurements on drawings of the country) ; stamp

of original of the jDroperty in a drawing; tolerances

for width across flats; threaded lengths of bolts with

one and two nuts; threaded lengths of the short end

of studs and minimum depths of threaded bottom

holes; split pins, completed screws, and bolts; keys and

shafts; heights of axes, shaft ends, and flange cou- plings; gas stop cocks; water cocks; gas-meter screws; Edison screw threads; tiles; steel and iron; oils for

technical purposes; textiles for hospitals; rings for

rollers ; ploughs ; paper sizes ; and marks of correction.

In addition to its annual report, which contains

tlie report of the proceedings of the council for the

year, all standards approved by the council are published in various forms immediately upon being made

available.

Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain,

Holland, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Norway, Poland,

Rumania, Sweden, Switzerland, Union of Socialist

Soviet Republics (Russia), and the United States of

America.

Austria, France, Germany, Japan, Holland, Hungai'3^, Switzerland, Russia, and United States, have

alreacl}^ unofficially indicated a desire to participate

in the work. The national standardizing bodies of

most of these nations are, together with the American

Standards Association, members of the International

Standards Association, which has its headquarters at Basle, Switzerland.

Dr. R. P. Anderson, of the American Petroleum

Institute, has been appointed as the American repre- sentative on the international committee. Doctor Anderson is also secretaiT of the American technical

committee on nomenclature and methods of testing

petroleum products and lubricants, which has been

working on national standards under the auspices of

the American Standards Association. The American

Society for Testing Materials has been directing the

technical work of the committee.
JANUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS AIONTHLY 203

SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE IN CONTAINER FIELD

Great Need Exists for Simplification and Standardization of Containers

By H. L. Lockwood, Bureau of Standards

From 30 to 40 per cent of the freight handled in

this country is of a character classified by the rail- roads as “ merchandise,” or “ miscellaneous commodity freight.” Practically 100 per cent of this vast quantity of goods must be packed in some form of

container. In a normal year approximately 20,000,-

000 carloads, or about 500,000.000 tons, of this class of freight are carried on our railroads. A considerable additional quantity travels by water or highway.

A survey of the whole field of physical distribution

of such goods discloses the startling fact that there

are only three nationally recognized standards of size,

and even these do not apply directly to containers as ordinarily defined.

The first “ standard ” is that of the inside width

of railway box cars, set at 102 inches by the American Kailway Association. Even this standard is not

universal, although it is a minimum for some 90 per

cent of cax’s now in main line freight service. (Jne

standard of length, 36 feet applies to about 41 per

cent of cai’s, and about 35 per cent more are 40 feet

6 inches long. The other 24 per cent of cars range

all the wa}’' from 34 to 50 feet in length. The next

standard, which is fairly well established, is that of

the so-called “1. c. 1. container,” approximately 8

feet 6 inches by 7 feet on the base and about 7 feet

high. Six of these containers are carried on a “ container car,” which is a low-sided gondola car. A

special size of 1. c. 1. container, used to carry loose

brick and stone, has one base dimension equal to onehalf that of the full-size container, hence 12 “ brick

containers ” are carried on a container car. The third

standard is that covering skid platforms used to carry

goods in transit. Manufacturers and users have

agreed on two sizes—the “ freight skid,” 42 by 60

inches, and the “ stores skid,” 32 by 33 bv 54 inches.

Standard freight cars are ii'ed by all standardgage railroads. Standard 1. c. 1. containers are used

by three or four large railroad systems for carrying

certain kinds of high-class freight, and are also used

to some extent by freight forwarding companies to handle consolidated shipments. Brick containers are

principal]}" used by one eastern railroad, to handle

loose brick and similar commodities over its lines. Skid platforms have been u«d to carry goods ixi transit for about six years, but only within the past

two or three years has there been any noticeable extension of their use. Such extension was retarded be- cause of the lack of any standards which would permit

interchangeability in use. A number of large rail- roads have lately adopted or extended the use of the

.smaller size of .skid platform for handling railway

material, stores, and supplies, particularly during the

past three years. There has so far been no general

effort to stimulate the use of freight skids for general

merchandise freight service on a national scale, al- though their use by individual shippers has steadily

increased.

With few exceptions, merchandise carried in or on

box cars, 1. c. 1. containers or skid platforms, is packed

in some form of box. crate, barrel, carton, sack, or other

form of package. In referring hereafter to “containers,” it will be understooil that this does not mean

the 1. c. 1. container above mentioned. The container

that directly interests transportation people is generally known as the “ shipping container.” Probably

the most common form is that of the wooden packing

box or crate. In some classes of commodities where

units are large there is no other container, but in most

commodities there is at least one other, a smaller container, several of which are packed in the shipping

container. In a very large proportion of merchandise

there is a third container, still Ginaller, into which the

actual goods are packed.

For purposes of definition the latter type will be

designated as a “ primary ” container. Examples of

primary containers are familiar to everyone; as for

instance, tubes containing tooth paste and similar

products, cans for fruits, vegetables, etc., numerous

glass containers for food and drug products, and

paper and pasteboard boxes for hundreds of different

kinds of goods. The primary container is almost

always the “ consumers unit ” ; the form in which the

final purchaser gets the commodity. Small articles

in primary containers are usually packed in varying

quantities into a

“ secondary container,” which is usually the “ retail unit ”; in other words, the quantity

or unit package bought by the retailer, containing one dozen, or one gross, or some other standard quantity of goods packed in jD’iDiai’V containers. In some

cases, particularly wdiere primary units are of medium

size, the secondary container may also be the shipping

container, and as such will be not only the retailer

unit but the wholesaler unit. In an enormous number

of cases however, the shipping container above mentioned is also required, and it is the wholesaler’s unit

and the shipping container.

While certain industries, and a great number of in- dividual firms, have established .standards for all three types of containei’s for their own products, there

has been pi-actically no standardization or simplification of similar containers used for different products.

Generally speaking the whole container situation is chaotic from the point of view of standardization.

Kecent studies of the cost of physical distribution, and

the wastes inherent in present methods, indicate

clearly the great need for establishing standards in

this field, and for doing a nation-wide job of simplification, meaning reduction in variet.y. There is no sound reason why a shipping container carrying a large quantity of tooth paste in tubes should differ in size and shape from a container carrying a similar

quantity of shaving cream or any other commodity

of similar kind and weight. The same applies to thousands of other every-day commodities sold at

retail, such as food products, drugs, and hundreds of

articles sold in department stores. A study of the

proper method of approach to this jiroblem immediately develops the difficulty of establishing any

sort of uniform standards, or of undertaking sinqxlili-
204 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JANUARY, 1932

cation, on shipping containers, until primary and

secondary containers have been thoroughly studied

and a certain number of standards put into effect. A start has been made along these lines by in- dustry, with the cooperation of the division of simplified practice, and a number of recommendations

have been developed. Each recommendation provides

for the smallest possible number of sizes, selected from

among all so-called standard sizes existing at the time.

The selection in each case was based on commercial

considerations, usually those of demand, or percentage

of use. The development of a simplified practice rec- ommendation on any type of container necessarily

draws attention to the necessity for proper technical

design and for proper methods and materials used for

packing goods. Consequentlj^ each completed recom- mendation represents not only the best thought of the

entire industry regarding the number of sizes recpiired, but also as a rule represents the best technical

development in packaging the particular commoditjn

The division recently completed one project which

may be regarded as typical. It covers wrapping and

packing of goods sold in department stores, and was

initiated by the National Retail Dry Goods Association. Literally hundreds of cases were found in

which a negligible change in box dimensions would

permit the use of boxes identical in size for carrying

quite dissimilar articles. Not only did each store have its own separate “ standards ” for wrapping and

packing each article, but even in a single store there were many unnecessary differences in box dimensions

which could easily be eliminated. Since this industry

alone spends some $23,000,000 a year for boxes and

wrapping materials, the possibilities for saving money

through simplification are obvious.

In addition to the project mentioned above, the division has cooperated with the industries concerned in

developing simplified practice recommendations cov- ering packaging of overhead electric railway material, dental plaster, flash-light batteries, cariiage, machine and lag l)ofts, razor blades, insecticides and

fungicides, and salt. Some of these apply to primary

containers and some to shipping containers. In the

field of primary container dimensions, recommendations have been developed covering milk and cream

liottles, carbonated beverage bottles, glass containers

for preserves, butter tubs, cottage cheese and sour cream jars, fruit and vegetable cans, and ice cream

cups. Projects on shipping containers include steel barrels and drums, wooden barrels and kegs, and

paper board shipping cases for canned fruits and vegetables. Recommendations have also been developed

for ice cream brick molds, cartons, grocers’ paper bags,

notion and millinery paper bags, glassine bags, and

thicknesses of box board.

Numerous other projects on primary containers are under consideration at present, together with a few

projects on secondary containers which have resulted

directly from work alread}^ done on primary containers for the same commodit3^ A tremendous interest

has developed in this work, particularly within the

past year, as more and more industries and individual

firms begin to recognize the possibilities of simplification and standardization. The general consensus of

opinion among those best informed is that there is still a tremendous quantity of work to be done on primary

and secondary containers before any satisfactory progress can be made on shipping containers. The wide

acceptance of the skid platform recommendation is important as indicating a general desire among shippers and carriers to develo]i some sort of national

standards, but it is of even more importance in establishing a set of recognized dimensions on which shipping container standards can be based.

The size of the freight skid, for example, was determined only after exhaustive studies of handling cost, equipment cost, accessory equipment required, eco- nomical stowage in railway cars and highway trucks,

and suitability for handling in buildings, through

doorways, aisles, and passages. Experiments have

shown that a large proportion of shipping containers can be made of such size and shape that they will stow

economically on a standard skid. The railroad car

itself, and even the large 1. c. 1. container, is too large

a unit to serve as a guide for container standardization in general. Some smaller unit is essential, and

the consensus of opinion among shippers and carriers

indicates that the skid platform will meet that

requirement.

With such a recognized unit, neither too small nor

too large, capable of being used throughout a manufacturing plant as well as for handling, storing, and

transporting goods, it is jiossible to work independently in many commodity fields. Each project will be

of benefit in its j^articular field, and yet can be coor- dinated at tlie proper time with similar projects in

other fields. The ultimate objective is thorough “ inte- gration ” and coordination of standards adopted for

every item used in packing, handling, and transporting commodities, from the small primary container to the railroad car.

COTTAGE-CHEESE AND SOUR-CREAM JARS

The simplified-practice recommendation covering

cottage-cheese and sour-cream jars, recently modified

at the joint meeting of the standardization committee

of the International Association of Milk Dealers and

members of the Glass Container Association of America, has been submitted by the Bureau of Standards

to all interests for their consideration and Avritten

approval.

This recommendation was originally approved by a general conference of representatives of the industry

in Cleveland, Ohio, on October 23, 1930. In circularizing the industry for accexrtirnce. it was found that.

with regard to some of the containers, the heights

shown in the initial recommendation were not satisfactory. For this reason the recommendation did not re- ceive the required degree of support. The joint committee, therefore, has recommended that the heights of

the 12 and 16 ounce bottles be increased.

The recommendation covers dimensions of the base

diameter, height of bottle, height of finish or roll, di- ameter of cap seat, and over-all diameter of finish roll of the 8, 12, and 16 ounce bottles used as containers in

marketing cottage cheese and sour cream. It will be

effective one month after the date of the bureau’s general announcement that the necessary volume of

acceptance has been received.
JANUAKY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 205

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM OF RAILWAYS

American Railroads Have Achieved a High Degree of Standardization in Their Use of Signaling

Equipment

By W. P. Borland ^

Various methods are in use for the comiiiunicatioii

of information between those responsible for the safe

operation of railway trains in the United States. The

two methods most commonly used consist of the dis- play of fixed or movable signals of some sort, or the

sounding of some form of audible signal, indicating

the nature of the information which is to be imparted.

The usual form of transmitting information from one

place to another is by means of the telephone or

telegraph.

Fixed signals. —Fixed signals are signals located at

a definite location, indicating conditions affecting the

movement of a train. They may be of different types

for different purposes, but their indications have been

largely standardized through the cooperation of the

organizations of the various railroads, and their meaning is uniformly the same throughout the country.

Block signals are one of the important means of

conveying information to enginemen for the operation

of trains. Several types are in common use to-day.

One of these types is the semaphore signal, which consists of a semaphore blade mounted on a signal mast

and operated either by hand or bj'^ some motor-driven

device. This signal displays its indication by the position of the blade by day, and in addition by colored

lights at night. Some years ago the blade was com- monly operated in the loiver cpiadrants, but upper

(juadrant signals have come into general use within

the last 15 years and are gradually replacing the lower

(juadrant signals. The fundamental positions of the

upper quadrant signals are horizontal for stop, diagonal (45°) for caution, and vertical (90°) for proceed.

The usual colors displayed by night are red, yellow,

and green for stop, approach, and proceed, respectively. Various combinations of positions of two or more blades and colors of lights are used for dis- playing asjiects governing movements of a restricted

character.

With the advent of higher speeds and heavier equipment it has been found that with the usual spacing of

signals on the roadway the information imparted b}^

the signals to the engineman was not always given at

a point which would permit the train to be stopped

before reaching the stop signal. This gave rise to a fourth indication knoAvn as approach medium (diagonal over vertical), which is used in connection with

the three indications jn'eviously described. Tliese

4-indication signal systems are used quite extensively on railroads whei-e the S])eed and ti'aflic density require

the extra indication. On I'oads of lesser density threeposition signal systems are generally used.

Another type of block signal in extensive use is the

color-light signal, which has come into gemn-al use throughout the country; one advantage being the

absence of moving parts. Light signals have been

used for many }a'ars in tunnels and subways, and fol- lowing the development of special lenses and lamps.

their use has been extended so that now they are extensively used in the open country. The same color- indication scheme is used as with the semaphore signals; the lamps, reflectors, lenses, and hoods being

specially designed so as to ]iermit the indications to be discerned as well by day as by night.

A third type, known as the position-light signal, is coining into use in some portions of the country. It consists of a row or beam of amber-colored lights indicating by position, similar to the semaphore signal, the

condition of the block. This signal was designed to prevent the possibility of enginemen mistaking the

color indication due to color blindness. The indications in general are the same as with semaphore sig- nals. A limited amount of color-position-light signals are in use with colored lights in the various positions.

In general, with all types of signals, except the position-light type, red, yellow, and green, are used for

stop, approach, and proceed, respectively, corresponding with the horizontal, diagonal, and vertical positions nf the blade in semaphore signals.

Other types of fixed signals in common use on rail- ways consist of {a) crossing signals at highway cross- ings, marking the location of crossings; (6) crossingsignals, indicating to highway travelers the approach

of trains, such as bells, flashing lights, wigwags, and

gates, the aspects of which are standardized; (c)

clearance signs at points where the clearance between

moving trains and structures is limited, for the safety

of employees; {d) speed-restriction signs indicating

to the enginemen speed restrictions in effect at various

jioints; (e) yard-limit signs indicating to operating- crews the extent of a yard; (/) stop signs at noninterlocked railroad grade crossings; and various

other signs imparting information as to the operation

of the railroad or for the protection of the jniblic.

Movable signals . —^Principal among the various

movable signals used on the railroads are flags and

lamps. Flags of different colors are used b}’ day and

lamps by night to indicate various conditions.

' Green flags are used by switclimen in signaling en- ginemen relative to the movement of trains ovei- handoperated switclies. They are also used on locomotives

to indicate a following- section, or on the roadway as resume-speed signals. Yellow flags are used under

.some conditions as i-ear-end markers of a train, slowspeed signals ovei- sections of track or at other points

where caution is to be observed in the operation of a train. lied flags are used for flagging approaching

trains oi- under any conditions whicli involve danger

in the movement of trains; also as markers on the

i-ear end for trains on main tracks; and stop signals at block stations foi- the delivery of (rain orders. White

flags are geiu'rally used on extra trains to indicate

(heii- classification. Blue flags are used in and around

yards to indicate men working on cars and to proviile

foi- tlieii- safety while so engaged. Lanq>s of simihu

color are nsed by night in lieu of flags i)y day and

’ Diioctor, Riirpau of .Safety, Inteistiilo Comnierco t'oimiiission. have the same meaning.
206 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY JANUARY, 1932

Train orders.—Two standard forms of written

orders are in general use for the purpose of transmitting information governing the movement, meeting,

and passing of trains. One of these forms (Form

19) does not require the signature of train crews, and

is generally used when an order does not restrict the

rights of the train receiving it; when the rights of

trains as conferred by time-table or class are restricted,

Form 31 is used, and this requires the train crew to sign for its delivery. Train orders are written in

multiple, and in order that everybody concerned may

have the same information and interpretation, standardized forms of wording. Forms A to S, are in com- mon use. The matter contained in these forms is short, concise, and clear as to how the movement is to be executed.

Clearance cards of two standard forms (Forms A

and B) usually accompany the train orders, and indi- cate their numbers and reason for their issuance, thus

insuring that all copies are delivered. Like the train

orders, their working is standard and thej^ are universally used throughout the country.

Wliistde signal. —Engine whistle signals of standardized code are employed for indicating to employees, other trains, or the public certain conditions

arising in connection with the operation of trains.

They are used either with the train standing or running, and their meanings under these conditions are

in accordance with codes printed in the rule book

of each railroad company.

Communicating signals are employed for communication between the train crews and engine crews, each

having a separate meaning as to the operation of the

train, brakes, station stops, emergency stop, meeting

points, and other similar conditions. Like the enginewhistle signals, these are standardized on all railroads.

Telcphone and telegraph . —These devices have been

in general use for many years for the transmission of

train orders for train dispatching, transmitting messages and orders, and other information. The tele- })hone has to a considerable extent supplanted the

telegraph for transmission of train orders, more than

CO per cent of the orders now being transmitted by

telephone.

LIGHTHOUSE COMMUNICATION

Simplified System of Radiobeacon Signals Aids Navigator

The principal work of standardization encountered

in the Lighthouse Service is the maintenance of a uniform system of buoyage upon all the coasts of the

United States. Entering port, the navigator knows that the black

buoys with odd numbers should be kept on his left hand and the red buoys with even numbers on his

right; and that all ports and channels under United

States jurisdiction are marked in the same manner.

This standard for the coloring of buoys, to indicate

the right and left hand sides of channels, established

by act of Congress in 1850, has proved of great value

to shipping. Additions to the buoyage system as they

become necessary are made to conform to the same

system. With the introduction of lighted buoys there

arose the question of color of the lights. The lighting

of buoys is not so fully standardized, but red lights are used only on the right sides of channels entering,

and gi’een lights only on the left sides, with white

lights on either side. In the rapid development of the radiobeacon, which

has taken place during the past 10 years, considerable

standardization has been attained. Originally developed as an aid to navigation during periods of fogs,

and, therefore, to be operated only at irregular intervals, the radiobeacon soon proved to be of value in

clear weather as well, and they are now generallj^ operated on an hourly schedule in clear weather as well

as during fog.

Particular care has also been taken to devise a sys- tem of radiobeacon signals which would distinguish

each radiobeacon from others near by and still pre- serve uniformity throughout the system which would

differentiate this type of signal from all other radio

transmissions. This has been accomplished by using

a single Morse character for each station, and repeating this signal so long as the station is broadcasting.

Hearing this repetition of-ar'Morse code letter, the

navigator knows that he is listening to a United States

radiobeacon, and by identifying the particular signal

he is informed of the exact station which is sending.

This simplification of signals and hourly operation

has aided in creating confidence in the radiobeacon

system as a whole.

While the primary need of most aids to navigation

is a means of distinguishing one signal from another,

much standardization of equipment has still been possible. Standard types of buoj^s have been developed^

illuminating apparatus is now purchased or manufactured in a comparatively small number of types

and sizes. Lanterns and lenses, particularly the

smaller sizes, have been well standardized at a con-

•siderable reduction in cost, and many other items en- tering into the maintenance of lights and buoys so designed that they are applicable to conditions in all parts of the country.

As the United States Lighthouse Service has operating bases scattered along the entire coast line of

the country and upon the Great Lakes, there is of necessity much purchasing of supplies and materials

locally, but the tendency has been toward the preparation of standard specifications and for the purchasing,

whenever practicable, to be done through a central

depot.

The service also maintains a few shops for the manufacture of certain special items. Standardization

has simplified the work of ordering items so manufactured and eliminated the need for special drawings

and specifications. It has also effected great savings

in both time and expense in the many emergency re- placements which must be made because of storm and

similar damage.

The bureau is represented on several committees of

the Federal Specifications Board, and a representative

of the bureau is serving on the executive committee of

the board as a Commerce Department representative.
JANUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 207

THE SPECIFICATION WRITER’S JOB

The Part Played by Specification Writers in Economical Concrete Construction an Important One

By J. P. H. Peruy *

The specification writer sliould reflect on the use to which specifications are to be put. Broadly speaking,

building specifications have three major functions, at

least from the viewpoint of the contractor or builder.

These are (a) as a basis for estimating or bidding the

job, (b) as a guide to the operating or construction

forces in building tlie work, and (c) as a basis of

paying for the ivork and for settling any disputes.

There is never much time allowed for estimating

work. When the specifications are poor there results

unsound bidding. This usually results further m

.someone getting the work and losing money or skimping the job in an effort to avoid losing money. The

really capable builder frequently loses the job and the owner is thereby a further loser in that lie may have

to fight all the time, which results in excessive inspection or administrative costs or in ultimately the owner

accepting faulty work with consequent higher maintenance expenses or even greater losses. All of this

is a direct economic loss. Granting, however, that a satisfactory builder can

be secured as a result of competition held on satisfactory specifications, we still face the economic advantage or disadvantage of good or bad specifications

growing out of the erection of the building. Unquestionably better workmanship, more orderly progress, and lower costs result from sound, clear, orderly,

intelligent specifications that are accurate and definite

than can ever result from loose, unfair, verbose, tricky

specifications. Nothing takes the morale out of a building job more than indefiniteness as to what is to be done. When a superintendent has to keep calling

up his general superintendent, the latter in turn bothering the architect or the owner for interpretation,

something is wrong.

Assuming the job can be let and be built from unsatisfactory specifications there is the further economic

advantage or disadvantage in settling up and paying

for the job and the possibility of having to settle dis- putes. If the specifications are clear and good these

potentialities are minimized.

To-day there should be no excuse for anything but

good specifications, so far as concrete and reinforced

concrete are concerned. The concrete industry has

set up well-established sources of information readily

available to any consumer so that proper specifications

may be written. Builders, to-day, are increasingly

willing to cooperate with owners and architects in the

writing of specifications in an effort to see that they

are consistent with economy as well as with current

})ractice, good workmanship, and good quality of materials. To-day, by requiring that the standard specifications of the Portland Cement Association, the

American Concrete Institute, American Society for

Testing Materials, and the Report of the Joint Committee on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete, should

be followed, the consumer can purchase satisfactory

conci'ete.

The va.st majority of specifications for concrete buildings and for buildings in general would be

greatly improved if they were about one-fifth their

Ijresent length and fundamentally referred to the

standard specifications of the four institutions just

named.

The foregoing gives a general outline of the ideal

good specifications. It might not be inappropriate to mention some specific things that the building industry so frequently finds in specifications for concrete

buildings, which to-day cause unnecessary difficulty

in executing work.

Sufficient attention is not paid to the size and grading of aggregates economically available in a given

locality. It is quite customary for architects and

engineers to specify in detail the size of gravel or crushed stone which should be used without considering just what is available. Then there is a tendency

to keep the size of coarse aggregates too small. There

is no use in specifying a %-inch maximum size when, say, 1% inches would be satisfactory, for which

certain limits the coarser aggregates will }deld a more

economical concrete. We still find that the old volume proportions, for example, a mix of 1:2:4, are

given, in addition to specifying strength and watercement ratio. This is confusing and costly. Code re- quirements may make it necessary to adhere to the

old volumetric proportions. If so, specify them only.

In regard to admixtures, such as waterproofing

compounds, sirecifications are not clear. It is not

quite fair that an architect or engineer should specify

that concrete shall be waterproofed or made watertight by the admixture of a “ satisfactory waterproofing comjjound.” The specifications should state that

the concrete should be rrrade more impervious by the

addition of a “ definite waterproofing compound.”

Take time to specify definitely the material you want

used.

Consider carefully the time of mixing specified. It is not necessary for the regular run of concrete work to call for more than a minute mixing; at times

three-fourths of a minute is enough. However, if some particular concrete must meet a particular condition, be sure to specify clearly just how long it shall be mixed.

For large and important work in outlying districts,

where producers generally do not have definite information on available aggregates, it would be advisable

for the architect or engineer to examine and test these

available aggregates and specify the proportions to be used, together with the water-cement ratio. This

will result in savings to the consumer. If this information is not available, the producer has to guess on

the safe side, or go to the expense of making these

tests, which time does not usually permit of his doing.

We still find a lot of unnecessary detail limiting

the making of forms, the time to be allowed for stripping, etc. For instance, a specification just received

.states that “ forms shall not be removed until directed

’ Vice presideDt, Tiirncr Construction Co., New York, N. Y. by the architect,” and then the next section states
208 COMMEECIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JANUARY, 1932 II

that “ forms may be removed under certain conditions

within 24 hours,” without specifying the conditions.

Just how shall the producer proceed to evaluate this

item? A great deal more might properly be said on

the way specifications are usually written, covering

the placing and removal of forms and the length of

time they must remain in place. On private work

the wi'iter would like to suggest to specification

writers of the future that they go as far as specific

administrative conditions will permit them in leaving

it entirely up to the contractor as to how he shall

erect his forms, how long a period they shall remain

in place, and how they shall be taken down, inserting

clear language definitely placing upon the contractor

the responsibilty for the safety of the structure. On

public work and on some private jobs this latitude per- haps can not be given. This is especially true in all situations where unlimited competition has to be

received.

In regard to finishing and curing concrete, give some real thought to describing this. It is fairly ex- pensive and important and it is not clearly covered

in a great majority of specifications. As, for example,

the writer recalls as though it were yesterday a case on a half-million-dollar bakery building. The architect, in the following language, attempted to describe

how the concrete was to be finished

The finish of all concrete work exposed to view, naiiiel.y, ceilings, lintels, beams, girders, columns, and partitions, shall be extra smooth and even. As soon as the forms are removed

and the concrete is still green, small defects shall be patched

up. All uneven surfaces and other defects shall be scoured away with carborundum stone so that the entire surface is perfectly level and of even color. Note the frequent use of the words “ all,” “ even,”

and “ perfectly.” Interpreting this specification lit- erally added $30,000, to one of the bids which the

architect received. It so happened that that contractor was favorably considered by the owner and the

architect and his estimate was discussed with him.

After wasting a lot of words in trying to reach a meeting of minds as to what kind of exposed surfaces

the owners and architect really wanted, a visit to one

of the other bakeries of the owner was made. The

language in the specification was changed so that all that was said about surface treatment of exposed

concrete was that the workmanship and appearance

should be equal to that of the building visited. The

$30,000 item was eliminated and as a matter of fact

the allowance Avhich the contractor would have nor- mally included in his estimate was partly saved.

In regard to reinforcing steel, this is almost always

shown on the drawings, and specifications are usually

quite clear. However, Ave do find specifications call- ing for excessive tying of reinforcing steel. This is expensive and oftentimes not necessary.

If a great deal of Avork is to be built monolithic

Avith concrete, some note shoAild be made of this in

the concrete specifications, because it affects greatly

the cost of placing concrete and sometimes makes nec- essary the building of more form work to proAude additional Avorking space for the different trades. There

are certain noted concerns in this country Avho use the

Avoi'd “ level,” or “ perfectl}" straight,” or “ absolutely

true.” and mean Avhat they say—mathematically and

legall}^, as distinct from what 99 out of 100 interpreters of specifications Avmdd expect. The Avriter can

recall cases Avhere inserts set in concrete floors or curb

angles set on shipping plaffomns have been lined up

Avith the transit as though they Avould be used for some astronomical observations. Specification language is a serious thing.

In testing concrete Ave find that job test cylinders

very seldom give the correct indication of strength of

the concrete in the structure; in fact, core samples

from a structure usually test stronger than the job or laboratory test cylinders. This observation might be

Avorthy of the average specification Avriter’s further

consideration as to Avhether he might not modify the

present-day requirements.

We haA^e been speaking as if specifications existed

alone; on the contrary they usually are used in con- junction with drawings and are dependent upon in- spection with its great variable of the human equation.

One of the most frequent defects in specifications is that they are not properly coordinated Avith the draAvings and that they overlook the nature of the inspection. These are both serious and should be allovA^ed for. Let us prepare our specifications seriously.

They really put the breath of life into a set of drawings and make them real ; and the drawings and specifications determine the cost of the Avork. The first impression an estimator forms in going through a set of draAvings and specifications determines to a marked

degree the kind of unit prices he applies to his quantities. Be fair; place responsibilit}^ where it belongs. The

writer of a specification should assume the responsibility for the proper choice of materials and not duck

out under general conditions, catch-all clauses, and

“ hide-in-the-dark ” phrases. He knoAvs just what the consumer expects and the producer should only be

responsible for making the thing required. Arrange

specifications systematically; keep things of a kind

together; do not specify concrete Avork under some

other part of the specifications or mix other classes of work in with concrete; take account of local trade

practices and bear in mind the function of the sub- contractor in practically all modern building work.

The part subcontractors play on large buildings is apparently often not in the mind of the specification

Avriter. The average big building is done from 80 to 90 per cent by subcontract Avork. The work to be

done by each of these suhcontractors should be absolutely segregated and specified completely together.

Use the knowledge, experience, and data of the in- dustry so easily available to those interested in pre- paring specifications. If possible, have close cooperation between consumer and producer in the preparation of a specification. It Avill save money for all concerned.

Consider the practical limitations of the material

being specified. Do not expect concrete to look like cut stone—accept board marks and discolorations

unless you want to go to the expense of special form

linings and even then you still have the concrete as concrete but Avith a slightly different texture. Consider the degree of accuracy Avith which it can be

economically Avrought or used. Do not call for limits

of accuracy or control Avhich are not practical. The

cost of this runs high and is Avasteful. Do not expect

granolithic finished concrete trade tolerances as ap- plying to concrete as much as they do to machine

design.

Do not specify the results you Avant, and then

specify in every little detail each step in the producing

of the results, unless you want to pay more than is
JANUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 209

necessary for it and then often not get it. Finally,

any piece of work worthy of a good complete set of

specifications is worthy of intelligent inspection by a competent inspector thoroughly familiar with the

work. Nobody realizes the tremendous cost to a producer of poor, unintelligent inspection. It is a direct

economic waste. The reputable, competent producer on the other hand welcomes competent inspection.

Above all be brief; say things once and only once. Have courage to take responsibility.

STANDARDIZATION AIDS HOME BUILDING

Grade Marking of Items Purchased for Use in the Home Strongly Recommended by President’s Conference on Home Building and Home Ownei’ship

Reduction in costs of construction of small homes

may be brought about by more accurate estimating

and cost accounting, by the use of standardized quality materials, by proper use of labor-saving devices

and equipment, and by proper job organization, the

committee on construction reported to the President’s

Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership,

held in Washington, December 2 to 5, 1931.

The committee^ report stated that at present houses

are not produced as efficiently as automobiles, and

that the building industry may learn a lesson in the

reorganization of its processes by a study of the auto- motive industry. In its survey of building practice,

materials, codes, and construction organization, the

committee recommendetl a large number of steps cal- culated to increase the efficiency of the building in- dustry.

Under the heading of building practice the committee listed a number of failures in construction details, such as cracked plaster and leaky roofs, and the

variety of causes to which such failures can be traced.

It found that comparatively few builders use regular

standardized forms for detailed estimating contracts,

cost accounting, and job scheduling. It recommended,

therefore, the use of complete standardized forms.

The committee further pointed out in its report that

grade marking, trade-marking, and other means of

identifying good grades of materials are of commercial value to both buyers and sellers, and that excellent

progress has been made during recent j^ears in developing standards of qualit}" and quantity. When these

principles are more widely adopted, stated the committee, they will constitute an important factor in in- suring quality con.struction at recluced cost. The use

of nationally-known material and equipment increases

the prestige of homes and is an outstanding factor in

promoting their sale. IMany products and installations are identified by licensed trade-marks Avhich are

either stamped on the material itself or attached to the structure in wliich installations are made. These

products include lumber, brick, hollow tile, and wall

paper, also such installations as electrical wiring and

piping. The report made reference to the fact that

certificates ai-e furnished by recognized organizations,

indicating that the installation conforms to standard

.specifications. The Bui'eau of Standards was mentioned in the report as having contributed largely to the progress in these fields, and the cooperation of all research groups in the building industry in the work

of the bureau was strongly recommended.

Uniform building codes are both desirable and possible in the main, the committee reported, and uniformity of presentation of code requirements would

tend to better observance of regulations. “Building

regulations can be a hampering influence upon architectural and engineering design, through the perpetuation of requirements which have lagged behind developments in engineering knowledge. This delay in progress involves an unnecessary cost to the public.”

The bu3dng policies of the household, rather than

the income, are often the determining factor in the

ability of a family to provide adequately for its house,

v/hether it be buying or renting. Because of the

amazing arra}^ of goods now on the market, the committee on household management informecl the con- ference that the selection of commodities has become

increasingl}’^ difficult for the home maker. The buyer

is also confused by some misrepresentation and adulteration on the part of the producers. This difficulty

of selection causes sometimes a dissipation of family

income, in the opinion of the committee, which makes

owning or renting a satisfactory home impossible.

For this reason, the committee recommended, among

other steps, that whenever practicable, quality specifications be set up for consumers’ goods by the industries concerned and that advertising of consumers’

goods emphasize facts regarding constituent materials, construction, and performance of commodity

advertised.

On the theory that the heating, plumbing, lighting,

and refrigerating equipment are among the principal

mechanical factors in transforming a house into a comfortable home, the committee on fundamental

equipment presented to the conference what is probably the most inclusive bod}^ of data on types and costs of such equipment suitably for small homes that has

ever been assembled. The reports makes available to the home owner in any part of the countr}^ the disinterested advice of experts on the standards of fundamental equipment he should insist upon for his home,

how to secure equipment meeting those standards, and

how to maintain it after being installed.

The value of good insulating was emphasized in the

report by figures showing that it will save about 30

per cent of the cost of the heating s3'stem and from 20

to 30 per cent of the cost of fuel in colder climates.

The comndttee’s subcommittee on electrical lighting

and \s’iring rej)orted that

in .seliools, olfifos, and factoiio.s, there has been an .awakcniiif; to tlie iniiiortance of proper li^ht and Oie eonscrvation of

vision, blit tliese niattors have scarcely candid the attention of

tlic home maker. A great improvement can he made merely

by increasing the amount of light used, by placing the light- ing eipiiiiment in iiroper position witli respect to the work

tireas, and liy eliminating unshaded lamps, for they arc chief causes of glare. Economically, it is dillicult to produce the

condition of too much light. Out of doors on a dull overcast day the intensities of light are easily 100 times as great as

thosv» found in our In’st light ollices.
210 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JANUARY, 1932 RADIO ENGINEERING

Institute of Radio Engineers Actively Engaged in Standardizing Definitions, Symbols, Etc. By J. W. Hokton '

Standardization, in the field of radio engineering,

is as old as the Institute of Radio Engineers, for the

first committee on standardization was appointed in 1912 “ for the express purpose of studying the terms

and symbols used in the art, selecting and defining

suitable terms, and eliminating the remainder.” The

Committee on Standardization for 1912-13 had only

six members, but as a result of a number of meetings

and informal discussions, presented the “ Preliminary

Report of the Committee on Standardization ” as a

supjilement to volume 1 of the Proceedings of the

Institute of Radio Engineers.

This “ Preliminary Report of the Committee on

Standardization ” contained 13 pages of definitions of

terms in which 136 terms were defined, 4 pages of lit- eral symbols in which 109 mathematical symbols were

given, together with their recognized meaning, 2 pages

of graphical symbols containing the drawings of 32

S3unbols for use on schematic wiring diagrams, and

1% pages of tests and ratings of transmitting equipment. The entire preliminary report therefore consisted of 23 pages of radio standards intended primarily for the engineer.

The work started by the six members of the committee on standardization in 1912 has been continued

from year to year. The Institute of Radio Engineers

has always maintained a committee on standardization, and has issued succeeding standards reports in

1915, 1922, 1926, 1928, and 1931. By 1930 the institute’s committee on standardization had increased from 6 to 46 members, and its work had become so involved and specialized that it was found impracticable for one committee to assume

the responsibility for the institute’s standards re- ports. Accordingly, four technical committees were

organized, each headed by a specialist in his particular field, to prepare the detailed definitions and in- dividual reports. Under the chairmanship of Dr.

J. H. Dellinger, of the Bureau of Standards, the committee on standardization left to the technical committees the work of organizing new material, and

acted ijrimarily in the cajjacity of supervising the activities of the technical committees, establishing

policies, and coordinating and approving the defini- tions, symbols, abbreviations, and other reports originated by the technical committees.

As a result of 31 meetings of the committee on

standardization and its four technical committees, the

institute published its “ 1931 Report of the Committee

on Standardization ” in March, 1931. In contrast with the original preliminary report, this report con- tained 334 definitions of radio terms under 9 principal

headings, 13 pages of mathematical and graphical

symbols, a 22-page report on “ Tentative Suggested

Methods of Testing and Rating Transmitters and Antennse,” a 23-page report on “ Standard Methods of

Testing Broadcast Radio Receivers,” a 33-page report on “ Standard Methods of Testing Vacuum Tubes,” a

1 Cliairman Standardization Committee, Institute of Radio Engineers.

lo-jjage reiJort on “ Performance Indexes and Tests

of Electro-Acoustic Devices,” and 2 pages of safety

standards regarding the “ Provisions for Safety of

Operating Personnel in Relation to Radio Transmitting Equipment.”

During the early part of 1931 the committee on

standardization was reorganized and an additional

technical committee was appointed. At the present

time these five technical committees are engaged in a revision of the 1931 report and are adding a considerable amount of new material. It is anticipated

that the next report of the committee on standardization can be made available during the early part of

1933.

The National Electrical Manufacturers Association has also been actively interested in standardization in the radio field and has published a reference

work of practical information concerning the manufacture, test, and jjerformance of radio products.

Whereas the Institute of Radio Engineers standardization reports are of interest primarily to engineers,

the National Electrical Manufacturers Association

report is very largely concerned with standards and

specifications which are of primary interest to the

manufacturer of radio equipment.

Realizing that standardization by manufacturing

groups has greatly benefited industry, the Radio Manufacturers Association has been active in standardization matters since its inception. In setting up its own

standards, the Radio Manufacturers Association rec- ognized the work done by the National Radio Manufacturers Association and has adopted a number of

National Radio Manufacturers Association standards

as its own. The Radio Manufacturers Association

standards cover such items as markings, ratings, limits, and tolerances of radio products, testing methods

and instructions, and certain definitions applying to radio receivers.

There are now two organizations actively engaged

in radio standardization. The standardization activities of both the Institute of Radio Engineers and the

Radio Manufacturers Association naturally overlap

somewhat although, in general, the Institute of Radio

Engineers is concerned with engineering standards,

whereas the Radio Manufacturers Association deals

with manufacturing problems. Duplication of effort in radio standardization matters is avoided b_3

" comjjlete cooperation between the standardizing committees of the Institute of Radio Engineers and the Radio

Manufacturers Association.

Together with the American Institute of Electrical

Engineers, the institute has been joint sponsor of the

sectional committee on radio of the American Standards Association, and became a member body of the

American Standards Association in October, 1930. At the present time the sectional committee on radio

has prepared a 44-page report covering definitions,

dimensions of vacuum tube bases and sockets, test methods, and manufacturing standards, most of which

have been taken from the Institute of Radio Engineers
JANUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 211

and Radio Manufacturers Association standards re- ports. It is anticipated that this report may be pre- sented to the American Standards Association for

adoption as American standards before the end of the

year 1931. Although considerable progress has already been

made in setting up standards not only for the engi- neer but for the manufacturer as well, the need for

standardization in the radio industry is one of increasing importance. Electrical interference, both natural

and man made, is still a source of considerable annoyance and expense. Fortunately, it is possible to re- duce greatly the amount of man-made interference by

the proper design not only of the broadcast receiver

but of such pieces of electrical equipment as motors,

violet-ray equipment, vacuum cleaners, heating pads,

elevators, and the like which are the cause of most

“ manufactured ” electrical interference.

Television, which we have been told for so long is “just around the corner,” will present standardization

problems of its own when this method of communication finally emerges from the laboratory, but it is not

too soon to give serious thought to the problems which

television will occasion. The television receiver will

be a much more complicated piece of equipment than

the ordinary broadcast receiver, and unless efforts are made through standardization to provide for some

unified system of scanning it is not only possible but

highly probable that a receiver designed to pick up a picture made up of, let us say, 3,600 elements per

frame with 20 frames per second, will not be able to reproduce pictures of 4,000 elements per frame with

24 frames per second. Standardization is thus essential to insure that a single television receiver will be

designed to receive all pictures broadcast just as the

modern broadcast receiver can pick up any broadcast

l^rogram by merel}^ turning the tuning-control knob.

In the field of comparatively new developments, the

phototube is one of the objects requiring standardization in the near future if maximum benefit is to be

derived from this important electrical tool. At the

present time phototubes are being manufactured in all sizes, shapes, and characteristics. The re.sult of this

lack of standardization is that commercial applications are difficult to make and one can not be sure that

a tube purchased for replacement purposes will operate in the same manner as the unit it replaces. Standard methods of measuring and rating phototubes, as well as setting up specifications and characteristics

which are recognized as standard will assist in making

the most out of commercial applications, will increase

the number of commercial applications, and will re- duce to a minimum the number of types of tubes which

will be necessary. Standard tests have already been originated by the

Institute of Radio Engineers for the measurement of

characteristics of broadcast receivers, but the importance of the frequencies above the broadcast band

makes the adoption of test methods of high frequency

receivers a necessity. Related to this problem is one

dealing with the proper design of high frequency

signal generators.

Standard methods for measuring frequency, for

making accurate and rapid surveys of field intensity,

and for mounting and operating quartz ciystal reso- nators are other problems which require standardization in the near future. The Institute of Radio Engineers realizes that the need for standardization in the

radio field is more acute than it has ever been before,

and is already attacking some of the problems mentioned above.

PLANNED RESEARCH NECESSARY FOR STANDARDIZATION IN RUSSIA'

Technical Leadership Associated with Scientific Research, Says Soviet Union Publication

In the present state of socialist construction in the

Soviet Union, scientific research must play a very

large role. The rebuilding of the entire system of

research institutes in accordance with production is the logical prerequisite.

Standardization represents that form of technical

leadership of our economic life in which the idea of

scientific research can and must have a decisive say. We can progress, particularly in standardization, only

with the assistance of scientific research.

We have little exjjerience from the past and even from western Europe and the United States on which

to proceed. Their conditions and ours are too different

to allow us to borrow directly from them. Moreover,

it is almost impossible to learn the actual results of

foreign experience in industry since they are concealed by the groups of opposed interests which exist

between separate countries and separate firms in the same country. The selection alone of the best foreign

standards makes it necessary to carry on research of

different types of production, and this may be successfully carried out only under scientific direction.

* English translation of a discussion appearing Apr. 15, 1931, by the

editor of the Bulletin of Standardization, published in Moscow.

If we find it necessar}^ to adapt foreign standards to our production and consumjjtion conditions, the importance of drawing in our scientific research organizations to work on standardization and typification

becomes so much clearer. The summer of 1930 when the All-Union Committee

on Standardization discussed the question of participation by the scientific research institutes in standardization Avas not very favorable for this work. New

industrial centers taking the form of combinations

lost their standardization units at the time of their re- organization. The Supreme Economic Council re- maining without local standardization agency, found

it necessary to gii^e up their own central agency of

standardization. The All-Union Committee on Standardization was forced to enter into direct relations

with the industrial combinations, ivhich the Supreme

Economic Council has always previously opposed.

Under these conditions the All-Union Committee on

Standardization began to carry out its idea, marking a new era in standardization. At first the committee

met with indifference on the part of the industrial
212 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JANUARY, 1932

combinations. In answer to the proposal of the committee on standardization to group separately in the

standardization planes for each object, those questions

which require preliminary working over and to per- suade the necessary institutions to include these questions in the plan of their work for 1931, the industrial

combinations formally executing this suggestion, pre- sented plans for scientific research work, connected

with standardization, indicating those institutes where

they would be carried out. However, in checking up, the committee on standardization found that no agreement had been reached

with many of the institutes as to the work. Thus it was clear that the industrial combinations did not

carry on the necessary preliminary organizational

work in the institutes; then the committee on standardization itself shouldered this work. Now we may

state that the Supreme Economic Council, Narkomsnab (People’s Commissariat of Supplies), and Narkomput (People’s Commissariat of Transportation),

with which the majority of the institutes are attached,

ajiparehthr have understood the full importance of the

situation and are ready to build a basis of scientific research for the work of standardization.

At the present time the committee on standardization has connections in 180 institutes and 60 industrial

combinations along the line of research work. The

majority of trusts and institutes influenced bj" continual reminders from tlie committee began seriously

to connect their standardization plans with plans of

research, and the results are beginning to come into

the committee, as yet it is true, in insufficient number.

The question arises whether standardization can not advance without preliminary scientific research. Let

us take a current example. The committee received a project in the old plan, without scientific preparation—“ cast-iron water pipes.” It was shown that the

thickness of the sides of these pipes was twice that of

the same German pipes, and this in spite of our lack

of metal and the well-known governmental and party

decrees on economy of metal. This project, it was

obvious, issued from the old kinds of pipes used in

the nineties of the last century and still produced by

us. In order that the thickness of the sides be decreased, it was necessary to have preliminary research

in laboratory and shop conditions (and perhaps in

actual conditions of use) , and particularly to examine

the composition of German pipes as well as their

mechanical nature; to examine the castings of differ- ent combinations of minerals from our cast iron to find the one most advantageous under our conditions,

guiding ourselves by the thickness of the German

pipe, to examine the various production processes, and on the basis of the results, to arrange work so as

to achieve the necessary results required of the pipes

with the minimum thickness of their sides. Such work has been done nowhere and under such

conditions, and the committee faces the necessity either

of rejecting this standard or of perpetuating our backwardness in this direction for several years to come. NEW FOOD STANDARDS FOR PENNSYLVANIA

Standards of a Number of Products Are Revised and Definitions Changed by State Department

New standards and definitions for a number of food

]noducts and several new rules for uniform procedure

in the enforcement of food laws have been adopted

by the Pennsylvania department of agriculture upon

recommendations by the consulting chemists of the

bureau of foods and cliemistry.

The use of the word “ health ” in connection witli

the trade or brand name of food products, as for ex- ample, “ health milk ” or “ health food,” is declared

to be an improper method of branding.

Consideration has been given to so-called “ imitation ” ice creams which have been found to be low in

butterfat. Such products, when containing less than

10 per cent of butterfat, are declared to be unlawful.

In the case of those so-called “ double strength

vanilla extracts ” it was decided that this type of extract could not be designated as being 150 per cent

strength.

Medicated chewing gums, nameljq gums which in- cluded certain substances designed to act as antiseptics and also those containing laxative substances, are declared to be unlawfully sold unless they were dis- tinctly labeled and sold as medicated lU’oducts. The following new standards and definitions have

been adopted by the chemists

Wafers, waffle wafers, ice cream wafers shall be free from

any added color and they shall also be free from saccharin or other artificial sweeteners. The addition of pumpkin, squash, carrots, or other highly

colored ingredients, regardless of labeling, to bakery products,

which may give the fictitious jippfiarance of egg richness, is unlawful.

Sherbet is a frozen product made from milk products and

including ice cream mix, approved sweetening material, and

fruit flavoring material, with or without stabilizers, frozen

to the consistency of ice cream and containing not more than

5 per cent of milk solids. Ice is a frozen product made from water, approved sweetening material, and fruit flavoring material, with or without

stabilizers, frozen to the consistency of ice cream, and contain- ing no milk solids whatever. Chocolate drink is a beverage made from chocolate sirup,

milk, either whole or skimmed, and potable water, plain or carbonated. It contains not less than 8 per cent of sucrose. Cereal beverage is a beverage derived wholly or in part from

cereals or substituted therefor. For example, as wheat, oats,

rye, barley, buckwheat, corn, rice, or any other cereal or sul>

stitute therefore, produced by a process by which beer, ale, or porter is produced, or by any arrested fermentation process, and containing less than one-half of 1 per cent of alcohol by

volume.

Lime-lithia bottled beverages shall contain not less than 100

grains of litliium salt, expressed as lithium carbonate, in each

gallon of the finished beverage, which is approximately equivalent to 5 grains for each 6-ounce bottle. Revisions are reported in 15 standards and defini- tions previously adopted. The products included in

these revisions are: Ice cream cones, ice cream, fruit

ice cream, nut ice cream, mayonnaise salad dressing,

catsup. Chili sauce, sarsaparilla, root beer, root-beer

flavor, birch beer, birch-beer flavor, cream soda water,

and cream soda-water flavor. A ijamphlet carrying the full details is being published as a supplement to general bulletin No. 485. which gives the standards and definitions for hundreds

of food products.

i
JANUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STAN’DARDS MOMTHLY 213

COMMUNICATION AT SEA

International Standards Have Been Adopted for Communication Aids Between Ships at Sea and to or from Shore

By T. V. O Connoe’

Communication aids to navigation involve a source, or sending station, and a receiving station. In marine

navigation the ship is the receiving station. In some

cases the sending station is also on a ship. This

article considers principally the ship and the means

of communicating information and receiving it on the

ship, as an aid to her safe navigation.

Before the coming of radiotelegraphy the available means of communication between ships at sea, and to or from the shore, could span but a short distance.

They are all based on sight or on sound and are inefficient at best. Under some conditions of frequent

occurrence they are uncertain, unreliable, or they fail altogether. Radio communication, and the systems of

position finding combined with radio, are the greatest

known aids to marine navigation and to increased

safety at sea. This is worth remembering when a broadcast program is cut off, in order to render service

to a ship at sea in disti-ess and for the saving of the

sliip and human life. Radio communication for this

purpose, and for communication with and between

vessels at sea, was developed, and was in regular use

before the days of liroadcasts. There is no known

substitute that can render the same service to ships.

Visual communication systems that may be used

and are used at times as aids to marine navigation

include flag signals, semaphore signals, shape distant

signals, and flash signals.

Flag signals have no doubt been used since very

early times. A number of sets of flags and corre- sponding code books for communication with ships were devised and issued privately during the first half

of the nineteenth century. Some of these were used

generally by the ships of different nations. These

flags and codes wei'e superseded bj" an improved code

issued by the Briti.sh Board of Trade in 1857, which

in turn was replaced by the International Signal Code

adopted by the conference in Washington, in 1889.

That code was not completed and issued until about

1897. The last revision of the international signal flags

and code was made by the International Radio Conference, held in Washington in 1927. It is not ex- pected that its code can be issued and brought into

use before 1934. This revision is a great advance in that it provides for 40 signal flags, for a greatly in- creased number of signals, for code books in seven languages that are being worked out to be truly in- ternational, and for standard forms of messages and

call letters generally in conformity with the rules for

radio communication.

This last revision will abolish distant signals made

with shapes instead of flags, also fixed semaphore

signals, as no longer necessar}^ with radio communication available. Semaphore signals with small flags

in the hands of the signal man are retained for communication over short distances. Tlie international

Morse code is used.

Flash signals are nxade, day or night, with a beam

of light. Signal lamps serve for short distances; signal searchlights for longer distances. The international Morse code is used for these signals.

Another class of visual aids to navigation is lighthouses, lightships, beacons, and buoys. While no message is transmitted, the mere sighting of one of these

objects and its identification on the chart, provide a fixed point that may be used to plot or to judge the

position of the ship. Lighthouses and lightships, also

many beacons and buoj^s, are lighted at night. The}*

are thus useful aids Avhenever the visibility is good

enough for them to be seen. The marking and the

character of the lights are arranged for identification.

Sound signals include whistles, sirens, foghorns,

bells, gongs, oscillators, and other apparatus for producing sound. Lighthouses and lightships are fitted to sound definite sound-in-air fog signals. Some

lightships, in addition, give fog signals on submarine

bells or oscillators for producing under-Avater sound

signals.

Submarine or under-Avater sound signals are sound

Aubrations jxroduced under Avater by bells, or by an

oscillator. The latter has a much greater range than

the bell, and both haA*e greater ranges and greater re- liability than the sound-in-air signals. The receiving

apparatus noAv installed on the vessel requires trials on

different headings to determine the bearing of a submarine signal Avhen heard.

Radio aids to navigation include, in addition to the

nformation furnished by messages, other services, such

as radiocompasses, radio beacons, and s}mchronized

radio and submarine signals. A synchronized radio

and sound-in-air signal has also been developed.

Radio compass stations ai'e direction-finder stations

permanently established on shore, either singly or connected in groups of two or more. Standard procedure is established for a vessel to ask by radio for

bearings and to receive from the control compass sta- tion her bearing from each of the stations able to observe.

Radiobeacons are stations on shore or on lightships

that broadcast signals. The ship determines her position by taking the bearing of two or more radiobeacons by means of a direction finder; that is to say, a I’adiocompass installed on the A^essel. The position

may be found from tAvo bearings on the same beacon

and the course and distance run betAveen bearings, the same as from visual bearings for lighthouse or other

object in a known position.

The synchronized radio and under-Avater sound signal enables the distance of the Aessel, from the knoAvn

position of the oscillator producing the submarine

signal, to be determined at the same time and Avith the same radio signal that is used to determine the

bearing of the radiobeacon by means of the direction

finder. This giA*es at once the position of the ship

Avithin the accuracy of the apparatus.

There is another modern aid to navigation that,

’ Chairman U. S. Shipping Board. while not depending on communication from Avithout
214 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JANUARY, 1932

the ship, is so important in itself, and in conjunction

with the visual aids and the radio aids, that its mention should not be omitted. It is the fathometer, an

apparatus for echo dejith finding. This instrument measures the depth of the water under the vessel and

thus gives the sounding to compare with the soundings on the chart and, in conjunction with the other

methods, shows the ship’s position. Its usefulness is increased by the readiness with which it can be used, even to show the depth continuously and without

reducing speed to take soundings.

Distress signals as used by all classes of vessels may

utilize the means of communication already described

or may be peculiar to the purpose, dhus flames, as from a burning tar barrel on deck, a gun fired at fre- quent intervals, a rapidly flashing light, rockets, or roman candles are all used as distress signals, and are universally understood to mean that the vessel requires

immediate assistance. An interesting form of dis-

' tress signal recently placed on the market is particularly valuable on power boats and small yachts, many

of which have their decks but a few feet above the

water and are not equipped with radio sending apparatus. This consists of a pistol which fires a brilliant

flare attached to a small parachute. By shooting vertically upward the flare is suspended at a great height

above the boat, and lasts for a minute or more. The

chance that such a flare will be seen on shore, even at a distance of several miles, is much greater, of course, than if it were burned on the deck of the boat.

Standardization of the apparatus used in connection

with communication aids to marine navigation has not

been attempted, and is not now advisable. General

requirements as to characteristics affecting the service

that the apparatus gives are enforced by most maritime countries. Many of the newer aids ax'e still being

developed and improved. The demand for elRcient

service, together with the interchange of information

between countries, has kept the apparatus and the

character of service sufficiently uniform.

International standards have been adopted for many

of the communication aids and for messages concern- ing navigation. As already indicated, visual signals

and codes were adopted by the International Marine

Conference, held at Washington in 1889, and were further perfected by the International Radiotelegraph

Convention in 1927. The former dealt also with the

Rules to Prevent Collisions, including lights to be car- ried by vessels under way and at anchor, fog signals,

SIMPLIFICATION IN THE DENTAL FIELD

At a general conference of the industry held in

Chicago, in November, in conjunction with the an- nual meeting of the dealers’ section of the American

Dental Trade Association, two simplified practice rec- ommendations were approved. These are for dental

mouth mirrors and dental rubbers.

The program for mouth mirrors establishes for

stock purposes four diameters in the cone socket type,

to replace the many heretofore stocked. It was determined by the simplification and standardization

committee of the association that these four sizes would satisfy the normal demands of the trade.

The program for dental rubbers covers the colors

and packaging of veneering__and base rubber. Three

sound signals for vessels in sight of one another, and ii distress signals. The International Convention on | Safety of Life at Sea, London, 1929, recommended | some additions that have not yet come into effect. i Great progress has been made in adopting international standards for radio messages. At first when | but few vessels had radio installations, and when there were but a few shore stations, no regulation was need- ; ed. As installations multiplied, various operators, ! finding some regulations and standards necessary, de- |

vised and adopted them voluntarily. International [ wireless telegraphic conferences were held in Berlin in

| 1903 and in 1906. The third conference, the Inter- ! national Radiotelegraphic Conference, held in London i in 1912, and the Safety of Life at Sea International i Conference, held in London 1913-14, adopted many

standards that did come into effe'ct internationally, or i are embodied in national legislation. Some others | were adopted without legislation. These standards I were further considered by the International Radio- } telegraphic Conference, held in Washington in 1927, | and the second Safety of Life at Sea Conference, Lon- | don, 1929. This has resulted in standards for time

signals, danger signals, including reports of ice, derelicts and tropical storms, also standards for meteorological messages, including the collection and dissemination of weather information and storm warnings, ! and for the safety signal and the alarm distress and I urgency signal. The Washington convention also ' deals Avith radio-compass stations and with radiobea- con service.

The many conditions under Avhich ships must be

navigated in various seas and seasons, and especially

in a fog or with low visibility, introduce an element

of uncertainty in all methods knoAvn and used for

position finding at sea. Some methods are better unj der one set of conditions, and others are better under

j different conditions. Safety requires that the position,

by Avhatever method obtained, be checked preferably

by another method. Experience in the use and comparison of results with the different systems alone can

tell which combinations are the better. Hence, the

present necessity to take advantage of and to gain ex- perience with every system that is an aid to navigation. j Evidently the codes and rules, the standards for

messages, calls, reports and Avarnings, also the uniform

time for their transmission, liaA^e been the means

that haA'e made such international communication

practicable.

shades of pink are approved for veneering rubbers,

and eight colors for base rubbers. Packages of 1 pound are provided for laboratories, and one-half

pound for dentists, for both descriptions. As in the

case of mirrors, the simplification and standardization

committee of the association determined that the rec- ommended colors and package sizes Avould meet the

normal requirements of the trade.

Both programs, if approved, Avill be of material as- sistance in carrying out the industry’s simplification

plan, which Avill eventually cover many items of supplies and equipment. Copies of the programs will be

sent to manufacturers, distributors, and users in the near future for acceptance ; and if approved, they will

be printed and issued as part of the Avaste elimination

series.
JANUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 215

NAVY^S ACHIEVEMENTS IN RADIO STANDARDIZATION

Navy Department Insists that Component Units of Its Radio Apparatus be Standardized

By Rear Admiral Samuel M. Robinson, TJ. S. Navy ^

Standardization is the life blood of the materiel

end of the naval radio communication system. In fact,

it is considered of such importance as in general to be

secondary only to the item of operating efficiency and

reliability of equipment and is often given precedence

over these factors. This arises from the fact that the

naval communication system must function reliably

24 hours a day under conditions of long periods of

absence and great distances from a source of supply

and subjected to rigors far greater than any met with

in normal commercial practice.

Because of the conditions under which naval radio

equipment must function and to which it is subjected,

among them the extreme temperatures, excessive humidity and extreme idbration and shock, the percentage of failures of many component parts is inherently

rather high. This occurs in spite of every effort to incorporate in all component units of naval radio

apparatus as high factors of safety as are compatible

with the space and weight limitations imposed, and

the most rigorous requirements in all specifications

under which radio apparatus and its component parts

are purchased.

In order that the very minimum number of replacements parts need be carried in stock, the Bureau of

Engineering of the Navy Department has been most

insistent that, in so far as the progress of the art permits, only component parts previously standardized by the Navy be employed in its equipment.

The policy of standardization is also necessary

from a naval point of view for two important rea- sons; one military and the other commercial. From

a military point of view, the best interests of national

defense demand that, wherever practicable, all con- sumable items should be obtainable from as many

sources of supply as possible. This obviously predicates the necessity that the outputs of such sources

of supply shall be standardized to a point of electrical

1 Chief, Bureau of Engineering, Navy Department, Washington, D. C.

and mechanical interchangeability. From a commercial point of view, it is desirable and, in a sense, necessary that as many manufacturers as possible be

encouraged to bid on proposals for such consumable

supplies. This is not only a legal requirement but

tends toward the encouragement of commercial enter- prise which, in turn, builds up additional sources of

supply, thus aiding in the military effectiveness stated

above.

Concrete evidence of what has been accomplished

in the interests of standardization by the radio di- vision of the Bureau of Engineering, will be found

in consideration of some of the smaller but very important items connected with the manufacture and

maintenance of radio equipment. As an example, a few 3^ears ago, the products of different manufacturers of vitreous enameled resistors differed in

mechanical dimensions, electrical ratings, ferrule

sizes, etc. At the present time, it is possible to obtain

from not less than six manufacturers of vitreous

enameled resistors, units entirel,y similar electrically

and mechanically, and hence entirely interchangeable

in the apparatus in which they are used. Vacuum

tubes have similarly become standardized, due in a great part to the Navy’s insistence that all tubes of

similar types obtained on its specifications be entirely

interchangeable and function with equal efficiency in

any of its equipments. Radio insulators have likeAvise been standardized to the point where a high

percentage of the Navy standard insulators may be

obtained from many manufacturers working in three or more different materials but all meeting the re- quirements and specifications of the Navy.

The list of the Navy’s achiei’ements in the field of

radio standardization is so formidable that the above

represent but a small part of it. As the art dei^elops, so do the possibilities of standardization, and it is evident, from the necessity for such action as just

outlined, that no effort should be spared in arriving

as near the goal as possible.

REAFFIRMATION OF BRASS PIPE NIPPLES

On November 30, 1931, the Commercial Standard

for Brass Pipe Nipples, CSlO-29, was reaffirmed without change for the second annual period since it be- came effective for general use on July 1, 1929. Surveys on adherence to commercial standards are undertaken annually in order that these standards

may be kept abreast of current industrial developments. All manufacturers of brass pipe nipples ivere

requested to send any comments or suggestions for the

improvement of this standard, as well as to reiiort

briefly on the use that had been made of the stanclard

daring the past year, with x-esultant benefits, if any.

Nineteen replies were received, giving the information desired, and very little deviation from the requirements of the commercial standard were reported.

The average production of commercial standard brass

pipe nipples was reported to be 99.7 per cent of individual production. It was not practical, hoivever,

from the information given to weight the figures. An

average of 16 replies computed in a similar manner

indicated 94.2 jier cent conforming to recommended

stock lengths and sizes. Variations from the standard ivere all attributed to demands from customers for special material. Eight

replies indicated that actual direct benefits had been

experienced which were attributed to the establishment of the standard. No suggestions for the improvement of the standard were offered. Further details are available in the report.
216 COMMEKCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JANUARY. 1932 TOKYO INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTE

Unique Facilities for Research

The Tokyo Industrial Institute was established in 1900 and is under the control of the Minister of Commerce and Industry of the Japanese Government. Its director is Dr. Fusajiro Kodera. Its staff of research

workers and assistant investigators numbers over 100. The institute is engaged in solving various industrial

and technological problems, and deals with the analysis, testing of material, and consultation in order to liromote the progress of Japanese industries. In co- operation with several organizations, such as the Portland Cement Association, the Society of ChemicaTIndustry, Bureau of Rationalization of Industry, Department of Commerce and Industry, the institute is engaged in standardization activities and accomplishment. The headquarters of the institute are located

at Yoyohata, near Tokyo. It maintains a branch af Meguro, near Tokim.

In addition to its administrative activities, the

work of the institute is carried on bj’ six scientific and technical groups as follows; (1) General analysis, examinations; (2) consultations pertaining to

fats, waxes, oils, soaps, petroleums, chemicals, paints,

lacquers, papers, rayon, saccharides, proteins, etc.

;

(3) work relating to examinations, and consultations

pertaining to coal tar, dyestuffs, and mordants, etc.

;

(5) examinations and testing in the field of electro- chemistry, electrometallurgjq and high voltage electricity, and the testing of porcelain, cement, iron, and

several other materials; (6) investigations pertaining

to synthetic chemistry.

When an experimental research has been completed

in the research laboratory, the results are examined on

a semiindustrial scale with a view to further development and improvement of methods and materials for

industrial use. Laboratory space is made available to the general

public for experimental work, and research workers

are supplied Avith an amount of chemical reagents and

experimental equipment and are permitted to utilize the library of the institute, and to \ise its precise measuring instruments. The regular staff is available on

request to give aid for consultation purposes.

A schedule of fees is published covering the analysis or examination of material and consultation.

The results of the investigations and researches con- ducted b}^ the institute are published in a pamphlet

with the title “ Tokyo Kogyo Shinkenjo Hohoku ” or

in well-known journals in Japan. Several hundred

technological papers have been issued to date. The institute participates in the work of the Japanese Engineering Standards Committee, and in

cooperation with that committee the following specifications in the number indicated Avere completed

during the past six months coA^ering the indicated

items : Petroleum products, 19 ; pigments, 7 ; analyses

of commercial metals, 3. In addition, its laboratory

conducts a great Auariety of tests to prove whether or not the items submitted to the committee comply with

specifications.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR FREE-WHEELING

LUBRICANTS BEING DRAFTED

Tentative standard specification for a satisfactory

oil for lubricating the free-wheeling devices now used on a large number of automobiles Avas draAAui up in a cooperative meeting betAveen oil and automotive technologists during the American Petroleum Institute

meeting held November 12, 1931, in Chicago.

This action is the outgrowth of a large amount of

study by both oil technologists and automotBe engineers, urged on by difficulties encountered in the

proper lubrication of these neAV devices. It has jAroA^ed

difficult to obtain generally over the country a satis- factory lubricant for the purpose on account of the newness of the contrivance and lack of understanding

by car users, car servicers, and lubricant manufacturers, even the car manufacturers themselves, of the

jAroperties of the lubricant required for the purpose.

Considerable dissatisfaction has been expressed by

users because of unsatisfactory operation of free

AAdieeling, who have found that improper lubricants

prevent its functioning. “ When the viscosity of the

lubricant reaches 100,000 seconds or thereabouts, the

car is neither free nor wheeling,” one engineer re- marked in discussing the problem during the

conference.

The requirements for a suitable lubx’icant for the

purpose have, hoAvever, been definitely determined, and

the manufacture of this lubricant offers no difficulties. It requires that the Auscosity referred to above be not

exceeded under the most adverse operating conditions

encountered, according to one statement. As early as last spring automotive engineers began

an intensive study of the problem. After considerable

indiAddual Avork, these engineers met in Detroit, on November 10, and agreed on a tentative specification

satisfactory for the purpose. Representatives of this

group met in Chicago with oil technologists at the

meeting of the American Petroleum Institute, Thursday, November 12, and discussed the specification.

The final details are noAV being studied by engineers

and chemists.

It is understood that the product of manufacturers

meeting the requirements of the specification will be

placed on a “ satisfactory ” or accredited list by motor

manufacturers and that users will be directed to purchase from this list. When a lubricant maker’s product fails to meet the specification, his name will be

remoA^ed from the list until the specification is met.

It should be noted that this specification deals only

with the viscosity of the oil and not at all with its qualities in other respects. Thus, it is similar to the

Society of Automotive Engineers’ viscosity number

system as applied to crank-case oils and probably will

be included as a number or numbers in this system

applying to oils for free-wheeling transmission.
JANUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL, STAXDARDS MONTHLY 217

STANDARD MEANS OF COMMUNICATION FOR THE DEAF

Lip Reading Now Used by Educators in Training the Deaf

By Josephine B. Timherlake ’

The means of communication in use among the deaf

depends to a considerable extent upon whether their

educators permit them to remain mutes. Earlier generations, in the belief that speech was impossible for

them, taught them to transmit ideas in signs, and thus

developed a sort of language, crude and incomplete,

but very useful among the few who understood it. This sign language does not follow the order of

words of any spoken language, but is rather a series of pictures, usually suijplemented by words spelled on

the fingers. At one time all schools for the deaf in

this country taught it, but now it has been discai’ded

as a means of instruction, and many schools prohibit

its use entirely for the reason that the use of a language of gestures tends, like the use of slang, to restriction of the vocabulary and inabilit_y to express ideas

with discrimination. It is still widely used for conversation, however, especially among the older deaf

persons, and before audiences so large as to render

lip reading difficult or impossible.

By the use of finer spelling, words in any language

may be communicated. In this country, and for the

most part in Canada, the one-hand alphabet is that

most commonly used, but in Europe a two-hand alphabet is preferred. Either is readily learned, and practice enables the user to attain considerable speed, not

greatly inferior to the speed of average speech. In

* Superintendent, the Volta Bureau, Washington, D. C.

many schools for the deaf a few classes, made up of

children who have not progressed satisfactorily in the

use of speech and lip reading, are taught by means of

finger spelling. These children, of course, remain

mute all their lives. The oral method, which uses speech and lip reading

as the means of communication, is the leading method

employed for the deaf by modern educators. Many

schools depend upon it entirely, and all but two oi- three give it classroom preference. Modern opinion

holds, therefore, that the standard means of communication for a deaf person is the language of the country

in which he lives. If he has been well taught from an

early age, he can probably speak it intelligibly, and

can understand those about him by reading their lips.

Or, if he fails in these, he can communicate readily

with the help of pencil and paper.

Contacts, not only with his relatives and friends, but

also with employers and fellow workmen, are thus

much easier for him. He is not restricted to the companionship of those who have learned a manual al- phabet or the sign language. The best li]! reader in

the world, however, can not understand a speaker who

mumbles, or speaks with a rigid jaw, or distorts the

motions of his lips. The best way of completely

standardizing his means of communication, therefoi’e,

is to promote a standard of clear, pleasant, intelligible

speech throughout our population.

STANDARD RECOMMENDED FOR CENTER

TO-FACE DIMENSIONS FOR FERROUS

FLANGED VALVES

The center-to-face dimensions for ferrous flanged

valves recently develojjed and approved by the Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and

Fittings Industry as standard practice have been ten- tatively recommended for adoption as an American

standard by subcommittee No. 5 of the American

Standards Association sectional committee on the

standardization of pipe flanges and fittings.

This proposal sets forth the center-to-face dimensions of cast iron and steel flanged valves of the wedge

gate, globe, and angle types, several pressures and over

a considerable range of sizes. When adopted, this

standard should be of real value to industry, as it will

facilitate considerably the replacement of valves in existing piping systems.

This tentative proposal is now being distributed by

the American Society of Mechanical Engineers to a

large number of interested firms and individuals for

criticism and comment. After receipt of these comments the subcommittee will formulate a definite rec- ommendation for submittal to the sectional committee.

FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS

Twelve specifications were acted on by the Federal

Specifications Board during the month of December.

Of this number 11 were submitted for revision and 1 for consideration as proposed specification. Copies

of these specifications (in mimeographed form) and

further information can be obtained from the Federal Specifications Board, Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.

New designation Specifications to be revised F. S. B. No.

QQ-B-701 Bronze, ingots 2<i0a QQ-B-731 Bronze, manganese, ingots' (for remelting) 89 QQ-C-521 120 QQ-C-571 , 118 QQ-C-581 Copper) silicon 119 QQ-M-151 Metals, general specification for inspection of. 339a QQ-N-301 371 QQ-T-351 Tin, phosphor no

QQ-T-371 Tin, pig - 90 QQ-Z-351. Zinc, slab (Spelter) 9ia GGG-B-101.... Bars; chisel, crow, pinch, and ripping 434

Specification proposed

WW-T-788

less.
218 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JANUARY, 1932 LABELED CORDS FOR PORTABLE ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES !

Standard Cord Inspected and Labeled by Underwriters’ Laboratories May Be Identified by a Zinc Identification “ Five-Foot Label ”

By M. G. Lloyd, Bureau of Standards

Pei'inanent electrical installations in buildings in

most parts of the United States are, as a rule, in- spected by either State or municipal inspectors or by

the inspectors of the fire-insurance bureaus. Control

of such installations can thereby be accomplished so that in general the}^ are made to comply with established standards. These standards apply both to the

materials which are used and to the workmanship in- volved in their installation. Portable appliances and

extension lanijis are, however, usually added after an

installation has been inspected and put into service,

and these items are consequently not subject to similar

control. The result is that much substandard cord

and many inferior appliances have been placed upon

the market, leading to fires and fatal casualties.

Of all low-voltage fatalities, portable cords have

achieved the record of being the largest contributor.^

In the report of the fire-insurance underwriters for

New York City for the year 1930 it is showm that elec- trical fires due to defective cord represented a total

loss of $313,000.

One remedy for this situation is the use of standard

cord which meets the sjjecifications of Underwriters’

Laboratories.

Reputable manufacturers market cords of this qualit,y, but it is difficult for the ultimate consumer who

purchases cord at i-etail stores or purchases appliances

with short lengths of cord already attached, to identify standard cord and distinguish it from inferior

makes. The Underwriters’ Laboratories are prepared

to insj)ect and label cord which is of standard construction, but their labels appear only upon the original spools as they leave the factory. This is not suffi- cient identification for the purchaser of a short length.

In 1930, of the 2,500,000,000 feet of the cords manufactured in this country, less than 15 per cent carried

the labels of Underwriters’ Laboratories. A large

fraction of the table lamps, floor lamps, and other

Ijortable lamps and electrical appliances were equipped

with cords of substandard make and were purchased

by the public in entire ignorance of the fact that they

Avere not receiving standard materials of a quality

which could be depended upon to give satisfactory

service. A poor quality of cord may soon be Avorn through so as to expose the conductors or it may develop other defects of insulation which result in over- heating, short circuits, and possibly fires. A remedy for this situation has now been announced

by the cord trade extension group of the National

Electrical Manufacturers Association. A new scheme

for marking and identifying portable cords has been

deA^eloped, and 18 manufacturers producing about 90 i per cent of the cords now approved by Underwriters’ i Laboratories have agreed to market their cords according to the ncAv method. This method is one which

Avill permit the ultimate consumer to identify even a : short length of cord, whether it is purchased separately at a retail store, or whether it is already made

up for use by attachment to portable lamps or portable | appliances. ; The new identification consists of what is desig- j nated as a “ 5-foot label.” This label will be made of

zinc and will be attached to the cord at intervals of

j about 5 feet, so that even the shortest length in general ; use Avill contain at least one such label which will per-

| mit its identification by the purchaser. The label Avill j be, however, easily removable so that after its final | 29urchase it need not be retained upon the cord. This | zinc label will haA^e an identifying color and will carry ! the name of Underwriters’ Laboratories, indicating i that the cord is an insjiected and approved material. | For ordinary flexible cords the label will be yellow or j bronze in color. For the heater cords, Avhich are used ; with heating apjiliances, the color will be red or green- ! ish blue. This narrow flat band of zinc will be tightly

j ajDjAlied to the cords at the factory, but can easily be 1 removed by the ijurchaser if he so desires. [ When the cord which is labeled in the neAV way is j available at the retail stores, consumers should insist i ujDon getting it and acce^it none other, since this label

j will be their assurance of standard quality. Until

j such time as the retail stores are sujiplied with this

j material the ^mrchaser should take jjains to inquire | of the merchant Avhether the cord which he is selling | has received the ajj^^roval of UnderAvriters’ Labora- | tories. Cords which liaA^e not receiA^ed such aj^proval ! can not be dejjended ipion as being of standard qual- j ity, and their ijurchase and use by consumers involve a |i hazard of both fire and electric shock. i Cords Avhich bear this identifying label Avill cost I no more than cords Avhich have ^^reviously been ap- j

2Jroved by Underwriters’ Laboratories, but Avere identified only by a jjaper label iqjon the ends of spools | canning long lengths of cord. They will cost but a

trifle more than inferior cords which subject the user

to an unwarranted hazard. The difference in cost is so small that it would not be an item of influence to the ultimate purchaser, but it has in the past been an i item to the manufacturer of large quantities of jiortable lamps and has frequently induced him to equip ( his 2Jroduct with the inferior article. It is on this ac- : count that the purchaser of such lamps and appliances ' must 23rotect himself by demanding cord which |' •COM.MERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY, p. 252; February, 1931. carries the label. |
JANUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 219

TELEGRAPH COMMUNICATION

Constant Eifort to Improve Accuracy and Increase Speed Resulted in Standardization of Equipment and

Operating Practices

By C. E. Davies '

In telegraph communication service, standardization of equipment and operating practices has come

because of constant effort to improve accuracy and in- crease speed. Reduction of expense has, of course, followed as a natural consequence.

Within the past few years the average time required

to handle telegrams has been greatly reduced. This

has been accomplished by decreasing the standard time

limits established for each operation and by intense

supervision of thoroughly trained employees, Avho

work with greatly improved apparatus. Improved

standard forms of transmission and routines for handling corrections have also been responsible for faster

speed of service.

Inspection of several modern telegraph offices would

impress an observer with the fact that the apparatus

and general arrangement in all offices is essentially

uniform, and that the emplo3^ees all follow the same

general procedure in the performance of their resjiective tasks. This is the result of painstaking research

to discover and apply the simplest, most efficient methods of handling telegrams, and to provide equipment

and office layouts that eliminate as many unnecessary

operations as possible.

One of the major factors in improving the speed of

service has been the rapid development and standardization of the printing telegraph. Replacing the

Morse method of telegraphjq it has not only increased

transmission speeds, but has considerably reduced the

uncertain human factor that is inherent in Morse operation. This change has, moreover, done much to place the business on a basis where speed is subject to engineering development, and has made it possible to look with confidence to still further improvements,

which will permit the maximum speed attainable bj^

the highest type of oiierators to be utilized. It is possible to determine the maximum speed at- tainable by operators at any given time, and wliile the

standard thus set will undoubtedly improve as time

goes on, the rate of increase will be slower and slower

as perfection is approached. However, standards of

equipment and operating practices which now exist or

will be developed in the near future, will take care of

the probable increase in operating efficiency for v^ears to come. This state of affairs, which has existed only

in recent years, has resulted from engineering research,

which has met the economic need for apparatus and

circuits that work at higher speeds than were even dreamed of a few years ago. Standards that were entirely satisfactory then are no longer sufficient to meet

to-day’s requirements, and they have jiassed into dis- use as new standards are developed. The present goal

’General commercial engineer, Western Union Telegraph Co., New

York, N. Y.

in apparatus and line speeds is the removal of all mechanical and electrical limitations to operators productivity. Development of the ultimate in operating per- sonnel is now going forward under increased effort as

it becomes apparent that the maximum of efficiency is a definitely measurable quantity.

Another major factor in the advance of telegraphic

communication has been the standardization of the

printing telegraph as a means of speeding up the pick

up and deliveiy of messages to large users at terminal

cities. Supplementing messenger handling, it has, in

many cases, provided a means of exchanging messages

between customer and telegraph companj’ much more

quickly than would be possible in any other Avay.

This development necessitated standardization of

equipment, both in customers’ offices and in the tele- graph compan3’’s operating rooms. In the latter, con-

.eentration units, specially designed for the work have,

by means of signal lights that flash the instant a call

is received, facilitated the prompt ansAvering of patrons Avho wish to send telegrams. Operators are able

to connect their machines to any of a large number of

circuits Avithout moving from their positions. The

number of idle operators is indicated bA’ lights, thus

permitting better assignment of forces and lowering

costs. Intraoffice belt conveyors and pneumatic tube carrier systems oi^erating at almost double their former

speeds have been adopted as the standard methods of

moving messages from circuits on which thej’ are re- ceived to those on which the^" are sent. High-cpeed

tubes are also standard for use to nearlyy branch tele- graph offices Avhere conditions are such as to permit

their installation.

Dissemination of market quotations over ticker cir- cuits has been speeded up by the development and

standardization of high-speed tickers that operate at 500 letters a minute, as compared to a maximum of

SOO letters to a minute on older t5qies of equipment.

The neAV speed greatlj^ reduces delays to market quotations during periods of intense trading actiAutA'’ at (he NeAV York Stock Exchange.

There are, of course, hundreds of minor avra's in

which standardization has served the telegraph busi- ness Avith excellent results. Standards of illumination

that increase efficiency, standard unit sAvitchboards,

universal repeatei’s, tables, signs, blanks, etc., are a few of the maiiA' examples that might be mentioned.

Naturally, rapid advance in the telegraph business

have, up to uoav, caused many standards to assume a status of semipernianence. TheA'^ have, hoAA'eA’er, served their purpose, and as long as they continue to be replaced by higher ones, the countrv is assured of

having the best possible telegraphic services.
220 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JANUARY, 1032 ACTIVITIES OF AMERICAN STANDARDS

ASSOCIATION DURING 1931

A review of the standardization work carried on

during 1931 by the American Standards Association is contained in the report rendered by Cloyd M. Chapman, chairman of the standards council. The approval of these standards has been recorded monthby-month in Commercial Standards Monthi.y.

The chairman pointed out that after the council approves a standard the task is not completely rounded

C'ut until the standard is brought to the attention of

industry and followed by it. It was because of this

fact that a committee of the council was appointed

during the year to consider ways and means of promoting the introduction of American standards into

practice.

Touching on the work of the American Standards

Association in the field of safety codes, the chairman's

report pointed out that a definite policy has now been

established by the insurance groups which will bring

the insurance schedules into line with the American

standard safety codes.

The program for putting this policj'^ into effect is at present about 90 per cent complete. Furthermore,

said report, the action taken in 1930 by the Association of Governmental Labor Officials in Industry, approving and indorsing the recommendations inacle to that association b}^ a special committee proposing the

use of the American standard safety codes as the basis

of State regulations has resulted in the development

of an intense interest during 1931 on the part of in- dividual regulatory bodies in the safety code program

of the American Standards Association. Arrangements have been made for the interchange of information on the development of safety codes and the

results obtained from putting into effect the provisions of these codes in the several States. There

now remains the actual application of the codes within

the States which, of necessity, must be a gradual process, brought about by revisions of existing State

codes and a realization of the necessity for developing new codes.

In the mining field, a fairly comprehensive program

was outlined some years ago under the direction of

tlie Mining Standardization Correlating Committee,

covering explosives, drainage, rock dusting, transportation, and other phases of coal mining operation.

Progress in the work pertaining to metal mines has

been slower than on projects in the coal mining field,

because it has been difficult to enlist the enthusiastic

support of engineers in the metal mining program.

'J'his has undoubtedly been jiartly due to the trying

conditions during the last few years, but there are

definite signs that this inertia is becoming less pronounced. In general, the coal mining interests have

jirogressed further in realizing the necessity for

standardization, largely because mechanical methods

whicli are more susceptible to standardization, are rapidly supplanting hand methods. Then, too, the

economic necessity of producing coal more cheaply

and the unquestioned desirability of providing greater

lirotection for the health and safety of the worker

have emphasized the paramount importance of setting

up standard practices that will favorably influence

both of these factors.

The organization during the year of the electrical

standards committee foreshadows increased activity

in the formulation of electrical standards, the report

of the chairman stated in touching on the work done

in that field. Up to the present time the electrical

industry has carried its standardization work further

than any other industry, except the automotive. The

American Standards Association has to date ap- proved 25 electrical standards including safety codes,

specifications, definitions, methods of test, etc., for

devices and materials used in all phases of electrical

work. “ It has been stated that the savings affected

by the solution under American Standards Association procedure of the problems involved in either of

the two American standard electrical codes has

amounted to more than the entire cost of the association since it was organized.”

STANDARDS FOR THE RETAIL TRADE

The desirability for standardizing all of the commodities sold over the retail counter was stressed by

D. F. Kelly, president of the National Retail Dry

Goods Association, in an address before the Boston

Conference on Retail Distribution.

All of these items should be made in accordance with

standards and specifications, he stated, pointing out

that this method is now being employed very success- fully by certain merchants.

Emphasizing the value to the retailer of standard

merchandise in the building of a reputation as a good

merchant, Mr. Kelly said

Standards should be prepared by manufacturers and retailer.s and approved, if possible, by the Bureau of Standards in Washington, the American Medical Association (or some other

responsible laboratory), the Better Fabric Testing Bureau, or others interested, with the purpose of supplying the public with

quality merchandise that will be guaranteed by the retailer. No one could question successfully the merits of an article made to standard specifications and sold under a guarantee

that would carry the hall mark of a retailer responsible for the

quality of every item sold.

MEN’S SHIRTS

Conforming to a request of the National Association of Shirt Manufacturers, the Bureau of Standards conducted a survey among shirt manufacturers,

requesting comments and suggestions relative to shrinkage tolerances and measurements for finished,

shrunk shirts. A summary of the results of this survey was turned

over to the National Association of Shirt Manufacturers, which, on December 7, 1931, offered a specification as a basis for the establishment of a commercial

standard. The proposed standard covers minimum

finished measurements and shrinkage tolerances for

men’s shirts (exclusive of work shirts), the shrinkage

to be determined after laundering according to methods set up by the Laundry Owners National Association. It is exiiected that the proposed standard will

be brought to the attention of all interested manufacturers for comment and later to the entire trade for

adjustmert and adoption.
JANUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY 221

BRITISH STANDARDS ASSOCIATION EXPANDS

SCOPE OF ITS WORK

To provide for increased expansion of standardization work in Great Britain, the British Engineering

Standards Association has been completely reor- ganized, and the name of the association changed to that of the British Standards Institution, according

to word received from the American Consulate General at London, England.

The institution was originally formed in 1901 as the

Engineering Standards Committee by a group of

professional organizations, and in 1918 was incorporated by license from the Board of Trade as the

British Engineering Standards Association. In 1929

it was granted a royal charter.

During the last seven or eight years the scope of

the organization has been greatly enlarged, and its range has left engineering far behind. It now al- ready partly covers the chemical, textile, and building

fields, and does not exclude ships’ glassware. The

need of regularizing this extension of its activities

has been before the council of the association on

various occasions, and became imperative where great

industries, like the chemical and the building, urged

it to undertake the task of standardization generally

so far as their particular trades are concerned.

At the imperial conference held in 1930 the desire was also expressed that there should be a single centralized national standardizing body in each of the

countries forming the British Empire. The nucleus

of such a body already exists in practically all the Dominions, and Charles Le Maistre, the director of the

association, is now en route to Australia, New Zealand,

and Canada, at the invitation of the board of trade, to further that object. It is probable, according to in- formation received from the American consulate general, that Mr. Le Maistre may visit the United States. The change in organization of the British body will

reorganize the work into four main divisions of equal

status, each division to be responsible for the preparation of standard specifications in the engineering,

chemical, building, and textile industries. The divisions will be under the control of representative councils. These changes have been dul}^ authorized by a supplemental royal charter, which also empowers the

change of name.

In the future the activities of the British Standards

Institution Avill be under the direction of a general

council, which will have under it the four divisional

councils. The work of the engineering division will, as heretofore, be delegated to committees dealing with

the main branches of the industry, such as civil engineering, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, etc., and will for a time still represent the major

portion of operations.

The great development in the standardization movement which has taken place, especially of late years, is a clear indication that industry as a whole is increasingly recognizing its value. There are now 600 committees and more than 400 published standard specifications. The term “ British standard ” is the registered standardization mark.

The institution is not a profit-making concern, and,

apart from the grants received from the Government

and the amount derived from the sale of publications.

it has to look to the associated industries for the neces- sary funds to finance its work. Every British firm in these industries is eligible to become a member at a nominal fee. The recent change of name now leaves

the institution free to expand its activities in any direction or field. The Commercial Standards Monthly

reported in September, 1931, the proposed change in the association.

STANDARD SIZES OF TANKS PROVIDED FOR

IN BRITISH SPECIFICATION

A specification for galvanized mild-steel cold-water

cisterns and hot-water tanks and cylinders has been

issued by the British Engineering Standards Association. Standard sizes of tanks and cylinders are provided

for, as well as two grades of thickness, which will enable the architect or engineer to specify the appropriate grade for his purpose. Tests for pressure and

the quality of the gahmnizing are also provided for in the specification.

Under the provisions of the specification, tanks Avill be recognized by their British standard number, nominal capacity, and grade, the details of Avhich will be

stenciled on the finished article.

STANDARDIZATION A PROBLEM FOR

MANAGEMENT

The National Metal Trades Association, with headquai’ters in Chicago, through its committee on industries relations, has been making a thorough study

during the past three years of steps wdiich could be

taken to stabilize employment in the metal-trades in- dustry. The report recommends 10 major measures.

1. Develop further the technique of budgeting sales,

production, buying, man load.

2. Encourage and cooi^erate in the collection of trade

statistics.

3. Operate shops on a flexible week basis; that is, so vary the hours of work that A^ariations in productive requirements can be met Avithout resorting to variations in number of employees.

4. Take adA^antage of standardization and simplification wherever possible.

5. Within proper limit manufacture products for

stock Avhen sales levels are Ioav.

G. Work toAvard minimizing unnecessaiy changes in

style or design of products.

7. Create reservoir of odd jobs on Avhich employees

may Avork Avhen reduction of productive eifort must

be made, through postponing in so far as practical,

overliauling, rearranging, and repairing.

8. Encourage customer or consumer cooperation in

discouraging minor engineering changes and in improving long-time buying programs.

9. Encourage adoption of AA’ell-balanced personnel

programs.

10. Participate more closely in civic affairs especially those Avhich haA^e to do Avith making possible tlie creation of peaks in public-Avorks employment cor- responding to low points in industrial employment.
222 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JANUARY, 1932 FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION’S ANNUAL

REPORT

More than 100 trade groups were affected by decisions of the Federal Trade Commission with regard

to trade practice conference rules during the past fis- cal year, according to the annual report of the commission, made public December 14. The commission

reports its reconsideration of trade practice confer- ence rules of many industries as another activity large

in scope because of the number of industries interested.

Concerning its special board of investigation handling certain types of unfair advertising cases, the

commission says that in many cases the parties con- cerned have either agreed to go out of business, dis- continue advertising, or revise their advertising copy

and literature to eliminate statements or representations which are untrue, misleading, or have the capacity and tendency to deceive and mislead the reader.

During the fiscal year for which the report is ren- dered the commission investigated applications for

complaints preliminary to the correction of unfair

methods of competition of 1,380 cases, while 523 applications were disposed of. The commission approved 165 stipulation agreements in which various

individuals and companies agreed to cease and desist

from unlawful practices. All but one of the 109

formal complaints issued during the year charged use

of unfair methods of competition violative of the

Fecleral Trade Commission act, including one in- volving alleged violation of this act as extended by

the export trade act. The commission’s report is divided into seven parts, as follows: Introduction, general investigations, general legal work, trade practice conferences, special procedure in certain types of advertising cases, export

trade work, and documents and summaries.

COMMERCIAL FORMS RECOMMENDATION

REAFFIRMED

The standing committee in charge of simplified

practice recommendation No. R37-28, Invoice, Purchase Order, and Inquiry FormSj met on November

10, 1931, in Washington, and considered all comments

and suggestions received during the past year relative to possible revision of these standard forms. The

committee unanimously decided to reaffirm the present

schedule without change.

W. L. Chandler, chairman of the committee, re- ported that the National Association of Purchasing

Agents had recently made a study of purchase order

and inquiry forms, with a view to determining specific

wording in lieu of the present system of zones. He

further stated that a similar study was being made by

the Harvard School of Business Administration for

the National Association of Purchasing Agents, and

that in addition to a standard phraseology, certain

possible legal aspects would be given thorough consideration. It is expected that this report will Be ready some time in Januar}^ 1932. Therefore, the standing

committee agreed to take no action on the purchase

order and inquiry forms until the results of the Harvard study are available. It was decided that the

committee members should be afforded an opportunity

fo study the Harvard reporPand secure any necessary

authorizations from their respective organizations.

Subsequently another meeting of the committee will

be held to formulate such definite action as may appear desirable.

Through its devision of simplified practice, the

Bureau of Standards reported that a list had been pre- pared for distribution, showing the names of more

than 1,000 trade associations and individual companies

which have formally accepted the recommendation.

Forty-five associations which have, as corporate

groups, indorsed these forms have an aggregate of- more than 106,000 members.

The meeting voted to enlarge the membership of

the committee so as to include representatives from

a number of associations directly connected with standard commercial documents. The division of simplified practice was requested to communicate with the

proper officials of these organizations regarding the

aiipointment of representatives, and to make a report

to the next meeting of the committee.

LUMBER STANDARDS DEVELOPED IN SOVIET

UNION

Lumber sawing was, and remains, the basic problem

in the Soviet Union lumber industry during its 5-year

plan. The wooded area of the Soviet Union comprises 901,900,000 hectares or about one-third of the

timber supply of the world, and almost three times

as much as the rest of Europe possesses. Obviously,

the first problem to be tackled in the industry was the

creation of standards for lumber materials.

In a recent issue of the Bulletin of Standardization

published in Moscow there appeared a resume of the

standardization program for the lumber industry

during 1931. The principal standards developed prior

to 1931 were for logs of the fir variety and scales for sawn wood of the fir family. The program for 1931

called for the the standardization of sawn wood materials of the fir variety, inasmuch as this production

covers a large part of building materials and also materials of special production.

The program for 1931 furthermore includes groups

of lumber materials of special purposes; wagon construction, agricultural machine construction and aviation construction. Provision is made to include items

which are especially needed in establishing technical

methods and standards. The program further in- cludes the standardization of lumber materials having

actual importance for construction and of lumber materials of deciduous wood having a wide application

in special production.

Considering the necessity of the fullest possible

utilization of raw material, the program provides for

the standardization of a number of auxiliar}'^ products

of lumber, and for the standardization of assortments

of particular importance for other branches of in- dustry, such as balances for the paper industry, mining supports and blocks for the coal and ore industries.

Taken as a whole there are 66 subjects covered in

the program for 1931, of which 9 are for raw materials, 28 for semifinished products, 16 in typification

of equipment, 10 for ready or stock items, and 3 for

containers. In giving its approval to the program,

the All-Union Committee on Standardization added

11 other proposals covering typification and establishment of technical processes for instruments.
JANUARY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 223

WALL-PAPER STANDARD REAFFIRMED

The standing committee of the wall-paper industry

recently signified its desire to have the Commercial

Standard for Wall Paper, CS16-29, reaffirmed for another year. The industry was notified accordingly on December 16, 1931.

This standard of quality is based on several important characteristics of a serviceable wall paper, chief

among which is color fastness. Other requirements

concern the weight of the raw paper, the size of the

rolls, and the ground coating applied prior to the

printing of the pattern.

Some desire was expressed for a revision of the

standard to make it more stringent, particularly as to the weights of raw stock to be used, but due to conditions in the trade, such revision was deemed inexpedient at the present time.

CERTIFICATION AND LABELING

In May, 1930, the National Electrical Manufacturers Association requested the American Standards Association to investigate the certification plan inaugurated and developed by the Bureau of Standards, and

in August, 1930, the American Home Economics Association requested the American Standards Association to investigate methods of safeguarding the interests of the ultimate consumer when labels in term of

specification are used.

Following a preliminary discussion of these re- quests, the council of the American Standards Association referred the matter to the board of directors

which appointed a special committee on certification

and labeling.

On behalf of the committee of the board, there was

compiled by the American Standards Association staff,

by direct contact and correspondence with considerabl}" more than 100 trade and professional associations and Government dejiartments, data relating to a considerable body of experience accumulated in the

use of the certification and labeling methods to assure consumers tliat products are in accordance with cer- tain designated specifications.

Brief sketches concerning the methods emplo3^ed by

the larger percentage of the agencies with which the

American Standards Association committee communicated were given in the Commercial Standards

Monthly, January, 1931, in an article entitled “ Making Standards Effective,” which represented a compilation of the plans of various agencies to encourage

the use of their specifications and standards.

On October 11, 1931, the committee submitted its report to the American Standards Association board

of directors which expressed the opinion that the

subject is an important and far reaching one which

will require further study on the part of both the

committee and the board.

The following are the jioints which were presented

to the board, and discussed by it. 1. Any program of certification, labeling, or grade

marking, in order to be adequate, should be based

upon specifications which are publicly available and

nationally recognized.

2. It is for the group or groups substantially con- cerned with the specifications to decide whether tliere

is to be certification or labeling; and the A. S. A. it- self can not directly take any primarj" responsibility

in respect to such activities.

3. Any certification or labeling program should be

effectively supervised by a properly qualified body;

for example, a trade association, or a testing laboratory, operating under proper administrative management.

4. It is suggested to the member bodies that they

make a study to determine to what extent certification

and labeling would be advantageous or disadvantageous to their work.

5. It is suggested that the board of directors dis- cuss whether the A. S. A. or the staff should promote

such activities among member bodies.

S. A. E. CONSIDERING 75 STANDARDS

More than 75 jirojects in progress before the various

divisions of the standards committee of the Society

of Automotive Engineers, include mountings for air- plane cameras, wood propellers, carbureters, and other

aircraft fittings; a standard for taper roller bearings

;

Diesel-engine fittings and their mountings; and re- vised specifications for insulated wire and cable and

storage batteries for various types of vehicle.

In the metallurgical field, work is in progress on

further develoimient of iron and steel specifications

and physical-property charts, including aircraft steels and nonferrous metals.

A study of motor-vehicle chassis lubrication, to simplify both fittings and lubricants, is in progress, while

in the field of screw-thread products the refinement

of existing standards for screw threads, screws, bolts,

and nuts, and a broad survey of modern requirements

in practice are probably the most important projects.

PHOSPHOR-BRONZE CASTINGS AND GEAR

BLANKS

The British Engineering Standards Association has

issued a specification which provides for the chemical

composition and physical properties of phosphorbronze castings and gear blanks.

The specification covers centrifugal, chill, and sand

castings, and the manner of providing test samples for

each of these methods of casting and for castings of

various weights is outlined. Tensile and Brinell hardness tests are specified, while general clauses dealing

with testing facilities, and the freedom of castings

from defects are included.

WOODEN BUTTER TUBS

Simplified practice recommendation c o v e r i n g wooden butter tubs has been mailed, by the Bureau

of Standards, to all interests for the consideration

and written approval. This simplification program

establishes dimensions for the inside diameters of

the top and bottom, the inside vertical depth, and

the outside length of stave for the 10, 33, and 63/64

pound tubs. The recommendation will be effective one month after the division’s general announcement

that the necessary volume of acceptance has been

received.
224 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JANUARY, 1932 PUBLICATIONS

Horn to own your home. —Buying or building a home requires the use of sound judgment in seeing

that the personal needs of the family are best met with

the funds available. It involves not only the carrying on of transactions of financing and buying or building,

but it involves the proper determination of location

with respect to school, to work, and to neighborhood.

Maintaining a high percentage of individual home

owners is one of the searching tests that now challenge

the people of the United States. The contribution of

the Bureau of Standards is represented in its handbook for prospective home owners. How to Own Your

Home (BH17), prepared by John M. Gries and James

S. Taylor. It is obtainable from the Superintendent

of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents per copy.

Recommended minimum requirements for flmnl)-

ing. —The Bureau of Standards has issued a supplement to its circular on Recommended Minimum Requirements for Plumbing, which may be secured from

the Superintendent of Documents for 10 cents a copy.

In the supplement the subcommittee on plumbing of

the Department of Commerce Building Code Committee recommends that certain sections of the previous

report be eliminated and that the modified sections in

the supplement be substituted therefor. In taking

this action the committee is following its policy of periodically examining available data and adjusting its recommendations so as to take advantage of increased

knowledge of the subject. It offers the changed sec- tions as a progress revision jjending the time when ex- perimental work now under way will develop further

information.

Sheet-meted gages. —Common or stock sizes of metal

plates and sheets are based either on definite thick- nesses or on definite weights per unit area. In some

cases the same kind and grade of sheet metal is made

to conform to more than one list of stock sizes or sheet-metal gage. Realizing the need for information

as to the usual practice of American manufacturers

with regard to stock thicknesses or weights of sheets

and plates of common metals and alloys, the Bureau of

Standards recently comjjiled its Circular No. 391, on

Standard Thicknesses, Weights, and Tolerances of

Sheet Metal (Cnstomaiy Practice). The circular also contains information with regard to manufacturing

tolerances on thickness or weight adopted by American technical societies, manufacturers’ associations, and

standardizing bodies, or used by leading manufacturers. This circular is available on purchase from the

Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing

Office, Washington, D. C.

SIMPLIFYING SINGLETREES, DOUBLETREES,

ETC.

A simplification program covering singletrees,

doubletrees, neck yokes, plow sets, and similar items was approved at a general conference of the industry

held in Chicago in November. Accumulation of

many sizes and varieties over a period of years developed the need for a sound simplification program,

having for its purpose the selection of items which

would meet the normal requirements of the trade.

A survey of current demand, disclosed the items

which should be retained, and these were approved

by the conference. It is estimated that approximately

90 per cent of items formerly catalogued will be eliminated by this program.

A report of the conference, containing the recom- mendation, will be mailed to the industry in the near

future for acceptance. Should the program receive

the required support, it will be printed and published

in the interest of waste elimination through cooperative simplification.

STAPLE VITREOUS CHINA PLUMBING FIXTURES REAFFIRMATION

The Commercial Standard for Staple Vitreous

China Plumbing Fixtures, CS20-30, has been reaflirmed, without change, for another year beginning

March 3, 1932. This action was taken upon the rec- ommendation of the standing committee after considering the results of an adherence survey undertaken

in cooperation with the manufacturers of vitreous

china plumbing fixtures. The report summarizing the results of the surve}^ was based on replies from 19 manufacturers of this

commodity, 4 or whom indicated 100 per cent adherence to the requirements of the standard. The aver- age unweighted adherence to standard regular selec- tion grade was 85.8 per cent. The unweighted aver- age adherence on marking of culls was 91.4 per cent. Complete adherence to standard types and sizes was

reported by seven manufacturers; one reported no

adherence ; the unweighted average adherence was 89.7 per cent. The chief reasons for deviation from the standard were (1), the demand from purchasers for a few

articles of special equipment, and (2), the fact that

a few molds had not been altered to commercial

standard measurements.

Actual direct benefits from the establishment of the

commercial standard were reported by 17 manufacturers, while no benefits were reported by 2. Furt)ier details are made available in the report.

o
scientific, technical, and commercial

PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY

THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH

The new Journal describes the bureau’s re- search results in science and technology. The

union of science and its applications in one

journal shortens the lag between discovery

and application.

All engaged in industry and commerce should

have available for current use and permanent

reference the Bureau of Standards Journal of

Research.

Early in its fir^l year the Journal developed a li^ of paid subscribers double the anticipated

maximum.

This Journal is full of interest to executives

and technicians controlling industries and

commercial enterprises. It enables them bet- ter to promote efficiency by determining the

scientific measured controls ofprocess through

experimental and theoretical research.

TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN

The Bureau of Standards periodical with a WAR RECORD! Started during the dark

days of 1917 to keep the Army and Navy and

other branches of the Government informed

of progress in scientific war research at the

bureau. Upon urgent request this publication was continued and expanded to serve the

Government, science, and industry.

The TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN will

keep you informed of current progress in the

scientific and technical work of the bureau’s

laboratories, and gives each month a liSl of

the publications of the bureau. A complete

cross index is published with the December

issue.

You can not afford to be without the TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN. Every article is short and to the point. The busieSl executive can afford the time to read it. Issued monthly

Subscription price, $3 per year

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS

'"Ilk

MONTHLY

Issued monthly

Subscription price, 25 cents per year

STANDARDS YEARBOOK

FOR 1931

This new governmental periodical is a review

of progress in commercial simplification and

^tandardfiation. It is the only journal of its kind. It covers the national movement initiated by President Hoover for the redudlion

of needless sizes and varieties of products and

the promotion of voluntary commercial

standardization by industry.

The Secretary of Commerce in the firSl issue

of this new journal said; “Certain Standards,

such as those used for weights and measures,

* * * have been fixed by legislative enactment. Mandatory Standards of this character, however, are few in number when compared with the large and steadily growing

volume of Standards developed by induStry

and commerce and voluntarily maintained.

* * * The activities of the Commercial

Standardization Group of the Bureau of

Standards are concerned with Standards

adopted by voluntary agreement.’’

Subscription price, $1 per year

The new Standards Yearbook for 1931 is the

fifth annual issue of a publication devoted

to the great and growing field of Standardization in its broad aspects. It gives a summary

of progress.

Standardization is a world-wide movement.

It covers all industries. It is part of the application of scientific methods to induStry. Its achievements are of intereSl and concern to

business men and manufacturers as well as to

engineers. To the technician it is full of

example of methods and results of suggeSlive

and Stimulating value. To business men it discloses trends which deeply concern their

interest.

NOW READY Price, $1 ORDER AT ONCE

“Standardization is becoming an aspect of all well- ordered activity rather than an incidental

activity supplemental to others.”

To obtain regularly the above-described monthly Periodicals send your order, with remittance, addressed: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Foreign prices (countries other

than the United States and its possessions, Canada, Mexico, Newfoundland, Cuba, and Republic of Panama) are: Journal, $3.50; Bulletin, $0.40; Monthly, $1.25; Yearbook, $1.20
THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary of Commerce

department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * * its ideals are clear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field.” —President Hoover, at the laying of the corner stone of the new building

of the U. S. Defyartment of Commerce, June 10, 2929.

C3 a .r r . n r r r r - • • • r r n r’

~ ‘^1 ^ u r r r t? si.n iT: f nf

iLjrE.EFDB(sI c EEFr rn'EsiPFr

If s b r r n ^1 S tirf S'

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal air ports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, William M. Steuart, Director. Taking censuses of population, mines, and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a

census of manufactures every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments.

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products.

BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

F. M. Feiker, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attaches, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, the monthly Survey of Current Business, and district and

cooperative offices in 65 cities. The maintenance of commodity,

technical, and regional divisions to alford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, George K. Burgess, Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards, and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals. Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operation of plants producing it.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish, in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods,

improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and the

protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam,

Commissioner.

Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director. Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic

surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, Arthur J. Tyrer, Commissioner.

Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamen.

Supervision of registering, enrolling, licensing, numbering,

etc., of vessels under the United States flag, and the annual

publication of a list of such vessels. Enforcement of the navigation and steamboat inspection laws, including imposition of fees, fines, tonnage taxes, etc. STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE, Dickerson N. Hoover,

Supervising Inspector General. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certifi- cation of able seamen and lifeboat men, and the investigation of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks,

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents, and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued. RADIO DIVISION, W. D. Terrell, Chief. Inspection of radio stations on ships; inspection of radio

stations on shore, including broadcasting stations; licensing radio operators; assigning station call letters; enforcing the terms of the International Radiotelegraphic Convention; and

examining and settling international radio accounts.

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 19