COMMERCIAL

BUREAU OFSTANDAROS

STANDARDS

MAY i 1§f

UBHARMONTHLY cr

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

ISSUED BY THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D.C., U. S. A.

Vol. 7, No. 10 APRIL, 1931

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. See page 3 of cover for prices
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GEORGE K. BURGESS, Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY, S. F. Tillman, Editor

The Commercial Standardization Group

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE

Edwin W. Ely

The division of simplified practice cooperates with industrial and commercial groups to reduce waSte, usually through

eliminating unnecessary variety of produc'd, method, or

pradtice. Its fundtion is to bring together all parties inter- eSted in a projeCt of this charadter, and to coordinate their

work in developing a simplified pradtice recommendation.

Such work includes surveys of current pradtice, formulation of a simplified pradtice program, and presentation of that program for adtion by a general conference representing

all interests. The division then transmits to all concerned

a full report of the general conference, with a request for written acceptance of the adtion taken. When the volume

of acceptances is sufficient to indicate initial success, the

Department of Commerce indorses the program and publishes

the recommendation. The division thereafter cooperates

with a standing committee appointed by the industry concerned, in conducting periodic surveys to determine the

degree of adherence, to maintain and extend support of the

recommendation, and to secure data for reaffirmation 01- revision. Simplified practice may be applied to any com- modity or activity in which it will reduce

waSte. The division Stands ready to render

service in developing and making effective any application of simplified practice which

will reduce waSte, Stabilize business, or extend commerce.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION

J. S. Taylor

The division of building and housing,

formed in 1921, cooperates with business,

technical, and professional groups in furthering construction activities. It works to modernize building codes and to encourage improved Standards for the quality of building construction, and the practical application of the lateSt development in design and use

of building materials.

It encourages home ownership through the development

of an enlarged, Steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating demand for dwellings—the largeSt single class of

buildings which the construction industries provide.

The division also cooperates with other governmental

agencies and with many private business and professional

groups in efforts to distribute building activity more evenly

throughout the year and to secure less fluctuation from

year to year. The work on city planning and zoning has the broad

objective of making buildings more useful through proper

location with respeCt to other Structures, Stabilizing of land

values and property uses, well coordinated thoroughfare

syStems, and well laid out public works.

STANDARDIZATION

..IS.. A CONTINUING PROCESS

ITS AIM IS NOT FIXITY OR STAGNATION

. . BUT. . TO ADD SERVICEABILITY

AS OFTEN AS THE

POTENTIAL GAIN

MAKES IT WORTH WHILE

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS

A. S. McAlliSter

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote

and facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so it carries on activities involving cooperation with

technical societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and

municipal Government specifications making and using

agencies; producers, distributors, and consumers; and teSting

and research laboratories. It ascertains the Standardization

and specifications promoting activities of the associations and societies, and brings to their attention the work being

done by the commercial Standardization group. It brings the

Federal specifications and commercial Standards to the atten- tion of the maximum number of producers and users of commodities complying with these Standards and specifications.

It compiles and distributes liSts of sources of supply of materials guaranteed to comply with the Standards and specifi- cations. It shows both buyers and sellers the benefits from

handling nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The division prepares directories of governmental and

nongovernmental teSling laboratories and the Directory of

Specifications, and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the firSt two volumes of which

have been issued, namely, “Standards and

Specifications in the Wood-Using Industries”

and “Standards and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and their Products.” It also

aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook.

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS

I. J. Fairchild

The division of trade Standards, on requeSt,

assiSts industrial and commercial groups in the voluntary establishment of Standards

covering grades, quality, dimensional interchangeability, or other acceptance criteria as a national

basis for marketing manufactured commodities.

The detail criteria are selected or determined voluntarily

by interested buyers or sellers, without any Government

dictation or domination, and adjusted at a general confer- ence of producers, distributors, and users so as to represent

the composite views of all branches. The division functions

chiefly as a neutral agency to see that all interested elements

are given full opportunity to be heard and satisfied; to

solicit and record acceptances; and to publish and promulgate

the Standard when a satisfactory majority of acceptances is obtained and provided there is no aCtive opposition.

Industries are encouraged to apply self-certifying labels to products meeting the commercial Standard requirements, as a means of protecting the consumer and the scrupulous seller from misrepresentation or unfair methods of marketing.

Provision is made for regular revision of the Standard

through the appointment of a Standing committee to consider periodically any necessity for revision of the Standard,

in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with

progress in the industry.

Address NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Washington, D. C., for further information
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 7 WASHINGTON, D. C., APRIL, 1931 Number 10

SUBJECT ANALYSES

TEXTILES Page

Grading of raw wool 316

Standardization briefs 327

METALS

Simplification briefs 321 Standardization briefs 327

Steel bone plates 324

CONTAINERS

New sizes of packages considered for shipping eggs in Norway - 322

Simplification briefs _ 321 PUBLICATIONS

Industrial research laboratories 306

Mopsticks ’ 308

Simplification briefs 327

Standardization briefs 327

ELECTRICAL

Extension of radio-research facilities 303

Manufacture of tungsten lamps improved 308

Simplification briefs 321

Standardization briefs 327

Wire and cable standards--- 322

WOOD AND PAPER

Standardization briefs 327

Standardization favored in the Netherlands 319

Grades of hardwood dimension-stock lumber 317

New sizes of packages considered for shipping eggs in Norway 322

Simplification of hotel equipment and supplies 317

Standardization briefs 327

FOREIGN Pagfi International commerce congress May 4 to 9 300

Manufacture of tungsten lamps improved 308

New sizes of packages considered for shipping eggs in Norway 322

FOOD

Artificial coloring of food 315

Inspecting figs and dates 326

Labeling substandard canned foods 312

Standardization briefs 327

Standardizing the test methods for cereals 318

SAFETY

Activities of the American Standards Association 320

Artificial coloring of food 315

Low-voltage electrical shock 317

Standardization briefs 327

Testing domestic gas appliances 304

Trial by fire and heavy impact for steel safes 314

Uniform rules on aviation 326

GENERAL

Activities of the American Standards Association 320

Admiral Craven becomes Chief Coordinator 303

American Management Association members visit the National Bureau of Standards 312 Bureau receives portrait of its first director 316 Consumers’ desire for informative labeling 307

Federal specifications 324

New housing standards promote child welfare 313

Quality control of consumer commodities 301

Simplification briefs 321

Standardization briefs 327

Standardization of road-building equipment and pur- chasing methods 325

Value of purchase specifications 323

What is a 50-pound weight? 309

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A cordial invitation is extended to all interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories

of the National Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at 2.15 p. m. daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may be arranged at other times by writing

to the bureau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s Manual may be had for the asking. This

lists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of typical

discoveries and inventions which have been notable, basic contributions to radio, aviation, and other

modern arts and industries.

An interesting fact in the growth of the bureau is the steady increase in the number of visitors. From all over the world experts come to see the work in progress in many specialties. Not alone the

experts but in growing numbers many of our people visit the bureau from a public-spirited desire to acquaint themselves with its research work. All visitors—from the newspaper men, who have called the

bureau a “ house of wonders,” to the specialists, who use its services—are welcome, for it is their bureau

in a very real sense. They are the owners of the business and its beneficiaries. The annual per capita

cost of 2 cents which the average citizen pays toward the operation of the bureau yields return sometimes a hundredfold or a thousandfold. How science turns wastes into profits, increases the useful life of materials, adds new efficiencies to industry, advances new arts, such as aviation and radio, by research

and discovery—these are to be seen first-hand in the scientific and technical laboratories of the bureau.

George Iv. Burgess, Director.

50652—31 1 299
International Commerce Congress

May 4 to 9, / 93 I

Sixth Congress of International Chamber of Commerce

Will Investigate Remedies for Trade Depression

HE Sixth Congress of the International Chamber of Commerce,

to be held May 4 to 9, in Washington, will endeavor to investigate carefully the distinction between cause and effect in the

present international trade depression and the possible remedies

that can be applied to hasten full recovery.

In an advance release on the forthcoming congress, officials of the Chamber

of Commerce of the United States pointed out that “the existing depression

has served to emphasize more than ever before the economic interdependence

of all nations, and that it is incumbent upon business leaders in all countries to get together in a united effort to work out a solution of the present difficulties,

without recourse to Government action.”

Another important feature of the conference will be the consideration of the results of an inquiry under way by a special committee into the economic

relations between the United States and Europe, both directly between the

two continents and in other markets. This committee is now surveying the

important shifts that have taken place in trade currents between the two areas and will report on the changes that have taken place in their relative positions.

It will undertake to show for the first time authoritatively and impartially what

direct and indirect economic activities of the two continents have been mutually

complementary and helpful, and what activities may be defined as directly or

indirectly competitive.

The principal contrasting aspects of general economic practice in Europe

and in the United States are being thoroughly examined, comparative production costs and the elements that enter into their determination, mass production as against small scale production, high versus low wages, the regularization

of employment; modern distribution methods—these and other contrasting

features of European and American practice are being subjected to a critical study

by the committee, the results of which will be presented at the May congress.
APRIL, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 301

QUALITY CONTROL OF CONSUMER COMMODITIES

A Brief Comparison of Several Systems of Quality Assurance

By I. J. Fairchild, National Bureau of Standards

In our modern civilization legislation is, perhaps,

at once the oldest and most natural remedy for correct- ing trade evils. Where a manufacturer loses an order

to a competitor as a result of unfair methods, or when

a buyer finds himself cheated by an unscrupulous

seller, the cry frequently arises, “ There ought to be

a law.”

As a result of an official investigation in New York

City in 1920, the board- of health issued regulations on clinical thermometers in an attempt to prevent the

sale of inaccurate and unsatisfactory clinicals. This

action was followed by laws or regulations having the

effect of laws, in the States of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Michigan, and California, although these

laws or regulations were not coordinated and pre- sented a puzzle to the manufacturer who desired to

sell thermometers in any two or more of these States. Each year, for a considerable period, there has been

introduced in the National Congress one or more bills designed to regulate the sale of clinical thermometers,

but the opposing factions have not been able to agree on the details of any bill and as a result no national

legislation has been forthcoming.

In recent years a few periodicals have pioneered in an attempt to correct certain trade evils by means

of a special indorsement of products are deemed to be satisfactory. Another method, which has been

used to attack this problem, is by trade agreement.

For example, the Viscose Co. has a quality control

plan by which fabrics or garments of satisfactory

standard made from their yarns may bear the crown

label. This arrangement is controlled by a contract between the Viscose Co. and the textile mills or garment manufacturers, and a system of symbols is used which permits the company to identify the manufacturer by the label. A rather unusual example of a trade agreement

for the purpose of controlling quality has recently come to our attention. Steel bone plates, used by

surgeons in the reduction of bone fractures, have

been the source of considerable trouble due to faulty

design, unsuitable steels, and improper heat treat- ment. In 1914, Dr. William O. Sherman took out a patent on the form of steel bone plates and screws and arranged contracts with the manufacturers by

which, in return for the use of the patent without

royalty, the producers agreed to maintain a satis- factory quality of bone plates. In spite of this magnanimous action on the part of Doctor Sherman,

manufacturers have not kept the agreement, and

since the patent is about to expire the American

College of Surgeons has requested the cooperation

of the National Bureau of Standards in the establishment of a commercial standard as a basis for

controlling quality of steel bone plates.

Still another method designed to prevent misrepresentation of quality or grading is the use of labels or insignia sponsored by trade associations. A fairly

satisfactory solution of the problem is possible by

this method. The National Lumber Manufacturer's

Association licenses the use of its “ Tree mark ” on

each piece of lumber in conjunction with the grade

mark, trade-mark, or species mark of licensed mills,

the lumber being guaranteed by the association to con- form to American lumber standard sizes under such

quality specifications as may be branded thereon.

Another example of this method is the “ Lavelle ”

label, sponsored by the Silk Association of America,

which permits this name to be used only on wash silk

meeting the minimum specification of the spun silk

research committee. The producer of these goods

is permitted to use a blue identification tag and the

manufacturer of the garment uses a green tag, both

of which are attached to the merchandise.

It is not practicable to cover in an article of this

type, the many reasons as to why legislation is generally an ineffective means of correcting trade evils,

but it may be possible to list a few in order to stimulate more thought in that direction. First, it is a

difficult matter to obtain an agreement as to the form

and substance for national legislation on any given

commodity, since producers have various methods of

manufacture and marketing even for similar items,

and frequently are unwilling to modify production

or marketing arrangements in order to provide a uniform basis for the application of national regulations. Second, for most ordinary commodities the

enactment of national legislation would constitute an

abrogation of State rights. Third, legislation by

individual States is generally uncoordinated and con- fusing for those who are doing an interstate business.

Fourth, a variety of regulations by separate States

makes centralized production or interstate service

difficult. Fifth, legal regulations attempting to control quality, grading or measurements usually involve

cumbersome and expensive means of enforcement.

Sixth, as a correction of trade evils, legislation entails an extension of governmental function and increased

taxation which, if carried out to cover all commodities, would stagger the imagination.

Generally those who propose legislation as a corrective have in mind only the single commodity in

question, and honestly believe that the necessary

testing laboratories or other “ policing ” methods are

entirely justified. Yet it seems obvious that the ex- tension of such a system of quality control to cover

the entire gamut of commodities from acetone to zinc or apricots to yeast, would entail an astounding

expansion of governmental function and a corres- ponding increase in taxation not comparable with

American ideals. The question as to why many other methods fall short of the goal may likewise be treated in its general, rather than specific, aspects. In the first place,

most manufacturers are reluctant to subject themselves voluntarily to direct complaint, or to place

anything in the hands of the user which would justify direct complaint or legal action; they are quite

generally fearful of unfavorable publicity or court

action. This reluctance and fear on the part of the
302 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL, 1931

manufacturers is one of the basic underlying reasons why many quality control systems fall short of the

ultimate goal, and why many have degenerated into

glorified advertising campaigns.

A close inspection of many systems will reveal an

attempt to control the situation internally, without consumer participation. In many cases, the arrangement is more or less secret either within the association or between the producers and the testing laboratories. Again, most of these systems depend upon

some contractural relation, such as advertising contracts, sale of labels, or other basis of payment between the producer and the checking agency. In

other words, the central agency which purports to control quality is frequently nothing more nor less than an employee of the producer.

Perhaps the mpst important reason why most sys- tems of quality control fail to reach maximum effec- tiveness is the fact that they give the ultimate consumer no direct opportunity for redress against

either the distributor or producer. It is believed that any sys- tem which does not

give the ultimate

buyer a ready means

of action against the

seller of misrepresented goods is destined to fail. The contacts of

the National Bureau

of Standards with

consumer organizations would tend to support the thought

that many consumer

groups feel that they

frequently do not get

their money’s worth

on purchases, but are generally not in a position to offer any specific suggestions or remedies. Although

the consumers are gradually awaking to the serious- ness of the situation, it is probably safe to say that

there is more pressure for quality control from producers to-day than from consumers. One reason for

this is the fact that the buyers are interested in a wide variety of commodities, the quality control of

which appears to be, and really is, a monumental task,

whereas the producers are interested in individual or

specific commodities and quality control is more or less within their grasp.

It may be well to enumerate here, from the con- sumers’ viewpoint, some of the chief purposes in the

establishment of commercial standards. These are

First, to assure adequate consumer participation in

the actual formulation or adjustment of the standard; second, to provide a list of sources of the standard material through published lists of official acceptors and willing-to-certify manufacturers; third, to publish the standard in a form and at a price available to all ; fourth, to focus user attention on the real

elements of quality ; fifth, to sharpen the “ knife ” of

competition and raise the value-over-price ratio ; sixth.

to increase consumer satisfaction in purchasing; and

seventh, to provide the consumer with a weapon

which will justify complaints or legal action against

the seller of misrepresented goods.

We have no idea that the household buyer will be- come familiar with all of the details of any commercial standard, but we do look forward to the day when

a large proportion of such buyers will be on the alert for labels by means of which the manufacturer certifies conformity to a nationally recognized specification or a commercial standard. Such a label becomes

a part of the sales contract and a ready basis for legal

action or complaint against the distributor or producer in the event the goods are found, on careful

examination, not to conform to the specified requirements.

It seems only reasonable to assume that the purchaser of an article bearing a self-certifying label

will be more inclined to inquire into the cause of any

dissatisfaction resulting therefrom than would be

the case with the same article not bearing such a label. (See Label for wall ' paper.

)

We have been as- sured by the Federal

Trade Commission

that complaints

against a manufacturer marketing misrepresented goods

under labels which

guarantee compliance with a commercial standard Avill be

investigated and suit- able legal action in- itiated without the

necessity of a trade

practice conference.

In other words, the

established commercial standard or any

nationally recognized

specification will serve as a satisfactory basis for

complaint to and action by the Federal Trade

Commission where misrepresentation through labels

is involved.

In industries where such guaranty labeling has

been tried it has been found that the competitors

of a given manufacturer are usually the first to learn

of any misrepresentations and also are the first to

offer complaints, since unfair methods tend to make

inroads on the business of the manufacturer who is trying to play square. Such protests frequently are referred first to the trade association office where,

if he is a member of the association, pressure is brought to bear on the offending manufacturer. If

not a member, then the trade association office turns

the report over to the Better Business Bureau or to the Federal Trade Commission for action.

For goods sold through retails stores, there are additional means of correction. Retailers have terms for

various kinds of complaints. One such term is “ justified complaint,” thus indicating that the buyer

is entitled to a replacement or an adjustment. Such

Label used for wall paper
APKIL, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 303

“ justified complaints ” are naturally referred to the

offending manufacturers as they accumulate, or in

flagrant cases, the retailer may demand reimbursement altogether or discontinue dealing with that

particular producer.

When the label carries a straightforward statement

of guarantee by the manufacturer to the buyer that

the goods comply with a nationally recognized specification or a commercial standard, such a statement

is a part of the sales contract and is enforceable at law.

It may be said that, in general, existing agencies

for policing or enforcing the integrity of such guarantee labels are considered to be adequate. After a

critical examination of commercial standards and the

procedure by which they are established, one can

scarcely escape the conclusion that they serve the con- sumer by : ( 1 ) Establishing standard terminology

and definitions, (2) improving the understanding

between buyer and seller, (3) focusing attention on

the real elements of quality, (4) providing an accep- tance basis for daily trade, (5) raising value-overprice ratio, (6) providing minimum standards of

quality or measurements, (7) providing a basis for

justifying complaints or legal action, and (81 increasing consumer satisfaction.

EXTENSION OF RADIO-RESEARCH FACILITIES

National Bureau of Standards to Construct Laboratory to Expand Research Facilities

Under the terms of an act recently passed by Congress, an extension will be made in the National Bureau of Standards’ facilities for radio research. The

act authorized the Secretary of Commerce to acquire

for the bureau a parcel of land not in excess of 200

acres, in the vicinity of the District of Columbia,

and to construct thereon buildings and facilities for

experimental researches in the propagation and re- ception of radio signals. The act further authorizes

the Secretary of Commerce to construct upon land

now owned by the (Government in the vicinity of the

District of Columbia, buildings and equipment for an experimental radio transmitting station.

This act contemplates the establishment of two field stations, one for radio reception experiments and one

for radio transmission. These facilities are required

because of the inherently large-scale nature of radio

experimentation. The bureau’s radio work has been

greatly hampered by the lack of a transmitting sta- tion at a distance from the bureau, since any trans- missions carried on produce destructive interference to the bureau’s radio measurement and standardization

work.

For a different reason a remote and large area is necessary for reception experiments. In order to study the behavior of radio waves as received, and

in the medium through which they are transmitted,

it is necessary that delicate measuring instruments

be used and that the waves be received in a location

free from obstacles which would disturb the incoming

waves. The bureau’s radio service to the public, along two

principal lines, will be considerably expanded by the

new facilities. The first of these is the transmission

of standard radio frequencies. Radio is unique in

that the primary radio standard can be made simultaneously available to everyone in the country. By

sending out signals of standard frequency controlled

by the primary standard maintained by the National

Bureau of Standards, it is possible, for all who wish,

to tune in and make direct use of the standard. An

improved transmitter will be located at the new trans- mitting location, and it is hoped to send out signals

of standard frequency continuously. This will be of

the utmost value to radio stations of all kinds which

can thus readily determine whether they are on the

correct frequency. Interference will be minimized

by this procedure. In addition, it is possible that

broadcast stations may be directly controlled by means

of the incoming standard signals. This offers a possibility of synchronizing broadcasting stations so that

a number may operate on the same frequency.

The other principal service which can be expanded

by means of the new facilities is the study of radio- wave transmission. Low power and temporary equipment which have been used in the past will be replaced

by a suitable transmitter and proper receiving and

recording apparatus. The suitability of radio waves

of various frequencies for transmission over desired

distances, the accuracy of radio direction finders, and

knowledge of such limitations of radio as fading and

“static,” depend upon large-scale investigations of

radio-wave transmission.

One of the most valuable of the means of studying

the behavior of radio waves is the direct measurement

of the height of the Kennelly-Heaviside layer by means of radio waves reflected from it. This layer

is a region of ionized air from 50 to 100 miles above

the earth which determines the carrying power and

behavior of all high-frequency radio waves. The determination, as nearly continuous as possible, of

the height of the Kennelly-Heaviside layer is expected

to furnish the best possible index of the conditions

determining radio-wave propagation.

ADMIRAL CRAVEN BECOMES CHIEF COORDINATOR

Rear Admiral Thomas Tingey Craven, U. S. Navy,

for several years in command of the United States

Yangtze patrol, has been selected for duty as Chief

Coordinator to fill the vacancy caused by the death

of Rear Admiral Harry H. Rousseau last slimmer.

He will assume his new duties on June 1, 1931.

Admiral Craven who was awarded the distinguished-service medal, for meritorious service per- formed while acting as aid for aviation with the naval

forces in France during the World War, will handle

all questions of coordination arising through the application of the policies of the President and the Congress to the routine business activities of the executive

branch of the Government.
304 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY AI*RIL, 1931 TESTING DOMESTIC GAS APPLIANCES

Laboratory Test Insures Appliances Operating Under Highest Degree of Safety

By F. R. Weight, A. O. A. Testing Laboratory

The establishment of the American Gas Association testing laboratory in 1925 marked the gas in- dustry as one of the first great industries to establish a national testing and research organization dedicated

to the improvement of public service. In addition to the altruistic motives back of movements of this kind,

enterprises have become confident that material re- wards are invariably an accompaniment of work well

done for the welfare of mankind. Through the test- ing and certification of gas appliances under nationally recognized standards of construction and per- formance, a great benefit has not only been conferred

upon the public but these activities have stimulated

the use of gas and contributed materially to the rapid

growth and development of the gas industry during

the past few years. The laboratory was established to fulfill a recognized need within the industry for basic standards of

construction and performance of domestic gas appliances, and the certification of compliance with these

standards of all appliances offered for sale to the public. This program of self-discipline was not only

felt essential from the standpoint of safety to the

public, but for the purpose of maintaining good will,

insuring satisfaction of customers in the use of gas, increasing ways and means of utilizing gas safely and

economically, and in decreasing the waste in manufacturing processes by stimulating the production of

appliances based upon recognized standards embodying the fundamental elements of good design and construction.

The development and formation of these standards

is carried on under the direction and supervision of

the A. G. A. approval requirements committee, which

is composed of experts in gas utilization representing producers, consumers, and independent agencies,

including every interested element in the United

States and Canada. Included in the group are representatives of the American Gas Association (which

are equally divided between gas company and manufacturer representatives), the Canadian Gas Association, National Bureau of Standards, U. S. Bureau

of Mines, U. S. Public Health Service, U. S. Bureau

of Home Economics, American Home Economics

Association, Master Plumbers’ Association, Heating

and Piping Contractors’ National Association, and the

Underwriters’ Laboratories. Operating under this

committee are 14 approval requirements subcommittees, one for each type of domestic appliance, and

composed equally of gas company and manufacturer

representatives. All A. G. A. requirements are not

only approved by both the subcommittee and the A.

G. A. approval requirements committee, but are also

submitted to the entire membership of the American

Gas Association for criticisms and suggestions before

final adoption. The A. G. A. requirements in their

completed form, therefore, represent not only the

opinions of leading gas engineers but also the rec- ommendations of the entire gas industry.

The A. G. A. approval requirements committee is a sectional committee of the American Standards

Association, and the A. G. A. approval requirements

have been adopted as American standards for domestic gas-burning appliances. One of the functions of

the A. G. A. testing laboratory is to test all appliances

submitted for approval under the standards thus

adopted.

All manufacturers of gas appliances may submit

their appliances to the laboratory for tests whether

they are members of the association or not. Compliance with the A. G. A. standards is impartially

determined, and if an appliance submitted is found to comply with the requirements in every detail a certificate of approval is issued to the manufacturer,

which is good for the balance of the calendar year. The approval of the appliance may be renewed for

the next succeeding year by the manufacturer submitting to a factory inspection of his products when

in production. The laboratory maintains an inspection system for the purpose of conducting periodical

inspections of all appliances produced bearing the

laboratory approval seal. At least once each year an

inspector visits every manufacturer of approved appliances and makes a thorough inspection of all products listed by the American Gas Association as approved. If an appliance is being manufactured

exactly in accordance with the specifications of the one approved by tests, approval of it may be renewed

and the manufacturer allowed to affix the approval

seal to all such models produced for the next year. The laboratory inspectors go into the factory and

inspect actual stock models. Every part of the appli- ances is thoroughly checked against the laboratory’s

records of the one tested. If a production model is found to be at variance in any material respect which

might affect the safety, durability, or performance of

the appliance, the manufacturer is so notified, the

appliance is no longer listed in the A. G. A. list of

approved appliances, and the manufacturer is not

permitted to display the approval seal on it. Such

appliances will be relisted when the necessary changes

have been made and the corrected models have been

inspected at the factory. In selecting approved appliances, the public is therefore assured of obtaining

only those models which comply with American

standards for safety, durability, and performance in

every detail. The American Gas Association’s testing laboratory

at Cleveland, is the largest and most completely

equipped institution of its kind in the world. Approximately $300,000 was invested by the gas industry in the building, gas holders, and equipment. The

most up-to-date and accurate instruments and equipment attainable are used in the testing of applicances.

As the A.G.A. approval requirements specify that an appliance shall produce no carbon monoxide when

operating at its proper rating, it is necessary to have

instruments for analyzing the products of combus-
APRIL, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 305

tion which are not only very sensitive, but which operate with extreme accuracy. On account of the large

volume of testing work done, it is also essential that

the amount of carbon monoxide in a sample can be

determined in a comparatively short period of time.

The instrument which combines all of these features

and which is yet comparatively simple to operate, is the iodine pentoxide machine. This apparatus was

originally developed for the laboratory by the National Bureau of Standards, and with certain modifications incorporated, has been found to work out

most satisfactorily. It is accurate to 2 parts in 100,-

000 and the carbon monoxide content of a sample of

flue gas can be determined by it in approximately 20

minutes. Six of these machines are kept in continu- ous operation at the laboratory in the analysis of

combustion products from appliances. Another instrument which is equally accurate, is the carbon

monoxide recorder. This machine is used for determining the amount of carbon monoxide produced

service, such supplementary life tests are made as are necessary to determine the facts, and if not satis- factory the appliance is not approved.

Performance tests are conducted on three types of

gases, namely, natural gas, of approximately 1,135

B. t. u. per cubic foot and 0.65 specific gravity, coke oven gas, and carburated water gas having heating

values of approximately 535 and 400 B. t. u. per cubic

foot and specific gravities of 0.38 and 0.70, respecively. These gases represent the extremes in gas service used in the majority of cities in the United States

and Canada. The normal test pressures for each of

these gases were established at 7.0 inches water column

for natural gas and 3.5 inches water column for coke oven and water gases after a survey had been made

of gas pressure conditions in various parts of the

country. Tests are conducted on each kind of gas

at normal pressure with the appliance adjusted at the

proper input rating as specified in the requirements

or by the manufacturer, as the case may be. Without

r

n= 1

Gas Range section of American Gas Association

in a 1,000 cubic foot airtight room, during the operation of a space heater confined therein. Samples of

the room atmosphere are continuously drawn through

the machine and the amount of carbon monoxide, if any, is automatically recorded on a chart. Dozens

of other instruments equally accurate are used in

conducting various tests. The thorough manner in which appliances are tested

may be shown by the fact that 159 separate tests are conducted on a gas range alone. During the construction tests an appliance is completely disassembled

and every part checked for compliance with the

requirements. Not only is the weight, strength, and

construction of the various parts checked, but the

assembly of the appliance is carefully noted. The

location and method of fastening parts must comply

with certain specifications and where such parts may

need to be removed for cleaning, or if they may

require adjustment they must be capable of easy

removal or adjustment. Where any parts show signs

of becoming so warped, bent, or broken during the course of the tests as might affect the durability,

safe or satisfactory operation of the appliance in

testing laboratory, shotting ranges undergoing test any change in either the adjustment of gas rate or

air shutters, tests are made with the gas pressure

increased to 50 per cent above normal and with it reduced to 50 per cent below normal. Compliance

with the A. G. A. requirements on all three types of

gases and over the comparatively wide range of pres- sures specified insures a degree of flexibility of per- formance which makes it possible for the appliance

to be used in any section of the United States or Canada.

Included among the numerous performance tests made are tests for completeness of combustion; fire hazard; efficiency; leakage; explosion; burner operating characteristics (which include ignition, flame

travel, flash back, noise of operation and extinction) ; pilot operation; tests of draft hoods, flue loss, per- formance tests on all accessories, such as thermostats,

gas cocks, relief valves, etc., as well as many additional tests applying to the individual types of appliances. During all of the performance tests appliances

are not connected to a flue or chimney, but must depend for their satisfactory performance solely on the

principles of design incorporated in them. This
306 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL, 1931

makes for a more difficult condition of performance'

than is normally encountered in service, since appli- ances are usually flue connected, which tends to improve their operation. However, it is essential that

appliances operate safely under their own draft, since

chimneys and flues may become blocked or otherwise

rendered inoperative. It is assumed, of course, that a draft hood will be provided, with adequate provisions

for the escape of the flue gases. Since the A. G. A. laboratory began its operation

in 1925, it has approved approximately 12,700 models

of gas ranges, 1,950 space heaters (including radiant

heaters, gas-fired steam and hot-water radiators,

warm-air radiators, circulators, gas logs, and coal

baskets), 975 water heaters, 1,200 gas boilers and

furnaces, 5 clothes dryers, 14 incinerators, 11 hot

plates and laundry stoves, as well as many types and

sizes of flexible gas tubing. It has been estimated

that more than 80 per cent of all domestic gas appli- ances sold in the United States in 1930 bore the

laboratory seal of approval. Other types of appli- ances tested for approval are gas unit heaters and gas- heated ironers. A. G. A. approval requirements are now being prepared for garage heaters, hotel and

restaurant ranges, and high pressure gas boilers.

Another important step in the American Gas Association’s standardization program is the drafting of

requirements for the -installation of conversion burners. The requirements are practically completed, and

will be released for the use and benefit of the gas

industry within the next few months. In view of the

large number of conversion burners now being installed, requirements and standards governing their

proper installation should be particularly valuable

to the industry and should serve in bringing about even greater satisfaction on the part of the customer

in the use of gas. These requirements will supplement the A. G. A. requirements for house piping and

appliance installation, which have been in effect since

1928, and which have been followed extensively by

gas companies, contractors, and plumbers during the

past two years. Standards of this nature not only

simplify installations, but eliminate a large portion

INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH LABORATORIES

In the fourth edition of its Directory of Industrial

Research Laboratories of the United States, the National Research Council, Washington, D. C., lists more than 1,620 laboratories, which number represents a 60 per cent increase over the 999 listed in the

third edition issued in 1927. This directory, which is for sale by the National Research Council, is designated as Bulletin No. 81. Included in the bulletin are the names and addresses

of the organizations maintaining the laboratories, the names of the directors of research, alphabetically ar- ranged, subject classification of laboratory activities,

and a geographical index to the locations of the laboratories. Information is given concerning the research activities in laboratories maintained not only by manufacturing companies, consulting chemists and engineers, but also by trade associations, including the

following

of the difficulties encountered or resulting from haphazard methods of installing piping and appliances.

In addition to its testing activities a large amount

of research is carried on at the A. G. A. laboratory.

This includes research to improve or strengthen the

standards for domestic appliances and research af- fecting the general problems of utilization and distribution of gas. In order to develop basic information concerning possible variations in mixing gases, an investigation was conducted over a period of two

and one-half years during which time over 125,000

separate tests were made using different gas mixtures.

Among the major problems now under investigation are the repair and construction of pipe joints, propane-butane research, a study of the characteristics

of burning gas with preheated air, and research in

the elimination of noise in industrial gas burners.

The success of the A. G. A. laboratory and its value to the gas industry and the public is reflected in (1) the approval of more than 16,000 models of

domestic gas appliances, (2) the elimination of the

necessity for each manufacturer to maintain a large

research laboratory, (3) the decrease of waste in manufacturing due to standard specifications, (4) the

elimination of a large portion of the inferior appliances from the market, and (5) the creation of good

will for the industry as well as greater safety and

satisfaction for the consumer in the use of gas for

cooking and heating.

A statement which is typical of the opinion of

leading men throughout the industry, was expressed

by George B. Cortelyou, president of the Consolidated

Gas Co., of New York, in a recent address when he

said, “ The highest form of service to the public is shown in the operations of the appliance testing lab- oratory which the association owns and operates in

the city of Cleveland. Through its tests, based on

nationally recognized requirements, and the certifi- cation of compliance therewith, the laboratory has

immeasurably improved the safety of domestic gas- burning appliances, and as a result has brought about

definite and demonstrable improvements in the service

rendered to the public.”

American Gas Association. American Institute of Baking.

Asphalt Institute. Associated Factory Mutual Fire Insurance Companies.

California Fruit Growers Exchange.

Dairymen’s League Cooperative Association (Inc.). Glass Container Association of America.

Institute of American Meat Packers.

Institute of Food and Drug Research.

Institute of Paint and Varnish Research. Laundryowners National Association. National Association of Dyers and Cleaners. National Board of Fire Underwriters.

National Canners Association. National Crushed Stone Association. National Sand and Gravel Association. Paperboard Industries Association. Portland Cement Association. Utah Coal Producers Association. The above-noted directory of industrial research

laboratories supplements effectively the Directory of

Commercial Testing and College Research Laboratories issued as Miscellaneous Publication No. 90 of

the National Bureau of Standards.
.APRIL, 1931 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY 307

CONSUMERS’ DESIRE FOR INFORMATIVE LABELING

Plan Promotes Intelligent Buying by Aiding Selection

By Alice L. Edwards, American Home Economics Association

The thoughtful consumer is interested in standardization because he or she realizes that it promises

a solution for some of the difficulties encountered when

trying to select commodities for personal use or for use in the household. He or she recognizes the con- venience which may be afforded through standardization, which offers such advantages as interchangeability of parts, easier replacement of utensils, and

standardizing of electric current. Where the right kind of standardization is developed, durability is often increased through the improved quality of material used and through the

adoption of better methods of construction. Furthermore, consideration is often given to improvements

which make the article better adapted to the use to which it is to be put; this is especially noticeable

when consumers are represented on standardizing committees. Although the first cost may be higher, econ- omy may be effected through the greater durability

of an article which meets a given standard. In addition, there may be a saving to the user in time and

labor required in the operation of a piece of

•equipment.

Too often the consumer has great difficulty in se- curing pertinent information about the goods for sale on the retail counter. There are various fundamental

causes for this, and, perhaps, one of the most important is that for many articles no one, not even

the manufacturer of the commodity, has determined

significant facts about performance, the cost of operation under standard conditions, cost of upkeep,

and durability. Facts of this nature are frequently

determined in the process of developing desirable

standardization of a given commoditjn

If such facts are to be most useful, they should be

made available to the would-be purchaser. Under

present retail merchandising practices, very little of the information possessed by the manufacturer,

buyer, and retailer about a given commodity is passed on to the consumer because no dependable means is provided by which he or she can readily secure it. As we all know, few clerks in a retail store can answer more than the most superficial questions about the

goods they sell. Hence, some plan should be devised

bv which reliable, significant facts about a commodity

may be readily secured by the over-the-counter buyer.

We believe that in most cases informative labels will

be a necessary part of any workable program which

seeks to provide the consumer with the facts he needs.

As an example of the type of informative labeling

for which home economists are asking, let me cite the project for the development of standards and

specifications for household refrigerators now in

progress under the procedure of the American Standards Association. Representatives of the American

Home Economics Association and certain other

groups serving on this refrigerator committee are trying to work out a plan for the placing of name

plates on refrigerators, which will carry the name of

50652—31 2

the manufacturer and also supply pertinent facts,

such as the following: (1) The number of cubic feet of usable storage space, (2) the number of square

feet of shelf area, (3) the temperature maintained

under standard test conditions in the milk compartment and the food compartment, and (4) the amount

of ice, electricity, or gas required to maintain this

temperature over a 24-hour period.

To some it seems quite astonishing that manufacturers should be asked to supply this sort of information, but the truth of the matter is that in this instance

representatives of the American Home Economics

Association are only asking for two pieces of information which the purchaser can not, with a little effort, secure personally. The most significant of

these is information as to the temperature maintained

under standard test conditions. And is it not justi- fiable and reasonable that the consumer should ask for

and be given the facts relative to such a vital matter?

The object in buying a refrigerator is to secure re- frigeration for the preservation of food. We do not

as a rule buy refrigerators for shelf space. As for the

other information requested, which the consumer can

not secure personally, is it any more unreasonable that one should wish to know the cost of the operation of

the refrigerator? Can we credit the consumer with

reasonable intelligence if he or she does not ask for

and expect this type of information? And can any- one honestly justify, as a sound and ethical merchandising procedure, the denying of such information to a would-be purchaser?

The sort of information which is being requested on the name plates of refrigerators illustrates points

which the writer believes should be given more consideration in many standardization programs. It is not asked that the label state that the refrigerator belongs to a special class or gi'ade A, B, or C, but that

it give a very few significant facts about the particular

refrigerator on which it is placed. It is requested

that the name plate on each refrigerator state the

temperature maintained and ice, electricity, or gas

consumed by the particular size and style to which it is attached. Hence, the customer, knowing the price

of the refrigerator and his or her own needs, can

choose from those available the one best suited to his

particular situation.

It should be noted that with the facts relative to performance thus provided, the manufacturer would

not be discouraged in producing a refrigerator

superior in quality to a required minimum standard,

for he would be permitted to reap the benefits accru- ing from improving his product, because the facts

as to its performance would be given on the name

plate. It sometimes seems quite inaccurate to speak of consumer buying habits, when we consider the fickle,

erratic way in which many women make their purchases. We believe one of the most significant factors contributing to this situation is the customer’s

inability to secure accurate information about the
308 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL, 1931

things she buys and her consequent inability to replace

satisfactory articles or to choose something more suit- able to take the place of a commodity which has

proven unsatisfactory. We often find that a woman’s

dissatisfaction expresses itself in that she does not

become a “ repeater ” as regards either the commodity

she buys, or the store at which she makes her purchase.

Members of the American Home Economics Association, who have given most attention and thought

to the problems of the household purchaser and the

effects of the household purchaser’s buying procedure,

are convinced that more information is needed, not

alone by consumers but also by manufacturers and

retailers. They believe that a satisfactory adjustment of many of the present vexing merchandising

problems can not be made until representatives of

these three groups work together on standardization

and similar projects in the development of suitable

standards, specifications, and tests for consumers’

goods, and in devising ways by which significant

information in intelligible form may be made available, probably by the manufacturers, to those concerned. Otherwise, unnecessary economic loss, commodities less well adapted to consumer needs, and

dissatisfaction on the part of each group in this manufacturer-retailer-consumer triangle are inevitable.

MANUFACTURE OF TUNGSTEN LAMPS IMPROVED

New Standards of America and England More in Line with Industry’s Progress in Manufacture of Bulbs

The past several years have seen great progress in

the art of manufacture of tungsten-filament electric

lamps. Present manufacturing processes make for an improved product without reducing the minimum

average life of the bulb.

To keep our Federal specifications for this item in

step with modern progress, the electrical supplies

committee of the Federal Specifications Board has

just completed, with the cooperation of the manufacturers of incandescent lamps, the 1932 supplements

to the specifications for large tungsten-filament

lamps and miniature tungsten-filament lamps. New

supplements to the lamps specifications are issued

each year, and made effective July 1, when Government contracts go into effect for the succeeding fiscal year. These annual supplements give tables of initial rating tolerances as to total watts above and below

the standard rating, and as to initial lumens per watt

above and below the standard. The large lamp supplement gives schedules of lamps for regular lighting

service ranging from 10 to 1,000 watts inclusive,

showing rated initial lumens, mean lumens in per

cent of average initial lumens, rated initial lumens

per watt, over all and light center lengths, bulb sizes and hours life. It is interesting to compare some of the tolerances

in the Federal specifications for lamps with the toler- ances given in the British standard specification for

tungsten-filament electric lamps recently announced

by the British Engineering Standards Association.

The Federal specification sets a 5 per cent tolerance,

plus or minus in total watts for lamp of 25 watts to

1,000 watts. The British standard allows 15 per cent

plus or minus for the 25-watt lamps, 12.5 per cent for

40 and 60 watt lamps, and 10 per cent for 75 to 1,000

watt lamps. The Federal specification gives a toler- ance of 7 per cent plus or minus in lumens per watt,

the British standard 10 per cent plus or minus, for

all ratings from 15 to 1,000 watts. British gas-filled lamps, up to and including the

100-watt rating are now standard only with internally frosted bulbs, the light absorption being so small

that the figures for the light output remain nearly

the same, whether the bulbs are internally frosted or

clear. It is anticipated that the standardization of

the inside-frosted lamp will minimize the use of clear- bulb lamps in positions in which the glare of the

naked filament is harmful. Inside-frosted lamps in

all ratings from 15 to 100 watts have been standard

in the United States for several years. The schedules in the English standard have been

simplified and improved. The normal lighting lamps,

whether vacuum or gas-filled, appear in one schedule. In addition, the standard provides that the

maintenance of light throughout the life of the bulb

shall be better than formerly. For example, the re- vised English standard provides that the average

light output, throughout the life of the 40-watt lamp,

shall be at least 90 per cent, as against 85 per cent

in the old standard. The conditions of testing have

likewise been simplified and alternative methods of

life testing are recommended.

English lamp standards are in almost universal use in Great Britain, and have been adopted as standard in many other countries.

MOPSTICKS

The program of the industry designed to maintain

a high standard of quality for mopsticks, having been

well received by the distributors and organized users, as well as the manufacturers, is released by the National Bureau of Standards in printed form entitled

Mopsticks, Commercial Standard CS2-30.”

The standard covers two well-known types, namely,

the spring lever and the janitor’s screw type. In the

former type two sizes are described, known as the

domestic size and janitor’s size. The various items

considered in the commercial standard include the

dimensions for handles, head, spring, lever, bale, etc., and the various acceptable materials from which these

parts can be made, together with the nature of the

plating to be used.

Copies of this commercial standard are procurable

from the Superintendent of Documents, Government

Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents per

copy.
APRIL, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 309

WHAT IS A 50-POUND WEIGHT?

Brief History of Fundamental Standard of Mass

By Ralph W. Smith, National Bureau of Standards

What is a 50-pound weight?

If this question were to be propounded to the

average citizen, his reply would probably be, “ Why,

naturally, a 50-pound weight is a weight which weighs

50 pounds.” But such an answer gives no information as to what a “ weight ” is, as to just what is meant

when one says that something “ weighs ” so much or

as to what a “ pound ” really is. The material which

follows is presented with the thought of supplying a satisfying answer to the original query.

It is first necessary to consider “ mass.” The

“ mass ” of a given body is the quantity of matter

comprising it, and so long as no portion of this body

is removed and nothing is added to it, its mass re- mains constant. Now in the case of two masses, these

attract one another with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses, and inversely

proportional to the square of the distance between

their centers of mass. The whole earth may be con- sidered as one mass which will attract a body, or mass,

at or above its surface ; and the force of this attraction

varies, in accordance with the general law just stated,

directly as the mass of the small bodj? and inversely

as the square of the distance of its center of mass from the center of the earth. Due, however, to the

rotation of the earth, a body moving with the earth is also acted upon by a centrifugal force which, in general, is greatest at the earth’s equator and diminishes

toward the poles. The resultant of these two forces

the attraction between the body and the earth, and

the centrifugal force due to the earth’s rotation—is known as the force of gravity.

Determination of the intensity of the force of

gravity, made at different points on the earth’s surface, shows that at some points there are unexplained

variations from the anticipated values ; it is also found

that the conformation of the surrounding terrane has an observable effect. In general, however, considering elevation alone, and positions on qr above the sur- face of the earth, the force of gravity exerted upon

a body is found to be very nearly inversely proportional to the square of the body’s distance from the

center of the earth; considering latitude alone, the

force of gravity is found, in general, to be uniform

for a given latitude, and to increase slightly and with

approximate uniformity as the poles are approached.

From the foregoing it follows that if we can measure this force of gravity upon a given body, and if we

can eliminate or correct for the effects of comparative

elevation and of the other factors noted, we have at once a basis for comparing the mass of the body in

question with the mass of any other body upon which we can similarly measure the force exerted by gravity.

If we now express this measured force in terms of some acceptable unit, we are enabled clearly to define the mass of the body, or the amount of material

of which it is composed.

The expression “ weight ” is used to mean a measure

of the force of gravity exerted upon any body. This

force or weight, is measured by counterbalancing it

with a similar force acting upon a body, or bodies, of

known mass or with some counterforce of known

value ; when equilibrium is established, the two forces are equal, and the value of the previously unknown

mass is thus directly or indirectly ascertained. The

bodies of known mass are called “ weights.” The

“ counterforce of known value ” may be supplied by

a spring, a hydrostatic assembly, a “ pendulum ” scale assembly, or otherwise, usually acting through a sys- tem of levers; in this case, the known value of the

counterforce has been determined by resorting to weights. In other words, what we commonly call a

“ standard weight ” is really a standard mass of metal

or other material by comparison with which the masses of other bodies may be determined through

measurement of their respective weights.

In commercial transactions involving quantity determinations, the important consideration is to determine the mass or the amount of commodity; since

these determination are made, however, in terms of

weight, as just defined, the expression “ weight ” is loosely used to represent the amount of commodity.

Thus “ 100 pounds of steel ” really means a mass of

steel such that the force of gravity exerted upon

it is 100 times greater than the force of gravity which

is or would be exerted, under the same condition,

upon a standard mass known as the “ pound.”

However, since the units of mass and weight are

identically named, and since no practical purpose

would be served in commercial transactions if the

two were to be distinguished, the distinction between

them may be considered of scientific interest and importance only, and the commercial usage in which the

expression “ weight ” is used in the sense of “ mass

” need not be condemned.

In reference to the gravitational force acting on a body, it has been said that this is a function of the

distance of the center of mass of the body from the

center of the earth. The magnitude of the effect of

a change of elevation upon the gravitational force

exerted upon a given body is of the order of 1 part

in 2,000 for a change of elevation of 6,000 feet, the

“ weight ” being less the greater the elevation.

But if we have weights which are standard according to some accepted basis, and use these on an “ equal- arm ” balance to determine the “ weight ” of an un- known amount of commodity, the accuracy of the

result, upon the accepted basis, will be independent

of the elevation at which the determination is made,

and check determinations made at different elevations

should agree because the change in the intensity of the

gravitational force affects equally the standard

weights and the commodity being weighed. The same

would be true in the case of a weighing mechanism

employing a compound-lever system.

In any case, however, where a spring is utilized as the ultimate counterforce, disregarding other effects,

different results would be obtained at different elevations, provided that the weighing mechanism were

susceptible of indicating the differences actually ex-
310 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL, 1931

isting. In the case of such a device, if the assembly

is sufficiently sensitive to respond to weight differences

resulting from a change of elevation, and if such

differences of indication may be read upon the device

in question, it should be calibrated against standard

weights at the elevation at which it is to be used, thus

making its indications standard for that elevation.

In the case of ordinary commercial devices, however,

it is probable that these differences can never be observed, and in any event they are of such small magnitude relative to the graduations on the commercial

device, that they may be entirely disregarded.

Let us now proceed to a consideration of “ what is a pound ” ? If we refer to the dictionary we find

1 LB. All

"POUND AVOIRDUPOIS" OF UNITED STATES.

"IMPERIAL POUND " OF GREAT BRITAIN

"LIBRA" OF ANCIENT ROME

OLD "L/BBBA" OF ITALIC

OLD ",FUNT " OF RUSSIA

OLD “SHALPUND * OF SWEDEN

OLD "POND" (AMSTERDAM) OF NETHER- LANDS

J OLD "PFUND" OF SWITZERLAND

OLD "LIBRA" OF MEXICO. CENTRAL AND

SOUTH AMERICAN COUNTRIES

j OLD "PFUND " OF GERMAN EMPIRE

OLD "L/VRE" OF FRANCE

NEW "L/BBRA" Of LTALC, "PFUND" OF

GERMANE. "UVRE" OF FRANCE

NEW "POND" OF

NETHERLANDS

ZOO 500 T50 mo

-GRAMS- A comparison of various ancient and modern “ pounds ”

“ pound ” defined as “ a unit of weight varying in

value from about 300 to about 1,070 grams, and com- monly divided into 12 or 16 ounces.” From this defini - tion it would appear that the pound is not a very defi- nite unit of weight. The dictionary further tells us, however, that the avoirdupois pound of 7,000 grains

is used in this country in the weighing of most commodities, but that the troy pound of 5,760 grains is used in certain restricted fields of weighing. If we

pursue our researches further afield and endeavor to trace the history and determine the origin of the

units which we know as pounds, we can go back, step

by step, until we finally reach a point where recorded

history ceases and beyond which we can not proceed

for lack of authentic data. (See graph.)

As to the pounds of the United States we know, of

course, that these came to us from England. As to the

history of the English standards, I quote the fol- lowing from “ Men and Measures,” by Edward Nicholson, an English author

Our pound [the Imperial Pound of Great Britain settled at

its present Imperial standard in the time of Queen Elizabeth, was then found to have risen slightly since the time of Edward

III. It was found to have increased by about 8 grains.

The ounce, now=437% grains, had been 437 grains, the same weight as the ounce of the Egypto-Roman pound, the Roman libra. There is every reason to believe that this Roman standard passed to Britain, and that the libra, raised

to 16 ounces, became the commercial pound, afterwards known

as averdepois, and now the Imperial pound.

When the Romans took the Alexandrian talent as the standard of their new libra system, they divided it into 125

librae, which were 1,500 ounces or double-shekels, each

ounce=437 grains. * * * It is not improbable that the

survival of the Roman commercial pound in Saxon England was strengthened by commercial and scientific relations with

the Moors of Spain. * * * However this may have been, there seems no doubt that the Roman pound, raised to 16

ounces, was the standard of England before as after the Norman conquest, and there is no evidence of it having ever been in abeyance. * * * The same author gives a table of Roman weights

reading in part as follows: Libra, 5,214 grains; uncia,

437 grains; drachma, 1/8 uncia or 54.6 grains; scru- pulus, 1/3 drachma or 18.2 grains.

Here will be recognized certain terms and relations

familiar to use in our present apothecaries’ table. According to Mr. Nicholson, the Roman ounce of 437

grains was in England taken 16 times to make the

commercial pound of 6,992 grains, and to this pound

8 grains were subsequently added to give an even

figure of 7,000 grains for the pound.

Considering the origin of the Roman pound we

find that this, in common with other ancient standards of weight, was derived from a standard of linear measure. The principal ancient linear unit was the

cubit. There were a number of these, the most important being the Egyptian common cubit of 18.24

inches, its foot being two-thirds of this or 12.16

inches; Egyptian Royal cubit of 20.64 inches, its foot being two-tliirds of this or 13.76 inches; Great

Assyrian cubit of 25.26 inches, its foot being one-half

of this or 12.63 inches ; Beladi cubit of 21.888 inches,

its foot being one-half of this or 10.944 inches; Black

cubit of 21.28 inches, its foot being two-thirds of this or 14.186 inches.

Speaking of these cubits, Mr. Nicholson says

The history of the five cubits, ancient and medieval, has

shown that they were all derived, directly or indirectly, from

the Meridian measurement of the earth, some of them being

probably instituted with the desire to make them representative of the relation of latitude and longitude. I venture to say that every measure and weight used throughout the world

has been developed from one of these cubits * * *. The principal ancient unit of weight appears to have been the talent which in any given locality represented the weight of the local cubic foot of water. The talents were of varying values, depending upon

the cubit from which they were derived; also the

subdivisions of the talent differed in different countries. Many of the terms which we associate with

ancient monetary units were in reality primarily

subdivisions of the talent as a weight unit.

We might pursue this line of investigation almost

indefinitely, tracing the relationships between the various weight units of ancient times and their connections with units of the present day, but I think enough

has been said to demonstrate that there is a direct
APRIL, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 311

connection between our present-day standards and

those of very ancient times, both as to values and

names. This mention of similarity of names for corresponding weight units suggests a brief excursion into the

field of modern nomenclature. Mention has already

been made of the Roman libra, a word which seems

to be responsible for our present abbreviation of “ lb.” for pound. The Roman uncia, the Greek drachma,

and the Roman scrupulus have already been mentioned as the derivations of the modern ounce, dram,

and scruple. We find that in modern times the funt

of Russia, the libbra of Italy, the libra of Spain, Portugal, and various South and Central American countries, the livre of France and Greece, the pfund of

Germany, the pond of Java and the Netherlands, and

the pund of Denmark and Sweden, correspond to the

avoirdupois pound, as we know it, although the exact

equivalents in terms of our pound vary from about

three-fourths to more than 2 pounds.

The development of the word “Avoirdupois” is also interesting. We find this word variously spelled

in old English documents as “ Haberty poie,” “ Haberdepase,” “Avoirdepois,” etc., “Aver ” is said to be an

old established English word meaning “ goods ” and

the combination in question is said to mean “ goods of

weight ” or “ heavy goods.” Some of the old statutes refer to this pound as the one to be used for the

weighing of corn, heavy goods, meat, and fish, a distinction apparently being drawn between

such commodities and more expensive commodities, such as spices, precious metals, precious stones,

etc., which were weighed in small amounts. By the

avoirdupois pound, then, is meant the pound for

heavy goods as distinguished from the troy pound

used by the gold and silver smiths and in connection

with the coinage. “Avoir” in modern French also

has the meaning of wares or merchandise, so we can

arrive at the same meaning for “ avoirdupois ” by

considering the word as of French origin.

And now let us consider some facts about our own

United States pound. For a complete discussion of our standards reference should be made to the paper

of Louis A. Fischer on the History of the Standard

Weights and Measures of the United States, published

as Bureau of Standards Miscellaneous Publication No.

64. For our present purposes it will be sufficient only

to sketch briefly the points which Mr. Fischer dis- cussed in detail. Colonial weights were of English origin, and corre- sponded to those in use in England prior to the

formation of the colonies. There was considerable

divergency, however, among the weights of the several

colonies, and this persisted after the formation of the

Union. Repeated efforts were made to have Congress

correct this condition, but without success. Finally,

in 1828, Congress decreed that a certain troy pound

which had been procured in England, and which was

supposed to be an exact copy of the Imperial troy

pound of Great Britain, should thereafter be the

standard for the coinage of the United States. Two years later Congress ordered that a comparison be made by the Treasury Department of the

weights at the principal customhouses. Large in- dividual discrepancies were found, but the average

values for the different denominations were found in

fairly good agreement with the weights used in England at the time of the revolution. In order to construct uniform weights to be furnished the customhouses, the Treasury Department found it necessary

to adopt a definite standard; it was decided that the

relation between the avoirdupois pound and the troy

pound of the mint should be as 7,000 is to 5,760, this

being the relation previously accepted in the United

States and in England.

Uniform standards having been furnished to the

customhouses, Congress in 1836 directed that copies

of these be furnished the several States, and as additional States were admitted to the Union they were

also supplied with standards; North Dakota, in 1893, was the last State to receive one of these sets. In the year 1870 there was held in Paris a confer- ence to which various nations had been invited by

the French Government to send their representatives,

to consider the advisability of constructing new standards of the metric system. This and subsequent

conferences were attended by representatives of the

United States, and these meetings resulted in the

decision to construct new metric standards, and in

the signing of a treaty providing for the formation

and maintenance of an International Bureau of

Weights and Measures. This international institution is supported by the various countries signatory

to the treaty, and is controlled by an elected committee upon which the United States has always been

represented. Dr. S. W. Stratton, former Director

of the National Bureau of Standards, and later president of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, is the present representative of the United States on this

committee.

New metric standards having been constructed by

a special committee appointed for that purpose, these were compared with the old metric standards by the

international bureau, and at a general conference held

in 1889 the new kilogram which agreed most closety

with the kilogram of the archives was declared to be the international kilogram ; the other kilograms were distributed by lot to the various governments

supporting the international bureau, the United

States receiving kilograms Nos. 4 and 20. These were brought to this country in 1890, kilogram No. 20 arriving in Januar}7 and kilogram No. 4

arriving in July. Kilogram No. 20 was accepted by

President Harrison upon its arrival as the national

standard, and both standards were deposited in the

Office of Weights and Measures, of the Coast and

Geodetic Survey. On April 5, 1893, the Superintendent of Weights and Measures, with the approval of

the Secretary of the Treasury, decided that the international kilogram would in the future be regarded as the fundamental standard of mass in the United

States, both for metric and customary weights.

The Office of Weights and Measures used as the re- lation between the avoirdupois pound and the kilogram the equivalent, 1 pound avoirdupois equals

0.4535924277 kilogram, a value determined by the

joint work of the International Bureau of Weights

and Measures and the British Standards Office. When

the National Bureau of Standards was established

in July, 1901, the decision of the Office of Weights and

Measures to recognize the international kilogram as our fundamental standard of mass, and the equivalent just given as the relation between the avoirdupois
312 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL, 1931

pound and the kilogram, were fully accepted by the

bureau and are so accepted to-day.

Earlier in this article it was indicated that when

we speak of a “ standard ” weight we mean a weight

which is standard according to some accepted basis. The following statement represents the practice ac- cepted in the United States as that upon which

weights of classes A, B, and C are to be considered

standard : The calibration is based upon the apparent mass as determined at 20° C. in air having a density

of 1.2 milligram per milliliter, against standards having a density of 8.4 grams per cubic centimeter at 0° C., whose coefficient of cubic expansion is 0.000054

per ° C., and whose values are based on their true mass or weight in vacuo. The scope of this article is not broad enough to permit of a discussion of each of the factors just

mentioned. Those desiring to go somewhat into detail on these matters will find them discussed in Circular No. 3 of the National Bureau of Standards,

Design and Test of Standards of Mass.

To sum up, then, the situation in relation to the

United States avoirdupois pound is this : The pound

is defined in terms of the kilogram, the relation being, 1 pound avoirdupois equals 0.4535924277 kilogram. The international kilogram, preserved at the

International Bureau of Weights and Measures,

Sevres, France, is our fundamental standard of mass;

our national primary standard is the kilogram pre- served at the National Bureau of Standards, the

value of this in terms of the international standard

being known with the highest accuracy attainable by

the modern metrologist. '

The United States primary kilogram is used upon

rare occasions to verify the accuracy of the refer- ence standards of the mass laboratory of the National

Bureau of Standards, which, in turn, are utilized to check the accuracy of the laboratory’s working standards. These latter standards are of various denominations, suitable for the comparison of weights submitted to the bureau for test. The examinations are made at the bureau of the

primary standards of weight of a State, the errors of those standards are determined and reported to the State in a certificate returned with the weights,

so that the State may have in its possession authentic

standards of known values with which to control its own testing activities. The State primary standards

are then used by the State to prove its secondary or

office working standards, the latter are used in test- ing the field or inspectors’ working standards, and

the field standards are carried to the commercial establishments wising weights or weighing equipment, there

to be used in the final step of the long series of

comparisons beginning with the international kilogram and ending at the merchant’s counter. So now for a fairly concise answer to the original

question of, “What is a 50-pound weight?”, something along the following lines is suggested: A 50- pound weight is an object, usually of metal, having

such a mass that, when compared in air under specified conditions, the gravitational force acting upon it

is just 50 times as great—within appropriate toler- ances, of course—as the gravitational force acting upon

a standard mass of specified characteristics known as the “ pound,” which is equal to 0.4535924277 kilogram.

LABELING SUBSTANDARD CANNED GOODS

Use of Labels to Become Mandatory May 17, 1931 Beginning May 17, 1931, all canned peaches, pears, and peas falling below the standards of quality pre- scribed by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, will

be required to bear a designated label reading “ Below

U. S. Standard Low Quality, But Not Illegal,”

according to the Department of Agriculture. The

label will be displayed prominently on the container

in immediate conjunction with the name of the article,

and will inform the buyer that the canned food, while

substandard, is nevertheless, wholesome and edible even though not so palatable or attractive as a standard product.

Congress decreed July 8, 1930, that the Secretary

of Agriculture should establish definite standards for

canned food products, excluding only meat and meat

products subject to the meat inspection act, and canned

milk, and to promulgate a form of label designation

for substandard canned foods falling within the jurisdiction of the act. From the standpoint of the household buyer, the new system of labeling substandard qualities of

canned foods, should be advantageous in that she will

be able to buy with a much more definite knowledge of

the quality of the item in question, than has heretofore been possible. If desired, she can select goods of

substandard quality at a reduced price, with a full knowledge of their character, but with assurance that

they are pure and wholesome and have satisfactory

food value. If, on the other hand, she wishes a more

expensive article, she is assured, through the label,

against the unwitting purchase of a substandard

article. AMERICAN MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION

MEMBERS VISIT THE NATIONAL BUREAU

OF STANDARDS

A delegation composed of 50 members of the Industrial Marketing Group of the American Management Association, attended a conference at the National Bureau of Standards on Thursday, March 19,

1931. The meeting was addressed by the director

of the bureau and by representatives of four divisions

of the bureau.

The work of each division was outlined in a 5- minute talk, and the delegates were invited to hold

individual conferences with the chiefs of those divisions in the work of which the sales executive was

particularly interested. Before adjournment a few

of the research and testing laboratories were visited. The following day the delegates were given a similar resume of the major economic functions of the

Department of Commerce’s Bureau of Foreign and

Domestic Commerce.

These condensed presentations of the more important phases of the work of the two bureaus aroused

considerable interest, and led to a number of meetings by smaller groups to discuss various points in

greater detail.
APEIL, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 313

NEW HOUSING STANDARDS PROMOTE CHILD WELFARE

Carefully Equipped Houses Will Insure Better Health and Welfare of Children

By A. E. Robinson, 'National Bureau of Standards

The health and welfare of children are essential

factors to be considered in house planning, according

to the report of the subcommittee on housing to the

White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. Child health is promoted by privacy and

quiet for undisturbed sleep, relative cleanliness of

premises, proper removal of household wastes, an abundant supply of clean water, protection from excessive heat and cold, protection from escaping coal

gas and leaking gas fixtures, adequate provision for the

refrigeration of food and the preparation of meals,

and for lighting arrangements that will not cause

eye strain—in short, thoroughgoing provision for sanitation, safety, and cleanliness.

Housing conditions involve the design, planning,

construction, and maintenance of homes, premises,

and neighborhood. Housing standards, as recom- mended by the subcommittee, were planned with

especial regard for such provisions as maximum fire safety, durable and damp proof construction, con- venience of arrangement, avoidance of traffic dangers,

and protected play ground space for children.

The standards recommended appeared to the committee to represent desirable and reasonable objectives, which may wisely be considered by all groups

interested in housing and child welfare and toward

which they may direct their efforts. They may also serve as a check list of the housing needs of children,

which parents may wisely take into consideration with

reference to their applicability to their own domestic

needs in buying or building a home. Although the

committee realized, in submitting recommendations,

that the cost of plans designed to carry out desired

changes would severely tax the resources of the majority of people at the present time, it considered that

approved standards might well be a goal toward

which to work.

Housing Standards.

The housing standards recommended involved nu- merous features for neighborhood, lot, house exterior,

and interior, and fundamental equipment. Among

the principal points considered were the following

The neighborhood should be primarily residential;

it should preferably be within relatively easy access of churches, schools, civic, cultural, and shopping centers; protected by zoning laws and free from smoke,

dust, odors, fumes, noise, and heavy traffic. Charm

and distinctiveness may be provided by landscaping,

by trees, grass strips, hedges, and small parks. The

children find pleasure in a yard or neighborhood playground. Safety and health are more nearly assured

if residences are not unduly near railroads, aviation

landing fields, public garages, stables, dumps, marshes,

or obnoxious industries. Land that is frequently

flooded or so low that it is damp or subject to difficul- ties in sewage disposal is unfit for residential buildings.

The house lot is more satisfactory if it is wide

enough so that each room may have sufficient light

from open spaces on its own lot without depending on

its neighbors; if it has suitable space for play, the

drying of clothes and disposal of refuse; and it is more attractive if it is provided wth shrubbery, trees, and vines. Private garages or outbuildings should be

easy of access, fire safe, well lighted, and so placed

as not to interfere with the lighting or outlook of

neighboring residences.

Exterior Requirements.

The house that is most healthful is so designed and

placed upon the lot as to provide for adequate sun- ning and natural lighting of all rooms. Each room

ought to have direct sunshine at some time of day

throughout the year. Covered porches should not be

so placed as to reduce unduly the natural lighting of rooms. It is well to avoid ugliness, excessive ornamentation, and unpleasant color combinations in the exterior of the house. The finest effects are ordinarily

secured through simplicity in the architecture.

The best building practice in house construction demands sound and durable materials and equipment.

Some of the more important building requirements

are the following: Fire resistive roof coverings;

proper fire stopping in walls and partitions ; adequate

protection around sills and pipe coverings, chimneys,

and lighting or heating equipment; and dry interior

foundation walls and basement floors. The house

construction should utilize the best methods of framing, bracing, and anchorage to assure rigidity and

avoid undue settling. The use of insulating materials and weather stripping assists in the maintenance

of even temperatures and house comfort regardless

of outside weather conditions. It is well to keep the

appearance of dwellings always attractive and to keep all parts of the house equipment in good repair.

Interior Requirements.

The room arrangement in the house plan should

be such as to make it possible to avoid lost motion,

to save unnecessary steps, and facilitate housework.

Relatively easy access from room to room is neces- sary, but it should also be possible to close each room

off from the others when desired. Every room

requires adequate natural ventilation. It is desirable in some climates to condition the air for proper

temperature and humidity.

Each room should have a window area of at least 15 square feet. Windows should be so constructed

that they will be weathertight and easily opened in

order to afford good ventilation and facilitate cleaning. Large rooms should have greater corresponding

widow area in proportion to their size. Cross ventilation is also desirable.

Rooms that are best designed allow ample space

for the principal and appropriate pieces of furni- ture to be so placed that they will not be in the way

of doors, windows, or closets, radiators, and a fire- place, if it is included in the plan. Comfortable rooms are generous in dimensions; sufficiently large
314 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL, 19311

to accommodate the furniture, allow good ventilation, and give one a sense of space. The down stairs

common rooms might be advantageously designed to open into one another, but it should also be possible

to close olf each room for privacy.

It is well to separate the sleeping quarters from

the living quarters in order to insure privacy. Generally a sleeping room for each member of the family is worth consideration. At least one bathroom

should be reached from a private hall. A cheerful, light kitchen is most desirable, it ought

to be easily entered from the dining room, and so located that odors and noise will not penetrate to the

rest of the house. It should preferably be compact

and rectangular in shape. In cold climates a direct

entrance from out of doors to a living room or kitchen

causes unnecessary drafts. The entrance should be

protected.

A nursery, if it is provided, must be light and

cheerful ; situated near a lavatory and near the

mother’s work center ; and it might well be so arranged

as to be eventually convertible to other uses. It is well to provide some space as a play room for

children, and other space as a work shop for older

members of the family.

Stairs that have a steep incline are dangerous, and

triangular turns are unsafe. Landings should be

broad. Handrails or balustrades are necessary safety

provisions on all stairs, and where there are children,,

gates are desirable. Light is essential for all stair- ways.

Ample closet space is a comfort and convenience to each member of the family, and other storage space, reasonably accessible, free from dampness, and

properly lighted, should be provided for household

possessions.

Fundamental Equipment.

Water supply should be adequate in amount, clean,,

and free from pollution. It is advisable to have

water piped into the house, and, if necessary, provision should be made for adequate protected storage.

Modern sanitary plumbing fixtures, noiseless, vented,,

easily flushed and cleaned, chould be provided.

Ample electric lighting equipment is conducive to safety and convenience in the home. Heating equipment that holds an even temperature and proper

humidity is an essential provision for the maintenance

of child health.

TRIAL BY FIRE AND HEAVY IMPACT

FOR STEEL SAFES

To determine their fire-resisting qualities, steel safes

have been severely tested in laboratory examinations

by the National Bureau of Standards. The locked

safe and contents are subjected to heat at a temperature of 1,700° F. within a brick furnace for one hour.

The safe is then taken out and given the impact test, consisting of a sheer drop of 30 feet. Replaced upside down in the furnace, the safe undergoes the trial by fire. The photographs show a safe, opened to exhibit the contents, in place in the furnace, preparatory

to the heat test, and the same safe after undergoing

the complete ordeal.
APRIL, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 315

ARTIFICIAL COLORING OF FOOD

Constant Supervision Exercised by Government to Avoid Impure Food Dyes

By Horace Teehune Herrick

1

Do you know that when you reject an article at the grocery or butcher shop “ because it doesn’t look

right,” you are obeying one of the oldest instincts

of the human race? You are influenced by the color

of your food. True, an apple may be wormy or a

piece of meat may have faults other than that of

color, but almost invariably the housewife will reject an edible, be it canned goods, meat, or garden truck,

if the color of the material is not what her experience

or instinct—call it what you will—has led her to expect.

A deep-seated psychological impulse lies behind all this. When man sought his own food in field and

forest, he was guided to his choice by the effect of

color on the sense of sight and confirmed the results of his search by touch, smell, and taste. Later on, when crude cooking facilities intervened between

hand and mouth, the consumer was still able to ac- count for every step in the process and was not hampered in his enjoyment of his meal by thoughts of

“ damage or inferiority,” whatever the change in

appearance might be. We live in a more complicated age. Our food must

pass through many hands and be subjected to many

changes before it reaches our table, and it is no longer

possible in every case to touch or taste the article

which later appears in the home. Ever since the

food industry has existed, manufacturers have recognized the importance of appearance, and from the beginning have sought to replace the color lost in the

processing of those materials which were to be pre- sented to the consumer in other than their original

form. At first manufacturers were not hampered by

considerations of toxicity, and used sulphide of mercury or chromate of lead interchangeably with harmless colors, the only criterion being a brilliancy of

hue in the final product. Vegetable dyes were in

many cases too dull in shade or, in common Avith the

natural tints of the food, did not Avithstand the rigors

of an industrial preparation.

And then, about the middle of the last century, came the coal-tar dyes. Possessing a range of shade

and brilliancy of color far beyond anything found in

either the vegetable or mineral kingdom, they leaped

into instant popularity with the manufacturers of

foods, and Avere used neither wisely nor well. It should be distinctly understood that coal-tar colors, as a class, possess all the characteristics of the individuals making up that class. Some dyes are ex- ceedingly poisonous, while others are as harmless as table salt, so that it is impossible to deal Avith them

as a group when considering their use in foods. Each

color should be thoroughly tested and its toxicity determinated; then, and then only, should it be approved for use in foods.

In spite of the foregoing, a prejudice against coal- tar colors still exists, a prejudice which is as Avide1 Principal chemist in charge, Color Certification Laboratory, Food and Drug Administration, TJ. S. Department of Agriculture.

spread and unreasonable as the belief that all A*egetable colors are suitable for use in foods. All dyes,

A'Pgetable or coal-tar, vary as individuals and not as

classes, and also according to their purity; so that it is a delusion to think that vegetable colors are to be

preferred to those from coal-tar merely because of the

plant origin of the former.

There is nothing essentially harmful in adding artificial coloring to food, provided that no deception folIoavs. Recognizing this fact, the U. S. Department

of Agriculture promulgated standards of purity for

coal-tar food colors more than 20 years ago, shortly

after the passage of the Federal food and drugs act. It made provision for the use of seven harmless coal- tar dyes in the coloring of food, and devised machinery by which these colors could reach the public in a pure form. These seven dyes were chosen after a search of the literature had disclosed the fact that numerous tests had proved the harmlessness of these

particular substances. Since that time eight neAv colors have been thoroughly examined, both chemically and pharmacologically, and have been added to the list as the need for them Avas proved. The list of 15 includes 4 reds; an orange; 5 yelloAvs, including

2 butter colors; 3 greens; and 2 blues. This provides

a A^ery generous assortment, which can be combined to furnish all the colors of the rainbow.

Of course, the placing of a dye on the permitted

list means nothing unless care is taken to provide

that the dye bought on the market is the same as that on which the tests Avere made. The toxic properties

of a coal-tar color may arise from three sources : The

dye itself, small amounts of other dyes formed as subsidiary products during manufacture, or impurities

coming from the chemicals used in the manufacturing

process. Obviously, if a dye is on the permitted list, no apprehension need be felt about the first alternath7e, but vigorous standards and constant supervision

are required to avoid impurities of the latter types.

It AA’as necessary, therefore, to establish due precautions by which the public might be assured that the

permitted dyes Avere up to the standards set for them.

These standards are based on specifications setting the

maximum amounts of all types of impurities which

will be alloAA7 ed in food colors. Every manufacturer’s

batch is examined to see that it meets all requirements,

and those batches which are up to the standard are accepted as certified food colors. Anyone interested

in a more detailed description of the certification

regulations and methods of analysis of food colors,

may obtain them by applying to the Food and Drug

Administration of the Department of Agriculture,

for Service and Regulatory Announcements, Food and

Drug No. 3, and Department of Agriculture Bulletin,

1390.

Since this procedure was established in 1907, the

certification of food colors has groAvn enormously.

During the last year 318,849 pounds of straight dyes,

36,G4G pounds of repacked straight dyes, and 331,023

of mixtures AA-ere certified. As before stated, there is
316 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL, 1931

no objection to added color in foods, provided that

there is no deception and that it does not conceal

damage or inferiority. Under these circumstances

and when the presence of added color is declared on

the label, the use of artificial color is not objectionable.

This fact has been recognized in assuring the public a source of harmless colors, and the word “ certified ” on the label of a package of food colors has come

to be known as the Government’s guarantee of purity

and harmlessness to the consumer.

GRADING RAW WOOL

Accurate Measuring Device Urged for Classification of Wool

In the grading of raw wool for manufacturing

purposes the average diameter of the fibers is a dominant dimensional characteristic of the material

which serves as the present basis for the classification.

Sets of wool standards have been established for the

industry based entirely on the average diameter of

the fibers. In present trade practice the grading is done by

men of long experience in the industry who, by

merely observing and handling the material, assign

it intuitively to its proper grade. There is no suit- able instrument available for the rapid, convenient,

and accurate evaluation of wool on the established

basis. A simple rapid optical method for measuring the

average diameter of a group of fibers was devised

by Thomas Young in 1824, but no thorough investigation has ever been made of the practical possibilities of this method in the grading of wool. The

method is based on the phenomenon of diffraction,

which is manifested when a line source of light is viewed through a bundle of fibers which are arranged

approximately parallel to one another and to the

source. Under these conditions a banded light dis- tribution is seen extending laterally and symmetrically on both sides of the source, and the separation of

the bands is—to a close approximation—inversely

proportional to the average diameter of the fibers. The National Bureau of Standards has prepared a paper, in which a new construction of Young’s instrument (the eriometer) is described. A stationary artificial light source is used and more convenient and ac- curate means supplied for determining the separation

of the diffraction bands. Comparative diameter

measurements were made with this instrument and

with a microscope on wool and other textile fibers.

BUREAU RECEIVES PORTRAIT OF ITS FIRST

DIRECTOR

Dr. Samuel Wesley Stratton Served 21 Years as Director of National Bureau of Standards

At the dawn of the new century, by act of Congress,

March 3, 1901, the National Bureau of Standards was established, with Dr. Samuel Wesley Stratton its director. On March 7, 1931, 30 years later, at a

celebration commemorating the establishment of the

bureau, a portrait of Doctor Stratton, painted by

Margaret Fitzhugh Browne, was presented to the

bureau by Henry Alexander Wise Wood, “ as a trib- ute of the profound gratitude of American industry,

to an institution and a man.”

The samples studied cover a range of average diameters from 13 to 50 microns.

From the miscroscope measurements on 12 wool

samples diameter-frequency distribution curves were

obtained for each sample. These data are used to

illustrate the wide dispersion of diameters which are

collected into a single averaged result. On the average, this range of variation extends to ± 40

per cent from the mean with an average deviation of

roughly 10 per cent. The diffraction method is not

suitable for the averaging of all possible diameter

distributions. The diameter distribution should not

cover a wide range of variation combined with a frequency curve which is very flat or irregular. For

best results there should be a pronounced concentration of diameters about a single class. It is shown that the precision and accuracy of this

instrument are quite sufficient for the intended purpose. The averages for 12 wool samples, all fall within 2 microns of the corresponding values obtained

by averaging many individual determinations with

the microscope.

An investigation is made of sources of error arising

from irregularities in form and orientation of the

fibers, such that the theoretical condition of parallelism between the fibers is not fulfilled closely. This

possibility of error may be reduced to negligible proportions by reasonable care in the mounting of the

fibers and is not regarded as of serious practical importance.

Further devolpments in the construction of the in- strument are outlined in the paper, by which a larger area of the sample may be observed and some

quantitative information on the dispersion of diameters obtained.

Much of the success of the bureau has been attributed to the foresight of Doctor Stratton, who served

as director of the institution from 1901 to December

31, 1922. tie was succeeded by Dr. George K.

Burgess, the present director. During its 30 years of

existence the bureau has advanced materially in buildings, staff, equipment, and achievements. From one

of the smallest of the Government bureaus, housed

in temporary quarters and with a staff of about 14,

the National Bureau of Standards has grown to be one of the most important of the Government’s establishments, with a staff of more than 1,000 and equipment said to be the finest in the world for research

work.
APRIL, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 317

LOW-VOLTAGE ELECTRICAL SHOCK

Alternating Current May Be More Severe Than Direct Current, Both Having Same Effective Voltage;

Schaeffer Method of Artificial Respiration Standard Procedure

By A. Halsted. National Bureau of Standards

Accidents and deaths from electrical shock involving ordinary electric lighting or appliance circuits

continue to happen. When compared to the toll of

casualties from many other causes, such as automobiles, fires, falls, etc., fatalities from low-voltage elec- trical shock are relatively few. This cause of accident, however, is always present and results in a number of fatalities each year. A study of the conditions

that make such accidents possible will be of use in

avoiding them.

The seriousness of shock depends on the current and

the part of the body through which it passes rather

than directly upon the voltage of the circuit. A cur- rent as small as 0.1 ampere, if it passes through a vital

part of the body, especially the chest, generally causes

a serious nervous disorganization or death. Involuntary muscular contraction of the parts of the body af- fected may be expected from currents of from 0.005 to 0.020 ampere, and currents above these values are generally considered unsafe.

The resistance of the body from hand to hand or hand to foot with wet contacts may be as low as 500

ohms. In the case of accidental connections with the

skin dry or partially dry, this resistance is usually

from 5,000 to 50,000 ohms.

Ohm’s law states that the current in a circuit is equal to the voltage of the circuit divided by the

resistance (or impedance). Consequently, severe shock may result from potentials as low as 25

volts when connections are the best, involving large

areas of wet skin in contact with the circuit so that

the resistance is low. The effect of alternating current

of commercial frequency may be more severe than

direct current when both have the same effective

voltage. This may result from a higher instantane- ous value of current in the case of alternating current,

the ratio of effective value to maximum instantaneous

value being approximately 1 to 1.4. Effects of shock.

In addition to moist skin, due to natural perspiration or to surrounding dampness, a second condition

is usually present in the case of fatal low-voltage

shock. An involuntary muscular contraction follows

instantly when a person makes contact with a circuit. If this muscular contraction results in freeing the

person from the circuit, the brief interval of contact

will be more apt to result in nervous shock rather

than death. However, if this involuntary muscular

contraction results in closing the hand more tightly on the “ live ” wire or object, or throws the person on a wet floor or against a grounded metallic object in

such a position as to remain in contact with the live wire, he will be unable to save himself.

Death from contact with low-voltage circuits

usually results from asphyxia caused by paralysis of

the breathing muscles rather than from extensive

damage to body tissue. Artificial respiration, if applied within the first few minutes after shock, is likely to result in resuscitation. Paralysis from elec- tric shock has a tendency to be quite profound, sometimes involving the heart as well as the breathing.

Artificial respiration should be started at the earliest

possible moment and continued until natural respiration is established or signs of rigor mortis appear.

If natural respiration is not reestablished promptly

the patient should be kept warm. The prone-pressure, or Schaeffer, method, of artificial respiration is now a standard procedure. This

method is taught to boy scouts, and has been adopted

by police and fire department rescue squads. In some

cases, two to four hours, or even more have been re- quired to reestablish natural respiration, and this

method has the advantage that it may be applied with

the least fatigue to those administering it.

SIMPLIFICATION OF HOTEL EQUIPMENT

AND SUPPLIES

The simplified practice committee of the Texas

Hotel Association is undertaking a simplification program covering a number of hotel supplies and items

of equipment. A preliminary conference of the committee was held at Houston, Tex., on February 20,

1931, and was attended by the chief of the division of

simplified practice of the National Bureau of Standards. At this meeting the supplies selected for simplification were napkins, guest towels, dining-room

tables, banquet tables, and standards and holders for

water glasses.

This simplified practice committee has been functioning in accordance with a resolution passed by the

annual convention of the Texas Hotel Association, in

El Paso, Tex., in November, 1929. Any projects

that grow out of these proposals will be developed by

the affected industries themselves, with the cooperation of the National Bureau of Standards.

GRADES OF HARDWOOD DIMENSION-STOCK

LUMBER

In an effort to provide standard grades for hardwood dimension stock, the Hardwood Dimension

Manufacturers Association requested the cooperation

of the National Bureau of Standards in establishing

nationally recognized grading rules as a basis for

daily trade.

These specifications cover sizes and tolerances,

grading rules, nomenclature, and labeling of this

product in rough, semifinished, and finished form.

The committee appointed for this work plans to have the grade rules adjusted in order that they may

be considered by a general conference of the industry

in the near future.
318 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL, 1931 STANDARDIZING THE TEST METHODS FOR CEREALS

American Association of Cereal Chemists Develops Standard Methods for the Testing and Analysis of

Cereals and Cereal Products

By C. H. Bailey and R. C. Sherwood. American Association of Cereal Chemists

The American Association of Cereal Chemists was

formed primarily for the purpose of standardizing

methods for the testing and analysis of cereals and

cereal products. Since its inception it has maintained committees that have been actively engaged in

this kind of work and at intervals have brought recom- mendations before the association for approval.

The result has been the gradual development of a

series of approved methods for the guidance of its membership. Not only have the conventional methods of chemical analysis been included, but also cer- tain empirical testing procedures, including the baking test. During the first few years reports of the committees and the results of actions taken by the association in conventions were published in the Journal of

the American Association of Cereal Chemists, which

appeared in eight volumes (1915-1923, inclusive), and

later in the journal, Cereal Chemistry, which suc- ceeded the old journal in 1924.

A pamphlet was published in 1922 which contained

the description of the approved methods adopted by

the association. Several years later the methods committees undertook the publication of a more pretentious volume, which was printed in 1928 and reprinted

in 1929, under the title, “ Methods for the Analysis of

Cereals and Cereal Products.”

The general policy in recent years has been to avoid

the use of the expression “

official methods ” in con- nection with the methods studied and approved by

the association; it being recognized that it is doubtless preferable to reserve the use of the term “

official ” for designating the methods which have been ap- proved in the usual course by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. The official and tentative

methods of the latter association are used very largely

by the cereal chemists and very close relation is maintained between these two associations; in fact, the

referees and associate referees on cereal foods of the

latter association are also members of the American

Association of Cereal Chemists.

There has been a tendency toward narrowing the

limitations permitted in the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists method. Frequently the cereal

chemists will approve or favor only one of the several

alternative methods which are permitted by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. Thus, they

commonly work in the direction of greater specificity

of detail, and thereby effecting, in all probability, a somewhat greater uniformity of testing practice.

Study of new methods.

New methods are often subjected to a critical study

by appropriate committees and collaborators of the

American Association of Cereal Chemists, with a view

toward determining the suitability of the methods in

replacing older procedures. Again, these collaborative and other studies are sometimes tied up with the

activities of the Association of Official Agricultural

Chemists, so that the data become available to both

organizations and may thus be used in modifying

old Association of Official Agricultural Chemists

methods or formulating new methods for consideration by that association.

The American Association of Cereal Chemists has

maintained a special committee through a period of

years to develop a standard baking test procedure.

Considerable progress has already been made in

adopting, in 1928, a tentative method of standard baking test. The method provides for a basic procedure

of testing, together with four types of modifications

(a) Absorption or proportion of water used, ( b ) fer- mentation time, ( c ) addition of a special oxidizing re- agent, potassium bromate, ( d) mechanical modification

or variations in the operation of mixing the dough.

Recognizing that an empirical procedure can not

be set up without ample justification of the various

details as they may be subsequently added, an ar- rangement has recently been completed whereby the

American Association of Cereal Chemists will maintain for a year or more at the Nebraska Agricultural

Experiment Station a research fellowship for the

study of this procedure. It is anticipated that useful

data respecting the effect of several variables on the

result of the baking test may be accumulated for the

benefit of the entire industry.

In addition to the standardization of laboratory

baking, which involves primarily the testing of flour

for its adaptability to yeast-bread production, a committee has been experimenting for several years on

methods for testing cake and biscuit flours. This

committee has thus far concerned itself chiefly with

the effort to develop a standard cake-baking test, to be used in the study of soft wheat and cake flours. This committee has likewise registered substantial

progress and has contributed largely to our knowledge

of the effect of several variables upon the properties of

cake produced from different types of flour. The

work of this committee is conducted largely through

the services of its members, who give individual at- tention to a particular detail of committee activity.

Activities of the American Association of Cereal

Chemists are not confined by any means to the development of methods. The association publishes a bimonthly journal, Cereal Chemistry, which contains

the results of much of the research conducted in the

field. It confers the Thomas Burr Osborne medal,

periodically, upon chemists who have made notable

contributions to this field of science.

It maintains seven sections in various parts of the

United States which hold periodic meetings for the

members residing in the several localities. These sec- tions conduct periodic collaborative studies of the

standard laboratory analytical methods, thus enabling

the members to ascertain how their findings compare

with those of numerous other analysts.

The association holds an annual meeting each year,, usually lasting five days, when numerous scientific papers are presented, the majority of which are ulti- mately published in the association’s journal.
-Al’RIL, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANTIXARDS MONTHLY 319

STANDARDIZATION FAVORED IN THE NETHERLANDS

Forty-three Standardizing Committees, Representing Six Hundred Active Members, Keep Pace with

Current Activities

By J. A. Teyinck, General Committee for Standardization in the Netherlands

In 1916 the Society for Industry and the Council of

Administration of the Royal Institute of Engineers

formed an institution called Hoofdcommissie voor de

Normalisatie in Nederland. The Netherlands was the

second country where organized standardization work

was undertaken, England being the first. Shortly

after the World War many others followed and now

national standardization committees or institutions exist in 21 countries. The need for the establishment of

national standards led to the creation of the Inter- national Standards Association in 1928.

After the establishment of the HCNN, the standardization of rivets and bolts was proposed. Standard sheet No. 1 for rivets, and No. 2 for bolts were

adopted in 1917 and 1918, respectively. At present

-350 standard projects are completed, 135 of which have

been published. These include the testing requirements and the standardization of dimensions and are the result of the work of standardizing committees composed of manufacturers, business men, and consumers. The Central Standardization Bureau, with a per- sonnel of about 20, functions as secretariat to the

technical committees, and is responsible for the re- search and publication of specific projects subject to the approval of the Hoofdcommissie, which criti- cises the projects for the general principles of standardization, while the standardization committees are responsible for the technical content. After approval,

the projects are published for a period of six months

in the technical press to invite comment and criticism.

The criticisms are collected and classified by the

Central Standardization Bureau. The definite establishment of the standard follows, subject to the

approval of the editorial committee and the Hoofdcommissie. Approved projects are published by the Central Standardization Bureau in standard sheets or in

book form. In an effort to stimulate wide distribution. the price is kept low, that of a sheet being only

0.15 florin ($0.06).

The Hoofdcommissie consists of about 20 members,

including the most prominent people in science, industry, and representatives of large groups interested in

standardization.

The great number of projects undertaken has led

to the establishment of many new standardizing committees ; there being 43 committees at the present time.

Because of the extensiveness of subjects in this field of

work, 47 subcommittees have been organized. More

than 600 active members participate in the activities

of the standardizing committees.

Resume of status of work.

In the field of mechanical engineering sheets were

published on work in progress, on rivets, bolts, screws, various kinds of machine-tool work, pipe lines and

fittings, containers for compressed gases, steel wire,

chains and hooks, calibers and tolerances, fire-fighting

equipment, and sieves for testing purposes.

In the electrotechnical line, standards have been

published for wire, cable and cable fittings, insulation

and installation material, and standard voltages.

Work is under way on safety codes for electrical sys- tems and installations, and various types of incandescent lamps.

The standardization of parts for shipbuilding in- cludes anchor chains, cables and rope, scuttle ports

parts of rigging, loading equipment, and bollards.

Architecture covers mostly the standardization of

tests for building materials, such as wood, natural

stone, brick, art stone; bonding materials, such as ce- ment, tile, bituminous materials, iron, steel, dry paints,

prepared paints, and oils for paints. Various standard sheets on such materials have been published and

others are in preparation. Consideration is being

given to standards for drains such as traps and accessories, street and pavement manholes, and sewer covers. Also under way are designs for service pipes,

household w7 ater mains, and technical elements of

building regulations.

Standardization also affects the field of locomotion.

Standards for ties and ballast material, and for rail- ways and tramways have been published. Standardization of narrow-gage railways and traffic signs for

the right of way are under consideration.

A special group is preparing standards for the ar- rangements of technical drawings and for the symbolic indication of parts.

In the graphical field, standardization is' advancing

on sizes and weights of paper, maps, card systems, and

proofreaders’ marks. For some time, a committee has

been working on the standardization of glass bottles

for milk, beer, carbonated beverages, and wine. Another committee is active on the standardization of

hospital textiles and furniture.

A number of other undertakings was brought to the

attention of the Hoofdcommissie. Some are standardization of housebuilding parts, such as hardware,

window7 frames, doors, windows, and window glass;

the standardization of colors; projects for the application of central heating; and switches for local rail- ways and tramways. These subjects have not yet

been taken up.

The widespread interest in standardization is an in- dication of the advantages which are expected from it. A few striking examples are the use of simplified forms

in the General Printing Office, saving 3,500 florins

($1,407) yearly, by decreasing the number of stock sizes. The standardization of curbstones reduced the number

of cross sections from 42 to 3. The standardization

of lead pipe diminished the series from 647 to 69. Standard projects always entail much time in their

preparation and consideration; their accomplishment

with the cooperation of interested parties who have

at first opposite views forms the best security for their

practical usefulness and application. A standard project forms a recommendation which, through voluntary

acceptance, opens a way for itself. It is, of course,

essential that the standards be revised to keep pace with

improvements in technical and scientific knowledge.
320 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL, 1931 ACTIVITIES OF THE AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

A. S. A. Announces Progress Status on Its Work for Month of March

The following current information relating to developments in certain standardization projects under

the auspices and procedures of the American Standards Association has been furnished by that association:

Wrought-Iron Plates and Bars.

American tentative standard specifications for re- fined wrought-iron bars and American tentative standard specifications for wrought-iron plates, have been

aproved by the American Standards Association fol- lowing their submittal by the American Society for

Testing Materials as proprietary sponsor. Approval

as American tentative standard was originally given

to both these specifications under the existing standards method of 1923. The present approval follows

slight revision.

The definition of wrought iron has been changed to read: “Wrought iron is a ferrous material, aggregated from a solidifying mass of pasty particles of

highly refined metallic iron with which, without subsequent fusion, is incorporated a minutely and uniformly distributed quantity of slag.”

Another revision is the elimination of the refer- ence to pjudding. The original specifications stipulated that the bars and the piles manufactured in

accordance with the specifications should be made of

puddled iron. The revised specifications specify only

that the bars and piles should be made of wrought

iron.

Grand Stand Safety Code.

Organization of a sectional committee which will

develop a national safety code for grand stands, under

the procedure of the American Standards Association, has just been announced. The project was

initiated in an effort to reduce the number of casualties resulting from the collapse of grand stands. In

developing the code the committee will consider the

design and construction, stability, and strength of

permanent and temporary outdoor stands and of temporary and portable indoor stands for the seating of

audiences; the volume and ease of approach of exits

from the standpoint of flow of traffic and prevention

of panic jams; fire hazards, and the provision of fire- fighting equipment for wooden or other combustible

stands; sanitary arrangements; and the methods of

erection of temporary and portable stands.

The organizations represented on the committee are : American Institute of Architects, American Institute

of Steel Construction, American Society of Civil

Engineers, American Society for Municipal Improvements, Association of Governmental Officials in Industry of the United States and Canada, Belmont Iron

Works, Circle A Products Corporation, City Managers’ Association, Dixie Portable Bleacher Co., International Association of Amusement Parks, National Association of Mutual Casualty Companies,

National Bureau of Casualty and Surety Underwriters, National Collegiate Athletic Association,

National Fire Protection Association, National Lumber Manufacturers Association, New Jersey department of labor, Ohio department of labor, Pennsylvania department of labor and industry, Portland

Cement Association, Singling Bros., Barnum &

Bailey, U. S. Polo Association, Virginia Bridge &

Iron Co., U. S. Department of Labor, and the Wayne

Iron Works.

Symbols for Heat and Thermodynamics.

The American Standards Association has just approved a new American tentative standard for symbols for heat and thermodynamics. The approval fol- lows extensive work by the subcommittee of the A. S. A. sectional committee on scientific and engineering

symbols and abbreviations. In the preparation of the

standard the committee cooperated with the International Electrotechnical Commission and with the

National Research Council.

A tentative list of the symbols was submitted to a subcommittee of the advisory committee on steam tur- bines of the International Electrotechnical Commission for discussion at a meeting held in 1928. A large

proportion of the symbols in the list were tentatively

adopted at that time by the advisory committee. The

symbols for heat transmission included in the present standard were adopted jointly by the subcommittee on symbols for heat and thermodynamics and by

the committee on heat transmission of the National

Research Council, following extensive correspondence

between the two bodies.

The new standard will be of interest to power plant

designers, turbine engine designers, boiler designers,,

and all others working with the problems involved in

the transfer and transmission of heat. The standard

is one of several projects already developed or being

developed by the sectional committee on scientific and

engineering symbols and abbreviations. The following approved standards have thus far resulted from

the work of this committee: Symbols for hydraulics,,

symbols for photometry and illumination, aeronautical symbols, mathematical symbols, letter symbols for

electrical quantities, symbols for telephone and tele- graph use, and navigational and topographical symbols. The sponsors for the sectional committee on

scientific and engineering symbols and abbreviations

are : American Association for the Advancement of

Science, American Institute of Electrical Engineers,.

American Society of Civil Engineers, Society for the- Promotion of Engineering Education, and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

Woodruff Keys.

The American standard for Woodruff keys, key

slots, and cutters, approval of which'by the American

Standards Association was announced in a recent is- sue of the Commercial Standards Monthly, has been

published and copies may be purchased from the asso- ciation direct. Cylinders and Adapters.

A tentative draft of the proposed American standard for rotating air cylinders and adapters has been
APRIL, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 321

prepared by the subcommittee on chucks and chuck

jaws of the A. S. A. sectional committee on small

tools and machine tool elements. A draft is now being

circulated for criticism and comment, and copies may

be obtained for review from the A. S. A. information service. The purpose of the standard is to obtain

interchangeability of different makes of air cylinders on the spindles of machine tools without changing the adapter or draw rod. Sponsors for the project

are the Society of Automotive Engineers, the National

Machine Tool Builders’ Association, and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

SIMPLIFICATION BRIEFS

No. 1 Kraft sealing tape.—Simplified Practice

Recommendation R. 111^30 covering No. 1 Kraft

sealing tape has been reaffirmed by the standing committee of the industry without change, for the period

of another year. Mayonnaise containers.—A survey to ascertain

views regarding the simplification of sizes (capacities) of mayonnaise jars is being conducted by the

National Bureau of Standards, at the request of the

Mayonnaise Manufacturers’ Association.

Trunks and ladies'1 suit cases.—A general conference

of representatives of the industry will be held sometime in May for the purpose of discussing the simplification of trunks and ladies’ suit cases.

Forged tools.—Simplified Practice Recommendation No. 17 on forged tools was amplified to include

certain additional industrial forged tools at a meeting of the standing committee of the industry, held in

Pittsburgh, Pa., February 17, 1931. The revised

recommendation is now before the industry for written

acceptance.

Packaging of flashlight batteries.—Simplified Practice Recommendation (R104-30) for Packaging of

Flashlight Batteries, is now available in printed form.

Copies may be obtained from the Superintendent of

Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington,

D. C., price 5 cents each.

Dental brush wheels.—The simplified schedule for

stock varieties of dental brush wheels, recently developed by industry, is now available in printed form.

The pamphlet (Simplified Practice Recommendation

R116-30, Dental Brush 'Wheels) may be obtained, at 10 cents each, from the Superintendent of Documents,

Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

Bedsteads, springs, and mattresses.—The printed

pamphlet on the revised Simplified Practice Recommendation R2-30, Bedsteads, Springs and Mattresses, can be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington,

D. C., for 5 cents each. This program recommends

the reduction of 78 varieties to 4.

Fiber-board shipping containers.—The results of a survey recently conducted to ascertain the variety in

sizes of fiber-board shipping containers have been

tabulated and are now before the simplified practice

committee of the Paperboard Industries Association

for their consideration. May 22, 1931, has tentatively

been selected as the date for a general conference on

this project.

Bell-bottom screw jacks.—Copies of Simplified

Practice Recommendation R97-30, Bell-Bottom Screw

Jacks, is now available. This recommendation, which

has been instrumental in reducing the number of sizes of jacks manufactured and catalogued for general

use from 78 to 38 can be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office,

Washington, D. C., for 5 cents each.

Shovels, spades, and scoops.—Simplified Practice

Recommendation R48, Shovels, Spades, and Scoops,

has been reaffirmed, without change, for another 3

Tear by the standing committee of the industry. Reports

from 15 manufacturers, according to a survey of the

1929 production conducted prior to the revision meeting, indicated that the average degree of adherence

to the recommendation by these manufacturers was

approximately 96 per cent.

Restaurant guest checks.—The recently approved

simplified schedule for Restaurant Guest Checks

(SPR 113-30) has just been announced. This program reduces grades of cardboard checks from 4 to

3; widths, from 12 to 5; and lengths, from 16 to 14;

grades of paper checks from 7 to 4; widths from 10

to 8; with no change in lengths. Copies can be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. for 5 cents

each.

Hospital and institutional cotton textiles.—Manufacturers, distributors, and users of hospital and

institutional cotton textiles have accepted and approved a revised list of simplified recommendations

promulgated by the Department of Commerce,

through the National Bureau of Standards. A pamphlet containing these recommendations, entitled SPR

74-30, “Hospital and Institutional Cotton Textiles,”

may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington,

D. C. Price 5 cents.

Fish containers.—As a result of a preliminary con- ference held in Boston, Mass., March 6, 1931, a simplification committee composed of members of the

Massachusetts Fisheries Association and the United

States Fisheries Association (Inc.) is being formed.

This committee will study the possibilities of applying

simplified practice to all kinds of fish containers,

such as cans, cartons, boxes, and barrels, with a view

to establishing recommendations for these various

items. The National Canners’ Association recently

suggested that work be started on the simplification

of fish containers, and it is expected that they will

cooperate with those now actively engaged in the

development of these projects.
322 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL, 1931 WIRE AND CABLE STANDARDS

New York Edison System Saves $725,000 Annually by Reducing Sizes and Types of Cables

When the present New York Edison System was

consolidated in 1928 one of the benefits promised the

public was reduction in cost of service through unifi- cation of practices among the five companies which

were merged. The success of this program of standardization with regard to one very important item,

wires and cables, is reported in a recent number of

Metropolitan Electric Topics, a monthly publication

issued by employees of the system.

In less than two years the number of sizes and types

of cable used by the system was reduced from 500 to

134. Of the 134 types remaining in use, 32 are listed as special for particular purposes, so that only 102

types and sizes are bought for general use. As an immediate result of this simplification in

materials it is estimated that the first cost of cable purchased annually by the system has been reduced by

$725,000. This saving in original cost of cable is, however, only one of many advantages gained. Some

of these advantages could hardly have been foreseen,

for the studies undertaken with regard to the use of

the various cables led to the solution of several technical problems in addition to the standardization of the

physical dimensions and electrical characteristics of

the cables themselves.

The same type of cable is now generally used for a given purpose in all of the companies in the system,

and cable is purchased by all of the companies under

the same standard specifications. Purchase under

these specifications has insured high and uniform

quality of cable throughout the system, storeroom

stocks have been simplified, and smaller stocks suffice to meet all needs because cables can be readily trans- ferred among the companies to meet any emergency.

As secondary results a standard method of bonding

cable sheaths in manholes has been adopted, thus as- suring a greater degree of safety for workmen, and

methods for testing and selecting portable cords for use on the system have been developed.

The magnitude of the work accomplished will be

apparent when it is considered that the materials

standardized range from small wire for lighting in- stallations up to 45 ,000- volt feeder cables, covering

various sizes and types used for transmission feeder

and low-tension mains in the streets, the many cables

used in stations, wires for the overhead distribution

system, buried cable, and the portable cords used in

field work and in the buildings of the various companies. The standard purchase specifications cover varnished cambric insulated cable, rubber insulated

cable, weatherproof wire, tree wire, buried nonmagnetic sheath cable, vertical distribution cable, and

bare wire.

Data sheets summarizing the sizes made standard were recommended and approved by executive order,

each sheet being associated with specifications for the

class of cable and giving detailed data for purchase,

including standard stock lengths and factory tests. These sheets also give the data on standard cables in

form convenient for use by construction forces. In view of the success attained in this project, the

method of organization is of interest. One of the first acts of the president, who assumed responsibility for

the five system companies late in 1928, was the

organization of two advisory committees—the Technical Advisory Committee and the Accounting Advisory Committee. These committees soon organized numerous subcommittees and working committees for

the study of various problems. Two of the working

committees were the Committee on Standard Specifications for Cable and the Committee on Sizes and

Types of Cable. Both were subsidiaries of an

Electrical Standing Committee.

Appointed in October, 1928, these committees began

to function soon thereafter. In the short time of

about a year and a half, their studies and recom- mendations resulted in executive orders producing the

results already noted. During the work various

associate committees were appointed on special problems so that those directly concerned with particular

items were given an opportunity to assist in making

the most advantageous decisions. According to the

reports of the working committees the success at- tained is in no small measure attributable to the

valuable assistance given by the various associate committees. In order to keep the standardization alive

and up to date the members of the two working committees have been reappointed under the new designation of Working Committee on Cable Standards.

NEW SIZES OF PACKAGES CONSIDERED FOR

SHIPPING EGGS IN NORWAY

In Norway eggs are generally shipped in wooden

boxes containing 1,000 eggs each. These boxes are re- turned to the shipper for reuse. As eggs often get

broken in these boxes, and, as the carton inlays are not

removed each time, it makes them rather unsuitable

for packing. Furthermore, these boxes are too large

to be handled by one man.

According to information received from Commercial

Attache Marquard H. Lund, at Oslo, Norway, a proposal has been made by the Norwegian Standardization Committee to develop standard packing. Boxes

for 360 eggs only have been recommended, which is similar to American-Canadian standards. The boxes

would be of wood or corrugated board, with inlays of

cardboard. Standards for smaller boxes of cardboard

have also been proposed, containing 10, 20, 40, 60, and

100 eggs. As egg packing for export shipment is dependent on the wishes of the foreign buyer, it is not found advisable to propose any standards for this service as

yet, according to Commercial Attache Lund.
ArRIL, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 323

VALUE OF PURCHASE SPECIFICATIONS

Surface Only Scratched in the Development of Specifications

By G. A. Renard, Secretary National Association of Purchasing Agents

Prominent purchasing executives have repeatedly

stated that at least four important elements are in- volved in satisfactory purchasing. Listing them in

the order of their importance, they are:

1. Suitability of the material to the requirement.

2. Availability of the material which covers deliveries, service, and the time element, including turn- over problems.

3. Credibility or responsibility of the supplier.

4. Price.

The first and most important element, selection of

the material or equipment most suitable, can not very

well be determined with satisfaction to either the

vendor or vendee without some form of specification. In fact, some form of specification is used

in every transaction, the use of “ same as before,”

is a specification, and so is the ordering of “ Smith’s

hammers.” In the first case we use a previous purchase as a satisfactory standard and in the second,

the standard of “ Smith’s hammers ” is our standard

and specification. The use of the term “ Smith’s or

its equal ” is another example of specification use, although we may not realize it at the time.

Frequently, without realization of the fact, we

use performance specifications when we advise our

suppliers of our requirements. We furnish him a

specification, but leave the selection of the material

largely in his hands. A responsible vendor can

usually be depended upon to meet performance re- quirements satisfactory. Not only must he back up

the particular material furnished, but he must consider the customer’s good will. The above facts are, of course, well known to most

readers of the Commercial Standard Monthly.

One can readily and truthfully say, that all buying

is based on either a properly prepared specification of

the consuming organization or a specification or standard established by others.

Formal specifications are the result of standardization or simplification, or both. Their value depends

upon their preparation and use. A specification

should contain a definite method for testing or determining by a fixed process, if the material meets

the requirements of the specification. The use of

specifications with no check on the material furnished

is seldom satisfactory, although many suppliers may

be depended upon. Failure properly to check up the

material received is unfair to those suppliers who

are honest and dependable. Therefore, proper inspection, test, and analysis of material procured upon

specifications, the determination to be made by a

definite formula, is essential to specification use, and

failure to do so results in an enormous waste. There is also considerable waste in the preparation

of specifications through failure to include all available advice and experience of the purchasing organization, the suppliers and agencies that specialize in

standardization and specifications. Speaking of the

individual industrial organization, we often find a complete lack of understanding between the various

divisions as to the requirements for, and purpose of,

specifications. Technical men are frequently individualists and in the preparation of specifications,

ignore all others and attempt to display their knowledge which often is only technical.

Unless carefully prepared, a specification may limit or entirely prevent competition, by restricting the re- quirements to the products of one firm or a very few

firms. This may be necessary in some instances, but

generally speaking it is an unsound business practice

and is unfair to those suppliers who are eliminated.

The Comptroller General of the United States Government recently ruled that such restrictions upon

competition must be avoided in governmental

purchases.

There is also an inclination to confuse specifications with purchasing, when, in fact, the specification

is only one of the important elements of a satisfactory purchase. When a specification is properly

prepared, with the understanding that the intention

is to reflect the requirements of the using departments

and permit all possible competition in furnishing those

requirements, the purchasing department is placed in a position to negotiate advantageously, and the other

elements of a sound business transaction are given

proper consideration.

In order to avoid off-standard requirements as much as possible the using departments should in

nearly all cases be thoroughly considered, and also

the producers of the material. In many organizations a satisfactory arrangement is secured by having

standards and specifications developed by agreement

between the using, technical, and purchasing departments. Such an arrangement also provides for neces- sary revision. The continued use of fixed specifications is often disadvantageous, as they do not make

use of changes in the requirements or take advantage

of the developments made by others, principally the

producers. The company that can properly develop

specifications and eliminate all the professional and

departmental selfishness and jealousy has gone a long

way toward success, for the same formula will insure

successful specifications for production and

distribution.

Development of specifications for general use meets

not only the difficulties in professional and departmental cooperation, but the additional and very se- rious handicap of being made to satisfy both the producer and consumer. This producer-consumer conflict runs through our political, economic, and commercial life to an extent we hardly realize. We all have the utmost respect for the several organizations

that are devoted to standardization and specification

work. Flowever, when serious consideration is given

to the waste in the duplication of effort in this field there possibly will be some elimination.

Our Government has in the National Bureau of

Standards the best equipment and personnel available

for this work. They also represent all elements in the

development of standards and specifications. It is
324 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL, 1931

very hard to understand the very real opposition to

their work in some quarters. The old wheeze, “ Less

Government in business and more business in Government,” hardly explains the attitude of some, especially

technical men and organizations, to the work of the

National Bureau of Standards. With that bureau in

the hands of technical men, almost exclusively, with a

large part of its development due to men like Stratton,

Hoover, and Burgess, I don’t think it too much to ex- pect our technical men some day to give the bureau

complete cooperation, and, with the best facilities available, develop specifications that are perfectly

satisfactory to both producers and consumers. The consumer is always interested in securing more

units of performance per dollar. He may be selfish at times, but generally speaking the producer has

shown his selfishness as frequently as the consumer has.

We should be enabled to select from at least three

qualities under a general specification, high, medium,

and low. There is a sound requirement for differing

qualities for various uses, and the specification that

develops just one standard of quality, and incidentally price, must necessarily be a compromise or repre- sent an arbitrary selection that is unfit for some uses because of either too high or too low a quality and

price.

Business could not be satisfactorily carried on without specifications ; we have them and use them either

purposely or subconsciously. We have, however, only

scratched the surface in the development of specifications for either individual or general use, and the

possibilities for improvement in their preparation and

use challenge all of us.

FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS

Status of 61 Projects Announced

The Federal Specifications Board promulgated 31

specifications during the month of March. In addition there were submitted for criticism and comment

24 specifications, now under consideration for revision,

and 6 proposed specifications.

The promulgations and revisions contain the new

identification and classification symbols and title designations in accordance with the system used in the

Federal Standard Stock Catalogue. Copies of the

specifications, other than those promulgated, and

further information relating thereto can be obtained

from the Federal Specifications Board, National

Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. Copies of

the promulgated specifications desired by those in the

commercial world and others outside of the Federal

Government may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office,

Washington, D. C., at 5 cents each.

New desig- nation Specifications promulgated F. S. No.

H-B-191 397a H-B-451 Brushes, radiator, bronzing 517a H-B-621 Brushes, stencil (flag ends cut) 519a H-B-731 Brushes, whitewash... 524b P-S-561 Soap, automobile 30 P-S-566 Soap, chip 31 P-S-571 Soap, grit, cake 33 P-S-586- Soap, laundry, liquid 246 P-S-596 Soap, laundry, powdered 245 P-S-606 Soap, powdered 28 P-S-611 Soap, salt-water 29 P-S-618 Soap, toilet, liquid 27 P-S-621 Soap, toilet, milled 244 Q-C-571 Coke, foundry AA-F-791 Furniture and cabinets, office, sectional, steel 408 AA-S-71 Safes, burglar-resisting 363 EE-E-911 Extracts, flavoring, and flavors, nonalcoholic EE-S-631 Spices 364 FF-P-101 (Errata) padlocks HH-C-451 Clay, fire*. 334a SS-A-681 SS-M-501

Asphalt, emulsion, slow-breaking-type (for use in road work)

.

Mold-wash; silica SS-R-191 Refractories, fire-clay, plastic 335a TT-1-521 Ink, copying and record 163 TT-1-542 266a WW-P-431 Pipe, welded-steel, black and zinc-coated 162a ZZ-C-796 Cushions, ring, rubber 227b ZZ-H-611 48c DDD-R-271.

.

Ribbons, computing and recording-machine..- 169a DDD-R-291.. Ribbons, hectograph. 168a HHH-H-491. _ Hops * 389

Revisions

New desig- nation Specifications promulgated F. S. No.

N-C-501 Corn, canned.. . 627a N-C-191 N-M-51 Macaroni, spaghetti, and vermicelli 648a FF-B-571 Bolts, nuts, studs, and tap-rivets 548 FF-N-101 .... Nails, spikes, staples, and tacks 534 HH-C-571 Cork, ground (for insulating purposes) 338 HH-M-51 Magnesia, asbestos, plaster 211 HH-M-71 Magnesia, block, pipe covering (molded) 212 HH-M-351 Millboard, asbestosl 54 PP-T-191 Turkeys, dressed.. 267 RR-T-51 Tableware, silver-plated 411 TT-R-791 Rust-preventive compound, heavy.. 239 CCC-B-791 Bunting, cotton 611 CCC-B-801 Bunting, wool-- 497a CCC-F-451 Flannel, canton 613 DDD-T-511-- Towels, crash, cotton, and linen and cotton mixed-- 633 JJJ-B-151 Beans, string (or snap), canned 625a JJJ-P-151 628 LLL-C-571 Cork, compressed (corkboard) 377 634a

633 Beans, lima, canned 271 Lard 381a Vinegar 364

tea

Proposals

CCC-C-231

CCC-C-321

Handkerchief cloth, cotton Blankets, cotton, and(cotton warp, and wool filling Linen, table (napkins and table cloths)...

STEEL BONE PLATES

The American College of Surgeons has requested

the cooperation of the National Bureau of Standards

in establishing a commercial standard for steel bone

plates and screws used in the reduction of bone fractures. This standard is to cover the physical and

chemical requirements of the metal, dimensional

standardization of plates and screws, marking and

labeling as a means of guaranteeing quality to the

surgeon.

Specifications covering the physical and chemical requirements of the steel used in the manufacture of steel bone plates and screws are being

drafted by the committee on fractures, with the cooperation of the National Bureau of Standards laboratories, for subsequent submission to the American

College of Surgeons.
APRIL, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 325

STANDARDIZATION OF ROAD-BUILDING EQUIPMENT AND PURCHASING

METHODS

Survey of Purchasing Agencies Reveals Need of Standardization of Equipment, Materials, and Practices

By Lyle A. Bbookoveb

Standardization of equipment, materials, and practices played an important role in the 1930 program of

the American Road Builders’ Association, as was evi- denced at the recent annual convention in St. Louis.

Outstanding in interest and value to the highway

field was the work on standardization of methods for

purchasing equipment. After completing a 2-year

study of this subject, the following recommendations

were made

That all purchases of equipment of more than $500

be by formal lettings, and that all purchases of from

$50 to $500 be by informal lettings, and purchases in

amount not to exceed $50 be made by private negotiation.

That the exchange and comparison of experience

and information on service, cost records, and purchase

prices be encouraged. That, in purchasing equipment, no trade-ins enter into the transaction; and, furthermore, that in disposing of equipment each transaction

be independent of any purchase of new equipment,

and that it be handled by public letting. That in

awarding contracts for the purchase of equipment the

determining factor shall not be first cost alone, and

that many other elements of value shall be considered.

That the purchase of county equipment be handled by

clearing through State highway departments, when

so requested by the counties.

That in order to help level the seasonal production

curve, to afford opportunity for inspection of equipment before purchase, and otherwise to effect greater

economy in buying and manufacturing, bids on general equipment requirements be received, in so far

as possible, just prior to the annual exhibition of the

American Road Builders’ Association, and that orders

for such equipment be placed as soon as practicable

after the exhibition.

That the authority to specify and select highway

equipment be vested in a highway department of

materials and/or equipment, headed by an experienced highway engineer, rather than by the mainte- nance engineer.

That an effort be made to effect as general a standardization as possible of the details of equipment and

parts, in order to increase interchange ability, and

to eliminate the excessive stocking of spare parts.

That the principles here formulated be extended

•so far as desirable and practicable to the purchasing

of equipment by counties, cities, towns, and other

units of public administration.

A report on standardization of steel side forms for

concrete pavements was developed in the interest of

obtaining smoother riding pavement surfaces, and

to permit the standardization of manufacture of

forms, this action to be approved by the various State

highway departments. This report was submitted

•by a committee composed of highway officials and

manufacturers’ engineers, which made two recom- mendations :

1. That all steel side forms of 8 inches and over

in height shall have a width of base of 8 inches, and

that all other side forms having a height of less than

8 inches shall have a base width of 6 inches. Option

is meant to be left to the States as to whether these

recommended sizes shall be made a part of the

specifications.

2. That the State highway department recognize

field inspection of forms, before installation, in

accordance with the following practices

(a) On the top of the vertical tolerance per

standard 10-foot section of form shall be not more

than one-eighth inch.

(b) On the upstanding leg the lateral tolerance

per standard 10-foot section of form shall be not more

than one-fourth inch.

A specification for standard weighing devises for concrete aggregates to be used in connection with

small mixers for bridge and similar structure work

was recommended. This recommendation supplemented a report prepared the previous year covering

this equipment as used with both the bin batcher and

the central mixing type of plants. This specification

has been adopted by, and appears in the specifications

of many State, county, and city highway departments.

A survey of the needs for and the availability of

maintenance equipment showed that the various types

in general use were well standardized, and further

desirable standardization is under way.

Methods and equipment used for construction and

compaction of embankments were found by the committee studying this subject to vary widely, and

variable results were obtained. Practically all specifications require the embankment to be placed in layers

for the full width of the cross section. However, the

thickness of the layers specified varies from 6 to a 24-

inch maximum, with occasionally no maximum limit. Methods of compaction employed include the use of

rollers of various types and weights, trucks, tracktype equipment, wheel-type equipment, jetting, ponding, the use of explosives, tamping, and puddling.

Full and complete settlement of embankments is desired, and compaction must be obtained by artificial methods before the surfacing is placed. Due to wide

variance of soils, the method to be used and the equipment to be employed must be given careful study, and

standardization can not be generally applied.

The specifications as to the actual thickness of the

layer of loose material placed, and the method of compaction required should be enforced, and while adequate compaction may be secured with various types

of rollers, the use of a power-driven mechanical device for spreading the fill material evenly in layers is essential, if the best results are to be obtained.

An extensive investigation was conducted on the

subject of highway guard rail through questionnaires

to all State highway departments relating to the type

of guard rail considered most effective in preventing

personal injury or safeguarding life; in preventing

damage to contacting vehicle; in withstanding shock
326 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL, 1931

with minimum damage to rail and posts; in withstanding weather and soil conditions; for low cost of construction; and for low cost of maintenance.

In 40 States wire-cable railing is strongly favored

for each of these 6 conditions; wire-mesh railing is a poor second in the first 4 cases; and timber railing

is a poor second in the final 2 cases; with wire mesh

third. The summary of replies indicates that approximately 70 per cent of the engineers considered the

wire-cable type most effective in preventing injury to

life, the vehicle, or to the railing itself, while more

than 73 per cent considered it the lowest in cost of

construction and maintenance.

A summary of the details of the latest available

specifications or plans in each State shows that 31

specify or permit the construction of wooden guard

railings in some form, while 17 do not; 23 specify or permit the use of wire fabric, while 25 do not; 42

specify or permit the use of wire cable, while 6 do

not ; other types specified or permitted by a few States

consist of guideposts, guardstones or bowlders, earth

mounds, concrete rails and patented types.

INSPECTING FIGS AND DATES

Imported Dried Fruits Subject to Rigid Inspection Under National Pure Food Laws

Americans are assured the best quality of imported

figs and dates in the world market, according to the

eastern district of the Federal Food and Drug

Administration, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

Most figs and dates imported into the United States

arrive at eastern district seaports, and must meet the

strict requirements of Avholesomeness, freedom from

impurities, and honesty of labeling set by the national

pure food laws.

During 1930 district officials examined more than

14,000,000 pounds of imported figs, and detained about

30 per cent of them for failure to meet Federal food

and drugs act standards. Total date imports for the

year amounted to 41,853,271 pounds, of which 2.7 per

cent were detained.

Imported figs in 290 lots, amounting to 9,825,162

pounds, were released following inspection by Federal

officials, and 142 lots, or 4,319,454 pounds, were detained because of wormy or moldy condition, or in a few cases, because of short weight or failure of

shippers to furnish certificates of sanitary handling,

required by the law. Regulation 223 of the Food and

Drug Manual requires a special declaration for importation of figs from Smyrna. Through arrangements with the State Department, consuls certify in- voices of figs on a special form which, in addition to

the usual information, bears on the reverse side an in- dorsement by the consul certifying that the figs were packed under prescribed sanitary regulations. The

consul’s certification is based upon reports from medical officers appointed to make sanitary inspection of

packing establishments and these inspections are car- ried on regularly and systematically. This system is unique, in that it involves the control by one government of sanitary conditions within the territory of

another government. Figs detained were disposed of

as follows: 1,622,917 pounds were reexported; 971,679

pounds were released for reconditioning, which means

sorting out and destroying objectionable figs; and

112,000 pounds of original lots were destroyed. The

administration will require exportation or destruction of the remainder of detained figs. Under the

domestic provisions of the food and drugs act, the

Government also held 123,100 pounds because the figs Avere entered illegally in violation of the import

bond.

The eight lots of dates were held because they

Avere wormy or misbranded as to quantity of contents. The Avormy lots, 134,225 pounds, Avere reexportedDates misbranded were released as soon as their importers labeled them in compliance with the food and

drugs act.

UNIFORM RULES ON AVIATION

Ratification of Air Treaty Will Make for Uniform Rules Between Countries of the Western Hemisphere

Ratification of the Havana Commercial Aviation

Convention of 1928 will bring into operation international agreements betAveen countries of the Western

Hemisphere on uniform rules and understandings

which are essential to the development of international air commerce, according to the Aeronautics

Branch, Department of Commerce.

Advice and consent of the Senate for ratification

Avas given by a two-thirds vote on February 10, and

to date the treaty, according to the treaty division of

the Department of State, has been ratified by 4 of

the 21 signatories.

Prohibition of flight over fixed zones is allowed the

contracting parties with the provision that no dis- tinction shall be made between a State’s own private

aircraft engaged in international commerce and those

of other countries so engaged.

The International Convention on Commercial Aviation Avas designed especially to meet conditions

existing in the Western Hemisphere, and to permit

the normal development of air transportation by the

gradual adoption of such rules and regulations, pursuant to the general principles set forth in the convention, as may be found by experience to meet the

requirements of air navigation in this hemisphere.

One of the primary purposes of the convention is to establish the right of innocent passage of aircraft

of the contracting parties, subject to the conditions

laid doAvn in the convention and without discrimination. It is believed that the convention will prove to be of Amine in bringing about an understanding as to the principles that are to govern in the operation of

aircraft among the contracting States. This is absolutely essential to a proper and comprehensive

development of international air commerce.
APRIL, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 327

STANDARDIZATION BRIEFS

Color characteristics of paints. —A standard method

of analysis for the color characteristics of paints in

terms of fundamental physical units was adopted

by the American Society for Testing Materials at

its last annual meeting.

International conferences. —A series of meetings on

technical subjects is planned by the International

Standards Association to be held in May, 1931, at Copenhagen, Denmark, at the time of the conference

of secretaries of national standardizing;© bodies.

Smoke pots. —Smoke pots for use as airport wind

indicators are now commercially available. Any

shade of smoke may be produced, varying from a white to jet black. The smoke is heavy and tends to

roll along the ground, showing the pilot each gust

of wind and its velocity.

Dust explosions in industry. —The value of large

window-glass area in buildings devoted to industries which are liable to dust explosions is emphasized

by the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, United States

Department of Agriculture, which has been conducting a study of causes and prevention of dust explosions in industrial plants.

Standardization of oil-field equipment.—Standardization Bulletin No. 105, containing reports of meetings held by various American Petroleum Institute

committees on standardization of oil field equipment

during the eleventh annual meeting at Chicago, 111., November 10 to 13, 1930, has been published by the

institute. Uniform vehicle code. —The Uniform Vehicle Code

(Hoover), sponsored by the National Conference on

Street and Highway Safety, was indorsed by the

American Petroleum Institute at its meeting held in

March, 1931. The code provides for uniform State

laws pertaining to truck operation, truck sizes,

weights, and other items involved in automotive

transportation.

International economic conference. —The causes and

possible remedies in the present world economic depression will be discussed by the Council of the International Chamber of Commerce at a meeting to be held December 5, 1931, at Paris, France. Each of

the 28 countries represented in the council has been

asked to send a special delegation in addition to its regular members.

Belgian royal decree pertaining to foreign air- craft. —A royal decree which became effective February 15, 1931, regulating air navigation in Belgium

provides that foreign aircraft flying over the terri- tory or territorial waters of that Kingdom must be

provided with a certificate of navigability complying

with the regulations in force in the country of origin.

Accurate broadcasting frequencies. —That radiobroadcasting stations are trying to keep closely on

their assigned frequencies is indicated in the December

report of W. D. Terrill, Chief of the Radio Division,

of the Department of Commerce. Although a deviation of 500 cycles is alloAved by the radio law, 101

stations out of a total of 339 stations inspected kept

within less than 200 cycles.

Measuring air permeability of fabrics. —A self- contained instrument for measuring the flow of air

through fabrics is described in Research Paper No.

261, reprint from Bureau of Standards Journal of

Research, vol. 6, January, 1931, entitled “A Portable

Instrument for Measuring Air Permeability of

Fabrics.” This pamphlet may be obtained from the

Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing

Office, Washington, D. C. Price, 10 cents.

Measurement of candlepower of 5,000-ioatt lamps.

Cooperative measurements of the candlepower of

5,000-watt lamps are in progress. The photometric

laboratories of the General Electric Co. at Nela Park,

Ohio; the Westinghouse Lamp Co. at Bloomfield,

N. J. ; the Electrical Testing Laboratories, New York;

and the National Bureau of Standards are cooperating

in making spherical candlepower measurements on

these large tungsten filament lamps.

Safety glass for Paris taxicabs. —A proposal requiring that all taxicabs and other public vehicles in Paris

be equipped with safety glass is now before the city’s

municipal council, according to advices received in the

Commerce Department’s automotive division. It was

stated that 67 per cent of all injuries resulting from

automobile accidents are due to shattered glass.

Certified aeronautical lights. —Under the air commerce act the Secretary of Commerce is charged with

the promulgation of regulations governing the examination and rating of air navigation facilities. These

regulations provide that certificates for all beacon

lights of aeronautical character, except those established and maintained by the Federal Government,

shall apply for periods of one year.

Revision of safety code for elevators, dumb waiters, and escalators. —The completed revision of the American Standard Safety Code for Elevators, Dumb

Waiters, and Escalators has been submitted to the

sponsors. It is expected to be approved promptty and

made available in printed form by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, which with the

National Bureau of Standards and the American

Institute of Architects, are joint sponsors for this

project.

National Electrical Code revised. —An extensive re- vision of the National Electrical Code was made at a meeting of the Electrical Committee of the National

Fire Protection Association held in February. Among

other changes, new methods of interior wiring were

recognized, and the rules for overload protection of

motors were entirely rewritten. The revised code

will be presented for approval to the annual conven-
328 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL, 1931

tion of the association, to be held at Toronto in

May, 1931.

Map indexing.—The experience of map users and

of libraries reveals great need for a standard mapindexing scheme sufficiently simple to be readily understood, easily recorded, and generally used. At

present there are many different systems in use. A

special committee of the Board of Surveys and Maps

of the Federal Government, which has been studying

the subject for several months, has recommended that

the map makers consider the project and seek a com- mon standard, if possible.

Tentative standards for canned goods.—Tentative

United States standards for canned tomatoes, cherries,

and apricots were made public in March by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, under the terms of the

McNary-Mapes bill. The announcement of the department stated that public hearings would be held

in Washington and San Francisco not later than April

15, at which time the trade would be given an opportunity to express its opinion on the proposed

standards.

Annual meeting of A. S. T. M.—A feature of the

thirty-fourth annual meeting of the American

Society for Testing Materials will be the series of

joint meetings with the members of the American

Society of Mechanical Engineers, the American

Foundrymen’s Association, and the Western Society

of Engineers. These meetings will be held June 22

to 26, 1931, at Chicago, 111. For the first time an

exhibit of testing apparatus and machines will be held

in conjunction with these meetings.

Cotton goods for rubber and pyroxylin coating.

The recommended commercial standard for Cotton

Goods for Rubber and Pyroxylin Coating has been

circulated by the National Bureau of Standards for

written acceptance to interested producers, distributors, and users of this product. Since the work of the

several associations interested in the project has paralleled commercial standards procedure to a certain

extent, no general conference was deemed necessary. (See Commercial Standards Monthly for February,

1931. p. 261.) Copies of this recommended standard

are available upon request to the National Bureau of

Standards.

Standard color card for flexible cord.—The first standard color card for flexible cord has just been

issued by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association. The card contains samples of colored cotton and rayon braids, 14 colors of each, together with cor- responding color names and numbers. This plan of

issuing through the N. E. M. A. headquarters a single

color card under their insignia is of benefit to both

purchasers and suppliers of cord, officials point out,

since purchasers now need keep only one kind of card,

and the makers of cord will be saved the expense of

distributing their own cards.

TJ. S. ship act.—Under the U. S. ship act, every vessel, foreign or domestic, clearing from ports in the

United States for ports 200 miles or more distant,

carrying 50 or more persons including passengers or

crew, or both, must be equipped with a radio apparatus in good working order capable of transmitting

and receiving signals over a distance of 100 miles or

more, day or night. Emergency power supply independent of the vessel’s main electric plant must also' be provided which will enable the sending set to function for a period of at least four hours and to send

messages over a distance of 100 miles, day or night.

Standards for butter.—War on impure foods, particularly butter and its substitutes, has been declared

by the director of health of the Philippine Islands,

in a set of recommendations submitted by him to the

acting secretary of public instruction, according to in- formation received from American Trade Commissioner Harvey V. Rohrer, at Manila. These recommendations, approved by the acting secretary of public instruction, were immediately adopted by the

board of food inspection and issued to all manufacturers and dealers. The recommendations prescribed

definitions and standards of butter, renovated or “ process ” butter, butter compound, oleomargarine, and

margarine.

Artificial light tests adaptability of plants.—With

the aid of powerful electric lamps to lengthen the day

in the greenhouse in the winter, plant breeders of

the U. S. Department of Agriculture are attempting

to determine the adaptability of new varieties of

strawberries to the various strawberry-growing sec- tions of the country. Since the length of day varies

with the latitude, they believe these tests will indicate

approximately the regions to which the newly developed varieties are adapted. Heretofore it was neces- sary to send all new varieties to the field stations in

all different regions to determine their adaptability

by special tests.

Spark-testing of steels.—There are distinct differ- ences in the characteristic sparks formed when steels of various compositions are rapidly abraded by a high-speed grinding wheel. This subject forms the

basis of one of the current metallurgical researches in

progress at the National Bureau of Standards. It

is expected that this method of spark testing of steel,

when perfected, will prove exceptionally useful in the

sorting of scrap iron and steel before the scrap is sent back to the furnace to be remelted. At present,

the fact that miscellaneous scrap gathered from vari- ous sources is of unknown composition is a deterrent

in its use for many lines of steel making.

Standard fiber stresses of wood poles.—The standard ultimate fiber stresses of wood poles of the

National Electrical Safety Code (rule 261A4) have

recently been superseded as a consequence of A. S. A.

approval of American Standard for ultimate fiber

stresses of wood poles (A. S. A. 05a—1930). The

standard values are as follows : Northern white cedar,

3.600 pounds per square inch; western red cedar,

5.600 pounds per square inch; chestnut, 6,000 pounds

per square inch; and southern yellow pine (creosoted), 7,400 pounds per square inch. These values

will effect a change in the National Electrical Safety

Code where the fiber stresses of western red cedar,

chestnut, and southern yellow pine are involved.
APRIL, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 329

Colored beacons on foggy airway.—Colored lights

outlining the safe flying region are being installed

by the U. S. Department of Commerce in the Columbia River gorge for a distance of about 50 miles.

Winding through the Cascade Mountains, the river

has provided the most practicable route for a diffi- cult flying region, but peculiar climatic conditions cause dense fogs in the upper part of the gorge. Low

ceilings, about 250 feet, frequently result, blotting

out regular long-range rotating beacons and necessitating a system of low-altitude lights. The low-altitude beacons will be equipped with colored shades to aid pilots in orienting themselves, and green lights

will be seen on the Washington side and red on the

Oregon bank of the Columbia River.

Foreign candy meets demands of Food and Drug

Administration.—Only a small proportion of the

6,000,000 pounds of confectionery imported into the

United States in 1930 failed to meet the requirements

of the Federal food and drugs act, according to the

United States Department of Agriculture. Most of

the packages of candy detained last year at the east- ern ports violated the law merely in the matter of

label statements. The few lots that contained prohibited material, such as alcohol and unpermitted

coal-tar dyes, were returned to the country of their

origin. Manufacturers the world over appreciate the

need for care in production, for discrimination in

selection, for sanitation in handling, and for honesty

in branding goods bound for the United States.

Grain inspection.—The United States Department

of Agriculture has under consideration a proposed

regulation under the United States grain standards

act dealing with grain which moves in interstate commerce between two places at neither of which is an

inspector licensed under that act, but which in the course of its transportation passes through an inspection point. At the present time grain may be sold

by grade and shipped from a noninspection point to a noninspection point without any requirement that

it be officially inspected and graded by a licensed in- spector, regardless of whether it passes through a point at which official inspection under the act is maintained.

Engine stoppage in automotive equipment

.

—Engine

stoppage in automotive equipment due to boiling of

the gasoline in the feed system, called vapor lock, has

markedly increased during the past few years. Since

the boiling temperature of gasolines has not changed

much during this period, the increasing trouble from

vapor lock is largely due to the design of fuel feed

systems. Road tests on 27 diverse cars last summer,

under a variety of conditions, indicated that the

temperatures reached by the gasoline in many cars were much higher than necessary and that simple

changes in design would greatly lower these temperatures. Some of the car manufacturers have improved

the design of fuel systems in 1931 cars, and others are rapidly following this lead. After such changes have

been made, there should be little trouble from vapor

lock.

Variable-automatic control.—The street railway

operator, to be successful in his competition against

vehicle traffic, has found it imperative that he increase

the schedule speeds of his cars. Variable-automatic

control is one of the most important recent developments which makes this increase in speed possible, as

it provides considerable increase in the acceleration

rates—the acceleration period, on the usual number

of stops per mile, being a very considerable portion

of the running time. Features of the control are variable accelerating rates, automatic progression,

smooth, rapid starting, quick response, effective notching and emergency dynamic braking. Instead of the

customary hand notching on the old drum controller,

the operator places the controller handle on the

selected speed position and the car accelerates, in even

steps, to that speed automatically.

Aviation law.—State law is a source of constant concern to the pilot wandering across unfamiliar

country especially if he be flying an unlicensed air- plane. Twenty States now require the Federal li- cense for all planes and their pilots in order that they

may operate within State boundaries. Nine more make the same stipulation whenever commercial flying

is to be indulged in. Six require some sort of addi • tional action in every case if there is to be a prolonged

stay within the State, even with federally licensed

equipment. Sometimes a State license must be taken

out to supplement the Federal one, while in other in- stances it is only necessary that the pilot file with the

local authorities a notification of his presence, but in

all six cases some special account may be taken of the

State law, and the pilot or owner must become familiar with what that law is. Mark of origin.—It has been officially announced

that under the provisions of the merchandise marks

act, 1926, effective May 12, 1931, all ice skates, fountain pens, propelling pencils, steel shafts for golf

clubs, and wallboard imported into the United Kingdom must bear an indication of the country of origin

at the time of sale or exposure for sale, and wrought

enamelled hollow ware of iron and steel at the time of

importation and sale, both wholesale and retail, ac- cording to a radiogram received in the Department of

Commerce from Acting Attache Donald Renshaw,

London. The indication of origin may be either the

word “ Foreign ” or, as an alternative, a definite indication of the country in which the goods are manufactured or produced, such as “ Made in U. S. A.,” and

should be applied to the goods in the manner prescribed by the order-in-council.

Tests for foundry sands.—Until very recently, practically the only test used by foundrjunen in judging

the suitability of their sands for molding purposes was used by most of us as children in our “ sand

sculpture ” at the seashore. The degree of success attained was dependent largely upon the consistency

of the sand, as determined by squeezing it in the hand.

The past few years has witnessed a marked change,

however, and there are now available for the foundr}r - men, reliable test methods for measuring those properties of the sand (grain, size, and distribution, per- meability, compressive strength, moisture content,

etc.), which determine its suitability for molding purposes. Work along this line, in cooperation with a committee of the American Foundrymen’s Associa-
330 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL, 1931

tion, constitutes one of the major researches in progress in the experimental foundry of the National

Bureau of Standards.

Generators for Fifteen Mile Falls.—The generators

for the new Fifteen Mile Falls development of the

New England Powers Association, have several

claims on the attention of the electrical engineer

They are the first really large water-wheel generators

of the neiv umbrella type to go into service and they

have several different and interesting features of

design to make sure of stable operation. Generators

of the new umbrella construction have but a single

guide and a single thrust bearing, both located in one

water-cooled oil pot just below the umbrella-shaped

rotor spider. The result is a considerable saving in machine height and building headroom. Fifteen Mile

Falls is at the upper end of a 126-mile transmission

line and, as continuity of service is essential, stable

operation under short-circuit and surge conditions

must be insured. To do this each of the four 39,000

kv-a generators is built with unusually low transient

reactance, large flywheel effect, a double-cage damper

winding, and is provided with a quick-response

excitation system.

Radio-frequency of broadcasting station.—A small,

thin slab of quartz is the guiding hand which keeps

the modern broadcasting station upon its assigned

frequency. When associated with the proper apparatus, the quartz exhibits the remarkable phenomena

of changing its thickness many thousands, even millions of times a second. It is this oscillatory motion

that controls the frequency of the broadcasting station. The thickness of the quartz bears a definite

relation to the frequency at which it will oscillate;

consequents, a quartz crystal may be cut to oscillate at any frequency desired by making it of the correct

thickness. As is well known, heat causes an expansion and cold a contraction in solids and so it is with

a crystal. Since the frequency of the quartz depends

upon its thickness, it is essential that the temperature of the quartz be kept constant at all times ; otherwise, the frequency will shift. Elaborate means are employed to keep the crystal at an even, unvarying

temperature.

Canadian tests effect of drying damp wheat.—The

conclusions of tests commenced in 1927, by Canadian

scientists, on the storage and commercial drying of

damp wheat, have been submitted to the Canadian

National Research Council, according to a report

from Herbert W. Barrett, Assistant Trade Commissioner in Ottawa, Canada. The conclusions reached

in the report are as follows; (1) In drying wheat the

baking quality was impaired more by the high air

temperature than by any other factor, and 180° F. must be regarded as the maximum safe temperature;

(2) the moisture content of the wheat before drying

appeared to have little effect on possible resultant

damage; (3) drying in cold weather when the air

is excessively dry and cold seemed to increase slightly

the risk of damage; (4) drying very damp wheat in

two stages appeared to possess no advantage over

the single-stage method in preventing injury; and

(5) wheat decreases in weight per bushel as moisture

content increases and heat drying never brings it back to the original bushel weight.

Relative visibility of various kinds of light.—The

International Commission on Illumination, meeting

in Geneva in 1924, adopted a standard set of values

for the relative visibility of radiant energy. The

visibility function indicates the relative light-producing powers of the various parts of the spectrum. The

values adopted at wave-length intervals of 10 millimi- crons have served the very useful purpose in photometry and colorimetry of unifying the choice of

visibility function. It frequently is necessary, however, in the varied uses to which the standard visibility

function is put, to know accurately a value of the

visibility at a wave length intermediate between those

for which standard values have been adopted.

Through the use of the formula for “ osculatory interpolation,” the National Bureau of Standards has computed nine values between each two specified values

of visibility, and has prepared a table of visibilities so that standard values of the relative visibility

function may be read at wave-length intervals of 1 millimicron. A more complete report is given in the

“ Bureau of Standards Journal of Research,” vol. 6, page 465, March, 1931.

Standardization by industries indorsed.—The Federal Trade Commission has placed itself on record at various times as being in favor of the standardization

and simplification activities of associations. In its report on February 13, 1929, to the Senate on Open

Price Trade Associations, the commission stated

“ Some of the most valuable kinds of association work

may be classed as measures looking to greater economy

and efficinecy in business. Among these are standardization, simplification, grading, and inspection. In

general, standardization and simplification and related

movements should tend greatly to lower distribution

costs—a development much to be desired.” In no manner has the commission ever held the standardization of commodities by the members of an industry

to be violative of any of the statutes it has the duty

of enforcing. It regards the promotion of standardization of commodities among the members of an in- dustry as peculiarly the work of the Department of

Commerce. In calling attention recently to the fact

that there has been no departure from its early atti- tude toward standardization, the commission has

stated that it regards the work of the department in encouraging standardization of commodies as important and beneficial to the public.

o
SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND COMMERCIAL

PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE

national BUREAU of standards

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH

The new Journal describes the bureau’s re- search results in science and technology. The

union of science and its applications in one

journal shortens the lag between discovery

and application.

All engaged in industry and commerce should

have available for current use and permanent

reference, the Bureau of Standards Journal of

Research.

Early in its firSl year the Journal developed a

liSt of paid subscribers double the anticipated

maximum.

This Journal is full of interest to executives

and technicians controlling industries and

commercial enterprises. It enables them bet- ter to promote efficiency by determining the

scientific measured controls ofprocess through

experimental and theoretical research.

Issued monthly

Subscription price, $2.75 per year

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS

MONTHLY

TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN

The Bureau of Standards periodical with a WAR RECORD! Started during the dark

days of 1917 to keep the Army and Navy and

other branches of the Government informed

of progress in scientific war research at the

bureau. Upon urgent request this publication was continued and expanded to serve the

Government, science, and industry.

The TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN will

keep you informed of current progress in the

scientific and technical work of the bureau’s

laboratories, and gives each month a liSl of

the publications of the bureau. A complete

cross index is published with the December

issue.

You can not afford to be without the TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN. Every article is short and to the point. The busiest executive can afford the time to read it. Issued monthly

Subscription price, 25 cents per year

STANDARDS YEARBOOK

FOR 1931

This new governmental periodical is a review

of progress in commercial simplification and

standardization. It is the only journal of its kind. It covers the national movement initiated by President Hoover for the reduction

of needless sizes and varieties of products and

the promotion of voluntary commercial

Standardization by industry.

The Secretary of Commerce in the firSt issue

of this new journal said: “Certain Standards,

such as those used for weights and measures,

* * * have been fixed by legislative enactment. Mandatory Standards of this character, however, are few in number when compared with the large and steadily growing

volume of Standards developed by industry

and commerce and voluntarily maintained.

* * * The activities of the Commercial

Standardization Group of the Bureau of

Standards are concerned with Standards

adopted by voluntary agreement.”

Subscription price, $1 per year

The new Standards Yearbook for 1931 is the

fifth annual issue of a publication devoted

to the great and growing field of Standardization in its broad aspeCts. It gives a summary

of progress.

Standardization is a world-wide movement.

It covers all industries. It is part of the application of scientific methods to industry. Its achievements are of interest and concern to

business men and manufacturers as well as to

engineers. To the technician it is full of

example of methods and results of suggeSlive

and Stimulating value. To business men it discloses trends which deeply concern their

interest.

NOW READY Price, $1 ORDER AT ONCE

“Standardization is becoming an aspect of all welL

ordered activity rather than an incidental

activity supplemental to others.”

To obtain regularly the above-described monthly Periodicals send your order, with remittance, addressed: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Foreign prices (countries other

than the United States and its possessions, Canada, Mexico, Newfoundland, Cuba, and Republic of Panama) are: Journal, $3.50; Bulletin, $0.40; Monthly, $1.25; Yearbook, $1.20
“ * * * this department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * * its ideals are clear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field. v —President Hoover, at the laying of the corner stone of the new building

of the U. S. Department of Commerce, June 10, 1929 .

THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

E. P. LAMONT, Secretary of Commerce

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal air ports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, William M. Steuart, Director,

Taking censuses of population, mines, and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a

census of manufactures every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments.

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products;

and publication monthly of Survey of Current Business. BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

William L. Cooper, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attaches, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, and district and cooperative offices in 65 cities. The

maintenance of commodity, technical, and regional divisions to afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce BUREAU OF STANDARDS, George K. Burgess, Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards, and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals. Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operationjaf. plants producing it.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish, in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods,

improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and the

protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam, Commissioner. Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director. Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic

surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, Arthur J. Tyrer, Commissioner.

Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamen.

Supervision of registering, enrolling, licensing, numbering,

etc., of vessels under the United States flag, and the annual

publication of a list of such vessels. Enforcement of the navigation and steamboat inspection laws, including imposition of fees, fines, tonnage taxes, etc. STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE, Dickerson N. Hoover, Supervising Inspector General. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certifi- cation of able seamen and lifeboat men, and the investigation of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks,

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents, and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents. Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued. RADIO DIVISION, W. D. Terrell, Chief. Inspection of radio stations on ships; inspection of radio

stations on shore, including broadcasting stations; licensing radio operators; assigning station call letters; enforcing the terms of the International Radiotelegraphic Convention; and

examining and settling international radio accounts.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1931