Preparation and Revision of

Building Codes

i
BUILDING MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES REPORTS

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BMSl Research on Building Materials and Structures for Use in Low-Cost Housing * BMS2 Methods of Determining the Structural Properties of Low-Cost House Constructions.. lOfS BMS3 Suitability of Fiber Insulating Lath as a Plaster Base 15^ BMS4 Accelerated Aging of Fiber Building Boards 10^ BMS5 Structural Properties of Six Masonry Wall Constructions 15^ BMS6 Survey of Roofing Materials in the Southeastern States 150 BMS7 Water Permeability of Masonry Walls * BMS8 Methods of Investigation of Surface Treatment for Corrosion Protection of Steel lOfS BMS9 Structural Properties of the Insulated Steel Construction Co.'s "Frameless-Steel" Constructions for Walls, Partitions, Floors, and Roofs lOji BMSIO Structural Properties of One of the "Keystone Beam Steel Floor" Constructions

Sponsored by the H. H. Robertson Co lOjS BMSll Structural Properties of the Curren Fabrihome Corporation's "Fabrihome" Constructions for Walls and Partitions 100 BMS12 Structural Properties of "Steelox" Constructions for Walls, Partitions, Floors, and

Roofs Sponsored by Steel Buildings, Inc 150 BMS13 Properties of Some Fiber Building Boards of Current Manufacture 100 BMS14 Indentation and Recovery of Low-Cost Floor Coverings 100 BMS15 Structural Properties of "Wheeling Long-Span Steel Floor" Construction Sponsored

by the Wheeling Corrugating Co 100 BMSl6 Structural Properties of a "Tilecrete" Floor Construction Sponsored by Tilecrete

Floors, Inc ._ 100 BMS17 Sound Insulation of Wall and Floor Constructions 200

Supplement to BMS17, Sound Insulation of Wall and Floor Constructions 50 Supplement No. 2 to BMS17, Sound Insulation of Wall and Floor Constructions 100 BMS18 Structural Properties of "Pre-fab" Constructions for Walls, Partitions, and Floors Sponsored by the Harnischfeger Corporation 100 BMS19 Preparation and Revision of Building Codes * BMS20 Structural Properties of "Twachtman" Constructions for Walls and Floors Sponsored

by Connecticut Pre-Cast Buildings Corporation 100 BMS21 Structural Properties of a Concrete-Block Cavity-Wall Construction Sponsored by the National Concrete Masonry Association 100 BMS22 Structural Properties of "Dun-Ti-Stone" Wall Construction Sponsored by the W. E. Dunn Manufacturing Co 100 BMS23 Structural Properties of a Brick Cavity-Wall Construction Sponsored by the Brick

Manufacturers Association of New York, Inc 100 BMS24 Structural Properties of a Reinforced-Brick Wall Construction and a Brick-Tile Cavity-Wall Construction Sponsored by the Structural Clay Products Institute. _ 150 BMS25 Structural Properties of Conventional Wood-Frame Constructions for Walls, Partitions, Floors, and Roofs 150 BMS26 Structural Properties of "Nelson Pre-Cast Concrete Foundation" Wall Construction

Sponsored by the Nelson Cement Stone Co., Inc 100 BMS27 Structural Properties of "Bender Steel Home" Wall Construction Sponsored by the Bender Body Co 100 BMS28 Backflow Prevention in Over-Rim Water Supplies 100 BMS29 Survey of Roofing Materials in the Northeastern States 150 BMS30 Structural Properties of a Wood-Frame Wall Construction Sponsored by the Douglas

Fir Plywood Association i 150 BMS31 Structural Properties of "Insulite" Wall and "Insulite" Partition Constructions

Sponsored by The Insulite Co . 150

* Out of print. [List continued on cover page iii]
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE • Charles Sawyer, Secretary NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS • E. U. Condon, Director

Preparation and Revision of

Building Codes

by George N. Thompson

Building Materials and Structures Report BMS116

Issued September 1, 1949

[Superseding BMS19]

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1949

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D. C. - Price IS cents
Foreword

Efficient use of building materials depends not only on accurate knowledge

of their characteristics but also on the legal restrictions imposed by public

authorities in the interest of safety. If these restrictions do not recognize

late developments in design and construction that have been found to be safe,

they may cause unnecessary expense, prevent the free exercise of ingenuity in

design, and discourage the introduction of new materials and methods.

Under present conditions, much of the preparation and revision of buildingcode requirements is done by local officials or committees. There is available

to them a great and growing mass of basic material which must be examined

and utilized in the development of local requii^ements. The selection of

necessary features and the combination of them into a series of requirements

that will be at once clear and reasonable is a task which makes great demands

upon those charged with this responsibility.

This report gives information on useful source material and its use, dis- cusses principles and problems associated with building-code requirements, and

endeavors to indicate a procedure through which full advantage may be taken

of developments in the laboratory and in the field, while preserving the primary

object of safeguarding the public.

E. U. Condon, Director.
Preparation and Revision of Building Codes

by George N. Thompson

Building construction has been subjected for many years to legal control in the interest

of safety and health. While there is general agreement on the need for this, specific appli- cations in the form of building codes have been frequently criticized on the grounds of imposing excessive expense and of failing to make adjustments to changing conditions. The responsibility for preparing or revising building codes usually falls upon local committees. These are called upon to do a great deal of tedious and exacting work. One

of their first problems is to determine what source material is available and how they should

proceed. In this discussion, a description is given of how such work is done and useful sources

of technical information are indicated. Some of the problems that are encountered by local committees are mentioned, including what basic principles are involved; methods of presentation, arrangement, and numbering; advantages of using national standards and ways of referring to them; methods of recognizing new materials and new methods of construction; extent of delegation of authority to the building official and safeguards against arbitrary

action; and other questions of major importance.

An attempt has been made to place committees in possession of sufficient information

to proceed in their work with a minimum of lost motion. Not all questions can be answered

with finality, since the situation is complicated by the existence of proposals of nearly equal

merit and by differing judicial decisions. Such differences will no doubt continue to exist

for some time; but they are not of sufficient importance to be allowed to obscure the main

objective of providing adequate protection without creating too much of a drag on the

building industry. Constructive work in the field of building-code requirements has been

going on continuously for some time and will exert an ever-increasing influence. This

discussion is offered to supplement such work and as a contribution to the orderly development of good requirements.

CONTENTS

Page

Foreword _' n

I. Introduction 2

II. What the building code is 3

III. Extent of code requirements 3

IV. Police power 4

V. Effect on community ; 4

VI. Tests for codes 4

VII. Methods of starting code -_ 6

VIII. Composition of local committee 6

IX. Study of city needs 6

X. Collection of available material 7 XI. Methods of preparing code 7

XII. Use of consultant 8 XIII. Code arrangement 8 XIV. Performance basis 9 XV. Use of standards 10 XVI. Acceptance of new materials and methods 12 XVII. Rules and regulations 13 XVIII. Provisions for changes in code 14 XIX. Enforcement 14 XX. Board of appeal 15 XXI. Appendix 15 XXII. Conclusion 15 XXIII. Selected references 16
I. Introduction

The need for regulating building construction

ia the interest of safety and health has been felt in many times and places wherever men have

lived under urban conditions. Evidence of this

is to be found in the Code of Hammurabi [1]/ which dealt with conditions in Babylon about

2100 B. C; in various Roman laws [2]; in FitzElwyne's Assize of Buildings [31, which regulated

construction in London in 1189; and in a number

of early colonial laws in this country [4]. Early

legal restrictions were concerned largely with the

hazards of fire and collapse, with health conditions appearing at a comparatively late date.

In general, the nature of such laws has broadened

with the passage of time so that, in addition to safety and health, they now deal also with some

aspects of morals and general welfare.

Requirements, in the form of building codes,

have come to be an accepted feature of modern

life in all our large cities and in many small ones. Like most restrictive legislation, they have

always been the object of some criticism; but

this has been intensified in the period since World

War 1. In 1921 the Senate Committee on

Reconstruction and Production issued a report

[5] in which it was pointed out that buildingcode requirements varied widely and were one

source of unnecessarily high construction costs. Since that time various writers and speakers

have repeated these charges and have also re- ferred to lack of flexibility in dealing with new

materials and new methods of construction.

Much of this criticism is justified. However, it frequently faUs to take into account the great

advances that have taken place in codes in re- cent years, and it constitutes a negative rather

than a constructive approach to the problem.

In order to effect further improvement, it is necessary to undertake the tedious and exact- ing task of analyzing present code deficiencies

and working out a pattern of requirements that

will assm'e the primary object of safety while

giving heed to legitimate economies and neces- sary adjustments to changing conditions.

In well over 200 cities and towns each year, work is undertaken on the preparation of a local buUding code, either as a revision of a former

document or as preparation of a completely new series of requirements. Usually this work

is entrusted to a group of citizens chosen for their special qualifications or interest. The re- sponsibility placed upon them is a heavy one.

Utilizing such materials as they can gather,

they must proceed to draw up proposed requhements that, if observed, are to assure the safety

of building occupants and of those whose cus- tomary activities take them into and about

1 Figures in brackets indicate the literature references at the end of this paper.

2

buildings. Yet they must keep an eye on the ; effect which such requirements will have on [ building costs, since too rigid requirements may

' so discoiu'age building activity that not enough ' new construction will be erected to take care of \ normal needs. Such local groups usually serve without pay and are called upon to contribute , a large amount of time and energy as a matter

of public service. They undertake their work

conscientiously but are often hampered by lack

of information about available material and how s to use it. '

li Students of the subject have pointed out thatji

considerable progress could be made through the "j adoption of State requhements, leaving local i; : variations at a minimum. Among advantages

i

mentioned are elimination of needless differences r

' in technical requirements and uniform treatment i

i for new materials and new methods of construe- j

< tion [6]. This suggestion has met with some favor, 1 ( but until it is generally accepted the problem of «

s developing complete local requirements and of j| i keeping them up to date will remain. i ( For some 30 years the National Bureau offc a Standards has endeavored to provide helpful ' | information on building codes to a large number [ f of local committees and officials. Investiga-; j tions carried on at the Bureau in regard to ;s strength, fire resistance, and other characteristics of buildiug materials have produced results (| of direct usefulness in this field. During the [ period 1921 to 1934, the Bureau supplied the , t staff and published the reports of the Department > o of Commerce Building Code Committee. At e present, in addition to continued technical re- search and contact with public officials on building- t, code problems, the Bureau is cooperating in the; « continued development of recommended buildingcode standards under the procedure of the American Standards Association.

These activities have resulted in the accumulation of much material bearing on building-code^

problems. It has become apparent through cor-^ respondence and other contacts that much the^

|j same problems occur in each community andj,

, that a discussion of some of their more familiar)

features would serve a useful purpose. Thej,

literatm*e on the subject has been enriched in,

J" recent years by the writings of Burton, Miller,

Stegner, and others. These have made pains-,

taking investigations of fundamental questions'^

and have recorded their conclusions at someji

| length. The literature is scattered, however,c u and much of it is not readily available. Fre-t n quent reference to it will be made in this discussion..'; ij The method of treatment employed here is' ai in large part that of discussion rather than! tt specific recommendation. Great strides have!

Building Materials amd jStmctures Refort BMSll6\ ^
been made in recent years in bringing divergent

opinions about building codes into closer agreement, but the time has apparently not yet

arrived when it can be said with assurance that some one method of approach is best for all cases. There is a healthy disagreement on such

matters as arrangement of topics, ideal requirements versus realistic ones, possibilities of simplification, and other matters. Those who have

followed such controversies over a period of

years are aware that variations in codes are

diminishing. Some of the alternatives that re- main are, however, so closely equal in merit that

it is only fair to describe them in detail pending

the time when more conclusive evidence is obtainable.

II. What the Building Code Is

As already indicated, the building code is a

collection of legal requirements whose purpose

is to protect the safety, health, morals, and

general welfare of those in and about buildings.

The code attempts to do this by establishing a series of requirements covering such topics as

fire protection, strength of materials, light and

ventilation, sanitation, exits, and other matters

which have been found to need regulation. It

sets forth the least that will be acceptable in

each instance, leaving the designer or builder to go beyond this as far as he likes. It creates a system of supervision, making it necessary to obtain a permit to undertake work on a building

and providing for inspection of the structure by

public officials. It usually carries teeth in the

form of fines for violation of the code provisions

and gives authority to stop the work if neces- sary in the public interest.

The usual type of building code covers re- quirements for construction, alteration, demoli-

! tion, maintenance and repair, and other activities in connection with buildings and certain

other structures. Requirements for interior

equipment may or may not be included.

Example.—This ordinance provides for all matters

concerning the construction, remodeling, alteration,

repairing, maintenance, use, moving or removal of

buildings and other structures and parts thereof, erected

or to be erected in the city; the safety of workers and

others during these operations and the safe use of such

buildings and structures [7]. The broad objectives are reflected in the actual

requirements. For instance, fire limits are established within which only buildings of certain

types of construction may be erected, the object

being to restrict the spread of fire in the municipality. Similarly, maximum heights for buildings

are given. These are uniform throughout the

city for the same type of construction and occu- pancy, fire protection being again the determining

factor. Requirements concerning alterations

touch upon the delicate problem of when old

buildings must be brought up to the standards for new ones. The matter of demolition carries

with it measures for determining when a building

is so unsafe or unsanitary as to justify removal and

by what procedure. Provisions for maintenance

and repair are bound up with social policies con- cerned with how far it is expedient to force owners

to keep their buildings in conformity with presentday practices. Thus, the contents of the code are something more than a routine statement of technical details. They are, or can be, a dynamic

force in shaping the physical character of a com- munity through the standards that are imposed.

III. Extent of Code Requirements

It is well to think of a proposed local building

code not as an isolated document of purely local concern but as a part of a network of requirements

that extends over the country. There are some

2,200 local building codes and a number of State

codes [8]. Although such codes are developed more or less independently under present conditions, they have a common objective and affect the

work of professional men and manufacturing concerns far beyond the borders of the political units

concerned. The State building codes usually are

limited to certain types of buildings and may or may not apply within the limits of incorporated

areas. There are also numerous State laws

applying to special occupancies, such as factories

and schools. A small number of counties have

county building codes.

The pattern of existing requirements is not

J Preparation and Revision of Building Codes

limited to those forms that have been mentioned

but is further extended by zoning ordinances and

housing codes. The former, adopted locally in

accordance with State enabling acts, regulate the

height, use, and area of buildings in different

districts, so that the community can develop in an

orderly fashion. The latter, more frequently

State measures, are concerned with matters of

light, ventilation, sanitation, and safety features

applying to residential buildings. When housing

codes do not exist, these matters are usually

contained in building codes. Finally, there are requirements concerning the equipment of buildings, including the plumbing code, the electrical code, the elevator code, and the boiler code.

Custom differs as to whether these form chapters

of the building code or are separately published

and perhaps separately administered. There are
local traditions and differences in municipal organization that account for the varying treatment

accorded these subjects. Authorities agree that

whether they should be included in the building

code or not is largely a matter of local policy [9]. They are closely related to the buUding code even when not an integral part of it. It may be stated as a general principle that

where a State law is in existence, this takes precedence over a municipal ordinance dealing with

the same subject, although the ordinance may be more restrictive if this is desired.

Exam-pie of State code provision illustrating relationship

to local code.—Thi,s code shall not limit the power of cities, villages and towns to make, or enforce, additional or more

stringent regulations, provided the same do not conflict with this code or with any other order of the Industrial Commission [10].

Example of local building-code provision in same State.—

The provisions of this Code shall supplement any laws of the State of Wisconsin relating to buildings. Where

requirements of the State Code and the provisions of this Code conflict, the stricter requirements shall govern [11]. With such a multiplicity of measures to safe- guard the public, it is obvious that one of the first things for a local committee to do is to establish the

place of its project in relation to other legal

requirements that apply. This can only be done

by assembling and comparing the various documents that have been mentioned. The limiting

effects of State laws, the extent to which it is advisable to maintain harmony with existing

ordinances, or to absorb them, and the advantages

of keeping in step with the requirements of other

communities in order to avoid unnecessary confusion are all proper subjects for consideration.

IV. Police Power

The building code derives its justification from

the police power. This is the mherent power of

government to protect the people against harmful

acts of individuals insofar as matters of safety,

health, morals, or the like are concerned [12]. It

is a power forming the basis for State acts and

municipal ordinances dealing with these matters

and is of indefinite extent, although certain limitations concerning its use are to be found in the

Federal and State constitutions and in court decisions [13]. Fundamentally, under our system of

government, the power resides in the State and

may be transmitted to local authorities through

enabling acts authorizing the adoption of building

requirements or may be conferred upon mimicipalities when a charter is granted. Although the

use of the power has been more narrowly construed at some times than at others, there is an

apparent trend toward broadening its application

to include many matters falling under the general

head of public welfare [13]. In order to have a working knowledge of how

the code-making power has come into the hands

of the local authorities and what restrictions are placed upon it, it is well to consult the State constitution, any pertinent State enabling acts that

confer this power on the municipality, and the

provisions of the city charter. The corporation

counsel, or other person designated to advise municipal officials on matters of law, is in a position

to render skilled assistance in this matter.

V. Effect on Community

The influence of the building code on city growth

is greater than is ordinarily suspected. The re- quirements, operating over a period of years, affect the physical character of the community to a marked degree. There are other effects which

should be realized. If the requhements are so severe as to impose building costs greater than

those prevalent in other cities, new industries may

be diverted elsewhere, rents may be increased, and

other effects producted. If the permissible building heights and types of construction bear no rela- tion to the city water pressure and efficiency of the

fire department, msurance rates may be affected.

In a standard method for rating cities for fire- insurance purposes, the quality of the building

code and of its administration is a specific point

[14, 15]. If peculiar requirements are made, as is sometimes done, necessitating the use of nonstandard products, manufacturing processes may have

to be altered to meet' the special requirements of

the municipality concerned. Thus, the code can

be a beneficent influence guiding the general course of construction in safe channels, or it can

be a means of hampering the orderly growth of the

commimity that it is supposed to protect.

VI. Tests for Codes

Building codes, being documents which limit

and restrain people in their activities, inevitably are targets for criticism. It is important

to know whether such criticism is valid or is

frivolous and actuated by other than disinterested motives.

There are certain tests that can be applied

to an existing local code which will give some

4 Building Materials a<nd Structures Report BMS116
indication of whether it is reasonably adequate

or is in need of a thorough overhauhng. These

tests, together with any complaints that have

accumulated, constitute the basis for determination of what action, if any, is necessary.

The age of the code is one indication of its quality, for advances in the building art tend

to make provisions obsolete. Doubt is cast upon fully 45 percent of existing codes in this respect, for a recent survey disclosed that 27

percent of such codes are over 20 years old,

while another 18 percent are from 16 to 20 years. Some further investigation is needed before judgment can be rendered on this score, because fre- quent amendments and supplementary rulings of

officials may have brought the code into closer conformity with current practice than the bare

figures would indicate. However, these amendments have a tendency to clutter up the code and

make it increasingly difficult to understand. A

complete overhauling at intervals of not over 10

years, and preferably at somewhat shorter intervals, is desirable.

Looldng into the code itself, the next test is whether the contents are reasonably clear and

explicit and can be readily located. This applies

not only to the wording of individual sections but

to the way in which sections are put together so that they form a logical series of interrelated re- quirements. Experience with ambiguous provisions has led commentators to emphasize this point [16]. Certainly, if a desigaer or builder is expected to observe the law, he should be given a

fair chance to ascertain what is required. It is equally true that the administrative official should

have the backing of a document that leaves little or no room for argument. Ease of reference implies a complete index and adequate cross- referencing wherever necessary.

What might be termed the underlying philosophy of the code as evident in its requirements is also important. If it has been thought necessary

to write into the code a great amount of minute

directions and specifications, one of two things

may have happened: Changes in the art of construction may have forced frequent amendments

or may be responsible for complaints that the particular things specified in the code no longer apply.

In either case a lack of flexibility of adjustment

to new conditions is indicated. On the other

hand, if the code is expressed in terms of what is required in the way of strength, fire resistance, and

so on, leaving the determination of what will do

the job to appropriate tests, a better chance for

keeping requirements abreast of changing conditions will have been afforded.

A third way of appraising the code is to examine

it for the extent to which national standards have

been used. These standards for cpiality of materials, for methods of testing, and in some cases

for methods of construction, have been widely ac- cepted and furnish a definite basis for accepting or

rejecting pi-oposed elements of construction. When

advantage is not taken of these useful devices, a doubt is cast on whether full use has been made of

all available methods for keeping the code up to

date. One thing that should be watched especially in this connection, however, is the date of

the standard used, if this is given. The pages of

codes are strewn with dead standards which have

long since been superseded by more modern

requirements.

Evidence of careless draftsmanship is another

cause for holding a code to be in need of revision.

Examples of actual errors in codes are the use

of the term "feet" for "inches"; two different

requirements for the same thing; transposed

column headings in stress tables; and the use of

the term "maximum" where "minimum" is meant,

or vice versa. Such errors may be patent because

of their very absurdity and thus cause little harm,

but they cast doubt on the soundness of other

provisions and tend to create disrespect for the

code as a whole.

If the examination of these general features of

the code has resulted in an unfavorable reaction,

examination may proceed to detaUs. It will be

found that the code contains certain assumptions

and estimates which may or may not assure safety.

Included will be requhements about live and dead

loads, live-load reduction factors, permissible

working stresses, thicloiesses of walls, and thick- nesses of fire-protective coverings. The less these

partake of the character of estimates the more will they satisfy the purpose for which they are in- tended. To appraise them, it is necessary to compare them with values suggested by outstanding authorities in the buUding-code field, references

to which are available [17, 18, 19]. The attitude of the code toward acceptance of

new materials and new methods of construction is important. Innovations are multiplying today

and are demandmg equal treatment with older

materials which have proved their worth. If clear and explicit requirements are lacking in regard

to the procedure to be employed, the code is deficient in meeting one of the most pressing

problems of building regulation today.

Examination of the featxires mentioned should

give a good idea of whether a few well-selected

amendments will accomplish all that is needed or whether the task of preparing a new code should

be undertaken.

Preparation and Re vision of Building Codes 5
VII. Methods of Starting New Code

The impetus for code improvement comes

from various sources. In the 2,200 communities

where a building code of some sort exists, the local building official may call attention to its shortcomings. If the official is alert he will observe

those points at which the code is not abreast of

prevailing practice in other communities or of advances in engineering. He is in a peculiarly

good position to observe and record the shortcomings of the code in its day-by-day operations

and to call attention to the need for changes.

Sometimes the code is made the object of study

by a local group such as the local chapter of a

professional society, a civic association, or a

business organization such as a local board of

trade or real estate board. These bodies are in a

position to adopt the initiative where there is no

code because of their facilities for study and observation and their contacts with similar bodies in

other communities. In whatever way presented, a suggestion that improved code requirements are

desirable should be accompanied by a wellarranged list of arguments giving the evidence at hand. The local council or other legislative body

can then take cognizance of the situation and

arrangements can be made for the appointment of a representative committee to proceed with

official sanction.

VIII. Composition

The committee which is to prepare a building

code should be selected with care. Most productive results are generally held to come from

a comparatively small body supplemented, if necessary, by special committees dealing with

specific problems [20]. In a large committee,

responsibility tends to become diffused and dis- cussion is likely to be prolonged beyond reasonable limits. A. body of about seven members

has been found to operate efficiently. In larger

cities, it is sometimes desirable, in order to give

recognition to the great number of groups affected, to establish a sizable group, but in such cases the

situation can be met through creation of a comparatively small executive committee empowered

to lay out a working plan, make subcommittee

assignments, and follow up the work in process. The composition of the smaller body may well

incluae representatives of the groups which

design buildings, of those who are responsible for

figuring stresses and strains, of those who do the

construction, and of those who finance and manage

the completed structures. It should also provide

for ascertaining the point of view of the responsible

public authorities most concerned.

These general considerations point to the selec- tion of an architect, an engineer, a builder, an

owner, the building ofiicial (if there is one), and

the fire chief. A member of the city planning

commission has also been suggested [21] and a member of the building trades may also be helpful.

The numerous legal problems involved may make

it advisable to include a lawyer.

From whatever group chosen, members should

be expected to bring to the work a broad and

IX. Study

Before work on a new code is started, it is well

to make a thorough survey to bring out the

resources and characteristics of the municipality.

This is necessary in order to deal intelligently

6

f Local Committee

sympathetic understanding of the problem before

them and shoiild realize that they are acting, not

as the jealous conservators of some special point

of view, but as representatives of the public in a matter of vital concern. Capacity to work to- gether is one of the qualities that has been

emphasized.

Since the membership of the committee will normally be busy with their own aft'airs, it will be

necessary to select a competent secretary and to

set up a staff and see that the work is pursued with

diligence. When this is organized, it is well to establish a progress schedule giving estimated

dates when various stages of the work will be

completed. This schedide may not be lived up to, but it will provide a definite objective and can be

adjusted as time goes on. EXAMPLE OF PROGRESS SCHEDULE

ACTIVITY DATE

(1) Organization meeting held and collec- tion of available material started

(2) General method of treatment agreed upon, including arrangement, form,

method of numbering, etc

(3) Assignments made to subcommittees

or individuals

(4) Subcommittee reports due

(5) Draft of code completed

(6) Public hearings held

(7) Revisions incorporated and code edited

(8) Report submitted with recommendations '

Without some such means of measuring ac- complishment, the proceedings may drift along

^ for such a period that interest will die down.

^ City Needs \ with such matters as fire limits, building heights, |; and other matters. The physical lay-out of the ,| city, the nature and location of its industries, the

prevailing heights of buildings and their types of

Building Materials atnd Struetures B^fort BMS116 \
construction and occupancy, the likelihood of

I severe wind and snowstorms, the efficiency of the

! fixe department, the adequacy of the water-supply

system, the number and character of building fires, the qualities of building materials customarily

marketed, are all matters deserving of attention,

j Consideration should also be given to complaints

X. Collection of

There is a vast amount of material that can be

used in the preparation of code requirements. The

greater part of this consists of reports of tests,

1 proceedings of engineering societies, and compilations of data of various kinds. Some of this primary material is needed for consultation, but in

I many cases the basic facts have been assembled

I and evaluated by competent bodies, so that the

tedious process of analyzing a great mass of

I evidence can be avoided. In cases where a doubt

1 arises or where equally competent bodies disagree,

' it may be necessary to go back to the primary

j data and reach an independent conclusion.

I Information on results of research and testing, on building-code standards, and on available

5 sources of other material is obtainable from the

; National Bureau of Standards, Washington 25,

D. C. Request should be made for Letter Circular

1 928, "List of Published Material Relating to

] Building Regulation" and Letter Circular 902,

I "Building Materials and Structures Reports."

j These contain selected references and may be

supplemented by a more extensive listing of

1 publications of the National Bureau of Standards

j in the field of building technology.^

I The American Standards Association, 70 East

j 45th Street, New York 17, N. Y., will send information on published bailding-code standards

prepared by sectional committees operating under

j its procedure. Request should be made for

jl CB146, "Information on Sources of Material for

! Use in Preparing and Revising Local Building

Codes." This contains directions for obtaining

2 For such a listing, apply to tho National Bureau of Standards, Washington 25, D. O.

|i

I XI. Methods of

I There are several courses open in the preparation of requirements, each having certain advan-

! tages and disadvantages.

' In former days the impulse has frequently

i been followed to copy the code of another city,

I perhaps with some minor alterations to bring

it into better conformity to local conditions.

This method is pleasant and easy. It is not

recommended, however, for several reasons. The

I code thus copied may contain errors which will

j be perpetuated. The chances are that its supI posed adaptability to the community concerned

i Preparation and Revision of Building Codes

, 839821°—49 2

about the existing code, if there is one, and to suggestions for bringing it into harmony with practice

elsewhere. By thus appraising the local situation,

the committee will be better qualified to pass upon

the relative importance of proposals that come

before it.

Available Material

specific items, including addresses of publishing

organizations and prices. Work is continuing on

the further development of such standards and

announcements are issued from time to time of

theu' availability.

Complete codes recommended by organizations

which have devoted a great deal of attention to the subject are also obtainable. They iaclude

the following:

Building OfBcials Conference of America, Inc., Room 1503, 51 East 42d Street, New York 17, N. Y. Abridged Building Code, 1948. National Board of Fire Underwriters,

85 John Street, New York 7, N. Y.

National Building Code, 1949.

Pacific Coast Building Officials Conference, 124 West 4th Street, Los Angeles 13, Calif. Uniform Building Code, 1949. Southern Building Code Congress,

Brown-Marx Building, Birmingham 3, Ala. Southern Standard Building Code, 1948. A few well-selected building codes may also

be obtained, preferably from muaicipalities of

comparable size and geographical location. These

will provide a background of contemporary practice but should not necessarily be regarded as models to be followed.

It will be found that, if a start is made along

the lines mentioned, one thing will lead to another and that a comprehensive collection of

useful material will soon be established. This can then be indexed and examined by the committee stafl'. Summary reports on principal

features can be prepared for the information of

the cormnittee members.

Preparing Code

is more apparent than real. It has been characterized as a dangerous procedure which will

very likely be regretted later on [20]. Even more undesii'able is the practice of combining requirements from various codes. Unless done with the utmost care it is almost certain

to result in overlapping and duplication, sometimes of a ludicrous nature, and in inconsistencies

of policy.

Considerable use is being made of the complete

recommended codes already mentioned. For

smaller municipahties which are not able to

7
provide the necessary funds and personnel to develop a code, this procedure has a number of

advantages. It enables them to make use of experienced talent with little or no expense.

Research and discussion necessary to reach a balanced judgment have already been done. The

alert observer will note, however, that the complete reconunended codes do not necessarily agree

in a number of respects and this raises the problem of which is best for the particular conditions

in a given community. Whichever code is chosen

will probably require some modification in order

to meet these local conditions.

If it is decided to build up a set of requirements

making use of available material, it will be found

desirable to assign special subjects to subcommittees or qualified individuals. Arrangements

will have to be made for careful editing of various

proposals that are presented so that they will harmonize when put together. Other editorial

decisions will have to be made, such as arrangement of tabular matter and provision of suitable

headings.

Some of the labor of editing will be saved if agreement is reached at the outset on methods

of phraseology. For instance, the wording of ; mandatory requirements, of exceptions, and of

variations from the general rule may be agreed . upon in advance. General rules should be stated

first, followed by any modifications to the general

rule which may be included. The words "pro- \ vided that" where only one modification occurs, ; followed by "provided fm'ther" when there is more than one modification, should precede

such modifications. In a few instances it may I be found convenient, where there are excep- | tions to which a rule does not apply, to use a

' clause starting with the word "except" preceding the general ride. • From all this will come a set of instructions

which can be reduced to writing and distributed

to subcommittees working more or less independently on their special problems.

XII. Use o

Selecting the right kind of material and putting it in coherent form is not an easy matter.

The committee will very likely feel the need

for expert advice. It may also desire to be

relieved of much technical detaU and thus have more time to devote to matters of general

policy. Employment of a consultant accomplishes these ends. The competent consultant is able to provide expert craftsmanship

in the wording of provisions, a viewpoint unXIII. Code

A great deal of thought has been devoted to the best way to arrange the numerous topics

customarily found in building codes. The

matter has been discussed at length in meetings

of buUdmg officials [22, 23] and has constituted the subject of a report issued by the Department of Commerce Building Code Committee [20]. While there are two contrasting

schools of thought, the methods sponsored by

them represent a considerable reduction from

the varieties of arrangement that were employed some years ago. Whether any fusion

of these two main systems is possible, or whether one will eventually crowd out the other

is not clear at the present time. There are obvious advantages in havmg all requnements

appear in the same places and with the same

general method of treatment in aU codes, but

for the present, it is only fair to record that

both methods have given satisfaction.

One method makes of the code a series of

miniature codes, each concerned with a particular occupancy. Thus, one chapter may deal

f Consultant

afi^ected by local prejudices and rivalries, and

a specialized knowledge that enables him to

' distinguish between workable and unworkable

requhements. His experience in other cities makes it possible for him to anticipate many i of the questions that will inevitably arise and

to be ready with a reasonable solution which

conserves time and energy in the code-making

process. Arrangement

j with dwellings, another with office buildings, a

third with factories, and so on. Requirements

pertaining to the particular occupancy are given

in the chapter so headed, but as a practical matter

certain other chapters that apply to all occupancies must be added. These include requirements for administration, as weU as engineering

requirements relating to strength of materials

which would, of course, not change with occu- pancy. I The other method lists main headings accord- ; ing to subject matter rather than by occupancies. The chapters deal with fire resistance,

exits, fight and ventilation, and so on. It allows

for considerable compression since several

occupancies will frequently have the same re- quirements and it is not necessary to repeat

these requirements in successive chapters.

One universal method would be desirable but

is not yet here. There is greater agreement on

arrangement of main topics than on further ' details. The Building Code Correlating Com- i mittee of the American Standards Association

S Building Materials amd Structures Report BMS116 \
and. the Department of Commerce Building

Code Committee made use of substantially

the same main order. The following list of

chapters shows the main headings used under this

method, which is a slight modification and con- densation of the form sponsored by the Department of Commerce Building Code Committee,

the changes appearing in the form approved by

the Building Code Correlating Committee of the

American Standards Association.

1. Administration.

2. Definitions (including classifications).

3. General building restrictions.

4. Special occupancy requirements.

6. Light and ventilation.

6. Means of egress.

7. Loads.

8. Construction requirements.

9. Fire protection and fire resistance.

10. Chimneys and heating appliances.

11. Fire-extinguishing equipment. %

12. Precautions during building operations.

13. Signs and billboards.

14. Electrical.

15. Elevators.

16. Plumbing.

By consulting the code recommended by the

Pacific Coast Building Officials Conference [24] and that recommended by the National Board

of Fire Underwriters [25], it will be possible to see how more-or-less typical examples of the

two methods described appear in actual recom- mended requirements.

Whichever method is chosen, arrangements

for a thorough alphabetical index and for adequate cross-referencing of sections requiring such

treatment will be of great assistance to the user. This is a detail too often neglected. When

properly done, it often goes far to remove the

difficulties resulting from illogical arrangement.

The lack of a good index is responsible for much

difficulty in ascertaining what is actually required.

Closely linked with the problem of arrangement

is that of niunbering the articles and sections.

The numbering system needs to be such as to permit locating provisions readily and it should

lend itself to insertion of new requirements without

dislocating the sytem. A decimal system was employed in the recommended arrangement issued by

the Department of Commerce Building Code

Committee [20]. A modification of this is employed in the code of New York City. In this,

each number to the right of a decimal poiat is a

subdivision of the item just to the left. For

example, section 8.3.1.6 is the sixth item in the first subdivision of the third section of article 8. As

the numbers between decimal points may be

increased indefinitely, a great degree of flexibility

is obtained. On the other hand, the system is somewhat hard for the average person to grasp at

first. Example:

Article 8 Construction

8.1 Workmanship

8.1.1 Workmanship on Wood Frame Structures

8.1.2 Workmanship on Welded Structures

8.1.3 Storage of Concrete Materials

8.2 Excavations

8.2.1 Owner

8.2.2 Excavations Affecting Adjoining Property

8.2.2.1 Temporary Support of Adjoining

Property

A common method of numbering is as follows:

Example:

Article VIII Construction

Section 800 Workmanship

Section 801 Excavations

1. General

2. Support of neighboring buildings and struc- tures

The Building Code Correlating Committee of

the American Standards Association has expressed

preference for the second method as being some- what more quickly understood by the average

reader.

Another system is to number major headings

consecutively from one up, maia subdivisions being

assigned numbers in the himdreds having the first digit the same as that of the major heading, and

further subdivision being cared for: first, by

increasing the numbers consecutively in the

hundred series; then, by consecutive letters; and

finally, by a consecutive sei'ies of minor numbers.

There are several variations, aU employing the same general method.

Example:

Chapter 25 Wood

2501 General

2502 Determination of Required Size 2503 Allowable Unit Stresses

(a) Classification of Lumber

(b) Structural Lumber

1.2. (c) Yard Lumber

In a number of mimicipalities, ordinances on

various subjects are brought together in a general

code which has a numbering system of its own. In

such cases, the building code will natm-aUy con- form to the system chosen.

XIV. Performance Basis

There are several ways of wording requirements. One is to state the exact materials that

must be used for a given purpose, and frequently

the exact sizes and other details. If these are

used it is assumed that the desu-ed results will be

obtained.

Example.—-All cast-iron, wrought-iron, or rolled-steel columns, including the lug's and brackets on same, used

Preparation and Revision of Building Codes 9
for vertical supports in the interior of any fireproof

building, or used to support any fireproof floor, shall be

entirely protected with not less than 4 inches of hard- burned brickwork, terra cotta, concrete, or other fire- proof material, without any air space next to the metal,

securely applied . . . [26] Another way is to state the desired results and

leave the details out except as they may be cited

for illustrative purposes.

Example.— Iron or steel columns shall be protected by

material or assemblies having a fire-resistive rating of 4 hours for Class 1, fireproof structures, and of 3 hours for Class 2, fire-protected structures, except that interior columns in Class 2, fire-protected structures, for residence purposes need have only 2-hour protection [27]. The first way is clear and definite, but it makes

no allowance for varying resistance of protective

materials. The second is clear and definite so far as

it goes but throws no light on what materials and

thiclcnesses are acceptable. If it is accompanied by

examples or by information in an appendix to the

code listing what materials have passed the test, a complete pictm-e is obtained. The particular

virtue of this method is that new materials be- come available for use as soon as they have

demonstrated their value under test. With the

first method an amendment to the code may be

necessary to accomplish this purpose. There is a well-founded principle that it is not reasonable to specify both the required result and the manner

in which it should be accomplished. If the latter

is given, the result must be assumed while if the

former is given, freedom should be left to adopt

any legitimate way of achieving it [28]. Buildingcode requirements are in a transitional stage

today in which more and more emphasis is being

placed on performance as demonstrated under

standard test. The general principle has been

widely endorsed [20, 29, 30] and is finding its way into many recent codes. It is not feasible to word all requirements this way, for no standard

test may have been developed in some cases or the subject matter may not lend itself readily to

this treatment. Increasing attention to principles

of performance may be expected to suggest further

developments in this field [31]. It will be foimd

profitable to subject each proposed requirement

to analysis to see whether it can be so worded

that the end is emphasized and the means to the

end offers as great a choice of methods as possible.

XV. Use of Standards

A large amount of work has been done over a

period of years on the development of standards.

These standards apply to quality of materials, to methods of test, and in some cases to methods of

assembly of materials and performance under

conditions of use. They have been developed by

committees of national organizations having much

better facilities for gathering and evaluating data

than any local body can hope to possess. By

utilizing them, a local code committee can avail

itself of the great amount of painstaking work

that has been done elsewhere and can place its requhements on a footing with others that have

made use of the same material.

Increasing use is being made of nationally

developed standards. Notable examples are the

codes of Cincinnati, Ohio, and Kansas City, Mo.,

and the recently issued "Abridged Building Code"

of the Bailding Officials Conference of America

[32]. Care should be taken not to assume that the mere adoption of such standards is all that is necessary, however. It has been pointed out

that they may not always be readily available or comprehensible to the average builder and that

they may not be in as complete form as is necessary

for local use [33]. It is necessary to select them

with discrimination, make provision for their

convenient use by such devices as keeping copies

in the municipal office building and indicating

how they may be obtained for personal use, and

to provide such supplementary matter as may

appear desirable after careful study to make them

applicable to local conditions.

For quality of building materials, standards

are available from several sources. The American Society for Testing Materials, 1916 Kace

Street, Philadelphia 3, Pa., is most prominent

among nongovernmental sources. It is a nonprofit organization which issues standards prepared

by evenly balanced groups of producers, con- sumers, and general interests. It also issues

"tentative standards," which are felt to need

a period of seasoning before they acquire the status

of a full standard. Both types of standards are subject to periodical review in the light of increased

knowledge. They are in constant use by purchasing agents, specification writers, and others who

order building materials. They constitute a con- venient and accurate means of definitely identifying the materials which enter into construction.

In some cases, it will be desirable to make use

of Federal specifications prepared by the Federal

Specifications Boai'd. These specifications are prepared primarily for the use of government purchasing agencies and to some extent may reflect the special market for which they are written.

A list of these specifications and copies of individual specifications may be purchased from the

Superintendent of Documents, Washington 25,

D. C.

A series of "Commercial Standards" is issued

by the Department of Commerce. This series includes a number of standards which are applicable to building construction and codes. These

standards are prepared under a procedure developed by the National Bureau of Standards and

10 Building Materials aaid Structures Report BMS116
are issued only after they have been accepted in

wi'iting by a satisfactory majority of those

interested. A list of these standards may be

obtained from the Commodity Standards Division,

National Bm-eau of Standards, Washington 25,

D. C.

Certain " Simplified Practice Recommendations"

available from the same Division also have a

relation to building regulations, particularly in the

case of lumber, for which information on basic

grades and actual sizes as compared with nominal

sizes is given.

Standards approved by the American Standards

Association, 70 East 45th Street, New York 17,

N. Y., are also extremely useful in connection

with building-code work. They set forth approved

conditions for many features of building construction, including design loads, masonry, exits,

elevators, plumbing, and electrical work. They

go into their special subjects in considerable

detail and may be adopted as separate documents

with appropriate reference in the building code or be incorporated in the code itself. These standards are prepared under i^rocedures providing

careful safeguards that no one interest shall dominate the requhements to the exclusion of

fair treatment for others affected. It is these

precautions that account for the confidence with

which standards of the American Standards

Association are used by the public and the respect

shown them in the courts. Another group of standards is that prepared

by an organization dedicated to development of

improved uses of a particrdar material or by an

association of manufacturers interested in seeing

that theu product is utUized to the best advantage.

Some of these bodies maintain laboratories or contribute to support of research work and all are continually making substantial contributions to knowledge of building materials. Extensive

hterature is available, and standards and specifications are frequently proposed for consideration

of code-making bodies. Addresses of many of the associations from whom material is available

will be found in the publication CB146, "Information on Sources of Material for Use in Pre- paring and Revising Local Building Codes,"

issued by the American Standards Association.

The problem of ascertaining whether materials

actually delivered on the job conform to requhed

standards is handled in different ways in various

communities. Sometimes grade marks of manufacturing asociations may be demanded in the

requirements. Local officials frequently demand

that brand marks be applied to local products

and check conformance to quahty by periodical

inspection or test. Information on more extensive

application of methods of identification through

labeling may be obtained from the National

Bureau of Standards, Washington 25, D. C, and

from the Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc., 207

East Ohio Street, Chicago 11, 111. Having obtained copies of standards and

satisfied itself of theu' usefulness, the local code

committee is confronted with the problem of how

to refer to them. It is obvious that to print them

in their entit-ety in the code would cause that

document to assume huge proportions. Since it

is frequently imj^racticable to include them ver- batim, the question arises, what is a legal way to make them applicable. The problem has engaged

the attention of a number of authorities who have

discussed the difficulties in various jurisdictions.

Biu'ton [34] has suggested a State enabling act authorizing adoption by reference. Miller [.30] Irwm [35], and the Committee on Legislation and

Administration of the President's Conference on Home Budding and Home Ownership [29] have

suggested various solutions. Moulton [36] has

summarized the various methods that have been

employed and has discussed the problem in detail. The President's Conference on Fhe Prevention

has given extended consideration to the subject

[6]. More recent discussion appears in a report

by a committee of the American Standards

Association on model laws and ordinances [37]. At present a large number of codes refer to standards of quality of materials, making sure that there can be no misunderstanding of what is meant by giving the title, identifying nmnber,and

year of adoption by the sponsoring organization.

Example.—Hollow clay tile used for exterior, party,

or bearing walls shall be of manufacture and quality at

least equal to the "medium class," as prescribed by the Standard Specifications and Tests for Structural "Clay

Load Bearing Wall Tile (A. S. T. M. Designation C 34-

31) of the American Society for Testing Materials [38]. Smce standards are being constantly improved, however, and issued in new editions, a

large number of references in the code may

soon become obsolete, requiring frequent amendments to keep the code up to date. Attempts

have been made to meet this difficulty by

saying that the standard, as amended from

time to time, shall apply. This is a doubtful

expedient.

Another way is to state the fundamental

principles that apply and confer power on the

building official to make rules and regulations

carrying out the intent of the code. The

progressive and weH-informed official will rgake

national standards the basis of such ridings, and

can recognize new editions without recourse to modifying the code itself. Example.—Qualit}'' of Materials. All building materials shall be of a quality to meet the intent of this build- ing code, and shall conform to such specifications, consistent with its requirements, as may be promulgated by

the superintendent of buildings, or in the absence of such

specifications, to well-recognized standards for the materials in question [39].

Preparation and Revision of Building Codes 11
A third method is to state fundamental purposes and make the adoption of specified standards

prima facie evidence of safe practice. This does

not requne confining the approved standard to any

particular edition. A discussion of this method is presented in "Nationally Recognized Standards in

State Laws and Local Ordinances" previously

mentioned [37]. In some States, there is State legislation empowering municipalities to adopt standards or even complete code requirements directly by

reference, with suitable safeguards as to making

the standards available in the municipal offices. The choice of methods will be governed by

constitutional limitations and legal precedents

in the particular community concerned.

Example.-—An act relating to the passage of ordi- nances by cities or counties, and authorizing cities or counties to adopt ordinances relating to building construction, plumbing or electric wiring by reference to published codes on such subjects; provided not less than

three printed copies of such code or codes, in book form,

have been filed with the clerk. The People of the State of California do enact as

follows: Section 1. Ordinances passed by cities or counXVI. Acceptance of New

The rapid introduction of new materials and

methods of construction presents problems to every municipal building department. To a

considerable extent these problems will be anticipated through the use of the performance basis

already mentioned. It is necessary to supplement

this, however, by some provision which will make

it possible to pass upon the new development without unnecessary delay. Various methods are in

use, such as approval by the building official,

approval by a local board, or submittal of an amendment to the code.

Examples.—

(1) The Inspector of Buildings shall have full authority

to approve or disapprove any device, material or construction proposed to he used in building construction in the

city of Minneapolis, not specifically provided for in this ordinance, and may base such approval or disapproval upon

the results of satisfactory evidence of competent and

impartial tests or investigations conducted by others, or upon the results of satisfactory tests made under his direction [42].

(2) For the purpose of securing for the public the benefits of new developments in the building industry with

respect to construction, materials, processes and methods

and appliances to insure public safety, the Board may

make or cause to be made at the expense of the promoter

or submitter, investigations of new materials or modes of construction, intended for use in the construction of build- ings or structures in the city of Wilmington which are not provided for in this ordinance and not prohibited

thereby and shall adopt and promulgate rules of practice

and regulations setting forth the conditions under which

such materials or modes of construction may be used. It shall have the power to make similar investigations at the expense of the promotor or submittor in cases where a recommendation to Council for amendment of this ordi- nance is contemplated [43].

ties must be posted or published in a newspaper as re- quired by their respective charters or the general laws; provided that ordinances establishing rules and regulations for such matters as the construction of buildings

or the installation of plumbing or electric wiring, where

such rules and regulations have been published as a code in book form, may adopt such code or portion

thereof by reference thereto without further publication

or posting, provided not less than three (3) copies of ' such code have been filed for use and examination by

the public in the olfice of the clerk of such city or county,

as the case may be [40]. The desirability of legislation of this nature has

been studied by Federal agencies. The Housing

and Home Finance Agency, with the cooperation

of the Council of State Governments, the Department of Justice, and the Department of Commerce,

has drafted a model biU entitled "Model Bill for Statute Authorizing Adoption of Codes by Reference," which takes into consideration provisions

in existing legislation and also a numboi' of constructive suggestions that have come to its attention [41]. This is obtainable from the

Division of Standardized Building Codes and

Materials, Housing and Home Finance Agency,

Washington 25, D. C.

i JVIaterials and Methods

The problem has been considered by the Sectional Committee on Administrative Require- j ments for Building Codes A55 of the American | Standards Association which has recommended j the following treatment, which gives recognition { to the use of prefabricated assemblies: i 4-8. Alternate materials and constructions:

(a) The provisions of this Code are not

intended to prevent the use of any material or , construction not specifically authorized by this i, Code provided any such alternate has been

approved.

(b) The building official shall require suffi- cient evidence to substantiate any claims that

may be made regarding the use of such material

or construction and shall approve them, provided he finds that for the purpose intended the

proposed design and the material, method, or system meets the requirements of this Code for safety and health. (See Appendix 1-2.) , Note.—In jurisdictions in which acceptance of alternate materials or constructions is vested in a board

or in the local legislative body, appropriate changes in the wording of this Section should be made.

(c) Materials and constructions which , have been approved shall be used and installed

in accordance with the terms of approval. All such approvals, and the conditions under which

they are issued, shall be reported and kept on

file, open to public inspection.

(d) Where the component parts of prefabricated assembles are not readily accessible to inspection at the site, the building official may

12 Building Materials aotd Structures Rdport BMS116
accept certification that the assembly as in- stalled at the site is identical with specimens

upon which approval was based. If mechanical

and electrical equipment is so installed as not to be readily accessible to inspection at the site,

certification may be required that such ecjuipment complies with applicable laws and ordi- nances [44]. This provision is supplemented by others relating

to tests which provide complete machinery for

dealing with the matter. In larger cities where

it is possible to organize a board, this provides a broader base for judgment than the opinion of the

building official. In either case difficulties will be

encountered in passing upon radically new types

of construction unless standard methods of tests have been developed and facilities are available

for having tests made. Fortunately, attention is being given to fm'ther development of standard

test methods for assemblies by a committee of the

American Society for Testing Materials which has

already produced several tentative standards

[45, 46].

One of the responsibilities of the local official or board will be to select approved laboi'atories where

tests may be conducted at the expense of the

manufactm'er and whose reports may be accepted

as disinterested and conclusive. The method of

acceptance by amendment to the code is a much

slower process and may be subject to as much, if not more, danger of political or other mfluence,

than the method of acceptance by an official or board.

This matter of giving adequate attention to new developments in the construction field has

been emphasized repeatedly in comments on

building codes [9, 29]. It is one matter deserving of special attention by a local committee.

XVII. Rules and Regulations

j As already indicated, problems are continually

I cropping up concerning building regulation, and

I it often happens that the code has no answer for them. If the general principle governing such

i cases is set forth in the code, however, and power

I is granted in the code for some person or body to

j lay down specific conditions which carry out the

intent of the code, an awkward situation can be

bridged. It would be pleasant if the building

official could turn always to a particular page of

the code and cite a passage applying exactly to what is proposed. Experience has demonstrated

that this does not always happen.

! Frequently an interpretation by the building

I official w^iU meet the situation. Authorities differ

; on how far this interpretive power should be

I exercised by the official, and its existence is sometimes based on inference rather than on any

specific provision of the code. In other cases, the

power is expressly conferred.

Example.—Said Building Commissioner shall have full power to interpret any question arising under the provisions of this ordinance relative to the manner of construction or material to be used in the erection, alteration or

'! repair of any building [47].

f As has been indicated, opinion is not unani- mous on granting discretion to the building official

j in the matter of maldng rules and regulations.

; The case for it has been ably presented [48, 9, 20]

i and effective argiunents against it or cautions

! as to restrictions on its use have also been made

1 [16, 49]. Its application in particular local situations has also been fully discussed [50]. There

appears to be a trend toward its use ia recognition

, of the many complications that develop in ad-

! ministering a code. Perhaps as fan* a statement of

|i the reasoning back of this trend as can be made

; would be as foUows: ^Tien matters come up

Preparation and Revision of Building Codes

which are plainly new and for which no definite

guiding principle is laid down in the code, then an amendment is requhed; when, however, something comes up which is not exactly covered but

which is plainly related to some definite principle

akeady set forth, a ruling by the building official or by a designated board will accomplish the pm*-

poses of the code. By granting specific power to make rulings which merely carry out the intent

of the code and do not seek to create new requirements or strained interpretations, a useful administrative process is set up;

Example.—The board shall have power to adopt rules to secure the intent and purposes of this title and a proper enforcement of its provisions. The board shall also have

power to make rules and regulations respecting the ap- proval of materials and methods of construction [51].

Rules serve several useful pm'poses. They

provide machinery for acceptance of new materials, facilitate the early acceptance of standards,

and supplement the provisions of the code.

It is of com'se possible for such a power to lead

to abuses, and it is for this reason that it is often

qualified in various ways.

Example.—No rule of the superintendent of buildings

shall become effective until two weeks after notice of in- tention to adopt it shall have been given in the official newspaper and untU a public hearing on the same shall have been held. Such rule must be drawn in its proposed

form and open to public inspection at the time the notice to adopt is published. Rules adopted and promulgated as herein provided shall have the same force and effect as provision^ of this ordinance [52].

Example.—The Commissioner of Buildings may from

time to tirne adopt rules which, when approved by Council,

shall have the force and effect of ordinances. Until other

rules shall have been adopted and approved by Council, the recommended pro\'isions of the various appro^"ed

13
technical organizations with exceptions and additions as hereinafter specified in this Code, shall be considered as the rules applicable and shall have the force and effect of ordinances, except wherein such rules are not in conformity

with other provisions of this Code. The Commissioner of Buildings shall keep at least two copies of all such rules in

his office for public reference [53].

The importance of providing adequate safe- guards against arbitrary action have been re- peatedly emphasized [48, 30, 16]. Publicity

occupies a prominent place, involving such steps

as notice of intention to act, public hearings, and

making generally available the rule as adopted.

XVIII. Provisions for Changes in Code

Even the most flexible of requirements do not

escape the necessity of an occasional overhauling

to bring them fully abreast of the times. Circumstances arise which were not thought of at the

time the code was written and for which no adequate treatment can be accorded except thi'ough

revision or amendment to the code. Because of

inertia, the tendency will be to delay meeting the

situation squarely unless there is some definite

system set up in the code for its amendment and

revision. A method sometimes employed is to write into the code a provision placing upon the

building ofiicial or board the responsibility for periodical reports to the local legislative body on

desirable changes. This may form a part of the

customary annual reports or may be a separate

feature.

Example.—The board shall also act in an advisory

capacity to the Building Inspector and his assistants and

to the Council and shall, from time to time, recommend to the Council, such amendments of and additions to this ordinance as it may deem advisable. It shall have power

to conduct hearings with I'espect to proposed amendments

of this ordinance before recommending the same to the Council [54]. The point is that unless some agency is charged

with the duty of reporting in this connection, the

matter is lil^ely to he put off far beyond the time

when action should have been talsen.

XIX. Enforcement

Careful work in preparation of technical re- quirements may lose much of its effectiveness if subsequent enforcement is weak. To ensm'e that

the code will be intelligently and impartially applied, requirements frequently call for definite

qualifications for the building official, such as 5

years' experience as an architect, engineer, or

builder. Sometimes city charter provisions have

a bearing. Advice should be sought on what can

legally be written into the code on this matter.

A man of the requisite experience and character

to administer the code deserves protection from

pressure that will inevitably arise to make exceptions and grant favors. A civU service system

based on merit has been proposed as the most

efl^ective way to assm'e impartial administration

[55]. Certainly, the protection of the public

should oft'er a career of dignity and permanence

that will attract capable men. Where the merit

system does not apply, or cannot be introduced,

provision for appointment for a definite period,

such as 5 years, with removal only for cause after a public hearing, may meet the situation.

In small municipalities, the budget may not be

sufficient to attract applicants for the position and

the volume of building may be insufficient to occupy the entire time of an official. In such

cases, it may be better to retain the qualifications

mentioned and make arrangements with adjoining

muncipalities to pool resources with the object of

obtaining a good man who can serve all [56]. Some codes also make provision for making use of

consulting service in the case of unusual situations.

Exam-pie.—The Commissioner shall have the power to engage such expert opinion as he maj^ deem necessary to pass upon unusual technical issues which may arise, subject

to the approval of the Common Council [57]. The technique of enforcement has been dis- cussed in various papers [58, 59, 56] and need not

be enlarged upon here. It is pertinent to remark,

however, that a good code deserves good administration and that good administration deserves

the moral and financial support of the community

[60] . It is a mistake to regard the office of building official as of minor importance. Considering

the features of safety and health involved and the

volume of construction that goes on each year, the office is one of great responsibility. That

officials are conscious of this is evidenced by the

fact that they have organized professional bodies

whose meetings are devoted to serious consideration of administrative problems [61]. Recognition of the importance of the job and of the high

caliber of men necessary to enforce requirements

adequately and impartially will be forced upon the

attention of any committee which has to consider

the many technical matters that enter into a

building code.

14 Building Materials mid Structures Report BMSIM
XX. Board of Appeal

Reference has been made at several points to a board which might exercise certain powers.

This is a device which helps to make administration of the code effective by providing a place to which a person aggrieved by the building official's decision may go and state his case without the

necessity of slow and expensive court action. In

larger cities, it is common to have such a body.

It may be assigned various duties, among which

are consideration of applications for variances

from the strict terms of the code, if this is authorized by law, and appeals from the building official's interpretations or rulings. Other activities which

have been mentioned include passing upon the

merits of new materials and making recommendations for amendments to the code. While it may

not be considered feasible to establish such a board

in small communities, the possibility of creating

it should always be considered, for it constitutes a protection against arbitrary action of the local

official and provides an orderly way of adjusting

the code to new developments.

Exam.'ple: 7-6. Appeals.

(a) Any person aggrieved or the head of any city agency may take an appeal to the Board of Appeal from

any decision of the building official. (b) An appeal may be taken within 30 days from the date of the decision appealed from, by filing with the

building official and with the Board a notice of appeal,

specifying the grounds thereof, except that in the case of a

building or structure which, in the opinion of the building

official, is unsafe or dangerous, the building official may in

his order limit the time for such appeal to a shorter period.

The building official shall forthwith transmit to the Board

all the papers upon which the action appealed from was

taken [44].

XXI. Appendix

No matter how well the code is written, there

will always be questions about its provisions

which can be cleared up to a considerable extent by accompanying explanations and illustrations. These cannot be a part of the legal requirements

but they may be offered in an appendix consisting

of numbered sections adequately cross-referenced

to the corresponding provisions in the code itself. Such appendix matter may consist of brief comment on the reason for the particular provisions

concerned, references to test data, examples of

how the provisions work out in typical cases, and

diagrams showing approved practice. While this adds to the bulk of the code, it is so useful a method

of obtaining compliance through better imderstanding of requirements that it justifies the

additional effort necessary to supply it.

XXII. Conclusion

This discussion has touched upon certain aspects

of building regulation that are of interest to local committees charged with the responsibility of

writing building codes. An effort has been made

to provide further information through selected

references to articles by persons who have devoted

serious study to the subject. It will be apparent

from what has been said and from collateral reading that building codes are founded partly upon

fact and partly upon opinion. For facts, it is possible to turn to records of laboratory tests and

of experience with fires and structm^al failures. For opinion, it is necessary to resort to study of

views expressed by experts whose background

qualifies them to speak with authority; such opinion is likely to be better balanced when expressed

through the composite judgment of committees.

Present-day building-code committees have the

advantage of a great volume of test data, the pro- ceedings of professional and scientific societies

and of organizations of building officials, as well

as recommendations of standardization bodies

and national or regional committees. Use of

such material in an orderly way is of greater

benefit to a community than sjDoradic campaigns

to alter existing requirements under the cloud of some great catastrophe or in response to dissatis- faction with some isolated requirement that is felt to be out of step with the times. An attempt

has been made here to indicate the nature of this material and how it may be organized to serve a

useful piupose. The treatment has not been ex- haustive, for there are other points deserving of

consideration. Nevertheless, it is hoped that

sufficient information has been presented to enable

a local code committee to get its bearings and proceed with confidence in its work.

Acknowledgment is made to Alartin Goerl and

Theodora C. Bailey for assistance in preparing

this discussion.

Prefaration and Revision of Building Codes

839821°—49 3

15
XXIII. Selected References

R. F. Harper, The Code of Hammurabi (University

of Chicago Press, 1904).

F. Burton, History of Building Codes, Proc. 15th Annual Meeting of the Building Officials Conference of America, 1929, p. 40 (1929). Fitz-Elwyne's Assize of Buildings—I Richard I (1189) (The pioneer building ordinance). An

introduction by C. W. Tooke, Supplement to the Nat. Munic. Rev. 17, 555-563 (September

1928).

Ford, Morrow, and Thompson, Slums and Housing 1, ch. 2. (Harvard University Press, Cambridge,

Mass., 1936).

Report of the Select Committee on Reconstruction

and Production, United States Senate. Senate Report 829, 66th Cong. 3d Sess. (1921). Report of the Committee on Laws and Law Enforce- ment, The President's Conference on Fire Prevention, May 6, 7, and 8, 1947 (1947).

Official Building Code of the city of Detroit, sec. 102

(1936). Building Codes and Construction in the United States, NBS Technical News Bulletin 33, 31 (March 1949). R. P. Miller, Economic Housing as Affected by

Building Codes. Appendix C to Report of Committee on Construction, President's Conference

on Home Building and Home Ownership (1931). Mimeographed.

Wisconsin State Building Code, ch. 1, Order 5004

(1942). Building Code of the city of Wauwatosa, Wis.,

sec. 3.03 (1948). Eugene McQuillin, Municipal Corporations, ch. 25. Municipal Police Powers and Ordinances Relating

Thereto (Callaghan & Co., Chicago, 111., 1937). 2d ed. C. M. Stegner, Police power for building code enforce- ment, Building Standards Monthly 7, 18 (October

1938)". A Standard Schedule for Grading Cities and Towns

of the United States with Reference to Their

Fire Defenses and Physical Condition. Prepared

by the Fire Prevention and Engineering Standards

Committee of the National Board of Fire Underwriters. D. H. Merrill, The effect of building code adoption on

fire insurance rates, Building Standards Monthly 7, 11 (February 1938).

F. Burton, Some Legal Aspects of Building Codes

and Their Enforcement, Proc. 10th Annual Meeting

of the Building Officials Conference, 1924, p. 95

(1924). Information on Sources of Material for Use in Pre- paring and Revising Local Building Codes. Compiled by the Building Code Correlating Committee

of the American Standards Association in cooperation with the National Bureau of Standards. CB146 (1949). Mimeographed.

Publications Relating to the Preparation and Revision

of Building Laws, U. S. Department of Commerce,

CD-I (1947). Work Sheet for Checking the Dates of Standards and

Specifications Incorporated by Reference in Building Laws, U. S. Department of Commerce, CD-2

(1947). Recommended Practice for Arrangement of Building

Codes, BS BH8 (1925). Out of print. L. B. Upson, Drafting and enforcing a building code, Am. City Mag. 35, 685 (November 1926).

C. M. Stegner, Recommended Practice for Arrangement of Building Codes, Proc. 16th Annual Meeting

of the Building Officials Conference of America,

1930, p. 139 (1930).

[23] F. Burton, The Arrangement of a Building Code,

Proc. 9th Annual Meeting of the Building Officials Conference, 1923, p. 31 (1923).

[24] Uniform Building Code, Pacific Coast Building

Officials Conference, Los Angeles, CaUf. (1949).

[25] National Building Code Recommended by the National Board of Fire Underwriters, National

Board of Fire Underwriters, New York, N. Y.

(1949).

[26] Building Code and Housing Laws of the city of Memphis, Tenn., sec. 145 (1930).

[27] The Building Code of the city of New York, sec. 10.2.1 (1942).

[28] Recommended Minimum Requirements for Plumbing, p. 10. BS BH13 (1932).

[29] Report of the Correlating Committee on Legislation

and Administration. President's Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 11, 101

(1932).

[30] R. P. Miller, TTie standardizing of building codes, Architectural Forum, p. 147 (January 1928).

[31] Whittemore, Cotter, Stang, Phelan, Strength of Houses: Application of Engineering Principles to Structural Design, NBS BMS109 (1948).

[32] C. M. Stegner, The responsibility for obsolete building

codes, Building Standards Monthlv 7, 6 (February

1938).

[33] H. E. Plummer, Revision of building codes. Building

Standards Monthly 7, 12 (May 1938).

[34] F. Burton, An Enabling Act to Permit the Adoption of National Standards, Proc. 16th Annual

Meeting of the Building Officials Conference of America, 1930, p. 47 (1930).

[35] A. N. Irwin, Validity of an ordinance adopting a document by reference. Building Standards Monthly

7, 11 (Julv 1938).

[36] R. S. Moulton, The adoption of N. F. P. A. stand- ards in law. Quart. Nat. Fire Protect. Assn. 30, 217 (January 1937).

[37] Nationally Recognized Standards in State Laws and

Local Ordinances: A presentation of the problem

and possible solutions. A Report by Committee

Z56, on Model Laws and Ordinances, Am. Standards Assn., New York, N. Y. (1949).

[38] Building Code of the city of Lexington, Ky., sec. 816 (a) (1935).

[39] Building Code of the citj' of Rochester, N. Y.j sec. 78-1 (1941).

[40] State of California, Stat. 1927; Ch. 190, p. 347.

[41] Model Bill for Statute Authorizing Adoption of Codes by Reference. Housing and Home Finance

Agency (November 1948). Mimeographed.

[42] Building Code and Certain Special Ordinances,

Minneapolis, Minn., sec. 108.5 (1935).

[43] The Building Code of the city of Wilmington, Del.,

sec. 101-8(d) (1936).

[44] Administrative Requirements for Building Codes,

Am. Standards Assn., New York, N. Y., A55.1-

1948 (1948).

[46] Tentative Methods of Conducting Strength Tests of Panels for Building Construction, Am. Soc. for Testing Materials, "New York, N. Y., E72-47T

(1947).

[46] Tentative Methods of Testing Truss Assemblies,

Am. Soc. for Testing Materials, New York, N. Y., E73-48T (1948).

[47] Building Code and Housing Laws of the city of Memphis, Tenn., sec. 3 (c) (1930).

[48] R. P. Miller, The Fundamentals of a Building Code,

Proc. 15th Annual Meeting of the Building Officials Conference of America, 1929, p. 48 (1929).

[49] J. G. Houghton, Proc. 15th Annual Meeting of the Building Officials Conference of America, 1929,

p. 52 (1929).

16 Building Materials aoid Structures Bdport
[50] McGoldrick, Graubard, Horowitz, Building Regulation in New York City: A Study in Administrative

Law and Procedure, ch. 5. (The Commonwealth

Fund, New York, N. Y., 1944.)

[51] The Building Code of the city of New York, sec. 2.2.1.1 (1942).

[52] Building Code of the city of Rochester, N. Y., sec. 72-2,"3c (1941).

[53] Building Code of the citv of Cincinnati, see. 1109

(1933).

[54] The Building Code of the city of Wilmington, Del.,

sec. 101-8 (c) (1936).

[55] J. J. Backus, Civil Service for Building Officials, Proc. 15th Annual Meeting of the Building Officials Conference of America, 1929, p. 32 (1929).

[56] H. W. RiescJil, A Municipal Building Regulation

Department. Prepared under the auspices of the League of Wisconsin Municipalities (1936). Mimeographed.

o

Preparation and Revision of Building Codes

[57] Official Building Code of the city of Detroit, sec. Ill (1936).

[58] H. E. Plummer, Efficiency in a Building Department, Proc. 10th Annual Meeting of the lUiilding

Officials Conference, 1924, p. .59 (1924).

[59] J. W. Oehmann, Administrative Technique—-Build- ing Codes. Appendix II to R'>port of the Correlating Committee on Legislation and Administration. President's Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership (1931). Mimeographed.

[60] G. N. Thompson, The Importance of the Building

Official to His Community, Building Standards

M:onthly 16, 5 (February 1947).

[61] E. W. Roemer, Responsibilitv and Liability of Building Officials. In The Technical Tome— 1937. 22d Annual Convention Building Officials Conference of America, p. 7 (1937). Washington, April 28, 1949.

17

BUILDING MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES REPORTS

[Continued from cover page ii] BMS32 Structural Properties of Two Brick-Concrete-Block Wall Constructions and a Concrete-Block Wall Construction Sponsored by the National Concrete Masonry

Association 15fi BMS33 Plastic Calking Materials 15^ BMS34 Performance Test of Floor Coverings for Use in Low-Cost Housing: Part 1 15^ BMS35 Stability of Sheathing Papers as Determined by Accelerated Aging * BMS36 Structural Properties of Wood-Frame Wall, Partition, Floor, and Roof Constructions With "Red Stripe" Lath Sponsored by The Weston Paper and Manufacturing Co 10j5 BMS37 Structural Properties of "Palisade Homes" Constructions for Walls, Partitions, and

Floors Sponsored by Palisade Homes * BMS38 Structural Properties of Two "Dunstone" Wall Constructions Sponsored by the W. E. Dunn Manufacturing Co 10^ BMS39 Structural Properties of a Wall Construction of "Pfeifer Units" Sponsored by the Wisconsin Units Co 10^ BMS40 Structural Properties of a Wall Construction of "Knap Concrete Wall Units" Sponsored by Knap America, Inc 15fS BMS41 Effect of Heating and Cooling on the Permeability of Masonrj' Walls * BMS42 Structural Properties of Wood-Frame Wall and Partition Constructions with "Celotex"

Insulating Boards Sponsored by The Celotex Corporation 15^4 BMS43 Performance Test of Floor Coverings for Use in Low-Cost Housing: Part 2 15^ BMS44 Surface Treatment of Steel Prior to Painting 10^ BMS45 Air Infiltration Through Windows 15^ BMS46 Structural Properties of "Scott-Bilt" Prefabricated Sheet-Steel Constructions for Walls, Floors, and Roofs Sponsored by The Globe-Wernicke Co 10^ BMS47 Structural Properties of Prefabricated Wood-Frame Constructions for Walls, Partitions, and Floors Sponsored by American Houses, Inc 20fS BMS48 Structural Properties of "Precision-Built" Frame Wall and Partition Constructions

Sponsored by the Homasote Co 15^5 BMS49 Metallic Roofing'for Low-Cost House Construction 20^ BMS50 Stability of Fiber Building Boards as Determined by Accelerated Aging 10^ BMS51 Structural Properties of "Tilecrete Type A" Floor Construction Sponsored by the

Tilecrete Co 10^ BMS52 Effect of Ceiling Insulation Upon Summer Comfort 10^ BMS53 Structural Properties of a Masonry Wall Construction of "Munlock Drj' Wall Brick"

Sponsored bv the Munlock Engineering Co 10f5 BMS54 Effect of Soot on the Rating of an Oil-Fired Heating Boiler 10^ BMS55 Effects of Wetting and Drying on the Permeability of Masonry Walls 10c BMS56 A Survey of Humidities in Residences lOi

BMS57 Roofing in the United States—Results of a Questionnaire * BMS58 Strength of Soft-Soldered Joints in Copper Tubing 10^5 BMS59 Properties of Adhesives for Floor Coverings 15^ BMS60 Strength, Absorption, and Resistance to Laboratory Freezing and Thawing of Building Bricks Produced in the United States 15^

BMS61 Structural Properties of Two Nonreinforced jNIonolithic Concrete Wall Constructions. 10^ BMS62 Structural Properties of a Precast Joist Concrete Floor Construction Sponsored by

the Portland Cement Association 10^ BMS63 Moisture Condensation in Building Walls 15c BMS64 Solar Heating of Various Surfaces 10^ BMS65 Methods of Estimating Loads in Plumbing Svstems 15p

BMS66 Plumbing Manual 35ji BMS67 Structural Properties of "Mu-Steel" Prefabricated Sheet-Steel Constructions for Walls, Partitions, Floor, and Roofs Sponsored by Herman A. Mugler 15^ BMS68 Performance Test for Floor Coverings for Use in Low-Cost Housing: Part 3 20^

BMS69 Stability of Fiber Sheathing Boards as Determined by Accelerated Aging lOp

BMS70 Asphalt-Prepared Roll Roofings and Shingles 20p

BMS71 Fire Tests of Wood and Metal-Framed Partitions 20^

BMS72 Structural Properties of "Precision-Built, Jr." Prefabricated Wood-Frame Wall

Construction Sponsored by the Homasote Co 10f5 BMS73 Indentation Characteristics of Floor Coverings 10^ BMS74 Structural and Heat-Transfer Properties of "U. S. S. Panelbilt" Prefabricated SheetSteel Constructions for Walls, Partitions, and Roofs Sponsored by the Tennessee

Coal, Iron & Railroad Co 15^5 BMS75 Survey of Roofing Materials in the North Central States 15^ BMS76 Effect of Outdoor Exposure on the Water Permeability of Masonrj"^ Walls 15^ BMS77 Properties and Performance of Fiber Tile Boards 10^ BMS78 Structural, Heat-Transfer, and Water-Permeability Properties of Five Earth-Wall

Constructions 250

BMS79 Water-Distributing Sj'stems for Buildings 200 BMS80 Performance Test of Floor Coverings for Use in Low-Cost Housing: Part 4 150 BMS81 Field Inspectors' Check List for Building Constructions (cloth cover, 5 x IVi inches)-. 200

* Out of print. [List continued on cover page iv]
BUILDING MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES REPORTS

[Continued from cover page iii] BMS82 Water Permeability of Walls Built of Masonry Units . 25j5 BMS83 Strength of Sleeve Joints in Copper Tubing Made With Various Lead-Base Solders.. 10^ BMS84 Survey of Roofing Materials in the South Central States 15^ BMS85 Dimensional Changes of Floor Coverings With Changes in Relative Humidity and

Temperature 10^ BMS86 Structural, Heat-Transfer, and Water-Permeability Properties of "Speedbrik" Wall

Construction Sponsored by the General Shale Products Corporation 15(S BMS87 A Method for Developing Specifications for Building Construction—Report of Subcommittee on Specifications of the Central Housing Committee on Research,

Design, and Construction 15jS BMS88 Recommended Building Code Requirements for New Dwelling Construction With

Special Reference to War Housing * BMS89 Structural Properties of "Precision-Built, Jr." (Second Construction) Prefabricated Wood-Frame Wall Construction Sponsored by the Homasote Co 15(4 BMS90 Structural Properties of "PHC" Prefabricated Wood-Frame Constructions for WaUs,

Floors, and Roofs Sponsored by the PHC Housing Corporation 15^

BMS91 A Glossary of Housing Terms 15^

BMS92 Fire-Resistance Classifications of Building Constructions 30fS BMS93 Accumulation of Moisture in Walls of Frame Construction During Winter Exposure. _ 10^ BMS94 Water Permeability and Weathering Resistance of Stucco-Faced, Gunite-Faced, and

"Knap Concrete-Unit" Walls 100 BMS95 Tests of Cement-Water Paints and Other Waterproofings for Unit-Masonry Walls.. 25^

BMS96 Properties of a Porous Concrete of Cement and Uniform-Sized Gravel 10^ BMS97 Experimental Dry-Wall Construction With Fiber Insulating Board lOji BMS98 , Physical Properties of Terrazzo Aggregates 15ji BMS99 Structural and Heat-Transfer Properties of "Multiple Box-Girder Plywood Panels"

for Walls, Floors, and Roofs 150

BMS100 Relative Slipperiness of Floor and Deck Surfaces 100 BMSlOl Strength and Resistance to Corrosion of Ties for Cavity Walls 100 BMS102 Painting Steel 100 BMS103 Measurements of Heat Losses From Slab Floors 150

BMS104 Structural Properties of Prefabricated Plywood Lightweight Constructions for Walls,

Partitions, Floors, and Roofs Sponsored by the Douglas Fir Plywood Association. 300

BMS105 Paint Manual with particular reference to Federal Specifications $1. 00

BMS106 Laboratory Observations of Condensation in Wall Specimens * BMS107 Building Code Requirements for New Dwelling Construction 200

BMS108 Temperature Distribution in a Test Bungalow With Various Heating Devices 100 BMS109 Strength of Houses: Application of Engineering Principles to Structural Design.. $1. 50 BMSllO Paints for Exterior Masonry Walls 150

BMSlll Performance of a Coal-Fired Boiler Converted to Oil 150 BMS112 Properties of Some Lightweight-Aggregate Concretes With and Without an Air- Entraining Admixture 100 BMS113 Fire Resistance of Structural Clay Tile Partitions 150

BMS114 Temperatures in a Test Bungalow With Some Radiant and Jacketed Space Heaters.. 250

BMS115 A Study of a Baseboard Convector Heating System in a Test Bungalow ** BMS116 Preparation and Revision of Building Codes 150

BMS117 Fire Resistance of Walls of Lightweight Aggregate Concrete Masonry Units ** BMS118 The Stack Venting of Plumbing Fixtures _ **

• Out of print.

** In press.