DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

George K. Burgess, Director

ANNUAL REPORT OF DIRECTOR

OF THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

FOR FISCAL YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1928

MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS, BUREAU OF STANDARDS, No. 88

ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

DIRECTOR OF THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

TO THE

SECRETARY OF COMMERCE

FOR THE

FISCAL YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1928

( Miscellaneous Publication No. 88 )

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ii
CONTENTS

Page General activities 1

Salaries 5 Equipment *. 10 General expenses 11 Improvement and care of grounds 11 Testing structural materials 12 Testing machines 15

Investigation of fire-resisting properties 15

Investigation of public utility standards '. 16

Testing miscellaneous materials 17 Radio research 17

Color standardization 18

Investigation of clay products 19 Standardizing mechanical appliances * 20

Investigation of optical glass 21

Investigation of textiles, etc 21 Sugar standardization 23 Gauge standardization 23

Investigation of mine scales and cars 24

Metallurgical research 24 High-temperature investigation 25 Sound investigation 20

Industrial research 26

Testing railroad-track and other scales 30

Standardization of equipment 31 Standard materials 35

Investigation of radioactive substances and X rays 35

Utilization of waste products from the land 36

Investigation of automotive engines 36

Investigation of dental materials 38

Building for power plant 38 Power-plant equipment 38 Transferred funds 38 General recommendations 41 Appendix , 44 in
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BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Department of Commerce,

Bureau of Standards,

Washington, July 2, 1928.

The honorable the Secretary of Commerce.

Dear Mr. Secretary: I submit herewith a brief report upon the

work of the Bureau of Standards during the fiscal year ended June

30, 1928. The various outstanding accomplishments are grouped

according to the subjects for which the Congress had made specific

appropriations.

Organization.—An important change in the administrative organization of the bureau, resulting in increased efficiency through a better

grouping of the work, was carried out last September. Under the new arrangement the bureau's activities are divided into two main

groups, each under the immediate supervision of an assistant director.

The first group comprises all those activities having to do with scientific research and testing, the development, construction, custody, and

maintenance of reference and working standards, and their intercomparison, improvement, and application in science, engineering, industry, and commerce. The second group includes the supervision,

direction, formulation, and coordination of commercial standards,

with particular reference to the needs of industry, including the

activities of the division of simplified practice, commercial standards

group, and part of the work of the division of building and housing

relating to codes and standards. In addition, the correlation of the

work of the Federal Specifications Board with commercial practice,

and liaison duties with other branches of the Department of Commerce and with other departments in questions relating to commercial

standards, are included in the work of this group. The assistant

director, in charge of research and testing, has continued to act as

liaison officer on matters of aeronautics with other branches of the

Government.

Cooperation.—Most of the bureau's work is made effective through

voluntary cooperation of the State and municipal governments, scientific and professional societies, trade associations, manufacturers, and

individuals who accept the findings of the bureau and incorporate

them into a State law, a municipal ordinance, a dimensional standard,

or a standard of quality, performance, or practice. The extent of

these relationships is shown by the fact that at the present time the

bureau is coorjerating with over 200 scientific, technical, and industrial organizations.

GENERAL ACTIVITIES

1
2 BUBEAU OF STANDABDS

One of the most effective ways in which the bureau cooperates with

American industries is through its research associate plan, referred

to in past annual reports. At the close of the fiscal year there were

82 of these associates stationed at the bureau, representing 46 industries and associations.

Personnel matters.—The regular staff at the close of the fiscal year

numbered 859 employees. In addition, there were 81 employees , assigned to the bureau under the research associate plan and 49

miscellaneous assignments, including guests and details from other

branches of the Government, making a grand total of 989 persons. The turnover was 23.3 per cent. There were 469 promotions and

the average salary ($2,243) increased by $33. The status of the

personnel shows an increase of 65 employees as compared with last y

ear

; Visiting committee.—This committee has retained its active interest in the bureau's problems and has been of great assistance in many

important matters of policy. Thus, four members of the committee

appeared before the House Committee on Rivers and Harbors in sup- port of the bill to establish a national hydraulic laboratory at the

bureau. The committee has held two formal meetings at the bureau

and made important recommendations to the Secretary of Commerce

on the bureau's needs. Members of the committee have also visited the

bureau frequently. The present personnel of the committee is S. W.

Stratton, Gano Dunn, William F. Durand, W. R. Whitney, and

John R. Freeman.

International relations.—The usual close cooperation between the

national standardizing laboratories of other countries and the Bureau

of Standards has been maintained. Negotiations have been carried on for the improvement of standards on which electrical, thermometric, photometric, and radio measurements depend. Members of

the staff attended meetings of the International Congress for Test- ing Materials, International Chemical Union, International Photo- ;j metric Congress, the International Electrotechnical Commission, and

the International Radiotelegraphic Congress.

The Seventh International Conference on Weights and Measures was held in Paris during portions of September and October,

1927. In many respects the conference was the most important that I has been held since the first meeting in 1875. Thirty-one nations I were represented, the delegates from the United States being the

former and present directors of this bureau. Action was taken on j several matters of fundamental importance—such as the establishment of an international temperature scale, the definition of the meter in terms of light waves, and the proper basis for the inter- national electrical units. The actions of the conference will go far to insure uniformity

everywhere In all quantities involving length, electrical, and temperature measurements, and a uniform basis for the calibration and

j certification of instruments used in such work.

The proposition of the United States to define the length of the in- ternational meter in terms of the wave length of the red radiation

from the cadmium lamp was adopted. The value decided upon was!

that of Fabry and Perot—1 meter =1,553,164.13 waves under certain ^ definitely stated standard conditions. This decision is of great im-j
REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 3

portance, because so many precise measurements of science and industry are now made in terms of light waves, and will be particularly

valuable for setting up and intercomparing gauge blocks and other

subdivisions of the meter and yard.

In order to insure the best solution of the question concerning the

basis of the electrical units, a special technical commission of 10 members, representing the several national laboratories and others, was

appointed. The Bureau of Standards is actively at work on its part of the program. A similar committee was set up to define the

standard temperature for industrial calibration of gauge blocks.

Weights and measures conference.—The Twenty-first National Conference on Weights and Measures was held on May 22 to 25, inclusive. The attendance (258) was the largest on record, both as to number of delegates and guests and as to States represented. Delegates were present from 28 States and the District of Columbia.

Special studies had been made at the bureau on the drainage of

gasoline-measuring devices, grease-measuring devices, lubricating-oil

bottles, and on the transmission drive for taximeters, an'd reports on

these studies were presented to the conference. Through representation on the conference committee on specifications and tolerances, the

bureau assisted in the development of new and amended codes of

regulations for commercial devices which were adopted by the conference, principally affecting gasoline-measuring devices, grease- measuring devices, and lubricating-oil bottles. The conference also accepted the bureau's conclusions on the transmission drive for taximeters, and, by resolution, approved this method of drive. The

relation of business to the weights and measures official was presented

in several papers.

Conference of State utility commission engineers.—The sixth annual conference of State utility commission engineers was held at

the bureau on May 31 and June 1 and was attended by 24 engineers

from 12 States, the District of Columbia, and two Provinces of

Canada. The subjects discussed included depreciation in connection

with appraisals, effect of reduced cost of steam generation on the development and potential value of water powers, a full-price clause in

rates for domestic and commercial gas service, inducement form of

rate for residential use of gas and electricity, development of rural

service in California, gas service problems in connection with the

revision of the bureau's circular on standards for gas service, acci- dents and approved protective devices at grade crossings of railroads

and highways, and a discussion of the fourth edition of the National

Electrical Safety Code.

American Engineering Standards Committee.—Cooperation has

been continued with the American Engineering Standards Committee. The bureau is sponsor for 12 standardization projects and is represented on 71 committees having for their object the formulation

of "American standards."

National Screw Thread Commission.—Seven meetings of the commission have been held during the year. They have been attended

by many representatives of industry. The commission has ready for

final approval and publication a new report which is a revision and

extension of its 1924 report. The major items completed during the

year were the establishing of increased maximum minor diameters
4 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

of nuts in the range of sizes below 1% inches ; improving the pitch

diameter tolerances for threads of special diameters, pitches, and

lengths of engagement ; the development of revised specifications for

threading tools, including tap dimensions and tolerances, and tapdrill sizes; the development of a 12-pitch thread series for applications where special threads are required; and the development of

standard sizes of blanks for plain cylindrical and threaded plug and

ring gauges. The last item is the work of the American Gauge

Design Committee, comprising manufacturers and users of gauges,

to which the commission has lent its support.

The commission has continued its cooperation with the standardization committee of the American Petroleum Institute in the standardization of rotary drilling taper joints, pumping equipment, and

gauges.

American Gauge Design Committee.—The bureau has participated

in the activities of the American Gauge Design Committee in drawing up dimensional specifications of blanks for plain and threaded

plug and ring gauges over the complete size range up to 4% inches.

Federal Specifications Board.—The board has been in existence for

nearly seven years and has just promulgated its 578th purchase

specification. These specifications are being used more and more by

State and municipal governments, institutional bodies, and by in- dustry. Much of the research and experimental work necessary in connection with the formulation of the Federal Specifications Board

specifications is done by this bureau.

Relations to Government departments.—The bureau is authorized

to receive funds for specific research projects from other departments,

and in pursuance of this policy in the past year the bureau has re- ceived $275,000 for the support of 30 projects representing work for

7 Government establishments. In addition, the bureau does a great

deal of consulting, specification, and testing work for various

branches of the Government.

Publicity.—In addition to its regular official publications, of which

134 were issued during 1928, the monthly Technical News Bulletin

has been mailed as heretofore. More than 217 papers have been pub<

lished in outside technical journals. There have also been released to the press over 200 short accounts of interesting achievements, to- gether with man}- photographs illustrating the bureau's work. These news items serve as nontechnical progress reports on the activities of the bureau to the taxpayers of the country. There was also issued

the second annual number of the Standards Yearbook, giving a sum- mary of standardization activities in the United States and abroad

for the past year. Testing.—The testing work for the public and Government de- partments continues to be a heavy drain on the resources of the

bureau. The following table gives'a summary of the testing activities. The work often merges with the investigational and research

fields and requires in addition a considerable outlay for upkeep of reference and laboratory standards. A new item of particular in- terest which appears in the table for the first time is the testing of airplane engines. Forty-one determinations were made on four commercial engines submitted through the aeronautics branch of the

Department of Commerce.
REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 5

Numbers of test items, determinations, and fee value for tests completed durint the -fiscal year ended June SO, 1928

Kind of instrument or material, class of test, or nature of service rendered

Number of test items for—

Public

Govern ment

depart- ments and

State

institu- tions

Bureau

of Stand

ards

Total number

of test items

Number

of deter

ruinations Fee value

Electrical standards, instruments, and materials.

Electric batteries

Electric lamps and lighting equipment...

Length-measuring devices Gauges and gauge steels Miscellaneous dimensional determinations

"Weights and balances

Scales Timepieces

Volumetric apparatus Hydrometers

Density determinations, etc Laboratory thermometers

Clinical thermometers. » Pyrometers, calorimeters, etc Insulating materials

Fire-resisting materials Fuels and lubricants Automotive equipment, etc.. Airplane engines

Optical instruments and materials Carbohydrates

Radioactive materials Engineering instruments and appliances Aeronautic instruments. Aerodynamic tests of models..

Physical properties of engineering materials Sound producing and measuring instruments Making of special castings Fusible boiler plugs Metallographic examinations

Miscellaneous metallurgical tests Pottery and chinaware

Glass

Refractories and heavy clay products Cement, concreting materials, lime, etc... Stone and sand-lime brick Miscellaneous ceramic materials Rubber

Textiles Paper.

Leather

Paint, varnish, and bituminous materials. Chemical analysis of metals Chemical tests of miscellaneous materials.. Distribution of standard samples

1, 270

143 392

188

1, 345

2, 262

3, 872

8 268

7, 578 364

13

2, 526

22, 470

263

109

25 246

4042

1710

110

IS

323

,372

500

2, 522

2, 443

281

107 425

1, 869

865

5

4, 748 20138

783

20, 97654

35

61

1, 720

221

4 249

1, 734

11

1, 034

638

4

2, 927

3334 359 282

231 144

60

201

11, 913

34

1, 348

1, 496

6, 842

1, 791 292

1, 438

302

1, 110 577

435

"793

1, 055

106 764

81

27 716

1 240

621

100

174

4739

1 38

15 226

85 400

1042

76

247

50

109 200

456

262

387

343

95

3

2, 205 2,665

J 3, 628 469

2, 507

2, 793

6, 505 954 300

13, 042

566

291

3, 930

43, 446

498

155

2214 827

1, 736 670

1, 164 694

15

3, 075

66 260

359

367

631

154 102

279

12, 19384

1, 457

1,696

7, 305

2, 075 320

1, 525 648

1, 228

6, 952

3, 754

5, 608

3, 714

2, 544

11, 837

12, 277

14, 066

25, 254

3, 683

26, 543

1, 739

535

17, 860

173, 808

6, 168 137 278

12, 570 340

41 1,208 2,634

670

1,283

2, 955

23

6, 125

67 929

* 718

647

1, 105 569

161

1, 175

50, 841 395

4, 406

11, 192

17, 904

6, 460

1, 386

11, 330

2, 862

4, 788

$19, 644. 65

19, 173. 50

2 19, 665. 97

2, 624. 50

2, 267. 00

5, 826. 85

6, 065. 90

39, 040. 50

702. 00

9, 894. 10

825. 15

844. 00

8, 158. 75

4, 078. 40

6, 609. 50

870. 00

872. 20

20, 357. 50

2, 607. 00

6, 050. 00

4,311. 90

2, 717. 00

3, 668. 50

12, 745. 50

7, 995. 50 225.00

17, 958. 95

678. 50

1, 777. 50

717. 00

2, 897. 00

2, 917. 00

1, 115. 00

352. 00

2, 641. 00

98, 910. 00

1, 147. 00

8, 075. 00

19, 564. 50

34, 178. 50

18, 879. 00

2, 049. 00

16, 051. 00

5, 376. 50

6, 874. 50

15, 117. 00 Total 51,132 72, 942 ,139 132,213 3 454,589 H65, 116.82

1 In addition the bureau inspected 1,319,456 incandescent lamps at various factories for other branches of

the Government.

2 Includes fee value of $3,484.27 for lamps inspected at factories.

3 Of these totals 161,951 determinations were for the public, fee value $67,584.32; 267,666 determinations were for the Government department and State institutions, fee value $351,268.50; 24,972 determinations

were for the bureau, fee value $46,264. The number of test items and determinations necessary in connection with the bureau's own work of research and standardization, with the resulting fee values, are not included in these totals. SALARIES ($572,060)

This fund provides for personal services of administration and

operation; the establishment, upkeep, and comparison of standards;

the development of methods of test, as well as most of the testing;

and for the determination of fundamental constants of importance in

physics, chemistry, engineering, and technology not otherwise provided for. 11289—28 2
6 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Basic electrical units and standards.—The director of the bureau

has been appointed as one of 10 members of an International Advisory Committee on Weights and Measures in coordinating more

closely the systems of electrical units used in different countries. An

American advisory committee has been formed and has unanimously

recommended that the electrical standards of the future should be

based upon the absolute system of units, with the understanding that

the necessary researches shall be carried out at the national laboratories of the leading countries. The bureau's program of research

in this field has therefore been accelerated as much as possible. Pre- liminary results have been obtained in a redetermination of the absolute value of the ampere by means of the Kelvin-type current bal- ance, and work has been begun on a second type of balance, as well

as on a redetermination of the ampere by the silver voltameter. A

determination of the ratio of the international to the absolute unit of

inductance (the henry) has been practically completed and gives

the result that one international henry equals 1.0005 absolute units. This agrees almost exactly with absolute measurements of the ohm

made in the national laboratories of Great Britain and Germany.

Standards of candlepower.—The bureau participated in a meeting

of the International Commission on Illumination in Bellagio, Italy.

Arrangements were made for international exchange and measure- ments on blue glasses designed to place secondary candlepower standards on a definite basis. 'In the measurement of the newer types of

electric lamps large color differences are experienced, and agreement on secondary standards is very desirable.

Magnetic testing and research.—Adequate standards and methods

should be available for the standardization of magnetic permeameters. An investigation of testing methods is in progress and suit- able standards are being prepared. Testing methods for use with

alternating currents and very weak fields are also being studied, since a satisfactory method of this type is needed for testing radio trans- formers, choke coils, and the like. Apparatus was constructed and

set up for studying the thermomagnetic properties of materials to

assist in the study of the constitution and properties of ferromagnetic

materials. The effect of repeated stresses on magnetic properties has

been investigated and a paper issued on the choice and utilization

of permanent-magnet steels. Development of seismometer.—A more complete theory of seis- mometers employing electromagnetic and optical magnification and

electromagnetic damping has been developed and an experimental

instrument constructed. The results indicate that it is superior to the best seismometers now obtainable for observations on distant

earth disturbances.

Constant of gravitation.—Data for five additional values of this constant have been obtained to supplement the five values obtained

last year. The computation of these results will require several

months. Apparatus has been designed and constructed and is now

being erected for the purpose of obtaining still another significant

figure in the value of this constant. Testing standards of mass.—Since all values on weights certified depend on the values of the high-precision laboratory standards of

the bureau, the validity of these latter values is a matter of extreme
REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 7

importance. The two principal sets of these standards were re- calibrated, in terms of certain platinum-iridium standards, the

values of which were determined by direct comparison with the

national standard some time ago. The accuracy of this work has

all been between one part in a million and one part in one hundred

million, depending upon the size of the weight involved. Values

obtained by comparisons conducted incident to the routine testing

' of weights had indicated the probability of changes in the values

of several of these weights and the approximate size of these

changes. The new values confirm this hypothesis. The changes were of the order of a few parts in ten million. While such changes

as these are too small to have resulted in any error in corrections

reported by the bureau on weights submitted for test, the new values

are of very great importance, since not only do they place the work

of the bureau upon a more stable foundation, but they also reduce

the number of standards and the number of observations which must- be used in order to assure values of a predetermined precision.

Orifice-meter investigation.—Cooperation with the natural gas

department of the American Gas Association has been continued.

The effects on orifice-meter indications of fittings close to the orifice have now been determined. Tests on the effect of widely varying

rates of flow upon the discharge coefficient were studied, and the

results obtained were very satisfactory. During the winter apparatus was designed and built for use in orifice tests under very high pressures. Work has already been started on the program for the present

season, which includes appropriate tests to determine effects of (1)

actual pipe size, (2) high line pressures, and (3) flange design.

Electric clocks—-Two types of mantel clock designed to operate on

the regular household electric current were given a service test extending over several months. One of these is essentially a fre- quency meter, the hands being driven by a small synchronous motor

running in phase with a 60-cycle alternating-current generator. In

the second type of clock the electrical energy is used only to wind the

mainspring, the clock mechanism then being driven by the spring in

the usual way.

Ruling of line standards by the use of light waves.—Five years ago

6-inch line scales, divided into intervals of 1 inch, and with one of

these intervals subdivided into fortieths, and free from errors greater

than one one-hundred thousandth of an inch, were ruled by using light waves as the standard for stepping off the distances. The machine

has been improved and perfected, so that now line scales 4 inches or

10 centimeters in length, or any subdivision of these lengths, can be

ruled with an error not greater than two one-millionths of an inch, on any interval.

A larger machine is nearly completed. Its six ways (5 feet long)

upon which the carriages slide have been made straight and parallel

within one one-hundred thousandth of an inch. With this machine it

is planned to make scales 1 meter or 40 inches in length with errors not greater than three one-millionths of an inch. Tests of astronomical objectives.—The modified Hartmann test for

the measurement of the aberrations of axial image points has been

extended to permit its application to points off the axis. This method

of test is particularly important, in that it yields results similar to those obtained with the lens interferometer and permits the results
8 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

to be obtained without the use of any optically worked surfaces additional to those of the component under test. Moreover, the results are readily interpreted in terms of the wave theory instead of in terms of geometric optics.

Refractometry of high precision.—Particular attention has been

given to the minimum deviation refractometry of optical glass,

including not only geometrical requirements but also the control of

those conditions, such as temperature, pressure, and humidity, which

affect the velocity of light either in the glass itself or in the reference

medium.

Effect of solarization on window glass for transmitting ultra-violet

rays of sunlight.—Solarization by exposure to the ultra-violet radiation emitted by artificial sources and by the sun decreases the trans- mission of most of these glasses of those ultra-violet rays of short wave lengths which are generally recognized by the medical profession as having a therapeutic value. Glasses which transmit 45 to 60

per cent of these rays, when new, transmit only 20 to 35 per cent after complete solarization. Glass substitutes, consisting of a cellulose product upon a wire mesh, may lose almost entirely their transmitting power of these ultra-violet rays after exposure to the weather.

Transparency of fabrics to ultra-violet radiation.—Fabrics made

of cotton, linen, silk, wool, and rayon, especially when dyed, have a relatively low transmission of the violet rays ; hence, to obtain beneficial therapeutic results an open-weave fabric should be worn.

Accelerated weathering tests.—Considerable progress was made

on accelerated tests to simulate weather decay and on quantitative

methods of determining the time of breakdown of organic protective coatings. Equipment has been designed and- constructed which

simulates the effects of sunlight, rain, and temperature changes.

Small panels coated with paint, varnish, or other material can be

placed in this apparatus and their relative endurance determined in a few days instead of months, as would be the case in ordinary

weathering tests.

' Density of creosote oils.—An investigation of the density and

thermal expansion of creosote oils was carried out at the request

of a joint committee representing the American Wood Preservers

Association, the American Society for Testing Materials, and the

American Railway Association. The necessary information has

been secured, and tables are now in preparation for use by the woodpreserving industries.

Density of gasoline.—An investigation of the density and thermal

expansion of " cracked " gasolines and blended motor fuels has been

carried out in cooperation with the American Petroleum Institute. The results of this work will serve as an important supplement to the

work previously done on petroleum oils at the bureau.

Plastic flow of lubricants and paints.—A new characteristic con- stant of plastic materials has been discovered in addition to two such constants previously used. These three constants are independent of the dimensions of the testing apparatus itself, at least over the cus- tomary range of conditions employed in such testing, and therefore

constitute a definite step of progress toward a rational basis for measuring and specifying the consistency of lubricants, paints, and

other plastic substances.
REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 9

Reclamation of used lubricating oils.—At the request of the Chief

Coordinator it has been shown that waste oil as obtained from Government departments or public filling stations can be readily re- refined so as to meet the Government specifications for new oil. Properties of petroleum oils.—A review of available data showed

that most of the thermal properties of petroleum oils could be predicted from a knowledge of the density of the oil at one temperature.

Gas analysis apparatus.—Several improvements have been made

in volumetric gas analysis apparatus, including convenient means

for maintaining an atmosphere of nitrogen in the distributing train, better means of controlling flow, and improvements in absorption

pipettes.

Characteristics of flames.—The characteristics of flames of various

gases and the relation of these characteristics to the useful applications of the gases are being investigated. Several of the properties

of flames of hydrogen, acetylene, propane, carbon monoxide, and

carburetted water gas have been measured. Several new phenomena

were observed, the most interesting of which was the formation of

polyhedral flames on burners of circular cross section. Material for filling etched lines in thermometers.—A mixture of

water glass and an organic pigment was found to make a durable

color, which remains in place under most of the conditions to which

thermometers are subjected in use. Intercomparison of thermoelectric temperature scales.—Two standard thermocouples from the Bureau of Standards were calibrated at the British and German national laboratories. The results indicate

that the scales of the three laboratories in the range 660° to 1,063° C.

are in agreement to about 0.5° C. Further intercomparisons are expected to show closer agreement than this preliminary one. Platinum resistance thermometry.—Platinum resistance thermometers have been calibrated from —190° to +660° C. according to the

procedure specified for the International Temperature Scale for interchange with the other national laboratories.

Low-temperature investigations.—Experimental work was completed on the following investigations: Activation of cholesterol at

liquid oxygen temperature, freezing points of the benzene-toluene

system, absorption spectra at low temperatures of some of the aro- matic hydrocarbons, absorption spectra of liquid oxygen, nitrogen,

and hydrogen. Hydrogen of a purity better than 99.98 per cent has

been supplied by the cryogenic laboratory in response to several

requests.

Platinum metals.—Particular attention has been given to the elimination of the last traces of iridium from pure rhodium and to the

development of a complete procedure for the preparation of very

pure iridium. Results of all work thus far done on the purification

of the six platinum metals were used as the basis of a publication on

this subject. An investigation of methods for the accurate determination of each of the six metals was begun. Procedures for the

determination of platinum and rhodium may be regarded as satis* factorily worked out, with work on iridium, osmium, and ruthenium

in progress. The first phase of an extended investigation of the

hydrolysis of platinum metal chlorides was completed. Rhodium
10 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

was the first element studied. The chemical work on the search for

two new elements (atomic numbers 43 and To) in crude osmiridium was completed. Further work on this project depends on X-ray

spectrographic analysis.

Analytical reagent chemicals.—The critical study of methods for

the determination of small amounts of impurities in reagent chemicals was continued. Approximately 50 individual methods were

investigated and in many cases modified or replaced by more suitable

methods. This work formed a material part of the preparation of

the specifications for about 24 chemicals which were issued by the

American Chemical Society.

Fundamental constants and properties of pure metals and their

alloys.—Publication has been made on the metallographic properties

of ferrite and on the density of pure iron and carbon steels after various treatments. Progress has been made in determination of

various fundamental properties of very pure nickel, thorium, zinc,

and cadmium. The development of strain lines when pure iron or low carbon steel is stressed to its yield point has been studied. Attempts are being made to secure a better understanding of the nature

of the A2 point in iron by means of the beta ray spectroscope. The

effect of excessive cold rolling on the hardness of copper and other

metals is being further examined.

Development of metallographic test methods.—The use of X rays

in testing and study of metals along both spectrographic and radiographic lines has been continued, with special attention to the use of the densitometer and to Laue spectrographs of wrought metals.

Work has been in progress on methods of preparation of specimens

for metallographic examination, using the microtome for soft metals

and an automatic polishing apparatus designed and built at the

bureau for harder ones. Constmction of apparatus for laboratory and other purposes.—

Instruments and apparatus have been constructed by the instrument,

machine, woodworldng, and glass-blowing shops, and test specimens

and standard samples have been prepared. Mention may be made of some of the more important apparatus constructed during the fiscal year: Carpet wear test machine, two fatigue test immersion machines, whirling test machine for varnish and paint tests, apparatus

for testing the opacity of papers, constant temperature standard cell bath, two Wilson expansion apparatuses, fabric thickness measuring

instrument, low voltage potentiometer, centrifuge for chemical

thermometer testing, contact accelerometer, two ionization chambers,

and two colorimeters.

EQUIPMENT ($88,000)

New equipment in constant temperature ro&m.—The special base- ment room for precision length comparators, the circular dividing

engine, and the circle testing apparatus was completed and the equipment installed. The apparatus is now used in regular testing

work and in special investigations. The longitudinal length comparator has been found to be capable of making comparisons of length standards of the highest order, and it is being used in a very

complete program of calibration of the bureau's length standards.
REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 11

Renewal of mercury supply.—Thirteen flasks of virgin mercury,

containing 75 pounds each, were purchased for general use of the

bureau.

Jordan refining engine.—A No. 2 size Jordan refining engine

with noncorrosive fittings was purchased for the experimental

paper mill. Sugar crystallizes.—A special crystallizer was purchased as part

of the equipment of the new semicommercial sugar refinery, in which

experimental work on levulose will be conducted.

Miscellaneous repairs arid alterations.—This work included, in addition to the minor repairs to the buildings, such interior alterations

as were necessary to accommodate the various laboratories. Extensive

repairs were made to the roofs of the main buildings, and a new

elevator is being installed in the South Building. The Far West

Building, which was damaged by fire early in the year, has been

completely restored.

GENERAL EXPENSES ($69,855)

Upkeep of mechanical plant.—The usual maintenance work, such

as replacement of piping, steam traps, valves, packing of joints, etc., has been carried on. Repairs and replacements have been kept to the

minimum in anticipation of the early completion of the new power

plant.

Electrical construction and repair.—The work included tiie usual

maintenance of equipment and installation of new apparatus made

necessary by the fitting out of several additional laboratories.

Plumbing and pipe work.—In addition to the usual maintenance

work on existing installations, new extensions to steam, water, air,

vacuum, gas, and drainage systems were made incidental to the

fitting out of several new laboratories. A very extensive piping lay- out is being installed in the new semicommercial sugar refinery where

the work on levulose recovery will be conducted.

Library books.—The number of volumes accessioned this year was

1,639, and 16 were canceled, making the total number of accessioned

volumes 32,433; 968 scientific and technical periodicals are received

by the bureau's library.

Trowel.—Provision was made for necessary travel to consult with

experts at meetings of scientific and technical societies, travel of

members of the bureau's visiting committee, and travel in foreign

countries on cooperative work of the bureau with other national

standardizing institutions. Contingent expenses.—Part of the contingent expenses of the bureau and of the Department of Commerce, as a whole, have also been

provided for. IMPROVEMENT AND CAPE OF GROUNDS ($13,000)

Improvement of grounds.—Good progress has been made in the

improvement of the ground in front of the bureau by grading,

sodding, and the planting of trees and shrubs. Work has been started on the improvement, by filling, of the land lying between the Industrial Building and Connecticut Avenue.
12 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

TESTING STRUCTURAL MATERIALS ($240,000)

Building codes.—The advisory building-code committee sent out

the first tentative draft of its report on fire-resistive construction for

comments and suggestions. The subcommittee on plumbing codes

prepared a new edition of its 1924 report. The committee's recom- mendations have been used in code revisions in at least 120 municipalities and in uniform codes prepared by several regional bodies

of building officials. City planning and zoning.—A City Planning Primer and A Standard State City Planning Enabling Act, both by the advisory committee on city planning and zoning, were printed. Several other

bulletins on city planning and zoning were issued.

Standard State mechanics^ lien act committee.—This voluntary

committee circulated a second tentative draft of its proposed standard State mechanics' lien act for comments and suggestions.

Statistical work.—Monthly retail prices for 24 building material

items in 55 cities have been obtained, issued, and republished in trade

papers and furnish the basis for price indexes of materials for small

frame and brick houses. Current statistics on building activity,

building costs, and production, consumption, and stocks on hand of

principal building materials were printed in the monthly Survey of

Current Business and its advance releases, and the annual article on

construction was prepared for the Commerce Yearbook.

Cooperation with Government and private agencies on buildirig

and housing problems.—Cooperation was continued with Federal,

State, and local governmental agencies and with private organizations concerned in building and housing. Several drafts of building

codes were reviewed for local groups, and problems relating to city

planning and zoning, building costs, and home ownership were taken

up jointly with such groups as Better Homes in America, with its 5,000 local committees, the American Construction Council, the

American Civic Association, and bodies representing architects, engineers, and business and other groups connected with construction.

A voluntary delegation will represent the Department of Commerce

at the International Housing and Town Planning Congress to be

held in Paris shortly after the close of the fiscal year. Strength of large, concrete cylinders.—Over 500 test cylinders

from 2 to 36 inches in diameter, containing large sizes of crushed

stone as the large aggregate and screenings from crushing the stone

as the fine aggregate, were tested in compression at the approximate

age of 3 months.

One group of cylinders, including specimens of every size, was made in the proportion of 1 part cement to 2.7 parts of aggregate,

ail aggregate having been smaller than the %-inch sieve. In this group the 36-inch cylinders developed an average compressive

strength of 2,550; the 12, 18, and 24 inch specimens approximately

3,000 ; the 6 and 8 inch specimens 4,100 ; and the 2 and 3 inch speci- mens approximately 5,100 pounds per square inch.

In the other groups of cylinders the 36-inch cylinders contained

aggregate of maximum size varying from 2y2 to 10 inches, proportions being approximately 1:3:3,1:3:4, and 1:3: 4.6. Before filling

the 8-inch molds all aggregate above 2% inches was removed from
REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 13

the concrete, for the 6-inch molds all above 1% inches, and for the

2 and 3 inch molds all above % inch. The strength of the 36-inch

diameter cylinders varied from 1,500 to 3,100 pounds per square inch,

compared with the minimum and maximum average strengths of

2,260 and 4,400 for the 8-inch and 3,130 and 4,700 for the 6-inch

cylinders. There was a general tendency for the smaller specimens

to give higher strengths.

Stevenson Creek Dam.—The tests of this experimental arch dam

were carried out by the Bureau of Standards under the auspices of

Engineering Foundation and a special committee. These were the

first tests ever made on a full-sized structure of this type, and many

difficult problems had to be overcome. The electric strain gauge,

developed by the bureau, was particularly useful in providing a means for recording stresses in inaccessible locations within the concrete. The past year has been devoted to working up the mass of

data obtained, and a report has been published. Data are given on

the temperatures in the concrete and on the strains, stresses, and

deflections in the dam. The results have been compared with those

obtained through calculation, using current methods of design, and

with values obtained from small models. Engineers can now proceed with much greater assurance in the design of these structures. Stone preservatives.—Kesults of tests lasting seven years indicate

that the paraffin type of preservative has deteriorated very little during this period while all other types in the series practically lost their

effectiveness in less than three years. Abrasive hardness.—Abrasive hardness tests have been completed

on 50 marbles, 20 slates, 23 limestones, 6 sandstones, and a few miscellaneous materials. A comparison of the average results for

marble, slate, and limestone show that marble is the most resistant

to wear. Slate is somewhat more resistant than the limestones in

common use, but several limestones are available which are as resist- ant as the marbles.

Slate investigation.—About 2,000 tests have been made on slate samples, mainly from Pennsylvania, which include determinations

for absorption, true specific gravity, apparent specific gravity,

modulus of rupture, and elasticity. Test values, so far obtained,

are as follows

Highest Lowest Average

Absorption by weight (per cent).. True specific gravity

0. 35

2. 80

2. 78

10, 000

14, 500, 000

0. 15

2. 77

2. 76

6, 000

11, 000, 000

0. 25

2. 79

2. 77

8, 000

12, 000, 000

Apparent specific gravity. Modulus of rupture Modulus of elasticity- ..

Sulphuric acid tests were made by immersing flexural test speci- mens for 480 hours in a 1 per cent solution. The effects were determined by weight loss, change of strength, elasticity, and general appearance. Blistering, fading, and loss of weight were noted in practically all tests, but the strength and elasticity of the materials were

little affected. Evidently the acid action on these slates was confined to about 1 millimeter depth.

11289—28 3

\
14 BUEEAU OE STANDARDS

Sound-absorbing plaster.—A sound-absorbing plaster for correct- ing acoustical defects of auditoriums, offices, etc., has been de- veloped. The plaster consists of a graded porous aggregate, held

together by a cementitious material, with which is contained a sub- stance for the production of gas during hardening, which further in- creases the porosity. A number of aggregates, such as pumice, vol- canic tufa, burnt diatomaceous earth, ground coral ro^k, etc., have

been found staisfactory.

Adhesion of plaster to hollow clay tile.—The strength of the bond

between plaster and tile has been determined. Gypsum plaster,

cement, and cement-lime stucco were tested on three grades of hollow

clay tile with five types of surface. In all cases where glazed tile was used the plaster or stucco dropped off under its own weight.

With the other types of tile the adhesion varied from 5.4 to 17.8 pounds per square inch. As plaster and stucco are rarely subjected

to stresses aside from their own weight (about 0.04 pound per square

inch), it is evident that an ample factor of safety exists on all hollow

clay tile except those with glazed surface. Plaster should not be

applied to such tile. Properties of chemical limes.—The fineness and available lime con- tent of 17 chemical quicklimes were determined. The fineness varied

from 46.0 to 96.1 per cent through a No. 200 sieve. The available lime

content varied from 37.9 to 97.1 per cent. The results, together with

the chemical analyses, form a basis for the preparation of specifica*

tions for chemical limes and indicate the necessity of considering

these factors in the purchase of lime for chemical uses. Cast iron for enameling purposes.—Evidence has been secured that

the blistering of enameled cast-iron ware can be reduced by sand

blasting the castings sufficiently to remove the surface skin.

Chemical testing and methods of analysis.—Approximately 1,000

samples of structural materials were analyzed for various branches

of the Government. The materials tested included cast irons, steels, alloy steels, ferro-alloys, brasses, bronzes, bearing metals, boiler plugs,

Monel metal, and light aluminum alloys. The analyses were made

for such varied purposes as the development of specifications, the

insuring of proper delivery of materials, the detection of causes of

failure in service, and the determination of the composition of struc- tural materials used in metallurgical research at the bureau. Some

time was also spent in developing improved and more rapid test methods.

Branch laboratories and the inspection of cement materials.—

The bureau maintains three branch laboratories. Th^ Northampton

(Pa.) laboratory is used exclusively for the inspection and testing

of cement, and being advantageously situated in the Lehigh Valley

cement-producing district supervises the major portion of the Government purchases for tested cement in the East. The Denver

laboratory tests cement in the territory west of the Mississippi Kiver

and is engaged in the study of available concrete aggregates used by

the Keclamation Service. The San Francisco laboratory tests cement

and miscellaneous materials purchased by the Government on the western coast. There is a growing demand for increased services from these laboratories in the territories which they serve. The Government
REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 15 now buys more and more of its supplies on the basis of specifications, and adequate testing facilities must be provided to meet these

needs. The branch laboratories should be placed in a position to render this important service. TESTING MACHINES ($38,000)

Tuckerman optical stmin, gaugp,—New instruments have been

designed and built which embody the experience of the past five years and which give a constant calibration factor of 1, eliminating

much laborious computation and expediting testing. This has re- quired optical and mechanical work of the highest precision. Six

gauges of the new design with autocollimator and accessories have

been forwarded to the Department of the Interior, Bureau of

Reclamation, Denver, Colo., where they will be use(J in measuring

the strains in a concrete model of the Stevenson Creek test dam.

Calibration of testing machines.—The 100,000-pound dead weight

machine has been in regular use calibrating proving rings, Amsler

boxes, and other transfer devices for the calibration of testing machines. Proving rings up to 100,000-pound capacity have been constructed and thoroughly tested for constancy in service. This

experience has led to modifications in the design which make them

more convenient to use. Compressive strength of brickwork.—As the result of cooperative

work with the Common Brick Manufacturers Association there is available for the first time comprehensive information on the factors

which determine the strength of a brick wall, including the properties

of the brick composition and properties of the mortar, type of construction, and workmanship.

Rail joints.—The investigation of rail joints in cooperation with the

American Electric Railway Association and the American Bureau of

Welding has been continued, resulting in modifications in practice

which give increased life to the joints.

Welded steel structures.—Tests have been made of a considerable

number of welded structural details in cooperation with steel fabricators to determine the safety of proposed types of construction.

These included girders, columns, shelf angles, and other joint details, many requiring the use of the 10,000,000-pound testing machine.

The bureau is cooperating with the American Bureau of Welding in

planning a systematic research of this important subject.

Miscellaneous.—Other investigations have covered the adequacy of

locking devices for screw threads, an important subject from the point * of view of safety, and assistance in working up the data resulting

from an investigation of gas flow through orifice meters. INVESTIGATION OE EIRE-RESISTING PROPERTIES ($28,100)

Fire intensity and duration.—Fire tests with light commercial and

record storage occupancies were completed, the tests made during the

year being of record storage with metal shelving. Tests with metal furniture indicated decided decrease in spread

of fire from small and large origins and in the resultant severity of

the fire as compared with wood furniture. Metal shelving, particularly that of the backed and partitioned type, also restricted the
16 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

spread of fire, although the decrease in the severity of fires completely

consuming the combustible contents of the room was less marked.

These tests were made in 1-story fire-resistive buildings, and the

results are applicable where the main building members have suffi- cient fire resistance to withstand a complete burning out of combustible contents and trim without collapse. Results are expressed

as an equivalent of so many hours of exposure to the standard furnace

test. For buildings with combustible or nonfire resistive interior con- struction the equivalent severity of the fire is less determinate,

although of interest from the standpoint of exposure to neighboring

buildings, to party and fire walls, and to insulated containers such

as safes and vaults located within the building. A test was made

with two such buildings that were otherwise due to be razed, in which

considerable information was obtained on the severity of the ex- posure before the interior construction collapsed, the effect on the

structural integrity of insulated safes of falling while hot from vari- ous heights or receiving impacts from falling masonry walls, and the

intensity and duration of the temperature of the hot debris that fully or partly covered the containers after the buildings collapsed.

Fire loss statistics and fire prevention.—A paper on the seasonal

variation in the fire loss and one on fire resistance in dwelling con- struction were published. Two papers were published that gave

results of tests made to gauge the fire hazard of discarded cigarettes, cigars, and matches, and suggested modifications in their makeup that indicated possibility of decrease in hazard. Tests were made to determine the autogeneous ignition points of petroleum,

nitrocellulose, and acetate cellulose products and the fire retardant

effect of paint and other mineral coatings on wood. Fire tests were also made of a number of combustible and incombustible wall

boards.

INVESTIGATION OF PUBLIC UTILITY STANDARDS ($100,000)

Measurement of high voltages and large currents.—The large

electrometer for the absolute measurement of high voltages up to 250,000 volts has been nearly finished. The study of the corona voltmeter was completed. The wave form of the high voltage was

obtained directly by an electrostatic method. A new equipment

has been designed and partly constructed for testing current trans- formers up to 12,000 amperes. Air-cooled manganin shunts will be used up to 500 amperes; oil-cooled shunts for 1,000, 2,000, and

2,500 amperes; and a two-stage current transformer for higher

ranges up to 12,000 amperes.

Electrolysis and soil corrosion.—Two field investigations of cor- rosion of pipe lines have resulted in considerable valuable data on

the processes of corrosion of steel and cast-iron pipe lines. The

Cast Iron Pipe Research Association has appointed a research asso- ciate to assist in the study of cast iron. Special tests of soil conditions have been started in 18 locations.

Code for Electricity Meter.—A new edition of the Code for Electricity Meters has been issued under the joint sponsorship of the National Electric Light Association, the Association of Edison Illu- minating Companies, and the bureau.
REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 17

National Electrical Safety Code and related projects.—The new

(fourth) edition of the National Electrical Safety Code was approved as an American Standard by the American Engineering

Standards Committee and has been issued in complete form as Handbook No. 3 (revised). A comprehensive volume of discussion

and explanation of this code has been prepared and is in press. A

large amount of work has been done on the 1928 revision of the

National Electrical Code of the National Fire Protection Association and on final drafts of the proposed lightning-protection code

for which the bureau is sponsor jointly with the American Institute

of Electrical Engineers.

Telephone surveys and other cooperative work.—Progress of the

local Federal building program necessitated detail studies of the

initial and ultimate telephone requirements and planning for the

most economical method of meeting them, as directed by the Chief

Coordinator. The enactment of legislation authorizing joint-service

switchboards outside of Washington has brought with it added sur- vey work promising material economies. A standard telephone

service contract form for use outside the District of Columbia is under negotiation. Much work has been devoted to cooperation

with the Department of Justice in defense of an important patent

suit against the United States. The Court of Claims decided another

suit, in which the bureau cooperated, in favor of the Government.

Standards for gas service.—Cooperation has been given to two

State commissions and to several cities in the study and discussion

of the technical phases of proposed readjustments of standards for

gas service. A study is being made of the design of domestic gas

burners in relation to the conditions of gas supply with especial

reference to the composition of the latter. The bureau has cooperated with the government of the District of Columbia in the preparation of a new code of rules for gas fitting in the District.

TESTING MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS ($44,000)

Variety of materials tested.—A great variety of chemical and

physical tests was made for Government departments on paints,

varnishes, roofing and waterproofing materials, rubber goods, packings, inks, typewriter ribbons, carbon paper, textiles, boiler water

and compounds, and detergents. A large number of miscellaneous

materials were tested to determine their fire hazard in order to furnish data to guide the Steamboat Inspection Service in making rul- ings on the transportation of commodities on passenger vessels. RADIO RESEARCH ($49,800)

Standard of radio frequency.—By use of piezooscillators with temperature control a very satisfactory intercomparison was made of

the national frequency standards of England, France, Germany,

Italy, and this country. Comparisons were also made with Canada

and Japan. Transmissions of standard frequency signals were improved by basing them directly on a piezo standard. The accuracy

of the standards in terms of the unit of time was increased through

the use of a specially developed method involving a synchronous

motor and harmonic amplifier.
18 BUEEAU OF STANDARDS

Radio wave phenomena.—Irregularities of radio reception have

been found to be in part due to the fact that the waves sometimes

follow a multiplicity of paths in going from the transmitting to the receiving station because of varying ionization and other conditions of the atmosphere. Conditions at the transmitting station

have little effect on the wave behavior. Fading occurs at much

shorter distances than commonly supposed, being appreciable as close as 8 miles to a broadcasting station. Direction shifts studied

in connection with a radiobeacon are due to the horizontal component of the downcoming waves. An antenna for airplanes free from

the action of this horizontal component has been developed.

International radio conference.—A world-wide conference on radio

communication was held in Washington in October and November,

1927. Four members of the bureau's staff served as technical advisers, one of them doing some preliminary work in Europe before

the conference. Seventy-nine nations signed the resulting treaty.

The conference was very satisfactory from the viewpoint of the

United States. This was the first radio convention to which this country has been signatory without reservations.

Assistance to Federal Radio Commission.—Two members of the

radio section spent a large amount of time, particularly during the

latter half of the fiscal year, in assisting the Federal Radio Commission. Technical reports were prepared for presentation at various

hearings, and fundamental plans were developed for the allocation

of station frequencies, both in the broadcast and high frequency

ranges. Advice was also given on the overcoming of sources of

radio interference. The adoption of frequency standards for use in broadcasting stations resulted in a great increase in the testing of

these standards by the bureau.

COLOR STANDARDIZATION ($10,000)

Standardization of Lovibond glasses.—In cooperation with the

American Oil Chemists' Society, the bureau has proceeded with the

standardization of the American Oil Chemists' " Lovibond glasses "—

colored glasses used in various combinations for grading edible oils. In about one year the major part of this society's estimated 2,000

glasses will have been standardized in terms of the bureau's reference

standards. The present rate of progress represents the consummation of several years of preliminary work in which much research

has been carried on in developing equipment and methods: testing

their adequacy, accuracy, and practicability; and, finally, establishing a series of standardized Lovibond glasses at the bureau, sufficient in accuracy and number to serve for calibrating the glasses used

in the oil chemists' laboratories. After completing .the program

with the oil chemists it is planned to set up other reference standards

for similar work in other colors and color ranges for those industries which have been pressing the bureau for a practicable solution

of their problems. In this connection it is important to state that

the manufacturer of Lovibond glasses has undertaken to cooperate in

this standardization work of the bureau by furnishing the American

trade with glasses conforming to the bureau's series of standards.
EEPOET TO THE SECEETAEY OF COMMEECE 19

INVESTIGATION OF CLAY PRODUCTS ($47,000)

Columbus laboratory.—The work under this fund is conducted

partly in Washington and partly at the bureau's branch laboratory

at Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. In particular, work

on heavy clay products is carried on at Columbus.

Workability of clays.—The first part of the investigation of the

auger extrusion machine using clays and shales with different combinations of augers, spacers, and dies has been completed. Although

the maximum production of clay column per unit of power was

obtained by combining a single wing auger with a 6-inch spacer

and a 6-inch die, defects in the clay column would appear from time

to time. These were overcome by increasing the length of the spacer

to 8 inches, resulting in only a slight increase in power consumption.

Based on output of medium plastic clay per unit of power, the relative efficiencies of the single, double, and triple wing augers are proportionate to 100, 60.57, and 60.53, respectively. Based on out- put per unit time, the efficiencies are proportionate to 49.3, 90.1, and

95.1, respectively.

Preliminary tests on steam, water, and air lubrication showed

that steam lubrication increased the dry die output per unit of power

by 25 per cent. Water increased it by 20.6 and compressed air by

8.3 per cent. Gerannic colors and their me in vitreous enamels.—Numerous stains

have been produced and used in various enamel compositions. To

obtain uniformity of texture of the colored enamels and to insure

accuracy of duplication in preparing successive batches of a given

stain, it was found desirable to (a) accurately duplicate the time and

temperature of calcination arid in some cases furnace atmosphere,

(b) wash the stains free from soluble matter after calcination, (c)

grind and pass them through a fine screen before use, and (d) keep

the enamel composition constant. Several of the stains were produced on a relatively large scale and tested commercially under plant

conditions. These gave excellent results. Eliminating blisters on enameled cast-won ware.—Blisters on

enameled cast-iron ware may be traced either to faulty enamels and

process of application or to the castings themselves. Some factors

which must be considered are variations in enameling practice ; differences in the tendency of different castings to produce blisters when enameled under identical conditions; different blistering ten- dencies of different heats of the same pig iron even when melted in

the same electric furnace ; an enameling test which includes a variety

of firing conditions is necessary to bring out clearly the differences in

the tendency of different sets of castings to produce blisters ; bakingtreatment of the enamel-coated castings at 500° C, before firing,

in a majority of cases appreciably reduced blistering tendencies; the

most prolific source of blisters from iron used in this investigation

is confined to a very thin surface layer. The removal of this layer

by mechanical or a suitable chemical means causes a tremendous

improvement.

Use of feldspar in white ivare.—The true specific gravities of 19 raw and partly fused feldspars have been determined. The specific
20 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

gravity of practically pure albite was found to be 2.622 and that of

microcline 2.563. The specific gravities of partly fused feldspars

decreased as the firing temperatures increased to cone 8 (1,225° C).

Above this temperature the specific gravities were nearly constant,

indicating that nearly all of the crystalline feldspar was changed to

glass. The expansions of partly fused feldspars were determined by

the interferometer method and found to be low when fired below

cone 8 and above cone 10. The greatest expansion was noted for

feldspars with the largest free silica content. A petrographic ex- amination of partly fused feldspar showed no unmelted feldspar

when fired to cone 14, and the indices of refraction of the glasses

formed varied from 1.486 to 1.490. The fired volume shrinkage,

porosity, mechanical strength, and elasticity of white-ware bodies

apparently were not influenced by the kind of feldspar used. The

thermal expansion of bodies was affected more by the amount of free

silica than by the alkali content of the feldspar. Quenching tests did not indicate the relative merits of the feldspars regarding " glaze

fit. STANDARDIZING MECHANICAL APPLIANCES ($27,800)

Elevate research.—The investigation of unclercar safeties and

buffers has continued in cooperation with the American Engineering

Standards Committee. Continuous velocity records of the test car are obtained by means of a homopolar generator and an oscillograph.

Accelerations derived from this record are similar to those obtained

with the accelerometer. Independent time-travel records are also secured. A large number of buffer measurements have been made,

showing in some instances high acceleration peaks.

Elevator safety interlocks.—The work of formulating reliability

performance tests for elevator interlocking devices has been extended

to include performance tests of numerous commercial interlocks for

regTilatory bodies. The results of these tests are used as a basis of

approval by several of the Government departments, the District of

Columbia, several State and municipal governments, and a large

group of casualty and insurance companies.

Standard vibration board.—A vibration board for testing aircraft

instruments has been designed, operating on the cam instead of the

eccentric weight principle, by means of which the period and amplitude are independently variable. Two boards have been constructed

one for this bureau and the other for the naval aircraft factory.

Performance specifications for numbering machines.—An experimental investigation was made of the useful life of commercial

makes of lever numbering machines and a performance specification

formulated for the use of the Federal Specifications Board. The

tests showed a very wide disparity in the durability of different

makes of machines.

Testing of engineering instruments, etc.—The volume of testing

of engineering instruments and mechanical appliances, including

water-current meters and fire extinguishers, has increased about 20

per cent during the year.
REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 21

INVESTIGATION OF OPTICAL GLASS ($20,520)

Production of optical glass.—Five kinds of glass were made in 24

pots, a total of approximately 27,000 pounds, from which 31,851

lens and prism blanks were molded and annealed. The major portion of these blanks were used by the Navy Department.

Large glass disk.—The large glass disk which was successfully cast on May 7, 1927, was slowly cooled and reached room temperature on January 21, 1928. The strain in the glass is uniformly distributed

and of a magnitude comparable with that in the finest annealed

optical glass. The disk is of satisfactory quality for the purpose

intended; that is, the mirror of a large reflecting telescope. It is 69.5 inches in diameter by 10.5 inches thick, and weighs approximately 3,800 pounds.

Viscosity of glass.—Further studies of the rotary viscometer necessitated an investigation of the effect of depth of immersion of the

cylinder which rotates in the glass and the distance between the end

of the cylinder and the crucible containing the glass. By rotating

a cylinder 1.82 cm. in diameter in a cylinder 5.78 cm. in diameter it was found that for viscosities ranging from 700 to 30,000 poises the

"end effect" (k) is practically independent of the depth of immersion and that (k) varies with end clearance (D) between the cylinders

according to the equation:

6.3 h

(Z> + 2.426) - 8 Physical properties of glass as affected hy thermal treatment {including annealing).—Glass must be annealed or heat treated at very

definite and uniform temperatures if its optical properties are to be

accurately controlled. As an example, it has been found that the

index of refraction and density of a lead glass increase 0.000024 and

0.00014, respectively, per degree centrigrade decrease in effective

annealing temperature; similarlv the changes for a light barium

crown are 0.000048 and 0.00034. INVESTIGATION OF TEXTILES, ETC. ($40,700)

Wearing qualities of textiles—{Carpet wear test).—Apparatus

was designed and built to simulate the wear of a carpet in service. It consists, essentially, of two abrading wheels, 12 inches in diameter,

with leather-covered faces 2 inches wide, one fast and one loose on a common shaft. A circular carpet specimen (15 inches in diameter)

is tacked to a heavy pivoted disk which is caused to bear against the

abrading wheels. The wheel which is fast on the shaft is driven by

the motor and causes the disk carrying the carpet to revolve. The

second wheel is driven by contact with the carpet and turns against a

brake. Thus, a horizontal strain is put on the sample and this,

together with vertical pressure and the inherent slippage caused by

the rotation of the disk, produces the wear. A vacuum cleaner picks

up the abraded material.

A study of aeronautical fabric weaves.—The Navy Department has

requested the bureau to study aeronautical fabrics from two standpoints—increase of tear resistance and reduction in weight without

11289—28 4
22 BUKEAU OF STANDARDS

impairing strength. In the case of balloon gas cell and airship cloth

it is also important to produce a surface which will require less covering material and so reduce the weight of the finished fabric.

Most aeronautical fabrics are plain woven materials, and the effect of the weave structure properties is being studied. Forty-four samples of fabrics have been woven in the experimental cotton mill. These include varieties of each of the following classes of weaves:

Plain, twill, basket, satin, and mock leno. A leno attachment is being installed so as to include this class. These fabrics were woven

under a tension held as constant as practicable, with 90 ends and 90

picks per inch of 60's yarn. The fabrics have been tested for breaking strength, stretch, tear, weight, thread count, crimp, and yarn size. Tensile properties of rubber at high and low temperatures.—The

properties of six soft-rubber compounds at temperatures ranging

from —70° to +147° C. were determined. Temperature has a very

pronounced influence on the tensile properties. At very low temperatures rubber becomes rigid with an increased tensile strength,

while at very high temperatures it possesses practically no tensile strength.

Properties of leather.—In cooperation with the committee on properties of leather of the American Leather Chemist's Association, a preliminary investigation was made to show the effects of the chrome

and vegetable tannages on the strength of steer hide, sheep, and calf leathers. The results showed that the vegetable-tanned leathers were generally stronger than the chrome leathers and also showed

less stretch. Computed results of actual service tests of durability

of retanned sole leathers showed that the thoroughly retanned or combination tanned sole leathers wore from 25 to 35 per cent longer

than ordinary vegetable leathers per unit of thickness, while lightly

retanned leathers wore from 75 to 100 per cent longer than the

vegetable leathers. Paper-quality standards.—At the request of the National Lumber

Manufacturers Association a cooperative study of sheathing papers

for development of a standard specification was undertaken and a preliminary report issued. A suggested Federal specification for

fiber wall board was drawn up. Work on the permanence of paper

included studies of rag newsprint paper for permanent library issues,

rag bond paper for insurance policies, photostat paper for copying

original records, and purified wood fibers. Paper currency.—The United States currency paper originated by

the bureau is now in commercial production. Work on improving

the resistance of the surfaces of the currency to wear was continued.

The use of cellulose acetate as a sizing agent for this purpose was

given particular attention. Considerable additional work was done on recovery of paper pulp from the redeemed currency.

Standardization of paper-testing methods.—Cooperation with the

Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry in development of its official paper-testing methods was continued. Five additional methods were completed. The association publication—Paper

Testing Methods—was thoroughly revised and brought up to date. Results of bureau investigations on methods for determining folding

endurance, bursting strength, tearing resistance, tensile strength,

and copper number were published.
REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 23

SUGAR STANDARDIZATION ($48,160)

Sugar amd the tariff.—More than 3,000,000 tons of dutiable sugar

and approximately 270,000,000 gallons of molasses enter the United

States annually from foreign countries. The scientific supervision

of the collection of the duty imposed by the tariff act, about $140,000,-

000 annually, is one of the functions of the bureau. Even the highest

attainable accuracy science can devise does not meet the requirements for this work because of the magnitude of the revenue involved

in individual cargoes. New equipment is continually being designed,

studied, and standardized by the bureau. Immediate shipment of

standardized apparatus is imperative, and increased facilities have

been provided for the storage of supplies of this character. A new

short-length polariscope tube for use with liquids of high rotation

and small volumes of solutions has been designed and studied and a supply obtained and distributed to the customs laboratories. In

cooperation with the manufacturers, improvements have been developed and incorporated in the design of a standard sugar balance.

The analytical methods used in the various customs laboratories must

give reproducible and identical results over a wide range of climatic

conditions. Further studies of the methods involved have been con- tinued with the main purpose of increasing the precision and ap- praisal of these products. The methods of determining the densities

of molasses and sirups have been under investigation and a standard

table of weights per gallon has been developed.

Commercial 'production of levulose.—Progress in the development

of an economical commercial-scale process for the production of

hard refined levulose has been satisfactory. The bureau expects ulti- mately to have an experimental plant that can perform the whole of

the projected technique of levulose manufacture. During the year

activity was concentrated on building only those parts of the plant

which are indispensable to the main line of work. Installation of

about 75 per cent of the process pipe work, equipment, and machinery

lor the immediate limited program has been completed. To control

the manufacturing process for levulose, a system of analysis has been

elaborated which meets the requirements of speed and reliability.

Structure of the sugars.—It is now evident that the simple sugars

(dextrose, levulose, etc.) exist in several molecular forms possessing

various ring structures, and that the compound sugars (sucrose, lactose, etc.), the starches, and the celluloses are formed by the union

of the simple sugars of certain ring types. Knowledge of the struc- tural chemistnr of the sugars is in rapid development due to this

idea of ring types and to the isolation of new derivatives of the sugars

possessing new ring structures predicted by theory.

GAUGE STANDARDIZATION ($38,320)

Certification of master gauges.—Until rather recently the principal

work of the gauge section was to act as referee in disputes between

manufacturers and purchasers of gauges as to the acceptability of

auges in question. During the past two years, however, there has

een an increasing tendency on the part of certain industries to require that all master gauges be submitted to the bureau for test and
24 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

certification. This has been particularly marked in the petroleum

industry, which is carrying through an active standardization pro- gram under the leadership of the American Petroleum Institute. All

master gauges for interchangeable parts of oil-well equipment made

to A. P. I. specifications, such as well casing, drill pipe, pump rods,

and drilling tools, have been submitted to and certified by the bureau.

A similar tendency has recently developed among manufacturers of

automobile accessories. The section is also called upon to an increasing extent to determine dimensions of parts of scientific apparatus.

Development of new equipment.—Apparatus for determining the

lead or pitch of ring thread gauges in sizes for which no suitable

equipment was previously available has been designed and built. This apparatus permits determination of lead of straight or taper

ring thread gauges of iy2 inches and larger to an accuracy of

0.00002 inch. Three projection lanterns incorporating the latest improvements were built. One of these is for use in the gauge-testing laboratory and the other two are for the Ordinance Department of the War Department. An interferometer of foreign make

was rebuilt to overcome the tendency to vibrate and become unreliable in its indications as a result of unavoidable vibrations of the

building in which it was used. The reliability and usefulness of the

instrument were much improved by the changes made.

INVESTIGATION OF MINE SCALES AND CARS ($12,800) Test of mine and tipple scales.—One hundred and sixty-two mine

scales in four States were tested. The percentage of accuracy by

States varied from 18.5 to 40 per cent. The average accuracy of all the scales included was about 32 per cent. This figure is somewhat

lower than last year, but is subject to considerable fluctuation from

year to year due to the fact that the figure for a single year is not, and can not be, with present facilities, representative of the coal re- gions as a whole. General experience over a period of years demonstrates a gradual improvement in accuracy. Especially it is demonstrated that there is not so great a percentage of scales favoring

the operators as was formerly the case. METALLURGICAL RESEARCH ($48,140)

Bearing bronzes.—The tensile and impact properties, resistance to repeated pounding and to wear of a series of railroad bearing bronzes

at various temperatures up to or above the operating temperature of

the bearings, have been determined. Both chill and sand cast bearings were studied, in cooperation with a research associate from a manufacturer of bearings. There would appear to be no justification for the wide variety of bearing metal compositions now specified

by many railroads for the same class of service. Much wider ranges

of composition could be allowed without appreciably altering the

performance of the bearings and with a consequent saving in manufacturing costs. The specifications of the American Society for

Testing Materials for railroad bearing bronzes seem, on the basis of

the properties studied in the tests, to be well framed, and their use appears advisable. Work on automotive bearing bronzes is now in

progress in cooperation with a research associate.
REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OE COMMERCE 25

Rail steel.—Results of endurance tests on new rail steel show a considerable variation in the endurance properties of steels meeting

railroad specifications. Work is under way on the endurance properties of the same steels on specimens taken from rails removed from

service on account of wear. Endurance tests have been in progress on steel from alloy steel rails and heat-treated steel rails. The study

of endurance testing by rotary bending and by axial loading has been

continued, especially for its bearing on rail endurance. Much work

has been done on the properties of rail steel at high temperatures,

since this may have a bearing on the problem of rail failure from

transverse fissures. Marked differences in high temperature properties have been found. This work is in cooperation with the American Railway Engineering Association, Manufacturer's Rail Steel

Committee, American Society of Civil Engineers' Committee on

Stresses in Track, the Sperry Development Co., and various railroads

in this country and Canada.

Aluminum alloys.—A 400-page circular dealing in comprehensive

fashion with the properties of alloys of aluminum, of magnesium, of

silicon, and of beryllium has been issued.

Corrosion of metals.—A report on testing methods for appraising

the corrosion resistance of nonferrous metals has been published, and

one on methods applicable to zinc-coated materials is in press. Apparatus has been made ready for study of the effect of aeration in cor- rosion and corrosion testing. Cooperative work with the American

Society for Testing Materials in the study of the corrosion of nonferrous screen wire cloth continues. In cooperation with a research

associate from the American Petroleum Institute, a field survey of

corrosion problems and remedies in the oil industry has been begun.

Foundry practice.—In cooperation with a research associate from

the Steel Castings Development Bureau, work was begun on the

causes for low ductility in steel castings. The Bureau of Mines has

cooperated in this problem. Preliminary work was done on methods

of testing the fluidity of metals ; that is, their ability to fill a mold

during casting.

Other metallurgical investigations.—The study of steel for carburizing has been completed and a report is in press ; a report has been

issued on the effect of antimony, arsenic, copper, and tin in high-speed

tool steel; work has been completed on the sintering point test for

molding sand and an investigation started of core binders ; progress

has been made in developing substitutes for platinum in laboratory

work; the rate of cooling of steel in various quenching media has

been studied ; and the development of metal spray processes for the

Army and Navy has been continued.

Metallurgical advisory committees.—The usual meetings of the

ferrous and nonferrous advisory committees were held at the bureau on May 11 and 12. Progress of work was discussed and a program of

research for the coming year was adopted.

HIGH-TEMPERATURE INVESTIGATION ($9,740)

Pyrometry of molten cast iron.—It was found that at a temperature of about 1,375° C. the character of the surface of molten iron

undergoes a marked change. By applying suitable corrections for
26 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

this effect the optical pyrometer becomes applicable to accurate temperature measurements in the foundry.

Thermoelectric properties of pure metals.—Measurements have

been made on gold, silver, nickel, iron, aluminum, and thorium. The

measurements have been extended to include the change of thermoelectric power in a magnetic field. SOUND INVESTIGATION ($10,580)

Acoustic properties of building materials.—Sound-transmission

measurements were made on 26 large panels of masonry and stud

construction, 12 of which were floor panels. It was found that

furred-out surfaces on masonry walls give excellent sound insulation.

Experiments have been made on types of construction suitable for

airplane cabins. Measurements of sound absorption were made on a

large number of substances commonly used in interior finish. This

property is of importance in predetermining the acoustic quality of a. proposed auditorium. A reverberation chamber has been constructed

for the purpose of making such measurements on a much larger scale than has been possible in the past.

Tuning-fork investigation.—Tuning forks made of unusual materials, such as aluminum, magnesium, and silica, have been studied

with a view to finding the material for the construction of such forks. This work is being continued.

INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH ($172,320)

Research associates.—The greater portion of the bureau's expenses

in connection with the research associate plan are cared for by this

fund. Fortjr-six industrial groups are now represented at the bureau

by 82 research associates. One of the most notable cases is that of

the Portland Cement Association, which maintains a corps of seven expert physicists and chemists in the clay and silicate products division. Numerous publications on the fundamental properties of Port- land cement have been published by this group.

Chromium plating.—A small chromium-plating plant was designed

and installed at the United States Mint in Philadelphia. It is now

in successful operation. A broad investigation of the principles and

practice of chromium plating and of the properties of electrolytic

chromium has been initiated. Optical screw-thread gauge for measuring internal threads.—At

present there is no method for determining all the dimensions of an

internal screw thread other than those which necessitate the cutting

of a section from the gauge or indirect measurements made on a cast of the thread. An optical instrument has been designed which per- mits measurements to be made directly on the thread by a coincidence

method analogous to that of the coincidence-type range finder. Journal-bearing performance.—Tests in cooperation with the

American Society of Mechanical Engineers have been completed on

a series of 84 journal bearings, comprising 21 variations of length or

clearance dimensions, in order to determine the effect of the length

of the bearing and the closeness of fit on the friction loss. The

results will provide data for rational design of journal bearings over a considerable range of speed, load, and viscosity of lubricant.
REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 27

Wear-resisting alloys.—Besides further study of the wear resist- ance of chromium plating on plug gauges, the resistance of materials

for the manufacture of shovels to wear by abrasive materials has

been examined by various laboratory tests. The general subject is being studied to find out what properties are required in a metal

to produce wear resistance under different conditions of use and

what tests can be carried out in the laboratory so as to give an accurate prediction of wear resistance under these different conditions.

Heat-resisting alloys.—In cooperation with the joint committee on

high temperature properties of metals of the American Society of

Mechanical Engineers, American Society for Testing Materials, etc., and with a research associate from a manufacturer of alloy steels,

work has continued on long-time tests at high temperatures under

continued loading, as well as on short-time tests. A series of special

heat-resisting alloys has been made up and is under test. Gases in metals.—Results from the first intercomparison of anal- yses for oxygen in specimens of iron distributed to cooperating

laboratories in England and Germany show good agreement. Publication was made on vacuum fusion methods for nitrogen, and one

is in press on the hydrogen-antimony-tin method for oxygen. Improvements were made in the vacuum fusion method for oxygen

which increase the precision and decrease the time required. Progress was made in the study of the iron-nitrogen system.

Heat of combustion of sulphur.—A method was developed for

burning sulphur so as to produce only sulphur dioxide, thus making

it possible to control this reaction in a calorimeter and determine

the amount of heat developed.

System zinc oxide-silica.—The determination of the phase equilibrium diagram was completed. In connection with this investigation the melting point of zinc oxide was determined for the first time and found to be 1,975° C. For this purpose a furnace was

designed by means of which temperatures up to 2,300° C. could for

the first time be attained in an oxidizing atmosphere.

Spectrochemical analysis.—During the past year the bureau's

methods for making qualitative and quantitative chemical analyses

by means of the spectrograph have been greatly extended by the

accurate measurement and classification of the spectra of 11 different

elements. These methods of analysis, which are effectively applied

where the customary methods of chemistry are inoperative, have

been successfully employed during the year for determining the

composition of 169 different industrial and scientific materials.

Atomic structure investigations.—Studies with a new type of

electrical discharge led to the observation of continuous emission

bonds in the spectra of various monatomic gases and vapors. Theory

indicates that these must result from recombination of ions and

electrons. This has afforded an opportunity to measure for the first time an atomic property which has been the subject of much speculation and to develop methods which will be applicable to many

other problems. A preliminary report of the experiments is given

in the Physical Review, February, 1928. A study of the Zeeman pattern of the fine structure of the mercury line at 2537A represents an outstanding technical achievement

of timely theoretical interest. Under the highest attainable resolving power this line is seen to be in reality fine, very close lines, and
28 BTJKEATJ OF STANDABDS

in a magnetic field each of these splits into three. The resulting

pattern is far beyond the resolving power of any instrument, so that methods were devised to single out various parts of the pattern.

The results show that none of the proposed theories of fine structure apply to this case. The results were published in the Physical

Review, June, 1928. Photographic emulsions.—The experiments on introduction of

colloidal particles to act as sensitivity nuclei have been extended

and completed. The only mechanism consistent with the results produced by metallic nuclei is that they localize the photochemical

action in the emulsion grains; this strongly indicates a similar

mechanism for sensitivity nuclei produced by normal ripening. On

the other hand, silver iodide nuclei only accelerate development;

other effects caused by iodides may be explained in the light of these

results. Preliminary results have been obtained comparing the

effects of hydrogen and bromide ion concentrations on color sensi- tization by different types of dyes.

Storage-battery investigations.—This work has included four principal items: (1) Corrosion tests on large storage-battery plates have

been continued to determine the cause of failures in plates used in

cells for submarine use, and a probable cause of such failures has

been found in crevice corrosion such as is known to occur in other

materials. (2) The effect of temperature on the positive and negative plates of storage batteries has been determined in connection

with use of batteries in airplanes. Measurements have been made

at three temperatures, three concentrations of the electrolyte, three

different rates of discharge for positive plates and for negative

plates separately. The results have shown quite definitely why some

aviation batteries have failed to give the service expected. (3) The

work on lead oxides used in the manufacture of storage-battery

plates has been actively in progress, including a study of the physical and chemical properties of the oxides as well as the process of

preparing the paste to be used in making the plates. (4) A begin

ning has been made on the study of grid materials and structure. Properties of electrical insulating materials.—Research has been

confined to rubber and rubberlike materials. Especial attention has

been given to the properties of pure materials. Methods have been

devised for removing the natural impurities from crude rubber.

Measurements of the electrical properties of the rubber hydrocarbons

of rubbers from different species of plants indicate that the hydrocarbon is the same from all sources. Likewise, there is evidence that

the hydrocarbons from gutta-percha and gutta-belata are identical. For all these hydrocarbons the resistivity is much higher than for

the crude material and the power factor much lower.

Elastic hysteresis research.—Elastic hysteresis constants of diaphram and spring metals are being determined. Emphasis has been

laid on a mathematical investigation of the deflection of tuning forks

in order to be able to use the damping of tuning forks made of various

metals in the evaluation of the hysteresis modulus.

Gas-burner design.—A study has been made of the details of design

of gas burners for use with propane, which is being extensively dis- tributed as a domestic fuel. A similar study is being made of

butane. Optimum conditions are developed with relation to the effi- ciency, capacity, and safety of the burners for domestic pui poses. A
REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 29

brief study was made of the efficiency and safety of several commercial acetylene burners when using pure acetylene and when using

mixtures of acetylene and pentane.

Thermal expansion.—Kesearches on the thermal expansion of

beryllium and beryllium alloys, stainless iron alloys, pure nickel,

magnesium, and magnesium alloys, and on sand-lime brick have been

completed. Further attention has been given to types of equipment

suitable for the various needs of laboratories wishing to make expansion measurements.

Thermal conductivity of insulating materials at ordinary temperatures.—A new apparatus capable of greater precision than those

previously used was constructed and tested. A niimber of specimens

of materials were calibrated for use as " conductimeters " and have

been sent to various laboratories making similar measurements, in

order to ascertain the agreement between the laboratories.

Radiator investigation.—Measurements of superficial area of a number, of radiators have been made for one of the Government departments. To provide a rational basis for rating, a test room has

been designed for measuring the performance of radiators under

accurately controlled conditions.

Properties of water and steam—Observations of the specific heat

of water over the temperature range from near 0° to 250° C. have

been carried out. Further observations are to be made at temperatures above 100° C. The work completed yields as a definite result that the mean calorie, defined as one one-hundredth of the change in

the heat content of water at saturation pressure, between 0° and

100° C. is equivalent to 4.189 by 107 ergs. Dyes.—A series of light-fading tests of dyed textiles, which was

started in 1926, was brought practically to completion. An apparatus, with a Martens photometer as the basis, was constructed for

quantitatively measuring the amount of fading. It can also be used

for transmission measurements on dye solutions. The Department

of Agriculture is interested in its use for measuring the color of

meats and of citrus fruits. Acid in leather.—Four tannages of leather were prepared in the

experimental tannery using chestnut wood and quebracho wood extracts as tanning materials. From this leather 624 standard leather

samples were prepared which were treated with amounts of sulphuric

acid varying from to 4.5 per cent. After nine months aging the

four tannages of leather showed deterioration in strength in all samples containing in excess of 3, 3.5, 1.5, and 2 per cent sulphuric

acid, respectively. The degrees of tannage for these four lots of

leather were 48, 43, 62, and 54, respectively. The deterioration

is in the order of the degree of tannage. It is of prime importance to determine the effect of the degree of tannage on the

deteriorating action of the acid before drawing any conclusions as to the effects of the tanning materials themselves. Accordingly, additional leather is being prepared with the same tanning materials

with much higher degrees of tannage in order to establish this point.

All deterioration which took place in nine months occurred in samples having a pH value of less than 2.5. Wear of pneumatic tire treiads.—A study was made of the flexing

of pneumatic tire treads and a simple method developed for demon-
30 BUKEAU OF STANDARDS

strating and measuring the relative movements of different parts of

the tread due to flexing. It was concluded that tread movements

constitute one of the principal causes of tread wear and especially of

nonuniform tread wear. Wind pressure on structures.—Measurements have been made of

the pressure distribution on a cylindrical stack 10 feet in diameter

and 30 feet high in the natural wind in order to determine the wind

pressure on full-scale chimneys. To supplement the measurements

of pressure at one elevation, the whole structure has been supported on sylphon bellows which are filled with water and connected with

pressure gauges, so that the overturning moment can be measured

The results obtained thus far show that the overturning moment cor- responds within reasonable limits to that predicted from wind-tunnel

measurements on a 1-foot cylinder tested at 70 miles per hour. The

pressure distribution measurements in the natural wind show certain

features which are not as yet entirely accounted for. TESTING RAILROAD-TRACK AND OTHER SCALES ($47,000)

Railroad-track scales.—Three track scale testing units operated

over 68 railroad systems making tests in 34 States and the District

of Columbia. Seven hundred and three track scales were tested, of

which 459 were owned by the carriers, 230 by industries, 4 by States or municipalities, and 10 by departments of the Federal Government. Bureau inspectors adjusted 54 scales to correct for abnormal

weighing errors which were due to faulty adjustment.

Of all scales tested during the j^ear 70 per cent were within

the tolerance used by the bureau for grading weighing accuracy. The average error for all scales tested was 0.23 per cent of the ap- plied test loads. JBoth these values are substantially the same as the corresponding values for the preceding year. In the eastern district 77.4 per cent of the tested scales were within

tolerance, and the average error for all was 0.16 per cent. Too great

significance should not be attached to these values as indications

of high grade weighing performance, since tests made within the

district this year were too few to form a satisfactory basis for

generalizations.

In the southern district 63.6 per cent of the scales tested were

correct within tolerance, the average error for all scales being 0.30 per cent. The first figure represents an increase of 1 per cent over

last year's figure. Improvement of weighing accuracy in the south- ern district is being retarded by inferior maintenance standards,

delayed replacement of inadequate facilities, and some laxity of

supervision.

Of all scales tested in the western district 74.8 per cent were within

tolerance, and the average error was 0.17 per cent. Slight improvement over last year's results is indicated by these items. Only slight

advances may be expected henceforth in this district where mainte- nance measures, replacements, and supervision are now at practicable maximums.

Master track scales.—Eighteen master track scales were calibrated

during the year. Sixteen were found to be within precision weighing tolerances. One found deficient in performance has been abandoned and one found to have inherent defects in installation is being
EEPOKT TO THE SECRETARY OP COMMERCE 31

rebuilt. A new master scale installed by the Atlantic Coast Line

Kailroad at Jacksonville, Fla., was placed in service during the year

and now forms an added and vital link in the master scale system of

the country.

Railroaod track scales in grain weighing service.—Included

among the track scales tested were 54 scales used for weighing grain.

Thirty-two scales, or 59.2 per cent of the tested grain scales, were

within the tolerance which is twice as rigorous in its requirements

as the regular track scale tolerance. Speaking generally, a large

amount of obsolete equipment* is still in use, and grain weighing

scales are correspondingly inferior to railroad scales in accuracy

and dependability.

Test car calibrations.—While operating in the field, the test units

calibrated 18 test cars for industries and railroads which do not

have access to master scales. Installation of master track scale.—The construction of the master

track scale and test car depot at Clearing, 111., was begun early ii? the year, and the work progressed so rapidly that the master track

scale was installed, and calibrations of test cars submitted by rail- roads and industries were started on May 1. Nine test cars have been

calibrated. Some further work on the scale will be necessary before

its performance is entirely satisfactory.

Cooperation with States in weights and measures matters.—Meetings under State auspices have been attended in nine States. In con- nection with traveling incident to these meetings, officials of 12 other

States have been visited with reference to the work of existing departments of weights and measures or for consultation on the estab- lishment of new departments.

Weights and measures publications.—Three important publications were issued—a Compilation of the Federal and State Laws

Relating to Weights and Measures, a report of the Twentieth National Conference on Weights and Measures, and a Handbook on Weights and Measures Administration.

STANDARDIZATION OF EQUIPMENT ($130,000)

General conferences on simplified practice.—Twenty-four general

conferences were held, an increase of 38 per cent over the previous

year. Simplified practice recommendations have been accepted cov- ering 86 commodities, an increase of 24 projects. Thirteen recom- mendations are now in process of acceptance, and printed recom- mendations have been issued for 73 commodities.

Numhev of acceptances to simplified practice recommendations.—

A total of 883 acceptances have been received from trade associations

and other organized groups, as well as individual acceptances from

9,754 manufacturers, distributors, and users. Revision and reaffirmation conferences.—Fourteen conferences were

held by the members of the industries concerned, resulting in the

revision of items in 14 of the simplified practice recommendations

already in effect. There were also held 26 conferences, in, which the

various industries reaffirmed the existing simplified practice recommendations, an increase of 9 reaffirmations over the year 1927. Adherence to simplified practice recommendations.—-Field surveys

showed that the average degree of adherence for 31 commodities was
32 BUKEAU OF STANDARDS

86.86 per cent. That figure compares most favorably with the one

of 1926 and 1927, which was 75 per cent for 12 commodities. The

data collected through the resurveys also provided a basis for further

eliminations and substitutions, thereby making it possible to keep the

simplified practice recommendations up to date and in line with the

best current practices of the industry concerned. Individual commodities and the degree of adherence in percentage are detailed

below.

Degree of adherence obtained by actual survey

Commodity

Paving brick Asphalt

Hotel chinaware

Files and rasps Range boilers Woven-wire fencing Structural slate Roofing slate Blackboard slate Builder's hardware - Asbestos paper and asbestos mill- board

Steel barrels and drums

Sheet steel for jobbers:

Sheet-steel portion Roofing portion Eaves trough and conductor

pipe Terneplate Concrete building units

Adherence

S. P. R. No. Commodity Adherence

79. 80 33 91.00

80. 60 35 93.00 38

97. 87 39

99. 00 40

85. 00 41 98.00 42

93.00 43

79. 66 44

46

76.00 49

.89. 04 5155 85.00

52.00 57

92. 00 100.00 90.00

Cafeteria and restaurant china- ware 80.60

3 t eel lockers 85.18 Sand-lime brick | 77. 60

Dining-car chinaware 80. 60

Hospital chinaware ! 80.60

Insecticides and fungicides j 97. 00 Paper (grocers') bags j 95.55 Paint and varnish brushes ! 80. 50 Box board 65.00 Tissue paper 85. 00 Sidewalk, floor, and roof lights...! 94. 28 Die-head chasers 80.74 Tinware, galvanized, and japan- ned ware 92.00 Wrought-iron and wrought-steel

pipe, valves, and fittings I 99. 79 Average 86.86

Field surveys in progress.—Surveys -of existing varieties are in

progress for 15 industries.

Benefits of simplified practice.—Replies received regarding the

advantages of simplified practice show that manufacturers, distributors, and users are deriving many material benefits. For example,

one manufacturer of die-head chasers reduced inventory by $225,-

233.75 between December 31, 1925, and December 1, 1927, with a sav- ing in interest of approximately $13,500 per year and an estimated

saving from reduced obsolescence of $10,000 per year. In addition,

the same manufacturer reduced his office pay roll $25,000 per year, half of which he attributes to simplified practice. A large retailer

reduced his inventory of bed blankets 40 per cent, with a 7 per cent

increase in his sales. In the building-construction field one manufacturer of concrete building units reduced the selling price of his

product 25 per cent. The foregoing and similar information not only sustains the estimates made by leaders in industry that simplified practice is saving $300,000,000 per year, but indicates that the

benefits are shared in large measure by the distributors and users. Interest of domestic and foreign ousiness men in simplified practice.—That interest in simplified practice is growing is shown by the

increasing number of visitors. Two hundred and five American

business men and 26 foreign callers interviewed members of the staff. That foreign interest is increasing is shown by the numerous requests

for information, of which there were 6 in the first quarter and 14 in

the last quarter, the total for the year being 41. American Marine Standards Committee.—This committee is now

composed of 340 member bodies, among which practically all phases
REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 33

of the marine industry are represented. Technical activities are carried on by technical committees, subject committees, and special

committees, comprising an aggregate personnel of about 270 members. The finished work so far accomplished consists of 80 standards,

which are being published as a series of the Department of Commerce.

Commercial standards.—This classification includes establishment

of standards of grade, quality, dimensional tolerances, and other

, specification requirements. This work is carried out in cooperation

with industry along lines similar to simplified practice procedure.

Six general conferences have been held covering Stoddard solvent

clinical thermometers; chain-link fence of copper-bearing steel, galvanized after weaving; porcelain (all-clay) plumbing fixtures; steel pipe nipples ; and genuine wrought-iron pipe nipples. The first three

of these standards have been circulated for written acceptance, and

one—clinical thermometers—has been prepared for printing. Commercial Standard No. 1, 'New Billet-steel Concrete Reinforcement

Bars, was canceled following withdrawal of producer support.

Requests for cooperation in the establishment of 13 additional commercial standards have been received, and 36 others are in various

stages of initiation and formulation, indicating a very real demand

and support for this service from industry, particularly on the part

of trade associations.

Directory of laboratories.—In a revised edition of the Directory

of Commercial Testing and College Research Laboratories data are given concerning the laboratories in 186 colleges, as compared with

14-3 in the first edition, and 271 commercial testing laboratories, with

92 branch laboratories or offices, as compared with 207 commercial

laboratories in the first edition.

Specifications in various industries.—To supplement the National

Directory of Commodity Specifications, there was issued, with the

title " Standards and Specifications in the Wood-Using Industries,"

the first of a series of publications dealing with the standards and

specifications in various industries. Manuscript is now being pre- pared for the second volume of this series, to be called " Standards

and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and Manufactures

Thereof."

Standards Yearbook.—In the Standards Yearbook, an annual

publication of which the second volume was issued during the year, are given outlines of the standardization activities and accomplishments of not only the Bureau of Standards and other agencies of

the Federal GoA^ernment but also of the American societies and

associations and of foreign national and several international agencies of which standardization is a major or very important activity.

C

1 ooperation with public purchasers.—In connection with the

compilation of material for the National Directory of Commodity

Specifications and the Standards Yearbook, and the inauguration

of the so-called certification plan, the bureau has cooperated with

the public purchasing officers in all of the 48 States and with all of

the State highway commissions. It has established contact with more than 1,500 additional public purchasers for all of the cities throughout the country, all of the municipalities having the citymanager form of government, and many counties, public schools,

hospitals, and other public institutions. To these public purchasers
34 BUEEAU OF STANDAKDS

have been sent copies of lists of manufactuers who have expressed

their willingness to certify to compliance with United States Government master specifications, 146 of these specifications now having

been covered in this way.

Facilitating the use of specifications.—The " certification plan,"

which was introduced to overcome the disadvantages incident to the use of specifications by purchasers not equipped to test the goods

delivered, has been so extended as to include commodities covered by

a total of 146 United States Government master specifications. Self- identifying quality-guaranteeing labels are now being used by manufacturers of certain staple lines of merchandise to show that they

comply with the requirements and tests of certain of the specifications. The list of commercial and college laboratories equipped to make tests to determine whether delivered commodities comply with

the specifications has been revised and published in a second enlarged

edition. • Dry cell standardization.—Qualification tests of dry batteries are made at intervals of approximately six months. In December, 1927,

approximately 1,593 batteries were collected from 21 manufacturers,

while in June. 1928, 1,703 batteries were collected from 19 manufacturers. The information obtained on these tests is furnished to Government purchasing officers and also to each battery manufacturer on his own product. The revised Federal specification for dry

batteries issued November 23, 1927, has since been approved by the

American Engineering Standards Committee as an American

Standard.

Safety standards.—A code of colors for traffic signals for which the

bureau has been a sponsor was approved by the American Engineering Standards Committee November 15, 1927; but this code omits

all provisions for nonluminous signs, and consequent^ efforts have

been continued to work out a more comprehensive code on which

general agreement can be obtained. A revision of the Code for

Protection of Heads and Eyes of Industrial Workers is in progress, with an extension of scope to include respirators and gas masks.

Automobile headlight standards.—Tests on automobile headlamp

devices to determine compliance with State requirements have been

made for a few States and standard lamps and technical information

supplied to State officials making such tests. The bureau has cooper- ated in an investigation on headlighting under the auspices of the

Society of Automotive Engineers and the National Automobile

Chamber of Commerce.

Radio standardization.—The bureau has cooperated with the Institute of Radio Engineers and the American Engineering Standards Committee in standardizing methods of testing radio receiving vacuum tubes and component parts. A member of the bureau was chairman of the technical committee of the former organization

which formulated testing procedures for receiving sets. A member

of the bureau was chairman of the vacuum tube committee of the

American Engineering Standards Committee sectional committee on

radio ; the work of this committee led to the adoption of an American

standard receiving tube base. Lenses for the Tuckerman autocollimator.—The performance

specifications of the autocollimator demand a lens having an aper-
EEPOET TO THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 35

ture ratio f/5, with the correction for spherical aberration very much

better than is the usual commercial practice, and with a spacing

which might be varied to permit the focal lengths to be adjusted to 250 mm. with a departure not greater than ±0.05 per cent. A special design comprising two doublets was computed. Components

have been ground and polished for the assembly of nine lenses, and

the performance of the first lens which has been assembled agrees,

in a gratifying manner, with the expectations based on the

computations.

STANDARD MATERIALS ($10,000)

Distribution of standard samples.—The standard samples of ores, metallurgical products, and pure chemicals prepared and distributed

by the bureau are used to check methods of chemical analysis that

control the manufacture and sale of metallurgical and agricultural

products, to calibrate scientific instruments, and to further research

in methods of analysis. A direct result of the use of the samples is a saving of thousands of dollars a year through improved manufacturing operations and the avoidance of costly disputes based on faulty

analysis. The standard sample fund is unique in that the return to the United States Treasury in fees and accumulated stocks of sale- able samples has always exceeded the appropriation. In 1927 and

1928, $14,600 was received from the sale of 6,725 samples, and approximately $25,000 worth of standard samples were added to the

saleable samples on hand.

INVESTIGATION OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES AND X RAYS

($29,540) * X-ray standardization—In connection with X-ray standardization

efforts have been centered largely on installing adequate equipment

for the problems to be attacked. Work in the laboratory has been

limited to the problems of dosage-measurement; that is, intensity

and quality of high voltage X rays such as are used for therapeutic

purposes. Ionization chambers suitable for primary standards have

been made and preliminary comparisons with the German and American standards have been completed. A new tube-rectified highvoltage set, including a motor generator, has been installed for precision measurements under constant conditions. Conferences with

American and foreign specialists have guided this development, and

in the near future we should be in a position to calibrate the dosage

meters used in American hospitals in terms of a generally accepted

standard and with a precision as high as the instruments or methods

require.

Geiger ion counter.—The Geiger counter—a specially prepared

and negatively charged point inside an oppositely charged cavity,

and between which an electric discharge occurs each time an ion

enters the cavity—is used to measure the number of alpha particles

(positive ions shot off with great velocity) emitted by radioactive

substances per unit time. The principle of action of the counter

has puzzled investigators for several years. The bureau has discovered that a catalytic surface is necessary to sensitive the point in a Geiger ion counter. Experiments show a strict correlation between
36 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

the catalytic behavior of the fnaterial used as a point and its action

in the counter. Atylia ray tracks.—Some interesting results have been obtained

by use of an automatic Wilson expansion chamber for photographing

the tracks of alpha particles. Out of 80.000 photographs, one very

close collision between an alpha particle involved in this collision shows that some other factor than mere closeness of approach is involved in determining whether or not an atomic disintegration occurs as a result of the collision. Tests of radioactive preparations.—A total of 657 radioactive

preparations were tested, from which measurements the sale price,

amounting to a total of $600,000, was determined.

UTILIZATION OF WASTE PRODUCTS FROM THE LAND ($50,000)

Wall hoard from cornstalks.—A semicommercial factory to make

wall board from cornstalks has been built at Ames, Iowa, in cooperation with Iowa State College. All of the necessary equipment was

installed during the fiscal year 1927-28. After installation several

months were required to get the separate machines to function properly and then to get them all s}7nchronized. Laboratory work was

necessary to correlate the composition of the sizing with the alkalinity of the Iowa water. Further experiments showed how to reduce

the weight of the board to the necessary figure without sacrificing too much of the strength. Board is now being produced regularly

at the rate of 6 linear feet per minute, 2 feet wide by ^ inch thick

(2 tons per 8-hour day). The board compares favorably in all properties with similar products now on the market. The weight is 639

pounds per 1,000 square feet, and the thermal conductivity is 0.39 B. t. u. per hour per square foot per inch thickness per Fahrenheit

degree temperature difference.

Production of xylose.—Analyses of many agricultural wastes showed that the}7 nearly all contain considerable quantities of xylose.

Laboratory methods have been worked out for recovering this rare sugar from cottonseed hulls and peanut shells. Semicommercial

equipment is now being designed. Possible markets for xylose are being investigated, with promising results. Peanut shells in gypsum- fiber concrete.—Experiments are in progress on the use of peanut shells as a substitute for hardwood

planer shavings in gypsum fiber concrete. The cost of these shavings

is quite high, while peanut shells can be obtained at a price only

slightly above the transportation charges. The concrete so far made

with peanut shells shows less strength than that made with wood

chips, but this is believed to be the result of decay of the shells. Various preservative methods are now being studied. Other problems relating to cotton and wood waste utilization are being

surveyed.

INVESTIGATION OF AUTOMOTIVE ENGINES ($25,000)

Gasoline volatility.—In the analysis of the data on engine start- ing, previously reported, it was shown that a relation existed between

the distillation curve of the American Society for Testing Materials

and the equilibrium distillation curve at 5 and 15 per cent evaporated.
REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 37

Subsequent analysis of volatility data obtained on 25 diverse gasolines

showed that similar relations hold at any percentage evaporated from

10 to 90 per cent, these relations being general and independent of the

specific characteristics of the gasoline. Thus, over this range, the

complete equilibrium volatility curves of interest in engine per- formance, covering air-vapor mixtures from 8-1 to 20-1, may be obtained readily from the customary distillation test without additional experimentation. It has also been shown that the dew point

for any desired mixture of any gasoline and air may be computed

from the A. S. T. M. 90 per cent point.

Economic volatility of motor fuels.—The effect of fuel volatility on

engine acceleration is the aspect of this problem which is now being

studied in cooperation with the American Petroleum Institute, the

National Automobile Chamber of Commerce and the Society of

Automotive Engineers. A new spark accelerometer, giving records

of high precision, has been developed, and a description of this in- strument, together with preliminary acceleration data on six fuels,

will soon be published.

Antiknock characteristics of fuels.—Cooperation has continued

with the automotive and petroleum industries in the effort to find some satisfactory common basis for rating antiknock motor fuels. Joint tests in which various laboratories undertook to rate the same

set of fuels have shown how difficult it is at present to correlate the

results obtained by different laboratories. The solution of this problem may be found in the general adoption of a common test engine

and procedure, or it may require the extended study of typical

methods and equipment by one or more laboratories.

Properties of oxidized oils.—The effect of the products of oxidation on the properties of motor lubricating oils has been studied to dis- cover to what extent these effects can be predicted by a knowledge of

the oxidation number. Especial attention is being paid to the cor- rosive nature of oxidation products.

Efficiency of spur-gear and worm-gear drives.—An investigation

has been undertaken in cooperation with the American Electric Railway Association for the purpose of determining the relative effi- ciency of different types of reduction gearing under all conditions

of load, speed, and lubrication factors which will be met in street- railway service. Vibration of motor vehicles.—The contact accelerometer with elec- trolytic recorder has been used several times at the request of the Veterans" Bureau to compare the riding qualities of ambulances and

to study the effect of shock absorbers on riding comfort.

Phenomena of combv&tion.—More than a thousand photographic

records of explosions at constant pressure have demonstrated that it is possible from the velocity coefficients of carbon monoxide ana

methane to predict the flame velocity of any composite fuel made

up of these ingredients for any mixture ratio of fuel and oxygen

that will ignite. The explosive reaction of gaseous mixtures containing hydrogen is more complex and will receive further study. The

effect of inert gases (nitrogen, helium, or carbon dioxide) on the

carbon monoxide-oxygen reaction was found previously to depend on

the thermal properties of the inert gas used. Recent experiments
38 BUREAU OF STANDAKDS

using argon suggest that the important factor is the molecular heat

rather than the thermal conductivity.

Automotive headlighting.—The investigation of headlighting from

the automobile driver's point of view has been continued throughout

the year. The effect on visibility of changes in the shape, aiming,

and intensity of the headlight beams has been studied under a variety

of road conditions, especially that of meeting another car. INVESTIGATION OF DENTAL MATERIALS ($5,000)

Studies in the composition, physical properties, and manipulation

of dental materials.—The work being done under this appropriation

is the first comprehensive research in the field of dental materials to be undertaken and financed by the Federal Government. Information already obtained has established many of the important properties of gold alloys and accessory materials used in making dental

restorations and has revealed numerous defective materials and technics. Standards have been established for the proper selection of

gold-silver-platinum alloys extensively used in the dental profession.

This information is welcomed and is being taken advantage of by

leaders of the profession.

Cooperative dental research.—The cooperative research that has ex- tended over the past six years, through the financial support of the

Weinstein Research Laboratories, has been completed and final results are now in press. This cooperative investigation is recognized as the

pioneer work in the field of dental research at the Bureau of Standards. Much valuable information was obtained which was made

freely available to the public through the issuance of numerous re- ports as the work progressed. A similar investigation is now in progress in cooperation with the American Dental Association. This

is expected to extend over a period of at least five years, and it is anticipated that equally valuable results will be obtained. The work

has already been productive of much information of practical value

to the dental profession and to the public.

BUILDING FOR POWER PLANT ($200,000)

The new building which will house the bureau's central power plant

is completed. The brick smokestack, with a height of 185 feet above

street level, is nearly finished, and in addition to serving the usual

purposes of a chimney will be equipped with instruments for measuring wind pressure. POWER-PLANT EQUIPMENT ($100,000)

Equipment.—The equipment for the boiler room of the bureau's new power plant is under contract, and parts of it are now being

installed. It is expected that this portion of the plant will be ready

for operation by the latter part of December of this year. TRANSFERRED FUNDS ($275,000)

Organization and projects.—During the year funds were trans- ferred from the following branches of the Government covering the

projects listed
REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OP COMMERCE 39

Aeronautics Branch, Department of Commerce

Use of radio in aeronautics. Lighting of airways. Bureau of Engraving and Printing

Development of more durable currency paper. Electrodeposition as applied to printing plates. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce : Directory of commodity specifi- cations. National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

Aerodynamic problems.

Aeronautic power-plant investigations.

Development of substitute for parachute silk. Fatigue of duralumin.

Embrittlement of duralumin.

Navy Department

Gas as a fuel for automotive engines. Altitude control of carburetors. Lubrication of aircraft engines under starting conditions. Study of combustion by means of fuel bomb.

Performance of storage batteries. Aircraft instrument development and testing.

Investigation of parachute cloth. Investigation of airship fabrics. Corrosion of metals. Development of new types of airship girders.

Study of bomb ballistics. Manufacture of optical glass. Shipping Board : Miscellaneous physical, chemical, and engineering investi- gations.

War Department

General radio investigations.

Embrittlement of duralumin.

Lubricants for automotive engines.

. Construction of experimental gauges. Development of optical projection apparatus for testing gauges. Construction of improved extensometer. Development of machine guns. Many of these projects were supported partly by bureau and

partly by transferred funds. The more important of these have

already been described under the appropriate bureau fund. Important investigations supported wholly by transferred funds include

the following : Aircraft beacons.—Serving as the research unit of the aeronautics

branch of the Department of Commerce, the bureau conducted re- search on several problems involving the use of radio in aeronautics.

The principal work done was a continuation of the development of

the directive radiobeacon. A practical type of beacon to supply

signals of the visual type was worked out, and demonstrations of its operation were given at College Park, Md. This marks out a course between airports along which airplanes can fly in fog or darkness

without regard to visible landmarks. Indication that the airplane is on the course, or the extent of deviation from the course, is given by

a simple indicator, visually observed, on the airplane instrument

board. Incidental to this development, receiving sets of special

design were developed for airplane use, and improvements were made

in methods of shielding against airplane engine ignition interference.

Variations in the indicated radiobeacon course at night were dis- covered, and means of overcoming them through use of a short pole

antenna were developed. This has several advantages over the trail- ing wire hitherto used. A member of the bureau's staff went to
40 BUBEAU OF STANDARDS

Europe to study the uses of radio in aeronautics and the progress of

research in this field, and information was secured of value in the

establishment of a program for future research.

Photometric measurements on various types of reflectors and lenses designed for airway and landing field lighting were made in cooperation with the Bureau of Lighthouses, airways division. An experimental beacon in which different light sources can be compared under

various weather conditions was designed, and plans were made to erect it on the coast of Maine.

Type testing of commercial airplane engines.—This line of work was initiated during the past year. Engines thus far submitted for

test by the aeronautics branch of the Department of Commerce have

been air-cooled radial engines, and they have been tested on a torque

stand, using suitably designed propellers to absorb the power and at the same time produce sufficient air blast to cool the cylinders. Equipment is also being installed in the laboratory to permit dynamometer

tests of air-cooled engines. Each power plant is considered on its own merits, and there are no requirements beyond sound design, adequate materials, good workmanship, and reliable performance of the

engine and its accessories.

Gas cell fabrics.—The bureau, in cooperation with the Navy Department, supervised the construction of an experimental gas cell for the naval airship Los Angeles. The gas-impermeable fabric used was developed by this bureau, and the seam construction was the

result of the bureau's suggestions and recommendations. This cell has already been placed in the Los Angeles, and after a period of

two months naval officers who have observed its behavior are of the

opinion that it is almost as good as the best of the goldbeater's skin

cells now in use. Furthermore, it is their belief that improvement in the technic and workmanship emplo}^ed in the construction of the seams will yield a cell equal, if not superior, to those made with goldbeater's skin. Outdoor exposure test, under cover cloth as in an air- ship, on experimental panels of this type of fabric have shown that,

after three and a half years, the fabric has undergone practically no change in permeability and but little deterioration in strength, thus

indicating a probable life greater than that of the goldbeater's skin

fabric. The new type of cell is made from materials which are avail- able in unlimited quantities and may be built at a considerably lower

cost than the old type.

Helium purity meters.—Three helium purity meters were con- structed for the Air Corps, War Department.

Investigations of wind tunnel turbulence.—In cooperation with the

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, experiments have

been continued on the fundamental problem of measuring the characteristics of turbulent flow. It is now possible with somewhat elab- orate apparatus to measure the mean amplitude of the time variations in air speed occurring at any point in the wind tunnel or behind

objects of various shapes.

Airship girders.—This investigation has been continued along the

lines outlined last year. Several girders made from duralumin sheets having a rectangular cross section have been tested in which circular

openings are cut in the sheet to reduce the weight.

Strength of tubes.—The experimental work has been continued.

"Considerable study has been given to a method of presenting the
REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 41

results so that they may be most efficiently used by aircraft designers.

Apparently, a wholly satisfactory method has not been found up to the present time.

Strength of -fiat plates.—In cooperation with the Bureau of Aeronautics, ~N&vy Department, the strength of flat plates under edgewise compression was determined experimentally. The specimens were duralumin, stainless steel, nickel, and Monel metal. Different

s widths up to 24 inches were tested. The load at which buckling of

the plates began was determined as well as the ultimate load.

Graphs showing the deformation of the specimens have been drawn

also graphs from which a designer can obtain the ultimate load for

any plate within the range covered by this investigation.

Prevention of embrittlement of duralumin by corrosion.—Previous

findings as to the value of a rapid quenching rate (cold water-quenching) and of a coating of pure aluminum as means of preventing the

corrosion which causes embrittlement were substantiated by extensive

exposure tests. Expdsure tests have been in progress on many other

types of protective coatings. A study of the increase in rate of

corrosion as the result of static tensile or repeated bending stresses was begun. This work was supported by the Navy and War Departments and by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.

Four progress reports have been issued in the technical notes of

the last named.

Miscellaneous aeronautic research.—This work has included the

investigation of (1) the influence of chord and span of ailerons on

rolling and pitching moments, (2) soundproofing qualities of various

combinations of light materials in relation to airplane cabin construction, (3) strength of various types of welded joints of tubular mem-

[ bers used in fuselage construction, (4) endurance tests of air-cooled

aircraft engines used in commercial aviation.

Iron deposition.—Promising experiments have been made at this

bureau and at the Bureau of Engraving and Printing upon the pro-

,: duction of electrolytic printing plates by depositing iron instead of

( the copper and nickel now used. If this process proves practicable,

it will represent a further saving in the cost of such plates.

j] GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS

Fundamental research.—As stated in last year's report, a substantial increase in the salaries fund is urgently needed for extension

of the work relating to standards of measurement and the determination of fundamental constants of importance to science and industry.

\ The Congress has made provision for starting work on an international program relative to standards of length, heat, optics, and

electricity. This program will require further support, and addi-

. tional funds should be provided to enable the bureau more ade-

' quately to meet the serious deficiencies in our knowledge of important

constants used in physics, chemistry, technology ,and engineering.

Development of conwnercial standards.—The simplified practice

, program has been an unqualified success, and a beginning hais

j been made in applying similar methods of cooperation with industry

in the field of standardization. We may look for corresponding

benefits to industry if the work of the commercial standards group

of the bureau receives adequate support, and I therefore recommend
42 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

additional appropriations for this work, which is fundamental to economic progress in industry.

Consolidation of funds.—The study of this subject has been con- tinued, and it is expected that recommendations, satisfactory to the Bureau of the Budget and to the Congress, may be made, greatly

simplifying the work of the accounting, auditing, and disbursing

officials. It is believed the funds of the bureau may be condensed

advantageously into four.

Hydraulic laboratory.—This project, of a national hydraulic

laboratory at the Bureau of Standards to serve all the Meld services

approved by the President, through the Bureau of the Budget, and

a bill authorizing the expenditure of $350,000 for a building and

permanent equipment, and setting up a program board of the three

Secretaries of Commerce, War, and Interior, has passed the Senate,

and hearings have been held before the House Committee on Rivers

and Harbors. The only opposition comes fro*m the Chief of Engineers of the Army. It is of the greatest economic importance to the country that this project be realized at an early date. Power-plant equipment.—The estimated cost of equipping the new

power plant is $300,000, of which $200,000 has been appropriated.

In order that the plant may be put in full operation at the earliest possible date, the remaining $100,000 should be made available not

later than June 30. 1929. New permanent location for aircraft research.—The bureau is by

law the research unit of the aeronautics branch of the department.

The testing of aircraft engines and the execution of outdoor wind

tunnel experiments are necessarily accompanied by noises which dis- turb our neighbors. This condition has been partly met by transferring certain of this work to the rented field at College Park, Md.

There the bureau also carries out much of its field work on problems

relating to aviation, such as radio and lighting.

It would seem wise for the department to make permanent provision for a headquarters experimental flying field in the immediate

vicinity of Washington, where work requiring the use of planes,

engine testing, and other activities relating to field work in aero- nautics could be carried on under more advantageous conditions.

New ouildings needed.—The present small building (39% by 39%

feet) used for high voltage testing is inadequate in size and danger- ous when operating at many high voltages ; 150,000 volts is the pres- ent limit, but 300,000 volts is required in some experiments. Provision should be made for replacing this structure by one adequate in

size and design to meet the demands in this increasingly important

field of testing and research. The nature of this work is such that a separate building is imperative. The cost would be about $100,000.

The fire-resistance work of the bureau is growing in importance

and volume and requires in addition to temporary structures a building of suitable size and design to meet the needs of this important

activity. I recommend that consideration be given to the authorization of a fire-resistance building to cost about $125,000.

The North Building of the bureau does not conform in architec- ture with the rest of the group. The roof should be made over, giving another story, and the removal from this building of the main

water-flow problems, has been
REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 43

units of the power plant will necessitate alterations which would

make available much needed laboratory and shop space. These

highly desirable alterations would cost about $60,000.

Exhibits.—In view of the numerous requests which the bureau

receives for exhibits of its work at meetings of scientific and technical societies, expositions, etc., it would seem advisable to provide a

small sum for such purposes. Judging by the interest displayed, this

is an important way of acquainting the general public with the

scientific work of the Government.

Need for increased facilities at branch laboratories.—In order to care for certain of the requests from governmental agencies for the

testing of structural and miscellaneous materials, the bureau maintains three branch laboratories, located at Northampton, Pa.; Denver, Colo., and San Francisco, Calif. At the present time these

branch laboratories are caring for a volume of work which prohibits meeting further demands unless the personnel and equipment

can be increased. With the demand of purchasing agents that materials meet the requirements of the specifications of the Federal

Specifications Board, this commodity testing work will continue to

increase, and it is in the interest of economy to make adequate provision for it. Medical aid.—I again recommend that there be established at the

bureau a first-aid station in care of a competent physician preferably

detailed from the Public Health Service. Such a station is an imperative need because of the many accident hazards which are inseperable from some of the bureau's work. Also, there are several lines of work, including radium, X-ray and furnace operations, requiring medical oversight of the physical condition of the operating

personnel.

Very truly yours, George K. Burgess,

Director, Bureau of Standards.
APPENDIX

GENERAL FINANCIAL STATEMENT

During the fiscal year 1928 the bureau expended and accounted for funds

aggregating $2,739,792.85, including $282,357.85 received by transfer and reim- bursement from other departments for special researches. The amounts and objects of each appropriation for the past fiscal year and two previous fiscal years, together with disbursements, unpaid orders outstanding, and unexpended balances for each appropriation, are shown in the follow- ing tables

Disbursements, liabilities, etc, 1928, 1921, and 1926 appropriations

Appropriation Total appropriation Disburse- ments i^iaDiiioies .Balance

1928

$572, 060. 00 $528, 409. 90 $43, 287.65 $362. 45 Equipment 88, 000. 00 72,753.59 15, 069. 21 177. 20 General expenses 171,198.69 57,214.03 13, 893. 72 90. 94 Improvement and care of grounds 13, 000. 00 10, 710. 83 2, 211.47 77.70 Testing structural materials 2 241,751.78 212,025.68 28,378.62 1,347.48 Testing machines.. 3 38, 025. 00 29,557.37 8, 328. 22 139.41 Metallurgical research * 48, 414. 92 43, 677. 04 4,548.53 189.35 Investigation of optical glass 20, 520. 00 18,128.40 2, 373. 81 17.79 Standard materials 10, 000. 00 8, 897. 60 1,024.25 78.15 Investigation of textiles 40, 700. 00 36,771.47 3, 737. 89 190.64 Sugar standardization « 50, 960. 00 45, 782. 34 4, 974.13 203.5? Gauge standardization. . 38, 320. 00 34, 876. 16 3, 347. 60 96.24 High-temperature investigation.. .. 9. 740. 00 8, 290. 54 1,439.47 9.99 Testing railroad scales 47, 000. 00 42,998. 09 3, 688. 30 313.61 Investigation of fire-resisting properties. .

28, 100. 00 25, 789. 53 2, 051. 38 259.09 Testing miscellaneous materials 44, 000. 00 38, 974. 38 5, 011.49 14.13 Investigation of public utilitv standards . 8 100, 282. 46 89, 790. 68 10, 272. 27 219, 51 Radio research 49, 800. 00 45, 311. 83 4, 338. 64 149.53 Industrial research.. * 175, 860. 00 153, 902. 55 21, 526. 04 431.41 Sound investigation _. 10, 580. 00 10, 238. 31 279. 22 62.47 Investigation of clav products 47, 000. 00 41, 494. 40 5, 384. 42 121. 18 Color standardization. 10, 000. 00 8, 609. 10 1, 245. 02 145. 88 Investigation of radioactive substances and X rays. 29, 540. 00 26, 193. 96 3, 228. 74 117. 30 Standardizing mechanical appliances 27, 800. 00 24, 052. 99 3, 582. 96 164. 05 Investigation of mine scales and cars. .. . 12, 800. 00 10, 651. 94 2, 089. 90 58. 16 Standardization of equipment 8 130, 135. 50 114,403.99 14, 833. 33 898. 18

» 27, 700. 00 24, 740. 85 2, 639. 14 320. 01 Utilization of waste products from the land 50, 000. 00 44, 122. 42 5, 671.06 206. 52 Investigation of dental materials . . 5, 000. 00 3. 528. 51 1, 454. 75 16.74 Power-plant equipment 100, 000. 00 5, 602. 04 94, 333. 94 4. 02 Building for power plant ...... 200, 000. 00 143, 501. 03 41, 988. 31 14,510. 66 Sugar standardization (1928-29) 25, 000.00 5, 693.44 1,638.20 17, 668.36 Standardization of equipment (1928-29) 15, 000. 00 15,000.00 Radio research (1928-29) 30, 000. 00 6. 71 1, 037. 72 28, 955. 57

Rfl.la.ries fl 928-29) _._ 35, 000. 00 266. 66 34, 733. 34 Color standardization (1928-29) 5, 000. 00 5, 000. 00 Fnrnanes and shelter fl 928-29) 22, 000. 00 443. 33 . 21,556.67 Appropriations transferred from other depart- ments which are available for the current year: Aircraft in commerce .. 110, 500. 00 92, 680. 74 17, 366. 78 452.48 Incidental expenses of Army 10, 000. 00 9, 361. 62 549. 18 89. 20 Compensation of employees, Bureau of Engraving and Printing ... .... 11, 000. 00 9,992.28 921. 66 86.06 Export industries, foreign and domestic commerce.. ... . .. . 2, 820. 00 2, 765. 82 54. 18 Advisory committee for aeronautics 34, 900. 00 29, 303. 48 5, 368. 60 227. 92 Aviation, Navy.. ... 77, 500. 00 64, 354. 97 12,501.02 644. 01 Air Corps, Army

Signal Service of Army... .. ..

2, 500. 00 2, 214. 00 205. 00 81.00

1, 800. 00 1, 261. 60 418.76 119.64 Air navigation facilities . ...... 234. 50 234. 50 Footnotes at end of table. 44
REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 45

Disbursements, liabilities, etc., 1928, 1927, and 1926 appropriations—Continued

Appropriation

1928—Continued

Appropriations transferred from other depart- ments which are available for a period of 2 years: Ordnance and ordnance stores Ordnance stores, ammunition (1928-29) Air Corps, Army

Automatic rifles (1928-29) Gauges, dies, and jigs, for manufacture

Total.

1927

Salaries. Equipment.-

General expenses Improvement and care of grounds

Testing structural materials , Testing machines

Metallurgical research..

Investigation of optical glass Standard materials

Investigation of textiles Sugar standardization Gauge standardization High-temperature investigation Testing railroad scales Investigation of fire-resisting properties Testing miscellaneous materials

Investigation of public utility standards Radio research

Industrial research. Sound investigation Investigation of clay products

Color standardization

Investigation of radioactive substances

Standardizing mechanical appliances

Investigation of mine scales and cars Standardization of equipment

Investigation of automotive engines Sugar standardization (1926-27) Master track scale and test-car depot

Building for power plant Appropriations transferred from other departments which are available for the current year: Compensation of employees, Bureau of Engraving and Printing... Export industries, Department of Commerce...

Advisory committee for aeronautics Engineering, Bureau of Engineering Automatic rifles (1927-28) Signal Service of the Army

Aircraft in commerce

Oil, gas, and oil shale investigation, Bureau of Mines

Aviation, Navy

Air Service of the Army.

General expenses, Coast and Geodetic Survey..

Incidental expenses of the Army

Ordnance stores ammunition (1927-28) Construction and repair, Bureau of Construction and Repair

Conference on oil pollution of navigable waters

(1925-1927) Field Artillery armament

Air navigation facilities. Appropriations transferred from other departments which are available for a period of 2 years: Ordnance and ordnance stores Gauges, dies, and jigs, for manufacture

Air Service of the Army

Total appropriation

$12, 000. 00

1, 000.00 500.00

2,000.00

2, 750. 00

2, 739, 792. 85

567,

88,

io 71,

12,

ii 233,

38,

43,

20,

10,

12 36,

13 40, 38,

9, 39,

28,

44, 100,

49, » 179,

10, 47,

15 28,

12,

18 116,

25,

25,

50, 200,

320.00

000.00

968.31 000.00

186. 12

000. 00

140. 00

520. 00

000.00

000.00 960.00

320. 00

740.00

000. 00

100. 00

090. 00 000.00

800.00 820.00

580.00 000.00

000.00

540. 00

215. 00 800.00

000. 86 000.00

000. 00

000. 00

000. 00

Total.

1926

Salaries. Equipment

General expenses Footnotes at end of table.

14, 000. 00

4, 500. 00

34, 000. 00

2, 500. 00

2, 000. 00

1, 800. 00

93, 809. 25 " 5, 410. 00

81. 900. 00

7, 425. 00 400.00

11, 750. 00

1, 000. 00

1, 750. 00 " 2, 482. 19

5, 000. 00

1, 613. 00

13, 400. 00

5, 750. 00

1, 000. 00

2, 474, 589. 73

i fl 516, 760. 00

70, 000. 00

2" 45, 568. 74

Disburse- ments

$9, 604. 32

425. 71

1, 316. 63

1, 616. 64

2, 192, 604. 00

556, 424. 91

85, 825. 58

69, 909. 74

11, 811.31

228, 209. 02

37, 380. 72

42, 700. 49

19, 787. 24

9, 880. 96

35, 260. 52

40, 559. 13

37, 630. 93

9, 437. 82

38, 141. 03

26, 926. 37

41, 934. 84

99, 148. 19

48, 173. 91

176, 475. 71

10, 070. 01

44, 603. 18

8, 405. 62

9, 281. 53

26, 763. 29

12, 440. 42

109, 734. 74

24, 102. 52

24, 346. 62

48, 551. 59

143, 501. 03

13, 949. 76

4, 355. 60

33, 835. 43

2, 416. 01

1, 791. 45

1, 790. 40

91, 810. 14

5, 375. 00

81, 494. 15

7, 274. 16

352. 20

11, 489. 05

983. 50

1, 743. 59

2, 385. 00

4, 533. 19

1, 613. 00

12, 843. 59

5, 719. 90

100.00

2, 363, 274. 09

516, 487.24

69, 251. 12

42, 149. 12

Liabilities

$1, 123. 82

100. 00

355. 00

233. 32

398, 052. 54

394. 19

1, 714. 57

170. 17

20. 28

314. 40

155. 96

34. 50

318. 32

41, 988. 31

1, 797. 21

9."66"

350. 10

253. 86

I 77

362.
46 BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Disbursements, liabilities, etc., 1928, 1921, and 1926 appropriations—Continued

Appropriation Total appropriation

1926—Continued Improvement and care of grounds

Testing structural materials Testing machines

Metallurgical research Investigation of optical glass Standard materials

Investigation of textiles Sugar standardization Gauge standardization High-temperature investigation Testing railroad scales Investigation of fire-resisting properties Testing miscellaneous materials

Investigation of public utility standards Radio research

Industrial research Sound investigation Investigation of clay products

Color standardization

Investigation of radioactive substances

Standardizing mechanical appliances

Investigation of mine scales and cars. Standardization of equipment

Investigation of automotive engines Appropriations transferred from other departments which are available for the current year:

. Compensation of employees, Bureau of Engraving and Printing

Signal Service of the Army.

Automatic rifles (1926-27) Construction and repair, Bureau of Construction and Repair... General expenses, Bureau of Entomology.

Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Ordnance stores, ammunition (1925-26) Aviation, Navy...

Export industries, Department of Commerce...

Air Service of the Army.

Incidental expenses of the Army.

General expenses, Lighthouse Service Engineering, Bureau of Engineering

Appropriations transferred from other departments which are available for a period of 2 years: Ordnance and ordnance stores General expenses, Coast and Geodetic Survey..

Gauges, dies, and jigs for manufacture

Air Service of the Army

Signal Service of the Army

Total 1,946,252.10 1,931,176.64

$11, 000. 00

21 232, 175. 27

38, 000. 00

22 43, 220. 00 » 20, 561. 88

10, 000. 00 « 27, 560. 00 « 40, 960. 00

38, 320. 00

9, 740. 00

39, 000. 00

28, 100. 00

26 49, 090. 00

100, 000. 00

44, 800. 00

«7 174, 886. 62

28 5, 655. 00 27,000.00

9, 000. 00 10,680.00

27, 800. 00

14, 540. 00

2» 111, 634. 00

30 30, 280. 00

6,000.00

1,800. 00

2, 000. 00

5, 585. 25

3, 000. 00

32, 600. 00

3, 300.00

53, 610. 79 4,500.00

9,100. 00

11, 750. 00

10,000.00

2, 424. 55

12,000. 00

1, 000. 00

2, 750. 00

1, 000.00

7, 500. 00

Disburse- ments

$10, 929. 55

230, 783. 79

37, 752. 76

42, 619. 11

20, 320. 61

9,999. 85

27, 005. 11

40, 741. 73

37, 716. 57

9, 685. 91

38, 737. 57

27, 907. 86

48, 933. 71

99, 571. 46

44, 762. 52

173, 674. 08

5,' 606. 52

26, 302. 92

8, 781. 74

10, 389. 09

27, 713. 10

14, 354. 25 110,916.89

29, 945.40

5, 970.58

1,775. 82

1, 970. 16

5, 487. 75

2, 895.23

32, 289. 36 3,195.43

53, 610. 79

4, 336. 08

8,933. 09

11, 375. 35

9, 970. 67

2, 424. 55

12,000. 00

998.66

2,552.20

960. 00

7, 391. 34

Liabilities

$319. 35

111. 50

237.78

185.75

69. 61

Balance

$70. 45

1, 072. 13

136. 74 600.89 241.27

.15

554. S9

218. 27 603.43

54.09

24. 65

192. 14 156.29

428.54 37.48

1,212.54 :Efei48.48

697.08

218.26

290. 91

' f86. 90

717.11 264.99

29; 42

24. 18 29.84

2.44

104.77 310.64

104.57 163.92

166. 91 374.65

1.34 197.80 40.00

1, 430. 71 13, 644. 75

Includes reimbursements and^transfers received from other departments as follows:

i $1,343.69. 1 7 $1,395.

2 $1,751.78. i j This fund was reappropriated|from|the unin3 $25. cumbered balance of the 1926 appropriation.

* $274.92. 1 9 Includes supplemental appropriation of $5,000.

« $2,800. 2 " $2,068.74.

6 $282.46. 21 $2,175.27.

7 $3,540. 22 $80.

8 $135.50. 23 $41.88.

» $2,700. $1,000.

10 $3,613.31. « $2,800. " $3,186.12. 26 $5,000.

12 $1,000. 27 $766.62.

13 $2,800. 28 $75. " $5,700. 29 $1,634. " $415. 30 $5,280. " $1,000.86. o