NASA TM- 1998-104826

Procedures for Exercise

Physiology Laboratories

Phillip A. Bishop

University of Alabama

Tuscaloosa, Alabama

Suzanne Fortney, Michael Greenisen

and Steven F. Siconolfi

Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

Houston, Texas

Marcas M. Bamman and Alan D. Moore, Jr.

Krug Life Sciences

Houston, Texas

William Squires

Texas Lutheran University

Seguin, Texas

July 1998

https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19990116844 2018-05-11T19:24:40+00:00Z
Dedicated to Captain Manley L. "Sonny" Carter, Jr., USN

August 15, 1947 - April 5, 1991

Available from:

NASA Center lor AeroSpace Inlormation

7121 Standard

Hanover, M D 21076-1320

Price Code: AI7

National Technical Information Service

5285 Port Royal Road

Springfield, VA 22161

Price Code: At0
Preface

With the inception of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Exercise

Countermeasures Project and Supporting Laboratories at Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas,

I directed that a procedures manual be established which defined the laboratories' method of

collecting astronaut crew physiological performance data. The Exercise Countermeasures

Project Laboratory is a standard physiology laboratory; only our application to the study of

human physiological adaptations to space flight is unique. Therefore, in the absence of any other

recently published laboratory manual, it was decided to publish this "Procedures for Exercise

Physiology Laboratories" as a useful document for the staffs and students of other laboratories.

Dr. William G. Squires coordinated the development of this manual. Dr. Phillip A. Bishop was a

contributing author and also worked with each author on section content.

Michael C. Greenisen

Manager, Exercise Countermeasures Project

Life Sciences Research Laboratories

Johnson Space Center

°.° III
Contents

Section

2

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

3

3.1

3.2

4

4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

Page

Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1

Laboratory Safety ....................................................................................................... 1

Emergency Procedures ............................................................................................... 1

General Emergency Steps ..................................................................................... 1

Telephone Procedures ........................................................................................... 1

Graded Exercise Testing Emergency Procedures ................................................. 2

General Safety ............................................................................................................ 2

Equipment and Electrical Safety ................................................................................ 3

Personnel Safety Training .......................................................................................... 3

Calibration .................................................................................................................. 5

Treadmill Calibration ................................................................................................. 5

Calibration of Treadmill Speed ............................................................................. 5

Calibration of Treadmill Grade ............................................................................. 7

Speed and Grade Adjustments .............................................................................. 8

Cycle Ergometer Calibration ..................................................................................... 8

Calibration of Ergometer Speed/Distance ............................................................. 9

Calibration of Ergometer Friction Brake .............................................................. 10

Laboratory Procedures ............................................................................................... 11

Preparation of Human Subjects ................................................................................. 11

Graded Exercise Testing (GXT) ................................................................................ 11

General Procedures ............................................................................................... 11

Breathing Apparatus and Related Equipment ....................................................... 12

Care and Cleaning of Mouthpieces and Respiratory Valves ................................ 15

Troubleshooting .................................................................................................... 15

Staff Responsibilities ............................................................................................ 16

Safety Procedures .................................................................................................. 17

Subject Screening .................................................................................................. 17

Contraindications .................................................................................................. 18

Pre-Exercise Testing Measurements ..................................................................... 19

Subject Monitoring and Recording of Responses ................................................. 19

Perceived Exertion Measurements ........................................................................ 20

Termination Criteria .............................................................................................. 20

Recovery Procedures ............................................................................................. 21

Medical Interpretation of Results .......................................................................... 21

Record Keeping .................................................................................................... 21

Measurement of Oxygen Consumption Using the Douglas Bag Method .................. 22

Anaerobic Capacity Measurement ............................................................................. 24

iv
4.5

4.6

4.7

4.8

4.9

Appendix:

StrengthandPowerMeasurement............................................................................. 25

Iso-loadTesting .................................................................................................... 26

Isometric Testing .................................................................................................. 26

Isokinetic Testing .................................................................................................. 26

Isotonic Testing ..................................................................................................... 27

Blood Lactate Measurement ...................................................................................... 28

Measurement of Body Composition .......................................................................... 32

Equipment ............................................................................................................ 32

Hydrostatic Weighing Procedures ........................................................................ 33

Residual Volume Procedures ................................................................................ 36

Sources of Error .................................................................................................... 39

Criterion Measurement of 02 and CO2 with the Micro-Scholander ......................... 41

Equipment ............................................................................................................. 41

Chemicals .............................................................................................................. 43

Supply Sources ...................................................................................................... 44

Formula Preparation .............................................................................................. 44

a. Acid Rinse ........................................................................................................ 44

b. CO2 Absorber .................................................................................................. 45

c. 02 Absorber ..................................................................................................... 45

Reaction Chamber Preparation ............................................................................. 45

Pre-Operational Procedures .................................................................................. 46

Scholander Operation ............................................................................................ 48

Environmental Measures ........................................................................................... 51

Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) ................................................................ 51

Hg Barometer Operation ....................................................................................... 52

Useful Common Conversions ................................................................................... A-1

Figures

Figure

1

2a

2b

3

4

5

6

Page

Assembly of 2-way non-rebreathing valve and mouthpiece ...................................... 13

Assembled breathing apparatus and headgear ........................................................... 14

End-tidal sampling line and expiratory hose attachment ........................................... 14

Hydrostatic weighing harness .................................................................................... 35

Residual volume measurement equipment ................................................................ 38

Samples tracing for residual volume measurement ................................................... 39

Micro-Scholander gas analyzer .................................................................................. 42

This publication is available from the NASA Center for Aerospace Information, 800

Elkridge Landing Road, Linthicum Heights, MD 21090-2934, (301) 621-0390.

V

Section 1

Introduction

This manual provides reference procedures for exercise and work physiology research

laboratories. It is recognized that every laboratory is unique in its goals and capabilities. Where

possible we provide generic examples; at other places we provide operating instructions for

specific pieces of equipment. This manual is not exhaustive, and in many cases there are

multiple procedures for measuring a particular parameter. In some of these procedures, we

provide a brief introduction, then refer the user to other sources that describe the technique in

detail.

Section 2

Laboratory Safety

The key concern in all laboratory operations is ensuring the safety of both the research subjects

and the laboratory technicians. Safe laboratory operation depends upon constant vigilance by

everyone in the laboratory from the most naive subject to the experienced investigator. Every

person in the lab should be trained to question any situation or instruction which might result in

injury.

2.1 Emergency Procedures

General Emergency Steps

In all emergencies, notify emergency medical technician (EMT) services as soon as possible.

Initiate first aid as needed.

Telephone Procedures

Post a notice of the type that follows above the most accessible telephones in the laboratory.

EMERGENCY

telephone 33333

READ SLOWLY AND CLEARLY:

This is the Exercise Physiology Laboratory in Building 261. We have a cardiac emergency and

need your assistance immediately. Please come to our laboratory on the first floor. Someone

will be in the front lobby of Building 261 to meet you.
Graded Exercise Testing (GXT) Emergency Procedures

a. Daily precautions

1. Check the operation of the telephone

2. Check the operation status of the defibrillator

b. Monthly precautions

1. Practice emergency procedures

2. Inspect expiration dates on all crash cart supplies

c. Emergency action responsibilities

1. Medical Officer o Direct all emergency procedures.

2. Laboratory Staff o Stop treadmill and apply brake.

o Remove breathing apparatus and disconnect blood pressure

(BP) cuff.

o Move subject to floor or cot.

o Telephone rescue squad and read emergency statement.

o Initiate cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) if indicated.

o Pull crash cart to victim.

o Assist Medical Officer.

o Clear lab of all unauthorized personnel.

o Meet rescue squad in lobby of building 261.

o Assist during the emergency as necessary.

o Keep log of all events, including (if applicable) time of event,

medication dosages and times of administration, defibrillation

attempts and outcomes, heart rates, and blood pressures.

2.2 General Safety

Safe operation of a laboratory requires constant effort. Never assume an unsafe condition is

acceptable, even if it has existed a long time. Particular physiology safety concerns are listed

below.

a. Think about how the action you are about to take may influence safety. What will happen if

you flip this switch? If you are unsure, don't touch it.

b. Anticipate the worst case. What happens ifa subject faints during a blood draw? What

happens if a subject stumbles on the treadmill? Is the area as safe as possible, or does the

equipment arrangement cause small accidents to become big ones?

2
C. Be especially careful with human body fluids, including blood and blood products, saliva,

sweat, and urine. Wear gloves, mask, and eye protection when handling body fluids, toxins,

or other potential hazards. All laboratory personnel who work with body fluids should have

hepatitis B vaccinations. A blood-borne pathogen program which includes training of

personnel should be implemented and updated annually.

d° Dispose of all laboratory waste properly. All sharp objects should be disposed of in a sharp

biohazard container. All biohazards including body fluids should be disposed of

appropriately. If you are unsure, contact a nearby health care facility or clinical laboratory

for proper disposal.

e° Render hazards as safe as possible as soon as possible. For example, if you have an analyzer

(such as an automatic lactate analyzer) which temporarily stores body fluids, put some bleach

in the waste bottle to kill microorganisms at the earliest point.

f. Keep all bottles and other containers clearly labeled to show contents and date of origin.

2.3 Equipment and Electrical Safety

a. Ensure that all laboratory electrical outlets have ground fault interrupter (GFI) protection to

reduce the risk of electrocution in the often wet environment of laboratories.

b. Ensure that electrical circuits are not overloaded.

c. Avoid electrical cords or other fall hazards, particularly in foot-traffic areas.

d. Clearly label all on/off switches and circuit breakers.

e. Ensure a positive disconnect before removing the cover of any electrical or otherwise

powered equipment.

2.4 Personnel Safety Training

a. All laboratory personnel should be well trained in current methods of basic CPR and first aid.

b. Personnel should practice the habit of routinely quizzing each other on their responsibilities

in the event of accidents such as heart attacks, falls, and fires.

C. Drills of potential emergency situations may be used to increase awareness of safety as a

continuing and important concern. An invitation to local emergency medical technicians to

visit your laboratory can increase safety awareness and make them aware of your needs.
d° If possible, personnel who perform graded exercise tests should be certified by the American

College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) as Preventive and Rehabilitative Exercise Test

Technologists, Exercise Specialists, or Program Directors.

4
Section 3

Calibration

by

Phillip Bishop and Alan D. Moore, Jr.

Of all the steps which can be taken to ensure accurate measurement, none is more vital than

careful and frequent calibration. Calibration methods should always provide the highest

accuracy within the expected range of the measurement. For example, for measurement of

resting metabolism, equipment should be calibrated for resting ventilation and resting expired

gas concentrations at expected resting temperatures rather than for some arbitrary values.

The necessary frequency of calibration is partially dependent upon what is being measured and

the functional characteristics of the device. A gas analyzer which is known to drift substantially

in 30 minutes will need more frequent rechecking than one which is characteristically very

stable. Each laboratory team must use its own judgment, but calibration log books conveniently

located at each instrument will provide a helpful means of tracking equipment stability and

status. This technique is particularly valuable when many different users operate the same piece

of equipment.

Included in the following sections are basic instructions for calibration of some equipment.

Development of specific written calibration procedures for your own laboratory will help ensure

accuracy and consistency of operation of your particular equipment.

3.1 Treadmill Calibration

Treadmill calibration is very simple; perhaps its simplicity is the reason that this calibration is

often overlooked. Since the treadmill is used so often in most exercise laboratories, periodic

calibration is important to ensure the validity of reported measures.

The two variables that most influence the metabolic equivalent workload elicited from a subject

during treadmill graded exercise testing are the speed and the grade of the treadmill. Calibration

of a treadmill involves determination of the accuracy of these two variables.

Calibration of Treadmill Speed

a° Make a mark near the edge of the treadmill belt with chalk or masking tape. Measure the

complete length (entire circumference) of the belt with an accurate metal or non-stretching

tape measure. Make sure to mark a reference point before the treadmill belt is moved (you

will be able to measure in only 5- to 6-foot increments before moving the belt). Keep the

tape measure the same distance from the edge of the treadmill belt during all measurements.

Move the treadmill belt with your hands or very slowly with the motor when changing from
b.

C*

d.

e.

f.

°

h.

i.

one reference point to another. It will help in later calculations to report the distance in feet

and tenths (i.e., 18'6"=18.5 ft, 15'3"=15.25 ft, 16'2"=16.17 ft).

Turn on the treadmill and set it to the highest anticipated testing speed (7.0 to 10.0 mph is the

typical range).

Measure the time (in seconds to the nearest tenth) it takes for the belt to make 10 to 30

revolutions. (Note: The more revolutions the better, but accuracy tends to suffer due to

human error if too many revolutions are attempted.) Repeat this measurement three times. If

one of the measurements is an obvious outlying point, repeat the measurement, and disregard

the outlying point in further calculations.

Repeat steps b and c throughout the range of speeds you anticipate using. (In most labs 2.0

through 10.0 mph at 1.0 mph increments would be adequate.)

Use the mean value of the triplicate measurements at each speed setting as the "actual time."

Use the "actual time" to calculate the speed of the belt in revolutions per minute:

rev/min = revolutions x 60 sec/min

"actual see"

Calculate actual speed (ft/min): Speed (fi/min)= (belt length) x (rev/min)

Convert speed in ft/min to speed in mi/h: Speed (mi/h) = Speed (tt/min) x 0.01136363 (the

standard ?t/min to mi/h conversion factor)

To ensure that treadmill belt slippage is not a problem, check the speed with a heavy subject

running on the treadmill. If the data are different, adjust treadmill belt (see manufacturer's

documentation on this procedure).
Sample Speed Calibration

Measured Belt Length = 17.0 ft/rev

Indicated Speed = 7.0 mi/h

Time for belt to travel 20 revolutions ("actual time") -- 32.1 sec.

rev/min = 20 rev x 60 (sec/min)

32.10 sec

rev/min = 37.38

Speed(ft/min) = 17.0 ft/rev x 37.38 rev/min

Speed(ft/min) = 635.46

Speed (mi/h) = 635.46 ft/min x 0.01136363

Speed (mi/h) = 7.22 (The treadmill, at this indicated speed (7 mi/h, is 0.22 mi/h too

fast.)

Calibration of Treadmill Grade

a. Using a carpenter's level (the longer, the more accurate), verify that the treadmill is level

when the grade indicator reads 0% grade.

b. Mark two lines on the floor adjacent to the treadmill, one near the rear of the treadmill bed,

the other near the front, so that the distance between the lines is slightly shorter than the

treadmill bed. The distance between these two lines is the "run".

C. Raise the treadmill to a 5% indicated grade. Measure the height of the treadmill bed at the

front line and at the back line. Repeat these measurements in triplicate. If one of the

measurements is an obvious outlying point, disregard it for further calculations. Use the

level or a plumb line to ensure that you are measuring straight up and down.

d. Subtract the height at the back line from the height at the front. The resulting value is the

rise.

e. Calculate the slope (slope = rise/run). This value, multiplied by 100, is known as percent

grade.

f. Repeat steps c through e at 5% grade increments throughout the grades you anticipate using.

(Grades of 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25% are good selections).
Sample Grade Calibration

The run distance you marked on the floor adjacent to the treadmill is 5.0 ft (60 in.).

The treadmill is set at indicated 15.0% grade.

Height of treadmill bed at front of run = 14.75 in.

Height of treadmill bed at rear of run = 5.50 in.

Rise of treadmill = 14.75-5.50 = 9.25 in.

Slope = rise/run = 9.25/60 = 0.154

% Grade = Slope x 100 = 0.154 x 100 = 15.4%

The treadmill, at this grade, is 0.4% too high.

Speed and Grade Adjustments

Adjustments to the treadmill speed and grade will depend upon the model of the treadmill. The

preferable method is to adjust the indicators to accurately show the variables; the second most

desirable method is to alter the computer program if applicable. If no other adjustment is

possible, a calibration curve or nomogram can be constructed and placed close to the treadmill

indicator. A less attractive alternative is to neatly and clearly relabel the indicators. If the

adjustment is so substantial that it cannot be made on the indicator, be sure to post a prominent

warning that the indicator is in error and should be corrected. A calibration log showing all

calculations is useful for tracking changes or possible errors and for determining future

calibrations.

3.2 Cycle Ergometer Calibration

The following procedure applies to a cycle ergometer similar to the Monark model no. 686,

braked using a friction belt. (For electronic ergometers, follow the manufacture's directions.

Under most circumstances, an electronically braked cycle ergometer requires special equipment

not readily available in most laboratory settings.)

Two primary variables influence the metabolic equivalent workload elicited from a subject

during cycle ergometry: the speed of the flywheel and the tension applied to the flywheel by the

friction belt. Calibration of a cycle ergometer involves determination of the accuracy of these

two variables.

Friction cycle ergometers use a known resistive force applied to the ergometer flywheel (usually

the front wheel serves both as a flywheel and a friction wheel) by a friction belt. As the wheel
turns, the friction is increased by some means, either a weight pan or a screw-type adjuster. As

the friction reaches a certain level a weight is raised or, as is the case for most Monark cycles, a

pendulum weight is lifted. Therefore, if 2 kp of friction (kp is the force exerted per kg at

standard gravity) is exerted, the pendulum (or weight) will be raised to the 2 kp mark if the cycle

is properly calibrated. The product of speed of wheel motion times the resistance is power

output. Since speed is most easily measured in rev/min, the length of the wheel must be known

to compute speed in m/min. The operator's manual should list the distance. The Monark 868

lists one pedal revolution yielding 6 m of flywheel distance. Since pedal revolutions are usually

the issue, the distance of wheel travel per pedal revolution is usually the critical dimension. If

the flywheel distance is not listed in the manual, it can be carefully measured. Fasten a very thin

low-stretch string securely to a spot on the flywheel, then make one pedal revolution, winding

the string onto the wheel and marking the point on the string to get flywheel travel distance.

Repeat this procedure. Use a reference (such as a ruler and a narrow line drawn on the pedal

shaft) to ensure exactly one pedal revolution each trial.

Calibration of Ergometer Speed/Distance

Ergometer speed is regulated by the subject. Visual and audio feedback mechanisms (a

speedometer and a metronome) help the subject regulate a constant speed. The speedometer and

the metronome, not the ergometer, are calibrated.

a. Set the metronome to the cadences at which you plan to pace subjects. Since the metronome

is set at 2 times the cycle rev/min (one tick for each time a foot pushes the pedal down), and

most testing protocols are at 50-60 rev/min, settings of 100 and 120 beats/min are most

common.

b. With a stop watch, count the number of ticks. Start the stop watch on a tick, which is

counted as zero; the next tick is one, etc.

c. Speed up or slow down the metronome until the desired cadence is obtained.

d. Repeat steps b and c as many times as needed to ensure accuracy.

e. Note which setting on the metronome yields the desired cadence and use this setting for

subsequent testing.

f. Have a subject pedal at the appropriate cadence (paced by the metronome). The indicated

speed on the speedometer is the calibrated speed used for subsequent testing. Repeat this

step until you are sure of measurement accuracy.
Calibration of Ergometer Friction Brake

The tension on the friction belt is provided by a pendulum on which variable settings can be

calibrated using reference weights. The Monark model 686 cycle ergometer pendulum has

indications from 1 to 7 kg.

a. Set the cycle ergometer on a level surface. Check to be sure that the pendulum hangs at an

indicated "0" load when no friction is applied to the belt. Ifa "0" load is not indicated,

move the pendulum blade (scale) using the front set screw until a "0" load is indicated.

b. Disconnect the friction belt from the pendulum by stretching the spring (front of the

ergometer) found in series with the pendulum and the belt until the belt can be separated from

the spring.

C. Hang a 1-kg weight from the pendulum at the spring attachment. (A wire or a string is used

to hang the weight. In theory, for maximum accuracy the string or wire should be weighed,

and this weight accounted for in your calibration. In practice, due to their light weight

compared to the resolution of the crude scale on the pendulum, these values can be ignored.)

The deflection of the pendulum should be to lkp. Be sure that the calibration weight and its

hanger are not touching the flywheel or otherwise being deflected.

d. If the calibration weight is touching the flywheel of the cycle, place a 1- to 2-inch shim under

the rear support of the cycle. This will allow the weights to hang freely. If a shim is

required, the cycle pendulum must be temporarily zeroed in this new configuration, then step

(a) must be done afterwards.

e° Repeat step (c), using weights of 1 to 7 kg, or throughout the weight range in which you

anticipate testing. It is important that verification to the maximum weight used for testing is

performed. (Interpolation of some lighter settings is permissible, but do not extrapolate

heavier ones.)

f. If the indicated settings are correct, calibration is complete. If the indicated pendulum

settings are in error, either a nomogram can be constructed to show the settings to use during

testing, or the scale on the pendulum can be re-marked to show the correct settings.

g. If a shim was used for your calibration, remove it from the rear support of the cycle and rezero the pendulum to the level floor. The other settings will adjust exactly as much as the

"0" does.

10
Section 4

Laboratory Procedures

4.1 Preparation of Human Subjects

Safe, accurate measurement begins with proper subject preparation. All research using human

subjects requires approval by a research board whose responsibility is objective assurance of

protection of the health and welfare of participants. Depending upon the specific measurement to

be made, subject safety may require a medical examination, medical history, activity history, etc.

It should always include briefing the subject in detail on exactly what is expected and why the

test is being conducted. In most cases a written informed consent is required for participation as

an experimental subject, but regardless, it is the tester's responsibility to ensure that the subject is

fully aware of what will occur. Subjects should also be briefed if rating of perceived exertion

(RPE) or other subject cooperation or performance is needed. Some things that appear easy may

prove to be a problem for many subjects. For example, walking on a treadmill can be initially

difficult for some subjects.

4.2 Graded Exercise Testing

by Alan D. Moore, Jr.

This section I was written to apply to operations of the Exercise Physiology Laboratory at the

Johnson Space Center; however, most of the information can be applied to any exercise

physiology laboratory.

General Procedures

The following steps in a typical GXT session may be used as a checklist during laboratory

operations or as an aid in training lab personnel.

a. Before subject arrives

1. Check emergency procedures, defibrillator and drug tray, telephone.

2. Check electrocardiogram (ECG) recorder and scope.

3. Verify operational status of treadmill or cycle and other monitoring equipment.

b. After subject arrives

1. Meet subject, explain purpose of test, answer questions.

2. Using screening form, get subject's medical history, current medical status, and

medications currently in use. Witness subject's informed consent signature.

3. Report pertinent medical information from screening form to physician.

t Portions of this section were adapted, with permission, from the "Cardiac and Intervention Center at Virginia

TechmOrganizational Guidelines." The author acknowledges the contribution of the Virginia Tech Cardiac

Program Staff and of William G. Herbert, Ph.D., Program Director.

11
4. Explaincommunicationneeds,importanceof differentsymptoms,andexertionscaleto

subject.

5. Locateanatomicalsitesfor ECGelectrodes,prepareskin,applyelectrodes,andconnect

subjectto ECG.

c. BeforetheTestBegins

1. Subjectshouldrestfor 5minutesbeforemeasurementsareperformedto ensurevalid

restingmeasures.

2. Locatebrachialartery,measureresting(supine)BPin samearmto beusedin GXT,

recordsupineECG.

3. PerformhyperventilationECG(if desired);noteanysignificantECGchanges.

4. MeasureBP(standingfor treadmilltest,sittingfor cycletest)in samearmto beusedin

GXT; recordECGin sameposture.

5. Familiarizesubjectwith exerciseprocedures,suchastheneedto avoid grippingthebar

andextraneousmovement.

d. Duringthe GradedExerciseTest

1. StartGXT; startmetabolicanalysissystem(if used).

2. MeasureandrecordexerciseBPandECGduringeachstageof exercise(usuallyBPand

thenECG duringthelastminuteof astageis sufficient).

3. Continuallymonitortheoscilloscope;recordandreportany significantECGchanges

(ectopy).

4. Observesubject,notesignsandsymptoms,obtainperceivedexertionmeasures,operate

exercisemode.

5 Keeptime, andchangestagesat theappropriatetime.

6. Terminatetestin presenceof appropriatecriteria(seesectionon Termination Criteria).

e. Following the Graded Exercise Test

1. Record ECG (in even min.) during recovery; record significant changes.

2. Measure and record recovery BP following each recovery ECG.

3. Explain recovery procedures (do not take a hot shower immediately after leaving the

laboratory, etc.).

Breathing Apparatus and Related Equipment

When respiration is to be monitored, the equipment shown in figures 1 and 2 is assembled and

used with the treadmill or ergometer tests. Figure 1 identifies the parts of the breathing

apparatus, lists assembly steps, and shows the relationships of the joined parts. The assembled

parts are secured to a headpiece with a rubber gasket, then fitted to a comfortable position on the

subject's head (figure 2a). A clip is provided for the subject to place on the nose to ensure mouth

breathing during the test. The last assembly step is to attach the end-tidal sampling line and the

expiratory hose from the metabolic measurement system (Q-Plex) to the assembled unit (figure

2b). The expiratory hose should not be connected to the Q-Plex until calibration is complete.

12
#1 Saliva Collection Tube

#2 & #3 Spiral Valve

#4 Mouthpiece Port

#5 Exhalation Port

(Clear Plastic)

Assembly steps

__) ] #6 Inhalation Port (White

Plastic)

#7 Large 2-way NRBV

#8 Mouthpiece

a. Connect #1 to the bottom of#7.

b. Place #2 and #6 to the right side of#7.

c. To the left end of #7, attach #3 and #5.

d. To the back of #7, connect #4

e. Connect #8 to #4.

#6

#2

#7

#3

#4

#8

#5

Red Ring

End-Tidal

Sampling Line

Expiratory

Hose from

Q-Plex

Figure 1. Assembly of 2-way non-rebreathing valve and mouthpiece.

13
Fourth, have subject

place noseclip on.

First, adjust

head band.

Third, adjust valve

supports on both

sides of the head

while subject holds

valve in a

comfortable

position.

Second, have subject

place mouthpiece in

mouth.

Figure 2a. Assembled breathing apparatus and headgear.

_,,,f--- Expiratory hose from Q-Plex

End-Tidal

Sampling line

Red ring

Figure 2b. End-tidal sampling line and expiratory hose attachment.

14
Care and Cleaning of Mouthpieces and Respiratory Valve 2

a. Disassemble mouthpiece, using gloves to protect hands.

b. Prewash mouthpiece in mild soap and tap or distilled water.

c. Disinfect mouthpiece by either chemical or heat application.

1. Chemical Disinfection: Use a mild glutaraldehyde solution such as Cidex, Sporicidin,

Metricide, Glutarex, or Hibiclens. Follow the manufacturer's directions regarding the use

of these products. Avoid alcohol-based solutions.

2. Heat Disinfection: Do not exceed 45 °C (113 °F). Avoid autoclaving, pasteurization, or

gas sterilization.

d. Rinse mouthpiece components with tap, distilled, or sterile water.

e. Dry mouthpiece with a heated chamber.

f. Inspect mouthpiece components for deformity, distortion, cracks, or deterioration, and check

cleanliness.

g. Lubricate mouthpiece joints with recommended silicone grease 2.

h. Assemble mouthpiece for immediate use or package for future use.

i. Check disinfection materials regularly to ensure appropriate cleaning of mouthpieces.

Troubleshooting

Following are typical problems that may occur during GXT, and suggested correction

procedures.

a. Straight line on all leads--Check right leg lead, patient cable to machine interface.

b. Interference on one precordial lead--Check electrode and wire.

c. Baseline instability--Check skin preparation or electrode placement and application, check

electrode gel, and watch for excessive movement of subject cable. Are cables shielded?

d. Intermittent trace--Check for proper insertion of wires and loose or broken wires.

e. Weak signalmCheck sensitivity: is gain too high or low? Check for poor skin preparation or

faulty electrode application, check gel on electrode.

f. Loose electrodes--Remove, reprep site, reapply new electrode. If subject is perspiring, wipe

site dry, apply alcohol, and apply new electrode.

g. Problem electrode or lead wire--

If the noisy leads are: Then the bad electrode or lead wire is--

II and III LL

I and III LA

I and II RA

I, II, and III RL

One or more, but Each affected V lead

not all, V leads

2Recommended by Hans Rudolph, Inc., October 1989

15
h. Widebaselineor 60Hz noisemCheckfor monitorsensitivity(gain)attoo high a setting,

improper skin preparation or electrode application, defective cable or lead wire shielding,

broken equipment or ground wire.

i. InterferencemCheck subject's gait (is the subject marching?)

j. Treadmill stops abruptly--Did subject hit the kill switch?

k. Treadmill doesn't stop after depressing kill switch--Check wire and plug to be sure it is

plugged in.

1. Electrodes not sticking--Check to see if subject is sweating or if suntan oil or makeup is

applied on the area

m. No blood pressure recordable_Did tubing cuff or tubing manometer separate or bend? Are

you listening over the brachial artery? Is there sufficient occlusal pressure on the artery to

create noise? Are you occulating the artery by pressing too hard with the stethoscope head?

Staff Responsibilities

The following lists outline the major responsibilities of laboratory staff members during GXT. It

should be recognized that one staff member may actually perform the duties of both test

coordinator and technician. At least two technicians and a physician, if indicated, should be

present during GXT.

a. Physician's duties

1. Direct testing

2. Interpret/confirm test results

3. Confirm prescriptions/counsel subjects

4. Direct emergency procedures

5. Approve subjects for further participation

b. Test Coordinator's duties

1. Direct emergency procedures during non-physician-supervised tests

2. Ensure lab readiness

3. Manage equipment operation, calibration, maintenance, repair

4. Ensure crash cart readiness

5. Train and supervise GXT staff

6. Control quality of GXT data

7. Administer screening form prior to GXT

8. Maintain blank forms in files

9. Administer and witness informed consent, at direction of Principal Investigator

10. Communicate results of test to P.I. if appropriate

16
c. ECGTechnicianduties

1. Securebackgroundmedicalrecords

2. ManagesubjectsafetyduringGXT

3. PreparepatientforECG

4. OperateandmaintainECGrecorder

5. PossiblyactasaBPtechnician

6. Work with testcoordinatorin preparinglab reports

7. Performdatareduction

d. BPTechnician'sduties

1. Checkdefibrillator beforetestingsession

2. ManagesubjectsafetyduringandafterGXT

3. Be responsiblefor VO2 procedures(if applicable)andsystemcare,operation,validity,

andreliability

4. Be responsibleforBPproceduresandsystemcare,operation,systemvalidity, and

reliability

5. Orient subject

6. ObtainRPEduringexercise

7. Performdatareduction

Safety Procedures

A written plan for emergencies should be posted in the laboratory and rehearsed at least monthly.

Cardiac resuscitation equipment, including a portable defibrillator, drugs, airway tubes, and

oxygen supplies should be on hand. The defibrillator should be checked before each GXT and

emergency drugs should be inventoried every 6 weeks. The telephone should be checked before

each test session. All laboratory personnel should have current certification in CPR. It is

recommended that personnel who regularly participate in GXT be certified in Advanced Cardiac

Life Support (ACLS). Detailed emergency procedures are given in section 2.1 of this manual.

Subject Screening

Subjects for GXT should always be screened, regardless of their age, gender, or normal activity

level. Usually, subjects with no or only one coronary artery disease risk factor, and who are

below a specific age (40 years for males, 50 for females) may engage in maximum GXT without

physician supervision. An excellent discussion of subject screening for GXT is contained in the

American College of Sports Medicine: Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription, 5th ed.,

1995. Use of a standard screening procedure for subjects is encouraged to minimize omission of

important information. At the Johnson Space Center, physicians of the health screening facility

perform an initial examination of all subjects tested.

17
Theprimary investigator for the study being performed, or an individual knowledgeable in the

procedures, should obtain written informed consent. The consent form outlines the procedures

for testing, the risks inherent in the investigation, and the benefits to the subject. It should also

state that the test is being conducted voluntarily, and that the subject is free to withdraw from the

study at any time. The investigator who administers the informed consent should be sure that the

subject understands all aspects of the test and is fully aware of the risks and benefits of the

testing procedures. The investigator should witness the subject's signing of the informed consent

form, and answer any questions the subject may have regarding the study.

The individual responsible for test logistics and operations interviews the subject on the day of

the test, and if physician coverage of the test is required, briefs the attending physician on any

pertinent information dealing with the subject's past and present medical status obtained from the

screening form and physical examination. The physician reviews the records of the subject to be

evaluated. If warranted, the physician will conduct a follow-up interview and a brief physical

exam before the test.

Contraindications

Most subjects who volunteer for studies conducted in an exercise physiology laboratory require,

at most, physician supervision during the test. However, there are conditions (absolute contraindications) that can preclude safe conduct of an exercise test because the risk of conducting the

test clearly exceeds any potential benefits. There are other circumstances (relative

contraindications) under which the risk of conducting the test is relatively high compared to the

benefits obtained. Testing of subjects with relative contraindications in a typical exercise

physiology laboratory is not advised unless the test is being conducted to diagnose or further

evaluate the clinical condition of a subject to define treatment, or the test is specifically being

conducted to collect research data which may lead to the improved treatment of a patient

population of which the subject is a member. The following lists of contraindications to exercise

testing have been developed by the American College of Sports Medicine)

a. Absolute Contraindications

1. A recent significant change in the resting ECG suggesting infarction or other acute

cardiac events

2. Recent complicated myocardial infarction

3. Unstable angina

4. Uncontrolled ventricular dysrhythmia

5. Uncontrolled atrial dysrhythmia which compromises cardiac function

6. Third-degree A-V block

7. Acute congestive heart failure

8. Severe aortic stenosis

9. Suspected or known dissecting aneurysm

10. Active or suspected myocarditis or pericarditis

3 From American College of Sports Medicine: Guidance for Exercise Testing and Prescription, 5th ed

Philadelphia, Lea & Febiger, 1995. Reproduced with permission.

18
11. Thrombophlebitisor intracardiac thrombi

12. Recent systemic or pulmonary embolus

13. Acute infection

14. Significant emotional distress (psychosis)

b. Relative Contraindications

1. Resting diastolic blood pressure > 120 mmHg or resting systolic > 200 mmHg

2. Moderate valvular heart disease

3. Known electrolyte abnormalities (hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia)

4. Fixed-rate pacemaker (rarely used)

5. Frequent or complex ventricular ectopy

6. Ventricular aneurysm

7. Cardiomyopathy including hypertrophic cardiomyopathy

8. Uncontrolled metabolic disease (e.g., diabetes, thyrotoxicosis, myxedema)

9. Chronic infectious disease (e.g., mononucleosis, hepatitis, AIDS)

10. Neuromuscular, musculoskeletal, or rheumatoid disorders that are exacerbated by

exercise

11. Advanced or complicated pregnancy

Pre-Exercise Test Measurements

A 12-lead resting ECG and blood pressures are typically recorded with the subject supine prior to

exercise. A 30-second hyperventilation ECG is performed with subject sitting on the cot (first 20

seconds), and then ECG recordings are done with the subject recumbent (last 10 seconds). The

purpose of the hyperventilation ECG is to screen out changes in the electrocardiogram,

particularly T-wave flattening or inversion and minor ST-segment depression, that may occur

due to hyperventilation, and are not associated with myocardial ischemia. The hyperventilation

tracings need be performed only prior to the subject's first graded exercise test. Several

laboratories perform hyperventilation recordings only if the subject completes a test and has STT wave changes. Resting standing 12-lead ECG blood pressures are assessed before treadmill

testing; resting sitting measurements are recorded before cycle testing.

Subject Monitoring and Recording of Responses

The EEG is continually monitored on an oscilloscope. A three-channel scope is optimal. Leads

II (left inferior), V2 (septal), and V5 (lateral) are the preferred leads to monitor under most

circumstances. Heart rate, RPE, blood pressure, and a 12-lead ECG are recorded during the final

minute of each exercise level. If oxygen uptake measurements are desired, these should be done

continually during the exercise test. Any signs/symptoms of exertion intolerance should also be

recorded during the exercise test.

19
Perceived Exertion Measurement

Give the subject these or similar instructions for describing his or her effort during exercise test:

During the exercise test it is important for us to know how difficult the exercise feels to you.

These feelings of effort, taken at each stage of the test, help us determine how much longer you

will be able to exercise and help us monitor your subjective response to the exercise.

Keep in mind that you are describing your body's "feeling of effort" at each exercise level. Pay

attention to your breathing, body heat, sensations of effort in your legs and chest. Ignore such

things as the treadmill speed or incline.

This chart shows a set of terms and related numbers from which you can choose a rating for each

level of activity. While you exercise, a chart like this will be held for you to see. Simply point

to the rating that best describes how you feel.

Borg's Rating of Perceived Exertion

1 - Very weak

2 - Weak

3 - Moderate

4 - Somewhat strong

5 - Strong

6

7 - Very strong

8

9

10 - Maximal

Termination Criteria

The graded exercise test continues until the subject reaches a volitional endpoint or the exercise

bout is terminated due to the onset of signs or symptoms of intolerance or the appearance of

significant ECG aberrations. The following indications for stopping an exercise test have been

published by the American College of Sports Medicine:

a. Progressive angina (stop at 3+ level or earlier on a scale of 1+ to 4+)

b. Ventricular tachycardia

c. Any significant drop (20 mmHg) of systolic blood pressure, or failure of the systolic blood

pressure to rise with an increase in exercise load after the initial adjustment period

4 From American College of Sports Medicine: Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription, 5th ed.

Philadelphia, Lea & Febiger, 1995. Reproduced with permission.

20
d. Lightheadedness,confusion,ataxia,pallor,cynosis,nausea,or signsof severeperipheral

circulatoryinsufficiency

e. Earlyonsetdeep(>4mm)horizontalor downslopingST-depressionor elevation

f. Onsetof secondor third degreeA-V block

g. Increasingventricularectopy,multiform prematureventricularcontractions(PVCs),or R on

T PVCs

h. Excessiverisein bloodpressure:systolicpressure>250mmHg;diastolicpressure>120

mmHg

i. Chronotropicimpairment:increasein heartratethat is< 25bpmbelowage-predictednormal

value(in the absenceof betablockage)

j. Sustainedsupraventriculartachycardia

k. Exercise-inducedleft or rightbundlebranchblock

1. Subjectrequeststo stop

m. Failureof themonitoringsystem

Recovery Procedures

Monitoring of the subject continues until his/her responses stabilize at near pre-exercise levels or

until the attending physician feels the subject is sufficiently recovered to dismiss (usually this

requires a minimum of 5 minutes monitored recovery). Between post-exercise ECG recordings

the subject is interviewed to determine peak exercise ratings of perceived exertion and symptoms

which caused the termination of the test. The subject may be offered fluids during this recovery

period. The subject should be cautioned regarding showering following the activity (use only

lukewarm water, do not stand completely still, etc.)

Medical Interpretation of Results

Laboratory affiliated physicians base their interpretation of GXTs on the guidelines established

by the American College of Sports Medicine and the American Heart Association. Abnormal

test results may be a result of electrocardiographic changes (e.g., ST segment depression or

elevation, ventricular or supraventricular dysrhythmias, exercise induced bundle branch block),

blood pressure changes (e.g., failure of SBP to rise, rise in DBP), or symptoms (e.g., chest pain).

The interpretation should be recorded, and recommendations regarding further participation as a

subject should also be recorded. The attending physician is required to sign the graded exercise

test summary form.

Record Keeping

Following each GXT, physiological data, the ECG, and the physician's interpretation of the test

should be placed in a subject's file. Confidentiality of subject information should be maintained.

Each file should also contain information concerning past and present medical status, the results

of previous GXTs, and laboratory evaluations.

21
Selected Bibliography

American College of Sports Medicine. Guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. 5th ed.

Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger; 1995.

American College of Sports Medicine. Resource manual for guidelines for exercise testing and

prescription. Blair, S.N.; Painter, P.; Pate, R.R.; Smith, L.K.; and Taylor, C. B. (editors).

Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger; 1991.

American Heart Association. Exercise standards: a statement for health professionals. Dallas:

American Heart Association; 1991.

Borg, G.A.V. Psychophysical bases of perceived exertion. Medicine and Science in Sports and

Exercise. 14(5): 377-381; 1982.

Cardiac and Intervention Center at Virginia Tech. Operational guidelines: organization, policies

and procedures. Blacksburg, VA: Cardiac Therapy Center at Virginia Tech; 1983.

McKirnan, M.D.; Froelicher, V.F.. General principles of exercise testing. In: Skinner, J.S.,

editor, Exercise Testing and Exercise Prescription for Special Cases. Philadelphia: Lea &

Febiger; 1987.

Exercise Physiology Laboratory Procedures Manual. Moore, A.D.; Bishop, P.A.; Buntin, C.M.;

Squires, W.G.; and Wells, K.D. (editors). Houston: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Space

Biomedical Research Institute; 1991. [Internal report JSC-25030.]

4.3 Measurement of Oxygen Consumption Using the Douglas Bag Method

by Suzanne Fortney

The Douglas bag method of indirect, open circuit spirometry involves collecting the expired

gases of a subject and calculating oxygen consumption. The following equipment is used in the

procedure.

a. Douglas bags or modified Douglas bags (rubberized weather balloons) with a sampling port

of Polyethylene (PE) or rubber tubing ending in a stopcock.

b. Dry gas meter with thermometer to measure gas temperature

c. Metabolic gas analyzers (02 and CO2), with drying line holding a drying compound such as

drierite.

d. Barometer

e. Two-way, high velocity, low resistance breathing valve

f. Mouthpiece

g. Noseclip (or gas collection mask)

h. Large bore, low resistance tubing

22
i. Collins 3-wayvalves(onefor eachDouglasbag)

j. Portablecartonwheelsto supportDouglasbags,tubing,andCollinsvalvesconnectedin

series(optionalfor multiple measurements)

k. Smallhand-heldvacuumcleanerandhoseattachedto outputsideof thedry gasmeter

(optional)

Thesubjectbreathesthroughthemouthpiececonnectedto a 3-waybreathingvalve. Theexpired

sideof thebreathingvalveis connectedby largeboreflexibletubingto a Collins 3-wayvalve.

Onanothersideof the Collins valve,theDouglasbag(weatherballoon)is attached.Between

measurements,theCollins 3-wayvalveis turnedsothattheexpiredair isventedto theroom. At

timedintervals(usually 1min.) theCollins 3-wayvalveisturnedsothattheexpiredair

throughoutthatentireminuteis collectedinto theDouglasbag. Douglasbagsmay beconnected

in serieswith additionaltubingand3-wayvalvessothatmultiple serialcollectionsmaybemade.

To analyzethegasfrom theDouglasbag,athin pieceof PEor rubbertubingis connectedfrom

thethroatof theDouglasbag,endingin astopcock.EachDouglasbagis gentlymixed prior to

gasanalysis.This stopcockis connectedto thegasanalysissystemvia adrying column

containingachemicaldrying compoundandopenedfor a giventime for sampling(usuallyabout

1min.,dependingon thelengthof PEtubingandthesamplingrateof theanalyzers).The

analyzersamplingratemustbeknown. TheDouglasbagis nextconnectedthroughlargebore

tubing to the input sideof thedry gasmeter. A zeroreadingonthemeteris recorded.The

Douglasbagis thencompletelyemptiedthroughthedry gasmeter. Thiscanbe doneby

manuallyfolding upthebag,or, moreaccurately,by attachingasmallvacuumcleanerto the

outputsideof thedry gasmetersothatthebagisslowly evacuated.Whenno furtherair canbe

drawnfrom theDouglasbag,thefinal volumereadingis obtainedfrom thedry gasmeterandthe

temperatureof theair is recordedfrom thethermometerattachedto thedry gasmeter. The

volumemeasurementis adjustedupwardsto accountfor thevolumeof air drawnfrom thebag

duringthe gas02 andCO2analysis.Thetotal gasvolumeis correctedto STPDandthesevalues

of volume(ventilation),02 andCO2concentrationsfrom theexpiredsamplesareusedin the

following equationto calculateoxygenconsumption.

Ve (FeO2i- FeO2e) - VCO2" FeO2i

VO2 =

1 - FeO2i

Ve = total ventilation, standardized to STPD

FeO2i = fraction of 02 in the inspired air (0.293)

FeO2e = fraction of 02 in the expired air

VO2 = oxygen consumption

VCO2 = carbon dioxide production

FeCO2i = fraction of carbon dioxide in the inspired air (0.0003)

FeCO2e = fraction of carbon dioxide in the expired air

VCO2 = Ve (FeCO2e - FeCO2i)

23
4.4 Anaerobic Capacity Measurement

by Steven P. Siconolfi

The Wingate test is frequently used to assess anaerobic capacity. In brief, the Wingate test

consists of 30 seconds of all-out cycling with the ergometer load predetermined based upon body

weight or other predictors. The subject is instructed to achieve as many revolutions as possible

in 30 seconds. Revolutions are counted to the nearest half, preferably by means of electronic

counter or video taping. Peak mechanical power, average power, and power decline can then be

calculated. The same procedure can be performed with the arms if arm cranks are substituted for

pedals. The best type of ergometer is one in which the resistance can be added very accurately

and quickly, such as the Monark 814E or 864 in which the resistance is added by dropping

weights onto a holder. Ergometer wheel inertia influences the outcome of many cycle ergometer

tests. Procedures for accounting for wheel inertia are provided in Bassett (1989). Some have

suggested that the resistance of weight-loaded ergometers is affected by heating of the friction

wheel, but this possible deficiency should be weighed against the advantage of instantaneous

landing.

An alternative measure for anaerobic power can be obtained with the Margaria power test, which

is described in detail in di Prampero (1981). This test needs only a safe set of stairs, a scale for

measuring body weight or mass, and a timing device, preferably a mat switch timer which can be

activated with foot contact.

A third measure of anaerobic capacity can be performed through a brief intensive treadmill run.

Cunningham and Faulkner proposed a run to exhaustion after jumping on a moving treadmill belt

at 8 mi/h and 20% grade. We have experimented with an 8 mi/h run at 20% grade after allowing

a 1-min warm-up at 5 mi/h. In this case an automated treadmill (Quinton Q-65) was used which

increases from 5 to 8 mi/h in about 15 sec and from 0 to 20% grade in 40 sec. Subjects typically

are able to run for only about 60 sec from the end of warm-up. A safety harness system has been

used in this test to maximize safety and increase subject confidence.

Selected Bibliography

Bassett, D. Correcting the Wingate test for changes in kinetic energy of the ergometer flywheel.

Int. J. Sports Med. 10(6):446-449; 1989.

Bergh, U. The cycle ergometer as a tool for muscle strength measurements. In: Bergh, U. and

Robertsson, H. (editors), 10th Int. Congress of Biomechanics, Umea, Sweden; 1985.

Coggan, A. R.; Costill, D. L., Biological and technological variability of three anaerobic

ergometer tests. Int. J. Sports Med. 5(3):142-145; 1984.

Cunningham, D. A.; Faulkner, J. A/ The effect of training on aerobic and anaerobic metabolism

during a short exhaustive run. Med. Sci. Sport 1:65-69, 1969.

24
Davies, C. T. M.; Wemyss-Holden, J.; and Young, K. Maximal power output during cycling and

jumping. J. Physiol. 322-43; 1982.

di Prampero, P. E. Energetics of muscular exercise. Rev. Physiol Biochem. Pharmacol. 89:143-

222; 1981.

Evans, J. A.; Quinney, H. A. Determination of resistance settings for anaerobic power testing.

Can. J. Appl. Sports Sci. 6(2):53-56; 1981.

Jakobs, I. The effects of thermal dehydration on performance of the Wingate anaerobic test. Int.

J. Sports Med. 1:21-24; 1980.

Jakobs, I. O. Bar-or; Karlsson, J.; Dotan, R.; Tesch, P.; Kaiser, O.; and Inbar, O. Changes in

muscle metabolites in females with 30 sec exhaustive exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 14(6):

457-460; 1982.

Nadeau, M.; Cuerrier, J.P.; and Brassard, A. The bicycle ergometer for muscle power testing.

Can. J. Appl. Sports Sci. 8(1):41-46; 1983.

Sargeant, A. J.; Hoinville, E.; and Young, A. Maximum leg force and power output during shortterm dynamic exercise. J. Appl. Phsyiol.: Resp. Environ. Exerc. Physiol. 51 (5): 1175-1182;

1981.

Schnobel, A.; Kindermann, F.W. Assessment of anaerobic capacity in runners. Eur. J. Appl.

Physiol. 52:42-46; 1985.

4.5 Strength and Power Measurement

by Marcas M. Bamman

Maximal strength is typically defined as the peak force or torque exerted during a maximal

voluntary contraction (MVC) under a given set of conditions (e.g., contraction mode, velocity)

[Sale 1992]. The SI units for force and torque are the Newton (N) and Newton.meter (N.m),

respectively. Power is the time rate at which mechanical work is performed and its SI unit is the

Watt (W). A power of 1.0 W is equal to a force of 1.0 N acting at a linear velocity of 1.0 m/s (or

a torque of 1.0 N.m acting at an angular velocity of 1 rad/s).

The ability to accelerate the body mass or an external object is dependent upon one's strength and

power [Sale 1992]. For athletes, one's level of performance on a particular strength or power test

is linked to training specificity (i.e., a power athlete will likely display a relatively higher level of

performance at fast rather than slow velocities in an isokinetic test) [Thorstensson et al. 1977].

Fortunately, there are several modes of strength and power testing available. It is important to

note that all tests of strength and power should be preceded by sufficient warm-up contractions.

25
Iso-load Testing

The term isotonic is often used loosely to describe weight lifting type exercise in which the load

being lifted is constant (e.g., 1O0 kg); however, in its strict definition isotonic actually means

constant tension in the muscle. Since the actual tension (e.g., torque) applied to a weight varies

as it is lifted through a range of motion due to alterations in mechanical advantage and

acceleration/deceleration, this type of strength assessment is more accurately termed iso-load

testing (i.e., weight lifting). It is a measure of concentric contraction strength and one's

maximum lift is limited by the weakest point in a given range of motion. Typically, maximum

strength is defined as the heaviest weight the subject can lift once (one-repetition maximum, or

1RM) through a full range of motion. To perform a test for 1RM, the subject should first warm

up thoroughly, then attempt 1RM with increasing resistance until two attempts fail. The heaviest

load lifted successfully is the 1RM. Attempts should be separated by 2 to 3 minutes to allow full

recovery.

Isometric Testing

The term isometric indicates constant muscle length. Thus, an isometric strength test is one in

which joint angle is held constant and the subject exerts maximal effort in a static contraction.

Typically, contractions should continue for 2 to 5 seconds to ensure that peak tension is reached.

A minimum of three trials should be performed separated by 2 to 3 minutes to allow full

recovery.

Since no mechanical work is performed in isometrics (i.e., displacement and velocity are zero),

power cannot be computed [Sale 1992]. Often times, however, the rate of tension development

(RTD) is assessed. At the Johnson Space Center RTD has been studied to determine whether

muscles contract faster or slower after a period of unloading. RTD can be computed on an

absolute scale (e.g., time from 20 N-m to 100 N.m) or a relative scale (e.g., time from 10% to

60% MVC).

Isometric contraction is the ideal test mode when surface electromyography is applied to

investigate motor unit recruitment and/or firing frequency because movement artifact is

minimized. At the Johnson Space Center EMG during isometric contraction has been studied to

determine whether neural activation of agonists and antagonists is altered with unloading.

Isokinetic Testing

Isokinetic, or constant velocity, contractions are often tested to investigate speed-specific

performance of a muscle group. Isokinetic testing allows the investigator to determine maximal

performance in both concentric and eccentric modes. Further, isokinetic testing enables the

subject to exert maximal effort throughout the full range of motion (i.e., accommodating

resistance) as opposed to iso-load testing. The resistance mechanism of an isokinetic

dynamometer acts to increase resistance as velocity increases to slow the actuator to the preset

26
velocity,andviceversa. At higherpresetvelocities,thetime taken to achieve the isokinetic

phase is longer so the isokinetic phase is a smaller portion of the total movement [Sale 1992].

Therefore, when comparisons of performance among velocities are to be made, it is important to

standardize the actuator position at which the measurements are taken, which should be in the

middle of the range of motion. For example, torque-velocity relationships for the knee extensors

have been developed using multiple angular velocities and recording torque output at 30 ° of knee

flexion [Caiozzo et al. 1981]. Isokinetic dynamometry is an ideal test mode when one is

investigating torque, work, and power simultaneously.

A repetition continuum of 3 to 5 maximal efforts should be performed at each velocity. Studies

have shown, particularly at higher velocities, that performance improves during the first 2 to 3

repetitions; thus single repetition trials may not elicit true maximal performance at a given

velocity [Johnson & Siegel 1978]. When testing performance at multiple velocities, each

velocity-specific trial should be separated by 2 to 3 minutes to allow full recovery.

Isotonic Testing

True isotonic testing allows the investigator to preset a force or torque which is maintained

throughout the range of motion by accommodating velocity. Many isokinetic dynamometers

offer an isotonic mode. Isotonic testing can measure the acceleration, peak velocity, work, and

power achieved at a preset force.

For a detailed description of procedures for testing strength and power, see Sale [1992].

Selected Bibliography

Bandy WD and WP Hanten. Changes in torque and electromyographic activity of the quadriceps

femoris muscles following isometric training. Phys Ther. 73(7):455-67. 1993.

Caiozzo V J, JJ Perrine, and VR Edgerton.

velocity relationship of human muscle.

51:750-4, 1981.

Training-induced alterations of the in vivo forceJ Appl Physiol: Respirat Environ, and Exerc Physiol.

Coyle EF, DC Feiring, TC Rotkis, RW Cote III, FB Roby, W Lee, and JH Wilmore. Specificity

of power improvements through slow and fast isokinetic training. JAppl Physiol: Respirat

Environ, and Exerc Physiol. 51 : 1437-42, 1981.

Duchateau J, and K Hainaut. Isometric or dynamic training: differential effects on mechanical

properties of a human muscle. JAppl Physiol. 56:296-301, 1984.

Hakkinen K, PV Komi, and M Alen. Effect of explosive type strength training on isometric

force- and relaxation-time, electromyographic and muscle fiber characteristics of leg extensor

muscles. Acta Physiologica Scand. 125:587-600, 1985.

27
Heinonen A, H Sievanen, J Viitasalo, M Pasanen, P Oja, and I Vuori. Reproducibility of

computer measurement of maximal isometric strength and electromyography in sedentary

middle-aged women. Eur dAppl Physiol. 68:310-4. 1994.

Johnson J, and D Siegel. Reliability of an isokinetic movement of knee extensors. Res Quar.

49:88-90, 1978.

Knapik JJ, JE Wright, RH Mawdsley, and J Braun. Isometric, isotonic, and isokinetic torque

variations in four muscle groups through a range of joint motion. Phys Ther. 63:938-40,

1983.

Narici MV, GS Roi, L Landoni, AE Minetti, and P Cerretelli. Changes in force, cross-sectional

area and neural activation during strength training and detraining of the human quadriceps.

Eur JAppl Physiol. 59:310-9. 1989.

Perrine JJ, and VR Edgerton. Muscle force-velocity and power-velocity relationships under

isokinetic loading. Med Sci Sports. 10:159-66, 1978.

Sale DG, JD MacDougall, SE Alway, and JR Sutton. Voluntary strength and muscle

characteristics in untrained men and women and male bodybuilders, dAppl Physiol.

62:1786-93, 1987.

Sale DG. Testing Strength and Power. In: Physiological Testing of the High-Performance

Athlete. JD MacDougall, HA Wenger, and HJ Green, Eds. Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL.

1992, pp. 21-97.

Thorstensson A, L Larsson, P Tesch, and J Karlsson. Muscle strength and fiber composition in

athletes and sedentary men. Med Sci Sports. 9:26-30, 1977.

Viitasalo JT, S Saukkonen, and PV Komi. Reproducibility of measurements of selected

neuromuscular performance variables in man. Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol. 20:487-

501, 1980.

4.6 Blood Lactate Measurement

by Phillip Bishop

Blood for lactate analysis can be handled in a number of ways, including treatment with various

anti-clotting and anti-glycolytic agents, treatment with stabilizing elements for long-term storage,

dilution with lysing agents, and separation of plasma by centrifugation. Although these

procedures are frequently employed in different combinations, consideration should be given to

their impact upon the resulting lactate values. Erythrocyte lysing agents such as Triton X-100

(TX) are frequently used in blood handling in field situations and do influence measured lactate

even in plasma (Bishop, et al. 1992b).

28
Bothmanualandautomatedenzymatictechniquesfor lactatemeasurementarepopular. Testsof

theYellow SpringsInstruments(YSI) 23L lactateanalyzerindicateextremelygoodstability and

accuracyin comparisonto amanualbiochemicaltechnique,BoehringerMannheimsinglevial

lactatekit 149943(BMM). ThecorrelationbetweenBMM lactateconcentrationsandYSI lactate

valueswas .99+(Bishop, et al., 1992a).ThenewerYSI automatedanalyzersutilize thesame

measurementmethodsandshouldyield similaraccuracy.

Theregressionequationsfor lactateconcentrationmeasuredby BMM techniquepredictedfrom

lactatemeasuredby a YSI 23L analyzerwithout(YSINON) andwith Triton-X100(YSITX)

we_

BMM = 1.19 YSINON + 0.38; R2 = .990; Sxy = .46; C.V.=4.0

BMM = .95 YSITX + 0.31; R2 = .997; Sxy = .26; C.V.=3.4

(Bishop et al. 1992).

It can be seen in these equations that the slope for YSITX was very close to 1; however, the

intercept was significantly different from zero. The small coefficient of variation emphasizes the

good agreement between the methods. It appears that blood lactate levels obtained by BMM or

YSI lysed methods are interchangeable with only small adjustments except at very low levels.

At low lactates the YSI may have some small advantages.

The Boehringer Mannheim method of lactate analysis utilizes LDH as a catalyst for the

production of pyruvate and NADH from lactate and NAD+. The NADH is measured

photometrically at 340 nm. One-half mL of blood diluted with an equal value of perchloric acid

is utilized in the assay. Lactate concentration is calculated from the absorption coefficient for

NADH, the molecular weight of lactic acid, and the volumes and dilutions utilized in the

analysis. This method is reported to be linear up to blood lactate concentrations of 10 mmol/L.

Boehringer Mannheim reports a correlation of .999, beta weight of 0.92 and intercept of 2.048

for the regression of BMM lactate concentration on concentrations obtained by the Gutmann and

Wahlefield method. Kits for the Boehringer Mannheim method of lactate analysis and the Sigma

Method, which is similar, can be obtained from the addresses below:

Boehringer Mannheim

1-800-262-1640

PO Box 50414

Indianapolis, IN 46209-5044

Lactic acid kit #139084 (25 assays, $65. Includes 1 standard)

Sigma Scientific

1-800-336-9719

PO Box 14508

St Louis, MO 63178-9916

Lactate Reagent 735-10 (100 assays-S90) Standards set 735-11 $38, metabolite Control S 3005

440.

29
The YSI automated system uses a three-layer membrane, with the middle membrane containing a

lactate oxidase compound which catalyzes the production of hydrogen peroxide and pyruvate

from lactate acid and oxygen. The hydrogen peroxide produced diffuses through one side of the

triple membrane and, on contact with a platinum electrode, yields electron flow proportional to

peroxide production. The YSI machine requires 25 _tL of blood and is reported to be linear up to

15 mmol/L (Yellow Springs, 1985).

It is important that YSI be used only for lactates below 15 mmol/L (Yellow Springs, 1985). If

blood is diluted during collection, final lactate concentrations must be in the 3-12 mmol/L range

for the greatest accuracy.

Since blood is frequently handled in a variety of ways, regression equations have been developed

for conversion from blood to plasma or vice versa. Equations are shown below.

If no lysing agent is used, blood lactate can be predicted from plasma lactate concentration by

Blood lactate=0.67 x Plasma lactate +0.04

The R2 =.98 and Syx=0.14

If the plasma was treated with Triton X-100 (a lysing agent), the equation becomes

Blood lactate=0.77 x Plasma lactate -0.18

The R2 =.97 and Sys=0.15

Employing initial hematocrit was not useful in improving prediction. (Bishop et al., 1992b.)

Selected Bibliography

Bishop, P.A.; Smith, J.F.; Kime, C.J.; Mayo, J.; Tin, Y.T. Comparison of a manual and

automated enzymatic technique for determining blood lactic acid concentrations. Int. J. Sports.

Med. 13(1):56-59; 1992a.

Bishop, P.A.; May, M.; Smith, J.F.; Kime, J.C.; Mayo, J.; and Murphy, M. Influence of blood

handling techniques on lactic acid concentrations. Int. J. Sports Med. 13(1):56-59; 1992b.

Boehringer Mannheim Diagnostics: Single vial lactate UV method 149993. Indianapolis:

Boehringer Mannheim Diagnostics Division; 1985.

Buono, M.; Roby, F. Acid-base, metabolic, and ventilatory responses to repeated bouts of

exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 53:436-439; 1982.

Buono, M.J.; Yeager, J.E. Intraerythrocyte and plasma lactate concentrations during exercise in

humans. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 55:326-329; 1986.

30
Daniel,S.S.;Morishima,H.O.; James,L. S.;andAdamsons,K., Jr. Lactateandpyruvate

gradientbetweenredbloodcellsandplasmaduringacuteasphyxia.J.Appl. Physiol. 19:1100-

1104;1963.

Decker,D.; Rosenbaum,J. Thedistributionof lacticacidin humanblood. Am. J.Appl. Physiol.

138:7-11;1942.

Deuticke,B. Monocarboxylatetransportin erythrocytes.J.Membr.Biol. 70:89-103;1982.

Deuticke,B., Beyer,E.,andForst,B. Discriminationof threeparallelpathwaysof lactate

transportin thehumanerythrocytemembraneby inhibitorsandkinetic properties.Biochem.et

Biophys.Acta. 684:96-110,1982.

Devadatta,S. Distribution of lactatebetweenthecorpusclesandtheplasmain theblood. Quart.

J.Exp.Physiol. 24: 295-303,1934.

Dubinsky,W.; E.Racker. Themechanismof lactatetransportin humanerythrocytes.J.Membr.

Biol. 44:25-36, 1978.

Gesell,R.;Krueger,H.; Nicholson,H.;Brassfield,C.;andPelecovich, M. A comparison of the

response of the anesthetized dog to lowered alveolar oxygen during normally controlled

ventilation. Am. J. Physiol. 100(1): 202-226, 1932a.

Gesell R.; Krueger, H.; Nicholson, H.; Brassfield, C.; and Pelecovich, M. A comparison of the

response of the anesthetized dog to intravenous administration of sodium cyanide during uniform

artificial ventilation and during normally controlled ventilation with the additional observations

of the effect ofmethlene blue. Am. J. Physiol. 100(1): 227-240, 1932b.

Gutmann, I.; Wahlefield, A. Methods of enzymatic analysis. 2nd English ed. Beringer, H.V.,

editor. New York: Academic Press; 1974: p.1464.

Halestrap, A. Transport of pyruvate and lactate into human erythrocytes. Biochem.J. 156:193-

207; 1976.

Harris, R.; Dudley, G. Exercise alters the distribution of ammonia and lactate in blood. J. Appl.

Physiol. 66:31-37; 1989.

Huckabee, W. Control of concentration gradients of pyruvate and lactate across membranes in

blood. J. Appl. Physiol. 9(2):163-170; 1956.

Ohira, Y.; Ito, A.; and Ikawa, S. Concentration of water content and solute concentration in

blood during hemoconcentration. J. Appl. Physiol. 42:739-742; 1977.

Sigma Diagnostics. Pyruvate/lactate quantitative, enzymatic determination in whole blood at

340 nm. No. 726-uv/826-uv. St. Louis Sigma Diagnostics; 1988.

31
Weil, M.H.; Leavy, J.A.; Rackow,E.C.;Halfman,C.J.; andBruno,S.J. Validationof semiautomatedtechniquefor measuringlactatein wholeblood. Clin. Chem.32(12):2175-2177;

1986.

Yellow SpringsInstruments:YSI model23L lactateanalyzersinstructionmanual. Yellow

Springs,OH: ScientificDivision; 1985.

4.7 Measurement of Body Composition

by Steven F. Siconolfi and Alan D. Moore, Jr.

The following hydrostatic weighing procedure is specific to the equipment in the Exercise

Physiology Laboratory at the Johnson Space Center but may be adapted for the equipment found

in most laboratories that use hydrostatic weighing. The general discussion is applicable to any

laboratory. Other techniques of estimating body composition, such as skin fold measurements,

impedance, isotope dilution, potassium-40, radiography, ultrasound, or nuclear magnetic

resonance imaging, are beyond the scope of this section.

Body composition is often measured to determine subject characteristics for studies performed in

the Exercise Physiology Laboratory at the Johnson Space Center. The technique that is currently

used in the laboratory is hydrostatic weighing (commonly referred to as the underwater weighing

method). A complete discussion of body composition may be found the paper of Wilmore

(1983). The hydrostatic weighing technique is also discussed in several reference sources,

including the American College of Sports Medicine's Guidelines for Exercise Testing and

Prescription.

The hydrostatic weighing technique is based upon Archimedes' principle: an object's loss of

weight in water equals the weight of the volume of water it displaces. In hydrostatic weighing,

body density is calculated from the relationship between body weight (mass) and body volume

(D=rn/v). Body volume is equal to the loss of weight in water with the appropriate temperature

correction for the density of water.

Residual volume (RV) of the lungs has to be measured or estimated to correct for the gas in the

subject's lungs and airways after full expiration when hydrostatic weighing is conducted. One

technique has been described by Wilmore (1969). Error induced by RV measurements

performed before or after (as contrasted to during) hydrostatic weighing has been quantified as

negligible (Hsieh, et. al. 1985; Robertson, 1978.) However, simultaneous measurement of RV is

faster and in some individual cases more accurate.

Equipment

Equipment for Hydrostatic Weighing

a. Hydrostatic weighing tank

32
b. Chatillion autopsyscalewith 358° potentiometermountedto theindicatorneedle;or load

cell.

c. Weighing harness and chain

d. Strip chart recorder

e. Thermometer

f. Tare weight and belt

g. Medical scale (to obtain dry weight)

h. Calibrated snorkel (a 2.5 cm respiratory hose marked in 1 cm increments)

Equipment for Residual Volume Estimation

a. Mass spectrometer, or oxygen and carbon dioxide analyzers

b. Rebreathing bag (6L)

c. Mouthpiece with end tidal sample port

d. 100% oxygen source

e. Three-L calibration syringe

Hydrostatic Weighing Procedures

a. Connect potentiometer to strip chart recorder.

b. Turn on power to strip chart recorder and potentiometer.

c. Calibrate potentiometer signal to strip chart recorder.

. Electrical zeroing of strip chart recorder;

o Put Zero/Measure button in zero position.

o Check sensitivity to 50 mV units.

o Set paper speed 20 crn/min with min/hr button to min.

o Start paper recorder and adjust pen to zero line.

o Stop paper recorder.

. Calibration of signal:

o Put Zero/Measure button in measure position.

o Adjust scale indicator to zero grams and start recorder.

o Repeat above step for 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 4500, 4700, 4800, 4900, 4950, and

5500 grams.

d. Hang scale above tank.

e, Compare dry weight scale to autopsy scale.

1. Hang tare weight on autopsy scale (above the water) and record the weight.

2. Place tare weight on a calibrated dry weight scale and record the weight.

3. If weights are the same, make no change in computations; if they are different, adjust

autopsy scale weights

33
f. Prepare the subject.

1. Encourage subject to urinate prior to testing.

2. Weigh subject in dry swim suit (have subject face away from scale with head up, both

feet fully on the scale). Record in kg.

3. Measure the subject's height. Record in cm.

4. Outfit subject with harness (fig. 3).

5. Have subject enter the tank and instruct subject to remove all air bubbles from skin,

hair, suit, and harness by rubbing these areas vigorously until no air bubbles are

released.

6. Hand subject the tare weight belt and have subject remove any air bubbles from belt

(rub and/or squeeze belt).

7. Have subject place tare weight belt around waist and dangle the weight between legs in

front of body.

8. Feed lightweight chain (used to connect subject to the scale) through top ring

(chest/back ring) of the harness and hold both ends.

9. Have subject stand on tiptoe underneath the scale.

10. Attach both ends of the chain to S-hook on the scale.

11. Place mouthpiece on calibrated snorkel.

12. Hand mouthpiece end to subject and hang other end offofthe chain (after the subject

submerges).

13. Turn off the tank's filter/heater system.

g. Instruct the subject:

1. "Place mouthpiece in your mouth. Hold snorkel tube with one hand and squeeze your

nose with the other.

2. Breathe in a slow rhythmic manner when submerged.

3. When asked, please SLOWLY inhale maximally and SLOWLY exhale maximally and

hold

that position for a count of 5 (5 seconds) or until I indicate it is okay to breathe.

Remember,

the more air you expel the leaner you will appear. You will repeat this procedure at least

10

times.

4. Breathe normally between these measurements. If you need to surface please do so, but

remember that this will add to your time in the water.

5. Any questions?

6. When submerged keep your eyes closed; the water is heavily chlorinated.

7. Tuck chin into chest, bring legs to chest (i.e., in a ball).

8. Submerge slowly, breathe and relax."

h. Attach other end of snorkel to the chain.

34
i. Measure hydrostatic weights.

1. Allow subject to stabilize breathing and position in the water. If the subject is swinging

in the water, try to steady him or her at the base of the scale before measurements are

made. If the subject is only turning in the water, no adjustment is necessary. No portion

of the body may be out of the water or touching a surface of the tank.

2. Instruct subject to inhale slowly. Watch scale for a reduction of weight.

3. At or near maximum inhalation instruct subject to slowly exhale. Watch scale for

oscillations. When oscillations die down and become small and consistent, subject is

near maximum exhalation.

Figure 3. Hydrostatic weighing harness.

.

.

Record weight by starting the paper on the strip chart recorder. When a straight line is

achieved, have subject breathe. While recording the weight, note the number on the

calibrated hose at the surface of the water. Record this number on the strip chart recorder

paper.

Repeat steps 1 through 4 at least 10 times.

35
6. Havethe subject surface and place snorkel in the water.

7. Check water temperature (°C) and record on strip chart recorder paper.

8. If subject's underwater weight is between 4500 and 5500 g (point where strip chart pen

wraps to bottom of paper), add additional tare weight.

j. Obtain a tare weight.

1. Have subject undo harness (Velcro straps) first.

2. Have subject remove weight belt and attach to lower ring on harness.

3. Have subject move to the side of the tank to a position in which the water covers at least

the shoulders.

4. Pull the chain to move the scale gently up and down once.

5. Record the tare weight both visually and on the strip chart recorder.

k. Instruct subject to hand you the chain, harness, tare weight, and snorkel. Subject may exit the

tank.

1. Do a post-test calibration check.

1. Identify the range of recorded hydrostatic weights.

2. Position the indicator needle on autopsy scale approximately 100 g below the range and

record.

3. Move the autopsy scale indicator needle at 100 g increments until you have recorded

steps to 100 g above the range.

4. If post-test calibration indicates that recording paper has slipped, this calibration is used

in the computation. If no slippage is indicated, pretest calibration is used.

m. Body volume, body density, and two compartment model estimates of fat percent are

computed with an Excel spreadsheet programmed with the formulas of Siri (1956) or Brozek

and Keys (1951).

1. Hydrostatic weights are computed from the strip chart recorder and entered into the

spread sheet with the corresponding hose length number recorded from the snorkel during

the weighing (see step i.4). This reading is necessary to correct for water displaced by the

hose due to change in the amount of hose submerged during subject weighings.

2. Enter appropriate parameters for the computation of residual volume.

3. The spreadsheet can be setup to use the average of the two smallest measured residual

volumes that were within 50 ml of each other.

4. The spreadsheet can be setup to use the average of the two heaviest hydrostatic weights

that were within 50 g of each other.

Residual Volume Procedures

Residual volume is most efficiently measured simultaneously with underwater weight.

Regardless of the time it is measured, the principles are the same (Wilmore, 1969, 1980).

36
ao Set up a gas transfer system from the 100% oxygen source to a calibrated syringe (fig. 4).

This system must incorporate a valve assembly to allow the user to select either delivery to

the calibrated syringe or sampling from the rebreathing bag with NO BAG GAS

CONTAMINATION during the rebreathing or sampling period. Transferring the gas directly

to a wet spirometer obviates the need to use a syringe and speeds the procedure. The

spirometer and tubing dead space must be included in the calculations, however.

b. Empty rebreathing bag (or spirometer) of all gas.

c. Fill rebreathing bag (or spirometer) with oxygen.

.

2.

.

4.

.

6.

7.

.

9.

10.

11.

Turn on oxygen tank and add approximately 1 L of gas to the calibration syringe.

Flush this gas through the system by turning the rebreathing valve clockwise and

depressing the plunger on the calibration syringe. IMMEDIATELY close valve (tum

counterclockwise).

Add 3 L of oxygen to the calibration syringe.

Transfer this volume of gas to the rebreathing bag by turning both valves clockwise and

inserting the plunger into the calibration syringe.

Close both valves (turn counterclockwise).

Add 2 L of oxygen to the calibration syringe.

Transfer this volume of gas to the rebreathing bag by turning both valves clockwise and

inserting the plunger into the calibration syringe.

Close both valves (turn counterclockwise).

Measure the concentration of oxygen or nitrogen (N2) in the rebreathing bag with the

mass spectrometer and record as bag 02 or N2. The mass spectrometer (or other rapid

analyzer) can be output to a chart recorder, producing a graph similar to figure 5.

Switch mass spectrometer channel to nitrogen.

Place mouthpiece and end-tidal sample adapter on rebreathing bag (fig. 4).

d. Provide the subject with these pretest instructions:

1. When instructed to start, take a deep breath in and then exhale all the air out of your lungs

and hold that position.

2. I will tell you when to inhale. When you inhale breathe FAST and DEEP until I ask you

to exhale all the air out of your lungs for a second time.

3. Try breathing fast and deep now. (Correct subject's respiratory pattern at this time.)

4. We will do at least two of these measures.

e. Measure the residual volume.

1. Put nose clip on the subject.

2. Have subject place mouthpiece ofrebreathing bag into his or her mouth.

3. Have subject maximally inhale and then maximally exhale. Record the concentration of

nitrogen at the end of the exhalation. This is N2% Initial.

4. Turn rebreathing valve and have the subject breathe FAST and DEEP until the nitrogen

readings on the mass spectrometer appear to level off.

37
5. Havethesubjectmaximallyinhaleandthenmaximally exhale.Recordtheconcentration

of nitrogenat theendof theexhalation.Thisis N2%Final.

6. Computetheresidualvolume(formulaof Wilmore, 1980).

Sampling

ValveN_

End-Tidal

Sam

\Mouthpiece

g Bag

Calibration

Syringe

W.E. Collins

Y-Valves

Sam

thing Bag

Figure 4. Residual volume measurement equipment.

f. Repeat steps c and d.

g. If the two residual volume measurements are not within 50 mL of each other, repeat step e

until any two measurements meet this criteria.

38
a

b i

[IA, 

E

' I Baselin

Start Stop

Recording Recording

a. Subject is exhaling.

b. Subject is at RV and holding

c. Subject is inhaling.

Figure 5. Sample tracing for residual volume measurement.

Sources of Error

Potential sources of error common to the hydrostatic weighing technique are listed below:

a. Failure to obtain an accurate pretest body weight

b. Failure to remove all trapped air from the subject's bathing suit and hair

39
c. Failure to subtract the weight of the chair, harness, weight belt, or volume of the submerged

breathing tube from results

d. Failure to use the water temperature correction factor

e. Failure to measure or properly measure residual volume

f. Failure to obtain an adequate number of trials

g. Measurement error produced by subject anxiety

h. Failure of subject to follow pretest instructions

Selected Bibliography

American College of Sports Medicine. Guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. 4th ed.

Philadelphia.: Lea & Febiger, 1991; p. 44-48.

Brozek, J.; Grande, J.; Anderson, J.; Keyes, A. Desiometric analysis of body composition:

Revision of some quantitative assumptions. Ann N.Y. Acad. Sci. 110:113-140; 1963.

Hsieh, S; Kline, G.; Porcari, J.; Katch, F.: Measurement of residual volume sitting and lying in

air and water (and during underwater weighting) and its effects on computed body density. Med.

Sci. Sports Exerc. 17:204; 1985.

Robertson, C.H. Lung volumes in men immersed to the neck: dilution and plethysmographic

techniques. J. Appl. Physiol. 44:679; 1978.

Siri, W.E. Body composition from fluid spaces and density. In: Brozek, J; Henschel, A, eds.

Techniques for measuring body composition. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Science;

1961; p. 223-244.

Wilmore, J. The use of actual, predicted, and constant residual volumes in the assessment of

body composition by underwater weighing. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 1:87; 1969.

Wilmore, J. Body composition in sports and exercise: directions for future research. Med. Sci.

Sports Exerc. 15:21-31; 1983.

40
4.8 Criterion Measurement of 02 and CT)2 with the Micro-Scholander

by Phillip Bishop

In most laboratories, metabolic gas measurement is performed with electronic analyzers. As

discussed in the general calibration section of this manual, there is a need to ensure the validity

of these gas composition measurements. This section will discuss briefly the chemistry and

mechanics of a simple volumetric technique for physiologic gas measurement. This technique is

considered by many to be a criterion method for measuring the gas composition of calibration

gases used to rapidly reset the analyzers used in metabolic measurement. In the hands of a

skilled operator, this technique, the Micro-Scholander method, provides very accurate and

reliable measures of CO2 and 02 concentrations.

The Micro-Scholander technique has many uses because it is fairly rapid (about 3-5 min per

sample), it requires no power (it can be agitated by hand), it is relatively inexpensive ($592.50 in

1992), and it is very accurate. It has been used in laboratories as well as in remote field sites.

Once you've invested the time to become proficient, you'll have a useful skill that can be

summoned when needed. Patience, persistence, and thinking are the main requirements for

successful operation.

A schematic of the Micro-Scholander is given in figure 6. The operation uses mercury (Hg) to

move gases and liquid 02 and CO2 absorbers in order to volumetrically measure the 02 and CO2

contents of an unknown gas. In brief, about 0.5 mL of unknown gas is introduced into a reaction

chamber. The initial unknown gas volume (at atmospheric pressure) is carefully measured and

recorded. A small amount of a CO2 absorbent liquid is introduced into the reaction chamber

without otherwise changing the overall system volume (combination of all liquid and the

unknown gas volumes). The change in system volume due to CO2 absorption is recorded and

the percentage decrease in volume represents the percentage by volume of CO2 present in the

unknown. This step is repeated with an 02 absorbent and again the change in volume represents

the proportion ofO2 initially present in the unknown gas sample. CAUTION: Since the Hg is

very toxic, care should be taken. An Hg clean up kit is advisable, as is a vacuum source and an

Hg absorber. It is necessary that Hg be used under a fume hood.

Equipment

a. A vacuum with a trap (a bottle with an inlet and suction tubes separated by dead space) is

necessary for removing acid rinse and cleaning up accidental Hg droplets.

b. A complete Scholander with gas transfer pipets or carefully matched glass syringes and

plungers. If the agitator motor-to-Scholander belt is broken, it can cheaply be replaced with a

large rubber O-ring (4-5 inches long).

c. Mortar and pestle.

41
D

KEY

a. Reaction chamber. Just above the point of the "A" is where the Permount is applied.

b. Gas introduction site. Top of capillary is the hollowed area just under the "B". The void is half filled with

acid rinse as a seal when a gas sample is introduced.

c. CO 2 absorber sidearm. It is topped with a small syringe stopper. This sidearm should be kept free of

compressible gas bubbles.

d. 02 absorber sidearm. Keep free of bubbles.

e. Hg reservoir. Hg level should be about 3/4 to 1 inch, with the reservoir open to the Scholander and the

sidearms filled with absorber.

f. The three-way valve. A blue-tipped mark on the handle indicates alignment of bores with the handle where

positions are selected. Position I connects the micrometer with the reaction chamber; position II connects the

micrometer and the reservoir, etc.

g. Micrometer with plastic handle which insulates the micrometer from the heat of the hand. If the Micrometer is

not mounted, use gasket material from an auto-parts store rather than a paper washer to seal the micrometer to

the glass.

h. Glass acid rinse pipet. Can be replaced with plastic disposable transfer pipets.

i. Thermobarometer stopcock. Can be used to seal off system during analysis. Not absolutely necessary.

j. Index mark on capillary.

k. Gas transfer pipet showing blister at "K".

I. Eccentric wheel and agitator motor which will be mounted on the chemical ring stand below the Scholander.

m. Storage for acid rinse and pipet.

Figure 6. Micro-Scholander gas analyzer.

42
d. Halfa dozen 250-mL flasks with stoppers.

e. Scales with a resolution of 1 mg (must be available with small and large weighing boats).

f. Syringes (10- and 5-mL) with short 24- to 26-gauge needles. Also, a 20-gauge needle will

facilitate Hg transfer.

g. Inert stopcock grease.

h. Disposable plastic transfer pipets, a cheaper and unbreakable substitute for the acid rinse

pipet and bulb that is usually supplied with the Scholander.

i. Volumetric pipets (1-mL and 10-mL are best) and pipette pump.

j. Pasteur pipets.

k. A matched plunger and barrel glass syringe fitted with a three-way valve makes a good

substitute for the gas transfer pipets usually supplied with the Scholander. This is especially

helpful to beginners, but not a necessity. A Yale 10-cc matched glass syringes (BD# 2312,

Fisher # 14-826-45; $40.20 as of 1991) is recommended.

1. Magnetic stirrer (helpful but not required).

m. An aquarium bubbler to stir the water bath to maintain a uniform temperature. Attach the

bubbler to a piece of glass or dense plastic tubing with the free end plugged and small holes

punched in the farthest end to provide a stirring bubble stream.

Chemicals

a. Permount (Fisher Sci SP 15-100) or any similar resin-in-solvent such as Preservaslide

b. Potassium Dichromate (K2Cr2OT)

c. Sodium Hydrosulfite (Na2S204)

d. Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)

e. Potassium Hydroxide (KOH)

f. Sodium Sulfate (Na2SO4)

g. Sodium anthraquinone-beta-sulfonate (Anthraquinone-2 sulfonic acid, sodium salt

monohydrate) (Aldrich 12-324-2 100g-$10.60)

h. Toluene

i. Copper Sulfate (CuSO4) (a blue-colored water bath)moptional

j. Distilled water

43
Supply Sources

Curtin Matheson Scientific (equipment)

713-878-3500

9999 Veterans Mem. Dr.

Houston, TX 77038-2499

800-392-3353

Sigma Scientific (chemicals)

PO Box 14508

St. Louis, MO 63178-9916

800-325-3010

Aldrich Chemical

PO Box 2060

Milwaukee, WI 53201

800-558-9160

Rudolf Holker (makes glassware, sells Scholanders)

1139 Villanova Ave

Swarthmore, PA 19081

215-543-7021

Fisher Scientific (equipment)

1-800-241-8192

Formula Preparation

a. Acid Rinse---Used to clean the reaction chamber between samples and to remove traces of

CO2 and 02 absorber which would affect composition of the subsequent unknown sample. It

is an acid solution that neutralizes the absorbents, which are bases. Acid rinse also serves as

a liquid seal when unknown samples are introduced and as the indicator drop which acts as a

stopper for sealing in the unknown gas sample. The rinse should be mixed carefully to

ensure that vapor pressures are correct; otherwise, the vaporization of the various liquid

components will cause a consistent error in the readings.

. To a large beaker containing 400 mL of distilled water (measured with a graduated

cylinder), add 1 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4) measured with a 1- or 5-mL

volumetric pipet. Never add water to acid.

. With the beaker on a magnetic stirrer with a stirring bar, slowly add 72 g of dry sodium

sulfate (Na2SO4). Because Na2SO4 is very hard to dissolve, using a magnetic stirrer is

faster than hand mixing.

44
, Add 50.4 g (or 21 mL) of glycerol to the solution. The glycerol is very viscous, so

measure it out with a disposable syringe, or weigh a 100-mL beaker and add glycerol

until the weight increases by 50.4 g, then rinse out with some of the acid solution. The

glycerol controls the vapor tension of the acid rinse, so it is important to be accurate.

4. Store this solution in a stoppered container.

° Measure out 50 mL and combine with 40 mg potassium dichromate (K2Cr207)

immediately before Scholander use. You may eventually double to 100 mL and 80 mg if

you are going to process a lot of samples, but that's enough for now. It will probably be

most convenient to preweigh several vessels with 40 (or 80) mg of K2Cr207.

b. CO2 Absorbermln an Erlenmeyer flask with a stopper, combine 100 mL distilled water, 11

gm KOH, and 40 mg potassium dichromate (K2Cr207). If it is exposed to enough CO2, this

absorber will become saturated and be useless. It should be stored in a dated, stoppered

container. Fortunately, room air contains very little CO2, so as long as it is properly stored,

the shelf life should be 3 to 6 months.

C. 02 AbsorbermMixed in two parts to avoid saturation with the oxygen in room air. To mix

the liquid part of 02 absorber (solution A), combine 100 mL distilled water with 6 g of KOH

and store in a stoppered container. To prepare powder A, use a mortar and pestle, thoroughly

combining 20 g of sodium hydrosulfite (Na2S204) with 100 mg (0.1 gm) sodium

anthraquinone-beta-sulfonate (Anthraquinone-2-sulfonic acid, sodium salt monohydrate).

Store powder A in very carefully labeled and tightly sealed containers in a refrigerator to

maximize shelf life. Minimize oxygen and moisture exposure and increase convenience by

preweighing several small sealable vials of 0.6 g powder A.

For use in the Scholander, combine 0.6 g of powder A with 5 mL of solution A, minimizing

air exposure. This can be easily done by filling a small syringe with 5 mL of the solution,

emptying a preweighed vial of the powder into the syringe, then quickly inserting the syringe

plunger, holding needle end upward and expelling the air. After the powder has dissolved

(some directions say this needs to be done under hot water, but if the water is too hot the

solution is ruined) admit about 0.5 mL of air to allow the nitrogen in the air to equilibrate

with the solution. If 02 absorber goes bad, its color will change from a rich dark red

(magenta) to a rusty brown.

Reaction Chamber Preparation

The reaction chamber apparatus is the largest removable piece of the Scholander (see part A of

figure 6. The reaction chamber itself is the small empty bulge at the bottom of the long capillary,

right above the junction of the chamber apparatus with the glass stem.

Preparation of the reaction chamber is the most difficult part of the procedure. The very top of

the reaction chamber has been ground to roughness so the Permount will adhere. If the

Scholander has been previously used and stored away for a few years, the old reaction chamber

may still be usable and it's probably worth a try. To find out, first tip the Scholander from side

45
to sideto admit a little bit of CO2 and 02 absorbent (2 to 4 mL total) and use the Hg reservoir to

raise the absorbers to submerge the lower end of the capillary. This alkaline treatment may make

the reaction chamber usable. After letting it sit 5 to 10 minutes, try an analysis. If the indicator

drop does not respond immediately and crisply to the micrometer, the reaction chamber needs

retreatment.

First, use toluene to clean out the old preparation. The treated area is at the bottom of the long

capillary and the top of the reaction chamber. After it is clean, rinse it with distilled water and

blow air through it with a hair dryer or lab air source until it is dry.

Dip just the tip of the clean Pasteur pipet about 3 to 4 mm into the Permount. Wipe any

Permount off the outside of the pipet. Attach a small eye-dropper type rubber bulb to the pipet.

Now, while holding the reaction chamber flat, insert the Pasteur tip from the bottom into the top

of the reaction chamber. Use the rubber bulb to expel a small amount of the Permount onto the

ground glass part of the reaction chamber end of the capillary. Quickly attach the air source to

the opposite end of the capillary and blow air from top to bottom to ensure the Permount does

not fill up and subsequently seal offthe capillary. It's better to start with too little Permount

because excess must be removed, a difficult procedure. The objective is to get a good coating of

Permount on the ground area where the capillary and the reaction chamber meet. The function of

the Permount is to disrupt the surface tension of the 02 and CO2 absorbers which will be swirled

around in the reaction chamber and would otherwise form a bubble that would disrupt the

procedure. The surface film may also form a bridge between the indicator and the absorbent.

Such a bridge would interfere with proper analysis. Eventually, after hundreds of analyses,

recoating may be needed. Absorbent or acid rinse left on the Permount coating for several hours

will ruin the coating. Always leave the system with distilled water over this area (see shutdown

procedures near the end of Scholander Operation section).

Pre-Operational Procedures

With the Permount-treated reaction chamber mounted in the Scholander bath and the micrometer

attached to the bottom of the system, turn the valve at the bottom to connect the Hg reservoir that

hangs on the outside of the bath. Carefully add Hg to the system until the level rises to the

bottom of the reaction chamber. The bottom valve has a T-shaped opening. Each arm is a hole

and there is a hole where the blue tip is. A little logic and practice will show you how to turn the

valve to move Hg around as needed. ALWAYS USE CAUTION WITH Hg BECAUSE IT IS

VERY TOXIC. CONTACT WITH THE SKIN OR INHALATION OF VAPORS IS

VERY DANGEROUS. Several hours prior to operation, fill the water bath with clean water

and allow it to come to room temperature. A small amount of CuSO4 added to the bath will give

the water a light blue tinge, improving visual contrast and retarding algae growth.

Mix up 50 to 100 mL of acid rinse plus K2Cr207 and place it in a tube submerged partially in the

bath. The acid rinse should be held at the same temperature as the reaction chamber and bath.

With a syringe and fine needle (24 to 26 gauge), remove the air from the small long vertical

chamber on the left side (viewed from the front) of the reaction chamber. Fill the syringe with 4

to 5 mL of CO2 absorber and insert CO2 absorber into the left chamber, being careful not to add

46
air. As you add CO2 absorber, the Hg will be displaced. Create more room for it by moving the

valve at the bottom of the Scholander to connect the Hg reservoir with the reaction chamber. If

you didn't add too much absorber initially, there should be no problem, but be careful not to

cause Hg spills by overfilling. The CO2 absorber should be pale yellow and fill the top two thirds

of the left side arm.

Repeat the same procedure on the right side, using the dark red 02 absorber. With both

absorbents added, there should be enough Hg to allow you to raise and lower the Hg level to the

top of the capillary with the micrometer set at zero, but not so much that the reaction chamber

has more than half an inch in the bottom. (The micrometer is used to control the Hg level as

unknown sample gas is absorbed. It also serves as the volume measuring device.)

Now you are ready to start running a sample. First half-fill the top of the capillary area with acid

rinse from the container in the water bath, then prepare a gas transfer pipet as follows.

a. Place a large-bore (20-g) needle on a syringe and draw a small amount of clean Hg into the

syringe. Handle the syringe carefully, being careful not to spill Hg.

b. With a clean dry gas transfer pipet held at about 45 degrees from horizontal, place a drop of

Hg (about 1/8 inch long) in the bubble end of the pipet.

c. Place a clean dry rubber tip on the small end of the pipet. The rubber tip may have to be

rotated to align the hole of the rubber tip with the pipet bore. If the rubber tip hole is too

small, it can be enlarged with a 20-g needle.

d. When the pipet is upright, the Hg drop should fall slowly but steadily, pushing out the gas

held in the bore of the pipet.

Practice, using room air, aligning the pipet tip with the top of the reaction apparatus capillary

while the pipet tip is submerged under acid rinse. It will help if you hold the pipet in your left

hand and rest your left hand on the edge of the water bath. After allowing a bubble of air to

escape the pipet tip, you should be able to pull a gas sample into the capillary by using the

micrometer handle to lower the system Hg level. As the sample is pulled in, you should be able

to watch the Hg drop in the transfer pipet. Always draw down on the pipet; never reverse the

micrometer because this inevitably pushes acid rinse into the transfer pipet and ruins it. The

objective is to transfer the sample at neither positive nor negative pressure; it should freely

transfer as.the Hg in the Scholander is drawn off by the micrometer. After the sample is drawn,

remove the pipet. Immediately pull off the rubber tip with a lab tissue and dry the pipet tip

thoroughly, keeping the pipet upright. Avoid letting acid rinse (or anything else) get sucked into

the bore or letting the Hg get stuck down in the fine part of the pipet bore. Either of these will

render the transfer pipet inoperable by stopping up the bore. After a little practice, you should be

able to pull a sample into the capillary easily. The values you get with room air reflect water

vapor pressure, so don't expect dry gas percentages.

Although it is best to learn Scholander technique with room air, eventually you will want to load

a sample gas into the pipet. This is done by attaching a small length (6 inches or so) of very

flexible tubing to the gas pressure regulator on the tank or to the outlet of some other unknown

47
gassource.Theboreof thetubingneedsto besuchthat therubberpipettip will sealagainstthe

insideof thetubingbore. Adjustthe regulatoror gassourcepressuretojust a trickle of escaping

gas. (Remember you need only 0.5 mL of sample.) Use the flexible tubing and your fingers to

either clamp off the gas flow or allow some to escape. With the tubing crimped off with your

hand, mate the tip of the transfer pipet to the end of the tubing and tilt the pipet to 45 degrees.

Allow a little gas to escape from the tubing to push the Hg drop up to the blister in the pipet. If

the pipet is tilted correctly, and the drop of Hg isn't too big, the gas should push the Hg drop to

the side of the blister and then "burble" on by. After the gas has flushed the pipet, slowly raise

the angle of the pipet slightly to seal off the top with the Hg and remove the transfer pipet. Cap

the rubber tip of the pipet with a finger and you should have an almost full transfer pipet of

unknown gas ready to load into the Scholander. Be careful in loading the transfer pipet because

too much pressure will blow the Hg drop across the fume hood, ruining the transfer and creating

a substantial Hg hazard. REMEMBER, Hg IS TOXIC.

To make the transfer easier and more efficient, use a piece of rigid tubing and a three-way

stopcock to extend the tip of a 10 to 25 mL glass syringe so that a rubber transfer pipet tip can be

placed on it. If the plunger and the barrel are well matched, the stopcock can be used to flush

the syringe with the unknown gas, and the syringe can be used to provide many samples of

unknown gas to the Scholander without gas resupply and without the risk of splattering Hg

everywhere. Matched glass syringes are relatively expensive, so be careful. The syringe

plunger should fall by gravity with the stopcock open, yet be tight enough to seal in the unknown

gas when the stopcock is closed.

Scholander Operation

The initial starting point for the Scholander assumes that both sidearms are full of CO2 and 02

absorbers and that there is sufficient Hg in the system to allow you to raise the Hg reservoir and

fill the reaction chamber to the top of the capillary with Hg. There also should be some acid

rinse left in the top of the chamber above the capillary. Proceed with the following steps.

a. Use the Hg reservoir and the Hg leveling bulb together to raise the Hg level in the reaction

chamber to near the capillary index mark.

b. Use the micrometer to set the top of the Hg in the capillary exactly to the very top of the

capillary.

c. Connect the micrometer to the reservoir using the stopcock at the bottom of the Scholander

(blue spot pointing down) and set the micrometer to exactly zero.

d. Position the tip of a fully loaded transfer pipet (or transfer syringe) under the acid rinse, allow

a bubble of gas to escape, then place the bore of the rubber tip exactly on the top of the Hg

column.

e. Using the micrometer, pull a sample of gas into the reaction chamber. If a very small sample

is used, even small errors will have a large affect on results, so try to pull in about 1500-1700

micrometer units of sample.

48
f.

g.

ho

i°

j°

k°

Remove the pipet, remove the rubber tip, and dry the pipet and rubber tips as described

earlier.

Use the micrometer to draw down a small (about 2 mm long) indicator drop of acid rinse into

the capillary. This indicator drop will serve as the top seal of the gas sample.

Very CAREFULLY vacuum off all the acid rinse except the indicator drop. If you are

practicing with room air, and you accidentally vacuum away the indicator drop, you don't

have to start over, but you need to learn to do it correctly so you won't lose real samples.

Now move the indicator drop almost to the bottom of the capillary with the micrometer to

clean the capillary walls, then move it up so that the bottom meniscus of the indicator drop is

exactly in line with the index mark at the middle of the capillary. This is your starting gas

volume, M1. Do it again to make sure it's correct. Carefully read and record the MI value.

Once M1 is established, tilt the whole bath to the left to admit a small amount of CO2

absorber. If you are using room air, the indicator droplet should barely move. Since dry

ambient air should be .03% (0.0003) CO2, the indicator should only fall about 0.5

micrometer units if M1 was 1500. If it falls considerably more, there is probably a vapor

pressure problem in the acid rinse.

Turn on the agitator motor to provide very gentle agitation of the system. If the motion is too

vigorous, dampen it with your hand and rearrange the spring tension for the eccentric wheel.

After the CO2 is fully absorbed, move the indicator drop back to the exact point on the index

mark that you used for MI. Full CO2 absorption is crucial to the accuracy of high-CO2-

concentration gases because the 02 absorber will take up any remaining CO2, causing an

erroneously high 02 reading.

1. Carefully read and record the change in volume, which represents the CO2 volume.

m.

n°

Oo

Repeat the process with the 02 side. The 02 absorption with room air takes about 90

seconds and the indicator drop falls about 313 micrometer units for dry ambient air. If you

don't watch carefully, the 02 absorber will draw up so much 02 that the indicator drop will

fall out the bottom of the capillary and ruin the 02 part of the procedure.

After the 02 absorption is complete, move the indicator drop back to the index mark and read

and record M3. Some operators feel they get better results with air samples drawn from

outside the building.

Use a vacuum to remove all of the indicator drop and carefully run the micrometer back to

nearly zero. If the total volume stayed constant throughout the procedure, the micrometer

should reach zero when the O2-CO2 absorber mix reaches the exact top of the capillary.

Remember, that is where you started. Any difference from zero represents a unit of error

which should be added to or subtracted from all the M values. In practice, an error isn't

serious unless it is greater than 10 units. A volume error of 10 units on a 1500 unit room air

49
sample represents no change in room air CO2 and 0.0014 percentage points error in 02

percentage.

p. Use the three-way valve at the bottom of the Scholander and the Hg reservoir and a vacuum

to remove all the old absorbers, being careful not to vacuum up too much Hg.

q. Now place about 5 mL of acid rinse in the upper chamber and use the Hg reservoir and threeway valve to admit clean acid rinse from the top chamber into the capillary and reaction

chamber. This will clean the Hg and the chamber and prepare for the next run. Do not allow

acid rinse or absorbers to be drawn into the bottom stopcock by lowering the reservoir too far

because this will cause leaks at the lower stopcock.

Check the system. If the Hg level falls from the top of the capillary after about 5 minutes, the

bottom stopcock is leaking. In this case, the Hg will have to be removed and the bottom

stopcock cleaned and lubed with stopcock grease, and replaced. If air is present in the

system, you will be able to turn the bottom stopcock to a fully closed mark (none of the bores

aligned) and still screw in the micrometer slightly, thereby compressing the air. The more

easily the micrometer screws in, the more trapped air, which must be removed to maintain

the volumetric integrity in the face of internal pressure changes. Except for this error check,

don't tum the micrometer with the bores closed off because you will either suck in air or

blow out Hg. The system needs to be checked only at the start and end of each measurement

session or if an error is suspected.

s. After cleaning, leave a little acid rinse in the top and then do another sample.

While the 02 absorber is working, you can do your calculation of volume changes to get

percentage composition from the last run. The C02 is calculated by subtracting M2 (volume

after C02 absorption) from M1 and dividing by M1. If you had a substantial volume error, the

M values should be adjusted plus or minus the error. 02 percentage is calculated from M2 minus

M3 (M3 is volume after 02 absorption) divided by M 1 (or corrected M 1 if necessary).

Don't forget that moisture will be present in many gas samples, particularly biological gases.

Always either dry the gas, or account for the water vapor pressure.

If you are consistent in the amount of gas samples used, you will quickly be able to tell when you

make a mistake. After you are proficient at measuring unknown samples, it's probably better not

to anticipate micrometer readings, because you may be biased.

Record all work in a lab notebook along with comments and observations. This record will

usually prove invaluable in catching errors and will help avoid loss of hours of work. It will also

indicate when the Permount may have expired.

If you shut down the Scholander for periods of more than a few minutes, fill the top half of the

reaction chamber with distilled water below the Permount point. If you are shutting down for a

while, withdraw the absorbers from the sidearms and clean the syringes because the absorbers

50
andacid rinsewill clog upsmallbores.Leaveacoverof waterovertheHg in thereservoirto

minimizeHg vapor.

With a little practiceyou shouldbeableto produceamazinglyconsistentresultsandshouldbe

ableto run 3 to 4 gassamplesin 10minutes.

Selected Bibliography

Scholander, P.F. Analyzer for accurate estimation of respiratory gases in one-half cubic

centimeter samples. J. Biol. Chem. 167(1):235-250; 1947.

Piller, L.W. A manual of cardiopulmonary technology. Springfield, II1: Charles C. Thomas;

and London: Baylis and Son, London; 1964: pp. 163-171.

Gadebout, C; Blayo, M.C. Assessment of Scholander micromethod for gas concentrations

versus weighing method. J Appl. Physiol. 38(3):546-549; 1975.

4.9 Environmental Measurements

by Phillip Bishop

Environmental readings should be taken and recorded before each session of laboratory

measurements. This is especially important if laboratory conditions are variable.

Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT)

WBGT measurement is an attempt to incorporate the influence of evaporative, convective, and

radiant cooling and heating into a single measure. The formula is

WBGT = 0.1 dry bulb + 0.7 natural wet bulb + 0.2 globe temperatures (outside use).

WBGT = .3 dry bulb +0.7 natural wet bulb (use with no radiant load).

Wet bulb temperature may be obtained two ways: 1) psychrometric wet bulb m a measure of the

maximal evaporative cooling of moving air, and 2) natural wet bulb m a measure of the

evaporative cooling with the natural movement of air unaided. WBGT uses the natural wet bulb

temperature. (NIOSH, 1986; Kamon, 1975)

Globe temperature is a measure of radiant load taken with a thermometer located in the center of

a flat-black metal sphere (e.g. copper toilet tank float) about 5 inches in diameter.

WBGT values above 80°F (26.5°C) usually require caution in physical activity.

51
Hg Barometer Operation

The Hg barometer, when carefully used, is the criterion standard for pressure and can be used to

calibrate aneroid devices.

To operate, adjust the Hg reservoir knob at the bottom until the white plastic cone tip just

touches the Hg surface.

Use the sliding vernier scale to match the bottom edge of the slide with the top meniscus of the

Hg column. The bottom of the slide gives hundreds, tens, and units. The last digit that exactly

lines up gives you tenths.

Read and record the pressure in mm of Hg. The standard barometric pressure is 760 mm Hg,

which normally does not vary more than 30 mm each way at sea level. The higher the altitude,

the lower the average pressure under otherwise normal conditions.

Also record temperature, which will be needed if questions of gas volume arise or must be

calculated. Additionally, some metabolic analysis systems require multiple temperature values

to be entered in order to calculate mm of water vapor pressure in the atmosphere.

Selected Bibliography

Kamon, E. Ergonomics of heat and cold. Texas Reports on Biology and Medicine 33(1): 116-

161;1975.

National Institutes of Safety and Health. Criteria for a recommended standard for occupational

exposure to hot environments. Revised criteria; 1986.

52
Appendix

Useful Common Conversions

Key sample conversions have been done to permit a rapid rough check of your own

interconversions.

Weight

1 Kg = 2.205 lb

1 lb = 0.454 Kg

50 Kg = 110.2 Ib

150 lb = 68.0 Kg

Distance

1 cm = 0.3937 inch

1 meter = 39.37 inch

1 inch = 2.54 cm

1 foot = 30.48 cm

Speed

1 mph = 0.44965 rn/sec

1 mph = 1.60902 km/h

1 mph = 1.4666 ft/sec

1 ft/sec = 0.6868 mph

1 ft/min = 0.0113636 mph

6 mph = 9.65 km/h

7 mph = 11.2 km/h

3 mph = 1.341 m/sec

VO2 of 1.0 L/min = about 333 W

Power

Power is work per unit time. Since most of us do not often deal with power, interconversions

among its units can be tricky. For example, Kcal are work units, Kcal/min are power units,

Watts (W) are power units, and Watt-hours (Wh) are work units.

1 Watt = 0.01433 Kcal/min = 1 joule/sec

60 watts = .86 Kcal/min

1 Kcal/min = 69.767 W

100 Kcals = 116.3 Wh

1 Watt = 6.12 kgf m/min

1 kgf m/min = 0.1635 W

50 watts = about 300 kgf m/min

A-I
Work

1 Kwh = 859.85 Kcal

1 Kcal = 1.163 Wh

Temperature

C ° = 5/9(F°-32)

F ° = 9/5 (C °) + 32

21.1 °C = 70°F

37oC = 98.6OF

at 21 °C a wet bulb of 17 ° is about 70% Rh

at 70°F a wet bulb of 65.5°F is about 80% Rh

63.0°F is about 70% Rh

61.O°F is about 60% Rh

58.0°F is about 50% Rh

A-2

REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE Form Approved

OMB No. 0704-0188

Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for revie_ng instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and

maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including

suggestions for reducing this burden, to Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports, 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington, VA 22202-4302,

and to the Office of Management and Budget. Paperwork Reduction Project (0704-0188), Washington, DC 20503.

1. AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave B/ank) 2. REPORT DATE 3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED

July 1998 Technical Memorandum

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5. FUNDING NUMBERS

Procedures for Exercise Physiology Laboratories

6. AUTHOR(S)

Phillip A. Bishop*, Marcas M. Bamman**, Suzanne Fortney, Michael Greenisen, Alan D.

Moore, Jr.**, Steven F. Siconolfi, William Squires***

7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)

Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

Houston, Texas 77058

9. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Washington, DC 20546-13001

8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION

REPORT NUMBERS

S-829

10. SPONSORING/MONITORING

AGENCY REPORT NUMBER

TM- 1998-104826

11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

*University of Alabama; Tuscaloosa, Alabama

**Krug Life Sciences; Houston, Texas

***Texas Lutheran University; Sequin, Texas

12a. DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Available from the NASA Center for AeroSpace Information (CASI)

712 ! Standard

Hanover, MD 21076-1320

12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE

13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words)

This manual describes the laboratory methods used to collect flight crew physiological performance data at the Johnson Space Center.

The Exercise Countermeasures Project Laboratory is a standard physiology laboratory; only the application to the study of human

physiological adaptations to spaceflight is unique. In the absence of any other recently published laboratory manual, this manual

should be a useful document staffs and students of other laboratories.

14. SUBJECT TERMS

exercise physiology, laboratories, physiology tests

15. NUMBER OF

PAGES

60

16. PRICE CODE

17. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION

OF REPORT

Unclassified

18. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION

OF THIS PAGE

Unclassified

Standard Form 298 (Rev Feb 89) (MS Word Mar 97)

Prescribed by ANSI Std. 239-18

298-102

19. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION

OF ABSTRACT

Unclassified

20. LIMITATION OF ABSTRACT

Unlimited

NSN 7540-01-280-5500