HYDROGRAPHS OF LAKE STAGE, STREAM 

DISCHARGE, AND HYDRAULIC HEAD IN 

GROUND WATER FOR THE MIRROR LAKE 

AREA, NEW HAMPSHIRE, 1979-1995

by T.C. Winter1 , D.C. Buso2, R.S. Parkhurst 1 , D.O. Rosenberry1 , and M. L. 

Martinez 1

1 U.S. Geological Survey, Lakewood, Colorado

2 Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, New York

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Open-File Report 99-239

Denver, Colorado 

1999
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

BRUCE BABBIT, Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Charles G. Groat, Director

The use of firm, trade, and brand names in this report is for identification 

purposes only and does not constitute endorsement by the U.S. Geological 

Survey.

For additional information write to: Copies of this report can be

	purchased from:

Chief, Branch of Regional Research U.S. Geological Survey

U.S. Geological Survey Information Services

Box 25046, MS 418 Box 25286

Denver Federal Center Denver Federal Center

Denver, CO 80225 Denver, CO 80225
HYDROGRAPHS OF LAKE STAGE, STREAM 

DISCHARGE, AND HYDRAULIC HEAD IN 

GROUND WATER FOR THE MIRROR LAKE 

AREA, NEW HAMPSHIRE, 1979-1995

by T.C. Winter1 , D.C. Buso2 , R.S. Parkhurst 1 , D.O. Rosenberry1 , and M. L. Martinez 1

1 U.S. Geological Survey, Lakewood, Colorado

2 Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, New York

INTRODUCTION

Mirror Lake has been the focus of limnological studies since the mid 1960s (Likens, 

1985). Although some hydrological work was done in support of the earlier studies, 

extensive hydrologic instrumentation of the lake and its watershed (Figure 1) was initiated 

in 1979 to focus research on the interaction of the lake with atmospheric water, surface 

water, and ground water (Winter, 1984).

The purpose of this report is to present the basic data on lake stage, stream discharge to 

and from the lake, and hydraulic head in ground water in the Mirror Lake watershed from 

1979 through 1995. Data from all installations and gages do not cover this entire time 

period. The longest records are of hydraulic head in ground water in those water-table 

wells and piezometers that were drilled in 1979. Continuous records of stream discharge 

began in 1981. The data are presented in graphical form; specific data values can be 

obtained upon request.

METHODS

Lake stage

Lake stage was measured continuously using a float and strip-chart recorder placed in a 

stilling well attached to the outlet dam structure. The dam consists of wooden boards that 

fit into a steel and concrete structure.

Surface discharge from Mirror Lake

Prior to 1990, surface discharge from the lake was measured by considering the top 

board of the dam as a broad-crested weir, and using lake-stage data in the weir formula. 

The calculated discharge was questionable at times because, (1) at some high lake stages 

water would flow around the dam and not be measured, (2) the condition of the boards 

varied, and (3) leakage between the boards was not measured continuously. To address 

this third problem, v-notch weirs were installed as part of the dam structure directly 

downstream of the boards as a means to measure the leakage between the boards. Staff 

gages in the weir pools were read weekly, and discharge from the weirs was estimated for 

the week. None of the surface-outflow data that had been calculated using the broadcrested weir method are shown in this report.

To increase the accuracy and to simplify measurement of surface discharge from the 

lake, a Parshall flume was constructed in 1990 in the stream channel about 10 meters 

downstream of the dam. Because the flume size was selected to measure medium to large 

flows from the lake, the lowest flows (largely seepage through the boards) could not be 

measured accurately. To overcome this problem, a portable weir was designed that could

1
be attached to the flume at times of low flows. The weir was attached to the downstream 

end of the flume so the flume itself provided the pool behind the weir plate, and the flume's 

stilling well could be used to obtain stages to be used in the weir formula.

Because of the uncertainty of some of the surface-outflow data collected before the 

outlet flume was constructed, a statistical relationship between lake stage and discharge 

measured by the flume was determined. This relationship, which has three parts depending 

on the stage of the lake, was used to back-calculate surface discharge from the lake for 

1981-1990. At times when the only surface discharge from the lake is leakage through the 

boards, the relationship is considered to be a constant. As a result, the lowest flows during 

1981-1990 are shown as a straight line at about 0.8 liters per second (Figure 2). Beginning 

in 1991, the lowest flows were gaged using the portable weir attached to the flume, 

resulting in more accurate values.

Stream discharge to Mirror Lake and stream discharge 

from the Mirror Lake Fen

The three streams flowing into Mirror Lake and the stream flowing from Mirror Lake 

fen were gaged using Parshall flumes. All flumes were gaged continuously using floats 

and strip-chart recorders placed in a stilling well attached to the flume. The flumes were 

insulated and heated, resulting in continuous records through most winters.

Hydraulic head in ground water near Mirror Lake

Data on hydraulic head in ground water consist of two types, (1) the hydraulic head of 

the water table, which is the upper surface of the ground-water system, at different 

locations within the area, and (2) the hydraulic head at different depths within the groundwater system, as determined from piezometers completed at different depths at the same 

locality. All water-table wells, except wells 19, 20, and 21, were constructed by (1) 

drilling a hole using a power or hand auger, (2) inserting a well screen attached to the 

bottom of casing, and (3) backfilling the space between the casing and drill-hole wall with 

drill cuttings. Wells 19, 20, and 21 were driven to a depth just below the water table. 

Piezometers within the glacial deposits were constructed by (1) drilling a hole using the 

mud-rotary method, (2) inserting a casing with a well screen attached to the bottom and a 

petal cement basket positioned where the screen is attached to the casing, (3) pumping 

cement into the annular space between the casing and drill-hole wall above the petal cement 

basket for a length of 8 m or to land surface. Most water-table wells and all piezometers 

completed in the glacial deposits consist of PVC, are 5.1 cm in diameter, and the screens 

are 61-cm long. A few water-table wells consist of steel, are 3.2 cm in diameter, and the 

screens are 61-cm long. Bedrock piezometers were constructed by (1) drilling a hole using 

the mud-rotary method to a depth of 3 m into the crystalline bedrock, (2) inserting a 16-cm 

diameter steel casing into the hole, and (3) cementing the steel casing in place to prevent 

transfer of water between the glacial deposits and bedrock along the annular space between 

the casing and drill-hole wall. The bedrock wells are open-hole below the bottom of the 

casing.

Water levels in the water-table wells and all piezometers, except those in piezometer nest 

Kl were measured weekly to biweekly using a calibrated steel tape or a calibrated electric 

tape. Piezometers at the Kl location (Figure 1) were instrumented in 1987 to obtain 

continuous data on hydraulic head at different depths within the ground-water system at a 

location downgradient from the lake. The instruments consisted of floats and 

potentiometers fixed to the float wheels. A signal was sent from the potentiometer to a 

digital data logger at 1-minute intervals. The data logger calculated average water level at 2- 

hour and 24-hour intervals. All water-level data are referenced to altitude above mean sea 

level.
Presentation of data

To facilitate comparison of hydrographs, the vertical scales of the discharge 

hydrographs for the three inlet streams and the outlet are the same. Similarly, the vertical 

scales of the ground-water hydrographs for most of the wells are the same; two meters. 

Ground-water levels that fluctuated much less than, or more than, two meters were plotted 

at scales that are multiples of 2 meters. For example: hydrographs of ground-water levels 

for (1) wells 19, 20, and 21 have a 1-m vertical scale; (2) wells 3, 3A, 4-14,4-25, 16, 18, 

piezometer nests Kl, K2, and K3 have a 4-m vertical scale; (3) piezometer nests FSI and 

FSE have an 8-m vertical scale; and (4) piezometer nest TR has a 16-m vertical scale.

At two localities, two wells positioned less than 2 m apart were constructed as described 

above for water-table wells. Hydrographs for these four wells are shown in Figure 11. In 

the upper panel of figure 11, the water table well is well 3 A and well 3 is completed about 

4.3-m deeper. In the lower panel of figure 11, the water table at well is well 4-14 and well 

4-25 is completed about 3.3 m deeper. The deeper wells at these two localities are 

considered to be poorly constructed piezometers because they were not constructed using 

the method described above for the other piezometers.

In the figures that show hydraulic head in the piezometers (Figures 12, 13, and 14) the 

hydrograph labels indicate the depth of the bottom of the well screen in feet below land 

surface. Hydraulic head in bedrock is indicated by the hydrograph labeled BR. At the Kl 

site (Figure 12), the water-table well is labeled 8. At the FSE site (Figure 13), the watertable well is labeled WT. At the FSI site (Figure 14), the water-table well is labeled 17. At 

the remainder of the piezometer nests, the shallowest piezometer is near the water table; 

therefore, water-table wells were not constructed at these sites.

REFERENCES

Likens, G.E., ed., 1985, An ecosystem approach to aquatic ecology: Mirror Lake and its

environment: New York, Springer-Verlag, 516 p. 

Winter, T.C., 1984, Geohydrologic setting of Mirror Lake, West Thomton, New

Hampshire: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations, WRI-84-4266,

61 p.
FIGURES PAGE

Figure 1 - Location of lake-stage gage, stream gages, water-table wells, and

piezometer nests in the Mirror Lake area. 5

Figure 2 - Stage of Mirror Lake, discharge from Mirror Lake, and discharge

from the Mirror Lake fen. 6-9

Figure 3 - Discharge of the three Mirror Lake inlet streams; Northwest,

l, U.11U Q«H Pact -L/doL. " _________ " " 

___ Xv/ 10

Figure 4 - Hydraulic head of the water table at wells 2, 5, 6, and 7. 14-17 

Figure 5 - Hydraulic head of the water table at wells 8, 9, 10, and 11. 18-21 

Figure 6 - Hydraulic head of the water table at wells 12, 13, 14, and 15. 22-25 

Figure 7 - Hydraulic head of the water table at wells 16, 18, 22, and 23. 26-29

Figure 8 - Hydraulic head of the water table at wells 19, 20, and 21. 31-33

Figure 9 - Hydraulic head of the water table at wells 24, 25, 26, and 28. 34-35

Figure 10 - Hydraulic head of the water table at wells 29, 30, 31, and 32. - 36-37

Figure 1 1 - Hydraulic head of the water table at well 3 A and head 4.3-m deeper 

at that site in well 3; Hydraulic head of the water table at well 4-14 and 

head 3.3 m deeper at that site in well 4-25. Wells 3 and 4-25 were 

constructed similar to the water-table wells, not as the piezometers 

where petal baskets and grout were used. 38-41

Figure 12 - Hydraulic head within the ground-water system at piezometer nests 42-45 

Kl and K2. Hydrograph labels indicate the depth of the bottom of the 

well screen in feet below land surface. The hydrograph labeled 8 

represents the hydraulic head of the water table at piezometer nest Kl. 

Head in bedrock is indicated by the hydrograph labeled BR. 42-45

Figure 13 - Hydraulic head within the ground-water system at piezometer nests 

K3 and FSE. Hydrograph labels indicate the depth of the bottom of the 

well screen in feet below land surface. Head of the water table at piezometer nest FSE is indicated by the hydrograph labeled WT. Head in 

bedrock is indicated by the hydrograph labeled BR for K3 and B 1 for FSE. 46-49

Figure 14 - Hydraulic head within the ground-water system at piezometer nests 

TR and FS1. Hydrograph labels indicate the depth of the bottom of the 

well screen in feet below land surface. Well 17 is a water-table well at 

piezometer nest FS1. Head in bedrock is indicated by the hydrograph

RP U-LV. __ - _____ ___ ^J\J SO ^J^ S9
0 100 200 300 400 500 METERS 

I I I I I I

EXPLANATION

18 Water-table observation well ---------- Trace of main stream channel

 KI Piezometer nest

A W Stream gage

O Lake gage

 - Surface-water divide

9"| Approximate location of point separating 

ground-water inflow to the lake from 

outflow to ground water

 758 Land-surface contour-Shows altitude of the 

land surface, in meters above sea level

Figure 1. Location of lake-stage gage, stream gages, water-table 

wells, and piezometer nests in the Mirror Lake area.
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1990 1991 1992 1993

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1990 1991 1992 1993

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1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

Figure 8. Hydraulic head of the water table at 

wells 19, 20, and 21. - Continued

32
ALTITUDE, IN METERS 

ABOVE SEA LEVEL

ALTITUDE, IN METERS 

ABOVE SEA LEVEL

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1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

Figure 11. Hydraulic head of the water table at well 3A and head 4.3-m 

deeper at that site in well 3; Hydraulic head of the water table at 

well 4-14 and head 3.3 m deeper at that site in well 4-25. Wells 3 

and 4-25 were constructed similar to the water-table wells, not 

as the piezometers where petal baskets and grout were used.

38
ALTITUDE, IN METERS ABOVE SEA LEVEL ALTITUDE, IN MET

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1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

Figure 11. Hydraulic head at wells 3, 3A, 4-14, and 4-25. - Continued

40
ALTITUDE, IN MET

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210 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

213

209' '''' '» 

1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

Figure 12. Hydraulic head within the ground-water system at piezometer 

nests Kl and K2. Hydrograph labels indicate the depth of the 

bottom of the well screen in feet below land surface. The 

hydrograph labeled 8 represents the hydraulic head of the water 

table at piezometer nest Kl. Head in bedrock is indicated by 

the hydrograph labeled BR.

42
ALTITUDE, IN METERS ABOVE SEA LEVEL

ALTITUDE, IN METER

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1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

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1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

Figure 12. Hydraulic head within the ground-water system at 

piezometer nests Kl and K2. - Continued

44
ALTITUDE, IN METERS ABOVE SEA LEVEL ALTITUDE, IN METE

Ui

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1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

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32 : solid line

1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

Figure 13. Hydraulic head within the ground-water system at piezometei 

nests K3 and FSE. Hydrograph labels indicate the depth of the 

bottom of the well screen in feet below land surface. Head of the

the water table at piezometer nest FSE is indicated by the 

hydrograph labeled WT. Head in bedrock is indicated by the 

hydrograph labeled BR for K3 and Bl for FSE

46
ALTITUDE, IN METERS ABOVE SEA LEVEL

ALTITUDE, IN MET

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1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

Figure 13. Hydraulic head within the ground-water system 

at piezometer nests K3 and FSE. - Continued

48
ALTITUDE, IN METE

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WELL 17-

254' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 

1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

Figure 14. Hydraulic head within the ground-water system at piezometer 

nests TR and FS1. Hydrograph labels indicate the depth of the 

bottom of the well screen in feet below land surface. Well 17 is 

a water-table well at piezometer nest FS1. Head in bedrock is 

indicated by the hydrograph labeled BR.

50
ALTITUDE, IN METERS ABOVE SEA LEVEL ALTITUDE, IN MET

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1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

Figure 14. Hydraulic head within the ground-water system 

at piezometer nests TR and FS1. - Continued

52