Morphology and Hydrology 

of a Glacial StreamWhite River, Mount Rainier 

Washington

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 422-A
Morphology and Hydrology 

of a Glacial StreamWhite River, Mount Rainier 

Washington

By ROBERT K. FAHNESTOCK

PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 422-A

A study of the hydraulic and morphologic 

processes by which a valley train is formed 

by a proglacial-stream

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1963
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

STEWART L. UDALL, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

William T. Pecora, Director

First printing 1963 

Second printing 1967

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price 55 cents (paper cover)
CONTENTS

Page

Abstract_---------------_--_---______._____..... Al

Introduction. __--_-_-__-_-____-_._._____._._.______ 1

Description of study area_---____-_-______..______.__ 2

Physical features.______________________________ 2

Climate and vegetation..________________________ 5

Geology.______________________________________ 5

Emmons Glacier___--_-______-._________________ 6

Characteristics of White River channels.-_--_-_____._ 8

Discharge __ ---------____-_______________.____ 10

Width, depth, velocity, and area____-_____________ 12

Shape.--------------__________________________ 15

Mode of change.-____--__-__________.._._.._._. 16

Water-surface slope, hydraulic roughness, and flow

characteristics.. -----------_________________.. 18

Transportation, erosion, and deposition on the valley

train. _---_--___-__________.._.__________..___ 19

Character of the source materials____--__-_-..____ 19

Morainic debris.--.----________-____________ 19

Mudflow deposits. -----________________._.__ 20

Valley-train deposits._-._--_-______--________ 22

Analyses of particle size.________________________ 23

Sieve analyses..-___________________________ 23

Pebble counts._--_-----____________________ 24

Transportation of bedload.______________________ 26

Methods of measurement and analysis of data. _ _ 26

Antidunes_ _____________________________ 27

Analysis of competence of the White River. 29

Transportation of suspended load.________________ 32

Size of material in suspension.___-__--__-____ 32

Concentration and discharge_________________ 32

Transportation, erosion, and deposition on the valley 

train Continued

Valley train elevation change._ -------------------

Methods of measurement- -------------------

Computation of net elevation and volume changeElevation change on cross sections of the valley 

train.__________--________---_-_--_---__-

Source of deposits__ ----------------------

Channel pattern,___________________-_____-___-----_

Description of pattern___-__---------------------

Changes during the period of study._____-_--_

Features of the White River channel patterns __ 

Analysis of pattern____ - -------------------------

Channels numbe"r, persistence, and location 

on the valley train._______________________

Relation of pattern to channel characteristics.___ 

Relation of pattern to elevation change__----_-

Causes of a braided pattern- ---------------------

Erodible banks-----------------------------

Rapid variation in discharge_________----_--_

Slope____________-__-___---------_-------

Abundant load- ----------------------------

Related problems-_________________-----------------

Longitudinal profile of valley and equilibrium in a 

regrading glacial stream. ----------------------

Influence of glacier regimen on development of a 

valley train ----------------------------------

Summary. -----------------------------------------

References cited- __-----_-__--_----_------.---------

Index ---------------------------------------------

Page

A33 

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35

36

40

42

42

42

49

51

51

53

56

57

57

58

58

59

58

59

59

60

66

69

ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE

Page

1. Emmons Glacier and the White River study area, Mount Rainier__.__-_-_____-_-___-------------------- A3

2. Study area and distribution of active glaciers on Mount Rainier, 1913 and 1958. ________ _____-_.___---_ 4

3. Map showing approximate positions of Emmons Glacier ice front, 1930-58, line of profile, and kettles in 1959 __ 7

4. Profiles of valley train and former glacier surface._________-_______-_---------_---_-------_------------- 8

5. Small kettle___-------_----...__________________.________.______________-.--__----------_------- 9

6. Diagrammatic cross section through kettle...____________-__---__---_-------------------------------- 9

7. Gage height record of White River________________________________--__---_-------------------------- 12

8. Relation of mean velocity, mean depth, and width to discharge of White River channels.--.----------------- 13

9. Relation of average width-depth ratios to discharge.__________________-__---_--------------------------- 16

10. Cross sections of several White River channels snowing width-depth ratio, shape factor, and Froude number.__ 17

11. Cross sections of White River channels showing adjustment to load and discharge-__-____------------------ 18

12. Standing waves in a White River channel- _______________________-____--_----------------------------- 18

13. Distribution of deposits on and near White River,valley train._____________________---_--_--------------- 19

14. Tills.-------------_--___....________________________________________-.________------_-----_----- 20

15. Cutbank in mudflow sequence _-_______________________________________-_--_----------__------------ 20

16. Detail of cutbank in mudflow sequence ____________________--____-_-_---_--------_-_----------------- 21

17. Mudflow deposit_________________________________________-___--_-__-----_---------------------- 21

18. Mudflow truncated in foreground by stream. ___________________________--__----------_---------------- 21

19. Boulder front on surface of mudflow._-_-_________________-_____-----_-------------------------------- 21

20. Cutbank in valley train.._________________________________________----_------____-------- 22

21. Cutbank in valley train._________________________.________________..___----___---------_--_---------- 22

OT
IV CONTENTS

	Pace

FIGURE 22. Small stream depositing fines which bury coarser deposits--_-_--_-----_-_---___--__-__-_-_______-________ A23

23. Relation of size of material to distance below glacier_______-___-_____---_--__________-_-_-_____-_______ 25

24. Relation of size of material to slope.________________________-_--___--____-______-_-__--_____-.______._ 26

25. Sampling bed load with screen.-___________________-______--__-_---__--___--__-____--__-_-_-_--__-_ 27

26. Large load moving over rough bed in shallow channel_____---_-_--___-_-----__-__----__-_______--__--_-_ 27

27. Antidunes..____________________________________________ ___________ 28

28. Measurement of amplitude and wavelength of antidunes --------------------_-------------------_-----_ 28

29. Longitudinal cross section and plan view of antidunes--.------------------------------------.----------- 28

30. Relation of particle size to velocity. __________________^___-_-______________..__-_-------_-_-_-_____-___ 29

31. Relation of particle size to tractive force...____________________________________________________________ 31

32. Diurnal variation in suspended sediment concentration with discharge_____-_-__-----_-___-_--____-_____._ 33

33. Relation of suspended sediment concentration to discharge_____________-_--_-_--__-___-___-________-____. 34

34. Relation of suspended sediment concentration to discharge 50 feet downstream from the division into two channels--_-----_------_----_--_____-____-__________-_________-___------_-___---_-_-----_-_-__-____-_ 34

35. White River valley train showing locations of cross sections, areas for volume estimates, and widening._________ 34

36. Erosion and deposition on cross sections.----.--------------------------------------------------------- 37

37. Erosion and deposition on cross section 3._.__.________________________________________________________ 39

38. Valley train near head of West Emmons Creek...____._____________-_-_--_____-___-----______---______- 41

39. Pattern changes, 1:00 to 2:00 p.m., July 18, 1958-..___________-_____________________ 44

40. Panorama of the White River valley train. ______.______-__-__-______---_-_--_----_-__-_-__-_- ______ 46

41. Meanders and nose on White River_--__-_-__--__-____--__-----.-------------------------------------- 47

42. Meander pattern of White River_-_.-___----.--_____-_-___-_-_----------_._--__.____-________ 47

43. Upper reach of White River_._. ______._._____-_.___,-__.___._______._-__--________...__.___-.. 48

44. Relict braided pattern of August 4, 1958------------------_-----------__--__---_-__-_---___-___. 49

45. White River near cross section 10, July 21, 1959---_-__-----_--___--_-------------------_-__----------- 50

46. Relict braided pattern of the White River, September 3, 1958_-__-___--__-___._.___-______-_.____. 51

47. White River nose_______._-________________._____________________________ 52

48. A braided reach of White River.__________________________-_-____-_----------___--_-____-____----_-_- 53

49. Relation of discharge range to number of channels at cross sections.______-----________-____-_____-_______ 54

50. Hydrograph and number of channels at selected cross sections_______-__-----_______--___-_______---__-_ 55

51. Imbrication of boulders on a bar.____________________-_-____.______-___----__-___--____-___-__--_-_-__ 56

52. Braided pattern during the degradation of the valley train..- ____._____.__-________-______-__-__----_--_ 57

TABLES

Page 

TABLE 1. Channel parameters of the White River and other streams_____.____._...__._____-_____.---_--_--------- A14

2. Size distribution of valley-train materials---_______-_-__--_----_-------------

3. Suspended load of White River, August 1958_-________-__________________

4. Cross section surveys of the White River valley train, 1957-60.____.___-_---.__

5. Changes in elevation and volume of the valley train of the White River, 1957-60.

6. Number of channels at each cross section of the White River, 1958-59-----------

7. Characteristics of the White River channels, 1958-59_________-____._--_-----

8. Bedload of the White River, July-August 1958_-.-._--_-.______-___

24

32

35

36

43

62

64

SYMBOLS

a 

A 

b

D

Coefficient in w=aQb 

Area of channel cross section 

Exponent in w=aQb 

Coefficient in d=cQf

A

Mean depth = * w

Maximum depth

Sediment size, intermediate diameter of particle

Median diameter

Froude number =~r=

Exponent in d=cQf 

Acceleration due to gravity

k 

L

m 

n' 

Q

8

Vo.6

V,

w

y

Coefficient in v=kQm

Stream length

Exponent in v=kQm

Roughness parameter from modified Manning equation

Discharge in cubic feet per second

Water surface slope

Mean velocity=-j

Current meter velocity, 0.6 depth 

Float velocity at surface 

Channel width at water surface 

Specific weight of water 

Tractive force=yds
PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY OF A GLACIAL STREAM WHITE RIVER,

MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON

By ROBERT K. FAHNESTOCK

ABSTRACT

This is a study of the processes by which a valley train is 

formed by a proglacial stream. The area investigated is the 

White River valley on the northeast flank of Mount Rainier, 

between the present terminus of Emmons Glacier and the moraine 

marking the terminal position in 1913. Five square miles of the 

7.5-square-mile drainage basin above this moraine are presently 

covered by active ice.

Measurements of channel characteristics were made in 112 

channels developed in noncohesive materials. Channel widths 

ranged from 0.7 to 60 feet, mean depths from about 0.03 foot 

to 2.08 feet, and mean velocities from 0.3 to 9 feet per second for 

discharges of about 0.01 to 430 cfs. The relations between 

these variables can be expressed by the equations: w=aQb , 

d=cQf, and v = kQm . The exponents for White River channels 

were found to be similar to the average of those for streams in 

the Southwestern States. In contrast, Brandywine Creek, Pa., 

with cohesive bank materials, had higher velocity exponents 

and extremely low width exponents. Width and depth of 

channels in noncohesive materials may change by scour and 

deposition as well as by flow at different depths in predetermined 

channels. White River channels, with steep slopes in coarse 

noncohesive materials, were narrower, slightly shallower, and 

had much higher flow velocities than the channels of Brandywine 

Creek in cohesive materials.

Slope of the valley train was related to particle size and discharge. Pebble counting demonstrated a systematic decrease 

of 60 mm in median diameter of the valley train deposits in a 

distance of 4,200 feet downstream from the source areas. Discharge was essentially constant through this reach, the stream 

received no major additions. Discharges of 200 to 500 cubic 

feet per second were capable of transporting almost all sizes of 

materials present and thus modified the form of the valley train.

Data on the velocities required to transport coarse materials 

in White River showed that a curve in which diameter is proportional to velocity to the 2.6 power approximates the relation 

better than the traditional sixth power law in which diameter 

is proportional to velocity to the 2.0 power. The few samples 

contained suspended-load concentrations up to 17,000 ppm.

The most graphic evidence of the large amount of material 

transported by the White River was the amount eroded and 

deposited on the valley train itself. Measurements indicated 

an average net increase in elevation of 1.2 feet during 1958 and 

a net decrease of 0.12 foot in 1959.

Description and analysis of the change in pattern of the White 

River were difficult at high flows because of the rapidity of the 

change. However, a marked change from a meandering pattern

to a braided pattern took place with the onset of the high summer 

flows and the pattern returned to meanders with the low flows 

of fall.

Explanations offered in the literature for the cause of braided 

patterns include erodible banks, rapid and large variation in 

discharge, slope, and abundant load. The common element in 

all explanations seems to be a movement of bed load in such 

quantity or of such coarseness that there is deposition within the 

channel, causing the diversion of flow from one channel into other 

channels in a valley wide enough to provide freedom to braid. 

White River braiding took place most actively at large loads and 

discharges.

Although examples of braiding by an aggrading stream are 

common, the White River and the Sunwapta River, Alberta, 

have reaches in which degradation took place while the stream 

had a braided pattern. The conclusion is reached that both 

braided and meandering reaches can occur along the same stream, 

which may be aggrading, poised, or degrading. The pattern 

alone does not conclusively define the regimen of the stream.

The regimen of the glacier has long-term effects in providing 

debris to the stream; short-term effects of weather and runoff 

determine the current hydraulic characteristics, rate of deposition 

and erosion, and channel pattern.

INTRODUCTION

This is a study of the processes by which a valley 

train is formed by a proglacial stream. The term 

valley train, as used here, is an outwash plain laterally 

constricted by valley walls. Studies of such distinctly 

different geologic environments improve the understanding of past geologic events and knowledge of the 

interrelations of hydraulic and morphologic variables. 

Comparisons of data from distinctly different environments make possible the evaluation of the sensitivity 

of hydraulic parameters to environment.

It is hard to imagine a more radical departure from 

normal stream regimen than a glacierized drainage 

basin (fig. 1). Diurnal fluctuations in discharge bring 

bankfull or overbank flow for brief periods to many 

short reaches of the stream. As a large part of the 

precipitation falls as snow, it may be years before 

heavy accumulations at high elevations are reflected 

in changes of position of the glacier and in runoff.

Al
A2 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

Most of the runoff occurs during the months of June, 

July, and August, which in many environments would 

be the period of extreme low water. The presence of the 

Emmons Glacier makes it possible to study the relation 

of stream and glacial regimen. The stream pattern 

changes rapidly in response to changes in discharge 

which cause much shifting of debris on the valley train. 

The coarseness of the materials being transported, the 

high stream gradient, and the rapid flow provide situations in which the influence of these factors can be 

measured under extreme conditions.

Hjulstrom (1935) and Sundborg (1954) in their 

detailed studies of river systems summarized contemporary knowledge of sediment transport and openchannel hydraulics and applied this knowledge to 

natural channels, which had low velocities, tranquil or 

subcritical flow, relatively fine bed materials, and low 

slopes. Leopold and Maddock (1953) presented a 

method of quantitative analysis of channel characteristics of natural streams. They limited their discussion 

to a number of rivers in the Great Plains and the 

Southwest. Wolman (1955) applied the method to a 

stream in a more humid region. In a recent investigation where these methods were used, Miller (1958) 

studied high mountain streams in regions which had 

at one time supported glaciers. All of these channels 

differed from laboratory channels and from the rapid 

streams which issue from glaciers to flow with steep 

gradients and constantly changing channel patterns 

to the sea. Hjulstrom led an expedition during the 

summers of 1951 and 1952 to study the alluvial outwash 

plains (sandurs) of Iceland and the mechanics of 

braided streams. The stream studied by Hjulstrom 

is much larger and has more gentle gradients than the 

White River and pattern changes appear to take place 

much less rapidly than on the White River valley train.

The first section of this report describes the regional 

setting and the recent history of the Emmons Glacier. 

The second and third sections cover the hydrology and 

hydraulic characteristics of White River channels and 

the transportation, erosion, and deposition of materials 

of the valley train. The fourth section is a description 

and analysis of the channel pattern change on the valley 

train. The fifth section is a discussion of the related 

problems, the application of the concept of equilibrium 

to valley train formation and the influence of the 

glacier regime on valley train formation.

The present report is a modification of a thesis 1 

submitted to Cornell University. Work in the field 

was performed by the author as a member of the Geological Survey under the general supervision of C. C. 

McDonald, Chief, General Hydrology Branch. The

i Fahnestock, Robert, K., 1960, Morphology and Hydrology of a glacial stream: 

Ithaca, N.Y., Cornell University, doctoral thesis.

field assistants were T. G. Bond in 1958 and P. V. D. 

Gott in 1959. Cornell University professors Marvin 

Bogema, R. A. Christman, P. G. Mayer, and C. M. 

Nevin, graduate committee members; E. H. Muller 

and L. L. Ray, committee chairmen; and M. G. Wolman, 

U.S. Geological Survey, made many helpful suggestions 

in regard to the field\M9rk and the manuscript.

John Savini, U.S. Geological Survey, was extremely 

helpful in the field through his aid with problems of 

stream gaging and in preparation of streamflow records. 

Ann M. Fahnestock, the author's wife, provided 

material support in the fieldwork, maintenance of 

camp, and preparation of the original manuscript.

DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA 

PHYSICAL FEATURES

The White River study area lies within Mount 

Rainier National Park on the northeast flank of Mount 

Rainier (figs. 1 and 2), west of the crest of the Cascade 

Mountains, 80 miles south southeast of Seattle, Wash. 

The area of most intensive study was the 1-mile reach 

of the stream between the present terminus of the 

Emmons Glacier and the valley loop moraine, which 

marks the 1913 terminus. The study area is reached 

from the White River Campground by a truck trail 

leading up the left bank of the Inter Fork and by a 

trail across the moraines. This area was selected because it is accessible and includes both a site for a gage 

where the stream is confined to one channel and a 

reach where at times the channel pattern changes 

rapidly. Measurements to determine the relation of 

size of material and slope were made in several other 

areas.

An area of 7.5 square miles (M. F. Meier, written 

communication, 1958) is tributary to the gage at the 

moraine (fig. 2). Of this area, 5 square miles was 

covered by active glacier ice, 4.4 square miles by the 

Emmons Glacier, and 0.6 square mile by that part of 

the Frying Pan Glacier thought to contribute to the 

White River above the gage. Flow from the Frying 

Pan Glacier, which does not pass through the study 

area, enters the White River about 3 miles below the 

gage by way of Frying Pan Creek.

In the period 1957-59 the Emmons Glacier (fig. 2) 

extended from its source area on the summit of Mount 

Rainier at an elevation of more than 14,000 feet to an 

elevation of about 5,300 feet through a valley carved 

into the northeast flank of the mountain. The depth 

of this erosion is suggested by the following data: The 

surface of the glacier is about 2,000 feet lower than the 

summit of Little Tahoma Peak (fig. 1) on a line transverse to the valley; and the terminus in 1910 was at an 

elevation of about 4,700 feet near the present stream-
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A3

FIGURE 1. Emmons Glacier and the White River study area, Mount Rainier. Photograph by M. F. Meier, October 1,1958.
A4 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

121° 40'

Inter Glacier

Antler-/

MT RAINIER "

EXPLANATION

United States Geological Survey streamflow 

gaging station AREA OF THIS REPORT

Drainage basin boundary

Glacier position, 1913, U.S. Geological Survey map 

Mt. Rainier National Park, Wash

Glacier position, 1958, M. F. Meier 

(written communication)

FIGURE 2. Study area and distribution of active glaciers on Mount Rainier, 1913 and 1958.
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A5

gaging station, which is some 1,700 feet lower than the 

adjacent Yakima Park, Baker Point, and Antler Peak 

(fig. 2). The White River is tributary to Puget Sound 

through the Stuck and Puyallup Rivers.

A stream-gaging station equipped with a water-stage 

recorder is 1 mile below the glacier at the moraine; 

another station, White River at Greenwater, Wash., is 

28 miles downstream, just above the junction with the 

Greenwater River and 2 miles below the junction with 

the West Fork White River. The source of the West 

Fork White River is the Winthrop Glacier, which 

emanates from the same icefield as the Emmons Glacier.

CLIMATE AND VEGETATION

The position of Mount Rainier on the west side of the 

Cascade crest is of great climatic significance. The 

prevailing winds, moisture-laden westerlies from the 

Pacific Ocean, are cooled as they rise to cross the Cascade Mountains, causing heavy precipitation. The 

proximity of the Pacific Ocean has a moderating effect 

on the temperature in both summer and winter.

On Mount Rainier, approximately 75 percent of the 

precipitation falls from October through May. Yearly 

snowfall at the higher elevations of the mountain has 

not been measured, but records kept on the southwest 

side of the mountain at Paradise (elev 5,400 ft) indicate 

an average precipitation of 100 inches (including 50 ft 

of snow) and at Longmire (elev 2,160 ft) approximately 

78 inches (including 15 ft of snow). Brockman (1947, 

p. 2) noted that "while no records are available for 

Yakima Park (northeast side of the mountain) . . . 

the snowfall is considerably less." The maximum 

depth of snow on the ground at Yakima Park is from 

40 to 50 percent that at Paradise, which is almost 

1,000 feet lower.

The vegetation of Mount Rainier National Park 

varies with elevation from that of the humid transitional 

zone of the Puget Sound Lowland to that of the ArcticAlpine Zone above 6,500 feet (Brockman, 1947). However, in the area studied there is no vegetation on the 

valley train owing to the incessant reworking of the 

surface. Scattered trees as much as 57 (Sigafoos and 

Hendricks, 1961, p. 4) years in age grow on the adjacent 

ablation moraine, which is underlain by stagnant ice. 

Older trees are found on the adjacent lateral moraines. 

The vegetation is too sparse to have any appreciable 

effect on the runoff characteristics of the drainage basin. 

On the valley train below the 1910-13 moraine, however, alder has found a footing and scattered groups of 

evergreen and poplar trees are growing. Older trees 

grow on terraces, the lowest of which is about 2 to 5 

feet above the present valley train. Some trees on 

channel islands and banks have been killed where

deposition has raised the bed of the stream above its 

former banks.

GEOLOGY

The bedrock formations of the drainage basin range 

widely in appearance, composition, and occurrence. 

These formations provide the glacier, and thus the 

stream, with rocks having a wide range of abrasion 

resistance and specific gravity. The average specific 

gravity of 29 specimens from the ablation moraine was 

2.5, ranging from 1.9 to 3.5 as determined in the field 

by means of a spring scale.

The lavas, agglomerates, and mudflows of the Mount 

Rainier volcanics of Coombs (1936) lie on a rugged 

erosion surface cut into the Keechelus andesite series. 

According to Coomb's (1936) description of the rocks 

and their occurrence, the Keechelus andesitic series, 

composed of massive tuffs, breccias, and porphyries 

with subordinate andesite flows, felsites, basalts, 

hornfels, and sediments, was intruded by the Snoqualmie granodiorite. The reaction zone produced by 

this intrusion is the source of additional rock types. 

A more detailed examination of the geology of Mount 

Rainier National Park is currently (1959) being made 

by Waters, Hobson, and Fisk of Johns Hopkins 

University.

Emmons Glacier and the White River have cut 

through the Mount Rainier volcanics into the Keechelus andesitic series, but the distribution of these 

formations is obscured by the presence of the glacier 

and its deposits, and by the large areas of talus on the 

slopes above the most recent lateral moraines. The 

Snoqualmie granodiorite is not known to crop out 

upstream from the gaging station, but some of the 

rocks found in the valley train may be from the reaction 

zone between the granodiorite and the Keechelus. 

Apparently the varied lithology of the bedrock does 

not influence the present longitudinal profile of the 

stream, for only two small patches of bedrock, neither 

of which is in the present streambed, are known to 

crop out within the valley train. Variations in the 

resistance of the bedrock to erosion by the glacier are 

apparent in the domes and hollows of the glacier 

surface and the resulting crevasse pattern of the 

glacier (fig. 1).

An unusual event in the geologic history of the 

northeast side of the mountain is the volcanic mudflow 

(greater than 0.25 cubic mile) described by Crandell 

and Waldron (1956). It issued from the northeast 

flank of the mountain and flowed down both forks of 

the White River, spreading out in the Puget Sound 

Lowland to points beyond Enumclaw, some 45 miles 

downstream. Carbon-14 analyses of wood samples 

from the mudflow have dated it at about 4,800 years 

ago.
A6 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

The glacial geology of the White River valley has 

been studied by D. R. Crandell, R. D. Miller, D. R. 

Mullineaux, and H. H. Waldron of the U.S. Geological 

Survey, but their findings are not yet published. 

Evidence of the extent of the Emmons Glacier in 

Pleistocene time is the glaciated character of the White 

River valley for many miles downstream. Crandell 

and others (oral communication) have found a number 

of lateral moraines at various elevations within the 

valley and are attempting to correlate them with 

deposits in other valleys.

The massive plug of debris that blocks the valley 

about 1 mile below the glacier terminus is evidence of 

the extent of the glacier at intervals over the last 1,000 

years. It is composed of several moraines of different 

ages. The dating of these moraines by tree-ring count 

is reported in Sigafoos and Hendricks (1961). Crandell 

(oral communication) and Sigafoos and Hendricks 

found that trees about 60 to 80 years old are growing 

on the innermost stabilized moraine; whereas, less 

than 100 feet toward the glacier, trees about 50 years 

old are growing on an ablation moraine on top of 

stagnant ice.

EMMONS GLACIER

The study area has been uncovered by the stagnation 

and melting of the Emmons Glacier since its position 

was recorded by some of the earliest observers. One 

of the first authors to record his observations on the 

"White River Glacier" as it was then called, was S. F. 

Emmons, who with A. D. Wilson made the second 

successful ascent of the mountain in 1870. Emmons 

in a letter to his chief (King, 1871) seems to have been 

overenthusiastic and exaggerated the glacier's dimensions, stating:

The main White River glacier, the greatest of the whole, pours 

straight down from the rim of the crater in a northeasterly 

direction, and pushes its extremity farther out into the valley 

than any of the others. Its greatest width on the steep slope 

of the mountain must be four or five miles, narrowing towards 

its extremity to about a mile and a half; its length can be scarcely 

less than ten miles.

The map of Mount Rainier and its glaciers by Sarvent 

and Evans dated 1896, (plate 68, in Russell, 1898, p. 363) 

shows the Emmons Glacier terminus in approximately 

the same position as shown by the 1913 U.S. Geological 

Survey map (fig. 2). The 1896 map, however, shows 

two streams issuing from the glacier one as shown on 

the 1913 map and the second flowing into the Inter 

Fork at the left side of the glacier terminus. F. E. 

Matthes (1914) stated:

The youngest moraine, fresh looking as if deposited only yesterday, lies but 50 feet above the glaciers' surface and a scant 100 

feet distant from its edge; the older ridges subdued in outline and 

already tinged with verdure lie several hundred feet higher on 

the slope.

Matthes gave the length of the Emmons Glacier as 

about 5% miles and its width as 1% miles in its upper 

half. The area of active ice, measured from the 1913 

map as approximately 5.3 square miles, had decreased 

to 4.4 square miles in 1958 (M. F. Meier, written communication). Most of the 0.9 square mile decrease 

represents areas of ablation moraine and valley train 

underlain by slowly melting stagnant ice. Matthes' 

(1914) estimate of 8.5 square miles could not be verified 

by rechecking with the 1913 map.

Periodically since 1930 the U.S. National Park Service 

has studied the position of the glacier terminus; the data 

show the rate of recession of the point at which the 

stream emerged from under the glacier to be about 

75 feet per year. The positions of the glacier (fig. 3) 

are sketched from Park Service data and photographs 

provided by V. R. Bender, park naturalist. In 1943 an 

ice tunnel was discovered to have caved in upstream 

from the ice face being measured; the caving produced a 

second point from which the ice faces receded both 

upstream and downstream. This second point was 

near the present junction of East and West Emmons 

Creeks; thus, an ice mass was left bridging the valley 

until at least 1953.

Rigsby (1951) spent 6 weeks in 1950 studying ice 

petrof abrics and glacier motion on the Emmons Glacier. 

He determined the rate of motion to be as much as 

0.75 foot per day in the center of the glacier," about half 

a mile above the position of the terminus in 1958 (fig. 2).

The general advance of glaciers of the Cascade 

Mountains (Hubley, 1956, and Harrison, 1956a and 

1956b) had also started on the Emmons Glacier by 

1953. The National Park Service has measured this 

advance periodically since 1953 and has found that it 

averaged about 160 feet per year from 1953 through 

1957 and continued in 1962. In 1957 Arthur Johnson, 

of the U.S. Geological Survey, began taking a yearly 

series of phototheodolite pictures from which topographic maps of the glacier might be made by terrestrial 

photogrammetry. ' Volumetric computations as well as 

measurements of the change in position of the glacier 

terminus will be possible when these maps are available.

The present location of the valley train is in the 

approximate position of the clear ice shown by the 1913 

U.S. Geological Survey map. The debris-covered ice 

along the valley train appears to have changed little in 

elevation since the 1913 map, emphasizing the role 

played by the debris in insulating the ice along the sides 

of the glacier tongue. The approximate elevation 

change of the clear ice is shown in figure 4. Downwasting is almost overshadowed by the combination of 

caving and melting, and by erosion and melting from 

below by streams of water and air that flowed through 

ice tunnels in this central part of the glacier. In 1959,
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A7

Line of profile

West Emmons 

Creek

CONTOUR INTERVAL 20 FEET 

DATUM IS ARBITRARY

EXPLANATON

Ice tunnel 

Edge of valley train

Kettle

9

Streamflow gaging station

EMMONS GLACIER

FIGURE 3. Map showing approximate positions of Emmons Glacier ice front, 1930-58, from National Park Service glacier surveys, line of profile (fig. 4), and inset map

showing kettles in 1959.
A8 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

1100 -i

1000 -

900 -

Q 800

700 -

600 -

500 -

^ 400 -

^ 300

200 -

100 -i

Approximate surface of Emmons Glacier, 1913, from 

U.S. Geological Survey map of Mt. Rainier National 

, 1:62500.

-Glacier terminus, 1958

\

\

\

\

Profile of valley train from 1958 planetable 

map of Fahnestock and Bond \

200

CROSS SECTIONS 1

\

\ 

12\

2000 4000

DISTANCE FROM GLACIER, IN FEET

FIGURE 4. Profiles of valley train and former glacier surface. Vertical exaggeration X4.

6000

an ice tunnel about 10 feet wide was observed to double 

in width and height throughout its length by melting 

due to the flow of warm air. There was no apparent 

change in elevation of the debris-covered ice above the 

tunnel. Melting from below soon leads to collapse of 

tunnels, producing ice blocks that rapidly waste away. 

Such ice blocks are the source of many well-rounded 

boulders of ice deposited on bars downstream.

The presence of the numerous kettles shown in figures 

3, 5, and 6 is evidence that at least some part of the 

valley train is deposited on ice. These kettles appeared 

during August 1958 when the stream with its heavy 

load of debris had shifted for a few days from the areas 

of valley train underlain by ice. Several new kettles 

were seen in June 1959; they developed rapidly in size, 

occasionally coalescing to form larger kettles. By June 

25, 1959, the development of kettles demanded attention, and on this day they were mapped by planetable 

methods. (Inset map fig. 3.) The kettles were mapped 

again on July 31, after they had been filled with debris 

by the stream. All were filled in during 5 hours on 

July 20, 1959, with the exception of one which the 

stream did not reach. This kettle was filled in a few 

hours on July 23. Cracks in the ground and incipient

kettles formed within 24 hours after the most actively 

enlarging kettles had been filled. It was evident that 

material was disappearing from the bottom of the kettle 

because they became no shallower by the caving of 

their banks. The kettles that could be waded had 

cross sections similar to those shown in figures 5 and 6. 

Noticeable sifting out of the fine materials occurred as 

the kettles formed, the coarser materials being concentrated toward the bottom of the funnel-shaped 

depression. It is probable that this cross section was 

characteristic of all kettles not receiving materials from 

through-flowing streams.

CHARACTERISTICS OF WHITE RIVER CHANNELS

Streams may vary in discharge of water, size and 

amount of sediment load, width, depth, velocity, slope 

of water .surface, hydraulic roughness and pattern of 

their channels. It was possible to measure each of 

these variables for the White River with the exception 

of the amount of sediment in transport. Leopold 

and Maddock (1953, p. 33) suggested that discharge 

and sediment load are the result of the climatic and 

geologic environment within the basin and that the 

other variables adjust to these imposed conditions.
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A9

FIGUBE 5. Small kettle. Note the absence of finer material and concentration of the coarser material toward the center.

FIGUEE 6. Diagrammatic cross section through kettle, figure 5.

They also presented a method for the analysis of 

channel characteristics that permits comparisons with 

variation in discharge at the same channel cross section 

and successive cross sections downstream. Wolman 

(1955), Leopold and Miller (1956), Miller (1958), 

Brush (1961), and Wolman and Brush (1961) have 

applied this method to the analysis of a variety of 

natural streams and flume channels.

The shape of a channel is reported to be a function 

of the type of materials that make up its bed and banks

(Blench, 1956; Schumm, 1960; Wolman and Brush, 

1961), and of the quantity of water and sediment 

transported by the stream, including possibly their 

distribution in time. Where a stream flows on its 

own deposits, the earlier water and sediment discharges 

have determined the size and disposition of the material 

composing the bed and banks. Streams will adjust 

in different ways to increases or decreases in discharge 

of sediment and water, in accordance with the character 

of bank materials. It is thought that two streams
A10 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

with the same mean annual discharge will develop 

somewhat different channel characteristics if the flow 

distribution for one is uniform throughout the year 

and for the other is the product of periodic flooding. 

The bed and bank materials of the White River, 

to be described in detail later, are deficient in silt- and 

clay-size materials and are therefore noncohesive and 

relatively easily eroded. They provide abundant bed 

and suspended loads. Observations indicate that a 

change in the channel shape by erosion or deposition, 

or both, accompanies any change in discharge. As 

this was not true for those streams previously described 

by Leopold and Maddock (1953) and Wolman (1955), 

some of their data may not be strictly comparable with 

those of the White River. In spite of this, comparisons 

can be made that reflect and help define the differences 

in characteristics of channels in readily credible 

materials and channels in more resistant materials.

DISCHARGE

Measurements of channel characteristics were made 

in 112 channels that were selected as representative of 

a wide variety of channel sizes and shapes. It was 

necessary to make discharge measurements with reasonable accuracy a criterion that eliminated channels 

in which bed-load movement was extremely heavy and 

which were rapidly changing their shape. Of these 

representative channels, 81 were included in the 48 

measurements of total discharge (table 7) made for the 

primary purpose of rating the gaging station. This 

station was established on June 19, 1958, at the point 

where the stream flows through the moraine (figs. 2 and 3). 

Although this position did not provide the most desirable hydraulic characteristics for the stage-discharge 

relation because of the shifting control, it was the only 

position where the stream was confined to one channel 

and could be expected to flow past the gage at all times.

The frequent changes in the stage-discharge relation 

were caused by scour and fill in the vicinity of the gage 

as a result of the large bed load and mean velocities up 

to 9 feet per second. Frequent measurements of discharge were required to compute these changes.

Without doubt the variation in the stage-discharge 

relation introduced inaccuracies in discharges determined from the recorded stage, but the frequency of 

discharge measurements and adjustment of the stagedischarge relation probably kept these errors within 

reasonable limits. The adjustments were made by 

John Savini according to standard Geological Survey 

methods for gaging streams with shifting control. He 

utilized numerous discharge measurements, temperature records, and records from the nearest gaging station, White River at Greenwater, Wash., as well as 

records from the station recording runoff at South

Cascade Glacier, in the northern Cascade Mountains, 

to compute the adjustments.

Discharge measurements were made in reaches of the 

stream where 1 to 4 channels were found. At the time 

of highest discharge, measurements could not be made 

in multiple channels because streamflow shifted rapidly 

from one channel to another during the period of measurement. The channels in which rating measurements 

were made, although typical of the White River in 

general, are not representative of some of the widest, 

shallowest channels, in which much of the flow was 

around boulders, preventing accurate measurements. 

These wide, shallow channels were extremely unstable 

and often divided into several narrower channels.

A number of measurements were made to obtain data 

for channels with a wide range in discharge and shape. 

Measurements were made also in very small channels 

with a discharge of 1 cfs or less, for comparison with the 

larger channels of the White River and with data 

obtained for flume channels by Wolman and Brush (1961).

Most measurements of discharge were made by an 

expedient method, adopted to reduce the wear and tear 

on equipment and personnel. Several current meters 

were broken, and feet and shins were bruised by the 

coarse material being transported by the stream. The 

velocity and depth were determined at 10 to 15 stations 

rather than the 20 or more stations customarily used 

to average out variations in flow across the channel. 

The Price type-A current meter was used at 0.6 depth 

for 20 to 35 seconds rather than at 0.2 and 0.8 depth 

for the usual 40 to 70 seconds. Whatever inaccuracies 

were introduced by these expedients were in part offset by the fact that the shorter period of measurement 

gave less opportunity for changes in stage to affect the 

accuracy. A pigmy current meter was used to measure 

the velocity in small channels. When the pigmy 

meter could be used at only a few stations because of 

extremely shallow water, an accurate cross section was 

measured with a steel tape, and this area was used with 

adjusted float velocities to compute the discharge. The 

mean velocity in a vertical was taken as 0.6 of the float 

velocity, on the basis of 20 discharge measurements 

where both current meter and float velocity data were 

available for the same channel.

The estimated error in current-meter measurements 

of discharge ranged from 5 percent at moderate discharges to 15 percent at high and low discharges. The 

accuracy of discharges estimated from gage heights for 

use in the study of stream pattern depends both on the 

accuracy of the rating measurements and on the length 

of time elapsed between such rating measurements and 

the event for which discharge was estimated. The possible error is as much as 25 percent of the estimated 

discharge.
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON All

The hydrograph (fig. 50) computed by Savini shows 

the fluctuations in discharge and differences in runoff 

for the summers of 1958 and 1959. The year 1958 was 

unusual for the Pacific Northwest because snowfall was 

light during the winter of 1957-58 and the summer was 

warm with long spells of clear weather, which produced 

high ice melt. By midsummer, areas of the mountain 

at high elevations, which had not been uncovered before in the memory of local inhabitants, were free of 

snow. Winds blowing over such areas raised a column 

of dust above the southwestern side of the mountain 

during July and August. The snow and ice on the 

mountain were brown from fallen dust, which served 

to increase melting by lowering the albedo of the snow 

and ice.

In 1959, snow at all elevations lasted much longer; 

many areas that were uncovered the previous summer 

remained under snow. Melt water produced during 

the summer was considerably less than in 1958 (hydrograph, fig. 50). The average flow for July 1959 was 

about 20 percent less, for August about 35 percent less, 

than for the same months of 1958. The variations 

from the long-term mean for average temperature 

and total precipitation for the periods October 1957 

to September 1958 and October 1958 to September 

1959 at Longmire on the southwestern side of the 

mountain, and at Stampede Pass 20 miles to the north, 

might be considered representative of the difference 

in weather in 1958 and 1959. These two stations were 

the nearest for which records were available. In 1958, 

the temperature at Longmire averaged 2.7°F, and at 

Stampede Pass, 2.6°F, above the long-term mean. 

In 1959, the temperature averaged 0.2 °F above the 

mean at Longmire and 1.0 °F below the long-term mean 

at Stampede Pass. Precipitation records for Longmire 

show a deficiency of 5.41 inches over the long-term mean 

in 1958 and a surplus of 24.44 inches in 1959. At 

Stampede Pass a precipitation deficiency of 19.25 inches 

in 1958 and a surplus of 29.15 inches in 1959 were 

recorded. At both locations the 1959 total was increased in an extraordinarily rainy September by 9.72 

inches of precipitation at Longmire and 11.20 inches 

at Stampede Pass.

The order of magnitude of the winter flow given by 

discharge measurements 21a, 49, and 50 (table 7), made 

in November 1958 and 1959, is 20 to 40 cfs. The 

gagewell froze in late October and the gaging station 

remained inoperative for low flows until May, so that 

these measurements are the only flow data available 

for this period.

The reasons that the melting snow of April, May, and 

June do not produce flows at the moraine gage (figs. 2, 

3) as high as those produced by the melting of July and 

August may be the following: (a) Unlike nonglacierized

drainage basins, which usually have lost their snow 

cover by late June, more than 70 percent of the White 

River drainage basin above the moraine has a yearround snow and ice cover. The warm weather of the 

summer months produces rapid melting, (b) Flow 

continues throughout the winter. It is thought to 

result from ground-water discharge as well as from 

subglacial melting, as the daily mean temperature often 

falls below freezing for periods of several days. Thus, 

in the spring, ground-water recharge must take place 

before snowmelt can produce much direct runoff, (c) 

The albedo of snow is much higher than that of ice 

(Sauberer and Dirmhirn in Hubley, 1957, p. 77, table 

5), so that the same amount of radiation produces 

more melt water per unit area from exposed ice than 

from snow and the area of exposed ice enlarges throughout the melt season, (d) Cloud cover is a factor that 

should be considered, although records are not available for analysis. The shielding from radiation of the 

heavier cloud cover of spring may well be offset by 

heavier precipitation. Summer precipitation was slight 

in both 1958 and 1959.

No records or field evidence of flooding prior to 

1957 were found for the study area. As the surface of 

the valley train is constantly changing owing to lateral 

shifting of channels and deposition, all evidence might 

well be obscured a few years after a flood. That 

floods do occur in the downstream part of the basin 

is suggested to even a casual observer by the size of 

Mud Mountain Dam on White River, 47 miles downstream. It is the highest earth-cored rock-fill dam in 

the world, with a flood storage capacity of 106,000 

acre-feet.

The highest discharges from June 1958 to October 

1959 were recorded during the summers and were 

about 20 times the discharges measured in winter. 

These discharges, although capable of radically altering 

the appearance of the valley train, can hardly be 

considered floods because of the relatively small discharges and the limited reaches in which overbank 

flow occurred.

In the fall and winter of 1959, there were two severe 

storms at Mount Rainier. On October 22 a rainfall of 

5.5 inches in 24 hours was recorded at Paradise on the 

southwestern side of the mountain. It produced a 

rise of about 4 feet at the staff gage at Longmire (fig. 2) 

and a rise of about 1 foot at the station on the White 

River at the moraine. A second storm on November 

22, 1959, produced a rise of about 1.2 feet in the White 

River; the peak flow was estimated by Savini to be 

about 1,000 cfs. Where the flow was concentrated in 

one channel at the gage, boulders estimated to be as 

large as 8X8X5 feet were undermined and moved; 

however, photographs taken by Savini 1 week after
A12 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

this storm show no major changes in the valley train 

deposits, although some scour is evident in that part 

of the valley train within 100 yards above the gage. 

The effects of flooding were much more evident on the 

Inter Fork, the West Fork, and other tributaries where 

roads and bridges were washed out.

Surveys run in June 1960 showed that there was 

several feet of deposition over parts of the valley train. 

This storm may have produced a greater proportion 

of overbank flow than usual, but in most of the area 

the flow was probably contained in definite channels. 

The frequency of recurrence of such a flow cannot be 

established with such a short period of record; but on 

the White River at Greenwater, Wash., 28 miles downstream (fig. 2), with 30 years of record, such a storm 

was estimated to have a recurrence interval of 45 

years. There was a third major storm during December, but its effects were not separable from those of the 

other storms when the area was revisted in June 1960.

Diurnal fluctuations in discharge for the White 

River range from an estimated 10 cfs on a winter day 

to more than 700 cfs after several consecutive warm 

summer days. Figure 7 is a reproduction of the waterstage recorder chart for July 21-23, 1958, which shows 

three types of fluctuations recorded by the gage: 

(1) diurnal, (2) intermediate, (3) minor. The largest 

is the diurnal fluctuation, which reaches its peak in the 

late afternoon and its low point in the early morning. 

Its magnitude, on July 22, was about 0.65 foot. This 

represents a change in discharge from 140 cfs to approximately 600 cfs. The fluctuations of intermediate size, 

such as the one at 2 p.m. on July 22, with a magnitude 

of 0.3 foot and a duration of about 1 hour, could represent either bar formation and removal that temporarily

altered the stage-discharge relation, or periodic storage 

and release of water from the crevasse system of the 

glacier. Other more probable explanations for such 

variations are the storage and release of water by the 

formation and destruction of antidunes, or a change in 

bed roughness in the vicinity of the gage similar to that 

described by Dawdy (1961). The minor fluctuations 

of 0.1 foot and 5-minute duration, superimposed upon 

the other fluctuations, are thought to be related to the 

movement of small amounts of material or to changes 

in position of standing waves in the control section of 

the gaging station, although it is possible that some of 

these minor fluctuations reflect changes in discharge. 

WIDTH, DEPTH, VELOCITY, AND AREA

In the process of measuring discharge, the width, 

depth, velocity, and cross-sectional area of flow were 

determined. Widths ranged from about 0.7 foot at 

0.01 cfs to a maximum of 60 feet at 330 cfs (channels 

38 and 25, table 7). Mean depths of the White River 

ranged from 0.03 foot to 2.08 feet for discharges of 0.01 

to 430 cfs (channels 38 and 88, table 7). Mean velocities of the White River ranged from 0.3 to 9 feet per 

second for discharges of 0.01 to 300 cfs (channels 38 

and 83, table 7).

These values, plotted against their respective discharges on logarithmic paper, using the method of 

Leopold and Maddock (1953), showed a straight-line 

relation for the channels of the White River (fig. 8). 

For such a straight line, the relation between the 

variables can be expressed in terms of the following 

equations:

w=aQ" 

d=cQf

Numbers indicate magnitude 

of fluctuations discussed 

in text

JULY 21, 1958 JULY 22, 1958 JULY 23, 1958 

FIGURE 7. Gage height record of the White River at moraine gage for July 21-23,1958.
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A13

100

0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1 5 10 

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

100 500 1000

FIGURE 8. Relation of mean velocity, mean depth, and width to discharge of the White River channels.

The exponents &,/, and m, which represent the slopes 

of the respective lines, and the coefficients a, c, and k, 

which represent the intercepts at a discharge point 

equal to 1 cfs, are parameters characteristic of a given 

situation and remain constant for that situation.

Values of the parameters determined for the White 

River, and those for other rivers for which values 

could be determined from the literature, are summarized in table 1. Changes in width, depth, and veloc681-370 O 63 3

ity in relation to discharge were compared using the 

values for changes "at-a-station," because the scatter 

caused by measuring in a number of different channels is thought to be analogous to that shown by Wolman 

(1955) to be caused by measuring at different points 

in the vicinity of a gaging station. The wide range of 

values in table 1, and in some cases lack of information about the parameters, is due to the great diversity of streams considered. Only one paper (Wolman,
A14 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

TABLE 1. Channel parameters of the White River and other streams

Stream

White River 2... __ . ...

Southwest and Great 

Plains: » Median... _____

Range ................

Brandy-wine Creek: 4

Ephemeral streams: «

Range _________

Flume channels: ' 

Z>so 0.0022 foot.. ......

DM 0.0066 foot.. ......

At a statjon

Intercepts

a

4.0 

26

54 

(37-80)

10 

(3-26)

4.2 

2.0

c

0.22 

.15

.23 

(. 12-. 52)

.1

(.03-. 2)

.18

.27

k

1.1

.37

.10 

(.022-. 16)

1 

(. 7-1. 5)

1.3 

1.8

Exponents

b

0.38

.26 

(. 03-. 59)

.04 

(.0-.08)

«.26

.50 

.33

/

0.33

.40 

(.06-. 63)

.41

(.32-46)

1.33

.39 

.52

m

0.27

.34

(.07-55)

.55

(. 48-. 69)

 .32

.16 

.16

Values at 100 cfs

width

24

67 

(45-90)

45 

(20-80)

depth

1.0

1.5

(1.1-2.0)

.5 

(.25-. 9)

velocity

4.2

1.3

(.7-2.0)

3.3 

(2.5-5.0)

Downstream l

Intercepts

a

4.0

4.0

(1.1-7)

5.7

5.2

4.2 

2.0

c

0.22

.5 

(-1-.9)

.19

.11

.18 

.27

k

1.1

.9 

(.6-1.2)

1.04

1.5

1.3 

1.8

Exponents

b

0.38 

.5 

.57

.50

.50 

.33

/

0.33 

.4 

.4

.28

.39 

.52

m

0.27 

.1 

.03

.22

.16 

.16

Data based 

on 

112 channels. 

20 stations. 

7 stations. 

9 stations.

29 channels. 

13 channels.

1 Values based on mean annual discharge except for White River and flume channels.

2 White River: sandy gravel bed and banks, no vegetation, adjust at all stages, 

Q=0.01-400 cfs.

» Leopold and Maddock (1953): streams of Southwestern States and Great Plains, 

bed and bank material not noted.

« Wolman (1955): Brandywine Creek, cohesive banks, gravel and sand bed, little 

scour or fill. Q=5-2,000 cfs.

1955) limits the discussion of the variables and parameters to a single stream and its tributaries. The study 

of flume channels by Wolman and Brush (1961) supplies data considered comparable to data from the 

White River. It must be noted that some of the 

variation of White River channels is due to the slopes, 

which are higher than those for any of the other 

streams reported.

Values of the exponents for White River channels 

were found to be similar to the average of those found 

for streams of the Southwestern States (table 1) by 

Leopold and Maddock (1953). The value for b, the 

width exponent, was 0.38 for the White River whereas 

the average for Southwestern streams was 0.26. The 

value of 0.38 lies well within the range of values observed for Southwestern streams. In contrast, the 

Brandywine Creek stations (table 1) have the extremely 

low values for b of 0.04 to 0.08, which are thought to 

reflect the cohesive nature of bank materials.

The value of/, the depth exponent, was 0.33 for the 

White River, which is close to the 0.40 average for 

Southwestern streams and the 0.41 for Brandywine 

Creek, although the manner in which depths change is 

dissimilar. Width and depth of streams flowing in 

noncohesive materials may increase or decrease by 

scour and deposition, or by changes in effective boundary roughness as well as by changes in discharge. 

Streams in cohesive bank materials change primarily 

by flowing at different depths in a channel determined 

by previous discharges.

The value of m, velocity exponent, for the White 

River was 0.27, which was not materially different 

from the 0.34 average of the Southwestern streams 

data but differed considerably from the value of 0.55 

for Brandywine Creek.

According to Leopold and Maddock (1953, page 9),

'Leopold and Miller (1956): ephemeral streams, sandy bed, silty clay banks, 

adjust at low flows. Q=0.15-800 cfs.

« Unadjusted median values (Leopold and Miller, 1956 p. 15).

' Wolman and Brush (1961): flume channels, uniform sand in bed and banks, 

adjust readily to equilibrium.

Width and depth for a given discharge vary widely from one 

cross section to another, and therefore, the intercept values of 

a, c, and k, [the values at a discharge of 1 cfs] will vary. Further 

work is necessary to determine the factors which govern these 

variations and to determine the extreme limits.

A comparison of these intercepts, computed from 

the studies listed in table 1, may allow insight into 

their significance. The value of the parameter a for 

White River channels is 4.0. That is, a width of about 

4 feet was measured for channels with a discharge of 

1 cfs. A similar value can be determined by projection 

of the line of the graph (fig. 8) for White River channels 

of much higher discharges. Other intercepts for White 

River channels are mean depth c, 0.22 foot, and mean 

velocity k, 1.1 feet per second.

The corresponding values for discharges of 1 cfs for 

Southwestern streams are: width, 26 feet; depth, 0.15 

foot; and velocity, 0.26 foot per second. Intercepts 

for Brandywine Creek, averaged from values projected 

from discharges of 30 cfs or less, are width 54 feet, 

depth 0.23 foot, and velocity 0.1 foot per second.

It is apparent that a width of 26 feet, and especially 

one of 54 feet, is unrealistic for a discharge of 1 cfs. 

The extremely low values of velocity, 0.1 to 0.26 foot 

per second, are those of a stream incapable of moving 

any of its bed or bank materials. The Brandywine 

Creek data would seem to indicate that the extreme 

values of width and velocity cannot be explained entirely by error introduced through extrapolation, since 

the extrapolation is not large, but reflect instead the 

failure of the channel to adjust to small discharges.

It is interesting to note that the intercept values 

for ephemeral streams (Leopold and Miller, 1958) 9 

feet wide, 0.1 foot deep, with a velocity of 1 foot per 

second, show neither extreme widths nor extremely 

small velocities, but present a picture of a stream
(MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A15

able to transport material and determine its channel 

shape at discharges near 1 cfs.

If stream channels adjust readily to changes in discharge as do White River channels, then there is no 

reason to expect a difference between at-a-station and 

downstream relations. Wolman and Brush (1961, 

table 5) found that there was no difference for channels 

in noncohesive materials where the materials were at 

or above the point of incipient motion. A comparison 

based on this conclusion is made in table 1 between 

White River data, flume data, and data from other 

stream systems.

The values (table 1) of the intercepts a, c, and k 

for White River (at-a-station) were 4.0, 0.22, and 1.1; 

the exponents, b, /, and ra, were 0.38, 0.33 and 0.27. 

These values are similar to the ranges in downstream 

values of a, 1.1-7; c, 0.1-0.9; and k, 0.6-1.8 and the 

ranges of *6, 0.33-0.57; /, 0.28-0.52; and m, 0.03-0.22 

for the other streams discussed. This much greater 

similarity for all types of channels represents adjustment in all cases. In White River, ephemeral, and 

flume channels it represents adjustment to changing 

discharge in short reaches of the stream, and in the 

other streams it represents adjustment to the mean 

annual or larger discharges, which increase downstream.

A more realistic picture, at least in the case of streams 

in cohesive materials, is given by the evaluation of 

width, depth, and velocity at a discharge of frequent 

occurrence. Table 1 contains a summary of the values 

obtained for the intercepts and the average or median 

values of width, depth, and velocity at a discharge 

of 100 cfs. Brandywine Creek, with a discharge of 

100 cfs, has average values of 67 feet for width, 1.5 

feet for depth, and 1.3 feet per second for velocity. 

The White River has an average width of 24 feet, a 

depth of 1.0 foot, and a velocity of 4.2 feet per second 

at a discharge of 100 cfs. White River channels, in 

coarse noncohesive materials, have been shown to be 

narrower and slightly shallower and to have much 

higher velocities than the channels of Brandywine 

Creek, with cohesive bank materials. The higher 

velocities in White River channels, which are due to 

the high slope, permit smaller cross-sectional areas to 

carry the same flows.

SHAPE

Individual elements of the cross-sectional shape of 

White River channels have been described in the preceding section in relation to the flow that produced 

that shape. The shape of the channel cross section8 

now will be illustrated and the elements of shape 

compared by considering the width-depth ratio and a 

shape factor.

Width-depth ratio. Width-depth ratio that is, the 

ratio of top width to mean depth may be a more 

useful and valid criterion for comparison of individual 

channels, as well as comparison of the relation of channel 

shape to bed and bank material, than the consideration 

of regression and intercepts alone. In no instance have 

several channels been lumped for computational purposes, as is sometimes the practice, for it is felt that 

only if channels are treated individually can widthdepth ratios be used to characterize channel shape. 

White River channels have a mean width-depth ratio 

of 23.1 (table 7). The range of width-depth ratios of 

the 112 channels is from 10 to 71, with a standard 

deviation of 9.9.

It has been suggested previously that White River 

channels were readily able to adjust their width, depth, 

and velocity at all the discharges measured. Figure 9 

shows that the mean width-depth ratio for White River 

channels changed less with discharge than did the widthdepth ratio of any of the other streams with which it 

has been compared. The values of width and depth for 

the White River were obtained from figure 8; those for 

the other streams were extrapolated, interpolated, or 

read directly from data provided in the respective 

studies. White River channels differ from those of 

other rivers not only in the constancy of width-depth 

ratios but also in their relatively small value. The high 

width-depth ratio for the other types of streams at discharges of 10 cfs or less is to be expected because these 

flows are unusually low for these streams and the flows 

occupy a channel developed at much higher discharges.

Shape factor. In addition to the use of width-depth 

ratio for comparison of channels, one might use as a 

shape factor the ratio of maximum depth to mean 

depth. Considerations of geometry show that a triangular channel would have a shape factor of 2; a 

parabolic channel, 1.5; and a rectangular channel, 1.0. 

The mean shape factor for White River channels is 

1.62, and the standard deviation is 0.26. That is, 

although most cross sections are nearly parabolic, some 

tend to be triangular. This relation seems to hold for 

channels of all sizes. As maximum depths have not 

been reported in the other publications listed in table 1, 

a comparison with other types of streams cannot be 

made. Only with further use can the value of this 

shape factor as an indicator of channel shape be estimated. It must be recognized, however, that a shape 

factor of 1.5 is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition 

to prove that a channel is parabolic in cross section. 

Although it is possible that a variety of weird cross sections could have a shape factor of 1.5, it is probable 

that a channel in alluvial materials that has such a 

shape factor is nearly parabolic.
Al 6 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

240

Channel Width-depth ratios at d ischarges (cfs) of

10 100 

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET FFR SECOND

1000

FIGURE 9. Relation of average width-depth ratios to discharge. Channel type numbers refer to table 1 footnotes, where channels are described.

Figure 10 illustrates the manner in which shape factor 

and width-depth ratio represent the shape of some White 

River channels. Neither width-depth ratio nor shape 

factor indicates the irregularity of the cross section.

MODE OF CHANGE

The rapid adjustment to increasing flow and therefore 

increasing bed load in non-cohesive materials appears to 

take place by increasing width and depth in the following manner. The initial channel widens and may even 

grow shallower, until at some point the critical tractive 

force is less than that necessary for transport of the 

bed load. The material deposited causes further widening and a decrease in the tractive force. Deposition or 

cutting of adjacent channels eventually brings the bar 

above water, resulting in the development of two 

channels similar in shape to the original channel but 

adjusted to the higher flow condition. Additional flow 

repeats the sequence of events in either or both of the 

new channels.

Adjustment of the White River channel shape at low 

discharges takes place by both erosion and deposition

With decreasing discharge, the adjustment might take 

place as follows:

1. The bed load decreases sharply.

2. The velocities, especially near the bank, are lower 

due to presence of shallower water at the sides of 

the channels and occasional boulders in the 

channel near the bank. These boulders remain 

after being undermined and dislodged from the 

bank when the surrounding finer materials were 

removed by velocities incapable of moving the 

boulders. As a result of these lower velocities, 

deposition of the coarser fraction of the suspended 

load takes place at the sides of the channel.

3. At the same time, velocities remain high enough to 

permit scour in the center part of the channel as 

the depth decreases with the decreasing discharge. 

The result is that similar channel shapes are possible for widely different discharges, whether 

increasing or decreasing.

Wolman and Brush (1961) noted that in flume 

channels, at a constant slope and with a constant introduction of load at the same rate that material was being
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON

.Horizontal reference line

A17

^

Channel 81; n/:c/=22; shape factor^ 1.3; F=0.94

Horizontal reference line

Channel 82; n/:c/=20; shape factor^ 1.9; = 1.27

Channel 26 w.d-5Q; shape factor^ 2.2; F=0.85

Channel 55; w.d=l8; shape factor= 1.5; F=0.61

Channel 41; w.d=\&, shape factor= 1.5; F=0.81

Channel 45; w.d 2\\ shape factor=1.2;

5

F=0.79

10 FEET

FIGURE 10. Cross sections of several White River channels showing width-depth ratio, shape factor, and Froude number. Water surface assumed level 

except in upper cross sections of channels 81 and 82; maximum difference in water surface elevation: channel 81, 0.6 foot; channel 82, 0.6 foot.
A18 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

-Horizontal reference line

A.

Horizontal reference line

High- water marks

7%. High-water marks

B.

I I I J__I

10 FEET

I

FIGURE 11. Cross sections of White River channels showing adjustment to load and discharge. A, Main channel of White River at cross section 7, July 7,1958; dashed 

lines show cross section l hour later. P, Cross section of a channel to the right of the main channel between cross sections 6 and 7, July 16,1959; dashed line indicates 

the same cross section on July 25,1959.

transported out of the reach, the adjustment to a discharge larger than the initial channel could accommodate 

was primarily by widening, with little or no change in 

depth. Figure 11 shows several cross sections where a 

similar process appears to have operated in White River 

channels. In the channel at cross section 7, where a 

large bed load was noted, the rate of widening at one 

point was so great that the rodman asked the instrument man to hurry his shots, as the bank for a period 

was receding faster than the rodman was approaching.

WATER-SURFACE SLOPE, HYDRAULIC ROUGHNESS, 

AND FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

The water-surface slopes, in White River channels 

with discharges greater than 10 cfs, range from about 

0.01 to 0.08 foot per foot. The greater variation in the 

slopes of smaller channels was due, at least in part, to 

the difficulty of measuring small differences in elevation 

over the short reaches in which these small channels 

were relatively uniform in character.

Figure 10, showing some of the channel cross sections, 

illustrates one of the difficulties encountered in making 

accurate measurements of slope. The water surface, 

because of the type of flow in most White River channels, is neither flat nor horizontal normal to the direction of flow, making it difficult to estimate the average 

water-surface elevation at any point along the channel. 

Two estimates of elevation were included in every 

measurement of water-surface slope.

The uneven water surfaces shown in figure 12 and 

channels 81 and 82, figure 10, are characteristic of channels in which the Froude number, FIGUBK 12 Standing waves in a White River channel.

is approximately 1 or larger. At a Froude number of 

1.0, the transition to shooting flow takes place (Robertson and Rouse, 1941; Chow, 1959, page 13). Many of 

the White River channels have Froude numbers which 

approach 1.0 (table 7). It must be noted that the 

other channels are shown in figure 10 with an even 

water surface only because the cross sections were 

drawn assuming a horizontal water surface.

The Froude number for the main anabranches of 

braided reaches ranged from about 0.8 to 1.5, most 

being greater than 0.9. Froude numbers for single 

channels containing the entire flow of the river, and 

with few exceptions for smaller anabranches with discharges larger than 10 cfs, ranged from 0.5 to 0.9. The
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A19

high Froude numbers associated with the main channels 

of braided reaches are thought to reflect their relative 

instability.

Other flow phenomena, such as antidunes and extremely rough water, are discussed in the section on 

transport and may be seen in figures 27 and 28.

TRANSPORTATION, EROSION, AND DEPOSITION ON 

THE VALLEY TRAIN

CHARACTER OF THE SOURCE MATERIALS

The original source of the materials now being transported and deposited by the White River was the highly 

diverse bedrock of the area, described briefly in the 

section on geology. From 1957 to 1959, however, the 

stream did not flow on bedrock at any point from its 

source at the glacier terminus to a point several miles 

below the gage. The materials transported by the 

river consisted of supraglacial, englacial, and subglacial 

debris. Although the stream had some load before it 

issued from the glacier, most of its load was derived by 

erosion of morainic debris, mudflow deposits, and earlier 

valley-train deposits in the reach immediately below the 

glacier. These deposits range widely in form, credibility, and size distribution. Their areal distribution can 

be seen in figures 1 and 13.

MORAINIC DEBRIS

Dense till and loose debris, the result of the two 

modes of deposition, compose the morainic debris. The 

dense till, which stands in vertical walls up to 15 feet 

high, has been compacted by the weight of overriding 

ice. The author saw no ice beneath this till, which 

may be the lodgment till described by Flint (1957, p. 

120). In most places the dense till is overlain by loose 

debris deposited from melting ice. Where still underlain by melting ice this loose debris shifts continually 

and rolls easily underfoot (fig. 14). The ablation 

debris mantles both the active snout and the stagnant 

ice of the glacier and forms the medial and lateral 

moraines. Both the dense till and the loose debris are 

composed of materials from clay size to occasional 

boulders as large as 10 feet in intermediate diameter, 

but material of the dense till appears to be more 

rounded than the angular ablation debris. The supraglacial ablation deposits are characterized by irregular 

topography. Locally they appear to have been sorted. 

Occasionally material of one size predominates, as in 

some pockets of coarse boulders that contain no fine 

materials; apparently continual shifting due to the 

melting of underlying ice has "sifted out" the fines. 

Walking in such areas is treacherous, owing to the 

delicate balance of some of the large boulders and the 

large spaces between them. Within this loose morainic

EXPLANATION

Ice tunnel 

Edge of valley train

Debris-covered stagnant 

ice or ablation moraine

Valley train, mudflows, 

and till are in places 

underlain by ice

6OO

EMMONS GLACIER

Base mapped in July, 1958 

0

CONTOUR INTERVAL 20 FEET 

DATUM IS ARBITRARY

FIGUKE 13. Distribution of deposits on and near the White River valley train.

debris there are occasional small patches of bedded 

deposits. Ablation debris stands at what must be its 

normal angle of repose in banks cut by the stream. In
A20 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

**-r^;^~

r * v » ;_4

< T ;3 . «PJ«!«,»-, *r

J4V- \,, **- . JMc

FIGURE 14. Tills. Ablation moraine underlain by till compacted by overriding ice.

contrast to the dense till, the ablation debris offers very 

little resistance to stream erosion.

MUDFLOW DEPOSITS

The extent and character of mudflow deposits in the 

area are indicative of rainfall of high intensity or long

duration, during which the steep faces of stagnant ice 

were washed clean and large amounts of morainic 

debris fell, slumped, or flowed from the ice. This 

movement was evidently concentrated in amphitheatrelike basins, from which the debris-laden mud 

flowed onto moraine and valley-train deposits, forming 

fans that were often truncated by stream erosion. 

Minor mudflows also occurred during periods of intense 

melting.

Mudflow deposits (figs. 15-19) are dense and unsorted 

and usually occur in fans composed of a series of flows. 

The top part of each flow is sorted material usually of 

sand size. Levees and boulder fronts (figs. 18, 19, and 

38) are surficial features similar to those described by 

Sharp (1942), and Sharp and Nobles, (1953). The 

levees are depositional features thought to have formed 

when coarse debris at the sides of the flow lost mobility 

while material in the center of the flow continued. The 

height of the levees is usually emphasized by subsequent 

erosion by small streams. The boulder fronts are 

similar to the levees; they were apparently formed 

when coarse materials lost mobility and formed a dam

^^jfagpii^.-y^^satsg^9i^!-:^ia^. ^

' j* s* *** _if^j& i' r i* ' - =*

.* :- * ' / £ -r " -"' * - -

i'. M

v^-irFIGURE 15. Cutbank in mudflow sequence. Note stream deposits at the top of each mudflow layer. The noncohesive materials in the stream deposits have fallen from

between the more cohesive clayey layers.
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A21

in the path of flow, stopping the flow or diverting part 

of it.

FIGURE 16. Detail of cutbank in mudflow sequence.

Most sizes of debris apparently were present in these 

mudflow deposits. Boulders 2 to 3 feet in maximum 

diameter were moved by mudflows about 2 feet deep. 

In the course of the fieldwork, a bank of mudflow 

material 3 feet high, undercut as much as 3 feet by the 

stream, was observed to support the weight of a person 

jumping on it, probably because of the presence of a 

large percent of clay-size material (fig. 17), whereas 

the moraine and valley-train deposits were observed 

not to withstand more than 6 inches to a foot of 

undercutting without collapsing under their own weight.

In places the wind had moved the finer fraction of 

stabilized mudflow and morainic deposits and produced 

deflation pavements and small drifts or dunes. Where 

there was shifting of the supraglacial materials as a 

result of melting, a new supply of fine debris was 

continually brought to the surface. Gusty winds

FIGURE 18. Mudflow truncated in foreground by stream. Note ice faces in wall 

of amphitheater in background, coarse material in levees, boulder fronts on surface 

of mudflow to the right rear of man.

FIGURE 17. Mudflow deposit. This material stands although undercut as much

as 3 feet. FIGURE 19. Boulder front on surface of mudflow shown in figures 15 and 16.
A22 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

reworked these materials and produced 

"dust devils" and occasional dust clouds.

numerous

VALLEY-TRAIN DEPOSITS

Valley-train materials provide a source of load to the 

stream throughout its length. Much of the material 

deposited downstream from the junction of East and 

West Emmons Creeks had previously been eroded 

from valley-train deposits upstream. Because such 

deposits are also a source of material, they are discussed 

here in relation to the other source materials, although 

the size of the materials in the valley train is discussed 

in detail in the section on pebble counts.

The valley-train materials are as large as 3 feet in 

diameter and are angular to subrounded. The fine 

gravel and smaller sizes show little rounding. Bedding can^usually not be traced for more than a few feet 

(figs. 20, 21). Sand carried by the stream fills most 

interstices between the coarser particles as soon as the 

coarse particles come to rest. In places coarge particles 

appear to be widely scattered at the surface because 

the most recent streams on the surface were small ones 

which deposited fine materials, burying the coarser 

deposits of earlier streams (fig. 22). Even with such 

burial, coarse materials invariably occur close to the 

surface if not on the surface at any point.

Hjulstrom (1935, p. 326-327) suggested that empirical 

data show that a 10-cm-diameter particle can be transported by a stream without erosion over a bed of silt 

and clay or over a bed of material 3 to 4 cm in diameter 

and larger, but not over material ranging from 0.0001 

to 4 cm. A 5-cm particle could be transported over 

silt and clay, and materials 2 cm and larger, but not 

over material from 0.0001 to 2 cm. He concluded that

FIGURE 20. Cutbank in valley train. Note concentration of fine debris at surface. 

Vertical bank is due to stream erosion of materials with apparent cohesion.

FIGURE 21. Cutbank in valley train. Note poised boulders, a possible lag concentration at surface. Mixing of sizes is apparent in the top of the sandy layer halfway up the bank. Bedding is limited in its horizontal extent.

it would be unusual to find such coarser materials on 

top of the finer ones noted and suggested:

Should this be the case, two alternatives appear:

1. The coarser material was not brought there by running water. 

In this case there may be a clearly denned contact surface.

2. The coarser material was brought there by a stream which 

eroded away the finer material, but had no time to erode it 

away entirely before the velocity of the water diminished 

and deposition occurred. There is a border zone where 

the two kinds of material are mixed.

Evidence of the correctness of Hjulstrom's conclusions is offered by figures 15-22. Figures 15-19 show 

mudflow deposits from the stagnant ice adjacent to the 

valley train. Figure 15 shows large boulders deposited 

immediately above undisturbed thinly bedded sands, 

which could not have been done by running water. 

Figure 20, a typical valley-train deposit, shows concentration of fine materials only at the top, although fines 

are mixed throughout the rest of the deposit. Figure 

21 shows the mixed border zones mentioned in 

alternative 2 above.

The nearly vertical cutbanks of valley-train deposits, 

to 10 feet in height, demonstrate an apparent cohesion 

yet may give way when a person steps-close to the 

edge. After drying, the banks lose this ability to 

stand vertically and assume an angle of repose. Drying 

rarely occurs, however; the gravel is usually damp 

within a few inches of the surface. After a few humid 

cloudy days without precipitation, the surface of the 

valley train becomes darkened by moisture thought to 

be the result of decreased evaporation at the surface.
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A23

FIGURE 22. Small stream depositing fines which bury coarser deposits. Note antidunes.

At times, drops of water are actually seen on the surface 

of the material. It is thought that this moisture is 

either brought to the surface by capillary action or 

results from condensation. Deposits of a white substance which tastes somewhat like sodium bicarbonate 

form on rocks lying on the wettest areas of the valley 

train, suggesting that capillary action is present.

Cohesion due to the moisture in the deposits appears 

to be weakened by the addition of more water. Bank 

erosion is thus due, at least in part, to the saturation of 

a "cohesive" bank by the wash of a wave; material is 

left overhanging until it caves. The rate of bank 

erosion appears to depend on the saturation of vertical 

banks as well as the vigor of attack by the current.

ANALYSES OF PARTICLE SIZE

Size analyses of the three types of materials help to 

explain the differences in appearance, erodibility, and 

stability. The results, while based on a few samples, 

suggest that analysis of the finer sizes could be quite 

helpful in determining the mode of deposition of 

materials of questionable origin.

SIEVE ANALYSES

With the exception of the valley-train materials, two 

sieve analyses of the finer fraction (less than 53 mm or 

2.1 inches) of each of the three types of source material 

showed no consistent differences. The valley-train 

deposits were deficient in the smaller sizes. Analyses 

by Richard Arnold (written communication) of the 

fraction less than 2 mm in size of one sample of the 

valley train and one of the mudflow, using a combined 

sieve analysis and bottom-withdrawal tube method, led 

him to conclude that the stream deposit showed a 

washing out of silt and clay size materials. He found 

that 40 percent of the mudflow material was silt and 

clay (less than 0.105 mm) as opposed to 10 percent of 

the valley-train material.

These results help to explain why dry moraine and 

mudflow materials when disturbed are much dustier 

than the valley-train materials. In addition, small 

clear streams emerge at various points on the valley 

train some from kettles developed in the valley train 

and others from springs in abandoned channels 
A24 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

whereas small streams from ice faces and mudflow areas 

are usually very muddy.

PEBBLE COUNTS

Size changes with distance from the glacier were 

observed in the valley-train materials. To measure 

these changes by sieve analysis was impractical because 

of the large samples that would have been required 

because of the coarseness of the materials. Pebble 

counting was adopted as the most rapid and accurate 

method of measurement. By means of pebble counts 

size classifications were made of randomly selected 

particles from the surface of the deposits, in order to 

develop size-distribution curves. For a detailed discussion of the technique used, see Wolman (1954).

Pebble counting demonstrated a systematic decrease 

in median diameter of the valley-train materials with 

distance from the source. Sampling at each cross section was limited to the area that appeared to have the 

coarsest materials at the surface, because very small 

streams, present almost everywhere on the valley train 

at some time during the summer, tended to bury the 

coarser deposits thought to be more characteristic of 

the load of the main channel (fig. 22). The sample 

sites were selected near the center of the valley train 

in order to minimize the effects of local bank erosion 

of coarser materials. Sizes less than 4 mm in diameter were not differentiated, and this size class is shown 

in table 2 only to indicate the percentage of area covered by finer material. Comparisons are, thus, based 

on the fraction greater than 4 mm in diameter.

The range in median diameter of samples was from 

180 mm to 120 mm (0.59 to 0.39 foot) in table 2. A 

median diameter of 180 mm was found for material 

sampled near cross section 2 on a valley slope of 0.11 

foot per foot, 2,350 feet below the glacier, whereas a

TABLE 2. Size distribution of valley-train materials 

[Percentages and "Dso, ~Dts, and Dvs are based on samples more than 4 mm in size]

Miles 

from 

source

Valley 

slope 

(ft/ft)

Percent in size range (mm)

From..

TO .

4 

8

8 

16

16 

32

32 

64

64 

128

128 

256

256 

512

512 

1024

1024+ <4

Dso 

(mm)

D25 

(mm)

D75

(mm) Location

White River between Emmons Glacier and moraine

0

.36

.43

.64

.83

.95

1.12

1.23

0.20

.20

.11

.075

.05

.04

.03

.03

0

or

1

1

2

1

1

0

0

2

0

3

4

1

0

6

4

14

16

1Q

7

12

10

IQ

16

16

20

91

15

25

14

QC

25

QO

Qf\

29Q»7

47

Qo

29

22

24

00

oc

1^

11

5

6

4

5

2

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

4

8

8

11

10

43

180

177

180

175

165

145

125

120

71

95

106

77

71

94

40

73

300

270

270

270

255

200

188

160

Cross section 2.

White River below moraine

1.7

2.2

4.5

14.8

24.8

28.4

0.066

.055

.018

.018

.027

.0085

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

1

5

0

2

4

5

g

15

5

10

12

97

07

55

KO

29

47

oo

43

55

QQ

19

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

10

4

21

3

25

210

1 t\f\

130

105

115

143

150

Q4

84

73

83

94

320

230

215

130

155

185

Just below moraine.

Near lumber company gate.

Below West Fork River junction.

West Fork White River below Winthrop Glacier

7.5

14.0

0.024

.020

1

0

0

0

5

1

20

00

Q-|

54

41

21

2

1

0

0

0

0

4

2

110

on

62

64

165

125

Below end of road.

Carbon River below Carbon Glacier

0.9

3.5

9.0

0.058

.034

.015

1

0

0

0

6

1

1

5

17

11

1ft

42

34

39

27

41

00

5

4

1

0

0

0

0

10

4

230

160

94

145

91

62

350

250

145

} £ mile above end of road.

Ipsut Creek campground.

Nisqually River below Nisqually Glacier

0

.5

2.8

4.3

0.128

.094

.057

.040

2

7

2

4

4 4

5

11

4

19 20

9*;

QQ

21

OO

IQ

4

1

0

17

11

17

27

Oln

one

1 M

240

140

170

61

130

630

520

360

380

Above Glacier Bridge.

Above Power Plant Bridge.

Longmire campground.
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A25

median diameter of 120 mm was recorded for materials at cross section 12 on a slope of 0.03 foot per foot, 

6,600 feet from the glacier. The change of 60 mm in 

median diameter for the valley-train materials over a 

distance of some 4,200 feet can hardly be explained 

by diminution of the materials by wear. Stream materials batter each other, but a one-third reduction in 

median diameter by this means would seem quite 

unlikely, and this change would strongly suggest that 

selective transport must have produced radical changes 

in size.

In general, the median diameter of the valley-train 

materials decreases with distance below the glacier 

(fig. 23). Increases in median diameters such as those 

at pebble count sites 1.7, 25, and 28 miles downstream 

from the glacier call for a logical explanation. The 

major increase at the 1.7-mile site can be readily 

accounted for by the presence of a new source of 

extremely coarse material in the massive valley-loop 

moraine through which the stream flows 1.2 miles 

below the glacier. An explanation for the size increase 

at the 25-mile locality developed when D. R. Crandell 

(oral communication) reported a previously unknown 

moraine about 17 miles downstream from the Emmons 

Glacier. This suggests that size analysis of valley-train 

materials may offer clues to the presence of moraines. 

Time did not permit investigation of the cause of the

even greater increase in size between the 25- and 28-mile 

sampling sites on the White River or the cause of the 

increase in median diameter at the 4.3-mile locality 

on the Nisqually River.

The relation between median diameter of material 

and valley slope shown in figure 24 demonstrates that 

slope decreases very rapidly with decreasing median 

diameter.

Both the Carbon and the Nisqually Rivers have 

histories of frequent and destructive floods. On the 

Nisqually River the average intermediate diameter of 

the 10 largest boulders deposited on and near the 

Glacier Bridge parking lot by the 1955 flood was 9 

feet; one maximum diameter was 24 feet. Such 

extremely coarse deposits were avoided in sampling, but 

it is apparent from the scatter of points for the Nisqually 

River that in selecting pebble-count sites some of 

these deposits were included. A much more extensive 

and systematic sampling would be necessary to 

characterize these streams.

The relation between transportation, declivity, and 

discharge discussed at length by Gilbert (1877) has 

been summarized by Lane (1955b, p. 6) in the form of 

the proportionality.

where Qs and Qw are quantity of sediment and water,

Carbon River

I 

New source of material

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.8 1 23 5 

DISTANCE FROM GLACIER, IN MILES

FIGURE 23. Relation of size of material to distance below glacier.
A26 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

.^o

.2

.1 

.09

HR

8 'u;

li f\c

{£.

U

Q- .05

u 

u

li f\A

z

UJ 

Q.

g .03 

</)

.02

0.01

/

/

/'

1

X

/

8 /

/

in

/

^j

/

/ T

T

0 0 

Line is White Riv

0

.

/

/*

O

T

 0 

er above me

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O

>raine

60 70 80 90 100 200 300 

MEDIAN DIAMETER, IN MILLIMETERS

400

SYMBOL LOCATION RELATIVE 

DISCHARGE

X

O

O 

A

West Emmons Creek 

White River above moraine Q 

White River below moraine Q +

White River below junction 2Q 

with West Fork River 

West Fork White River Q 

T Carbon River 

0 Nisqually River

FIGURE 24. Relation of size of material to slope.

respectively, d is particle diameter or size of sediment, 

and s is the slope of the stream.

At any given time, at all points in the reach of the 

White River between the junction of East and West 

Emmons Creeks and the gage, it can be assumed that 

the discharge (Q) is approximately the same, because 

the contribution from the stagnant ice is small. From 

the proportionality above, a change in slope should

bring about a corresponding change in size of sediment 

or quantity of sediment or both. Measurements of 

erosion and deposition (figs. 36, 37, tables 4 and 5) revealed 

no location or slope at which there was always erosion or always deposition; thus, it is necessary to look for a change 

in particle size to keep the proportionality balanced. 

Figure 24 shows that for the White River in the reach 

above the moraine the slope varied approximately as 

the square of the particle size.

The slope of the White River (with its greater discharge, 2<2) below the mouth of the West Fork White 

River is far less than would be predicted from the 

relation between slope and intermediate diameter for 

the smaller discharge of the White River above the 

moraine. The values of slope for West Emmons Creek

(

- I above its confluence with East Emmons Creek are 

2/ 

higher than for an area with similar-sized material and

higher discharge below the junction.

If one accepts the hypothesis of Wolman and Miller 

(1960) that the dominant process is one that occurs 

with sufficient frequency and magnitude to cause most 

of the changes observed and is neither the frequent 

event, which is less than the threshold value, nor the 

infrequent catastrophic event, the slope-forming discharge lies between 200 and 500 cfs. These discharges 

are clearly capable of modifying not only the channels 

in which they flow but of changing the elevation of the 

valley train and transporting all sizes of materials 

present, and they occur with sufficient frequency 

(hydrograph fig. 50) to determine the form and slope 

of the valley train.

TEANSPOETATION OP BED LOAD

METHODS OF MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSES OF DATA

Because of its high velocities and turbulence, White 

River carries a large volume of debris in the form of 

bed and suspended load.

The attempts to measure both the amount and the 

size of the materials in the bed load proved to be 

rugged sport. The device used to trap samples as 

they moved along the bed (fig. 25) consisted of a screen 

or sieve with a wooden frame. Legs were added later 

(fig. 29) so that the screen and its load could be rocked 

back out of the water. In fast deep water with large 

quantities of materials in motion, a coarse screen with 

0.175-foot (53-mm 2) openings was used because it was 

easier to handle in the current and did not immediately 

become clogged with the smaller size fraction of the 

bed load. With lower velocities and depths and 

smaller quantities of material, a finer screen with 0.05- 

foot (15-mm) openings was used. Where the bottom

2 This size was an expedient determined by the coarsest chicken wire that could be 

purchased in the nearest town.
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A27

FIGURE 25. Sampling bed load with screen. Sample is from the antidune phase of 

transportation.

was rocky it was difficult to be sure that material was 

not being swept under the screen. This was a greater 

problem with the finer material trapped by the 0.05- 

foot screen. Velocities at sample sites were measured 

with a current meter or with floats. Often, when a 

sample was trapped, part would be lost in the struggle 

to remove it from the current and bring it to the bank, 

making it necessary to discard the sample. The small 

number of successful measurements of the amount of 

bed load (table 8) indicates the difficulties encountered. 

The method showed promise, and with better equipment 

and concentrated effort, much additional information 

on bed-load transportation might be obtained.

Figure 26 shows the extremely rough water associated with quantities of coarse bed load moving in a 

shallow channel with rough bottom. This is thought 

to be shooting or supercritical flow, for it shoots into the 

air over the top of obstacles instead of flowing around 

them. The boulders battering each other in such a 

reach make a terrific din and shake the ground for as 

much as 15 feet back from the bank. This shaking 

occasionally dislodges material poised on the banks. 

If one overcomes his awe of the noise, these rough,

FIGURE 26. Large load moving over rough bed in shallow channel. Note flow over

boulders.

shallow reaches can be waded more easily than those 

that are quieter, but deeper and swifter.

During the measurements of amount of bed load, 

its movement was observed to be discontinuous both in 

position in the channel and in time. Only at the 

highest discharges were large quantities of material in 

motion. Occasionally the materials could be traced to 

nearby bank erosion, but usually the source of the material was not readily apparent. With the exception of 

the measurements made on the troughs and crests of 

one set of antidune ripples, no conclusions as to the 

amount of bed-load movement were drawn because of 

the scarcity of data.

ANTIDUNES

The antidune phase of transportation has been described by Langbein (1942, p. 618), who in analyzing 

data from Gilbert's flume experiments concluded that:

* * * the effect of sediment-load (particularly the finer sizes) 

is to decrease the amount of kineticity required for the formation 

of sand waves. According to Strickler, the Chezy friction-coefficient C varies as (R/d) 1 '6 where R is the hydraulic radius and 

d is the median diameter of the bed material. Hence critical 

slope varies as (d/R) 1/3 and is reduced by fines and increased hydraulic radius. Accordingly, sand waves would be expected 

 to be frequent flood-adjuncts under conditions of steep slopes 

and fine sediments * * *.

Langbein's conclusion that the occurrence of antidunes is favored by the presence of fine materials is 

borne out by the observations along White River. 

Gilbert (1914, p. 32) noted however "Where the debris 

is very coarse, as in the outwash plains of glaciers, a 

din of clashing boulders is added to the roar of the 

water." Although in transport phases other than antidune a similar din was heard on the White River (fig. 

26), the boulders transported in the antidune phase 

were rolling silently on a bed of sand.
A28 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

Antidunes were observed when discharge increased 

markedly in a channel with predominantly sandy bed 

materials. Measurements of velocity, depth, slope, 

wavelength, size, and amount of the coarse fraction of 

bed load were made for the set of antidunes shown in 

figures 25 and 27-29 (table 8). Combing of the crests, mentioned by both Pierce (1917) and Gilbert (1914), is 

shown by the downstream dunes (fig. 27).

The average of three float velocities taken over a 

100-foot reach exhibiting antidunes was 9.4 feet per 

second; a mean velocity of about 8.2 feet per second. 

Depths for troughs were found to differ consistently 

with those for crests. The average of 23 depth measurements made in troughs was 0.9 foot, the range 

from 0.6 to 1.0 foot. The average depth of 22 crest 

measurements was 1.2 feet, the range from 0.9 to 1.6

feet. Using a depth of 1 foot as the average over the 

reach in which the velocity was measured, the Froude 

number equals 1.45, clearly in the range of supercritical 

flow. The difference in depth between trough and 

crest is thought to result from: (a) a piling up of the 

water due to convergence of flow in the plan view, at 

the crests, and (b) the increase in depth over a rise in 

the channel bottom that occurs with supercritical flow 

(Rouse, 1946). The slope, measured using a steel tape 

and hand level, was 0.012 foot per foot lower than 

average for this valley train. For other evidence of 

the nature of the flow see the piling up of the water 

against the observer in figure 28. Amplitudes of the 

dunes observed were as much as 1 foot; wavelengths 

averaged about 8 feet.

FIGURE 27. Antidunes showing combing of crests on downstream dunes. Flow is FIGURE 28. Measurement of amplitude and wavelength of antidunes. Yardsticks 

from left foreground to right background. used for scale.

Trough Crest Trough

Note apparent convergence 

of flow at crests

^Relative amounts of sampl 

caught in 12 seconds

FIGURE 29. Longitudinal cross section and plan view of antidunes shown In figures 25, 27, and 28.
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A29

Two samples were taken of the load, one on the 

crest of a dune, the other in the trough. The samples 

consisted of that material which did not pass through a 

15-mm (0.05-foot) mesh screen. As one would expect 

from a type of sandwave that exhibits scour on the 

downstream side and deposition on the upstream, the 

rates of transport for trough and crest differed. The 

rates of transport of pebbles and cobbles were about 50 

pounds per minute per foot width for the trough and 

about 20 pounds for the crest, based on 12-second 

sample periods. Such short sample periods can give 

only an estimate of the amount of material in motion. 

The difference of about 30 pounds would represent 

material deposited on the front of the dune and the 

20 pounds in transport on the crest would represent 

material being carried through the reach. Because 

material is carried through the section without stopping, 

the rate of movement of antidunes cannot be used to 

estimate the amount of material in transport as bed 

load, as is sometimes done in the case of dunes and 

ripples. (Simons and others, 1961.)

The median diameter of material greater than 0.05 

foot in diameter for the trough sample was 27 mm, 

that for the crest sample was 24 mm. This small 

difference determined from only one set of samples is 

not significant. Most of the material in transport was 

thought to be sand.

Often the antidunes appeared to remain stationary 

or to move only a foot or two upstream before dying 

out and being replaced by a new set Measurements of 

the rate of movement were not made owing to the 

discontinuous nature of the movement, but were 

estimated at 1 to 2 feet per minute.

ANALYSIS OF COMPETENCE OF THE WHITE RIVER

Attempts to measure the largest materials in transport were more successful than attempts to measure 

bed load using the same screens. Some of the largest 

boulders were caught by hand, and if they could not 

be lifted from the water, they were rolled onto bars 

for measurement. Measurements were made of the 

largest boulders deposited on bars and the velocity 

in the channel immediately upstream from these bars. 

The wide range of materials available to White River 

provided an excellent opportunity to measure competence as all sizes at or near the range of competence of 

the stream were readily available. For a summary of 

the size ranges see table 2.

Figure 30 is a graph of the maximum size particle 

moving at a given velocity. Several factors that must 

be kept in mind when using such graphs are: the 

method of velocity measurement, the condition of the 

bed over which the particle was transported, and the 

conditions under which the data were gathered.

Z.U

1.0

.6

.4

.3

.2

0.1

.06

.04 

.03

.02

.008

.006

.004

.003

.002

.001 

0.0008

0.0006

0.0004

0.0003

a 0002

EXPLANATION

Wh te River

_ *

_ Screened; velocity, measured at 0.6

depth with current meter

o

Screened; velocity measured with surface * 8

floats and adjusted to 0.6 depth

 /

Caught on bar; velocity measured with surface / /

floats and adjusted to 0.6 depth . //

 Hjulstrom (1935) ' /

' //

~ Nev

 A

n (1946)

, / / 

^^L

c,<^^ y/ $j^' |/r

- <^ //

- /<§

\ \ \

/Cj

/

/

/

/ /If/>/ //f

1

/f

//

?

1 1 1

*.;

*o 

 jf «#«/

-^f-

»r°

t li

f 1

1

1

\ \

" 1 /

//

^

0-2 0.3 0.5 0.8 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20

VELOCITY, IN FEET PER SECOND

FIGURE 30. Relation of particle size to velocity.

Velocities must not only be accurately measured, but. 

must be comparable, preferably the velocities actually 

impinging on the particle.

Methods used to measure velocity ranged from the 

use of surface floats and current meters to mean velocities based on measurements of cross-sectional area of 

flow and discharge. Most of the values for White 

River point velocities were obtained by measurements 

with a Price type-A current meter set at 0.6 depth 

(normal setting for average velocity in a vertical section 

of a shallow turbulent stream). These current-meter 

velocities for White River were taken over a period 

of 20 seconds or a little more, about the practical 

maximum for the shifting channels being measured. 

As the greatest depth for any velocity observation was 

2.1 feet, the maximum setting of the current meter 

was 0.8 foot from the bottom. As the particles in 

transit were up to 1.8 feet in intermediate diameter, 

the velocities measured were those in the immediate
A30 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

vicinity of the moving particle in question. When 

current-meter measurements of point velocity could 

not be made, surface floats (inflated paper bags ballasted with sand) were used. Their velocities were 

adjusted to 0.6-depth velocities using the formula:

0.6 depth velocity=0.87 X float velocity 

The coefficient of 0.87 was based on 40 measurements 

where both float and current-meter velocities were 

available. The value of 0.87 falls within the usual 

range of 0.85 to 0.95 (Hoyt and Grover, 1916).

The relation of particle size to velocity (figure 30) 

indicates that the boulders from White River were 

moving at lower stream velocities than would be 

predicted from the other data cited. White River data 

show that boulders up to 1.8 feet in intermediate 

diameter moved in currents of about 7 fps. For 

comparison, data that Nevin (1946) selected from 

Gilbert (1914), the U.S. Waterways Experiment Station 

(1935), Rubey (1937), and his own traction-tube 

experiments have been used to define bed velocity 

and critical traction velocity lines shown in> figure 30. 

Projections of these lines intersect at a velocity of about 

9 fps and a particle diameter of about 0.8 feet. It 

appears from White River data that for coarse materials 

the critical traction velocity (velocity measured near 

the bed or mean velocity in shallow flow, Nevin, p. 

665) gives lower velocities and therefore is closer to 

the effective velocity than the bed velocity computed 

with Rubey's formula. The projection of the calculated 

bed-velocity curve is based on the assumption that 

the size of particles in motion is a function of the 

square of the effective velocity (sixth power law).

Parts of Hjulstrom's curves (1935, p. 298) which 

separate the zones of erosion, transportation, and 

deposition are also shown in figure 30. Most data for 

White River boulders in motion plot in the zone of 

deposition that is defined by projections of these 

curves; however, these curves were based on average 

velocity and uniform bed materials.

Hjulstrom's curves, based on Schaffernak's (1922, p. 

14) data for uniform materials from 8 to 70 mm, indicate 

that size is proportional to the 2.6 power of velocity, 

the power found by Nevin (1946), who used average 

velocity. Such a line (slope of 2.6) fits the White River 

data better than one with a slope of 2.0 (the "sixth 

power law" expressed in terms of linear dimensions); 

thus, it is suggested that for materials having intermediate diameters larger than 0.1 foot, streams may 

have greater competence than some applications of the 

"sixth power law" would predict.

The White River has larger particles in motion than 

would be predicted by either of the curves shown in 

figure 30 because the measured velocities were transporting and not necessarily eroding velocities. Most experiments related to erosion and traction velocities have 

been made in laboratory flumes with uniform materials 

less than 0.1 foot in diameter, usually sand. The few 

experiments that have been made with mixed grain 

sizes show that the mobility of such materials is quite 

different from that of uniform materials. Gilbert (1914, 

p. 178) stated:

* * * when such hollows are partly filled by the smaller grains its 

[the coarser particle's] position is higher and it can withstand less 

force of current. In other words, the larger particles are moved 

more readily on the smoother bed * * *. The promotion of 

mobility applies not only to the starting of the grain but to its 

continuance in motion.

Ippen and Verma (1953) noted a similar effect of bed 

roughness. Thus because of the large range of particle 

sizes in the bed and banks of White River channels, one 

can expect the erosion of particles larger than those predicted by formulas based on data for uniform materials.

Another factor that must be considered when attempting to determine the significance of the largest boulders 

within a deposit are the methods by which such boulders 

may be set in motion by velocities far less than those 

that would disturb them from a bed composed solely of 

boulders of the same size. Some of these methods have 

not been considered in laboratory experiments. From 

the pictures of the White River source materials (figs. 

14-22) it is obvious that coarse materials are not limited 

to the bed of the stream. Boulders of all sizes are'-poised 

in and on the cutbanks, ready for launching by any current that can erode the finer supporting materials. The 

relative instability of bank materials when compared 

to bed materials is due to the large gravity component 

which tends to make the material roll or slide down the 

bank. This gravity force component acting with force 

of the flow produces a resultant force much larger than 

the force acting on similar materials on the bed. Lane 

(1955a) suggests that the force on the bank materials be 

taken as the limiting force for stable canal design. 

Boulders on the bed may be set in motion by the blows 

from other boulders loosened from the banks. Finer 

materials may be scoured from under boulders setting 

them in motion. Boulders that are not moved from the 

bed on one day may tumble into the stream from the 

cutbank of the next day's channel as a result of the rapid 

cutting and filling that takes place in the White River. 

Illustrations of the rapidity of this change will be given 

in the section on pattern change (fig. 39).

The relation of size (fig. 31) to tractive force is 

similar to the relation of size to velocity as the sampled 

materials were coarser than would be predicted from 

experimental data on uniform materials. Lane's 

(1955a) data on the Z)75 (the diameter for which 75 

percent of the material is smaller) of the material 

through which stable canals were constructed falls in a
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A31

1000

400

v»*

v

i

©

©

.

©

XX

X

X

X

x x

X

X

X

0

X

X

X

X

©

EXPLANATION

Vicksburg Waterways data from Nevin (1946, p. 666)

©

Gilbert data from Nevin (1946, p. 667)

White River data (mean depths)

X

Lane (1955a, fig. 2, p. 1244) D75 of stable

canal-bottom material

1 1 1

100

50

10

0.5

0.1

0.004 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1 

TRACTIVE FORCE, IN POUNDS PER SQUARE FOOT

FIGURE 31. Relation of particle size to tractive force.

line between the tractive forces calculated by Nevin 

(1946) and the White River data, suggesting that the 

total increase in mobility due to presence of mixed 

sizes must be limited.

Studies by White (1940) and by Kalinske (1942) 

emphasized the importance of turbulence in the initiation of motion of particles on the bed of natural streams. 

White (p. 332) stated:

If the turbulence extends up to and into the walls * * * then 

a speed variation of 2 to 1 implies a stress variation of 4 to 1, 

and the maximum drag is four times the mean.

The so called effective velocity and the tractive force 

are only indicators of the degree of turbulence and of 

the probable maximum values of the velocity which 

may impinge upon a particle. Turbulence may well 

play the dominant role in the entrainment of materials
A32 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

so small that channel boundary layer effects are important. Turbulence is probably also quite important in 

the entrainment and transport of coarser materials, 

for the momentum, acquired from threads of current 

with higher velocities, helps the particle to keep moving 

in rough or soft parts of the bed or when the particle 

is under the influence of the slower threads of current. 

It must be noted that because the force exerted is 

proportional to the square of the velocity, the effects 

of the higher-than-average velocities are proportionally greater than the effects of those lower than 

average. The higher the turbulence, the more effective a given mean velocity will be. The White River's 

high turbulence favors high competence.

TRANSPORTATION OF SUSPENDED LOAD

A few suspended-load samples (table 3) were taken 

by using a US DH-48 depth-integrating sampler to 

determine the relative amount and size of the material 

being carried in suspension. Most of the silt and clay 

in suspension is probably carried out of the area studied 

and some of it undoubtedly reaches Puget Sound as the 

"milk" of the White River.

The appearance of the river water varies greatly. 

Rarely during the summer is the river white as there is

TABLE 3. Suspended load of White River, August 1958

Sample No.

1..... -

2.. ......... ..

3.............

4.. 

5 

6*- 

7».. ..........

8-- 

9...-.- ....

10-.- 

11« 

12. . 

13 

14 

15 -. 

16.... 

17.... ___ .

18' 

19... 

20-.. 

21 

22.. ..........

23.... ....

24.... ..

25 

26 - 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31.. .

32 

33 

34.... ..

35-- 

Date

8/19/58

8/19/58

8/19/58

8/19 58

8/1958

8/19/58

8/19/58

8/19/58

8/1958

8/19/58

8/19/58

8/19/58

8/1958

8/19/58

8/22/58

8/22/58

8/22/58

8/25/58

8/28/58

8/28/58

8/28/58

8/28/58

8/28/58

8/28/58

8/28/58

8/28/58

8/28/58

8/28/58

8/28/58

8/28/58

8/28/58

8/28/58

8/28/58

8/28/58

Time

0720

0810

0950

1005

1135

1145

1330

1330

1545

1547

1730

1730

1945

1945

1650

1650

1700

1445

0830

1220

1225

1220

1225

1215

1225

1520

1520

1520

1520

1520

1715

1715

1715

Channel'

1ft

18

17

17

1ft

20

19

19

20

20

19

23

22

46

46

46

46

46

46

47

47

47

47

47

47

AQ

48

48

48

Station 2

54

14

55

14

14

55

55

14

55

14

15

15

21.5

91 <\

27

27

17

22

22

00

28

15

20.5

26

30

Water Temperature (°F)

36.5

36.5

36.5

36.5

38.0

38.0

38.0

38.0

37.5

37.5

36.0

36.0

36.5

35.0

36.0

36.0

36.0

36.0

36.0

36.0

37.0

37.0

37.0

37.0

37.0

37.0

36.0

36.0

36.0

36.0

Depth

(feet)

1.1

1.1

1.35

1.35

1.7

1.7

1.4

1.4

1.4

1.4

1.6

1.6

1.2

1.3

1.6

1.5

Velocity

(fps)

6.02

6.02

4.46

4.46

4.51

4.51

5.96

5.86

5.86

5.86

6.29

6.29

6.97

4.50

5.63

Discharge 

(cfs)»

120

110

180

180

220

240

240

240

270

270

240

240

200

200

320

320

320

700

200

165

165

165

165

165

165

190

190

190

190

190

190

165

165

165

Concentration 

(ppm)

520

687

2,610

1,650

1,860

3,630

2,985

2,360

3,070

3,480

4,049

1,830

2,580

1,030

14,600

15,500

14,100

17,220

989

2,060

2,180

1,410

1,540

1,060

1,260

3,190

4,550

2,680

2,930

2,490

2,720

2,800

2,190

1,910

1,560

1 Sampling done before or after discharge measurement in channel described in 

table 7.

2 Station number refers to a point on the channel cross section.

3 Discharge estimated from gage height record and is given for sum of all channels. 

« Median diameter of 0.13 mm. 

s Median diameter of 0.066 mm. 

8 Median diameter of 0.19 mm. 

7 Median diameter of 0.082 mm.

usually a brownish color to the water and at highest 

flows the river has the appearance of fluid mud. The 

color differences seem to be due to the nature of the 

materials being attacked by the stream at a given time 

combined with the contributions of countless muddy 

rills that flow from the melting stagnant ice. After a 

period of cloudy cool weather the stream becomes milky 

in appearance. On close inspection, grains of sand can 

be seen carried upward in rising threads of current,, 

indicative of the sand being moved along the bottom. 

Such a condition will change with time because the 

amount of sand readily available for traction load 

decreases rapidly as it is removed from around and 

between the coarser particles, armoring the stream 

bottom.

SIZE OF MATERIAL, IN SUSPENSION

When the suspended load is derived primarily from 

valley-train materials, the proportion of finer size is less 

than when moraines or mudflows are the dominant 

source materials. This might well explain the relative 

coarseness of the two samples of fairly low concentration, Nos. 6 and 11 (table 3), which have median diameters of 0.13 and 0.19 mm for concentrations of 3,600 

and 4,000 ppm respectively. The relatively fine median 

diameter of 0.082 for the sample with the highest concentration, No. 18, would seem to indicate the large 

contribution of the tiny muddy rills from the melting ice 

faces. These rills pick up silt, clay, and sand from the 

slumping and flowage of oversaturated ablation moraine 

on the melting stagnant ice. One or 2 days after being 

washed clean by rain the ice faces are covered again with 

a thin film of debris and with dust that is airborne in 

all but the wettest weather. All material picked up 

with the US DH-48 sampler was less than 2 mm in diameter, but in the most turbulent reaches coarser materials are carried in suspension.

CONCENTRATION AND DISCHAROE

Figure 33 shows the relation of sediment concentration to discharge for all the samples taken. Figure 32 

shows the relation of suspended sediment concentration 

to the diurnal fluctuations in discharge for a day of 

moderate flow. The change in sediment concentration 

where the stream was divided into two channels of unequal discharges in shown in figure 34. Approximately 

one-fifth of the total flow is in the smaller channel. The 

samples were taken about 50 feet downstream from the 

point of division. It must be noted that the differences 

in sediment concentrations of samples taken at about 

the same time in large and small channels (fig. 34) are 

about the same magnitude as the variations across the 

channel (fig. 32); thus, the variation could be the result 

of the change hi discharge due to the division, or the
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A33

300

250

O

200

150

100

EXPLANATION

X

Average of sediment concentra 

at a given time

Stations 15-17

A

Stations 20.5-22 

Stations 26-30

Discharge 8 a.m. to 8 p.m. 

Aug. 28, 1958

/

/

\

S

\

tion

s*

 20

of

A 22

"25

 24

1

 27

 26 

X

A 29

§

31 

28 

B 30

1

 32

N A 33 

X

 35 ^

1

\

\

\

1

4500

4000

3500

3000

2500

2000 p 

< 

cc

1500

1000

500

SAM 9 10 11 12 1 23 456 7 8 PM 

FIGTJKE 32. Diurnal variation in suspended sediment concentration with discharge. Stations and sample numbers re fer to table 3.

result of sampling water-sediment mixtures that had 

already been differentiated upstream from the division 

point. Only a much more extensive program of suspended-sediment sampling could define the cause of 

variation in sediment concentration observed in the 

White River. The data and tentative analysis are 

presented here only to indicate the order of magnitude 

of suspended load carried in suspension and some 

possible causes of the variations.

VALLEY-TRAIN ELEVATION CHANGE

The most graphic evidence of the great amount of 

material transported by the White River is the amount 

of erosion and deposition on the valley train itself. 

Measurements of the elevation changes due to erosion 

and deposition can give only minimum figures for transport because much of the material once set in motion 

is carried from the area. Measurements of elevation 

change are used later, in the study of the significance 

of channel pattern and in the study of the conditions 

of equilibrium.

METHODS OF MEASUREMENT

During late August, 1957, cross sections were surveyed across the White River valley train between the

terminus of the Emmons Glacier and its enclosing moraine some 6,600 feet downstream (fig. 35 and table 4). 

These cross sections were surveyed using a transit 

as a level to establish elevation and to determine horizontal distance. The maintenance of horizontal and 

vertical control was a serious problem as both the valley 

train and the moraine were, at least in part, resting 

on stagnant ice. Primary control was set up by surveying level circuits from bench mark 100 (fig. 35), 

established on bedrock at the base of Baker Point, 

both downstream to the gagehouse and upstream to 

bench mark "C." Bench mark "C" (fig. 35) was 

established on bedrock near the channel of West Emmons Creek by the National Park Service for use in 

their studies of Emmons Glacier. During the surveying of the line of levels, the elevations of a series of 

reference points near each cross section were established. 

On subsequent surveys of cross sections, the height 

of instrument, referred to as HI, was established by 

computing an HI from each "known" reference point 

in the vicinity and taking the average of those that 

agreed within a tenth of a foot. Differential settling 

was assumed when the movement was more than 0.1 

foot as the reference points were usually separated by
A34 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

^uwuu

i nnrift

5000

1000

500 

 snn

_

-

-

_

-

1 1 1 1 1 1

A

 11

" .7

D

V

19

.2

 1

1 1 !

 18

MM

30 50 100 500 1000 

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

EXPLANATION 

Average of samples

15-17

V

20-25

26-31

D 

32-35

FIGURK 33. Relation of suspended sediment concentration to discharge. Stations 

and sample numbers refer to table 3.

Ice tunnel 

Edge of valley train

Area for volume estimates

1 West Emmons Creek 

1 East Emmons Creek

EMMONS GLACIER 

Base mapped in July, 1958

300

30 50 100 500 1000

0 500 

I , , , . I

1000 FEET 

__I

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

FIGURE 34. Relation of suspended sediment concentration to discharge 50 feet down 

stream from the division into two channels. Lines connect samples taken at 

same time. Stations and sample numbers refer to table 3.

CONTOUR INTERVAL 20 FEET 

DATUM IS ARBITRARY

FIGURE 35. White River valley train showing locations of cross sections, areas for 

volume estimates, and widening.

20 feet or more. Points showing movement were that reference points could be painted on large boulders

not used. Horizontal control was established by: (a) along the line, and beyond the ends of the line, (c)

driving center stakes; (b) locating cross sections so measuring magnetic azimuths; (d) painting marks on
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIEE, WASHINGTON A35

bedrock high along the right valley wall and building 

cairns along the lateral moraine on the left.

COMPUTATION OF NET ELEVATION AND VOLUME CHANGE

The net elevation change at each cross section during 

a period was determined as follows. Cross-sectional 

areas of erosion and deposition were measured from 

the cross section surveys at the beginning and end of 

the period (table 4; fig. 37) and a mean depth was 

determined by dividing that area by the length of cross 

section over which the areas had been computed. 

The net elevation changes (table 5) are shown graphically in figure 36. These changes do not include the 

erosion that took place as a result of the widening of 

the valley train. The area involved in this widening 

could not be computed because the height of the 

terrace or bank that had been cut away was not 

known. The width of the valley train was measured 

during each survey but could not be considered in 

calculating the net area of change. Attempts were 

made to extend the cross sections beyond the edge of 

the valley train in 1959, after the plotting of the cross 

sections surveyed in 1957 and 1958 showed the importance of this widening. During the 1959 season, however, there was not as much widening as in 1958; so 

the computations for all periods were made using the 

original lengths of the cross sections. This simplification should not have seriously affected the computation 

of net elevation change, as similar elevation changes 

took place on the newly added part of a cross section. 

The changes in length of cross sections are given in 

table 4.

The method used in computing volume of erosion and 

deposition is similar to the, end-area method used by 

surveyors in computing cut and fill. As shown in 

figure 35, the area of valley train measured halfway to 

adjacent cross sections was determined from the planetable map and multiplied by the net elevation change. 

This method allowed computations for the cross sections at the ends of the valley train. The total net 

volume change was divided by the sum of the map 

areas to determine a weighted mean elevation change 

for the whole valley train for each period (table 5).

Checks on the net errors in elevation are provided by 

resurveys of parts of cross sections that had not changed 

and by comparing the net change over several periods 

between surveys with the sum of the net changes for 

each period. The net change for five parts of different 

cross sections (total length of 670 feet), which showed no 

evidence of change, averaged 0.03 foot and ranged from 

+0.12 to 0.13 foot for individual parts. These parts 

where no change had taken place had not been reached 

by the stream during the period; footprints, and marks 

made by the base of the rod, were still present after a 

month or more.

The net elevation change over several periods should 

equal the sum of the changes for the periods. For example, for cross section 3, the elevation changes are 

+ 0.9, +1.9 and 1.0 for periods 1, 2, and 3 (table 5). 

The sum is +1.8, or 0.1 foot less than the +1.9 feet calculated for period 4, the sum of periods 1, 2, and 3. 

Because periods 4, 8, 9, and 10 are composed of periods 

of shorter duration, similar checks are provided for 

all periods at each cross section and for the sum of the

TABLE 4. Cross section survey of the While River valley train, 1957-60

Cross section No. 

(fig. 35)

0 -------- _ ---------

1W.._ .. --..-..

IE - ..- .......

2. - - .. 

3».. ...................

4 __ ..-.---- ......

f>..... ..................

6- ^ -

7 . . ...

10 _-... _.._...___

11 .... -. .-...._

12 _- .. ..

13.... .. .._.

14 ... . ..........

Duration of periods and dates of surveys

Period 10

Period 4 Period 9

Period 8

Period 1 Period 2 Period 3 Period 5 Period 6 Period 7 Period 11

8/ 1/57 

8/28/57

8/22/57 

8/21/57 

8/19/57 

8/20/57 

8/20/57 

8/20/57

7/15/58 

7/15/58

7/15/58 

7/ 2/58 

7/ 7/58 

7/8/58 

71 1/58 

7/ 9/58

8/ 5/58 

8/5/58

8~/ 6/58 

8/ 6/58 

8/ 6/58 

8/ 7/58 

8/ 8/58 

8/ 8/58

9/ 2/58 

9/ 2/58

8729/58 

8/28/58 

8/28/58 

8/25/58 

8/28/58 

8/28/58 

9/ 4/58 

9/ 4/58

71 1/59 

7/ 3/59 

71 1/59 

6/21/59 

6/21/59 

6/21/59 

6/20/59 

6/20/59 

6/20/59 

6/19/59 

6/19/59 

6/19/59

7/26/59 

7/26/59 

7/26/59 

7/25/59 

7/25/59 

7/25/59 

7/24/59 

7/24/59 

7/24/59

8/19/59 

8/19/59 

8/19/59 

8/25/59 

8/25/59

8726/59 

8/26/59 

8/26/59 

8/25/59 

8/25/59 

8/26/59 

8/19/59 

8/20/59

6/ 8/60 

6/10/60 

6/ 8/60 

6/10/60 

6/10/60 

6/10/60 

6/10/60 

6/ 9/60 

6/ 9/60 

6/ 9/60 

6/ 9/60 

6/ 1/60 

6/ 3/60

Valley train

Dimensions

Width 

(feet)

115

162 

182 

240 

290 

300 

425 

435 

440 

290 

360 

170 

151 

400

Slope 

(feet per 

foot)

0.16 

.14 

.16 

.11 

.075 

.06 

.05 

.04 

.04 

.03 

.03 

.03 

.055 

.018

Surface 

area 

(square 

feet)

180,000 

320,000

" 340"566 

200,000 

150,000 

110,000 

110,000 

50,000

Distance 

from 

glacier 

in 1958 

(feet)

13,000 

11,000

1,250

2,350 

3,500 

3,700 

4,500 

5,150 

5,400 

6,000 

6,250 

6,600 

11,600

78,500

Widening (feet)

Period

4

50 

65 

..- .-..

34

74

0 

0

Period 

9

0 

10 

0

a-52 

14 

0 

0 

3-14 

<70 

6 

10 

6

0

1 Approximate distance upstream from cross section 2 is given for 0 and 1W.

2 Narrowing caused by mud flows from adjacent stagnant ice.

8 Cross section 3 also surveyed 7/25/58, periods 2a and 2b, figures 36 and 37. 2a=7/15-25/58 and 2b=7/25-8/5/58.

4 Estimated.
A36 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

TABLE 5. Changes in elevation and volume of the valley train of the White River, 1957 60 

[See table 3 for dates of periods and figure 36 for plot of data for cross sections 2-12. Italic figures show discrepancy as compared to the sum of the individual periods.]

1

10

2

1

3

1

4

(1+2+3) 

12

5

10

6

1

7

1

8

(6+7) 

2

9

(5+8) 

12

10

(4+9) 

24

11

10

Elevation change (feet)

Cross section 

0. __._.._..______.____

1W____. _. ____________

1E_. __________________

2_____________________

3__.-.. _____-__-__---.

4___._ _ _. .....___

5___ ______-____ _

6____. ________________

7___ ___ _- __

10__._. _..__-......___

11. _______________ ____

12. ___._____.._._. ____

13_. ___..-....._.-_.._

14. ___________________

-0.6

-1- Q

+ 1. 1

-1- Q

+ 1.0

+.3

0

+ .5

-0. 1

1 +1. 9

+ .9

+ .1

+ .8

-.3

+ .3

+ .4

-0.2

-1.0

0

-4- Q

-.3

0

0

+ .2

-0.9

+ 1.9

+ 2.0

+ 1.9

+ 1.4

0

4- ^

+ 1.1

+ 0. 5

_ 2

+ .4

+ . 1

+ .9

-.3

-.3

-.2

-0.2

-. 1

+ .4

-. 2

_ 4.

-.3

+ .7

+ .2

-.5

-0.3

-.2

0

-.3

-. 1

+ .1

+ .1

+ .2

+ .7

-1.2

-.5

_ 2

-.4

__ Q

+ .3 - 4

-.5

-. 1

+ .7

+ .8

+ .1

+0.2

-.5

0

-.4

+ .6

+ .3

+ .1

0

0

-.2

-0.7

+ 1.4

+ 2.1

+ 1.5

+ 2.0

+.4

+ .3

+ 1.1

0

+ .4

+ 3.3

4-94.

+ 1.4

+ .6

+ .4

-1- Q

+ .6

-.5

-. 4

-1.0

Total volume change (10> cubic feet) 2

All cross sections _ - + 900 + 1, 100 -200 + 1, 800 + 300 -200 -200 -400 -200 + 1, 700 + 1, 800

Average elevation change (feet)!

All cross sections _ _ ___ + 0.6 + 0.7 -0.2 + 1.2 + 0.2 -0.1 -0. 1 -0.3 -0. 1 + 1.2 + 1.2

1 Survey in midperiod showed deposition of 3.6; subsequent erosion of 1.7 gave net for period of 1.0.

2 Total volume change and average elevation change are based on cross sections 2, 3, 5-7,10-12.

net changes of all cross sections. The italicized values 

in table 5 for periods 4, 8, 9, and 10 are those which 

differed by 0.1 foot from the sum of the included periods. 

An error of 0.1 foot can be produced by rounding the 

calculations to tenths. The frequency with which 

an error of 0.1 occurs, as well as the limit in accuracy 

imposed by the ruggedness of the terrain surveyed, 

suggests that 0.1 foot is about the limit of accuracy 

for procedures outlined. The fact that larger errors 

are infrequent (bold type in table 5) attests to the 

general reliability of the procedure used to determine 

elevation change.

In estimating volume change there is also the possibility of error in the determination of area. No check 

is available for this. In addition, the assumption has 

to be made that the elevation change for the cross 

section applies to all points within the area of valley 

train (fig. 35) in which the cross section is centered. 

The main purpose of volume determination is the calculation of an average elevation change for the entire 

area weighted to allow for differences in spacing of 

the cross sections. The discrepancies that appear 

when the volume changes for cumulative periods are 

compared with the sum of those for the component 

periods are the same discrepancies noted in the section 

on elevation change.

EUEVATION CHANGE ON CROSS SECTIONS OF THE VAM-EY

TRAIN

Eleven cross sections (table 4) were surveyed in 1957 

(figs. 35, 36, 37). When resurveyed in early July 1958, 

it was discovered that two-thirds of cross section 0 had 

been overridden by a slight advance of the glacier. 

The controls for Nos. 4 and 8 had been eroded or buried 

and these cross sections could not be resurveyed. 

Although other controls were lost, enough points remained or were reestablished to allow all other cross 

sections to be resurveyed with reasonable certainty 

that the elevation changes were not due to faulty 

location or faulty HI.

These 8 cross sections (Nos. 2, 3, 5-7, 10-12) were 

resurveyed 3 times in 1958 between July 1 and 15, between August 5 and 8, and between August 28 and 

September 2 and 3 times in 1959 between June 19 

and 21, July 24 and 26, and August 25 and 26. 

No. 3 was also surveyed on July 25, 1958, by planetable methods because striking deposition had taken 

place (fig. 37). In addition, 4 new cross sections were 

established, 3 of them upstream from No. 2 and the 

4th in the vicinity of No. 4, which had been lost in 1958 

(fig. 35). Nos. 13 and 14, established on September 4, 

1958, were resurveyed on August 19 and 20, 1959. 

Dates on which each cross section was surveyed are
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A37

SECTIONS

DISTANCE TO GLACIER, 

IN FEET

Period 1, late August 1957 

to late June 1958

Period 2, July 1958

Period 3, August 1958

10 11

I I

12

I

FEET 2350

1

3500 3700 4500 5150 5400 6000 6250 6600

n .-,

Period 4, late August 1957 n 

to late August 1958

Period 5, late August 1958 

to late June 1959

Period 6, July 1959

Period 7, August 1959

1

1

0

1

1 r

0

1

.^r*

Period 8, July and August 1959 0 

1

'I --.

Period 9, late August 1958 Q 

to late August 1959

Period 10, late August 1957 

to early August 1959

Period 11, late August 1959 

to late June 1960

DEPOSITION

'JL

EROSION

FIGURE 36. Erosion and deposition on cross sections. For exact dates of surveys for each sction, see table 4.
A38 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

indicated in table 4. Most cross sections were resurveyed in early June 1960 to measure the changes 

brought about by the winter storms of 1959-60.

In period 1 deposition took place at all cross sections 

with the exception of No. 11, which showed no net 

change, and No. 2, where there was a net degradation 

of 0.6 foot (tables 4, 5). If the East and West Emmons 

Creeks portions of No. 2 are analyzed separately, the 

picture is different. East Emmons Creek, its flow primarily derived from the active snout of the glacier, 

showed sufficient net erosion to offset the net deposition 

of West Emmons Creek. Most of the change for this 

period is thus thought to have taken place during late 

June and early July 1958. When the valley train was 

first visited in mid-June 1958, all the stakes in the 

centers of the cross sections were in place, and the area 

appeared as it had in late August 1957. Within 10 days, 

before surveys could be made, the channel pattern had 

changed, and half the center points were lost. The 

average elevation change for all cross sections was an 

increase of about 0.6 foot, at Nos. 3, 5, 6, and 7, averaging 

about 1 foot.

In period 2, the last 2 to 3 weeks in July, deposition 

was predominant at most cross sections, with the 

exception of minor reductions in surface elevation at 

Nos. 2 and 10. The greatest erosion and deposition 

for any cross section in any period took place during 

the firsvt part of period 2 between July 15 and 20, 1958, 

at No. 3 (fig. 37). Deposition raised the elevation of 

the valley train an average of 3.6 feet. Activity noted 

on July 17 was accompanied by rapid pattern changes, 

rough water similar to that in figure 26, and the roar of 

clashing boulders. On July 20 East and West Emmons 

Creeks, which join just below cross section 2, ceased 

flowing over the valley train near cross section 2 and 

entered a tunnel beneath stagnant ice on the right side 

of the valley train, for 6 or 7 days (July 20 to July 26 

or 27); the stream emerged near cross section 5. Within 

10 days after returning to the valley train, the stream 

had removed an estimated 450,000 cubic feet of its 

earlier deposits, most of it in tke first few days. This 

volume estimate was based 01 three cross sections 

surveyed after the erosion had '-aken place. The 1.7 

feet of erosion at No. 3 was computed from the difference 

between the surveys made on Juh 25, when the stream 

was in the ice tunnel, and on Augus: 5. Two additional 

cross sections were surveyed on August 5 in areas of 

obvious erosion between No. 3 and the constriction 

below No. 2. The lower line of tht cross section was 

surveyed on the ground surface aid the upper line 

was inferred from erosion remnant. On July 28, 

during the removal of this material, one-third of the 

valley train in this reach was cove-ed with water 

flowing in at least 4 channels in the ncinity of cross

section 3 (fig. 52). An average increase in elevation 

for all cross sections of 0.7 foot took place during period 

2.

During period 3, the last 3 weeks in August, there 

were only minor changes at most cross sections, with 

the exception of I foot of erosion at No. 3 (fig. 37), 

which was a continuation of the erosion that had begun 

during the last week of period 2, and deposition of 0.9 

foot at No. 6. The net for the period was about 0.2 

foot, and the erosion and deposition served to bring 

Nos. 3 and 6 back into relative agreement with adjacent 

cross sections.

In period 4, the aggregate of changes during periods 

1, 2, and 3 showed net deposition at. all cross sections 

with the exception of No. 2, which lost 0.9 foot, and 

No. 10, which showed no change. Nos. 3 (fig. 37) and 

7 received about 1.9 feet of material and No. 6, 1.4 feet. 

No. 5 gained 2 feet, and two small remnants of moraine 

that partly blocked the valley 200 feet downstream 

from the cross section were almost completely buried 

by the deposition that took place between Nos. 5 and 

6. The average net gain in elevation was about 1.2 

feet over an area of about 1,500,000 square feet. 

Approximately 1,800,000 cubic feet of material was 

deposited during 1958.

In period 5, early September 1958 through mid-June 

1959, there was minor deposition and erosion at most 

cross sections. The exceptions were Nos. 2 and 7, 

which received 0.5 and 0.9 foot of deposition respectively. The net for the period was about 0.2 foot of 

deposition.

Period 6, mid-June through August 1959, showed net 

erosion for all cross sections (Nos. 2-7) above the 

constriction at Panorama Point (fig. 35) with the exception of No. 4, which gained 0.4 foot. No. 10 gained 

0.7 foot and No. 12 lost 0.5 foot. The net change for 

the period, excluding changes on No. 4, was a loss of 

about 0.1 foot. No. 4 was not used in computations 

of volume and elevation change because data were not 

available for all periods.

Period 7, the month of August 1959, showed minor 

changes on all cross sections with the exception of 

No: 12, which gained 0.7 foot. The net for the period 

was a degradation of about 0.1 foot.

Period 8, mid-June to late August, 1959, showed 

erosion on most cross sections: 1.2 feet on cross section 

0, 0.5 foot for No. 1 West Emmons Creek, and 0.2 foot 

for No. 1 East Emmons Creek. The last two sections 

were established to evaluate these reaches as possible 

sources for materials deposited in the valley train. 

Exceptions to the erosion were Nos. 4, 11, and 12, 

where minor deposition had taken place, and No. 10 

which had received 0.7 foot of material. The net for
MORPHOLOGY

widening

AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON

widening

A39

-August 28, 1957 yuy 15, 1958

PERIOD 4

August 28, 1957 to September 2,1958 

Average deposition 1.9 feet

PERIOD 3

August 5,1958 to September 2,1958 

Average erosion 1.0 foot

PERIOD 2b

July 25, 1958 to August 5, 1958 

Average erosion 1.8 feet

PERIOD 2a

July 15,1958 to July 25, 1958 

Average deposition 3.6 feet

PERIOD 1

August 28, 1957 to July 15, 1958 

Average deposition 0.9 foot

n r

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION x 10 

Note -. Widening not included in computation of average elevation change 

FIGUBE 37.-Erosion and deposition on cross section 3 from August 28,1957, thru September 2,1958.
A40 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES pF RIVERS

the period, excluding the cross sections that had not 

been previously surveyed, was about 0.3 foot.

In period 9, the aggregate of changes for the year 

ending in late August 1959 showed minor changes on 

most cross sections. The exceptions were No. 3, 

which lost 0.5 foot, and No. 7, which gained 0.6 foot. 

The net elevation change for this year was about 

 0.1 foot, an estimated loss of about 200,000 cubic feet 

of material, or roughly, 10 percent of the volume 

change for the previous year.

In period 10, the aggregate of changes over 2 years of 

study ending in late August 1959 showed a gain in 

elevation at all cross sections except No. 2, which lost 

0.7 foot. The greatest gains, made in the first year of 

the study, were retained through the second year. 

Gains on cross sections 3, 5, 6, and 7 were 1.4, 2.1, 1.5, 

and 2.0 feet respectively. The ijet gain for the 2 years 

was about +1.2 feet or about 1,700,000 cubic feet. 

The two years are similar in that the greatest rate of 

change occurred from late June through late July, 

the time of greatest discharge (fig. 50). During the 

periods from late August to June of both 1958 and 1959, 

there was net deposition, although in 1958 most of, if 

not all, the deposition during this period took place 

during late June.

Surveys were made in June 1960 to check on the 

erosion and deposition that took place during three 

major storms of October, November, and December 

1959. One of these storms produced the second 

highest flow of record at White River near Greenwater, 

Wash. Major deposition was recorded on cross sections 

Nos. 2 and 3 with 3.3 and 2.4 feet, respectively. No. 4 

received 1.4 feet of material and all other cross sections 

lesser amounts. The average net elevation change 

for the period was 1.2 feet. This large average elevation change may be more apparent than real as Nos. 2 

and 3 are more heavily weighted in this average because 

their elevation changes were multiplied by large areas 

in computing the volume and average elevation change. 

Most of the deposition on No. 2 was on the right end 

of the section and it is thought that mudflows from 

stagnant ice along East Emmons Creek were the major 

source of the deposits. Since these deposits were localized at the cross section, the calculated average elevation change for the period was larger than the true 

elevation change.

Additional evidence of general alluviation of the 

valley train was observed in the fate of kettle pools. 

Morning Glory Pool, in the adjacent moraine, sonamed for its beautiful color in 1957, still deserved 

this name in early June 1958. At this time it was 

brimming with potable clear water, the surface of which 

was several feet above the adjacent valley train. 

Periodic invasion by debris-laden streams built a birdsfoot delta into the pond, gradually filling it (fig. 40). 

By the end of August 1958 the same thing was occurring 

along the left edge of the valley train, in two other 

ponds in the next 300 yards upstream. The rise in the 

level of the valley train threatened ponds that had 

been considered completely out of reach in 1957.

SOURCE OF DEPOSITS

A search was made to determine the source of the 

1,650,000 cubic feet of material deposited over the 

2 years. The streams, as they issue from beneath the 

glacier, usually appeared to carry less debris than further 

down downstream and were often potable. East 

Emmons Creek, which flowed from the active snout 

of the Emmons Glacier after receiving a tributary 

from Frying Pan Glacier, did not deafen the observer 

with a din of clashing boulders. West Emmons Creek 

before reaching the area shown on the map (fig. 35) 

flowed for about 1 mile from the left lobe of the glacier 

(fig. 1) over, under, and through debris covered stagnant 

ice, valley train, and mudflow deposits (fig. 38) on a 

very steep gradient (as steep as 0.20 ft per ft). It was 

usually the muddier of the two creeks and the one 

which was thought to be the main supplier of material. 

Evidence supporting this conclusion was provided by 

the erosion recorded during the summer of 1959 on 

cross sections 0 and 1 of West Emmons Creek which 

on slopes of 0.16 and 0.14 foot per foot lost 1.2 feet and 

0.5 foot of material respectively. During the same 

period cross section 1 on East Emmons Creek lost only 

0.2 foot. During period 1 a comparison of the two 

creeks at cross section 2 showed that the net erosion for 

the cross section was due to a large amount of erosion 

by East Emmons Creek while West Emmons had been 

depositing material, which might be expected of a 

stream carrying an abundant load derived farther 

upstream.

During the summer of 1958, conditions appear to 

have been especially favorable for the deposition of 

large quantities of material in a short period of time. 

An unusually high melt of ice and snow occurred during 

the summer and conditions on upper West Emmons 

Creek provided a large load. This area is thought 

to be the major source of the material deposited on the 

valley train.

In June 1958, West Emmons Creek began flowing 

over the ridge of debris-covered stagnant ice which 

connected the left side of the advancing glacier with 

stagnant ice along the left side of the valley train. 

Prior to this diversion over the ice ridge, the stream 

had flowed relatively quietly under the ridge in one 

or more ice tunnels. These tunnels must have been 

blocked in early June by debris or collapse. They may 

have been blocked in part by materials from a mud-
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A41

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A42 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

flow that had descended on top of snow, probably 

during the spring, and flowed as far as cross section 5, 

where remnants of the snow it had buried and protected 

were still melting in late June. When the stream began 

flowing over the ridge, it reached its former bed on the 

downstream side of the ice ridge after plunging in a 

spectacular cascade, called during field studies "chocolate falls" after the color of the water. This cascade 

was about 70 feet high at first but within a few days 

the stream with its load of debris had cut deeply into 

the ice. The rate of cutting was estimated at 5-10 

feet per day. Within a few weeks the stream had cut 

down leaving a vertical-walled ice gorge shown in 

figure 1 and, in part on the map, figure 35. High on 

the sides of this gorge, parts of abandoned meanders 

could be seen at various levels. They appeared as 

debris-covered terraces or, when undercut, as shelves. 

The roar of the stream within the gorge made it impossible to be heard at its margin.

The high melt of late June, acting with the changes 

in gradient brought about by this stream diversion 

over the ice and the rapid erosion, delivered large 

quantities of debris to the upper reaches of the valley 

train. (Note the changes in cross sections 2 and 3 

during the second period, table 5.) This material was 

subsequently removed and distributed over most of 

the valley train. The change in gradient (knickpoint) 

at the site of the falls was almost entirely removed by 

early August, and the lower discharges of August 1958 

and of the summer of 1959, on the lowered gradient, 

brought far less material to the valley train.

Above the ice ridge, West Emmons Creek is very 

unpredictable, frequently disappearing under the valley 

train into previously unknown tunnels; this disappearance indicates that the valley train in this area is 

underlain by stagnant ice. One day it is a formidable 

stream to cross, and the next day it may not even be 

present on the surface (figure 38).

An additional source of material was provided by 

widening of the valley train by erosion of the deposits 

along its margins. The changes in width which were 

recorded for the 2 years are shown in table 4, and the 

area of maximum widening has been sketched on the 

map, figure 35. Here the channel widening reached a 

maximum of about 100 feet when the stream removed 

a bank 10 feet high and found access to an area of 

kettles behind.

Negative changes in length of cross section (table 4) 

that is, narrowing took place by slumping of banks 

and by the addition of material from the areas of stagnant ice. Widening of the valley train took place by 

lateral erosion and filling of depressions that had been 

separated from the valley train by moraine or mudflow 

deposits. The pond, well back from the river, shown

in the foreground of figure 39 A (photographed July 18, 

1958), is the pond (elevation 56.0) at the edge of the 

valley train in figure 46, mapped September 3, 1958. 

The pond had become part of the valley train by the 

time the widening was mapped the next summer. The 

materials added to the valley train by this lateral erosion are estimated to make up about 10 percent of the 

total deposition. Since widening showed much less continuity than erosion or deposition, extrapolations to the 

areas between cross sections in order to calculate volume 

were not thought justified.

It is interesting to note that the maximum widening (fig. 

35) took place not at the narrowest point of the valley train 

but at the outside of the valley curve toward the east, 

at the junction of the White River valley with the valley 

of Inter Fork (fig. 2). The coarser fraction of the large 

quantity of material furnished by stream cutting of the 

high banks in this area was deposited first as a bar within 

100 yards downstream from the cut banks. This bar 

may well have served to protect the constriction downstream from erosion during the highest flows of the 

summer.

In summary, the abundant discharge and high gradients of both East and West Emmons Creeks, with 

assistance from unique conditions on West Emmons 

Creek and widening of the valley train, provided an 

abundant load during 1958. The high gradients on the 

Emmons Creeks with the flows of 1959 continued to 

supply materials to the valley train but in greatly reduced quantities, and erosion exceeded deposition for 

most of the valley train. There was a slight flattening 

of the valley profile, owing to the predominance of 

erosion above the junction of the two creeks and depositions over most of the downstream part of the valley

train.

CHANNEL PATTERN

The description and analysis of the pattern change of 

White River channels presents a problem owing to the 

rapidity with which the changes take place. Slight 

changes in water-surface elevation which caused the 

stream to occupy or abandon old streambeds provided 

as much change in appearance of the channel pattern 

and valley train as major erosion and deposition (fig. 39). 

In order to analyze the mechanism of pattern change 

panoramic photographs (fig. 40) and time-lapse motion 

pictures were taken (Fahnestock, 1959), planetable 

maps and cross sections surveyed, and measurements of 

channel characteristics and elevation change were made.

DESCRIPTION OP PATTERN

CHANGES DURING THE PERIOD OF STUDY

To record the change in pattern of White River channels during the summers, panoramas like figure 40 were
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A43

TABLE 6. Number of channels at each cross section of the White River, 1958-59

[Data from panoramas!

Date Time Discharge 

(cu ft/sec)

Cross section 

3 5 6 7 10 11 12

1958

June: 

18- ...... _ .....

18 ___ .....-.- . 

19...................

26 _ ........ .......

July: 

1 ....................

7 _ .................

7 

8... __ ............

11 ................

14..... __ .. .......

15 .. ....... _ ....

16 ..............

17. ........

18 .. __ .... ....

21 ___ ..........

24. ____ ...........

25 .... ...... ... .

28 

28. ___ . . .......

29...................

31 ................

Aug: 

2.. __ _____ . ....

3 ___ .... ......

4.... ____ __..__

5. ........ ......

6 _ _._.__

7 ...... ___ .....

8. __ . _ ......

8.. _ ... ___ .... ...

9 ............ ...

11.. - ___ . _ .....

13 ................

14 ...................

15 .......... .....

18...................

19. . ____ . ___ .

20 ......... ___ .

22 _ .......... ___ .

25... ... ___ ........

28 ...............

29............. __ ..

Sept: 

2 ______ _ . .

4.. _____ .. ... .

30.... ___ .... . . .

0930

1830

1015

1040

0905

1020 

1945 

2030 

1220 

1400

0945 

0915 

1715 

1050 

1525

0745 

0740 

1220 

1900 

0745

1030

1005 

1920 

1230 

1900

1810 

0830 

1100 

1900 

1500

0910 

1245

1815 

1720

1820 

0835 

1755 

0840 

0820

1120

0830 

1545 

1130

190

100

210 

310 

320 

410

240

200 

260 

370 

340 

330

370 

370 

430 

600 

430

320

210 

210 

195 

280

370 

220 

210 

340 

490

300 

310

280 

250

210 

210 

500 

300 

120

170

170 

180 

100

1 

2 

2

1

1

2 

2 

2 

2 

2

1 

1 

3 

3 »0

»0 

10 

4 

4 

3

1

1 

1 

2 

1

1 

1 

2 

2 

1

1 

1 

1 

1 

1

1 

1 

1 

1

1

1 

1 

1

3

6 

5 

2

1

2 

3 

4 

3 

3

4 

2 

6 

2 

3

3 

2 

6 

7 

3

2

5 

4 

3 

5

4 

4 

4 

5 

3

5 

1 

4 

3 

1

2

1 

2 

1 

2

2

2 

2 

1

2 

6 

6 

5

3

6 

5 

8 

7 

6

3

7 

8 

11 

5

2

5 

7 

4 

6

6

4 

3 

2 

4

5 

6 

9

8 

7

6 

4 

8 

7 

6

5 

6 

6 

8 

7

8

7 

9 

2

5 

6 

6 

9

6

7 

6 

8 

5 

5

3

5 

7 

13

7

6 

6 

5 

5 

4

6

5 

3 

3 

4

5 

5 

7 

9 

10

6 

6 

6 

5 

4

3

5 

8 

7 

8

7

6 

7 

2

3 

6 

5 

3

2

2 

4 

6 

2 

5

2 

3

6 

7 

3

5 

4 

3 

6 

6

2

2

1 

2 

2

3

5 

4 

3 

4

1 

1 

4 

1 

3

2 

4 

5 

3 

2

2

1

1 

1

3

6 

5 

2

1

1 

2 

3 

1 

5

2

1 

4 

5 

1

4 

4 

2 

5 

4

2

1 

1

1 

1

2 

3 

3 

2 

2

1

1 

3 

1 

2

3 

3

6 

2

1

2

1 

1 

1

2 

3 

3 

3

3

2 

3 

2 

4 

2

2 

1 

3 

2 

2

3 

2 

2 

2 

1

1

1 

1 

1 

1

3 

2 

2 

2 

2

2 

1 

2 

1 

1

1 

2 

3 

1 

2

2

2 

2 

2

Date Time Discharge 

(cu ft/sec)

Cross section 

3 5 6 7 10 11 12

1959

June: 

18 ___ .... ____ ..

20 _ .... __ .... ....

26 ___ ..

30. __ .... ... _ .. .

July: 

7... ... ... .... .......

9 .. ___ ........

10 ................

12.... __ . __ ...

13 ................

15 ... __ .... __ .

16 

17 

18- 

19 ___ .... __ .

19- _ .......... __ .

20 

20- __ ... .........

21..... ____ _ _ 

24.... _ . ...........

24. ___ __ - .

26

26. ____ _ ____ .

30. __ ... ___ ._.._.

Aug: 

1. __ .... __

3 ... 

4 .......... ___ .

5 .. 

6 . _ . . 

7- _ -...... . 

8.. ....... ..... 

9 .. ___ .

10 . _ ....

11- _ . _ ... __ ..

10

14..... .......... . ...

17.....- .- __ ...

18. __ .... __ . .....

20- _ . __ ...... ...

24 _ ...... __ . .....

25... ___ .... ......

28 __ .

29 . ____ .......

Nov: 

27 

1535 

0930 

1400 

1000

1815

1830 

1415

1630 

1600

1230 

1910 

2000 

1325 

0940

2000 

1250 

1930 

1930 

0915

1940 

1045 

1800 

1315

1815

1642 

1600 

1450 

1345 

1420

1505 

1520 

1430 

1725 

1710

1530 

1445 

1505 

0945 

1000

1035 

1705 

1510

1200

130 

140 

120 

90

100

140 

140

190 

150

160 

230 

230 

250 

220

420 

370 

290 

280 

430

420 

490 

380 

230

280

170 

180 

230 

220 

240

250 

210 

220 

170 

180

220 

170 

140 

100 

150

120 

160 

180

40

1 

2 

2 

1

1

1 

1 

2 

2 

2

1 

1 

1

2

1

1 

2 

2 

2 

1

2 

2 

2

2

1 

1 

1 

1

1

1 

1 

1

1 

1

1 

1 

1 

1 

1

1 

1 

1

1

1 

2 

1 

1

1

1 

2 

1 

2 

2

1 

1 

2 

2 

2

3 

3 

4 

3 

2

6 

2 

2 

3

3

3 

3 

4 

3 

3

3 

3 

3 

3 

2

3 

3 

3 

2 

2

1 

2 

2

2

3 

3 

2 

1

1

3 

3 

3

4 

4

3 

3 

5 

3 

2

4 

4 

4 

4 

5

4 

3

5 

5

3

3 

2 

2 

3 

2

1 

1 

3 

1 

1

2 

2 

2 

2 

2

3 

2 

2

3

3 

3 

4 

3

2

4 

4 

4 

5 

4

5 

6 

6 

3 

4

5 

4 

5 

6 

5

4 

4 

5 

5

4

2 

3 

2 

3 

2

3 

3 

3 

3 

3

4 

3 

3 

3 

2

2 

3 

2

2

3 

2 

2 

2

2

3 

3

4

3

3

4

3 

2 

4 

3 

4

4 

4

5

4 

2 

3 

2 

3

3 

4 

3 

2 

3

2 

2 

2 

2 

3

2 

3

3

2 

2 

2 

2

2

3 

3 

3

3

3 

3

4 

2 

3 

2 

5

3 

3

4

3 

2 

3 

3 

3

5 

4 

3 

2 

3

3 

3 

2 

2 

2

2 

2

3

2 

2 

3 

3

2

3 

3 

3

4

4 

4

3 

2 

3 

3 

2

2 

3

3

3 

3 

2 

2 

3

3 

3 

3 

3 

3

3 

2 

2 

2 

2

2 

3

2

i The ch annel at cross section 3 was flowing through an ice tunnel.

taken as frequently as several times per day when channels were changing rapidly and every 3 to 4 days when 

there was little or no change. Table 6 summarizes the 

number of channels in the vicinity of each cross section 

and the estimated total discharge for White River at 

the time each panorama was photographed. In addition, figure 50 shows the number of channels at the odd 

numbered cross sections in relation to changes in 

discharge.

Both tranquil and shooting turbulent flow commonly 

occur in natural channels. Wolman and Brush (1961) 

have shown that meandering began with the onset of 

shooting flow in some of their flume channels in noncohesive sand materials. They suggested that because

these meanders occur at much higher Froude numbers 

than those of major rivers they are not dynamically 

similar in all respects and, therefore, termed the former 

' 'pseudomeanders.''

Photographs of White River taken after extended 

periods of low flow (less than 200 cfs) show what 

appears to be a meandering pattern from the junction 

of West and East Emmons Creeks to the gage. As the 

flows in these meanders have relatively high Froude 

numbers (table 7), they are not dynamically similar to 

common meanderings with much lower Froude numbers. The meanders of the White River shown in 

figures 41 to 43 may approach the condition of pseudomeanders in a natural channel.
A44 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

A. 1:00 p. m.

1:15 p. m.

FIGTOE 39. Pattern changes, 1:00 to 2:00 p.m., July 18, 1958. A, 1:00 p.m.; B, 1:15 p.m.; C, 1:30 p.m.; D, 1:45 p.m.; E, 2:00 p.m. Discharge is about 350 cfs. Arrows

indicate new channels or bars which have appeared since the previous photograph.
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A45

C. 1:30 p. m.

D. 1:45 p. m.

E. 2:00 p. m.
05

-«

FIGURK 40. Panorama of the White River valley train, July 18,1958, at 10:50 a.m. Discharge about 340 cfs. Note kettle being filled in center foreground.
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A47

LONGITUDINAL PROFILE OF MAIN CHANNEL

85 EXPLANATION

Flow around rocks

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION v 5

Arrow size represents 

relative flow

Form line on water surface

200 FEET

DATUM IS ARBITRARY

FIGURE 41. Meanders and nose on the White River near cross section 5, August 13,1968. Plane table map by Fahnestock and Bond.

tunnel along the right valley wall and joined West 

Emmons Creek through several channels, occupied at 

different times, which entered the valley train between 

Nos. 4 and 5. Braiding occurred more frequently 

below the junction than upstream from it.

When first visited in 1958 (June 18), there was a 

braided pattern with two or more channels (table 6; 

fig. 49) from the vicinity of cross section No. 5 to 

the constriction at the moraine. From the junction 

of East and West Emmons Creeks to No. 5 the flow 

was along the right side of the valley train in one 

channel, which received several small tributaries from 

the ice tunnel noted in 1957. By afternoon on the 

18th there were more channels at all cross sections, and 

some flow had shifted to the left side of the valley 

train. By June 26, the flow upstream from No. 5 

had shifted almost entirely from the right to the left 

side of the valley train; from Nos. 6 to 10 there 

were several channels; and farther downstream the 

flow had shifted to the right, concentrating in one 

channel. This situation remained, with minor changes,

FIGURE 42. Meander pattern of the White River, September 30, 1958. Discharge until about July 8, when the number of channels 

 is approximately 110 cfs. Photograph by John Savini. . in -r^ *.\. *. t

increased at all cross sections. During the next lew

During August 1957, East and West Emmons days the flow was concentrated into fewer channels, 

Creeks did not always join near cross section No. 2. and most channels were in the left half of the valley 

At times East Emmons Creek flowed through an ice train between Nos. 5 and 7.
A48 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

LONGITUDINAL PROFILE ALONG LEFT EDGE OF CHANNEL

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION x 5

DATUM IS ARBITRARY

Section 3

Indicates shallow water 

flowing over rocks

FIGUKE 43. Upper reach of the White River, August 13, 1959. Arbitrary datum. Planetable map by Fahnestock and Oott.

The number of channels at most cross sections continued to diminish, with minor shifts of position, until 

the 17th and 18th (figs. 39 and 40), when active braiding 

took place from cross sections Nos. 5 to 7, and limited 

braiding between Nos. 10 to 12. By July 21, this 

activity had decreased; likewise the number of channels 

had decreased at most cross sections with no apparent 

change on the surface of the valley from Nos. 2 to 4. 

The Emmons Creeks, after joining, had been diverted 

by their deposits into the ice tunnel on the right side 

of the valley train. The situation changed little except 

for shifts of the channels and braiding at Nos. 10 to 12. 

On July 28, the stream had left the ice tunnel, and 

active braiding occurred from the junction of the two 

creeks to the gage. The next day the number of 

channels had diminished (table 6). Between July 29 

and August 3, the main channel between Nos. 5 and 

7 was diverted from the center of the valley train to 

the right side and later back to the left. The pattern 

of August 4 is shown in figure 44. Only minor changes 

in pattern occurred until August 8 when active braiding 

took place between Nos. 5 and 7.

Photographs of the pattern on August 11 showed a 

general decrease in the number of channels at most 

cross sections. The main channel was along the left

side of the valley train from cross section No. 2 to the 

constriction above No. 10, where it changed to the 

right. This situation persisted until August 22, when 

active braiding took place from Nos. 5 to 11. From 

August 25 until early in September, the relict pattern 

of this braiding persisted between Nos. 5 and 7, whereas 

the main channel reverted to its right-bank position 

downstream from No. 7. Photographs taken by John 

Savini on a visit in late September (fig. 42) show that 

the stream had a meandering pattern.

The pattern on June 18, 1959, was similar to that 

of the previous September. The main channel was 

in approximately the same place, but the meandering 

was not as prominent and there were more channel 

islands. No major pattern changes took place until 

July 12, when braiding developed between cross sections Nos. 5 and 7. This braided pattern persisted 

with minor changes until July 17, when there was 

renewed braiding in the same reach. No channels 

were present on the right half of the valley train from 

No. 3 to the constriction above No. 10, where the stream 

crossed over to the right side. A small clear stream 

issued from kettles near No. 10 and flowed down the 

left side of the valley train to the main channel at 

No. 12. The active braiding of July 17 continued on
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON

-.-,.-,,__.,,_. -^m

A49

FIGURE 44. Relict braided pattern of August 4,1958. .Discharge is approximately 220 cfs. Note stream through ice tunnel.

the 18th, and pattern changes were rapid between 

Nos. 10 to 12 on the 19th. Fig. 45 shows changes 

between July 19 and 21 in channels near No. 10. The 

braided pattern persisted with shifting channels and 

bar development in the reach between Nos. 5 and 7, 

and on July 24 vigorous braiding took place from No. 3 

to the gage, although no streams were present on the 

right half of the valley train above No. 10. This 

pattern persisted with minor modifications and a 

decrease in the number of channels until the middle 

of August, when the gradual development of a meandering pattern became apparent, although a number of 

islands remained. This meandey pattern continued 

to develop into September. October, November, and 

December storms may have caused the stream to revert 

temporarily to a braided pattern after each storm.

FEATURES OF THE WHITE RIVER CHANNEL PATTERNS

Features of the White River patterns are shown in 

figures 41 and 46 to 48. Figure 46 shows the braided 

pattern and water-surface profile near cross section 7 

Inspection of the panoramas suggests the flows of 

August 20-25 were probably responsible. For a 

detailed map of the feature called topographic nose,

see figure 47 (August 26). On that date the nose, 

which had already developed, was gradually being modified. The depths of water are shown by means of bottom and water-surface contours. Such features appear 

to be a type of small alluvial fan and are quite common 

on the valley train. Other examples are shown in 

figures 48 and 41. In each example there is a relatively 

deep and swift reach upstream which is confined by 

either cutbanks or "levees." At the end of this reach, 

the water spreads and flows in several directions in 

sheets or in a num ber of poorly defined channels. When 

the feature first develops, boulders rolled through the 

swift reach are deposited with a great amount of noise 

and splashing on the bars at the end of the chute. 

Often the deposition of these bars blocks other channels 

(right foreground, fig. 39), forming pools. A delta is then 

built into the pool from the main stream and from the 

blocked stream with fine material settling out in the deeper 

and quieter portions of the pool. These deposits are the 

only concentrations of fine materials on the valley train. 

The subsequent history of the nose depends on the 

amount of water and sediment delivered to it. Often 

a decrease in load occurs at some time after deposition 

of the nose with a consequent channeling of the deposits
A50 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

A'

Cross 

section 10

EXPLANATION

Position of main channel July 19; 

other channels did not change

FEET 

O-i

SECTION A-A'

50

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION x 5

B

FEET

28-,

B'

SECTION OF LEVEE B-B'

0 5 10

NO VERTICAL EXAGGERATION

FIGURE 45. White River near cross section 10, July 21,1959. Planetable map by Fahnestock and Gott.

and concentration of flow. If sufficient material is 

available as a result of this scour, the nose may then be 

left in the form of cut banks and levees and a second 

nose deposited downstream.

The term "nose" has been used here, as these features 

actually project above the general slope of the valley 

train. It is possible to sit on the streambank near one 

of these features and watch the water rolling boulders 

at eye level only a few feet away across the stream. 

These noses or alluvial fans may be similar in some 

respects to the horseshoe bars described by Hjulstrom 

(1952, p. 340).

Contrary to what might be considered normal 

behavior for a stream, White River channels are often 

not in depressions but along the top of a ridge. This 

ridge is formed by the natural levees like those shown 

in figures 45 and 48. Striking changes in alinement 

and pattern are caused by deposition of levees that 

shift the position of the channel, confine it, or block off 

a channel entrance, thus diverting the flow to another 

channel as if a valve had been closed. These levees 

may be similar to the features described by F. E. 

Matthes (1930, p. 109). Levees may be formed also 

by the coalescing of bars in a bed of the river, confining
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A51

EXPLANATION

Well-defined channel

Poorly defined channel

LONGITUDINAL PROFILE OF MAIN CHANNEL

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION x 10

Main channel 

Arrow size reflects relative flow

Area of "nose" mapped 

August 26,1958

43.8

DATUM IS ARBITRARY 

FIGURE 46. Relict braided pattern of the White River, September 3,1968. Planetable map by Fahnestock and Bond.

the flow to a narrower and deeper channel. These bars 

appear to be similar to those described by Hjulstrom 

(1935, p. 340). Hjulstrom pointed out that the thalweg of a glacial stream is not necessarily on the outside 

of these bends, as in a normal channel, but may occur 

in the middle or on the inside of the bend. Bars are 

formed quite rapidly under favorable conditions (fig. 

39). Time-lapse photography is quite useful in recording and analyzing the changes which take place.

Figures 41 to 43 show reaches of meandering channel. 

Water-surface slopes are shown for both figures 41 and 

43, and the depth of water is shown along the thalweg 

in figure 41. It is interesting to note the common 

riffles or crossovers and pools are missing but there 

are periodic changes in slope which correspond to 

bends in the plan view. The water surface shows 

alternations of steep and gentle slopes as does the 

channel bottom. The gentle slopes are characterized 

by swift, relatively smooth flow, whereas that in the 

steeper part appears to be much more turbulent and 

the bottom much rougher. The fact that along the 

thalweg there appears to be little if any shallowing in 

the steeper reaches may well be misleading, as the 

mean depth may be less because of the greater irregularity of the bed in these sections.

The "meanders" have the peculiar appearance of a 

series of bends connected by short straight reaches 

with swift quiet flow. The steeper parts a're usually 

associated with bends. From the sketch maps (figures

41, 43, 45, 46 and 48), it is apparent that no greater 

sinuosity is associated with the meanders than with 

the anastomosing channels. As Leopold and Wolman 

(1957) observed in several rivers, individual anabranches 

may meander, and meandering and braiding reaches 

may alternate along the stream channel.

ANALYSIS OF PATTERN

CHANNELS NUMBER, PERSISTENCE, AND LOCATION ON 

THE VALLEY TRAIN

Figure 49 shows the number of channels at each 

cross section for each discharge range. The complexity of the problem of determining the cause of 

braiding and variation in number of channels is well 

illustrated by this figure. The direct relation between 

the number of channels and discharge at each cross 

section is qualified by the number of times that a 

particular discharge has occurred, probably because 

the more frequently a discharge occurs the more likely 

it is to occur at least once under optimum conditions 

for braiding, and because a lower discharge tends for 

a time at least to occupy most if not all of the channels 

of the preceding high flow. It is also qualified, as 

shown by figure 50, by the time of occurrence and 

duration of the particular discharge. If a lower discharge occurs for several consecutive days following a 

higher discharge, the number of channels gradually 

diminishes.
A52 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

EXPLANATION

Surface contour 

Interval 0.5 foot

Bottom contour 

Interval I foot

O O

Line of profile 

Edge of water

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION x 10

DATUM IS ARBITRARY 

FIGURE 47. White River nose. August 26,1958. For location see figure 46. Planetable map by Fahnestock and Bond.

The best correlation in figure 49 is that of number of 

channels with location on the valley train. This correlation appears to be in part a function of the width of 

the valley train at that point. The factor of slope must 

be considered, but its role is obscured by the decrease in 

number of channels below the constriction between 

cross sections 7 and 10. One might surmise that optimum conditions exist at cross sections 6 and 7 from the 

large number of channels. These cross sections have 

valley slopes of 0.04. This large number of channels 

occurs less frequently at the cross sections both upstream and downstream from Nos. 5 and 6, which are 

on higher and lower valley slopes. It is thought that 

slope may be a dominant factor and that the deposition 

which took place on Nos. 3 through 7 in 1958 may 

account for most of the material brought into this reach 

by the stream. This deposition deprived the stream of 

a heavy bed load farther downstream and lessened the 

likelihood of its braiding at Nos. 10, 11 and 12.

An alternative explanation to account for the number 

of bifurcations in a given reach emphasizes the importance of valley train width in conjunction with the distance below the glacier and distance between cross sections. Two cross sections only a few feet apart are 

likely to have the same number of channels at the same 

time, and the number of chances a stream has to bifurcate is directly proportional to the length of reach 

and the number of channels within the reach. A channel along the valley wall is limited in its freedom to 

divide or migrate in the direction of the valley wall. 

This control operates where the valley wall is unconsolidated, by heavily loading the impinging stream, and 

causing the deposition of a bar which diverts the flow 

from the wall. Thus, the longer the cross section and 

the farther it is downstream from a constriction, the 

greater the freedom to braid.

Constrictions exist at the junction of the East and 

West Emmons Creeks and between cross sections Nos. 

7 and 10. Although from these considerations Nos. 3 

and 11 should have a similar number of channels, No. 

11 should have more because there are usually more 

channels upstream from the constriction. Fewer channels at No. 3 than at No. 11 might also be favored by 

the higher valley slope (0.075 ft per ft) as the competency and capacity of the stream are likely to be 

greater than on the lower slopes at No. 11. Inspection
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A53

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 FEET

DATUM IS ARBITRARY

FIGURE 48 A braided reach of the White River between cross sections 5 and 6. Longitudinal cross section of thalweg and cross section of channel surveyed August 8.

Planetable map, August 7,1959, by Fahnestock and Gott.

of figure 50 and table 6 verifies the number of channels, 

for the two cross sections are similar, No. 11 having 

slightly more channels than No. 3. The relatively large 

number of channels at No. 10 is due at least in part to 

the persistence downstream of some of the many channels at No. 7 in spite of the effect of the constriction.

RELATION OF PATTERN TO CHANNEL CHARACTERISTICS

It appears that channel pattern and the hydraulic 

characteristics of the channels should be related. 

Leopold and Wolman (1957, p. 63) found that 

When streams of different patterns are considered in terms of 

hydraulic variables, braided patterns seem to be differentiated 

from meandering ones by certain combinations of slope, discharge, and width-to-depth ratio. Straight channels, however, 

have less diagnostic combinations of these variables. The 

regular spacing and alternation of shallows and deeps is characteristic, however, of all three patterns.

Their plot of the relation between slope and discharge 

(Leopold and Wolman, 1957, figure 46, p. 59) for the 

three types of channels braided, meandering, and 

straight showed that the line s=0.06 #°-44 divided 

meandering channels from braided ones for the streams 

that they studied. A braided pattern occurred on

higher slopes for a given discharge and at a higher 

discharge for a given slope than did a meandering 

pattern. No clear-cut relation was found for "straight" 

channels although most of. them lay above the line.

It was hoped that a study of the White River channels might aid in explaining the mechanism which 

produced this separation. A similar plot of the White 

River channels for which slope data were available 

showed, however, no such systematic division. All 

White River channels lay above the line in the braid 

region. The "pseudomeanders" of the White River 

occur on slopes and at discharges similar to those of 

the other patterns. The description of these "meanders" as straight .channels joined by bends may be 

quite appropriate. An increase in discharge did 

produce a pronounced tendency to braid as is shown 

by the seasonal change from meandering to braiding 

(figs. 40, 42).

Leopold and Wolman (1957, p. 53) described the 

formation of a braided pattern in this way:

A mode of formation of a braided channel was demonstrated by 

a small stream in the laboratory. The braided pattern developed 

after deposition of an initial central bar. The bar consisted of 

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A56 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

conditions existing in that reach, and of finer material trapped 

among these coarser particles. This coarse fraction became the 

nucleus of the bar which subsequently grew into an island. Both 

in the laboratory-river and in its natural counterpart, Horse 

Creek near Daniel, Wyo., gradual formation of a central bar 

deflected the main current against the channel banks causing 

them to erode.

Time-lapse photography of White River channels 

showed the development of similar bars which had 

similar effects upon adjacent banks. Leopold and 

Wolman (1957) in their description of the formation of 

these central bars noted that materials were rolled 

across the surface of the bar and deposited in the quiet 

water downstream. Not all boulders in White River 

channels reached this quiet water, however. Figure 

51 shows the "imbricate" structure of boulders which 

were rolled into position. Deposition of these bars 

usually occurred at high flows when the abundant bed 

load, set in motion by the increased velocity, combined with the increased discharge to cause rapid 

widening and shallowing of the channel and the formation of central bars. These bars became islands due 

to scour of adjacent channels or to a decrease in discharge. Incipient bars may be seen developing in 

figure 10 (channel 26), in both channels of figure 11, 

and in figure 39. An increase in slope occurred in the 

vicinity of these bars which had divided the channel.

A braided pattern may also result from reoccupation 

of old channel beds. This was an important mechanism in the formation of White River patterns. The 

major islands of the braided pattern shown in figures 

39, 44, and 46 had such an origin. A pattern developed 

in this manner does not show an appreciable increase 

in slope for the divided channel over that for a single 

channel.

Leopold and Wolman (1957) and Rubey (1952) 

cite an increased width-depth ratio with channel diFIGURE 51. Imbrication of boulders on a bar. Man points in the direction of flow.

vision. It is possible, however, that this increase may 

be more apparent than real, owing to the method of 

computing width-depth ratio. Channel widths are 

the measured top-surface width of the channel. The 

depths used in computing the width-depth ratio are 

mean hydraulic depths computed by dividing crosssectional area of flow by top width. Therefore, if 

several channels are lumped into one computation the 

resulting width-depth ratio may be several times larger 

than if the channels were treated individually.

White River channels, having a wide range of discharges, have similar shapes. Maximum depths in 

anabranches may be as great as in the undivided channels. Bifurcation thus has no necessary effect on 

channel shape. Because a width-depth ratio based 

on the sum of anabranch widths does not give the 

same picture of channel shape as a width-depth ratio 

based on individual channels, it is thought that all 

channels should be treated as individuals even if located in a braided reach.

RELATION OF PATTERN TO ELEVATION CHANGE

The concept of a braiding stream as an instrument 

of aggradation is generally accepted. A braided stream 

as an agent of degradation may not be quite as familiar.

Mackin (1956) mentioned braiding in a "stable or 

slowly degrading reach." Leopold and Wolman (1957, 

p. 53) stated:

Braiding is not necessarily an indication of excessive total load. 

A braided pattern, once established, may be maintained with 

only slow modifications. The stability of the features in the 

braided reaches of Horse Creek suggests that rivers with braided 

patterns may be as close to quasi-equilibrium as are rivers possessing meandering or other patterns.

At two places during the White River study degradation 

and braiding were closely associated.

Degradation took place at cross section 3 during 

period 2b, July 25 to August 5, 1958 (table 5), when 

there was a net erosion of 1.9 feet. Figure 52 shows 

that at least half of the valley train at cross section 3 

is covered by water in 3 or 4 channels. This photograph, the only record of the channel pattern for this 

period, shows that the stream which removed the 

material was braided.

Cross sections Nos. 5, 6, and 7 showed a net elevation 

loss for period 6, June 20-July 25, 1959, of 0.2, 0.4, 

and 0.3 foot, respectively (table 5). As this degradation took place over less than half the length of the 

cross sections and as these calculated values are based 

on the entire length, the loss in elevation in the vicinity 

of the stream was at least twice as great. During this 

same period, there were from 1 to 6 channels at No. 5, 

1 to 5 at No. 6, and 2 to 6 at No. 7 (table 6 and fig. 50). 

The greatest number of channels at each cross section
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A57

FIGURE 52. Braided pattern during the degradation of the valley train between cross sections 2 and 4. Arrows indicate the ends of cross section 3. 4:00 p.m., July 28,1958.

occurred during the highest discharges of the summer, 

when one would expect the greatest elevation change 

to take place. Active braiding was again associated 

with net degradation.

A similar situation appears to exist on the Sunwapta 

River below Athabaska Glacier, Alberta, Canada. 

There the recession of the glacier from its terminal 

moraine has created a small lake which serves as a 

settling basin to clarify the water of the river as it 

leaves the glacier. This river, as a result of lack of load, 

has cut 3 to 4 feet below the level of its former valley 

train, which now forms a terrace. This mechanism of 

terrace formation was described by Ray (1935). The 

terrace along the Sunwapta River is now beginning to 

develop a sparse vegetation of grasses and small plants. 

The stream, observed in September 1959 at a low stage, 

had numerous islands and reaches with multiple channels. It appeared as though it had braided actively 

with the higher discharges of the summer.

These three examples illustrate braiding of a degrading stream. It is concluded that both braided and 

meandering reaches can occur along the same stream, 

which may be aggrading, poised, or degrading. Braiding is an indication of channel instability and does not 

conclusively define the regimen of the stream.

CAUSES OF A BRAIDED PATTERN

Several explanations have been offered for the 

phenomenon of braided channels by numerous authors 

who have dealt with the subject. Explanations are 

quoted for examination in light of the findings on the 

White River. At the risk of oversimplification it 

appears that they can be summarized under the headings: erodible banks, rapid and large variation in 

discharge, slope, abundant load, and local incompetence.

ERODIBLE BANKS

Fisk (1943, p. 46) suggested that the character of the 

Mississippi River reflects that material through which 

it flows. He stated that the Mississippi has 

1. A tendency to braid where bank caving is active. Bank 

caving is active where sediments are easliy erodible. Sands 

are the most easily erodible sediments, less permeable sediments are tougher.

2. Tendency to braid where slope is steep and sediments easily 

erodible, and where slope is excessively low and load great.

Friedkin (1945, p. 16) in his model studies of meandering, produced braiding in one test. He reported:

This stream at first developed a series of bends, but erosion of 

banks was so rapid that the channel in the bendway became as 

shallow as the [point] bars. The flow overran the bars and dis-
A58 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

persed through the channel . . . No sand was fed at the entrance 

of this stream; braiding resulted solely from excessive bank 

erosion. As the channel shoaled and the bed of the river 

raised, the slope became steeper.

Mackin (1956) in describing the braiding of the Wood 

River of Idaho stated that the river

. . . meanders in a forest for many miles, braids in a 3-mile 

segment where the valley floor is prairie, and returns to a 

meandering habit where the river re-enters a forest. The river 

is stable or slowly degrading in all three segments. The essential 

cause of the drastic difference in channel characteristics in 

adjoining segments is a difference in bank resistance due to 

presence or absence of bank vegetation.

Much of the material in transport by the White 

River is probably derived from bank erosion; but this 

factor alone, although it may occasionally develop a 

braided pattern, is insufficient to cause the active 

braiding of White River channels. Frequently at the 

same time and discharge, both braided and meandering 

reaches were present on the valley train. At times the 

number of channels was increasing in one area while 

decreasing in another. Braiding and meandering were 

not limited to specific parts of the valley train. All 

such changes on the White River cannot be explained 

in terms of changing erodibility of banks but must 

reflect other factors that are more easily changed. 

It is possible that winnowing by the high flows 

of 1958 may have slightly decreased the erodibility of the reach of the White River between 

cross sections 2 and 4, giving it a stability in 1959 

relative to 1958. A more probable explanation for this 

relative "stability" is that in 1959 less bed load was 

transported through this reach, affording less opportunity for deposition within the channel.

RAPID VARIATION IN DISCHARGE

Doeglas (1951) stated that none of the frequently 

mentioned causes of braiding ("greater slope, loose 

debris, or greater discharge") accounted for the pattern 

of some rivers during the Pleistocene. He suggested 

(p. 297):

Large and sudden variations in the runoff seem to form braided 

rivers. A more regular runoff throughout the year gives a 

meandering river. The gradient and the available sedimentary 

material seem to be of little importance.

The White River does show a tendency toward 

adjustment to higher discharges where they are continued for a period of several days. In both 1958 and 

1959, a discharge sufficient to produce radical changes 

in pattern at some profiles during June and early July 

produced relatively minor changes in August; for 

example, the number of channels at cross sections 3 

and 5 during August 1958 varied from zero to 7 (fig. 50). 

The change in discharge and previous flow history 

appear to be almost as important as quantity of water

in producing changes in pattern. This may be an 

illustration of Doeglas' idea of discharge variation as a 

cause of braiding. It is a likely mechanism for deriving more load for the same discharge and might 

work as follows in a White River channel. During a 

period of low flow, the fine sediments would be winnowed from the bed of the channel in some places and 

deposited in others, but coarser sediments would be 

left on the bed. With a significant increase in discharge, these coarser sediments would start to move 

and new supplies of finer materials would be uncovered. 

The increased discharge might also reoccupy abandoned channels and set in motion all the materials 

deposited in them by waning stages of the former 

stream. This excess of load would cause local deposition, which in turn would result in scour of adjacent 

banks and an increase in load. A more gradual 

increase in flow might allow the stream to develop a 

channel that could transport the increased load without 

forming bars and developing a braided pattern.

The frequency with which braided reaches are interspersed with meandering reaches (Leopold and Wolman, 

1957, and Mackin, 1956) and laboratory studies 

(Friedkin, 1945; and Leopold and Wolman, 1957) 

during which braiding was produced with no variation 

in discharge would seem to indicate that rapid discharge variation is eliminated as a cause for braiding 

in most streams.

SLOPE

The suggestion that change in slope alone is sufficient 

to cause braiding does not explain phenomena observed 

along the White River. Braiding developed on slopes 

which range from 0.01 to 0.20, but only coincident with 

bed-load movement of coarse materials. The river 

frequently braids in one part of the valley train on 

slopes both higher and lower than slopes of other parts 

where it has only one channel. In some cases, slope 

may serve to aid the stream in setting in motion 

enough material to form a braided pattern. In others, 

it may serve only to maintain velocities so high that 

the deposition of bars does not take place.

ABUNDANT LOAD

Hjulstrom (1952, p. 310) stated:

A fundamental fact for understanding the braiding of rivers is 

the great sedimentary load which they carry.

Russell (1939, p. 1200, 1201) stated:

Available load seems to be the factor separating meandering 

from braided streams. A smaller load, in proportion to carrying 

capacity, at the moment, makes for meandering, a larger load 

for braiding * * * Those [streams] flowing through sandy or 

gravelly flood plains are more readily overloaded and therefore 

tend to anastomose, or display the effects of braiding.
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A59

Rubey (1952) in his report on the Hardin and Brussels 

quadrangles in Illinois suggested that the form of the 

Mississippi and Illinois Rivers in that area resembled a 

braided stream more closely than a meandering one, 

stating (p. 123) 

* * * they follow somewhat crooked courses, it is true, but the 

curves are due not to meander growth but to diversion of the 

channel by large alluvial islands.

He noted (p. 124) 

It is probably a significant fact that the islands are larger 

and more numerous at the mouths of tributary streams * * * 

An alternative interpretation explains most of the islands much 

more satisfactorily. Tributary streams commonly have steeper 

gradients and carry more debris per unit volume of water than 

the river; hence they deposit part of their load as deltas and as 

submerged bars across the tributary mouths. Some of the sand 

bars and flats built at times of flood stand well above the water 

level at low and normal stages of the river * * * some of the 

willow bars grow larger and higher until they become "timber 

islands" the surface of which is built to the level of the mainland 

flood plain and covered with dense growths of large hardwood 

trees. Once an island reaches this stage it becomes an essentially 

permanent feature.

The pattern changes of the White River in 1958, 

which were both more frequent and more widespread 

than those in 1959, illustrate the role that abundant 

bed load played when it was introduced to the section 

of valley train under observation. That the material 

was not derived by bank erosion within the area is 

evident from the net gain in elevation for the valley 

train (1.2 ft for the year, table 5). In 1959 the decrease in activity and relatively little braiding in the 

reach between cross sections 2 and 5 suggest that the 

braiding that did take place was largely caused by bed 

load derived within the reaches under observation. 

The net loss of elevation on cross sections 5 to 7 during 

the summer of 1959 suggests that material was derived 

from both bed and banks and that braiding occurred in 

a degrading reach of the stream.

To the writer's knowledge, it has not been suggested 

that a braided channel pattern can be developed without an appreciable bed load. The common element in 

all the above explanations appears to be a movement of 

bed load exceeding local competence or capacity, and 

consequent deposition within the channel causing the 

diversion of flow from one channel into one or more 

other channels. Observations of braiding by the White 

River suggest that the rate of change of the pattern in a 

stream which is not restricted by resistant banks is controlled by the amount of bed load. From observations 

of White River and the suggestions of authors cited, 

braiding is favored by the presence of erodible banks 

and fluctuations in discharge.

RELATED PROBLEMS

LONGITUDINAL PROFILE OF VALLEY AND 

EQUILIBRIUM IN A REGRADING GLACIAL STREAM

Many similarities exist between the White River as it 

deposits and reworks the materials of the valley train 

and the graded streams described by Gilbert (1877), 

Davis (1902), Kesseli (1941), Mackin (1948) and others. 

Mackin (1948, p. 471) defined a graded stream as 

* * * one in which, over a period of years, slope is delicately 

adjusted to provide, with available discharge and with prevailing 

channel characteristics, just the velocity required for the transportation of the load supplied from the drainage basin. The 

graded stream is a system in equilibrium; its diagnostic characteristic is that any change in any of the controlling factors will 

cause a displacement of the equilibrium in a direction that will 

tend to absorb the effect of the change.

He emphasized the idea of a system in long-term 

equilibrium while recognizing similar short-term changes 

in the regimen. Rubey (1952), Leopold and Maddock 

(1953), and Wolman (1955) have discussed the equilibrium adjustment of the channel cross section. Wolman 

(1955, p. 41) applied the term "quasi-equilibrium" to 

adjustments made by streams that were not related to 

the length of time a set of conditions exists. This term 

is perhaps unnecessary, as the diagnostic characteristic 

of a graded stream cited by Mackin above is just this 

tendency to adjust.

Mackin (1948, p. 477) recognized the similarities 

between streams that were raising the level of their 

beds and graded streams and suggested (p. 478) that 

the term "aggrading" be restricted to upbuilding at 

grade. The White River, during the period of study, 

would appear to fit this definition in the reach from 

the junction of the Emmons Creeks to the gage. As 

it appears to be cutting down upstream from the 

junction, it then could be described as a regrading 

stream showing adjustment between the variables of 

slope, channel, cross section, discharge, bed material 

size, and load.

INFLUENCE OF GLACIER REGIMEN ON THE 

DEVELOPMENT OF A VALLEY TRAIN

Emmons Glacier has retreated about 1 mile since 

1910, most of this distance since 1930, and has advanced 

about 0.1 mile recently as shown in figure 3. The 

stream in 1958 and 1959 has deposited upon and eroded 

the valley train, resulting in net deposition in 1958 and 

net erosion in 1959. This response of the stream is 

probably related to the difference in weather and 

availability of material in the two years. It is apparent 

that the response is not related to the glacial advance of 

approximately 100 feet during this period. Observations of the stream, at the point at which it issues
AGO PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

from the glacier and downstream, suggest that most 

of its load is derived by erosion downstream from the 

glacier. The effect of the stream on the valley train 

would then seem to be a function of the amount of 

water provided by glacial melt rather than a function 

of the load introduced directly to the stream from the 

glacier.

The glacial regimen would seem to be related to the 

valley-train deposits only through the quantity of water 

that it makes available to the stream and the debris that 

it has deposited, subject to erosion by the stream. 

For example, the melting back of Emmons Glacier has 

uncovered large quantities of debris which are now 

available to the stream. Continued advance of the 

Emmons Glacier may radically alter the availability 

of this material and thus cause changes downstream. 

Similarly, changes in position of the termini of continental glaciers of the past must have radically altered 

the availability of debris to their drainage streams. 

Such effects are probably restricted to the immediate 

vicinity of the glacier, as a stream on alluvium will 

derive a load within a short distance and this load 

will be determined by its discharge, gradient, and 

availability of readily erodible material.

If periods of glacial advance and retreat can be 

considered analogous to winter and summer on the 

White River, advance (winter) would provide much 

smaller discharges and less debris; and retreat (summer) 

larger discharges and more debris. This is obviously 

a great oversimplification, as there were winters and 

summers, in the glacial climate. An additional assumption would be a constant rate of glacier flow because 

fluctuation in the glacier flow rate might change the 

position of the terminus without changing the discharge. 

The removal of a continental glacier from a drainage 

basin could well bring a decrease in the discharge of the 

stream, bringing to a close the deposition of a valley 

train.

While the regimen of Emmons Glacier has long-term 

effects in providing debris to the stream, the short-term 

effects of weather and runoff determine the rate of 

deposition and erosion, the hydraulic characteristics, 

and the pattern of the stream.

SUMMARY

1. Channels of the White River, developed in coarse 

noncohesive materials, are narrower, slightly shallower, 

and have higher velocities of flow on higher slopes at 

discharges of similar magnitude than channels with 

cohesive bank materials as exemplified by Brandywine 

Creek.

2. The extreme values of the intercepts (in the 

equations w=aQb and v=kQm) for width and velocity, 

and the rate of change of width-depth ratio with discharge extrapolated for data on Brandywine Creek, 

may reflect the failure of the channel to adjust to small 

discharges and indicate a relation of intercept to bank 

material.

3. Although the stream had some load before it 

issued from the glacier terminus, most of its load was 

provided by erosion of morainic debris, mudflow, and 

valley-train deposits in the reach below the glacier.

4. Analysis of a sample of mudflow and valley-train 

deposits showed that 40 percent of the mudflow material was less than 0.105 mm in comparison to 10 percent 

of the valley-train material, indicating removal of the 

finer fraction from the valley-train materials. Measurements demonstrated a systematic decrease in median 

diameter of the valley-train materials coarser than 4 

mm with distance from the source. The change of 60 

mm in median diameter for the valley train materials 

that took place over a distance of some 4,200 feet is 

attributed to selective transportation. Increases in 

median diameter such as those 1.7 and 25 miles below 

the glacier terminus occur at new sources of coarse 

material.

5. If one accepts the hypothesis of Wolman and 

Miller (1960) that the dominant process occurs with 

sufficient frequency and magnitude to cause most of 

the changes observed, and is neither the frequent event, 

which is less than the threshold value, nor the infrequent catastrophic event, then it follows that the slope 

forming discharge for White River channels in this 

reach lies between 200 and 500 cubic feet per second.

6. When conditions are such that antidunes are 

developed, much material is carried through the section 

without deposition. The rate of movement of antidunes, therefore, cannot be used to estimate the total 

bed load, as is sometimes done with dunes.

7. Measurements of competency in White River 

channels as well as data from Hjulstrom (1935) and 

Nevin (1946) suggest that for coarse materials the 

"sixth power law" should be the 7.8 power law. Logarithmic plotting shows that a line with a slope of 2.6 fits 

the White River data better than one with a slope of 2.0 

(the "sixth power law" expressed in terms of linear dimensions rather than mass).

8. Evidence of the great amount of material transported by the White River is provided by the amount 

of erosion and deposition on the valley train. The 

average net elevation change for all profiles in 1958 was 

+ 1.2 feet and in 1959, 0.1 foot. The abundant 

discharge and high gradients of both East and West 

Emmons Creeks, together with the unique conditions 

described for West Emmons Creek, and the widening 

of the valley train, provided this abundant load during 

the summer of 1958. The high gradients of the 

Emmons Creeks combined with the lower flows of 1959
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A61

supplied materials to the valley train in greatly reduced 

quantities, so that erosion exceeded deposition.

9. The channel pattern changed from "meandering" 

to braided with the onset of high summer discharges 

and returned to "meandering" with the lower discharges of late summer and fall.

10. Flows in the "meanders" of the White River 

have relatively high Froude numbers. The "meanders" 

are a series of bends connected by short straight reaches 

of swift quiet flow; steeper gradients are usually associated with bends. It is apparent that there is no 

greater sinuosity associated with the meanders than 

with the anastomosing channels.

11. The wider the valley train and the farther it is 

downstream from a constriction, as exists at the junction of the Emmons Creeks, the more numerous the 

channels Avhen braiding occurs.

12. Leopold and Wolman (1957) described the 

formation of a braided pattern in a flume channel by 

the deposition of a center bar which subsequently became in island. Observations of the White River 

show that a braided pattern may also result from the 

reoccupation of numerous old channels due to deposition within the main channel as well as to highflows which raise the water surface. This was an 

important mechanism in the formation and alteration 

of White River channel patterns. A pattern developed in this manner does not show an appreciable 

increase in slope for the divided reach as did the channel 

divided by the deposition of & center bar.

13. Both braided and meandering reaches can occur 

along White River in reaches where it is aggrading, 

poised, or degrading. The pattern alone does not 

conclusively define the regimen of the stream.

14. Braided channel patterns cannot be developed 

without bed load. The common element in all explanations of braiding appears to be a movement of 

bed load with local deposition within the channel, 

causing the diversion of flow from one channel into 

one or more other channels, or the deposition of channel bars and the development of islands. The rate of 

pattern change appears to be directly related to the 

amount of bed load.

15. The White River is a regrading stream showingadjustment between the variables of slope, channel 

cross section, discharge, load, and size of the bed and 

bank materials.

16. Observations of the White River show that although the regimen of the glacier has long-term effects in providing debris to the stream, the short-term 

effects of weather and runoff determine the rate of 

deposition and erosion, the hydraulic characteristics, 

and the pattern of the stream.
TABLE 7. Characteristics of the White River channels, 1958-59

Channel 

No.

1. 

2 

3.... ... .....

4 ______ ..

5 

6 

8..... .......

9 ____ -

10 

11. 

12

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20. 

21. 

22 ______ .

23 

24. 

25. 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34

35. 

36. 

07

38 

39 

40 

41... ------

42.- 

4o- ---------- 

44- -----

45 - 

46... ------- 

47 

48 

49 

50- ---

51

52

53 

54 

55- 

66 

Date

1958 

6/30

7/1 

7/21 

7/21 

7/21

7/13 

8/3 

8/3

8/7 

8/7

8/7 

8/15 

8/15 

8/18 

8/18

8/18 

8/19 

8/19 

8/19 

8/19

8/19 

8/19 

8/19 

8/20 

8/20

8/21 

8/21 

8/21 

8/21 

8/25

8/25 

8/25 

8/25 

8/25 

8/25

8/25 

8/25 

8/25 

8/25 

8/25

8/26

8/26 

8/26 

8/26 

8/28

8/28 

8/28 

8/28 

8/29 

8/29

8/29 

9/3

9/3 

9/30 

9/30 

11/25

Hour

From

1745 

0945 

1750 

1750 

1750

1500 

1500 

1145 

1145

1145 

1648 

1600 

1845 

1845

1845 

0900 

0900 

1415 

1415

1415 

1855 

1855 

1545 

1545

0855 

0855 

1030 

1030

1230

0925

1400 

1445 

1310 

1425

To

1900 

1205 

1935 

1935 

1935

1608 

1608 

1230 

1230

1230

1930 

1930

1930 

0920 

0920 

1445 

1445

1445 

1920 

1920 

1630 

1630

0915 

0915 

1100 

1100

1010

1435 

1520 

1350 

1505

Discharge

(cfs)

134.0 

124.0 

183.5 

96.7 

12.8

.175 

190.0 

35.3 

79.5 

73.7

85.3 

42.0 

8.39 

26.7 

18.6

163.0 

23.7 

134.0 

49.6 

211.0

2.1 

32.9 

172.0 

10.4 

333.0

72.9 

207.0 

69.3 

209.0 

.07

.29 

.02 

.045 

.23 

.17

.22 

.063 

.005 

.074 

.25'

72.5

199.0 

9.6 

2.9 

130.0

147.0 

194.0 

183.0 

1.50 

1.79

.76 

93.7

96.2 

108.0 

106.0 

30.7

Width 

(feet)

18.0 

18.0 

35.0 

25 

13

1.5 

25 

18 

22 

21

18 

15.5 

8.5 

10 

10.5

25 

15 

25 

33 

29

6 

16 

30 

10 

60

32 

31 

24 

32 

1.3

2.0 

.78 

.95 

1.50 

2.75

2 

1.10 

.63 

2.40 

4.10

16.8

27 

9 

5 

24

28 

28 

28 

7.8 

6.5

4.5 

24

24 

22 

22 

15

Mean 

depth 

(feet)

1.44 

1.47 

.88 

.87 

.45

.078 

1.31 

.58 

.94 

.84

.98 

.72 

.44 

.96 

.51

1.10 

.64 

1.06 

.56 

1.21

.20 

.56 

.99 

.50 

1.01

.637 

1.18 

.87 

1.10 

.05

.13 

.04 

.047 

.15 

.121

.093 

.064 

.027 

.102 

.202

0.93

1.31 

.40 

.27 

1.13

1.11 

1.27 

1.24 

.11 

.19

.17 

1.09

1.13 

1.25 

1.26 

.65

Area 

(square 

feet)

25.9 

26.4 

30.8 

21.7 

5.8

.117 

32.7 

10.4 

20.6 

17.7

17.7 

11.2 

3.75 

9.6 

5.4

27.5 

9.6 

26.4 

18.6 

35.0

1.2 

9.0 

29.7 

5.0 

60.7

20.0 

36.6 

20.8 

35.2 

.065

.266 

.032 

.045 

.226 

.333

.186 

.070 

.017 

.246 

.830

15.6

35.3 

3.6 

1.35 

27.2

31.1 

35.5 

34.8 

.883 

1.26

.76 

26.1

27.2 

27.5 

27.8 

9.8

Mean 

velocity 

(feet 

per 

sec.)

5.17 

4.70 

5.95 

4.45 

1.93

1.5 

5.80 

3.29 

3.86 

4.16

4.82 

3.76 

2.24 

2.78 

3.46

5.93 

2.55 

5.09 

2.67 

6.03

1.75 

3.65 

5.77 

2.0 

5.49

3.65 

5.16 

3.34 

5.95 

1.10

1.1 

.5 

1.0 

1.0 

.5

1.20 

.9 

.3 

.3 

.3

4.67

5.67 

2.66 

2.15 

4.78

4.73 

5.46 

5.27 

1.7 

1.3

1.0 

3.59

3.53 

3.96 

3.92 

2.93

Water 

surface 

slope 

(feet per 

foot)

0.014

.045 

.028 

.029

.023 

.018 

.030

.020 

.029 

.032 

.022 

.029

.027 

.031 

.023 

.032

.026 

.045 

.025 

.027 

.024

.013 

.026 

.055 

.0092 

.004

.0025 

.0057 

.015 

.0017 

.0017

.022

.032 

.029 

.039

.004 

.030

.011

Froude 

number

0.76 

.72 

.90 

.84 

.51

« .95 

.89 

.74 

.70 

.80

.86 

.78 

.59 

.50 

.85

.98 

.56 

.95 

.85 

.90

.43 

.86 

1.02 

.50 

.96

.81 

.92 

.63 

1.00

«.85

 .53 

0.43 

«.81 

«.46 

 .25

«.69 

«.63 

 .32 

«. 166 

«. 118

.85

.88 

.74 

.72 

.79

.79 

.84 

.83 

.90 

.53

».43 

.61

.58 

.62 

.61 

.64

Maximum 

depth 

(feet)

2.5 

2.5 

1.4 

1.6 

1.0

1.9 

0.8 

1.5 

1.1

1.6 

1.1 

.5 

1.5 

.8

1.9 

1.2 

2.0 

.9 

1.7

.4 

1.0 

1.4 

.9 

1.8

1.4 

2.1 

1.2 

1.6 

.14

.16 

.10 

.08 

.18 

.19

.15 

.11 

.05 

.17 

.34

1.4

1.9 

.6 

.5 

1.4

1.7 

1.7 

1.8 

.24 

.29

.25 

1.9

1.9 

1.0 

1.9 

1.4

Shape 

factor

1.7 

1.7 

1.6 

1.8 

2.2

1.4 

1.4 

1.6 

1.3

1.6 

1.5 

1.1 

1.6 

1.6

1.7 

1.9 

1.9 

1.6 

1.4

2.0 

1.8 

1.4 

1.8 

1.8

2.2 

1.8 

1.4 

1.4 

2.7

1.2 

2.4 

1.7 

1.2 

1.6

1.6 

1.7 

1.8 

1.7 

1.7

1.5

1.4 

1.5 

1.8 

1.2

1.5 

1.3 

1.4 

2.2 

1.5

1.5 

1.5

1.5 

1.5 

1.5 

1.2

Roughness 

factor 

n'

.021

.067 

.062 

.054

.046 

.042 

.066

.038 

.074 

.054 

.056 

.047

.045 

.045 

.071 

.049

.049 

.062 

.064 

.044 

.028

.040 

.056 

.045 

.040 

.045

.013 

.020 

.055 

.045 

.70

.045

.056 

.052 

.059

.013 

.068

.048

Widthdepth 

ratio

12 

12 

40 

29 

29

19 

19 

31 

23 

25

18 

22 

42 

10 

20

23 

23 

24 

58 

24

30 

29 

30 

20 

60

50 

26 

28 

29 

25

15 

19 

20 

10 

23

22 

17 

23 

24 

20

18

21 

22 

18 

21

25 

22 

23 

71 

34

26 

22

21 

18 

18 

23

Distance 

above 

gage 

(feet)

5 

400

1,300

800

2,000 

1,300

900

900

1,500

1,000

1,000

900

1,500

250

250 

220 

220

220 

220 

250 

250 

50

Bottom condition »

 do . .

 -do ... .....

 do 

 -do .

--do - 

 do ~ 

0.005-0.04' pavement.

<.05' .... 

<.05' pavement __

<0.05' 

Dune ripples sand - . 

.--.do .

Cobbles, gravel.

.....do ----------- 

.. do- -------- 

-...do ---------

Sandy --------- 

Rocky 

Cobbles, gravel, 

small bonlders. 

Cobbles, small, 

boulders. 

Cobbles, gravel, 

small boulders. 

Gravel, cobbles.

Cobbles, wavel

Discha

measu

men

No.

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

2
57-__-_____._

KQ

10

60

61____. ______

62...........

63..-...--...

64.___. ______

65--_-_._ _

66...........

67.--. _..__.

68.---.-..--.

fiQ

70...........

71..-- --..

72...........

73------.---.

74-___. ......

75. 

76..... ......

77.-.. . .

78 

79.. ... ---___

80... . _______

81 

82.. _________

83 

84 ........

85 .

86.. ...

87 

88- .

89 

90- 

91 

92 - -..

93 

94 

95 

96 

97.. 

98 ......

99 ___._._

100 .. 

101... .......

102. ___ ...

103... .......

104 

105 

106 

107 

108 ......

109 .

110. .-.

111... ..... -

112 ....

1969

1/97

5/27

6/18

6/19

6/19

6/19

6/30

6/30

7/2

7/2

7/2

7/9

7/0

7/9

7/10

7/10

7/11

7/11

7/11

7/13

7/15

7/15

7/17

7/17

7/19

7/10

7/21

7/21

7/21

7/21

7/21

7/24

7/30

7/31

7/31

7/31

8/1

8/3

8/5

8/5

8/9

8/13

8/13

8/17

8/24

8/24

8/24

8/24

8/28

8/28

9/22

9/22

11/10

11/10

11/27

11/27

1215

1230

1830

1840

1100

1520

1536

0930

1040

1100

1400

1505

1530

1715

1820

1850

0934

1233

1345

1730

1833

1435

1530

1714

1728

1543

1617

0945

1415

1640

1855

1800

1830

1449

1135

1300

1540

1022

1108

1410

1600

1055

1300

1230

1310

1210

1230

1235

1305

1225

1255

1845

1930

1534

1543

1035

1050

1110

1440

1457

1512

1554

1735

1822

1850

1920

1603

1453

1514

1548

1728

1744

1802

1811

1630

1655

1055

1545

1715

1930

1848

1855

1605

1200

1330

1600

1038

1123

1502

1620

1155

1350

1305

1315

1225

1245

1305

1313

5.39

48.82

135.3

57.48

53.53

89.18

100.30

10.2

109.96

7.79

4.28

108.94

8.77

3.16

143.98

173. 30

.4

145.9

84.1

118.8

127.8

46.9

175.9

78.5

211.9

298.0

2.5

16.0

18.0

26.0

432.0

238.0

223.0

281.0

170.0

273.0

182.0

.96

177.0

201.0

55.1

180.0

170.0

133.0

8.0

145.0

14.0

149.0

165.0

86.0

1.7

19.0

7.0

39.0

3.0

8

23

19

28

16

16

19

7

30

14

13

26

14

6.5

39

23

2.5

24.5

31

20

19.5

14.5

34

23

24

23

29

7

16

16

28

28

29

29

30

30

28

7.2

31

28

11.2

24

20

24

9

32.5

11

27

32

20

6

16

10

15

6

.44

.72

1.33

.66

.81

1.01

1.15

.47

.86

.34

.34

1.01

.41

.42

.94

1.38

.16

1.18

.68

1.07

1.36

as

1.00

1.01

1.12

1.18

1.13

.23

.41

.53

.51

2.08

1.05

1.47

1.69

1.60

1.53

1.24

.211

1.08

1.34

.94

1.35

1.48

1.12

.37

.94

.53

1.10

1.00

1.23

.38

.53

.33

.93

.48

3.5

16.5

25.2

18.4

13.0

16.2

21.9

3.3

25.85

4.8

4.45

26.4

5.8

2.7

36.7

31.7

.4

29.0

21.2

21.4

26.4

12.7

34.0

23.2

26.8

27.1

32.7

1.6

6.5

5.8

8.2

58.2

29.4

42.5

49.1

48.1

46.0

34.6

1.52

33.5

37.5

10.5

32.3

29.6

26.8

3.3

30.4

5.8

29.8

32.1

24.7

2.3

8.6

3.3

14.0

2.9

1.54

2.96

5.37

3.12

4.12

5.54

4.58

3.09

4.25

1.62

.96

4.66

1.51

1.17

3.93

5.47

.92

5.03

3.97

5.55

4.84

3.69

5.17

3.38

5.73

7.83

9.12

1.56

2.4

3.05

3.48

7.43

8.10

5.25

5.73

5.61

5.92

5.27

.631

5.21

5.37

5.25

5.23

5.58

4.96

2.51

4.76

2.46

5.17

5.14

3.48

.74

2.20

2.11

2.78

1.03

.018

.017

.017

.022

.023

.016

.016

.018

.018

.016

.016

.011

.011

.022

.024

.014

.016

.014

.058

.033

.033

.020

.002

.027

.053

.062

.025

.017

.0035

.058

.020

.41

.61

.83

.68

.81

.97

.75

.79

.81

.49

.29

.82

.41

.32

.71

.82

.40

.82

.85

.94

.73

.69

.91

.59

<u

1.27

1.51

.57

.66

.74

.86

.91

1.38

.76

.78

.78

.84

.83

.24

ss

.82

.95

.79

.81

.83

.73

.86

.59

.87

.91

.55

.47

.53

.65

.51

.26

8.

1.0

2.1

1.1

1.0

1.5

1.6

.8

1.5

.6

.5

1.4

.7

.6

1.5

1.9

.3

1.8

1.1

1.9

1.8

1.4

1.6

1.8

1.5

2.3

1.8

.4

.6

.9

.8

3.2

2.2

2.8

3.0

2.9

2.9

2.0

.28

2.2

2.0

1.7

1.8

2.5

1.7

.6

1.4

.8

2.0

1.9

2.0

.5

.7

.5

1.7

.7

1.8

1.4

1.6

1.7

1.2

1.5

1.4

1.7

1.7

1.8

1.5

1.4

1.7

1.4

1.6

1.4

1.9

1.5

1.6

1.8

1.3

1.6

1.6

1.8

1.3

1.9

1.6

1.7

1.5

1.7

1.6

1.5

2.1

1.9

1.8

1.8

1.9

1.6

1.3

2.0

1.5

1.8

1.3

1.7

1.5

1.6

1.5

1.5

1.8

1.9

1.5

1.3

1.3

1.5

1.8

1.5

.042

.042

.071

.054

.051

.060

.042

.039

.028

.048

.047

.030

.046

.041

.033

.021

040

.032

.046

.067

.066

.046

.036

.048

.063

.085

.042

.045

.018

.070

.054

18

32

14

42

20

16

16

15

35

41

38

26

34

16

42

17

16

21

46

19

14

16

34

23

22

20

26

30

39

21

31

13

27

20

17

19

20

25

35

29

21

12

18

14

22

24

34

21

24

32

16

16

30

30

16

12

30

200

150

300

500

240

300

200

250

250

300

180

280

160

100

150

25

50

.... .do .____.__--..

Boulders.. ..........

Gravel, cobbles . _ .

Cobbles. 

bolders.

Cobbles, boulder^,

gravel.

1 Largest material present is given as bottom condition.

2 Water temperature measured and within 35°-39° range.

3 Pigmy current meter used.

4 Measurement of load made in reach at time of discharge measurement, 

measurement.

* Water temperature measured and within'32°-34° range. 

« Based on float velocities.

See table 3 for data on load 
A64 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

TABLE 8. Bed load of the White River 

[Asterisk (*) indicates L, length; W, width; H, height]

Date, time

Channel

width 

(feet)

Depth (feet)

Max. Mean

Tractive 

force

Maximum velocity (fps)

Point Float

Mean

velocity 

(fps)

Slope

(feet

per 

foot)

Load

Dimensions* 

5 largest boulders

vicci/ 

(L) (W) (H)

(Lbs per 

min

per ft)

Discharge

(cfs) Remarks

Screen-Caught Samples

7/8/58, 1730 hrs.. .. ......

7/8/58, 1730 hrs... ..........

7/8/58, 1730 hrs.- ...........

8/3/58, 1500-1600 hrs.... 

8/5/58, 1500-1600 hrs.._ 

8/3/58 

8/3/58 

8/7/58, 1540 hrs. .......

8/9/58, 1730-1800 hrs. 

8/15/58, 1648 hrs. ......

8/20/58, 1545-1 630 hrs... ..

8/21/58, 0835-0915 hrs 

8/21/58, 1115 hrs. 

7/13/59, 0934 hrs..... ..

7/9/59, 1645 hrs... ..........

7/9/59, 1710 hrs.............

is

25

27

15.5

60

31

09

20

26

26

1 9

.9

1.7

1.2

1.05

1.4

1.1

1.3

1 9

1.3

1.0

.58

1 Q

2.7

s.66

.7

2.87

79

1.01

1 IS

1.1

1.07

1.01

1.01

0 79

.57

.53

1 i<*

2

f\A

81.03

1 90

1 99

9 ftft

fit

2.04

1 91

1 81

1.24

1.07

1.07

1 ft 9

1 ft 9

1 ft 9

4.5

6

0

4 9

4

0

1 7.5

6.8

Q QO

7.6

7 9

5.0

5.9

9 4

9 4

9 4

5.0

6

C

Q 0

7.1

8 a

10

U0.2

8 Q

1 A 1

9 9

Q {*

3 An

5

0

5.6

K 79

5.95

5.55

4

AA

0.012

fit 9

019

.045

.025

noo

09Q

/y>7

noo

(11 ft

019

097

1 ft

.017

.017

.32 .29 .18 

.32 .25 .21 

.32 .25 .18 

.29 .25 .16

.37 .33 .16

.37 .25 .19 

.25 .23 .15 

.29 .21 .17 

.25 .21 .17

.38 .34 .25

.38 .33 .21 

.29 .26 .21 

.39 .25 .16 

.29 .25 .16

oe 09 9C

.27 .22 .17 

.25 .22 .16 

.31 .18 .13 

.13 .10 .07

40 37 20

.50 .36 .19 

.47 .36 .22 

.48 .35 .31 

.42 .35 .30

.35 .28 .20

. 36 . 25 . 11 

.29 .25 .16

OO OO OO

.24 .24 .18 

.27 .23 .18 

.25 .22 .19 

.30 .19 .17

1.3 1.1 1.1

1.3 1.1 .9 

1.3 .9 .9 

1.1 .8 .8 

1.1 .8 .6

7 7 K

.9 .6 .5 

.8 .6 .4 

.7 .6 .4 

.7 .6 .3

Q9 9K 1 K

.31 .23 .20 

.21 .18 .13 

.23 .18 .17 

.19 .18 .18

8

7 AR

.8 .6 .50 

.65 .6 .45 

.65 .57 .30 

.68 .55 .40

8 7 1

.7 .7 .5 

.6 .5 .3 

.45 .45 .27 

.45 .45 .15

QC CK Af\

.70 .43 .35 

.53 .35 .30 

.45 .35 .35 

.45 .35 .30

9

7K 7

.8 .7 .6 

.9 .6 .5 

.9 .6 .5

.7 .6 .6

6

f A

20

50

7

114

44

Q9

107

1ft

09

35

4.9

330

206

119

109

109

0.05 ft screen.

pie; 0.05 ft screen.

ment 4; 0.05 ft screen.

ment 4; 0.05 ft screen.

smooth and gravelly.

Q measurement.

section about sta. 9; shook 

ground.

Sta. 21-23; channel 68; material

moving was small. 

Sta. 23-25; channel 68; 0.04 ft

screen.

See footnotes at end of table.
MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON 

TABLE 8. Bed load of the White River Continued

A65

Date, time

Channel 

width 

(feet)

Depth (feet)

Max. Mean

Tractive 

force

Maximum velocity (fps)

Point Float

Mean velocity 

(fps)

Slope 

(feet 

per 

foot)

Load

Dimensions* 

5 largest boulders 

(feet) 

(L) (W) (H)

(Lbs per 

min 

per ft)

Discharge 

(cfs) Remarks

Screen-Caught Samples Continued

8/10/59, 1720-1725 hrs.. 

8/14/59 . 

1.5 

1.0

20.94 

2.63

1.03 

0.59

8.1 

5.4

10 

»6.3

0.011 

.008

1. 0 0. 8 0. 7 

.9 .6 .3

1.4 .8 .7

1.2 .8 .8 

1.1 .8 .7 

1.0 .7 .5 

.9 .8 .6

Screen leg broken; only 2 samples 

taken.

0.175 ft screen.

Samples on Bars

6/20/58, 1630 hrs. ....

6/20/68, 1630 hrs.. ......

6/23/68, 1600 hrs. . .......

6/25/68, 1900 hrs... ......

8/3/68 _ ._....._.

8/5/68,1430 hrs...........

8/6/68, 1030 hrs .

8/6/68, 1210 hrs 

8/8/58 

8/9/68 .. ... . ..........

8/13/68, 1715 hrs. ....

68

27

43

46

25

60

1 Q

3

2.4

2.5

2.5

2

9110

2

n

1.3

1 9

1 Q

9 ClA.

3.86

5.36

2 CO

2

(>0

1.64

19.3

»7.4

Ul.O

17.0

7.5

17.0

17.8

'9.2

i & fl

«9.0

10.6

8

C

12.6

8

n

7.7

8

ft

9.0

10.5

9 9

Q 9

in Q

0.025

.025

.022

029

nee

043

ftqi

030

Hen

019

1.7 1.3 1.1

1.2 1.0 .8 

1.2 .9 .8 

1.3 .8 .8 

1.1 .8 .8

2.0 1.7 1.5

1.5 1.3 1.0 

1.4 1.3 1.1 

1.2 1.2 1.0 

1.4 1.0 1.0

1.7 1.5 .9

2.1 1.3 1.0 

1.6 1.3 1.1 

1.7 1.2 .9 

1.3 1.2 1.0

1.9 1.7 1.7

1.9 1.6 1.5 

1.6 1.6 1.6 

2.1 1.5 1.4 

1.9 1.5 1.5

.45 .37 .25

.43 .35 .25 

.25 .20 .18

1.4 1.2 .9

1.1 1.1 1.0 

1.6 1.0 1.0 

1.1 1.0 1.0 

1.1 .9 .8

1.6 1.6 1.3

1.6 1.3 1.2 

1.3 1.2 .9 

1.6 1.1 1.1 

1.5 1.1 1.0

1.3 1.1 .7

1.2 1.1 .9 

1.4 1.0 .6 

1.2 1.0 .9 

1.2 1.0 .6

no f o fe

2.1 1.8 1.2 

1.6 1.2 1.1 

1.3 1.2 1.1 

2.3 1.0 .9

1.8 1.5 1.0

1.5 1.4 1.0 

2.4 1.2 1.0 

2.0 1.2 1.1 

1.6 1.0 .7

1.7 1.3 .7

1.3 1.2 1.0 

1.8 1.1 1.0 

1.5 1.1 1.0 

1.5 1.0 .7

Not too much moving. Mos

moved out when pushed anc 

continued to move.

Measured on bar head, ther

moved out. 

Smooth bottom washes ou

under foot. Material may tx 

undermined.

1 Velocity read from graph. Float velocity=1.15 point velocity.

2 Mean depth computed using mean depth =0.625 maximum depth. 

8 Tractive force based on calculated mean depth.
A66 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC STUDIES OF RIVERS

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MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, WHITE RIVER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON A67

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INDEX

A Page

Ablation deposits, topography and character. -_ A19

Abstract -- ---- ----------- 1

Access to area....... .__._........._... 2

Acknowledgments___ _ _ _ _ 2

Analyses of particle size -.....--.-.--.-.---..-.. iS

pebble counts ............................ 24

sieve analyses--..-......................... 23

size-distance relation__................... 25

size-slope relation............__.......... 25

Analyses of valley-train materials, size distribution................................ 24,25

Antidunes..---...------.--.--..-..._--._-... 12,23, «7

measurement in White River __.... _... 28

particle size in crest and troughs_......... 28

Area, relation to discharge--.--------------.-._ 12

B 

Bed load, sieve analyses..._.-.... -.-....... 26, S9

transportation of..._---------_......... 26

Blench, Thomas, and Schumm, S. A., cited..,.. 9 

Boulder fronts, in mudflow deposits_.--_.__.. 20 

Braided pattern, abundant load...... ---------- 58

causes..-..-----__....................... 67

credible banks__......................... 57

formation of_.-.-..----.....-............ 53,56

of degrading glacial stream_.............. 56

rapid discharge variation._............... 58

slope....-.-- ------------.-------.-..-.-. 68

Braiding......----.--._.._.-....-.-.-.-_---_-- 48

Brandywine Creek----.--.------.-......------ 15

channel parameters___--_-_-_-_.......____ 14,15

Brockman, C. F., cited...----.---.-.-.....-.... 5

Carbon River valley train, size distribution in. - 24,25 

Channel parameters, White River and other

streams....-.-------._..._....._.--- lg

Channel pattern, braided_.__.............. 53

Channel shape...-.------.------------_......-- 9

Climate.----------------------.--.--........... 5

Coombs, H. A., cited..._--- _--_-____-_- 5

Ciandell, D. R., and Waldron H . H., cited. _ 5

D 

Debris, materials of__ . ................... 19

Depth, relation to discharge_................ 12

Discharge fluctuations..._.------............... 12,55

relation to width, depth, velocity, and area. 12 

Doeglas, D. J., quoted_...................... 58

E 

East Emmons Creek........................... 40,47

Effective velocity, White River......... ...... 31

Emmons Qlacier............................... 40

description..... --.-.. ............ ..._.. g

erosion by.........---..............._...... 5

history.-.-----.--. ..................... 3,6,7

kettles - -.-_ -.___..._.. 7,8,9,40 

positions.... ..... ...................... e

profiles of valley train and former glacier

surface... - ..-..-.............. 8

relation of stream and glacial regimen _ - - _ - 2 

setting and recent history......_-....._._-- 2,e

Emmons Glacier regimen relation to stream

regimen..._..................._ 2

relation to valley-train deposits__......... 59

Page 

Emmons, S. F., quoted__.__..._------- A6

Ephemeral streams, parameters............... 14

Equilibrium in regrading glacial stream........ 59

F 

Fieldwork...................

Fisk,H. N., quoted.........

Flooding.. 

Flume channels, parameters. 

Friedkin, J. F., quoted......

Froude numbers.-----------

Frying Pan Glacier.........

flow from_--_-.-_._-.-

Q

Geology of area.... 5

Gilbert, G. K., quoted.............. - .. 27,30

Glacierized drainage basin, comparison with

normal...----.-.------.--.-------.- 1

regimen............. .-.-.... ........... 1,3

Glacier regimen, influence on valley train.--.. 59

H 

HjulstrSm, Filip, cited............. 2,2 ,30,51,58

Hydrograph, 1958-59 ---------------------- 11

Iceland, sandurs of.......-.-.-.. --.-.....-.- 2

Ice tunnels.-. .----.--------------- 6,8,38,40,47,48

Imbrication.. _---_-----_--.---------------- 56

Inter Fork. __- ___ . - - 2 

flooding effects.._............-...-.---... 12

Investigations, previous...----,---------------- 2

Johnson, Arthur, cited.

K

Kettles..------------------.---------- ----- 46,48

deposition in...-.-..-..-_.--------- ------ 40

formation of_ --- . 8

Keechelus andesites.--.-----.------------------ 5

Lane, E. W., quoted.--.---.----.-------------- t6

Langbein, W. B., quoted...-.- -.-.-....-... 27

Leopold, L. P., and Maddock, Thomas, cited.- 2

8,10,14

Leopold, L. B., and Miller, J. P., cited -... 14 

Leopold, L. B., and Wolman, M. G., cited. 51,53,56 

Levees, in mudflow deposits_. _.__._. 20,21,41 

natural___________...- 50 

Lodgement till. -------- . _ - 19

Longitudinal profile of regrading glacial stream. 59 

Longmire, weather records, 1958-59------------- 11

M 

Mackin,J.H.,cited ------------------------ 56,58

Matthes, F. E., quoted. . _-_ 6

Measurement methods and data analyses ... t6 

Miller.J. P., cited.....------------------------- 2

Moraines, dating of__...... -.-.... -- 6

Morainic debris, features of. ___. - - .-- 19 

Mount Rainier________.. .... 5

Page

Mount Rainier Continued

active glaciers on__._.._.-.-----.-- A2,3,4

Mount Rainier National Park.... ---------- 2

geology of... --------------------------- 5

vegetation of. _ -- . 5 

Mount Rainier volcanics, rocks of ------------ 5

Mudflow..--------------------------------- 40

Mudflow deposits, features of._... ----- to

particlesize...---------------------------- 21

West Emmons Creek...-------------------- 40

N

Natural levees_................... - .-... 50

Nevin, C. M., cited.-.-. ------------- 30

Nisqually River valley train, size distribution

in.. ---------------------------- 24,25

Particle size of material in suspension _ ...... 32

Particle size-tractive force, measurement in

White River.....--------------- 30

Particle size-velocity relation, White River..... 30

Pseudomeanders... 43,53

R

Regrading glacial stream, longitudinal profile

and equilibrium- 59

Rigsby, G. P., cited -------------------- 6

Rouse, Hunter, cited------------------------- 28

Rubey, W. W., cited.--.-.--- ---------- 56,59

Russell, R. J., quoted-. --------------------- 58

Sarvent and Evans, cited 6

Sauberer and Dirmhirn, cited.. ------------- 11

Selected bibliography......--------------------- 66

Sigafoos and Hendricks, cited.. - _ 5,6 

Simons, D. B., and others cited..-------------- 29

Size distribution, valley train materials....----- 24

Snoqualmie granodiorite ------------------- 5

Source materials of the load ...... 19

Source materials, particle size, analyses of . tS

relative stability of....------------------- 21

Source rocks, types. - ------- 6

Southwestern States, channel parameters------ 14

Stampede Pass, weather records, 1958-59 ...- 11 

State-discharge relation ---------------------- 12

changes due to scour and fill --------- 10

adjustments by Savini_ __. 10,11

hydrographs. ---------------------------- 11,55

Storm effects -------------------------------- 11,4"

Stream-gaging stations, locations - - - - ... 3,5,10

Summary.. & 

Sundborg, Ake, cited ... ~- 2

Sunwapta River 57 

Supercritical flow.. 27 

Suspended load, concentration-discharge relation.... -.-. --- ---- 32

particle size 32 

transportation of. &

Till. 19

A69
A70 INDEX

Page 

Time-lapse photography--...----.----------- A51,56

Topographip nose, or alluvial fans... 47,49,50 

Tractive force, White River... 31 

Transportation, erosion, deposition on valley

train.-....-. - 19

Turbulence, White River___ - 31

U

U.S. National Park Service, glacier studies. _- 

Emmons Glacier..._.__------ -.

Valley profile, changes during period of study.. 42

Valley train, channel pattern change.._ 2, If

definition....._____.___-..-. . - 1

deposition over_____.-.-._-..-.. 12 

materials of 2,79

morainic debris____.____.. 19 

mudflow deposits___________... 20 

particle-size analysis..- .. ...- is 

present location...._ . 6

source materials of the load__.__----- 19

widening of_......... -__-_._-_--------- 4,42

Valley-train deposits..._____________ ii 

apparent cohesion in___ ___. _____. 22,23 

as bed-load source..-_____.___.. 19,22 

particle size_____________--... 22

Valley train formation, equilibrium__ _. __ 2 

influence of glacier regime....____.--.. 2,69

Valley-train materials, size-distance relations... 25,26 

size-valley-train-slope relation........___ 25,27

Vegetation........___...__________ 5,6

Velocity, relation to discharge. _________ 12 

Velocity measurements___________ 10,27,29 

Volcanic mudflow, age_____________ 5

Waterfall ------------------------------- A42

Water surface slope_ 47,51,62 

West Emmons Greek_...- 47 

West Emmons Creek valley train -... . 40,41,42 

West Fork White River 3,5

flooding effects...___ . 12 

White, C. M., quoted.. 31

White River Campground_ ... .-.._ 2 

White River channel characteristics:

adjustment to load and discharge..-...-. 16,17,18 

1958-59.. - 10,62

comparisons___------ . - 14,15

cross sections, width-depth ratio, shape factor 

and Froude number.................__ 17,18

discharge magnitude_ --...._.- 11

flow characteristics..-.___ -____.. 18 

Froude number...___________.. 17,18

hydrology and hydraulic characteristics. ----- 2, 8

hydraulic roughness.-... .... 18

mode of change_____-.-_______ 16 

parameters..____.___________ 13,74 

shape.. . 15,16,17

shape factor______ -..-.. 16, 17 

slope-discharge relation.--...--.-------------- 53

standing waves____-..----.-..--__.... 18

velocity measurements.-.__-.__-------- 10

water surface slope..- __.--..-.---_ . 18 

width-depth ratio..... . .. ... 16, 17

White River channel pattern:

analysis..__.____________------- 51

braided pattern, causes. .... -- 67

changes during 1958-59_____________ 42

method of study___..__-----_.- 42

description._______...___....___.. 4%

While River channel pattern Con. Page 

features of:

deltas... . A49

levees...... ____ . ... ______ 49,50

pools.. . . . 8,40,46,48,49

topographic nose ___________ 47, 49, 50

location on valley train.. .. ________ 52

meanders...---.----.- _ .-.. __ .. __ 43

number and persistence of channels _____ 51 

relation between number of channels and discharge ________________ 51, 55

relation to channel characteristics ______ 6$

relation to elevation change. _________ 66

relation to width of valley train ________ 52

White River drainage basin, snow and ice cover _ 11

White River sediment transport, analysis of competence.... . _ .. . ___ . ___ 29

bed load, July-Aug. 1958....---- __ . __ .... 64

erosion by .......... ________ 5

particle size- velocity relations.. ________ #9

tractive force.. _____ ... _____ .. ___ 89

velocity measurements... ____ _____ 27,29

White River study area, physical features. __ 8,8,4

White River valley, glacial geology. ______ 6

White River valley train elevation and volume

change ________________ SS

computation of. _______________ 35

cross-section surveys ____________ S3

measurement methods ___________ SS

on surveyed cross sections. _________ S6

size distribution in... ____________ 24

source of deposits, 1957-60.. _________ 40

Width, relation to discharge __________ 12

Width-depth ratio, computation of... ___ __ 56

relation to discharge _____________ 16

Winthrop Glacier... ...... _ . ___ . _____ 5

Wolman, M. G., cited... ........ 2,10,18,14

Wolman, M. G., and Brusn, L. M., cited.. 10, 15, 16, 43

Wolman, M. G., and Miller, J. P., cited. 26

Yakima Park, climate.

A U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1967 O - 256-9