AlllDD TT3im

NATL INST OF STANDARDS & TECH R.I.C.

A1 11 009931 14

Leyendecker, Edgar V/The Incidence of ab TA435 .U58 V89;!976 C.1 NBS-PUB-C 1976

in Q NBS BUILDING SCIENCE SERIES

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE / National Bureau of Standards

The Incidence

of Abnormal Loading

in Residential Buildings
The Building Science Series

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building materials, components, systems, and whole structures. The Series presents research results, test methods, and performance criteria related to the structural and environmental functions and the durability and safety characteristics of building elements and systems. These publications, similar in style and content to the NBS Building Materials and Structures Reports ( 1938-59)

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[See mailing list announcement on last page]
Watldr.a! Bureau of Standards

2 6 1977 The Incidence of Abnormal Loading

in Residential Buildings

Edgar V. Leyendecker

Center for Building Technology

Institute for Applied Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

Eric F. P. Burnett

University of Waterloo

Ontario, Canada

Sponsored by the Division of Energy, Building Technology and Standards

Office of Policy Development and Research Department of Housing and Urban Development

Washington, D.C. 20410

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Elliot L Richardson, Secretary

Edward O. Vetter, Under Secrefary

Dr. Betsy Ancker-Johnson, Assisiani Secretary for Science and Technology

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Aciing Director

Issued December 1976
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Leyendecker, E V

The incidence of abnormal loading in residential buildings. (National Bureau of Standards building science series; 89) "Supersedes NBSIR 76-1048."

Bibliography: p. Supt. of Docs, no.: C 13.29/2:89.

1. Dwellings. 2. Structural dynamics. I. Burnett, Eric F. P., joint author. II. United States. Dept. of Housing and Urban Development. Division of Energy, Building Technology and Standards. III. Title. IV. Series: United States. National Bureau of Standards. Building science series; 89. TA435.U58 no. 89 [TH4812] 690' .021s [690] 76-26684

National Bureau of Standards Building Science Series 89

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Bldg. Sci. Ser. 89, 31 pages (Dec. 1976) CODEN: BSSNBV

Supersedes NBSIR 76-1048

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON: 1976

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402

(Order by SD Catalog No. C13.29/2:89). Stock No. 003-003 -01706-0. Price 75 cents. (Add 25 percent additional for other than U.S. mailing). There is a minimum charge of $1.00 for each mail order.
Contents

SI Conversion Units iv

1. Introduction 1 2. Objective and Scope 5

3. Abnormsd Loads 5 3.1 General 5 3.2 Gas-Related Explosions 5 3.3 Bomb Explosions 8

3.4 Motor Vehicle Collision with Buildings 12

3.5 Sonic Boom 12 3.6 Aircraft Collision with Buildings 13

3.7 Hazardous Materials 15

4. Evaluation of Data 15

4.1 Assumptions and Summary of Reviewed Data 15

4.2 Effect of Building Size 17

4.3 Comparison with Other Data 21

4.4 Load Data 22

5. Conclusions and Concluding Remarks 22

5.1 Conclusions 22

5.2 Concluding Remarks 23

6. Acknowledgments 23

7. References 24

iii
SI Conversion Units

In view of present accepted practice in this technological area, U.S. customary units of measurement have been

used throughout this report. It should be noted that the U.S. is a signatory to the General Conference on Weights

and Measures which gave official status to the metric SI system of units in 1960. Readers interested in making use

of the coherent system of SI units will find conversion factors in ASTM Standard Metric Practice Guide, ASTM

Designation E 380-74 (available from American Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19103). Conversion factors for units used in this paper are:

Length Force

1 in = 0.0254* meter

1 ft - 0.3048* meter

1 mile = 1609.344* meter

1 lb (Ibf) = 4.448 newton

Pressure

1 psi = 6895 N/m^'

Area

1 in^ = 6.4516* X 10~* meter^

*Exact value

iv
The Incidence of Abnormal Loading

in Residential Buildings

Edgar V. Leyendecker* and Eric F. P. Burnett**

The findings of an analysis of available U.S. statistics concerning the incidence of abnormal loading events in residential buildings are presented. The study evaluates natural gas explosions, bomb

explosions, motor vehicle collision, sonic boom, aircraft collision, and explosion of hazardous materials.

It is concluded that the gas-related explosion, bomb explosion, and vehicular collision are of significance in building design for progressive collapse. Of these, the natural gas explosion is the most

significant in terms of incidence. The gas explosion causing severe damage occurs with an annual frequency of 1.6 per million dwelling units and approaches a probability of 1 X 10"' per apartment

building per year.

Key words: Bombs; building codes; design criteria; explosions; gas; hazardous materials; loads; progressive collapse: sonic boom; vehicular collision.

1. Introduction

There has been international concern that buildings, particularly multistory buildings, may be

susceptible to a progressive "house of cards" type

of failure. This concern was intensified with the

Ronan Point apartment collapse in London,

England, in 1968 (fig. 1). In this 22-story building

of precast concrete panel construction, collapse was precipitated by a gas explosion in the kitchen

of an apartment on the 18th floor. The explosion

blew out an exterior waU panel; the loss of support

provided by the panel resulted in a chain reaction

of collapse to the roof. The coUapse also progressed almost to the ground as debris from

above fell on successive floors below [23].* This

type of chain reaction, or propagation of failure,

following damage to a relatively small portion of a

structure, has been termed "progressive coUapse."

AUen and Schriever [4] conducted a survey to determine the frequency of occurrence of progressive type of collapses. They used two news

sources—the Engineering News Record (ENR)

from 1968 to 1972 and newspaper cUppings from

Canadian newspapers from 1962 to 1972. The

results of the Allen and Schriever survey are

•Dr. Leyendecker is a Structural Research Engineer at the National Bureau of Standards.

••Dr. Burnett is an Associate Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of Waterloo. Ontario. Canada, and was a Guest Worker at the National Bureau of Standards. October 1971 to April 1972.

Figures in brackets indicate literature references.

shown in figure 2. Based upon the ENR data, an

estimate of 5 1/2 progressive coUapses per year was obtained. This is about 20 percent of the total of 110 collapses recorded by ENR during the

4-year survey period. The newspaper survey over a 10-year period resulted in a slightly larger annual

estimate of progressive coUapses, 7 1/2 per year, which constituted a smaller percentage, about 15

percent, of the total number of coUapses. These

are most likely lower bound estimates since it is considered unlikely that the data sources included

aU coUapses.

The initial failure which leads to a progressive

coUapse may be caused by an abnormal loading,

that is, a condition of loading with a smaU

probability of occurrence which a designer does

not consider in the normal analysis and design of a

particular structure. The gas explosion at Ronan

Point is an example of such a loading. Using the

previously described data sources, AUen and

Schriever also compiled the occurrence of abnormal loads (fig. 3) causing heavy damage. The

results of their survey feU roughly into three

categories; explosions, impact, and foundation

mishaps. They also pointed out that both fire and

abnormally low strengths due to faulty design or workmanship could be the initiating cause of a progressive coUapse.

In 1971 Ligtenberg [24] published a paper on

structural safety and fire which included data on

sources of buUding damage in the Netherlands (fig.

4). The sources of damage included explosions.

1
Figure 1. Ronan Point Apartment Building after the collapse , with a second identical building in the background . (Courtesy of London Express News and Feature Services ).

2
25

20

% 15

Q

(Jz 10

^ 5

<

UJ

</5 <

C3

UJX

oH

o

o

m

EXPLOSIONS VEHICLE IMPACT

COUJ

a:

I-o

(T

\-W

CD

Ul z

-' Q. 13

(E O

3 O Q —

CO

I- O

O I- UJ UJ m CO O U-

-1 CD

CO 2

0'

100 I20

80

25

TOTAL FOR

CANADA

(10 YEARS)

TOTAL

FOR ENR

(4 YEARS)

CANADA

( lOYEARS)

ENGINEERING NEWS-RECORD(ENR)

(4YEARS)

hurricane, tornado AND EARTHQUAKE

DAMAGES ARE NOT INCLUDED

IMPACT DUE TO EXCAV., MISC. LARGE FALLING OR SINKHOLES,

SLIDES, ETC FLYING OBJECTS

Figure 3. News incidents of abnormal toads causing heavy damage [4 ].

3
NOTES: Residential buildings - 3,000,000 Other buildings - 1,000,000 Figure 4. Incidence of damaged buildings in The

Netherlands in 1967.

impact, wind loads, overloading, material

defects/faulty design, and fire. These damage

sources are similar to those described by AUen

and Schriever.

Ligtenberg described several of these loadings

as "extreme situations" (i.e., fire, collision, and

explosion). He observed that the action (e.g., the

direction of load application) of these "extreme

situations" on a structure may be completely

different from the "normal situation" used for design purposes. Hence, attempts to modify

customary design methods by merely increasing

the loads encountered in the "normal situation" by

a "factor of safety" in an effort to account for the

"extreme situation" are not realistic and may lead

to erroneous results. Somes [32] has attempted to classify the various

abnormal loadings as follov^s:

A. Violent Change in Air Pressure

Sabotage bombings

Service system explosions

Other explosions within the building

Explosions external to the building

B. Accidental Impact

Highway vehicles

Construction equipment

Aircraft

C. Faulty Practice

Design error Construction error Misuse or abuse by the occupant

D. Foundation Failure

Unforeseen settlement

Foundation wall failure

Burnett [13] has developed a more extensive

classification system.

It is likely that the greatest number of abnormal

loadings occur during wartime. McGuire [25] has

summarized one British report on wartime

experiences as follows: In reviewing British experience in World War

II, Baker, Williams, and Lax observed: "One of

the outstanding facts . . . of the air attacks on

this country was the very high resistance of

framed buildings to the effects of high -explosive

bombs." [7]

For multistory steel framed buildings they

found that, "in general the extent to which the

presence of the steel framework limits the

destructive effect of the bomb on the building as

a whole is very remarkable , when compared with

the typical effects in multistory load -bearing wall

buildings. The virtual absence of any progressive

collapse enables the floors and walls which are in quite close proximity to the bomb to remain

effective as screens for those portions of the

building which are more remote , with the result that the area of bad damage to the structure is very small. "

In multistory concrete framed buildings the

conclusion was the same : "Obviously nothing can

be done to limit the zone of primary damage , but

fortunately it is so small that the danger of

resultant collapse is not serious. The continuity of

most reinforced concrete framing is such that the structure will bridge over the demolished portion.

If the only damage to the structure were that due

to the primary effect of the explosion, it is fairly

safe to say that no serious collapse would ever

result " Findings such as these induced somewhat of a

state of euphoria in structural design. There

seemed, until recently, to be a general feeling

that if one followed established practice and

codes the resulting building would have inherent

ability to transmit forces around any area damaged by any abnormal incident.

4
This feeling persisted even though some of the

practices responsible for the good record were

changing. Multistory structural forms were

devised which do not have the redundancy or

ductility of conventional frames. Modern infilling

may not have the incidental structural resistance

provided- by most of the older partitions and non - load bearing walls. Many of these developments

have been used successfully and economically in compliance with established building codes.

The difference between some of the newer

structures and the traditional ones was brought

out in a tragic way in the Ronan Point collapse

In view of the changing practices mentioned by

McGuire [25] and the differences between extreme

loads (e.g., abnormal loads) and normal loads

pointed out by Ligtenberg, [24] it is considered

desirable to reassess abnormal loadings to determine whether or not they can continue to be

neglected in design. Accordingly, the Department

of Housing and Urban Development requested the

National Bureau of Standards to prepare a study of the significance of such incidents on residentied

buildings with regard to progressive collapse.

2. Objective and Scope

The purpose of this report is to discuss sources

of abnormal loading and to estimate the risk of such loading in residential building design. The

chief criterion for selection of the loadings studied was plausibility. In this regard the data provided

by Ligtenberg [24], Allen and Schriever [4], and

the various classifications by Somes [32] and

Burnett [13] were helpful in selecting the abnormal

loadings described herein.

As has been indicated, these abnormal loadings occur rarely. Hence they are examined for their

possible effect on structural integrity rather than

their effect on serviceability.

Only loadings on completed buildings are considered. Although very important, loadings

which might result as a consequence of faulty

practice or during the construction phase are considered beyond the scope of this report. Fire is also excluded since fire protection is required in current codes and is thus considered a normed

design requirement.

The following are the loadings discussed in this report:

° Gas-Related Explosions

° Bomb Explosions

° Motor Vehicle Collision with Buildings

° Sonic Boom

° Aircraft Collision with Buildings

° Explosion of Hazardous Materials

3. Abnormal Loads

3.1 General

The following sections contain information from

documents which have been prepared as reference

material for this report. These background

documents are referenced in the section titles. The

census data [11,12] used in determining annual

frequencies are contained in table 1.

3.2 Gas-Related Explosions [17]

The explosions considered in this section are

limited to incidents involving piped-gas distribution

systems. Explosions relating either to gas transmission or to gathering systems or bottled or stored gas are not included. The most common

forms of gas distributed by pipeHne are natural

gas, manufactured gas, liquified petroleum gas

(propane and butane), and mixed gas (usually

manufactured plus natural or liquified petroleum

gas). In terms of residential consumption in 1970,

98.5 percent of all gas utility customers used

natural gas [22] and, for all practical purposes, the

data for natural gas may be considered to be

representative of the industry.

Gas-related explosions result from the leakage,

accumulation, and ignition of gas. The Office of Pipeline Safety (OPS) [17] of the U.S. Department

of Transportation reported that between 1970 and

1972 leaks occurred at the average rate of about one leak for every mile of gas distribution system

(fig. 5). Considering the number of miles of gas

distribution pipeline, the incidence of leaks, the

proportion of the population served directly with

gas, and the fact that a gas-related explosion can

occur in buildings that are not directly supplied

with gas, it is evident that gas-related explosions

could pose structural problems for buildings in built-up or urban areas wherever a gas-distribution

system exists. It should be noted that a dwelling

unit may be affected not only by an explosion

5
Table 1. Housing data for 1960 and 1970

1960 Housing 1970 Housing

Units per Building Units (X 10*)* Units (X 10*)*

Owner Occupied

1 detached 28.436 34.396

1 attached 1.526 1.112

2 1.443 1.706 3 and 4 0.456 0.454

5 or more (7 Ave.) 0.258 0.463 Mobile Home 0.677 1.751

32.797 39.882

Renter Occupied

1 detached 7.891 7.736

1 attached 1.860 0.794

2 2.683 3.402

3 and 4 2.343 2.816

5 to 9 1.770 2.284

10 to 19 1.141 2.219 20 to 49 1.283 1.873 50 or more 1.165 2.115 Mobile Home 0.090 0.321

20.227 23.560

Vacant for Rent

1 0.603 0.571

2 to 4 (3.5 Ave.) 0.378 0.407

5 to 9 (7 Ave.) 0.154 0.194

10 or more (10 Ave.) 0.291 0.494

1.426 1.666

Summed Total 54.450 65.108

Total Number of Housing

Units in U.S. 58.326 67.699

•Taken from 1960 and 1970 Census of Housing, Detailed Housing

Characteristics, United States Summary, Tables S and 22 respectively [11,12].

703,896

I960 1970 1971 1972 Figure 5. Miles of pipeline and number of leaks

within the unit, but also by explosions occurring at other locations within or outside of the building.

Explosion data from the American Gas

Association (AGA) [5] are shown in figure 6. The

available data indicate the annual incidence of gas- related explosions during the data collection period

1957-1966. These data were broken down into

explosions involving reparation (assumed to mean

damage) greater than or less than $1000. No

further breakdown of reparation levels is available.

There is also no indication of circumstances

surrounding the individual explosions. Note that 10

percent (151) of the 1508 incidents involved

reparation in excess of $1000.

The AGA data are taken to be representative of 1960. Based on the assumption of one leak per

mile of the 391,440 miles of pipeline in 1960 [22], an explosion rate of 3.85 explosions per 100 leaks

may be obtained for 1960. By further assuming

this explosion rate to be constant and applying it to the 573,868 leaks in 1970, a total of 2210

explosions may be estimated for that year. Ten

percent of the total, i.e., 221, are estimated to have damage in excess of $1000. These data for 1960 and 1970 are summarized in figure 7.

6
* ANNUAL AVERAGE OF THE 7-YEAR PERIOD 1957-1963

* * ANNUAL AVERAGE OF THE 10-YEAR PERIOD 1957-1966

TOTAL EXPLOSIONS REPARATION REPARATION NUMBER WITH LESS GREATER

OF SOME THAN THAN

EXPLOSIONS REPARATION $ 1000 $ 1000 EXPLOSIONS INVOLVING GAS-RELATED INCIDENTS

FiCURK 6. American Gas Association data on gas -related explosions

.

3000

2500

2000

1000

500

2210

1508 TOTAL NUMBER

OF EXPLOSIONS

EXPLOSIONS WITH DAMAGE IN EXCESS OF $ 1000

221

221

ESTIMATED TOTAL BASED ON 3.85 EXPLOSIONS PER 1000 LEAKS REPORTED

ESTIMATED EXPLOSIONS

WITH DAMAGE IN EXCESS

OF S 1000 BASED ON 10% OF TOTAL

1960 AGA DATA

1970 ESTIMATED DATA

Figure 7. Number of gas -related explosions during 1960 and 1970.

7
Explosion data from the OPS are shown in figure 8. It is immediately apparent that the total number of explosive incidents reported by the

OPS is an order of magnitude lower than the total number of explosive incidents reported by the

AGA. Under the terms of the 1968 Natural Gas

Pipeline Safety Act, all incidents of any

consequence, that occur within gas-transportation

systems, must be reported to the OPS by the gas

company involved. However, the Act defines gas

distribution systems as extending up to and

including but not downstream (on the customer's

side) of the meter. Accordingly, gas-related

incidents caused by leaks that occur downstream

of the customer's meter are not necessarily

reported to the OPS. However, the AGA [5] reports that about 70 percent of aU gas-related

incidents and about 26 percent of all incidents

involving payment arise from problems originating

downstream of the customer's meter. This system

of reporting (see ref. [17] for a further discussion

of the reporting requirements) may also account

for some of the variations between the AGA and

OPS data shown in figures 7 and 8 respectively.

Because of the different reporting systems, the

OPS figures are considered by the authors as lower bound data for the frequency of gas-related

explosions. The AGA figures are considered more

representative than OPS figures for the total frequency of explosive incidents and the total incidence of explosions causing damage in excess

of $1000. However, the OPS data (fig. 8) do to a

limited extent, identify the number of explosions

involving residential buildings and which of these

involved damage in excess of $1000 and $10,000.

It should be pointed out that in some cases data were not available in terms of dollars of damage,

in these cases the authors estimated an amount of damage.

The data for residential buildings are summarized in figure 9. Except for the 1508 and

151 reported explosions in 1960, the data in this figure are estimates. The number of incidents

involving residential buildings was obtained by

multiplying the total number of AGA reported

incidents by the ratio of the OPS-reported

incidents involving residential buildings to the

OPS-reported total number of incidents. The

number of residential buildings in the two damage

categories was obtained by multiplying the AGAreported incidents causing damage over $1000 by

the ratio of the OPS-reported incidents in the

appropriate damage category to the OPS-reported

incidents causing damage over $1000. The

estimates obtained by this procedure are thought

to be reasonable ones for obtaining "order of magnitude" probabilities for gas-related explosions

involving residential units. Assuming each incident to involve only one

residential unit and using a 1970 total of 67,700,000 residential units (see table 1), the

data in figure 9 may be used to obtain the

following annual frequencies of occurrence:

(1) 18 gas-related explosions per million

dwelling units

(2) 2.5 gas-related explosions per million

dwelling units causing damage in excess

of $1000

(3) 1.6 gas-related explosions per mUlion

dwelling units causing damage in excess

of $10,000

The $10,000 structural damage level is thought

to be reasonably indicative of explosions resulting

in severe damage. Based upon this assumption, it can be estimated that about two severe gas

explosions occur per week in the United States.

It should be noted that these statistics are independent of the number of the dwelling units in a building. Hence, the more units there are in a

building serviced with gas the greater is the

probability of a gas-related explosion occurring

somewhere in the building.

3.3 Bomb Explosions [16]

The strategically-placed explosive bomb is judged to be the most potentially hazardous type

of abnormed loading on a building. The

determined, knowledgeable saboteur could cause

extensive damage to a structure with little chance

of being deterred. Fortunately this type of severe bombing incident is apparently rare in the United

States at this time. Bombings do, however, occur

in the United States and these are examined in

this section.

A record of bombing activity within the United

States has been maintained since mid-1970

following the establishment of the National Bomb

Data Center (NBDC) [9,10,26,27,28]. During the

period July 1970 through February 1972, the

International Association of Chiefs of Police

8
200 I- rl97l DATA

1972 DATA

164

100

l~ rAVERAGE

167

I

92

56

I

TOTAL NUMBER

OF

INCIDENTS

TOTAL

INCIDENTS

INVOLVING DAMAGE

GREATER THAN

$ 1000

TOTAL

INCIDENTS

INVOLVING RESIDENTIAL

BUILDINGS

TOTAL

INCIDENTS

INVOLVING RESIDENTIAL

BUILDINGS WITH DAMAGE

GREATER THAN

S 1000

TOTAL

INCIDENTS

INVOLVING RESIDENTIAL

BUILDINGS WITH DAMAGE GREATER THAN

$ 10,000

FiCliRK 8. Office of Pipeline Safety data on gas -related explosions

.

2500 r2210

TOTAL NUMBER OF INCIDENTS

>

O

Uz

2000

1500 1508

1000 o

500 -

831

151

V. 116 74

TOTAL NUMBER OF INCIDENTS WITH "damage in EXCESS OF $ 1000

1217 r

TOTAL NUMBER OF INCIDENTS

IN RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS

170

TOTAL NUMBER OF INCIDENTS

_IN RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS WITH DAMAGE IN EXCESS

OF $ 1000

109

TOTAL NUMBER OF

INCIDENTS IN RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS WITH DAMAGE

IN EXCESS OF $ 10,000

1960 DATA 1970 DATA

* ACTUAL DATA, OTHER NUMBERS ARE ESTIMATES

Figure 9. Estimated frequency of gas -related explosions in residential buildings.

9
(lACP) operated the NBDC under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Justice. Subsequent to that time, the functions of the Center have been

transferred to the Federal Bureau of Investigation

(FBI). In addition, the California Department of Justice maintains records for that State [8]. Both lACP and FBI data for July 1970 through

June 1974 are shown in figure 10 [9,10,26, 27,28].

The total bombing activity is shown in figure 10(a)

and residential bombing activity is shown in figure

10(b) for both explosive and incendiary bombing.

The lACP data are most readily available for the

entire 18-month period, July 1970 through

December 1971, without a complete breakdown

between 1970 and 1971. FBI data are available on

an annual basis as shown. The lACP data may

also be broken down as shown for total bombing

activity, which is useful to observe trends. Based

on the data shown, it appears that bombing

activity decreased in 1974; although not to the

1970 level. The years 1971 and 1972 might have

been influenced by the Vietnam conflict and the

Presidential election. However, over this 30-month

period only 2.6 percent of all incidents were

attributed to antiwar motives. About 22 percent of the incidents were considered politically related

but the bulk of these were attributed to motives

not necessarily peculiar to the years 1970, 1971,

and 1972. Moreover, the majority of politicallyrelated incidents involved incendiary rather than

explosive devices.

There were an average of 1929 explosive and

incendiary bombing incidents during the reporting

period (fig. 10a) with an average of 492 of these

involving residential units (fig. 10b). The majority

of these incidents involved incendiary bombs;

however, this report considers only explosive

bombings in which detonations actually occurred.

It is important to point out that between 80 and 90

percent of the bomb attacks on residences were

attributed to either personal animosity or malicious

destruction. These motives are thought to be

independent of whether a residence is a singlefamily dwelling or in a high-rise building.

The FBI data provide no information on damage

levels to individual residences as a result of a bombing incident. On the other hand, the lACP

data provide brief descriptions of most of the

reported incidents. These descriptions may include

doUar estimates of damage or descriptions such as minor damage or building destroyed. As a consequence, the lACP data are used in this

report to determine the significance of bomb

incidents.

The explosions were categorized in the following manner:

Moderate: Windows blown out, doors blown

off hinges, and partitions

damaged and/or a damage

estimate of less than $1000.

Intermediate: Fairly extensive structured

damage, such as walls blown

down; and/or a damage

estimate between $1000 and

$10,000.

Severe: Extensive structural damage or dwelling unit destroyed; and/or

a damage above $10,000 and/or

a death (a death was used only

if no other data were available).

Both damage descriptions and dollars of damage

were rarely available, thus the above descriptions

involved some arbitrary judgment on the part of the authors.

The results of the examination of the lACP case

records are shown in figure 11(a) [9,10, 26,27,28]

for the 18-month period July 1970 through

December 1971. Some 83 of the 134 reported

incidents caused moderate, intermediate, or severe damage. Each of the three damage categories

constituted the percent of the total number of incidents as shown.

It is assumed that the percent of the total number of incidents for each damage category is valid for the average of the entire data period July

1970 through June 1974. Based on this assumption,

the estimated annual data shown in figure 11(b) were obtained. Only 8 incidents fell into the

intermediate damage category while 15 were

estimated in the severe damage category.

Using a 1970 total of 67,700,000 residential

units, the following frequencies of occurrence are obtained:

(1) 2.1 explosions per million residential units

(2) 0.92 explosions per million residential units

causing causing moderate damage

(3) 0.12 explosions per million residential units

causing intermediate damage (more than

$1000 but less than $10,000)

(4) 0.22 explosions per million residential units

causing severe damage (more than

$10,000).

10
3000 ,-

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

2889 INCENDIARY BOMBS ^ EXPLOSIVE BOMBS

CZI INCENDIARY BOMBS-NON IGNITION INCENDIARY BOMBS- IGNITION EXPLOSIVE BOMBS -NON DENOTATION ^ EXPLOSIVE BOMBS - DENOTATION

2125

764

10 I 5 &

1962 1955 1929

JULY JULY 1971 1970 1970 THROUGH THROUGH

DEC. DEC.

197! 1970

1972 1973 JAN. 1974 THROUGH JUNE

1974

ANNUAL

AVERAGE

FOR JULY 1970 THROUGH

JUNE 1974

I AGP DATA FBI DATA

(a) TOTAL BOMBING ACTIVITY

600 f500

400

300

200

100

0

568 573 582

1

248

JULY

1970 THROUGH

DEC. I 1971 lACP DATA I

1972

492

I

1973 JAN. ANNUAL

1974 AVERAGE

THROUGH FOR JULY 1970 JUNE THROUGH

1974 JUNE 1974 FBI DATA

(b) RESIDENTIAL BOMBING ACTIVITY

FiGliKK 10. Bombing activity in the United States [9 , 10 ,26 -28].

5 Q

9 y

U

o o

z z

CD I— Is

u_ a: 0 o

1

" i ^ z

200 I150

100

50 -

134

Tmrr 100 NUMBER OF INCIDENTS -PERCENT OF TOTAL

60mm

44.8

15

i iiiiii 11.2

iUilli TOTAL MODERATE INTER- SEVERE DAMAGE MEDIATE DAMAGE

DAMAGE

200 f150

100

50 -

NUMBER OF INCIDENTS -PERCENT OF TOTAL

62

TmiTT 44.8

1^

15

mTTTn

11.2 AVERAGE ESTIMATED ESTIMATED ESTIMATED TOTAL MODERATE INTER- SEVERE

DAMAGE MEDIATE DAMAGE

DAMAGE

(a) lACP DATA FOR JULY 1970 THROUGH DECEMBER 1971 (b) ESTIMATED ANNUAL DATA

Fl(;UKK 11. Residential bombing activity in the United States [9 , 10 ,26 -28].

11
As in the case of gas explosions, these statistics on bombing incidents are independent of the

number of dwelling units in a building. Thus the

probability of an explosion occurring in a building

increases with its size.

3.4 Motor Vehicle Collision

with Buildings [20]

Some 16 million motor vehicle accidents of all types occurred in the United States during 1970

[2]. Although the various states collect a copious

amount of records concerning these accidents,

only a few states identify vehicle collision with a building as a particular category of data. Possibly

because of this, there are no national statistics on

vehicular collision with buildings. Fribush et al.

[20], using data from two states, have attempted to estimate such data. There are two classes of motor vehicle-building

collision; namely (a) those involving a vehicle

operating within its normal domain, e.g., an

automobile colliding with a column in a parking

garage, and (b) those collisions that occur as a consequence of the vehicle leaving its normal

operating domain. Only the last class of accidents

is considered in this report.

Fribush used two approaches to obtain estimates

for the number of motor vehicle-building collisions. A crude proportionality model was used to project

the accident records of the two data states based

on both population and motor vehicle registration.

This approach resulted in an estimate of about

20,000 vehicular collisions with buildings during

1970. An alternate approach, based on regression

analysis, resulted in an estimate of 40,500

collisions distributed between urban and rural areas as shown in figure 12. The estimates

obtained from this second approach are used in

this report since the regression analysis model

considered more variables than the proportionality

model.

No statistics were available which indicated the

type of building struck or the extent of damage

caused. However, data were available on the

estimated dollars of damage for about one-half of the collisions in the two sample states. Based on

these estimates, the data shown in figure 12 were

obtained. About 5800 of the coUisions are estimated to have caused non-auto property

50,000

40,500 TOTAL

Hi

TOTAL ACCIDENTS - 16 x 10 URBAN ACCIDENTS - 11.5 x 10^ RURAL ACCIDENTS -4.5x10^

530 TOTAL

VEHICLE-BUILDING COLLISIONS

DAMAGE DAMAGE DAMAGE

LESS THAN GREATER THAN GREATER THAN

$ 1000 $ 1000 $ 5000 Figure 12. Estimated frequency of motor vehicle collision with buildings in 1970. damage in excess of $1000 and, of these, about

530 collisions caused damage in excess of $5000.

Assuming each incident to involve only one

residential unit and using a 1970 total of 67,700,000 residential units the following annual

frequencies of occurrence are obtained:

(1)

(2)

(3)

600 collisions per million dwelling units. 86 collisions per million residential units

causing non-auto property damage in excess of $1000.

7.8 collisions per million residential units

causing non-auto property damage in excess of $5000.

The last frequency based on $5000 property

damage which is an order of magnitude less than

the preceding one based on $1000 property

damage is thought to be the more meaningful

estimate for severe building collisions.

3.5 Sonic Boom [15]

An aircraft flying at supersonic speeds generates

shock waves which result in the acoustic

phenomenon known as sonic boom. The shock wave created is propagated behind the aircraft in the shape of a cone (fig. 13). The surface of intersection of the cone with the ground, as shown

in figure 13, may be referred to as the swath. The

sonic boom is heard at all points within the swath

and structures within this area are subjected to an

overpressure. Both the swath and overpressure are affected by parameters such as:

12
.e., size, shape. ° aircraft specifications,

length, wing span, etc.,

° aircraft motion, i.e., altitude, speed and

nature of maneuver,

° atmospheric conditions, i.e., temperature,

ambient pressure, turbulence, etc.,

° nature of the terrain.

Existing data on damages caused by sonic boom

have been generated, both accidentally and

experimentally, in the United States almost

exclusively by military aircraft. Some 41,617 sonic

boom damage claims [18] totaling more than

$20,000,000 [38] were filed against the United

States between 1956 and 1970 for damages

allegedly caused by the military. This represents

about one-third of the total number of complaints

made but not all of which were filed. Payments

totaling $1,716,639 were made against 37 percent

of the filed damage claims [18].

CONE SHAPED

SHOCK FRONT

Figure 13. Sonic boom shock front. At least 25 percent of these damage claims

arose from monitored supersonic flights over built- up areas. For example, during a 6-month period in 1964 a total of 1253 booms were deliberately

caused along a straight flight track passing over a northwest portion of Oklahoma City. These

investigative test flights were sponsored by the

Federal Aviation Administration and were

undertaken by the Department of the Air Force. Peak overpressures between 1 and 4.4 psf with a median value of 1.2 psf resulted in 4901 damage

claims being filed but only 287 payments totaling

$123,061 [18] were made.

An accidental boom occurred over Albuquerque

during maneuvers in a 1969 air show by an F—4E

aircraft. Reed [30] estimated that overpressures

must have averaged more than 20 psf over about one square mile of the city. In spite of this relatively high overpressure, damage, although

extensive, was apparently limited to glass

breakage and cracked plaster.

A study [29] involving about 3000 complaints

resulted in the damage breakdown shown in figure

14. Wiggins [38] reached similar conclusions in a study of damage payments arising from four

separate accidental sonic boom incidents.

Experimental programs such as the White Sands

tests which, during 1964 and 1965, involved 1493

booms and overpressures as high as 38 psf [31,39]

produced only relatively minor damage in the

buildings involved. In a foUow-up study Wiggins

[39] reported that some 7 years and 802 booms (56

of which were in the 8-20 psf range) later, any

cumulative damage due to sonic boom was far outweighed by the effects of natural deterioration.

The available data indicate that the sonic boom

damage which has occurred in the past has been

largely "cosmetic" in nature. Thus, barring

changes in aircraft size, type, and operating

procedures, it is concluded that the sonic boom

need not be considered as far as structural

integrity is concerned.

PLASTER CRACKS BROKEN WINDOWS MASONRY

CRACKS BROKEN TILE AND MIRRORS BROKEN

BRIC-A-BRAC DAMAGED

APPLIANCES MISCELLANEOUS

10 20 30 PERCENT OF TOTAL COMPLAINTS

Figure 14. Breakdown of about 3000 complaints due to sonic booms as recorded in Air Force files [29].

3.6 Aircraft Collision with Buildings [14]

Aircraft traffic may be categorized as General

Aviation, Certified Route and Supplemental Air

Carrier, or Military aircraft. The category of General Aviation includes a wide variety of aircraft ranging in use from personal to crop dusting and

accounts for about 80 percent [33] of all nonmilitary flying time. The category of Certified

Route and Supplemental Air Carrier includes

aircraft such as scheduled and non-scheduled

commercial aircraft. The category of MUitary

aircraft is self-explanatory. Accident statistics [1,6,33] for the two categories of civilian aircraft

13
are given in figure 15 for the years 1968 through

1971. Upon request the National Transportation Safety

Board analyzed all Civil Aviation accidents over

the 7-year period 1964 to 1970 in order to estabhsh

the number of aircraft-building collisions, to ascertain the type of building or buildings involved

and to obtain some idea of the nature of nonaircraft property damage. The results of this analysis [19] indicate an average of five incidents

involving residences; i.e., single unit, double unit, or row-type housing. There were an average of eight incidents involving "buildings." This

category of "buildings" includes residential

buildings other than in the preceding category as

well as buildings such as churches, schools, and

office buildings.

During the 7-year reporting period there were

two collisions involving high-rise apartment

buildings [14]. In one instance a single engine

plane struck a glancing blow at the sixteenth story

level of a 30-5tory apartment building. Damage to

the building was of a "cosmetic" nature. In the

second instance a smaU aircraft impacted the air- conditioning equipment at the top of a 16-story

apartment building. In both cases the buildings were shrouded in fog and none of the building

occupants were killed. Collisions with buildings at airports occur more

frequently than the off-airport accidents discussed

here; however, these are considered beyond the

scope of this report.

Available data from the U.S. military indicate

that during the period 1962 to 1972 the Air Force

recorded three accidents involving collisions with

buildings. The Army recorded three accidents

involving collisions with buildings during the

period 1969 to 1972. This averages out to less than one collision per year. NTSB [3] figures also indicate that of all accidents involving large fixed wing civU aircraft over the 6-year period 1964 to 1969, approximately

55 percent occurred within (on or over) the

confines of the airport and an additional 15

5000 r

4000

zLU9

Z 3000

o

lU

eo^ 2000

I <

z

z

<

1000

4968

1 4767 4707 4641

4771

TOTAL NUMBER OF ACCIDENTS

ACCIDENTS WITH FATALITIES 692 647 640 665 66!

_L _L 1968 1969 1970 1971 AVERAGES

U.S. GENERAL AVIATION

CO

I—ZLUO

u

Z

u.o

Of

LU

eoZ

<

z

z

<

100 I80 -

60 -

40

20

TOTAL NUMBER OF ACCIDENTS

71

63

55

48

ACCIDENTS WITH FATALITIES

15

10 "L 8 8

0

I I _L _L

59

1968 1969 1970 1971 AVERAGES

U.S. CERTIFIED ROUTE AND

SUPPLEMENTAL AIR CARRIER

FiciiRK 15. Aviation statistics for U.S. civil aviation [1 ,6,33].

14
percent within 5 miles of the airport. The

remaining 30 percent of the accidents occurred at distances of more than 5 miles from an airport.

More than half, i.e., 55 percent, of the accidents

occurring at distances greater than 5 miles from

airports resulted in damage of some consequence.

Thus the probability of aircraft accident and

hence building collision is dependent upon location

relative to the airport and the size (primarily

height) of the building.

Assuming that each of the 13 or so aircraft with

building collisions per year involved one residential

unit and using a 1970 total of 67,700,000

residential units, a high frequency estimate of about 2

collisions per 10 million residential units per year

is obtained. A breakdown of this conservative estimate

of total collision incidents into categories such as severe damage is not possible at this time. However, as described earlier, it is known that damage to the

structure is not severe in each collision incident. Thus,

in general, it is concluded that aircraft collision need

not be specifically considered as an abnormal loading.

However, buildings in close proximity to an airport may

require a specific site analysis to be made.

3.7 Hazardous Materials [35]

Explosive incidents may occur in urban areas during the normal transportation of hazardous

materials or during storage of such materials. The

magnitude of the problem is illustrated by an

accident that occurred in East St. Louis, Missouri on January 22, 1972 [32]. During a railroad yard

operation, a tank car filled with propylene, a

derivative of liquid petroleum gas, was punctured

by another car. The released propylene formed an

unconfined vapor cloud which subsequently

exploded. Some 650 homes were damaged, 100

families were homeless, and an estimated 6.5

million dollars of damage occurred. Strehlow [36]

tabulating 108 such explosions over a 42-year

period contends that incidents such as the one

described above are increasing.

Steele et al. [35] studied data on five different

handling procedures for hazardous materials, i.e.,

(1) pipeline (except natural gas), (2) water carriers,

(3) motor vehicles, (4) railroad, and (5) storage. On

the whole they were unable to develop empirical

evidence that determined whether or not such

operations pose a threat to buildings. The trend

toward increased volumes of materials shipped in proximity to structures raises the prospect of future incidents. However, it is thought that this

source of abnormal loading need not be considered

at this time.

4. Evaluation of Data

4.1 Assumptions and Summary

of Reviewed Data

The following abnormal loads have been

considered in this report:

° Gas-Related Explosions

° Bomb Explosions

Motor Vehicle Collision with Buildings

° Sonic Boom

° Aircraft Collision with Buildings

° Explosion of Hazardous Materials

These loadings do not constitute a complete list of abnormal loadings which may occur. However,

on the basis of the various surveys described

earlier (see sec. 1), these loads are plausible

potential sources of the initial failure which might

lead to progressive collapse.

It has been concluded earlier that the sonic

boom, aircraft collision, and hazardous material

handling do not usually constitute a problem for buildings. However, it is possible that certain

building locations may require a site study.

The data for the gas explosion, bomb explosion,

and vehicular collision may be discussed in terms

of probability theory. The probability of structural

failure due to abnormal loads, P(F)^, may be

stated as

P(F)^B = P(F|AB) X P(AB) (1)

where

P(F|AB) - Probability of failure given an abnormal load event P(AB) = Probability of occurrence of an abnormal load event

The probability of occurrence of an abnormal

load event, P(AB), is dependent on factors such as building location or type of service system but is independent of any particular type of building

construction or procedure used in design. On the

other hand, the probability of failure given an

event, P(F|AB), is a function of building type as

well as the particular codes and standards used in

15
its design and construction. Thus, statistics on

failure due to abnormal loadings should include

the frequency of occurrence of an event as well as

the frequency of failure of a particular building

type as a consequence of the event. The total number of events, required to estimate

the probability of occurrence, P(AB), is usually

available for the loadings described in this report.

However, the probability of failure given the event,

P(F|AB), is not available. Instead, the number of incidents causing damage in excess of a specific

level (as measured in dollars) or a brief description

of damage is usually provided. There is rarely

complete information on the type or number of structures affected or an adequate description of

their damage. There are also no available U.S.

data which provide a correlation between a

specified damage level and a corresponding

damage loss in doUars. Finally, there are no data on the load characteristics of the actual events.

In order to compare the data for the gas

explosion, bomb explosion, and vehicular coUision,

the following definitions of damage (similar to those for bomb explosions) are adopted for the

remainder of this report:

(1) Total incidents—All incidents involving a

particular abnormal load.

(2) Intermediate or greater damage—Damage in excess of $1000 for gas explosions, $1000

for vehicular coUision, or described as intermediate or greater for bomb

explosions. This level implies fairly

extensive damage such as walls blown

down.

(3) Severe damage—Damage in excess of $10,000 for gas explosions; $5000 for vehicular coUision; or described as severe

for bomb explosions. This level implies

extensive structural damage, such as

unit destroyed.

These definitions involve some arbitrary

judgment because of the limitations on the

available data. However, it is interesting to note

that Taylor and Alexander [37] coUected data in which some 122 gas explosions caused damage

judged as significant (similar to the category of severe used in this report) with an estimated total loss of repair £ 500,000. This is an average of £4100 per incident or about $10,200 (at an exchange rate of $2.50) in terms of the 1971, 1972

coUection period. Although circumstances differ considerably, this lends further substance to the

judgments made above which correlate damage to doUar amounts. The estimated annual frequencies

for the categories defined above are summarized in figure 16. The annual frequencies shown in figure 16 may

be discussed in terms of eq (1). The probabUity of occurrence, P(AB), is readUy obtained from the

data in the figure. Since data on P(F|AB) and

P(F)j^B are not avaUable, data have been presented

in a form resulting in the probability of damage

above a specified level, P(D)p,

P(D), = P(DJAB) X P(AB) (2)

where

P(DJAB)

P(AB)

Probability of damage above a specified level given an abnormal load event

Probability of occurrence of an abnormal load event

Subscript indicating the specified

damage level, e.g., intermediate

or severe.

5 «

u O

UJ —I 2 5t a. a

z

Zi O

GAS

EXPLOSIONS BOMBEXPLOSIONS VEHICULARCOLLISIONS Figure 16 loadings

. Summary of annual probabilities of abnormal

for 1970.

16
Table 2. Calculated estimates of P(D^|AB)

P(D)p Calculated P(DJAB)

Abnormal Based On Based On Based On Based On

Loading P(AB) Int. Damage Severe Damage Int. Damage Severe Damage

Gas Expl.

Bomb Expl. Veh. Coll.

18

2.1 600

XlQ- XIO"

XIO"

2.5 0.34

86.0

xlO'*

XIO'*

XIO"*

1.6 0.22

7.8

xiO'" XIO'*

XIO"*

0.14

0.16

0.14

0.089

0.11 0.013

NOTE: The probabilities listed are per dwelling unit. The terms P(D)p and P(AB) are obtainable from for the meaning of the numbers. It should also be

the data in figure 16 and P(Dp|AB) may be noted that the statistics do not differentiate between

computed using eq (2) rewritten as building types or the regulations used in their design.

P(DJAB) =

P(AB) (2A)

Using this equation, values for P(Dp|AB) were computed and are shown in table 2. The probabilities of any one of the abnormal

events resulting in intermediate damage is on the

order of 15 percent. However, for severe damage,

the probabilities for the gas and bomb explosions

are about 10 percent but only about 1 percent for the vehicular collision. This merely indicates that,

given one of the three abnormal loadings, the gas

or bomb explosion is more likely to result in severe structural damage than the vehicular

collision. Since abnormal loads are quite rare and reasonably

uniformly distributed in time, it may be assumed that

their occurrence is a Poisson process. If N(T) is the

number of abnormal loads occurring in the time

interval T, then

P[N(T) = n] =

(\T)»e-XT

(3)

where X is the mean rate of occurrence of abnormal

loads; for small values of X,K = P(AB). Denoting pf =

P(F| AB), the number of failed elements Np in T is also a Poisson process with the same probability law as equation 3, replacing X with \pf. The probability of one

or more structural elements failing from gas explosions

is then P[Nf(T) > 0] =; p,XT.

With the lifetime T typically about 60 years, X 18

XlO-6, and assuming that P(D severe I AB) P(F|AB) — 0.1 from table 2, the probabihty of failure due to abnormal load during the life of the structure is about

1.1 X 10"! This compares unfavorably with the probability of failure under normal loads, which is fre- quently taken to be of the order of 10"^ or less. This

is a crude comparison, but it does provide a "feel"

4.2 Effect of Building Size

The probability of an abnormal loading event

occurring in a building is likely to increase with

the building size. Thus the probability of a gas or bomb explosion is assumed to increase in proportion with the number of units in a building. In the case of the vehicular collision, it is assumed

that only the ground story is usually accessible to a vehicle and that the probabUity of collision is proportional only to the number of units at ground

level. The effect of building size on the probability of a gas explosion occurring in the building is shown in figure 17 by plotting probability versus the number

of dwelling units (the probabilities were obtained

by multiplying the appropriate data in figure 16 by

the number of residential units). Auxiliary axes are provided to indicate the number of stories when

there are 5, 10, 15 or 20 dwelling units per story.

A data point for an explosion in a building the

size of Ronan Point (see sec. 1) is shown based on

an annual frequency of 2.2 severe gas-related

explosions per million dwelling units (Great Britain

data, see ref. [17]) and a 22-story high building

with 5 dwelling units per story. Note that the point

is very close to the U.S. data for explosions

causing severe damage. Similar plots are presented in figures 18 and 19 for bomb explosions

and vehicular collisions, respectively. The "Ronan

Point" estimate is included for reference.

The variation of the probability for the severe abnormal loading events of figures 17, 18, and 19

are summarized in figure 20 for comparison. Since

the data for vehicular collisions were taken

proportional to the number of units at the ground

level rather than the number of units in the

building, comparisons can only be made at discrete points. Thus, the horizontal lines shown in

17
figure 20, which indicate probability of severe 5 stories in height. It can be shown by reading the

collision, are maximums for buildings with the appropriate axis, that this height of 5 stories is number of units per story shown encircled in the independent of the number of units per story,

figure. For instance, assuming 10 units/story and Similarly bomb explosions exceed vehicular

reading the appropriate axis, it may be seen that collisions for buildings over 35 stories in height,

the probability for a gas explosion exceeds a This height of 35 stories is independent of the

vehicular collision for buildings greater than about number of units per story.

I \ I I I I I 1 1 (53)

i 5 iO 15 20 25 30 35 40^>'

FiGIiKK 17. Variation of probability of gas -related explosions with increasing size of

residential building .

18
10^

10^ U 1 I I I I I I 1 I I I I 1 I 1 I I I

I 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

TOTAL NUMBER OF UNITS IN BUILDING

FiGURK 18. Variation of probability of bomb explosions with increasing size of

residential building

.

19
i5®Li_l_i I

I

I 1 I I 1 I I I I I I 1 I 15 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 NUMBER OF UNITS PER STORY

FicUHK 19. Variation of probability of vehicular collision with increasing size of

residential building

20
4.3 Comparison with Other Data

Taylor and Alexander [37] and Fry [21] have

conducted surveys in Great Britain on building

damage due to gas explosions. Taylor and

Alexander also studied other abnormal loading events but the data were more limited.

Fry's survey consisted of examining fire brigade

reports during the period 1957 through 1970.

Taylor's survey consisted only of 1971 and 1972

but was more thorough than Fry's in that a better

data base, which included some field investigations, was available. Direct comparison

between these surveys and the data in this report

are made on the basis of the assumption that Fry's

total number of gas explosions causing severe damage and Taylor's incidents causing significant

damage are comparable to incidents reported

herein which caused severe damage.

On this basis, 18 percent (241 out of 1353) of Fry's incidents were severe. Taylor and Alexander

reported 20 percent (75 out of 386) incidents as

severe. In this survey 9 percent (109 out of 1217) were considered severe. It is interesting to note

that if the intermediate damage level is used

rather than severe damage level, the result for this study is 14 percent (170 out of 1217). While the

agreement is better, the number is not thought to be as significant.

Taylor and Alexander also found that at least 58

of 98 incidents attributed to piped gas originated

from circumstances beyond the user's control. These were sources such as external main or service pipe as well as meter or installation pipework.

21
4.4 Load Data

The previously cited report by Taylor and

Alexander presented data on peak pressure

reached in 122 gas explosion incidents judged as

severe. Each of the incidents was investigated

and a low and high estimate for pressure was

assigned based on characteristics of physical

damage. Their results are shown in figure 21. As expected, "large peak pressures" occur only

rarely. In particular the pressure of 34kN/m* (5

psi), which is mentioned frequently in the

literature on progressive collapse, was exceeded

only four times (at most) in the two years of their survey.

120

PEAK PRESSURE (psi)

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

HIGHEST ESTIMATE

LOWEST ESTIMATE

10 20 30 40 50 60 70

PEAK PRESSURE (kN/m^)

Figure 21. Frequency -severity curve for the significant events in Taylor and Alexander's survey [38].

5. Conclusions and Concluding

Remarks

5.1 Conclusions

The purpose of this report has been to discuss

plausible sources of abnormal loading events and

to estimate the risk of the loadings in residential

building design with regard to progressive

collapse.

A number of assumptions (sec. 4.1) have been

necessary in order to analyze the data presented in this report. These are related primarily to the lack

of detailed descriptions of damage accompanying

the various abnormal loading events and the lack

of detailed descriptions of the buildings involved

in the incidents. In spite of these limitations the

following conclusions are considered valid. Where

numerical data are presented they are thought to be the correct order of magnitude.

1. At this time it appears unnecessary to include sonic boom, aircraft collision, and

hazardous material accidents in design for progressive collapse for typical building locations.

It may be necessary in some instances to prepare

site studies, as for buildings located adjacent to airports.

2. Gas explosions occur with an annual

frequency of 18 events per million dwelling units

with an annual frequency of 1.6 events per million

dwelling units causing severe damage. Based upon

the assumption that severe damage is equivalent to structural failure, there is a 9 percent probability

of local structural failure, given that the event

occurs.

3. Bomb explosions occur with an annual

frequency of 2.1 events per million dwelling units

with an annual frequency of 0.22 events per

million dwelling units causing severe damage.

Based on the assumption that severe damage is equivalent to structural failure, there is an 11 percent probability of element failure given that the event occurs.

4. Vehicular collisions with buildings occur

with an annual frequency of 600 events per million

dwelling units with an annual frequency of 6.8 events per million dwelling units causing severe damage. Based on the assumption that severe damage is equivalent to structural failure, there is a 1 percent probability of element failure given

that the event occurs.

22
5. The probabilities for the preceding three events increase with increasing building size as shown in figures 17, 18, 19, and 20. For the case

of severe damage, the gas explosion event approaches an annual probability of 1X10~' and

exceeds the bomb explosion event by an order of magnitude and is greater than that for vehicular

collisions for buildings in excess of five stories in height.

6. No load data for actual events are available

except for Taylor and Alexander's survey in the

United Kingdom (fig. 21) which considered

primarily data for gas explosions. At the most, 3

percent of these events had peak pressures in excess of 34kN/m=' (5 psi). This pressure has been

frequently mentioned in progressive collapse

literature.

7. The statistical reporting of abnormed

loading events needs to be considerably improved

in order to obtain load data and damage data in particular types of building construction.

5.2 Concluding Remarks

In dealing with events which have a low

probability of occurrence but potentially severe consequences it is necessary to consider what

society is willing to accept. Starr [34] has

suggested that social activities consist of "voluntary" (consciously assumed) and

"involuntary" (unconsciously assumed) activities. His data indicated that the public will accept a "voluntary" type of risk which is on the order of 1000 times greater than "involuntary" risks. He

finally concluded that "we are loathe to let others

do unto us what we happily do to ourselves."

There is a parallel here with progressive collapse if

it is accepted that living in one's home and being

exposed to death falls into the category of "involuntary" action. The thought that a person in one dwelling unit should be exposed to death as a consequence of an abnormal loading event in another dwelling unit appears to be unacceptable.

However, the risk involved should be kept at a

level associated with the necessary or "involuntary" activities. The probability of failure P(F);^B as expressed in eq (1) consists of two terms. The structural

designer has very little control over the probability

of an abnormal event, P(AB). The probability of the event may be reduced by other action such as improvements of pipeline safety in the case of gas

explosions. However, the structure can be

designed so that the probability of failure given the occurrence of an event P(F|AB), is acceptably

small. This approach of designing the structure to

resist specified loads has been referred to as

"soecific local resistance." Since the frequency of a gas explosion exceeds the other abnormal

loading events by an order of magnitude, it is suggested that this loading may be used as the

design basis.

A second approach, when it is infeasible to design the critical elements with sufficient

strength, is to design the structure in such a way

that if an element fails, the resulting forces may

be redistributed without inducing progressive

collapse. This approach has been referred to as the "alternate path" method.

6. Acknowledgments

The cooperation of the following individuals and

organizations in gathering the statistics used in this report is gratefully acknowledged:

° Jane P. Morton, International Association of Chiefs of Police

° Federal Bureau of Investigation

° American Gas Association

° Mr. Starke Jett, National Transportation

Safety Board

° Major William M. Price, U.S. Army Agency

for Aviation Safety

° Colonel Ray C. Staley, Department of the

Army

° Commander R. A. Eldridge, Naval Safety

Center, Department of the Navy

The authors would like to thank Dr. B. R. EUingwood, Dr. C. Culver, Mr. S. R. Hastings,

and Dr. J. G. Kowalski of the Center for Building

Technology, National Bureau of Standards; Mr. L. A. Issen of the Center for Fire Research, National

Bureau of Standards; and Mr. W. J. Werner of the

Office of Policy Development and Research,

Department of Housing and Urban Development

for their review of the manuscript.

23
7. References

[1] Accident and Fatality Rates, 1962-1972. National Transportation Safety Board, Washington, D.C.,

(Analysis dated 23 January 1973).

[2] "Accident Facts," National Safety Council, Chicago,

Illinois! 1971.

[3] Airport Proximity Study, U.S. Civil Aviation 1964-1969. National Transportation Safety Board, Washington,

D.C.

[4] Allen, D. E., and Schriever, W. R., "Progressive

Collapse, Abnormal Loads, and Building Codes,"

Structural Failures : Modes , Causes , Responsibilities , American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1973.

[5] Arthur D. Little Inc., "Public Safety and Gas

Distribution," Research Report prepared for the American Gas Association, Washington, D.C,

December 1967.

[6] Aviation Forecasts Fiscal Years 1973-1984, Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration,

September 1972.

[7] Baker, J. F., Williams, E. L., and Lax, D., "The Design

of Framed Buildings Against High Explosive Bombs,"

The Civil Engineer in War, Institution of CivU

Engineers, Vol. 3, London, 1948.

[8] "Bomb Accidents in California During 1971," Division of Law Enforcement, Organized Crime and Criminal

Intelligence Branch, California Department of Justice, Sacramento, California.

[9] "Bomb Summary," Uniform Crime Reports, Federal Bureau of Investigation, National Bomb Data Center,

1972.

[10] "Bomb Summary," Uniform Crime Reports, Federal Bureau of Investigation, National Bomb Data Center,

1973.

[11] Bureau of the Census, "1960 Census of Housing. Detailed Housing Characteristics, United States Summary

Report," U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington,

D.C, U.S. Government Printing Office.

[12] Bureau of the Census, "1970 Census of Housing. Detailed Housing Characteristics, United States Summary

Report," U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington,

D.C, U.S. Government Printing Office.

[13] Burnett, E. F. P., "Abnormal Loadings and the Safety of Buildings," Industrialization In Concrete Building

Construction, Publication SP 48, American Concrete

Institute, Detroit, 1975.

[14] Burnett, E. F. P., "Aircraft Accidents and Building

Safety," NBS-GCR 76-67, Center for BuUding

Technology, National Bureau of Standards,

Washington, D.C 20234, August 1973.

[15] Burnett, E. F. P., "Sonic Boom and Considerations of Building Safety," NBS-GCR 76-68, Center for Building

Technology, National Bureau of Standards,

Washington, D.C. 20234, August 1973.

[16] Burnett, E. F. P., "The Structural Implications of Explosive Bombing Incidents," NBS-GCR 76-66, Center for Building Technology, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234, August 1973.

[17] Burnett, E. F. P., Somes, N. F., and Leyendecker, E. V., "Residential Buildings and Gas-Related Explosions,"

NBSIR 73-208, Center for Building Technology,

National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.

20234, June 1973.

[18] Clarkson, B. L. and Mayes, W. H., "Sonic Boom Induced

Building Structure Response Including Damage,"

Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 51, No. 2, (Part 3), February 1972.

[19] Collisions with Buildings, U.S. Civil Aviation 1964-1970, National Transportation Safety Board, Washington,

D.C. (Analysis Dated March 1972).

[20] Fribush, S. L., Bowser, D., and Chapman, R., "Estimates of Vehicular Collisions with Multi-Story

Residential Buildings," NBSIR 73-175, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C, April 1973.

[21] Fry, J. E., "Gas Explosions Attended by Fire Brigades in Dwellings," Journal of the Institute of Fuel, England,

August-September 1971.

[22] Gas -Facts-A Statistical Record of the Gas Utility Industry in 1970, American Gas Association,

Washington, D.C, 1970.

[23] Griffiths, H., Pugsley, A., and Saunders, D., Report of

the Inquiry into the Collapse of Flats at Ronan Point

,

Canning Town, Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London, England, 1968.

[24] Ligtenberg, F. K., "Structural Safety and Fire (1.3)," Build International , London, Vol. 4, No. 5, September/October 1971.

[25] McGuire, W., "Prevention of Progressive Collapse,"

ASCE-IABSE Regional Conference on Tall Buildings,

Bangkok, January 1974.

[26] "Monthly Summary Reports, January through December

1971," National Bomb Data Center, International Association of Chiefs of Police, Gaithersburg,

Maryland.

[27] Morton, J. P., "Bombing Incident Target Analysis, July 1970—December 1971," International Association of Chiefs of Police, Gaithersburg, Maryland, 1973.

[28] Morton, J. P. and Persinger, G. S., "Bombing in the United States, July 1970-June 1971," The National Bomb Data Center, International Association of Chiefs

of Police Inc., Gaithersburg, Maryland, 1971.

[29] Nixon, C W. and Hubbard, H. H., "Results of USAFNASA-FAA Flight Program to Study Community

Responses to Sonic Booms in the Greater St. Louis Area," NASA TN D-2705, May 1965.

[30] Reed, J. W., "The Thunderbird Boom Incident,"

Albuquerque, November 16, 1969. Sandia Laboratories Technical Memorandum, SC-TM-70-592, January 1971.

[31] Sharpe, R. L. and Garrison Kost, "Structural Response to Sonic Boom," Proc. A.S.C.E., Journal of Structural

Division, Vol. 97, No. ST4, April 1971.

[32] Somes, N. F., "Abnormal Loadings on Buildings and

Progressive Collapse," a paper in "Building Practices

for Disaster Mitigation," National Bureau of

Standards, Building Science Series 46, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402, February 1973.

[33] Statistical Handbook of Aviation , Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402,

1970.

[34] Starr, C, "Social Benefit versus Technological Risk,"

Science, Washington, D.C, Vol. 165, No. 3899, September 19, 1969.

24
Steele, W. A., Bowser, D., and Chapman, R. E., "The

Incidence of Hazardous Material Accidents During

Transportation and Storage," IWBSIR 73-412 , National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234, November 1973.

Strehlow, R. A., "Unconfined Vapor Cloud Explosions—

An Overview," Report AAE TR 721, UILU-ENG. 72

0501, Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering

Department, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, February 1972.

[37] Taylor, N. and Alexander, S. J., "Structural Damage in Buildings Caused by Gaseous Explosions and Other

Accidental Loadings," CP 45/74, Building Hirsi-arch Establishment, England, March 1974.

[38] Wiggins, Jr., J. H., Effects of Sonic lioorii,]. II. Wiggins

Co., Palos Verdes Estates, California, 1969.

[39] Wiggins, Jr., J. H., "Sonic Boom and Natural

Deterioration: Effects on Buildings. White Sands, N.M. Structural Survey," Department of Transportation, F.A.A. Report No. FAARD-72-25,

February 1972.

25

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1976 0-2I7-228
NBS-1 14A (REV. 7-73)

'j.S. DEPT. OF COMM. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NO. NBS BSS-89

2. Gov't Accession

No.

3. Recipient's Accession No.

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

THE INCIDENCE OF ABNORMAL LOADING IN RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS

5. Publication Date December 1976

6. Performing Organization Code

7. AUTHOR(S)

Edgar V. T.pvpndprkpr flnri Fric F.P, Burnett

8. Performing Organ. Report No.

9. Performinc? organization name and address

national bureau of standards

department of commerce

washington, d.c. 20234

10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.

11. Contract/Grant No. IAA-H-37-72

Task 408

12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Complete Address (Street, City, State, ZIP)

Division of Energy, Building Technology and Standards

Office of Policy Development and Research

Dept. of Housing and Urban Development

13. Type of Report & Period Covered Final

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. SUPPllEMEf\!TARY NOTES

This report supersedes NBSIR 76-1048 ; Library of Congress Card Number: 76-26684

16. ABSTRACT (A 200-woTd or /ess (actual summary of most signilicant information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.) The findings of an analysis of available U.S. statistics concerning the incidence of

abnormal loading events in residential buildings are presented. The study evaluates

natural gas explosions, bomb explosions, motor vehicle collision, sonic boom, aircraft

collision, and explosion of hazardous materials.

It is concluded that the gas related explosion, bomb explosion, and vehicular collision

are of significance in building design for progressive collapse. Of these, the natural

gas explosion is the most significant in terms of incidence. The gas explosion causing

severe damage occurs with an annual frequency of 1.6 per million dwelling units and

approaches a probability of 1 x 10"^ per apartment building per year.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name; separated by semicolons

)

Bombs; building codes; design criteria; explosions; gas; hazardous materials; loads;

progressive collapse; sonic boom; vehicular collision.

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