Chemical and Physical Characterization 

of Poly(p-phenylene-2,6-benzobisoxazole) 

Fibers Used in Body Armor

NISTIR 7237
 

NISTIR 7237

Chemical and Physical Characterization of 

Poly(p-phenylene-2,6-benzobisoxazole) Fibers 

Used in Body Armor

Joannie Chin, Eric Byrd, Amanda Forster, 

Xiaohong Gu, Tinh Nguyen, Walter Rossiter, 

Stephanie Scierka and Lipiin Sung

Polymeric Materials Group

Materials and Construction Research Division

Building and Fire Research Laboratory

Paul Stutzman

Inorganic Group

Materials and Construction Research Division

Building and Fire Research Laboratory

John Sieber

Spectrochemical Methods Group

Analytical Chemistry Division

Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory

Kirk Rice

Office of Law Enforcement Standards

Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory

Sponsored by:

National Institute of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

May 2006

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Carlos M. Gutierrez, Secretary

TECHNOLOGY ADMINISTRATION

Robert C. Cresanti, Under Secretary for Technology

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY

William A. Jeffrey, Director
 3

ABSTRACT 

 Problems with the performance and durability of body armor based on 

poly(p-phenylene-2,6-benzobisoxazole) (PBO) fiber became apparent in the summer of 

2003, when PBO-based body armor that had been manufactured less than 8 months 

earlier was penetrated by a bullet. Mechanical testing of the yarns taken from the 

penetrated vest indicated a 30 % decrease in tensile strength relative to yarns taken from 

new, unworn PBO-based vests of the same model. A number of analytical metrologies 

were used to characterize the yarns, including chemical (elemental and molecular) 

analysis, mechanical testing, thermal analysis and microscopy. Attenuated total 

reflectance (ATR) infrared analyses of the yarns revealed differences in their degree of 

hydrolytic degradation as determined by the presence of benzamide structures. The rank 

order of reduction in benzamide, which corresponds to benzamide hydrolysis, correlates 

with the rank order reduction in tensile strengths for these same yarns. 

Key Words: body armor, poly(p-phenylene-2,6-benzobisoxazole) (PBO), attenuated 

total reflectance (ATR), infrared (IR) spectroscopy, fiber, yarn, hydrolysis
 4

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES 

In recent years, high performance fibers based on poly(p-phenylene-2,6-

benzobisoxazole) (PBO) have become prominent in high strength applications such as 

body armor, ropes and cables, and recreational equipment. Problems with the 

performance and durability of PBO-based body armor became apparent to the law 

enforcement community in the summer of 2003, when ballistic penetration of PBO-based 

body armor occurred in three separate incidents. 

The first incident involved the shooting of a police officer near Pittsburgh, PA 

(hereinafter referred to as the “officer”) in June 2003. The bullet pierced the officer’s 

PBO-based body armor, which had been manufactured less than 8 months earlier. 

Mechanical testing of the yarns taken from the officer’s vest indicated a 30 % decrease in 

tensile strength relative to yarns taken from new, unworn PBO-based vests of the same 

model. Subsequently, two other incidents involving the penetration of PBO-based body 

armor by a bullet occurred that same year, but the evidentiary circumstances surrounding 

these incidents are more complicated and not as well documented and, as such, will not 

be discussed here. 

These events prompted the Department of Justice (DOJ) and U.S. Attorney 

General John Ashcroft to announce a Body Armor Safety Initiative on November 18, 

2003 [1], which tasked the National Institute of Justice (NIJ), the research, development 

and evaluation arm of DOJ, to address technical issues associated with PBO-based body 

armor. In response to the Attorney General’s initiative, NIST’s Office of Law 

Enforcement Standards (OLES) and research groups within the NIST laboratories have 

undertaken a parallel, multi-phase effort to characterize chemical and physical 

degradation of PBO fiber and to correlate this degradation to body armor durability. 
 5

The primary goals of the work described in this report, which comprises Phase I 

of the research program, were to: 

 Identify metrologies for characterizing the chemical, physico-mechanical and 

morphological properties of PBO fibers extracted from the officer’s vest, new, 

unworn vests, and virgin PBO yarn. 

 Utilize the above-identified analytical metrologies to carry out a comprehensive 

study of the chemical, physico-mechanical and morphological properties of the 

abovementioned yarns. 

 Identify fiber properties that are correlated with the tensile properties of PBO. 

The research detailed in this interim report is ongoing and will be updated as new 

findings become available. Future phases of this research program will address 

degradation mechanisms, accelerated aging and prediction of PBO fiber service life. 

OVERVIEW OF PBO 

Poly(p-phenylene-2,6-benzobisoxazole), or PBO, is a member of the benzazole 

polymer family and is characterized by the heterocyclic benzobisoxazole group in its 

main chain structure, as shown in Figure 1. The conjugated benzobisoxazole and phenyl 

rings in the PBO repeat unit contribute to extended π-electron delocalization and 

molecular rigidity, which provides high thermal stability and outstanding mechanical 

properties to this class of polymers. The chemistry and processing of PBO and related 

polymers has been documented [2, 3] and is not discussed here. 

 PBO fibers, as are the majority of the polybenzazole-based fibers, are extremely 

strong, tough and stiff, with tensile strengths and moduli superior to those of polyaramid 

or ultra-high molecular weight polyethylenes. Like carbon and other organic fibers, the 

axial compressive strength of PBO is quite low, being approximately 10 % to 15 % of the 
 6

tensile strength. One explanation for this low compressive strength is that the 

intermolecular/interfibrillar forces in PBO are weak, allowing slippage of polymer chains 

or fibrils to occur under compressive load. Compressive failure is often accompanied by 

the formation of kink bands, which has been explained by some researchers to be the 

result of fibrillar instability [4]. 

The morphology and structure of PBO has been studied extensively using X-ray 

scattering, X-ray diffraction and various microscopic techniques, including scanning 

electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and atomic force microscopy. It 

is generally accepted that PBO fiber has a fibrillar structure made up of extended, 

oriented PBO molecules, with individual fibril diameters ranging from 7 nm into the 

micron range [5]. Kitagawa et al. studied PBO using small angle X-ray scattering 

(SAXS) and transmission electron microscopy and observed that capillary voids 

nominally 2 nm to 3 nm in diameter and 30 nm long exist between the microfibrils in the 

fiber core. It was later determined that these capillary voids contain water that had been 

trapped in the fiber during the spinning process [6]. It has also been observed that the 

skin region of PBO fiber exhibits a higher degree of molecular orientation than the core 

region [7] and is essentially void-free [5]. 

 A number of questions exist concerning the hydrolytic and ultraviolet (UV)-

visible light stability of PBO. The manufacturer has reported tensile strength degradation 

of PBO fiber following exposure to heat and moisture [8]. Only a few studies in the peerreviewed literature provide any data on the hydrolytic stability of PBO in aqueous and 

acidic conditions. As far back as 1995, researchers at NASA evaluated the chemical 

resistance of PBO and observed significant losses in tensile strength following immersion 
 7

in water, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, sodium chloride and sodium 

hypochlorite [9]. More recently, So et al. studied PBO fiber as well as model 

compounds of PBO in a variety of acidic and basic conditions [10]. Bond cleavage in 

PBO fiber was observed when it was dissolved in hot methane-sulfonic acid; no changes 

in relative molecular mass were observed following exposure to sulfuric acid, 

poly(phosphoric acid) or sodium hydroxide. 

 An extensive review conducted of the organic chemistry literature on hydrolysis 

of simple oxazoles and benzoxazole compounds can be found in Appendix A. This 

review summarizes findings that indicate, in general, that oxazoles and benzoxazoles 

undergo hydrolysis in conditions ranging from neutral to acidic, and at ambient as well as 

elevated temperatures. 

A number of low relative molecular mass benzoxazole-containing compounds 

have been documented to undergo ring-opening upon exposure to ultraviolet and/or 

visible radiation [11, 12, 13]. Only one study could be found that documents the effects 

of ultraviolet-visible radiation on PBO fibers, in which substantial (> 90 %) loss in tensile 

strength was observed following 450 h exposure to 340 nm radiation [9]. 
 8

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES*

Vest Materials

The comparative analysis of PBO materials included yarns from: 

• The back panel of the officer’s vest, manufactured in November 2002. This 

material will be referred to as the “officer’s” vest. The front panel, where the 

bullet penetration occurred, is currently being retained as evidence and could not 

be obtained for analysis at the time of this writing. 

• A new, unworn vest of the same model and construction as the officer’s vest, style 

SMU-IIA+105130, manufactured in September 2003. This material will be 

referred to as the “new” vest. 

• A vest from the National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center 

(NLECTC) Compliance Test Program Archive, style SMU-IIA+105130, 

manufactured in March 2001; and submitted for compliance testing in May 2001. 

This material will be referred to as the “archive” vest. 

• PBO spool yarn, manufactured in August 2003 and provided to NIST by the fiber 

manufacturer in May 2004 for this study. This material will be referred to as 

“virgin” yarn. 

The ballistic panels from the vests described above consist of 20 layers of woven 

PBO fabric stacked together and diagonally stitched. For use in the field, the ballistic 

panel is typically inserted into a moisture-permeable plastic liner, referred to as the 

covering. The panel and covering are then inserted into a cotton fabric carrier. 

Yarn Extraction Procedure

 Forty horizontally oriented (weft) yarns were extracted from the tenth layer of 

each vest. In the officer’s vest, the eleventh ayer was used because the tenth layer was 

 

*

 Certain commercial equipment, instruments or materials are identified in this paper in order to specify the 

experimental procedure adequately. Such identification is not intended to imply recommendation or 

endorsement by the National Institute of Standards and Technology, nor is it intended to imply that the 

materials or equipment identified are necessarily the best available for this purpose. 
 9

diagonally oriented. Nitrile gloves were worn throughout the extraction procedure to 

minimize contamination due to handling. Seams were first carefully removed from the 

ballistic panel to free the layers. Yarns were then extracted one by one from the bottom 

of the 10th layer using with a small hook, and wrapped in aluminum foil that had been 

cleaned with methanol and acetone. This yarn removal process is depicted in Figure 2. 

Each foil packet was labeled with vest name, layer number and yarn number. Virgin yarn 

was used directly off of the spool. 

Tensile Testing

 To obtain yarn mechanical properties, tensile testing of yarns was carried out in 

accordance with ASTM D2256-02, “Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Yarn 

by the Single-Strand Method”, using an Instron Model 4482 test frame equipped with a 

91 kg (200 lb) load cell, and pneumatic yarn and cord grips (Instron model 2714-006). 

Jaw separation was 7.9 cm (3.1 in) and cross-head speed was 2.3 cm/min (0.9 in/min). In 

this study, yarns were nominally 38.1 cm (15 in) long, and given 60 twists on a customdesigned yarn twisting device. This level of twist was maintained on the yarns as they 

were inserted into the pneumatic yarn and chord grips. Six replicates from each vest 

were tested to failure. The standard uncertainty of these measurements is typically ± 5 %. 

Microscopy

Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy—A Zeiss Model LSM510 reflection laser 

scanning confocal microscope (LSCM) was employed to characterize the surface 

morphology. The incident laser wavelength was 543 nm. By moving the focal plane in 
 10

the z-direction, a series of single images (optical slices) can be stacked and digitally 

summed over the z-direction to obtain a 3-D image. The z-direction step size was 0.5 μm 

using objectives of 5x and 10x, and 0.1 μm using objectives of 20x, 50x, and 150x. 

Scanning Electron Microscopy—Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis 

was carried out on a FEI Quanta 600 scanning electron microscope using secondary 

electron imaging at accelerating voltages ranging from 2 kV to 15 kV. Fibers were 

mounted on aluminum stubs using carbon tape and were sputter coated with gold to 

conduct excess charge and enhance the secondary electron emission. 

Atomic Force Microscopy—To observe the surface morphology of the fibers on 

the nanoscale, atomic force microscopy (AFM) was carried out on a Dimension 3100 

scanning probe microscope (Veeco Metrology) in tapping mode. Commercial silicon 

microcantilever probes (TESP, Veeco Metrology) were used. Topographic and phase 

images were obtained simultaneously using a resonance frequency of approximately 

300 kHz for the probe oscillation and a free-oscillation amplitude of 62 nm ± 2 nm. 

Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)

TGA was carried out on a TA Instruments 2950 high resolution thermogravimetric analyzer. Yarn samples of approximately 30 mg were coiled to fit into 

500 μL alumina sample pans. Samples were equilibrated at 27 o

C for 5 min, and then 

ramped to 1000 o

C at 10 oC/min. Analyses were carried out in both air and nitrogen 

atmospheres, with 5 replicates measured in air and 2 replicates of each sample measured 

in nitrogen. The primary parameters of interest were the temperature at which 5 % mass 

loss was reached in the samples, as well as the % mass loss at 110 o

C. The relative 
 11

standard uncertainty in the mass loss measurements is typically ± 0.1 %, and the 

standard uncertainty in the temperature scale is typically ± 0.1 o

C. 

X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 

XPS measurements were performed on a Kratos Axis Ultra photoelectron 

spectrometer. Experiments were conducted at room temperature and an average base 

pressure of 1.3 x 10-6 Pa. The monochromatic Al Kα X-ray source was operated at 

140 W (14 kV, 10 mA). The energy scale was calibrated with reference to the Cu 2p3/2 

and Ag 3d5/2 peaks at binding energies (BEs) of 932.7 eV and 368.3 eV, respectively. A 

coaxial charge neutralization system provided charge compensation. Yarns were 

attached to the XPS sample holder using Cu tape. The analysis area for the highresolution spectra was 2 mm x 1 mm. The Na 1s, O 1s, N 1s, K 2p3/2, C 1s, P 2p, and Si 

2p spectra were acquired at a take-off angle of 45° and a pass energy (PE) of 20 eV, and a 

maximum acquisition time of 8 min per element. 

Peak BEs were determined by referencing to the adventitious C 1s photoelectron 

peak at 285.0 eV. Quantitative XPS analysis was performed with the Kratos VISION 

software (version 2.1.2). Atomic concentrations were calculated from the photoelectron 

peak areas by subtracting a linear-type background. The P 2p region was deconvoluted 

using mixed 70 % Gaussian/30 % Lorentzian components. Uncertainty in the peak BE 

measurement is typically ± 0.2 eV and atomic concentration uncertainties are typically 

± 1 atomic %. 
 12

X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) Spectroscopy

 XRF analysis was carried out on a PANalytical model PW2404 wavelength 

dispersive XRF. Two 26 mm diameter fabric swatches from each vest were analyzed. 

Measurements were made in vacuum (≈ 15 Pa) using a Rh X-ray source operating at an 

average power of 3.0 kW. Elements having higher energy characteristic X rays were 

measured using generator settings of 60 kV and 50 mA. Elements having lower energy 

characteristic X rays were measured using generator settings of 30 kV and 100 mA. 

Elemental composition calculations were carried out using the IQ+ fundamental 

parameters method, contained in the SuperQ operating system software of the XRF 

instrument. Calibration of the instrument and IQ+ method was carried out using 

reference materials, including NIST Standard Reference Materials (SRMs), which 

enabled the total relative standard uncertainty in elemental composition measurements to 

be estimated at 10 %. 

X-ray Diffraction (XRD)

X-ray powder diffraction patterns were obtained with a Bruker D8 Advance 

diffractometer using Cu Kα radiation (λ= 1.5405 nm) with a step size of 0.02 ° and a step 

time of 3 s. Specimens were analyzed as fabric swatches or as multiple yarn strands 

(nominally 3 cm long) tautly stretched and attached to a XRD sample holder with 

adhesive tape. Beam direction was parallel to the longitudinal axis of the fiber. 

Standard uncertainty in peak intensities is estimated to be ± 2 %.
 13

Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy

Infrared analysis was carried out using a Nicolet Nexus FTIR equipped with a 

mercury-cadmium-telluride (MCT) detector and a SensIR Durascope attenuated total 

reflectance (ATR) accessory. Consistent pressure on the yarns was applied using the 

force monitor on the Durascope. Dry air was used as the purge gas. FTIR spectra were 

recorded between 4000 cm-1 and 700 cm-1 at three different locations on each yarn and 

were averaged over 128 scans. Spectral analysis, including spectral subtraction, was 

carried out using a custom software program developed in the Polymeric Materials Group 

at NIST to catalogue and analyze multiple spectra [14]. All spectra were baseline 

corrected and normalized using the aromatic C-H deformation peak at 848 cm-1. 

Standard uncertainties associated with this measurement are ± 2 cm-1 in wavenumber 

and ± 1 % in absorbance. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

Tensile Testing

Tensile properties of yarns extracted from the back panel of the officer’s vest, a 

new vest, and an archive vest are detailed in Table 1. The yarns from the officer’s vest 

are clearly lower in ultimate tensile strength and ultimate tensile strain than the yarns 

from the new and archive vests, as well as the virgin yarn. The tensile strengths of the 

yarns from the archive vest are also lower than that of the new vest and virgin yarns. 

Interestingly, the moduli of the yarns from the three vests are not substantially different. 
 14

The difference between the tensile properties of the virgin yarn and the vest yarns may be 

due to the degradation in strength that results from handling and weaving of the yarn into 

fabric. 

Microscopy

In Figures 3-7, confocal microscopy and SEM images of fibers from vest and 

virgin yarns show morphological features that are tentatively identified as pits, transverse 

cracks and longitudinal grooves. Based on qualitative confocal microscopy analysis of 

20 to 25 fibers from each vest, no prominent differences are observed in the surface 

morphology of the fibers from the three different vests. 

Using optical and transmission and electron microscopy, similar transverse cracks 

observed by Chau et al. 1995 [15] have been postulated to be kink bands. Kink bands 

have also been observed in the microscopic analysis of other rigid rod polymers such as 

polyaramid and polybenzothiazole (PBT) [16,17]. As discussed earlier, kink bands result 

from compressive loading or bending encountered during processing, handling, or enduse. Kink bands are also known to initiate the formation of voids or cracks, which may 

subsequently degrade fiber tensile properties [18]. 

The longitudinal grooves are believed to have originated in the fiber spinning 

operation, but their exact cause is unknown. A 3-D image topographic profile generated 

by compiling confocal image slices of one such longitudinal groove is displayed in 

Figure 4. Groove depth and width were estimated by topographic measurements to be 

(0.70 to 0.84) μm ± 0.05 μm, and (0.75 to 0.95) μm ± 0.05 μm, respectively. 
 15

Both AFM topographic and phase images of PBO fiber surfaces exhibit an 

oriented fibrillar morphology that has been observed by other researchers [19, 20, 21]. 

An AFM image of the officer’s vest fibers are shown in Figure 8; similar results were 

obtained for the fibers from the other vests as well as from the virgin fiber. Patchy 

regions on the surface are attributed to sizing compounds that were applied after the fiber 

spinning operation. Similar features have also been observed by Tamargo-Martinez et al. 

[19]. In some instances, as shown in Figure 8, AFM analysis reveals disordering of the 

oriented fibrils, which may be associated with kink band formation. However, it is not 

certain that these disordered regions correspond to the cracks or kink bands observed via 

confocal microscopy and SEM, because it is difficult to find the exact location of a 

feature observed on two different size scales using two different imaging tools. 

Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)

In thermogravimetry, the mass loss of a specimen is monitored as a function of 

time at a fixed temperature or as a function of temperature at a fixed heating rate. In 

polymers, thermal mass loss curves can provide information on the material’s thermal 

stability, the composition of multicomponent materials, and/or the presence of low 

molecular mass or volatile components. Data from TGA analysis of PBO yarns are 

detailed in Table 2. 

In a nitrogen atmosphere, the decomposition temperature at 5 % mass loss of the 

yarns from the officer’s vest is lower relative to the other two vest yarns and the virgin 

yarn; however, this small difference in light of the standard uncertainty is not statistically 

significant. Mass loss at 110 o

C, attributed to the loss of water and/or low relative 
 16

molecular mass materials, is similar for the vest and virgin yarns. In air, little difference 

in the mass loss at 110 o

C or the 5 % decomposition temperature are observed. These 

thermogravimetry results are consistent with Kuroki et al. [22]. 

X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)

In XPS, specimens are irradiated with X rays, causing electrons to be ejected from 

the core atomic levels of atoms contained in the specimen. From the kinetic energies of 

the ejected electrons - termed photoelectrons - electron binding energies can be calculated 

which uniquely define a specific atom. Chemical shifts in binding energies can be 

correlated to changes in the chemical environment of an atom, and can be used to identify 

oxidation state and/or the nature of other atoms bound to that atom [23]. Because the 

mean-free paths of the ejected photoelectrons are extremely short, XPS is a surfacesensitive technique, providing information on the topmost 4 nm of a specimen surface. 

XPS atomic concentrations of elements found on the yarn surfaces are presented 

in Table 3. The surface elemental compositions of the yarns from the different vests are 

nominally identical. In addition to the expected carbon, oxygen and nitrogen, silicon, 

phosphorus, potassium, silicon and sodium are also observed. Phosphorus is postulated 

to originate from residual poly(phosphoric acid) spinning solvent and/or the fiber sizing 

that is applied by the fiber manufacturer. Silicon is also attributed to the fiber sizing. 

Sodium is believed to originate from the sodium hydroxide solution used to neutralize 

excess poly(phosphoric acid). Tamargo-Martinez et al. [19] also observed similar atomic 

concentrations in their XPS analysis of virgin PBO yarns. 
 17

 It is worth noting that the theoretical atomic concentrations of 77.8 atomic % 

carbon, 11.1 atomic % oxygen and 11.1 atomic % nitrogen calculated from the PBO 

polymer repeat unit do not match the measured atomic concentrations of these elements 

listed in Table 3. Reasons for this discrepancy are the presence of sizing agents (as 

mentioned above), the presence of adventitious surface organic compounds, and/or the 

preferential surface enrichment of particular segments of the polymer chain. 

The ratio of phosphorus and sodium is of interest because sodium hydroxide is 

used in the PBO manufacturing process to neutralize the poly(phosphoric acid) spinning 

solvent, which is contained in and on the fiber immediately after spinning. Complete 

neutralization of poly(phosphoric acid) by sodium hydroxide would result in the 

formation of a sodium phosphate compound, in which the atomic ratio of phosphorus to 

sodium should range between 0.3 to 1.0, depending on the specific type of sodium 

phosphate compound formed. The atomic ratio of phosphorus to sodium in the vest yarns 

ranges from 1.75 to 2.6, indicating that phosphorus is present in quantities beyond that 

which can be accounted for by sodium phosphate. 

Photopeak energies were analyzed to determine the identity of the sodium and 

phosphorus compounds detected. The binding energy of the phosphorus 2p photopeak in 

the vest yarns falls in the range from 133.2 eV to 133.4 eV (referenced to carbon at 285.0 

eV) and that of the sodium 1s photopeak falls between 1071.5 eV and 1071.7 eV. These 

photopeak energies are consistent with Na3PO4, which is documented to have phosphorus 

2p binding energies between 132.5 eV to 133.1 eV, and sodium 1s binding energies 

between 1071.2 eV and 1071.5 eV [24]. If poly(phosphoric acid) was present, the 

binding energy of the phosphorus 2p photoelectrons would be in the neighborhood of 
 18

135.4 eV, which is higher than the phosphorus detected in the vest yarns. Therefore, it is 

concluded that no detectable poly(phosphoric acid) residues are present on the fiber 

surface; rather, the phosphorus that is present is consistent with that of sodium phosphate 

or some other phosphate compound, possibly the fiber sizing. 

X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) Spectrometry

 In XRF analysis, as in XPS, a specimen is irradiated with a beam of sufficiently 

short wavelength X rays, resulting in the generation of fluorescent X rays having energies 

characteristic of the elements present in the specimen. Quantitative information on the 

elements in the specimen can be obtained by measuring the count rates of the emitted X 

rays. XRF is a rapid, sensitive, and accurate method for detecting inorganic materials 

and metals in polymers, with minimal sample preparation needed (as compared to wet 

chemical elemental analysis methods) [25]. Unlike XPS, which is a surface analysis 

technique, XRF obtains elemental information from deeper in the fiber bulk. 

Table 4 shows the elemental compositions of the vest yarns as measured by XRF. 

The two elements of particular interest, phosphorus and sodium, are found to be the most 

abundant and in essentially identical mass concentrations in each of the 3 vest materials. 

Phosphorus mass fractions range from 0.45 % to 0.48 %. Using an inductively-coupled 

plasma (ICP) elemental analysis technique, a phosphorus content of 0.4 % was found in 

virgin PBO yarn by Hu and Lesser [26], which is consistent with the present study. 

As discussed previously in the section on XPS, neutralization of phosphoric acid 

by sodium hydroxide results in the formation of some type of sodium phosphate 

compound, in which the mass ratio of phosphorus to sodium could range from 0.45 to 
 19

1.35, depending on the specific type of sodium phosphate compound formed. The 

phosphorus/sodium mass ratio in the vest yarns ranged from 1.45 to 1.59, indicating that 

phosphorus is present in quantities beyond that which can be accounted for by sodium 

phosphate. 

Figure 9 overlays phosphorus K-M series X-ray lines from each yarn specimen. 

The ratio of net count rates for these two peaks is 3.8. Data from other compounds of 

phosphorus and oxygen show that the net peak ratios are 3.1 for phosphorus pentoxide 

(P2O5), 3.9 for lithium phosphate (LiPO3), and 5.0 for phosphoric acid (H3PO4). Thus, a 

peak ratio of 3.8 most closely corresponds to PO3, or phosphate, moiety. These results 

complement the XPS analyses, which also suggest that a phosphate-type compound 

accounts for the phosphorus that is detected. 

It should be noted that the presence of a phosphate-containing sizing compound 

on the fiber surface could potentially absorb the fluorescent X rays generated by atoms 

inside the fibers and would complicate the analysis of the phosphorus K-M series X-ray 

lines. Thus, the presence of the sizing makes it difficult to determine the exact nature of 

any phosphorus-containing species inside the fiber. To make a definitive identification of 

phosphorus compounds, including phosphoric acid, 13P nuclear magnetic resonance 

(NMR) may be a more useful technique. 

X-ray Diffraction 

The scattering of X rays by atoms in a crystal lattice results in a diffraction pattern 

that is characteristic of the crystal structure. In highly crystalline polymers such as PBO, 
 20

an X-ray diffraction pattern can reveal the degree of crystallinity, crystal orientation, and 

provide input for the calculation of crystal lattice parameters [27]. 

According to detailed crystal structure analysis performed by Tashiro et al., the 

proposed structure for PBO is a monoclinic cell with a = 11.2 Å, b = 3.57 Å, C =12.01 Å, 

and γ = 100.6o

, corresponding to 2 polymer repeat units per cell [28]. The PBO chain in 

the crystal structure has been observed to have an almost perfectly planar conformation. 

Davies et al. have reported differences in crystallite orientation between the skin and the 

core regions of PBO fiber analyzed with X-ray diffraction [29]. 

The equatorial X-ray diffractograms shown in Figure 10 reflect the intermolecular 

arrangement between packed polymer chains in the PBO fibers. Diffractograms obtained 

in our lab are consistent with those reported by other researchers [29, 30, 31, 32]. Major 

crystalline peaks are observed at 2θ = 16.2o

, 27.5 o, and 32.7 o, corresponding to crystal 

lattice d-spacings of 0.547 nm, 0.324 nm and 0.274 nm, respectively. 

No significant differences in the locations of the crystalline peaks or any changes 

in the peak structures are observed for yarns or fabric swatches from the three vests. 

Differences in peak intensity are most likely due to differences in the packing density of 

the fiber samples. Substantial changes in the crystal lattice structure would be 

accompanied by changes in peak shape and location, as seen by Tamargo-Martinez et al., 

who reported significant changes in the equatorial X-ray diffractogram of PBO fiber as it 

is heated up to 800 o

C [30]. 
 21

Infrared Spectroscopy

The interaction between materials and the infrared region of the electromagnetic 

spectrum provides valuable information on the molecular structure of organic materials, 

including organic polymers. Specific functional groups absorb at given frequencies 

corresponding to their vibrational modes. Changes in the intensities or frequencies of 

observed spectral peaks can be correlated to changes in the molecular structure of the 

compound. This type of information is valuable for mechanistic and kinetic studies of 

polymer degradation. 

Figures 11(a) and 11(b) show the ATR infrared spectra of the vest yarns 

compared with the spectrum of virgin yarn. The primary infrared bands are listed in 

Table 5. Assignments are made on the basis of literature data [30,33, 34, 35, 36] and 

studies carried out in our lab using model compounds. Benzoxazole and 2-phenyl 

benzoxazole model compounds were analyzed to identify the peaks in the PBO spectrum 

that are attributed to the oxazole or benzoxazole component in the PBO structure. Two 

small peaks, shown on an expanded scale in Figure 11(c), are observed at 1726 cm-1 and 

1691 cm-1 in all yarns analyzed. These peaks have not been reported in any previous 

publications or observed in our analysis of benzoxazole-containing model compounds. 

Visual examination of the yarn spectra does not highlight any obvious chemical 

differences between the yarns. In many instances, chemical changes due to polymer 

degradation are often difficult to detect directly. Spectral subtraction, in which a 

reference spectrum is subtracted from the spectrum of a material of interest, is often 

helpful in extracting small chemical changes and providing information on the formation 

and depletion of specific functional groups. 
 22

Figure 12 shows the difference spectra that result when the infrared spectrum of 

the virgin yarn is subtracted from each of the vest yarn spectra. Qualitatively similar 

difference spectra are obtained when the spectrum of the yarns from the new vest were 

subtracted from the officer and archive vest yarn spectra. Downward-pointing, or 

negative, peaks in the difference spectra are species that are lower in concentration 

relative to the reference spectrum (virgin yarn, in this case) and upward-pointing, or 

positive, peaks are species that are higher in concentration relative to the reference 

material or new species that are not originally present in the reference material. 

The primary negative peaks in the difference spectra of the vest yarns are seen at 

931 cm-1, 1072 cm-1, 1422 cm-1, 1440 cm-1, 1506 cm-1, 1560 cm-1, 1588 cm-1, 1657 cm-1

and 3400 cm-1. These peaks are not found in the unsubtracted infrared spectra of the vest 

yarns or the virgin yarn. However, subsequent infrared analysis of a known benzoxazole 

hydrolysis product, N-(2-phenylhydroxybenzamide), revealed peaks at 931 cm-1, 

1070 cm-1, 1441 cm-1, 1657 cm-1 and 3400 cm-1 that matched a number of the negative 

peaks in the difference spectrum. 

The following degradation scenario is proposed on the basis of the ATR-infrared 

data available at this time: it is postulated that benzamide-type structures similar to N-(2-

phenylhydroxybenzamide) exist in the vest yarns as well as the virgin yarn. These 

species are found in low concentrations and are not visible in the original unsubtracted 

infrared spectra. These species are possibly the result of benzoxazole ring hydrolysis 

that occurred during processing/storage/handling, UV-visible light exposure (as 

documented for benzoxazole-containing model compounds in [37] and [38]), or some 

combination of these. As the yarns are woven, fabricated into body armor, and worn in 
 23

the field, additional hydrolysis of the benzamide structures could occur. Benzamide 

hydrolysis would result in the formation of aminophenol and benzoic acid species, and a 

consequent reduction in the concentration of the original benzamide structures. This 

decrease in benzamide concentration is the origin of the negative peaks that appear when 

the virgin yarn infrared spectrum is subtracted from the infrared spectra of the vest yarns. 

The difference spectrum of the officer’s vest yarn contains negative benzamide 

peaks with the highest intensity (absorbance), followed by the archive vest and the new 

vest, in decreasing order of intensity. This indicates that the degree of benzamide 

hydrolysis is greatest in the officer’s vest, followed by the archive vest, and the least in 

the new vest, relative to the virgin yarn. This rank order in benzamide peak absorbance 

follows the same rank order of tensile strength loss reported earlier. Figure 13 shows a 

plot of vest yarn tensile strength plotted against the absorbance of negative peaks 

corresponding to benzamide species. A negative correlation is observed to exist between 

tensile strength and benzamide peak spectral absorbance. 

A number of positive peaks in the difference spectra correspond to peaks that are 

present in the original spectrum of virgin PBO. This could indicate that a higher 

concentration of benzoxazole structures is present in the vest yarns relative to the virgin 

yarn. The remaining positive peaks in the difference spectra are not identified at the 

present time; infrared analysis of known benzoxazole degradation products, such as 

benzoic acid and aminophenol will be carried out to assign these peaks. 

Support for the hydrolysis of benzoxazole to benzamide and the regeneration of 

benzoxazole from benzamide is given by Jackson et al. [39]. When 2-phenylbenzoxazole 

(1) is heated in an acidic medium, N-(2-phenylhydroxybenzamide) (2) is first formed: 
 24

 

 

 (1) (2) 

N-(2-phenylhydroxybenzamide) can then further hydrolyze to 2-aminophenol and 

benzoic acid ((3) and (4), respectively), or re-convert to 2-phenylbenzoxazole (1). 

 

(2) (3) (4) 

 Both benzoxazole hydrolysis and benzamide hydrolysis mechanisms potentially 

cause tensile strength degradation in PBO – the first by disrupting the conjugated rigid 

rod structure and creating a polyaramid-type structure in its place; the second by chain 

scission. In the present study, the latter mechanism appears to be predominant. In 

theoretical models of fiber tensile strength and modulus developed by Termonia et al.[40] 

and Jones and Martin [41], both groups state that decreases in polymer chain length are 

more detrimental to tensile strength than to elastic modulus. These observations are 

consistent with the vest yarn tensile properties reported in this study, in which 

degradation was observed in tensile strength but not elastic modulus. 

N

O

NH-COH

O

NH-COH

O

NH2

OH

COOH
 25

SUMMARY 

 A number of analytical metrologies were used in characterizing the chemical, 

physico-mechanical and morphological properties of PBO yarns from an officer’s vest 

penetrated by a bullet, a new vest, a vest from the NLECTC Compliance Test Program 

archive, and virgin PBO yarn. Metrologies used to characterize the yarns included 

chemical (elemental and molecular) analysis, mechanical testing, thermal analysis and 

microscopy. Results of these analyses were used to determine if any chemical or 

morphological differences exist between the four different yarns and if any of these 

properties were correlated to yarn tensile properties. 

 Very few differences were observed in the surface or bulk elemental composition 

of the yarns; phosphate compounds that were detected on all yarns were attributed to 

either fiber sizing materials or acid neutralization products. Additionally, no detectable 

differences were observed in the crystal structure of the fibers nor in their surface 

morphologies. Transverse and longitudinal cracks were observed, however, on all of the 

analyzed fibers. 

 ATR infrared analyses of the yarns revealed differences in their degree of 

hydrolytic degradation as determined by the presence of benzamide structures. 

Benzamide structures were observed to different degrees in the officer’s vest yarn, new 

vest yarn, archive vest yarn and virgin PBO yarn. The rank order of reduction 

(hydrolysis) in benzamide species correlates with the rank order reduction in tensile 

strengths for these same yarns. This ordering is significant since benzamide hydrolysis is 

believed to contribute to tensile strength loss via chain scission. 
 26

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

 The authors thank NIST’s Office of Law Enforcement Standards (OLES) and the 

National Institute of Justice (NIJ) for their support of this research, as well as the Tekne 

Group for assistance in tensile testing. 
 27

Table 1: Tensile Properties of Vest Yarns 

Ultimate Strain Modulus Energy to 

Tensile Strength at Break at Break Break Point

(GPa) (%) (GPa) (N m)

Officer

Mean* 3.22 2.50 136.61 0.31

Std Dev 0.24 0.17 2.61 0.04

Minimum 2.90 2.32 134.00 0.26

Maximum 3.48 2.68 140.48 0.35

New

Mean* 4.78 3.29 141.80 0.61

Std Dev 0.19 0.12 3.61 0.05

Minimum 4.47 3.18 137.98 0.53

Maximum 5.02 3.42 146.24 0.66

Archive

Mean* 3.65 2.65 141.60 0.37

Std Dev 0.10 0.06 5.00 0.02

Minimum 3.53 2.55 134.89 0.35

Maximum 3.78 2.74 148.32 0.39

Virgin

Mean* 5.34 3.52 147.11 0.91

Std Dev 0.16 0.12 2.70 0.05

Minimum 4.85 3.19 142.85 0.75

Maximum 5.53 3.67 152.84 0.99

* n (number of replicates) = 6
 28

Table 2: Thermogravimetric Analysis of Vest Yarns 

Sample ID Percent Mass Loss at 

110 o

C 

5 % Decomposition 

Temperature (oC) 

Nitrogen Atmosphere 

Officer 0.10 ± 0.04 692.1 ± 1.5 

New 0.13 ± 0.06 694.4 ± 1.5 

Archive 0.17 ± 0.10 694.0 ± 2.8 

Virgin 0.26 ± 0.09 699.4 ± 8.2 

 

Air Atmosphere 

Officer 0.33 ± 0.10 632.8 ± 2.1 

New 0.32 ± 0.09 632.0 ± 3.4 

Archive 0.28 ± 0.08 632.9 ± 4.8 

Virgin 0.48 ± 0.17 633.6 ± 2.5 
 29 Table 3: Elemental Analysis by X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) of Vest Yarns C 1s O 1s N 1s P 2p K 2p Si 2p Na 1s BE (eV) AC (%) BE (eV) AC (%) BE (eV) AC (%) BE (eV) AC (%) BE (eV) AC (%) BE (eV) AC (%) BE (eV) AC (%) SAMPLE Officer 1 285.0 76.4 532.6 14.2 398.8 3.1 133.4 1.5 292.9 1.3 102.2 2.7 1071.7 0.7 Officer 2 285.0 77.3 532.5 13.6 399.0 3.4 133.4 1.4 292.9 1.3 102.1 2.2 1071.7 0.8 New 1 285.0 76.5 532.5 14.4 398.7 3.0 133.5 1.8 292.8 1.4 102.1 2.2 1071.7 0.7 New 2 285.0 76.6 532.5 14.0 398.7 2.9 133.2 2.2 292.8 1.4 102.0 2.0 1071.7 1.0 Archive 1 285.0 77.5 532.8 13.4 398.7 3.7 133.6 1.6 292.7 1.1 101.9 1.8 1071.5 0.8 Archive 2 285.0 76.7 532.3 14.4 398.7 3.1 133.6 1.7 292.8 1.4 102.1 2.0 1071.6 0.8
 30

Table 4: Elemental Analysis by X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy of Vest Yarns 

(All values in mass fraction %) 

Officer 1 Officer 2 New 1 New 2 Archive 1 Archive 2 

Mass (g) 0.17 0.20 0.21 0.20 0.22 0.26 

Area 

(cm2

) 

16.0 17.2 18.2 19.8 16.0 25.2 

Na 0.29 0.30 0.33 0.32 0.29 0.29 

Al * * 0.002 * 0.003 0.006 

Si 0.030 0.027 0.024 0.029 0.021 0.023 

P 0.45 0.46 0.48 0.47 0.46 0.47 

S * * * * 0.003 0.002 

Cl 0.010 0.010 0.009 0.011 0.010 0.008 

K 0.051 0.050 0.053 0.048 0.045 0.045 

Ca 0.018 0.019 0.022 0.028 0.014 0.013 

Ti 0.005 * 0.004 0.004 0.002 0.003 

Fe 0.009 0.008 0.007 0.008 0.002 0.003 

Cu 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 * 0.001 

Sr 0.023 0.008 0.023 0.022 0.003 0.006 

* Not detected above 0.001 % 
 31

Table 5: FTIR-ATR Band Assignments for PBO Fiber 

Band Assignment

(cm-1) 

3097 Aromatic C-H stretch from benzene between oxazole rings, closer to oxygen 

3069 Aromatic C-H stretch from benzene between oxazole rings 

3040 Aromatic C-H stretch from phenyl ring 

2956 Aliphatic C-H stretch (sizing) 

2910 Aliphatic C-H stretch (sizing) 

2851 Aliphatic C-H stretch (sizing) 

1726 

1691 

1619 C=C stretching in substituted aromatic rings, cyclic C=N stretching 

1577 Skeletal vibrations in conjugated system/benzoxazole ring 

1557 Skeletal vibrations in conjugated system/benzoxazole ring 

1496 Skeletal vibrations in conjugated system/benzoxazole ring 

1461 Skeletal vibrations in conjugated system/benzoxazole ring 

1412 

1367 

1329 C-N stretching 

1308 C-N stretching 

1276 C-C stretching in carbons linking oxazole and aromatic ring; O-C=N 

 stretching 

1210 

1147 Asymmetric stretching of unsaturated cyclic ether 

1114 Aromatic C-H in-plane bending 

1056 Asymmetric stretching of unsaturated cyclic ether 

1010 Aromatic C-H in-plane bending 

 925 Symmetric C-O-C stretching of cyclic ether 

 914 Symmetric C-O-C stretching of cyclic ether 

 869 Aromatic C-H out of plane bending 

 848 Aromatic C-H out of plane bending 

 821 Aromatic C-H out of plane bending 

 701 Aromatic C-H out of plane bending 
 32

Figure 1: Chemical structure of poly(p-phenylene-2,6-benzobisoxazole), or PBO 

n 

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C C

C C

C

C C

N N

O O

H H

H H H

H

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C C

C C

C

C C

N N

O O

H H

H H H

H

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C C

C C

C

C C

N N

O O

H H

H H H

H

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C C

C C

C

C C

N N

O O

H H

H H H

H
 33

Figure 2: Extraction of yarns from ballistic panels in vests. 
 34

(a) (b) 

(c) (d) 

Figure 3: Confocal microscope images of fibers from (a) officer’s vest, (b) new vest, (c) 

archive vest, and (d) virgin PBO fiber. 

cracks pits

groove 
 35

Figure 4: 3-D profile of the longitudinal groove seen in the confocal microscope image 

of virgin fiber, above. 
 36

500 V, 5 kx, 50 μm field width 

(a) 

 

25 kV, 10kx, 25 μm field width 

(b) 

Figure 5: SEM micrographs of fibers from officer’s vest. 

crack 

pits
 37

25 kV, 5 kx, 50 μm field width 

(a) 

25 kV, 10 kx, 25 μm field width 

(b) 

Figure 6: SEM micrographs of fibers from new vest. 

groove 
 38

25 kV, 5 kx, 50 μm field width 

Figure 7: SEM micrographs of fibers from archive vest. 
 39

 

(a) (b) 

 (c) 

Figure 8: AFM micrographs of PBO fiber. (a) Phase image of fiber from officer’s vest; 

(b) 3-D depiction of region shown in (a); (c) topographic and phase images of disordered 

region in fiber from officer’s vest. 

sizing 

fibrils 

fibrils 

disordered fibrils 
 40

Figure 9: Phosphorus K-M series lines from vest yarns. Two scans from each vest are 

superimposed. 

Officer

New

Archive 

Test Sample 
 41

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Inte

nsity

2 Theta

Vest 1

Vest 2

Vest 3

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Inte

nsity

2 Theta

Vest 1

Vest 2

Vest 3

Figure 10: Comparison of equatorial x-ray diffractograms from vest yarns. 

Officer

New

Archive
 42

-3.0E-01

2.0E-01

7.0E-01

1.2E+00

1.7E+00

4000 3600 3200 2800 2400 2000 1600 1200 800

Wavenumber (cm-1)

Absorbance

Officer

New

Archive

Virgin

(a) 

-3.0E-01

2.0E-01

7.0E-01

1.2E+00

1.7E+00

2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800

Wavenumber (cm-1)

Absorbance

Officer

New

Archive

Virgin

(b) 
 43

1.5E-02

2.0E-02

2.5E-02

3.0E-02

3.5E-02

4.0E-02

4.5E-02

1800 1700 1600

Wavenumber (cm-1)

Absorbance

(c) 

Figure 11: (a), (b) FTIR spectra of vest yarns, compared with virgin yarn. (c) Peaks at 

1691 cm-1 and 1726 cm-1, observed in the infrared spectrum of all yarns analyzed. 

1691

1726
 44

-4.0E-02

-2.0E-02

0.0E+00

2.0E-02

4.0E-02

6.0E-02

8.0E-02

1.0E-01

4000 3600 3200 2800 2400 2000 1600 1200 800

Wavenumber (cm-1)

Absorbance

Officer

New

Archive

(a) 

-4.0E-02

-2.0E-02

0.0E+00

2.0E-02

4.0E-02

6.0E-02

8.0E-02

1.0E-01

2000 1600 1200 800

Wavenumber (cm-1)

Absorbance

Officer

New

Archive

(b) 

Figure 12: Difference spectra of vest yarns (referenced to spectrum of virgin yarn). 

Peaks matching those observed in the spectrum of N-(2-phenylhydroxybenzamide) are 

labeled. 

931 1072

3400

1440 1657
 45

3.0

3.2

3.4

3.6

3.8

4.0

4.2

4.4

4.6

4.8

5.0

0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025

FTIR Absorbance, Negative Peaks

Tensile Strength (GPa)

931

1072

1440

1657

Figure 13: Vest yarn tensile strength plotted against the absorbance of negative 

subtraction peaks corresponding to benzamide species.
 46

REFERENCES 

1. Department of Justice Bulletproof Vest Safety Initiative, 03-624 

http://www.ojp.gov/pressreleases/DOJ03624.htm. 

2. J.F. Wolfe, “Polybenzothiazoles and Oxazoles”, in Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Technology, 

11, pp. 601-625. 

3. X.-D. Hu, S.E. Jenkins, B.G. Min, M.B. Polk, and S. Kumar, Macromol. Mater. Eng., 288(11), 823-

842 (2003). 

4. M.G. Northolt and J.J.M. Baltussen, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 83, 508-538 (2002). 

5. T. Kitagawa, H. Murase and K. Yabuki, J. Polym. Sci. B: Polymer Physics, 36, 39-48 (1998). 

6. T. Kitagawa and K. Yabuki, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 80, 1030-1036 (2001). 

7. R. J. Young, R.J. Day, and M. Zakikhani, J. Mater. Sci., 25, 127 (1990). 

8 . http://www.toyobo.co.jp/e/seihin/kc/pbo/pdf/Attachment_1970KB.pdf 

9. E. Orndoff, NASA Technical Memorandum 104814, Sept. 1995. 

10. Y.-H. So, S.J. Martin, K. Owen, P.B. Smith, and C.L. Karas, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polymer Chemistry, 

 37, 2637-2643 (1999). 

11. E.G. Breusova, R.T. Kuznetsova, T.N. Kopylova, and S.V. Nikolaev, High Energy Chemistry, 32(4), 

247-250 (1998). 

12. H. Ito and K. Ichimura, Macromol. Chem. Phys., 199, 2547-2551(1998). 

13. P.H. Kasai and D. McLeod Jr., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 95, 4801 (1973). 

14. B. Dickens in Service Life Prediction Methodology and Metrologies, J.W. Martin and D.R. Bauer, 

eds., (American Chemical Society, 2001). 

15. C.C. Chau, J. Blackson, and J. Im, Polymer, 36 (13), 2511-1517 (1995). 

16. Y. Cohen and E.L. Thomas, Macromolecules, 21, 433-435 (1988). 

17. J.H. Greenwood and P.G. Rose, J. Mater. Sci., 9, 1809-1814 (1974). 

 

18. C.C. Chau, M.H. Thomsen, and V.L. St. Jeor, J. Mater. Sci., 27, 5645-5652 (1992). 

19. K. Tamargo-Martinez, S. Villar-Rodil, J.I. Paredes, A. Martinez-Alonso, J.M.D. Tascon, and M.A. 

Montes-Moran, Macromolecules, 36, 8662-8672 (2003). 

20 . S.J. Krause, T.B. Haddock and D.L. Vezie, P.G. Lenhert, W.-F. Hwang, G.E. Price, T.E. Helminiak, 

J.F. O’Brien and W.W. Adams, Polymer, 29, 1354-1364 (1988). 

21. R.J. Young, R.J. Day, M. Zakikhani, J. Mater. Sci., 25, 127-136 (1990). 

22. T. Kuroki, Y. Tanaka, T. Kohudoh, K. Yabuki, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 65 (5), 1031-1036 (1996). 
 47

23. W.M. Riggs and M.J. Parker, “Surface Analysis by X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy”, in Methods of 

Surface Analysis, A.W. Czanderna, ed., Elsevier, 1975. 

24. NIST XPS database, http://srdata.nist.gov/xps. 

25. H.H. Willard, L.L. Merrit, Jr., J.A. Dean, and F.A. Settle, Jr., Instrumental Methods of Analysis, 7th 

ed., Wadsworth, Inc., 1988. 

26. X. Hu and A.J. Lesser, Proceedings of the American Chemical Society Meeting, Division of Polymeric 

Materials, Science and Engineering, 227, U562 (2004). 

27. N. Sanjeeva Murthy and Franz Reidinger, “ X-Ray Analysis”, in A Guide to Materials 

Characterization and Chemical Analysis, J.P. Sibilia, ed. (VCH Publishers, Inc., New York, 1996). 

28. D.C. Martin and E.L. Thomas, Macromolecules, 24, 2450-2460 (1991). 

29. R.J. Davies, M.A. Montes-Moran, C. Riekel and R.J. Young, J. Mater. Sci., 28, 2105-2115 (2003). 

30. K. Tamargo-Martinez, S. Villar-Rodil, J.I. Paredes, A. Martinez-Alonso, and J.M.D. Tascon, Chem. 

Mater., 15, 4052-4059 (2003). 

31. W.-Y. Yeh and R.J. Young, Polymer, 40, 857-870 (1999). 

32. K. Tashiro, H. Hama, J.-I. Yoshino, Y. Abe, Tooru Kitagawa, and K. Yabuki, J. Polym Sci B: Polym. 

Phys., 39, 1296-1311 (2001). 

33. J.-H. Chang, K. M. Park, S.-M. Lee, and J.B. Oh, J. Polym. Sci. B., 38, 2537-2545 (2000). 

34. E.I. Yoo, A.J. Gavrin, R.J. Farris, and E.B. Coughlin, High Performance Polymers, 15, 519-535 

(2003) 

35. T. Kubota and R. Nakanishi, Polymer Letters, 2, 655-659 (1964). 

36. G. Brana, E. Castellucci and M. Ginanneschi, Spectrochimica Acta, 23A, 751-758 (1967). 

37. H. Ito and K. Ichimura, Macromol. Chem. Phys, 199, 2547-2551 (1998). 

38. E.G. Breusova, R.T. Kuznetsova, T.N. Kopylova, and S.V. Nikolaev, High Energy Chemistry, 32 (4), 

 247-250 (1998). 

39. P.F. Jackson, K.J. Morgan, and A.M. Turner, J. Chem Soc., Perkin Transactions II, 2 , 1582-1587 

 (1972). 

40. Y. Termonia, P. Meakin, and P. Smith, Macromolecules, 18, 2246-2252 (1985). 

41. M.-C. G. Jones and D.C. Martin, Macromolecules, 28, 6161-6174 (1995).