science 

uses

for a changing world

Environmental Issues Associated 

with Fossil Fuel Resources An 

Evaluation of Research Opportunities 

for the U.S. Geological Survey's 

Energy Resources Program

By M.L. Tuttle1 and G.N. Breit1 , with contributions from R.G. Stanley, 2 

G.N. Breit, 1 R.B. Finkelman, 3 E.I. Bobbins3 and C.B. Cecil3

Open-File Report 99-590

1999

This report is preliminary and has not been reviewed for conformity with U.S. Geological 

Survey editorial standards or with the North American Stratigraphic Code. Any use of 

trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply 

endorsement by the U.S. Government.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

'Denver, Colorado 

2Menlo Park, California 

SReston Virginia
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Introduction.................................................................................................................... 1

Internal Workshops.........................................................................................................2

World Wide Webb Workshop......................................................................................... 3

Proposed Topics of Research .......................................................................................... 4

Geology Based Environmental Factors of Energy Production.............................. 4

Subsidence due to petroleum production, coal mining, and geothermal

development................................................................................. 5

Overburden and associated waste rock from coal production.................... 5

Aquifer disruption by drilling and mining................................................ 5

Acid mine drainage (coal......................................................................... 5

Geologic constraints on energy-related waste disposal............................. 6

Fossil Fuel Quality Environmentally Sensitive Elements.................................. 6

Fuel quality composition of petroleum and coal...................................... 6

Mode-of-occurrence of elements in coal and petroleum ........................... 7

Hydrocarbons in the Surface Environment........................................................... 7

Oil seeps.................................................................................................. 8

Natural hydrocarbons in groundwater ...................................................... 8

Baseline of hydrocarbons in coastal areas ................................................ 8

Physical and chemical transformation of oil in surface environment......... 8

CO2 and Methane: Greenhouse Gases from Fossil Fuels..................................... 8

Energy-mix scenarios: predicting future CO2 emissions from

fossil fuel..................................................................................... 9

Methane sources...................................................................................... 9

CO2 sequestration..................................................................................... 9

Natural hydrocarbon (organic carbon) sinks through time........................ 9

Metals Released during Development and Use of Fossil Fuel. ............................ 9

Baseline abundances of metals............................................................... 10

Bioavailability of energy-related metals................................................. 10

Geochemical aspects of by-product disposal.......................................... 10

Contribution of metals in fossil fuel to metal cycling ............................. 11

Environmental Influences on the Future of Fossil Fuels ................................................ 11

Environmental impacts of energy mix.................................................... 11

Human health effects from fossil fuels................................................... 11

Socioeconomic impact of fossil fuel....................................................... 12

Ecological disturbance from fossil fuel development and use................. 12

Energy Resource Program Environmental Studies FY99............................................ 12

References.................................................................................................................... 13
CONTRIBUTIONS

Page

Petroleum Seep Study, by R.G. Stanley......................................................................... 14

Produced Waters Study, by G.B. Breit.......................................................................... 17

Coal Quality and Impact of Coal Utilization Studies,

by R.B. Finkelman ............................................................................................ 21

Coal Mine Drainage Studies, by E.I. Robbins and C.B. Cecil.................................. 24

APPENDIX

Page

Table Al. Scoring, by region, of research topics discussed............................................ 28

Table A2. Environmental research topics in which ERP has a significant role. Shaded

topics are those in which the USGS also has a significant role....................... 29

Table A3. Topics in which both the ERP and the USGS have significant roles.............. 30

11
Environmental Issues Associated with Fossil Fuel Resources An

Evaluation of Research Opportunities for the 

U.S. Geological Survey's Energy Resources Program

By M.L. Tuttle and G.N. Breit 

INTRODUCTION

Fossil fuel consumption in the United States has nearly tripled within the last 50 years 

(fig. 1), and is expected to continue increasing. As our knowledge and awareness of 

environmental consequences related to fossil fuel extraction and use grow, we as a 

nation, face the challenge of balancing our energy requirements with a desire for 

environmentally cleaner fuel. To help meet this challenge, the Energy Resources 

Program (ERP) of the Geologic Division (GD), U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

sponsored three internal workshops and a World Wide Web (WWW) workshop. The 

primary goal of these workshops was to identify those environmental issues that are 

related to fossil fuels, are national in scope, and are within the purview of the USGS as an 

earth-science government agency. Those issues so identified will be prioritized 

according to ERP's future research plan and according to the extent they provide an 

environmental framework for ERP's petroleum and coal assessments.

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Figure 1. Graph of fossil fuel consumed in USA by year (data from EIA, 1999).
The purpose of this paper is to provide the results of the internal and WWW workshops 

as proposed topics of research for future ERP work, delineate studies to answer the 

questions related to each proposed research area, and link the studies to the seven science 

goals of the Geologic Division. The information provided herein will be used in 

preparing the USGS Geologic Division's FY2000 prospectus and ERP's next five-year 

strategic plan.

Acknowledgements. The authors wish to acknowledge information on ERP 

environmental projects provided by Les Magoon, Paul Lillis, Keith Kvenvolden, Tom 

Lorenson, and Bob Rosenbauer. Peter Schweitzer was instrumental in providing the 

software for the WWW workshop, Cheryl Adkisson for constructing the workshop web 

pages, and Laura Friedrich for constructing the web pages summarizing the internal 

workshops. Stan Mroczkowski, Jim Otton, Donna Read, and Dorothy Tanti provided 

notes of or logistical assistance for the internal workshops. This report reflects the 

collective input of numerous USGS managers and scientists their participation in the 

workshops is greatly appreciated.

INTERNAL WORKSHOPS

Three one-day workshops were held for USGS scientists and managers, one workshop at 

each of the three USGS regional centers (Menlo Park CA, Denver CO, and Res ton VA). 

The goal of the workshops was to provide answers to four questions:

1.What does "environmental" mean to the ERP?

2. What energy environmental issues face our nation within the next decade?

3. Which of these issues are relevant to scientific goals of the USGS and the ERP?

4. What criteria should ERP use to prioritize relevant issues?

A facilitator led the discussion in each of the internal workshops. Notes were taken and 

the discussions recorded. The notes and summaries of workshop results were posted on 

the ERP's web page for reference. Summaries are in the Appendix tables.

The outcome of these three workshops was the basis for drafting the six proposed topics 

of research that were the subject of a WWW workshop. Each research topic was 

evaluated with respect to the seven science goals of the GD of the USGS (Bohlen and 

others, 1998).

Goal 1 Conduct geologic hazard assessments for mitigation planning.

Goal 2 Provide short-term prediction of geologic disasters and rapidly characterize

their effects. 

Goal 3 Advance the understanding of the Nation's energy and mineral resources in

a global geologic, economic, and environmental context. 

Goal 4 Anticipate the environmental impacts of climate variability. 

Goal 5 Establish the geologic framework for ecosystem structure and function.
Goal 6 Interpret the links between human health and geologic processes. 

Goal 7 Determine the geologic controls on ground-water resources and hazardous 

waste isolation.

Each science goal has products that the GD has identified as important for the USGS to 

prepare and publish/ These products are listed in the GD five-year plan, and those related 

to proposed ERP research topics are listed in the research topic descriptions.

The studies presented under each of the proposed topics are a combination of short-term 

and long-term research. The short-term scientific efforts will focus on pressing national 

issues that ERP expertise in earth science can address. The long-term research will 

provide a fundamental understanding of our energy resources in an environmental 

context. Although not specifically emphasized, the global nature t)f many important 

resource and environmental issues requires that international science activities be 

considered whenever appropriate.

WORLD WIDE WEB WORKSHOP

A WWW workshop was constructed using software developed by Peter Schweitzer of the 

USGS. This program enables browsers to register, provide comments on each research 

topic and the studies related to them, and communicate directly with the workshop 

administrator or other participants. Invitations were sent to State Geologists and key 

scientists at other government agencies and in academia. In addition, the invitation was 

widely distributed through the Department of Interior's (DOI's) Science.Board and 

through an environmental distribution list from Vice President Al Gore's office. One 

week after the invitations were sent, the WWW workshop internet address was released 

internally within the USGS. The workshop remained open for 4 months after which time 

the web pages were accessible, but no longer interactive.

The six topics of environmental research and relevent studies presented in the WWW 

workshop reflect the outcome of the internal workshops. Our goal was to solicit 

feedback from colleagues and other interested parties outside the USGS to assess the 

impact of the six research topics being proposed. Below are the questions participants 

were asked to consider as they reviewed the proposed research topics and relevant 

studies.

 Are the issues addressed by proposed projects appropriate for the USGS and ERP?

 Are there additional broad issues that the ERP should consider?

 Do studies presented address scientific questions appropriate for the USGS and 

ERP?

 Are studies relevant to understanding energy resources in an environmental context?

 Are the studies of the appropriate scope?

 Are the scientific products useful to USGS customers? If not, what types of 

products should the ERP produce?

 Are there additional studies that the ERP should consider?
The workshop status report indicated that many people, especially from outside the 

USGS, were accessing the workshop. During one week, almost 300 visits were recorded. 

Figure 2 is a histogram showing the number of weekly hits on the WWW workshop site.

300

250-

200-

150-

oUtside the USGS 

ireide the USGS

100-

Figure 2. Histogram of the number of hits on the WWW workshop by week.

PROPOSED TOPICS OF RESEARCH 

Geology Based Environmental Factors of Energy Production.

The production of oil, gas, coal, and geothermal energy and its effect on the environment 

are related to geologic conditions. Development of a resource and resource availability 

depend on such factors as reservoir character and complexity (oil and gas), overburden 

characteristics (coal), the potential for physical and chemical disruption of aquifers, 

susceptibility of the extraction site to subsidence, and the suitability of the extraction site 

for disposal of large-volume wastes. Knowledge within ERP of reservoir geometry, 

surface and subsurface geology, and hydrogeology provides a basis for evaluating the 

environmental consequences of energy extraction (e.g. subsidence, microseismicity, acid 

mine drainage, water production, CO2 generation, waste disposal, and optimal drilling 

density). This information will help identify limitations on energy development. Such 

limitations are important input to ERP petroleum and coal assessments and to surveys of 

geothermal energy.
Current exploration and production of fuels is highly regulated with respect to 

environmental impact; however, many public and private lands have abandoned wells or 

mines and areas degraded by past activities (legacy issues). The intent of studies on this 

topic is to identify and understand the geologic factors related to environmental impacts 

of past, present, and future energy production, and to provide geologic data to the public, 

industry and governmental agencies, especially those with management responsibilities 

on Federal lands. In addition, the study results contribute to integrated, broader USGS 

efforts as proposed in the Geologic Division's Science Plan. Desired products for these 

integrated efforts are:

 Multihazard assessments for selected urban areas,

 Integrated life-cycle models of selected energy commodities,

 Total-cost assessments of the Nation's petroleum and coal.

SELECTED STUDY TOPICS

1. Subsidence due to petroleum production, coal mining, and geothermal development. 

Regional and local subsidence as expressed in surface sinks, ground deformation, 

microseismicity, and slumps have been linked to production from large oil and gas 

reservoirs, coal extraction from underground and surface mines, and the development 

of geothermal energy. Knowledge of the subsurface geology of sedimentary basins, 

and of rock mechanics (USGS hazards programs), is needed to assess hazards in 

selected regions of continuing production, and to produce vulnerability maps and 

databases for the ERP petroleum and coal assessments.

2. Overburden and associated waste rock from coal production. The thickness of 

overburden rock likely to be removed in the extraction of coal will be a factor in 

determining the development potential of a coal horizon. In addition, the chemical 

and mineralogical composition of these rocks is important to evaluate proper mine 

reclamation. Geological, mineralogical, and geochemical maps; geophysical surveys; 

and syntheses of the composition of these rocks in selected geographic areas will 

contribute to ERP resource assessments.

3. Aquifer disruption by drilling and mining. The development of any resource is 

constrained, in part, by the potential impact on aquifers. In some cases, the resource 

and aquifer are the same horizon (e.g., coal beds containing methane that are regional 

aquifers). The ERP, together with the Water Resources Division of the USGS, has 

expertise on geologic characteristics of aquifers and geochemistry of their waters, 

providing important data on aquifer susceptibility to disruption or contamination 

during resource development. These data could produce vulnerability maps and 

databases for aquifers in selected geographic areas as part of ERP resource 

assessments.

4. Acid mine drainage (coal). Acid mine drainage from coal mines is concentrated in 

areas of high-sulfur coal and relatively wet climates. It affects thousands of stream 

miles in the United States, particularly in the Appalachian region, and in some areas
accumulates as strongly acidic ground water in abandoned underground coal mines. 

The ERP has knowledge of the distribution of acid-generating coal and associated 

rocks. Combined with data on geochemical processes of acid mine drainage (Mineral 

Resources Program of the USGS) and on microbiology (Biological Resources 

Division of the USGS or non-USGS research partners), a comprehensive 

understanding of acid mine drainage in areas of coal production can be developed.

5. Geologic constraints on energy-related waste disposal. Sites of resource extraction 

are commonly sites of disposal of production/combustion wastes such as water 

produced with oil and gas, drilling wastes, overburden, and coal combustion solids. 

ERP can provide the subsurface geologic and hydrogeologic data to help assess the 

availability of appropriate strata for disposal.

Fossil Fuel Quality Environmentally Sensitive Elements.

The abundance of environmentally sensitive elements in petroleum and coal affects its 

value and development potential. For example, significant elements include mercury, 

arsenic and sulfur in coal; sulfur, vanadium and nickel in oil; and sulfur in gas. This 

aspect of resource quality determines how oil and coal are processed and the composition 

of by-products likely to be produced during combustion (i.e., ash and gases). ERP 

resource assessments depend on reliable coal, oil, and gas quality data.

The ERP has an extensive database on the quality of domestic coal resources 

(COALQUAL; Bragg and others, 1997). In addition, cooperative studies have been 

proposed to collect and compile additional national and global coal composition data. 

Data sets on selected elements in petroleum (especially sulfur, vanadium, and nickel in 

oil) are available in established ERP databases. Existing and new data will be used in the 

ERP petroleum and coal assessments to evaluate limitations on resource development due 

to high concentrations of environmentally sensitive elements. The energy resource 

quality data contribute to integrated, broader USGS efforts as proposed in the Geologic 

Division's Science Plan. Desired products for these integrated efforts are:

 Integrated life-cycle models of selected energy commodities,

 Nationally consistent, regional-scale environmental geology and 

geochemistry data bases and maps,

 Total-cost assessments of the Nation's petroleum and coal.

SELECTED STUDY TOPICS

1. Fuel quality composition of petroleum and coal. Sulfur and trace-metal content of 

coal and oil are important quality criteria along with API gravity of oil and the BTU 

and ash content of coal. Amounts of hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide 

in natural gas are critical in determining its value. These chemical and physical 

properties affect development depending on technological advances and fuel demand. 

The ERP resource assessments rely on internally consistent compositional data (ERP 

maintains analytical capabilities to produce such data and develops new methods as
needed). This study continues to build upon existing ERP databases and applies the 

data by constructing maps of quality properties for geographic areas undergoing 

resource assessment.

2. Mode-of-occurrence of elements in coal and petroleum. In addition to element 

concentrations, the mode-of-occurrence of elements is also an important 

consideration. This is especially true for sulfur and trace metals in coal and for sulfur 

in oil and gas. The mineralogical and organic residences of elements in coal 

dramatically affects element mobility during production, processing, and combustion. 

Sulfur is partitioned into different hydrocarbon fractions during the refining of oil, 

and sulfur content of these fractions may limit downstream uses. The ERP uses 

mode-of-occurrence data to conduct surveys and refine evaluations of the quality of 

coal and petroleum in geographic areas during resource assessments. In addition, 

data on the mode-of-occurrence are valuable to industries actually processing the coal 

and oil.

Hydrocarbons in the Surface Environment.

Natural occurrences of petroleum and coal affect environmental conditions. Natural 

seeps of oil and gas occur in both terrestrial and marine settings, and organic compounds 

from coal beds affect water quality. In certain areas, these naturally occurring 

compounds are of greater concern than those released to the environment as a result of 

human activity.

The ERP has expertise and analytical equipment to chemically and isotopically 

characterize organic compounds in fossil fuels. The analytical data are used in ERP 

resource assessments and are critical to understanding and assessing the fluxes and fates of 

naturally occurring hydrocarbons. In addition, the results from studies on this topic 

contribute to integrated, broader USGS efforts as proposed in the Geologic Division's 

Science Plan. Desired products for these integrated efforts are:

 Integrated life-cycle models of selected energy commodities,

 Total-cost assessments of the Nation's petroleum and coal,

 Models of geochemical processes that affect ecosystem functions,

 Assessments of fundamental geologic fluxes that affect ecosystem dynamics,

 Summaries of the geology, geochemistry, and health effects of selected, 

potentially toxic organic compounds,

 Nationally consistent, regional-scale environmental geology and geochemistry 

databases and maps.

SELECTED STUDY TOPICS

1. Oil seeps. Natural seeps are used as indicators of petroleum buried at depth and 

provide information about the quality of potential fuels, migration pathways, and 

breaching of oil reservoir seals. The distribution, characterization, and flux of oil into 

the environment are important inputs for the petroleum system approach of the ERP
petroleum resource assessments. Describing and understanding natural seeps in 

coastal regions is of additional importance because tar residues from natural seeps are 

often confused with oil released in the marine environment by human activity. This 

study, in collaboration with the Coastal and Marine Geology Program of the USGS, 

focuses on processes related to oil seeps especially in sensitive coastal areas.

2. Natural hydrocarbons in groundwater. Some organic compounds associated with oil 

and coal in the ground are soluble in ground water. In addition, gas seepage into 

aquifers can substantially degrade water supplies as shown in some areas of coal-bed 

methane development. The extent and amount of natural concentrations of these 

hydrocarbons are poorly known and are difficult to describe in areas of production. 

Studies on this topic will provide information to understand natural processes 

affecting hydrocarbon contents of water supplies and will contribute to the evaluation 

of the impact of petroleum and coal production.

3. Baseline of hydrocarbons in coastal areas. Coastal areas are not only contaminated 

with oil from naturally occurring seeps, but also contain a host of other hydrocarbons 

associated with such activities as disposing of motor oil, flushing bunker fuel, and 

pumping from the bilge of ships. A survey of sensitive coastal areas will assist in 

determining and documenting the amount of hydrocarbons present (whether natural 

or related to human activities), and in developing a baseline in the event of a 

catastrophic hydrocarbon release.

4. Physical and chemical transformation of oil in the surface environment. Physical and 

chemical properties of oil are changed in the surface environment by a variety of 

processes. Knowledge of these changes is needed to assess the reliability of oil 

identification. In addition, an understanding of the transformation processes is 

needed to evaluate the long-term fate and impact of hydrocarbons in the surface 

environment. Some transformations are biologically mediated; therefore, the study 

also needs the collaboration of research partners with microbiological expertise.

CO2 and Methane: Greenhouse Gases from Fossil Fuels.

The atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) has been increasing since the 

beginning of the industrial revolution in the middle 1800's. Some researchers believe the 

increase in atmospheric CO2 will cause a "greenhouse" effect resulting in a global rise of 

atmospheric temperatures. Combustion of fossil fuels is considered a major source of the 

increased CO2 . The amount of CO2 produced per equivalent energy unit varies 

depending on the fuel-gas produces less than oil, and oil produces less than coal. In the 

future, national and global energy policies on energy mix may be mandated, especially 

considering international concerns and efforts to reduce CO2 emissions. Sequestering of 

CO2 in geologically isolated reservoirs may be a way to reduce CO2 inputs to the 

atmosphere. However, knowledge of the geology of proposed reservoirs is necessary for 

successful implementation.

Although the contribution of methane to greenhouse-gas emissions is volumetrically 

smaller than from CO2 , it is a more "potent" greenhouse gas than CO2 . Natural fluxes
from oil, gas, hydrates, and coal contribute methane to the atmosphere. The magnitude of 

these fluxes is poorly known, thus more data are needed before, the contribution of 

methane from human activities can be more reliably assessed.

Studies of greenhouse gases in conjunction with resource assessments and other studies 

decribed below will contribute significantly to the integrated, broader series of USGS 

investigations on this topic as proposed in the Geologic Division's science plan. Desired 

products resulting from the integrated program are:

 An integrated life-cycle model of selected energy commodities,

 Total-cost assessments of the Nation's petroleum and coal,

 An assessment of fundamental geologic fluxes that affect ecosystem dynamics.

SELECTED STUDY TOPICS

1. Energy-mix scenarios: predicting future CO2 emissions from fossil fuel. The global 

choices of energy sources will profoundly affect CO2 emissions in the future. 

Intelligent choices require knowledge of the distribution of global fuel resources and 

their potential use to reliably estimate potential CO2 production. ERP has extensive 

data from its national and global resource assessments that provide the basis for 

energy-mix scenario analysis. Through these analyses, ERP can contribute to the 

broader goal of understanding the national and global environmental impact on 

energy mix.

2. Methane sources. Methane emissions from oil, gas and hydrate production sites and 

coal mines contribute to the atmospheric flux. ERP, together with the Coastal and 

Marine Geology Program of the USGS, has the expertise to estimate the flux of 

methane from these sources on national and global scales.

3. CO2 sequestration. Injecting CO2 at fossil fuel extraction sites can enhance petroleum 

recovery but also provide an opportunity for CO2 sequestration. ERP has extensive 

knowledge of the geology of natural gas reservoirs and coal beds that may be applied 

in studies to (a) evaluate the amount of CO2 that can be sequestered in reservoirs, (b) 

survey the distribution of potential sequestration horizons, and (c) forecast the longterm fate of CO2 injected into the disposal reservoirs.

4. Natural hydrocarbon (organic carbon) sinks through time. ERP has studied the burial 

of organic carbon over geologic time as part of numerous studies on the origin of 

petroleum and coal. This knowledge will contribute to understanding sources and 

sinks of organic carbon as part of the global carbon cycle.

Metals Released during Production and Use of Fossil Fuel.

Fossil fuels commonly contain trace amounts of metals that are considered potentially 

harmful to ecosystems and human health. During fuel processing and combustion, these 

metals concentrate in residual by-products or are released directly to the air and water.
Residual by-products are typically placed in disposal sites where they may interact with 

water and biota, eventually resulting in release of metals to the environment.

Studies on this topic will focus on the mobility, baseline concentrations, and 

bioavailability of metals in fossil fuel by-products that are of environmental concern. 

Such studies will provide a basis to assess the contribution of fossil fuels to the natural 

cycling of these metals at the earth's surface. In addition, the results contribute to 

integrated, broader USGS efforts as proposed in the Geologic Division's science plan. 

Desired products for these integrated efforts are:

 Integrated life-cycle models of selected energy commodities,

 Total-cost assessments of the Nation's petroleum and coal,

 Models of geologic and geochemical processes that affect ecosystem functions,

 Summaries of the geology, geochemistry, and health effects of selected 

potentially toxic elements, mineral phases, and organic compounds

 Nationally consistent, regional-scale environmental geology and geochemistry 

databases and maps,

 Integrated geological, geochemical, and biological assessments of regions where 

contaminated sediments may accumulate.

SELECTED STUDY TOPICS

1. Baseline of metals in the environment. Fuel production, processing, and use can 

increase concentrations of trace metals in surrounding sediment, soil, and water. 

Determination of the amount and extent of increased metal contents cannot be 

assessed without knowledge of conditions pre-dating changes attributable to fossil 

fuels. Baseline studies of the chemical composition of soils, sediments, and water 

will provide a basis for such determinations. This effort is especially appropriate on 

Federal lands.

2. Bioavailability of energy-related metals. Metals in fossil fuels and their by-products 

enter the environment as solids, gases, or dissolved in water. The ability of 

organisms to accumulate these metals is a complex function of metal availability; 

chemical transformations in soil, sediment and water; and pathways of uptake and 

ingestion. Determination of the form, amount, and distribution of bioavailable metals 

from fossil fuels is necessary to estimate risk to organisms and ecosystems. Studies 

on this topic should work collaboratively with the Mineral Resources Program of the 

USGS to provide data to biologists and ecologists.

3. Geochemical aspects of by-product disposal. Fossil fuel production and use result in 

a variety of by-products such as coal cleaning residues, fly ash, flue gas 

desulfurization solids, water produced with oil and gas, and scales and sludges drived 

from produced water. Although portions of these products are used beneficially, most 

require disposal. The by-products may contain significant concentrations of metals. 

The amounts and ease of release of these metals should be evaluated as part of a 

geochemical characterization of the by-products. The ERP has specialists that are 

knowledgeable about the mineralogy and the composition of solid phases that

10
accumulate these trace metals, as well as having the capability to predict the reactivity 

of minerals. Results of analyses can be used to forecast the consequences of longterm interaction of the by-products with the near-surface environment.

4. Contribution of metals in fossil fuel to the overall metal cycle. Metals in fossil fuel, 

whether entering the environment by natural processes or human activity, change 

residence and form as a result of chemical and biological processes. Studies on this 

topic should be designed to reduce uncertainties in determining the effects of metals 

associated with fossil fuel on the natural cycling process. Results will be integrated 

with the three projects discussed above to develop unified models explaining the fate, 

transformations, and impact of metals released from fossil fuels.

Environmental Influences on the Future of Fossil Fuels.

Future production of national and global energy resources will be affected by 

environmental concerns. Individuals, industry, public policy makers, and regulators 

perceive these concerns differently. Therefore, objective scientific information is essential 

for establishing appropriate policies regarding domestic and foreign energy resources, for 

making wise decisions regarding Federal land use, and for maintaining a viable and 

environmentally sound domestic energy industry.

Studies on environmental influence will integrate geologic and geochemical data from 

ERP energy environmental studies with other scientific disciplines to address socially 

relevant issues. The goal of these partnerships is to produce comprehensive products such 

as:

1. Scenarios of the environmental impacts of future energy production and use,

2. An assessment of fossil fuel impact on human health,

3. Evaluation of socioeconomic constraints on fossil fuel production and use.

4. A survey of fossil fuel impact on fragile lands.

SELECTED STUDY TOPICS

1. Environmental impacts of energy mix. The goal of studies on this topic is to maintain 

an understanding of the national and global environmental impacts related to all 

geology based energy resources (conventional and non-conventional petroleum, coal, 

hydrates, geothermal energy, and uranium). An integrated summary of 

environmental aspects of energy production is of special use to regulators, developers 

of policy, and land-use planners, and also will serve as a key input for energy 

scenario planning.

2. Human health effects from fossil fuels. Fossil fuels exploitation can affect human 

health. Studies on this topic, in collaboration with researchers in the human health 

community, will provide data for evaluating the link between fossil fuels and human 

health. Relevant data include surveys of elements and compounds of a national and 

global health concern, and help to identify the pathways across the geoenvironment/human interface.

11
3. Socioeconomic impact of fossil fuel. In the past, energy resource production and use 

was driven by relatively simple economics cheapest energy was best. Now and in 

the future, a complex set of social and economic factors is controlling energy 

production and use. These factors include rapid growth in energy demand (especially 

in third world countries), concern about global climate change, clean air and water 

concerns, and development of alternative energy sources. The ERP needs to be aware 

of these factors and work with economists to assess the socioeconomic effect on 

future fossil fuel supplies and the energy mix.

4. Ecological disturbance from fossil fuel development and use. The disruption of 

ecosystems is a growing concern, especially with respect to fragile lands in urban 

areas, coastal zones, and other regions of national importance. Fuel production and 

use variably contribute to these disruptions by changes in land use and alteration of 

the natural fluxes of sediments, compounds and elements. These fluxes can be placed 

in the context of natural geologic (e.g. sedimentation and erosion) and geochemical 

(e.g. metal fluxes and air composition) conditions. Studies on this topic will integrate 

information from other USGS projects and frorn ecologists to provide a perspective 

on how energy-related fluxes into the environment impact ecosystems.

ENERGY RESOURCES PROGRAM ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES FY99

The ERP currently funds several environmental research studies that will be ongoing in 

FY2000 or may be revisited in future funding cycles. Included at the end of this report 

are contributions by ERP researchers summarizing these studies in terms of criteria 

developed to assess ERP environmental research topics/studies (table 1).

Table 1 . Criteria developed to assess Energy Resources Program environmental 

research topic/studies.

Scale of concern

Federal/DOI role

Energy Resourses Program role

Resources available ($, FTE, expertise)

Potential for collaboration

Impact on societal decisions

Who cares now?

Role of solid earth science

Research vs. data compilation

Knowledge to reduce uncertainty

12
REFERENCES

Bohlen, S.R., Halley, R.B., Hickman, S.H., Johnson, S.Y., Lowenstern, J.B., Muhs, D.R., 

Plumlee, G.S., Thompson, G.A., Trauger, D.L., and Zoback, M.L., 1998, Geology 

for a Changing World a science strategy for the Geologic Division of the U.S. 

Geologic Survey, 2000-2010: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1172, 59 p.

Bragg, L.J., Oman, J.K., Twalt, S.J., Oman, C.L., Rega, N.H., Washington, P.M., and 

Finkelman, R.B., 1997, U.S. Geological Survey Coal Quality (COALQUAL) 

Database: Version 2.0: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 97-134, CDROM.

Energy Information Administration (EIA), 1999, <http://www.eia.doe.gov/.

13
PETROLEUM SEEP STUDY

by R.G. Stanley

SCALE OF CONCERN.

Naturally occurring seeps of oil and gas are found in hydrocarbon provinces throughout 

the world in both terrestrial and marine settings. Natural seeps contribute an unknown but 

noticeable and possibly significant amount of petroleum pollution into surface 

environments, including streams, oceans, and the atmosphere. Oil derived from natural 

seeps can be confused with the residues of oil products accidentally or deliberately 

spilled by human activities; therefore, there is a need to accurately distinguish spill 

residues from natural residues so that any liability is assigned properly to those 

responsible for the spill. Seeps of natural gas add methane (a more potent greenhouse gas 

than carbon dioxide) to the atmosphere, and must be evaluated as part of any effort to 

limit the total greenhouse gas burden of the atmosphere. Because oceanic oil seeps and 

spills and greenhouse gas emissions ignore political boundaries and can have impacts that 

are both devastating and costly, they are of broad national and international concern.

FEDERAL/DOI ROLE.

Many oil and gas seeps occur on Federal lands, in the oceans, and in areas of mixed state 

and local jurisdictions. As a Federal agency, the DOI can reasonably and efficiently work 

on problems that cross local and state jurisdictional boundaries. Furthermore, the 

Department of the Interior can support Federal and state environmental policing agencies 

(e.g., the U.S. Coast Guard and the California Division of Fish and Game) by providing 

research support in identifying primary sources of spilled oils and in developing new and 

improved chemical parameters for correlation purposes.

ENERGY RESOURCES PROGRAM ROLE.

Among other things, the Energy Program is responsible for providing up-to-date and 

comprehensive analysis of oil and gas resource information that facilitates land use and 

environmental decisionmaking. Research on hydrocarbon seeps clearly falls within the 

scope of Energy Program duties.

RESOURCES AVAILABLE (FUNDING, STAFFING, EXPERTISE).

The USGS staff includes many specialists in the fields of petroleum geology, regional 

geology, marine geology and geophysics, organic geochemistry, and fluid flow modeling. 

Many of these individuals already have much experience in working with oil and gas 

seeps. In addition, the USGS currently supports organic geochemical laboratories in 

Denver and Menlo Park with experienced staff and state-of-the-art equipment and 

instruments for analyzing hydrocarbons from seeps, spills, and producing fields.

POTENTIAL FOR COLLABORATION.

The opportunities for collaboration are high among many state, local, and Federal 

agencies that are concerned about potential contaminants, including both anthropogenic 

and natural sources of oil and gas. These agencies need accurate information on the 

locations, geochemistry, volume, geologic settings, and potential impacts of seeps. In

14
California, for example, there is potential for collaboration with concerned agencies such 

as the U.S. Coast Guard, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the California 

Division of Fish and Game. Within the USGS, there are opportunities for collaboration 

between the Energy Resources Program, Coastal and Marine Geology Program, and the 

Water Resources Division. Other potential collaborators include Federal agencies that 

administer lands and offshore areas with hydrocarbon seeps (including the National Park 

Service, U.S. Air Force, U.S. Army, Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Forest Service, 

and Minerals Management Service); local governments and water agencies; and 

researchers at various academic institutions.

IMPACT ON SOCIETAL DECISIONS.

Comprehensive baseline studies of the locations, geochemical compositions, and 

geologic settings of hydrocarbon seeps will provide relevant databases upon which 

societal decisions can be confidently supported. In turn, these databases will soon be 

large enough to help determine whether a given oil slick on the ocean was derived from a 

natural seep, or, alternatively, was spilled from a ship or leaky pipeline. Certain seeps 

may have unique chemical signatures, so in some cases it may be possible to trace oil 

derived from such a seep to a unique point source. The question of natural vs. 

anthropogenic sources is of particular importance in the Los Angeles, Santa BarbaraVentura, Santa Maria, Santa Cruz-Monterey, and San Francisco Bay areas, where natural 

hydrocarbon seeps are present, population density is high, and offshore Pacific Ocean 

tanker and petroleum production activities take place. Seep databases also might impact 

societal decisions regarding petroleum exploration in marine sanctuaries and provide 

guidelines for establishing new sanctuaries.

WHO CARES NOW?

Federal, state, and local governments and the public are concerned about oil and gas 

pollution in our environment; they want it cleaned up quickly-and correctly, they want the 

sources of the hydrocarbon pollution to be identified, and they want the responsible 

person(s), if any, held accountable.

ROLE OF SOLID-EARTH SCIENCE.

The understanding of seep occurrence requires both geology and petroleum 

geochemistry, disciplines well established in the solid-earth sciences. The USGS staff 

currently includes many regional experts and some world-class experts in these fields.

RESEARCH TOPIC VS. DATA COMPILATION.

Studies of hydrocarbon seeps require new research in the fields of geology and organic 

geochemistry (see following section). Data compilation is also needed to (1) create and 

continually update digital maps and databases of seep locations and characteristics, and 

(2) create geochemical databases that include the large chemical data set generated from 

hundreds of analyses of produced crude oils, seep oils, and hydrocarbon source rocks.

15
KNOWLEDGE TO REDUCE UNCERTAINTY.

Important unanswered questions that can be addressed by current scientific capabilities 

include the following.

 For any given seep, why are hydrocarbons leaking out of the earth at that 

particular spot? From what source rocks were the hydrocarbons derived, and 

what pathways did the hydrocarbons follow from the source rocks to the surface? 

Can seeps at the surface be correlated with subsurface accumulations of oil and 

gas?

 What is the volume per unit time of hydrocarbons released by natural seeps? 

How has this flux changed over time?

 What is the ultimate destination of hydrocarbons from seeps and what is the

impact of these hydrocarbons on biological, chemical, and physical systems in the 

natural environment?

 What changes take place during weathering of crude oil, and how do these

changes affect the reliability of oil characterization and correlation with other oils 

and with source rocks?

 What geochemical criteria are most reliable for use in discriminating natural seep 

oils from accidental spills caused by human activities such as extraction and 

transportation of petroleum? Are these criteria reliable when both substances are 

found in the same region and both are from common sources?

 How do oil and gas seeps in terrestrial environments affect the quality of surface 

and ground water?

 Can gases derived from natural sources be distinguished from those released by 

human activities? Can we quantify the impacts of gas from natural seeps on 

atmospheric hydrocarbon pollution?

16
PRODUCED WATER STUDIES

By George N. Breit

INTRODUCTION.

Water is a component of all petroleum reservoirs. During oil and gas production some 

water is brought to the surface where it must be properly handled to minimize 

environmental impact. This water varies greatly in composition but commonly contains 

dissolved salts, hydrocarbons, trace metals, and radionuclides, which render it 

unacceptable for uses other than enhanced petroleum recovery. Annual produced water 

production in the United States is roughly estimated to be 25 billion barrels/year. This 

approximates an average water-to-oil ratio of 10:1. As producing fields age, the 

proportion of water brought to the surface increases; some domestic fields presently have 

a watenoil ratio of 100:1. The amount and composition of produced water is a complex 

function of geology, hydrology and production engineering. Most of this water is reinjected to maintain reservoir pressure and to enhance the recovery of petroleum. 

Currently about 35 percent of water produced with oil and gas within the continental U.S. 

requires disposal. Most is injected into the subsurface, a substantial portion is evaporated 

in disposal ponds, and a small percentage is discharged into surface streams.

Prior to properly recognizing the adverse impact of some produced water on the 

environment, disposal of this water was by the most economic method available. 

Historical methods included discharge into surface streams, storage in unlined 

impoundments, disposal in poorly maintained injection wells, and simply running the 

water over the ground. Impacts of these past practices are apparent in salt scars visible at 

the surface, contamination of soil and surface water, and plumes of saline water that 

affect ground water supplies.

SCALE OF CONCERN.

Oil companies, land management agencies, landowners, developers, state and federal 

regulators, and environmental groups are all interested in aspects of the produced water 

issue. Oil companies are interested in understanding the amount and composition of 

water likely to be produced in developing areas so their production designs include the 

appropriate water handling capacity. Old production platforms along the Gulf Coast 

cannot support larger water separation units and must be shut in. High contents of 

potentially toxic compounds in offshore produced water have rendered some resources 

unattractive to developers. Identifying and using injection horizons for produced water 

disposal near coal-bed methane resources are an important consideration in permitting 

and development. In a survey of major concerns by marginal well operators in 1998, 

produced water was listed after only oil and gas pricing. Land managers require 

knowledge of whether a proposed oil and gas development includes reasonable capacity 

for handling the water in an environmentally acceptable manner.

Regulators and environmental groups express concern for the salts, BTEX (benzene, 

toluene ethylbenzene and xylene), trace metals, and NORM (naturally occurring 

radioactive material) contained in produced water and how they may impact sensitive

17
areas and aquifers. The total number of wells drilled in the United States for the purpose 

of petroleum production is estimated to be 2.4 million in 36 states. Only about 880,000 

are still in production. Depending on the plugging practices, these wells may remain as 

conduits to the surface and shallow aquifers. In 1986, the U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency (EPA) summarized a survey of states to determine the sources of groundwater 

pollution; 22 states identified oil and gas brine pits as a significant source of pollution. 

Two of the states identified brine pits as the primary source of groundwater pollution.

FEDERAL/DOI ROLE.

Federal land managers are seeking knowledge and expertise by which to evaluate 

produced water for permitting develoments, environmental impact statements and 

potential risks to other resources they manage. The legacy of past and some continuing 

practices of produced water disposal continue to degrade land and water managed by 

U.S. agencies Forest Service (FS), Bureau of Land Management (BLM), Bureau of 

Indian Affairs (BIA) and National Park Service (NPS). Contamination of drinking water 

and agricultural lands is evident in several states. These federal agencies have a need to 

access information and expertise to aid in decision making, remediation, and restoration.

ENERGY RESOURCES PROGRAM ROLE.

Understanding the amount and composition of water produced from a reservoir can 

advance knowledge of the flow dynamics, origin, and geologic controls on petroleum 

production. Water can render a resource uneconomic, thus it is a factor to be considered 

in resource assessments. Databases develped within ERP can be used to address these 

issues in certain areas, but expertise on the quantity and quality of produced oil-field 

water is needed on a national level.

RESOURCES AVIALABLE (FUNDING, STAFFING, EXPERTISE).

The USGS maintains capabilities appropriate for the study of produced water. The 

Energy Program maintains expertise and information on petroleum geology, reservoir 

characteristics, fluid flow, petroleum production databases, petroleum engineering, 

analytical chemistry and geochemistry thatis essential for the evaluation of ecosystem 

impacts by Water Resources Division (WRD) and Biological Resource Division (BRD) 

scientists.

POTENTIAL FOR COLLABORATION.

Potential collaborators range from federal and state agencies to academic consortia and 

petroleum producers. Within the USGS, several divisions support investigations related 

to produced water. WRD, for example, has had, and is continuing investigations 

examining the impact of produced water on the quality of surface and ground water in 

several states. Federal land and resource managers in BLM, BIA, NPS, FS, and Fish and 

Wildlife Service deal with issues associated with current and past petroleum production 

and the permitting of new developments. State agencies that oversee oil and gas 

production have solicited advice and collaboration in dealing with produced water issues. 

Petroleum producers and their trade organizations and contractors have sought 

information on produced water and knowledge on the geologic conditions and processes 

that affect water composition.

18
IMPACT ON SOCIETAL DECISIONS.

The permitting of petroleum resource development and the remediation of sites impacted 

by produced water are two areas in which additional information on produced water will 

aid decision-making processes. The amount and composition of water likely to be 

produced, how it will be handled, and the options for disposal are a necessary part of a 

petroleum resource development plan. Nonetheless, the information available is 

commonly incomplete. Federal land managers need information and expert advice by 

which to judge the completeness of development plans and the potential affects on other 

resources. Presently the Nation expends large resources in the clean-up of contaminated 

sites. Some of these clean-up actions are related to contamination from salts, NORM, 

and hydrocarbons transported in produced water. Comprehensive information on the fate 

of contaminants from produced water is generally lacking, which challenges the reliable 

assessment of environmental risk. Incomplete knowledge may result in overly stringent 

clean-up requirements or no action at sites of importance.

WHO CARES NOW?

Federal and state agencies, land owners, and petroleum producers have varying degrees 

of concern regarding produced water. EPA continues to express concern regarding the 

need to collect more quantitative and comprehensive information on produced water and 

its fate during disposal. Property owners express concern over the impact of produced 

water discharged into surface drainages and stored in impoundments. Petroleum 

producers seek information and understanding of the impact of water on production 

operations and resource development.

ROLE OF SOLID-EARTH SCIENCE.

Water produced with oil and gas is a product of fluid movement through and interaction 

with rocks. Developing a comprehensive understanding of the characteristics of water 

associated with a petroleum resource requires application of geology, sedimentary 

petrology, hydrology, and geochemistry.

DATA COMPILATION vs RESEARCH EFFORT.

Both data compilation and research are appropriate for investigations of water produced 

with oil and gas, but only limited systematic compilations of data on produced water are 

currently available. Numerous academic and industry investigations have tabulated 

information on some compositional characteristics of produced water, but these are not 

readily accessible except through time-consuming literature search. The U.S. Bureau of 

Mines (now Department of Energy) at Bartlesville, OK, compiled 77,000 records 

describing the composition of produced water, which is currently being edited by the 

USGS to increase of the reliability of the contained information. Data on the amounts of 

water produced are routinely collected by some states. Portions of this information are 

tabulated by Petroleum Information, Inc. in its production files, which are not readily 

compiled to produce systematic overviews of the information.

Fundamental understanding of the controls on produced water composition, its 

implications for resource development and environmental impact require focused 

research efforts. Continued geologic, geochemical and geophysical studies are needed to

19
determine the amount, transport and fate of contaminants contained in produced water in 

the near surface environment. This approach is also needed to verify the suitability of 

existing knowledge of biodegradation and other natural processes to accurately forecast 

the fate of contaminants contained in produced water.

KNOWLEDGE TO REDUCE UNCERTAINTY.

Important areas of study regarding produced water that can be approached through 

application of multidisciplinary scientific expertise include:

 systematic analysis of trends in the amount of water produced as a function of 

geologic characteristics of the reservoir;

 method development to apply water data toward understanding the geologic 

heterogeneity that affects development of petroleum reservoirs;

 investigation of controls on the composition of produced water among and within 

basins, including NORM and trace metals;

 determination of the extent and fate of contaminants that entered the surface 

environment by improper disposal of produced water and solids precipitated from 

that water.

20
COAL QUALITY AND COAL UTILIZATION STUDIES

by R. B. Finkelman

SCALE OF CONCERN.

Concern about the environmental impact of coal and coal use covers the spectrum from 

local problems to regional, national, international, and global issues. Emissions from 

coal-burning electrical generating utilities drift across national boundaries in North 

America and Europe, deteriorating visibility and denuding forests. Residential use of 

coal has caused widespread severe health problems in developing countries. The World 

Resources Institute estimates that as many as 3.5 billion people rely on traditional fuels 

for cooking and heating. The World Bank estimates that between 400 million and 700 

million woman and children are exposed to severe air pollution, generally from cooking 

fires; a substantial proportion of these people rely on coal. The particulates, metals, gases 

(such as SOX ), and organic compounds (such as polycyclic aromatic compounds: PAC) 

can cause serious respiratory problems and toxic reactions. Leaching of PACs from 

lignite aquifers may cause or contribute to Balkan Endemic Nephropathy, a degenerative 

kidney disease that may be responsible for more ihan 100,000 deaths in the Balkans in a 

30-year period.

FEDERAL/DOI ROLE.

The national, international, and global nature of the environmental-impacts of coal clearly 

requires a federal oversight role. Among the national environmental problems attributed 

to coal combustion is the deterioration of air quality and visibility in national parks such 

as the Grand Canyon and Big Bend. DOI's responsibility as the steward of Federal lands 

and national parks requires that it protect these national treasures to ensure that future _ 

generations enjoy their grandeur. IrHhe east, oxidized pyrite from active and abandoned 

coal mines produces acidic waters that affect the fauna, flora and aesthetics of streams 

flowing through Federal lands. Moreover, much of the Nation's coal resources are on 

Federal lands in western states. Ultimately, DOI has the responsibility for ensuring that 

these energy resources are used in an environmentally compatible manner. The reliable, 

objective coal quality information generated by the USGS can be used to determine the 

true environmental impacts of coal use. These data provide an important knowledge base 

that can help policy makers reach informed decisions.

ENERGY RESOURCES PROGRAM ROLE.

The Energy Resources Program has played a productive and highly regarded role in 

developing and disseminating information on the composition (quality) of coal. This 

information can be, and has been, used to assess the potential environmental and human 

health impacts of coal use. The Energy Resources Coal Quality databases (domestic and 

international) are unique and highly valuable products. The domestic coal quality 

database was used by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and by industry and 

others to address several key issues raised by the 1990 Amendments to the Clean Air Act. 

Legislation recently submitted in both the Senate and the House would require utilities to 

use the USGS coal quality database to establish their baseline emissions of mercury. The

21
analytical protocols (chemistry, modes of occurrence) developed by the Energy 

Resourses Program have achieved worldwide recognition.

RESOUCES AVAILABLE (FUNDING, STAFFING, EXPERTISE).

The USGS staff includes many experts in coal geology, chemistry, geochemistry, and 

petrography, and the agency's coal analytical facility in Denver Colorado is highly 

regarded. The coal quality databases that have been created and maintained by the 

Program are considered by many to be the standard.

POTENTIAL FOR COLLABORATION.

With regard to studies bearing on the impacts of coal and coal use on air and water 

quality, land use decisions, and industrial and domestic health issues, the USGS is 

currently interacting with 21 state agencies and about 30 countries in acquiring coal 

samples for analysis and inclusion in coal quality databases. Collaboration, and in some 

cases financial support, is being received from a number of other Federal agencies 

(including the Department of Energy, Environmental Protection Agency, Department of 

Defense, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, and the National Cancer Institute), as well 

as private organizations (including the Electric Power Research Institute, CQ Inc., 

CONSOL, numerous coal companies and electric generating utilities) and universities 

(for example, Pennsylvania State University and the University of North Dakota).

IMPACT ON CURRENT SOCIETAL DECISIONS.

When the U.S. Congress passed the 1990 Clean Air Act amendments, worldwide 

attention was focused on the potential environmental and human health problems that 

could be caused by the emission of hazardous air pollutants from coal-burning power 

plants. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, therefore, sought reliable, 

comprehensive coal quality information to help assess the potential environmental and 

human heath impacts of these substances that might arise from coal use. The USGS 

COALQUAL database was selected to help address this issue. Since that time, policy 

makers in federal and state governments have faced many decisions concerning 

emissions of toxic components from coal combustion or combustion byproducts, 

decisions that could benefit from coal quality data generated by the USGS. Many recent 

coal quality related issues have been identified. Should emissions of mercury from coalburning power plants be reduced? How can CO2 , SOX , and NOX emissions be further 

reduced? What is the role of minerals in causing or exacerbating coal miners respiratory 

problems? What proportion of the pollution in the Big Bend National Park is due to coal 

combustion from Mexico, Texas, or other sources? How much arsenic in surface waters 

and sediments in Alabama is due to weathering of coal containing arsenic-bearing pyrite?

Concerns about the environmental and health impacts of coal use are not limited to the 

United States. Environmental and human health problems attributed to coal use occur in 

Czechoslovakia, China, India, Ukraine, Russia, and elsewhere. The social cost of these 

problems is enormous and will continue to grow, especially in developing countries 

where low quality coal is used in boilers that lack or have limited pollution control 

systems. Use of coal for domestic cooking and heating in these countries poses a 

particular hazard to women and children who are exposed to the emissions on a daily

22
basis. Developing reliable information on this situation can aid in formulating 

appropriate foreign policy decisions.

KNOWLEDGE NEEDED TO REDUCE UNCERTAINTY.

Clearly, environmental and health problems create complex economic and social ills that 

will require carefully considered, multidisciplinary solutions. Reliable, comprehensive, 

and readily available coal quality data can help decision-makers to better assess the risks 

and limit the possible environmental degradation and impact on health. Additional 

information is needed to achieve this goal, including:

 Quantification of the modes of occurrence of elements in coal.

 Insights into the behavior of elements during coal cleaning, combustion, and 

leaching.

 Forms of elements in coal combustion byproducts (fly ash, bottom ash, etc.).

 Assessing the contribution of major coal-burning countries to global pollution.

23
COAL MINE DRAINAGE STUDIES

by Eleanora I. Robbins and C. Blaine Cecil

SCALE OF CONCERN.

Coal has been mined in the eastern United States for almost 300 years. Current surface 

mining is regulated by state or federal agencies, but prior to the Surface Mining Control 

and Reclamation Act of 1977, mining was not regulated. As a consequence, many states 

were left with major, costly environmental problems caused by historic coal mining. 

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and other federal agencies have been working to 

understand the causes of and solutions to some of these environmental problems coal 

mine drainage is one such problem.

When pyrite in coal and its surrounding rocks (coal-bearing strata) 1 is oxidized in the 

presence of oxygen, water, and bacteria, it releases iron, sulfate, and hydrogen ions, along 

with any trace elements that are present within the pyrite. Acid mine drainage (AMD) is 

the result of this oxidation process. Some residual components from present or past 

mining operations that are not acidic also contribute to environmental problems; 

therefore, the more general term of coal mine drainage (CMD) is more descriptive than 

AMD.

Coal Mine Drainage may issue from both surface and deep mines. Deep-mine discharge 

occurs from diverse sources: along fractures, from abandoned mine shafts, from seeps 

that are fed by pools of water filling old mines, and from boreholes drilled to relieve 

water pressure in mine pools. In some cases, pressures are so great that there are 

spectacular blowouts and landslides. Regulatory agencies need data to determine where 

water quality is impacted adversely from past and present mining, and to predict where 

water might be polluted by future mining operations.

FEDERAL/DOI ROLE.

Federal agencies that regulate or otherwise oversee CMD issues are in different 

departments. In DOI, agencies having regulatory functions are: Bureau of Land 

Management (BLM), Bureau of Reclamation (BR), Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), and 

Office of Surface Mining and Reclamation (OSMRE). Other federal regulatory agencies 

are: Army Core of Engineers (COE), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Forest 

Service, and National Resources Conservation Service. Many of these agencies support 

at least a small amount of research into mining practices, CMD, mitigation, and 

remediation. The USGS is divided into four divisions, each of which provides objective 

scientific data for these regulatory agencies. The Geologic Division (GD) characterizes 

coal and coal-bearing strata; the Water Resources Division (WRD) studies water quality 

and discharge rates; the Biological Resources Division (BRD) studies the flora and fauna

1 Coal is not the only lithology impacted during mining. Strata overlying and underlying the coal beds, as 

well as the partings within beds, are usually disturbed during mining and their chemistry plays a role in 

drainage issues.

24
upstream and downstream from mining; and the National Mapping Division (NMD) 

focuses on providing the physiographic framework for the scientific data.

ENERGY RESOURCES PROGRAM ROLE.

The Energy Resourses Program (ERP) funds most of the Geologic Division's work 

related to coal characteristics and coal mine drainage. Research is being conducted on 

litho-stratigraphic variations, microbial and spectral reflectance techniques, rock 

chemistry and mineralogy, and geologic framework studies. Data from these studies will 

be used to predict the relationship between mine drainage and variables controlling the 

composition of the coal-bearing strata such as paleovegetation, paleoclimate, paleo-sea 

level variations, paleotectonics, and sediment geochemistry.

Present day climate is an important factor affecting the location of CMD problems, 

especially AMD. Coal beds in the western US may contain pyrite, but because of aridity 

and the lack of perennial streams in the region, AMD is not usually a concern. This is 

particularly true in the Powder River Basin, where coals contain only minor amounts of 

pyrite. The lignitic strata of the Gulf Coast basin also contain small amounts of pyrite. 

Coal beds in the Illinois Basin may have unusually high pyrite and trace-metal contents, 

but these beds are not presently being mined. In contrast, in the Appalachian basin where 

coal has been extensively mined, ground water, surface water, and rainfall are sufficiently 

abundant to create continuous and visible problems with AMD. For these reasons, ERP _ 

is currently concentrating its CMD studies in the Appalachian basin.

RESOURCES AVAILABLE (FUNDING, STAFFING, EXPERTISE).

As indicated in earlier sections, laboratory facilities and experienced personnel are 

available within the USGS to conduct comprehensive CMD^tudies.

POTENTIAL FOR COLLABORATION.

The problems created by mine drainage are so large and scrwidespcead that collaborative 

efforts among the USGS, federal regulatory and oversight agencies, as well as state 

agencies are required to understand and control the mine-drainage system. Studies are - 

needed especially to identify the linkages in the many interacting geochemical processes 

and to determine countermeasures. A case in point involves a study the manganese cycle 

to (1) identify the source of Mn in the coal and overburden, (2) quantify the mobility of 

Mn in ground and surface water, (3) design methods to sequester Mn at the mining site, 

and (4) determine the effects of Mn on the insects, molluscs, and fish communities in 

nearby streams.

IMPACT ON SOCIETAL DECISIONS.

At the present time, CMD affects thousands of miles of streams, property values, 

drinking water, habitat, the mining industry (plus the entire economic structure it 

supports), and the federal and state regulatory agencies. Energy markets determine where 

and how coal will be mined and used, and a variety of concerns affect those markets. 

Communities are forming watershed associations and initiating river improvement 

projects in response to potential decrease of property values due to AMD. Awareness is 

growing with regards to the AMD effects on sources and supplies of clean drinking

25
water. Concerns are growing that a major discharge into the Ohio River could occur if 

currently isolated AMD pools begin to connect as abandoned mines are filled and barriers 

collapse. The present and future research by the USGS and others on CMD will be of use 

to those struggling to address these societal issues, particularly in the Appalachian basin.

WHO CARES NOW?

Federal, state, and local governments and the public are all concerned about mine 

drainage and the environment. Many of the drainage problems stem from long 

abandoned mines that have no accountable party for mitigation funding. Actions are 

being undertaken at each governmental level and by industry, because the problems are 

immediate and some of them can be mitigated or remediated with essential research 

studies and the timely application of their results.

ROLE OF SOLID-EARTH SCIENCE.

Coal and coal-bearing strata are the ultimate source of any CMD problem, thus greater 

understanding of the depositional and paleo-environmental history of the coal-bearing 

strata is needed for prediction, mitigation, and remediation. The USGS staff includes 

many specialists in the fields needed to pursue studies bearing on the interactions 

between processes that create the CMD problems, and offer possible means for 

mitigation.

RESEARCH TOPIC VERSUS DATA COMPILATION.

State and federal agencies are leading the efforts to compile data from which 

generalizations can be drawn. These include locating sites of coal mine discharge, 

supplying geochemical data, and providing state and quadrangle maps. The USGS has 

the capability of placing these large local data collections into a regional understanding 

so that the data can be more readily accessible for further research.

KNOWLEDGE TO REDUCE UNCERTAINTY.

Important unanswered questions that are being addressed in part by current USGS 

investigations include the following:

 Why are there high sulfur coal beds that do not produce acid?

 Are there particular sequences of strata that naturally mitigate against AMD?

 Is the pyrite in the roof rocks rather than in the coal the major cause of AMD?

 Are there minerals other than pyrite that are releasing metals?

 Does the original matrix of the coal and overlying organic-rich shale change the 

oxidation potential of the enclosed pyrite?

 Can lithological sequences be classified as to whether or not they will create 

acidic runoff if disturbed?

 Can generalizations about the coal depositional environment be used to predict 

which coal beds will produce acid?

 Do time-equivalent coal beds behave the same and produce the same quantities 

of acid?

 Will all mines that produce AMD eventually stop generating acid? If so, can the 

end-point be predicted?

26
Are statistical methods available to help determine the number of analyses that 

needed to to answer these and other questions?

Are there data compilations of historical mine-pool blowouts that can be used to 

predict the sites of future blowouts?

27
Appendix

Table 1. Scoring, by region, of research topics discussed. [Each workshop participant was given 

among the different research topics identified according to which they felt were most important. T

among regions.]

Menlo Park CA Score Reston VA Score D

Water 

Baselines 

Quality

Assessment of by-products 

Physical Hazards 

Future Energy Needs 

Human health 

Socio-economic Impacts 

Climate Change 

Land use-quality 

Air Quality 

Greenhouse Gases 

CO,

73

0

0

1

2

3

4

4

6

6

10

16

21 Natural Occurrence of Fossil Fuel 

Geological Input to Environmental

Policy/Regulations 

Extraction/Production of Fossil Fuel 

Use of Fossil Fuel 

Element/compound in Fossil Fuel 

Carbon Cycle 

Byproducts of Fossil Fuel 

Human Health/Safety 

Socio/economic Impacts of Fossil Fuel 

Exploration of Fossil Fuel 

Storage of Fossil Fuel 

Processing of Fossil Fuel 

Transportation of Fossil Fuel 

Ecosystems

95

0

0

0

1

1

3

3

3

8

11

14

16

17

18 Waste Disposal a

Biologic Impact

Water Cycle

Air Quality

Land Quality/Use

Carbon Cycle

Greenhouse Gas

Element/Compou

Socio/Economic 

28
Table 2. Environmental research topics in which ERP has a significant role. Shaded topics are tho

also has a significant role. [USGS significant role, indicates that the USGS is the lead U.S. governm

address the research topic; ERP significant role, indicates that ERP is the lead program within the U

research topic. S, significant role; C, contributing role.]

Menlo Park CA Reston VA 

CO2 emissions under fuel-mix scenario

(global) 

Greenhouse (GH) gas emissions baseline

(natural fluxes)

Hydrates as a source of GH gas (stability) 

Oil spills as they relate to water quality 

H2O contamination as related to produced

waters 

Baseline/Background of oil & assoc. brine

seeps

Acid mine drainage

Assessment of by-products-temporally 

Assessment of by-products spatially 

Quality of resources 

Climate change as it relates to future energy

mix

Element cycling

Baseline of geochemistry of fossil fuel

(qual.,quant.,distri)

In situ processes affecting water quality 

Water as it relates to extraction/production 

Acid mine drainage

Mountain top removal

Characterizing coal clean products 

Air quality as it relates to fossil fuel use 

Water as it relates to by-products 

Policy/Regs-fossii fuel characterization 

Policy/Regs--Fossil fuel availabilitly +cost

Policy/Regs-scenario analysis 

Policy/Regs-Human Health 

Impact of changing fossil fuel supply 

Impact of changing fossil fuel cost 

Major modern carbon sinks

Global fuel quality a

Produced water im

Resource-land exc

Removal of land du

Quality & use of Fra

Energy component 

CO2 sequestration 

Geologic aspects o

Geochemical aspec

CO2 sequestration 

Bioavailability of tox

Ecological disturba

Endangered+threat

Future supply of fos

29
Table 3. Grouping of topics identified in all workshops in which Energy Resourses Program (ERP) 

Geological Survey (USGS) have significant roles. [Cntr, USGS regional centers; M, Menlo Park, CA

Reston VA; S, significant role; C, contributing role.]

Research Topic Cntr Studies 

Acid Mine Drainage 

Global Fuel Mix Scenarios

Cycle 

Baselines/Backgrounds

of element/compound within Energy 

Life cycle

Produced waters

M 

M,R

CO2 emissions under fuel-mix scenarioGlobal 

M Climate change as it relates to future energy

mix

R Policy/Regs-scenario analysis 

R Policy/Regs-fossil fuel availability + cost 

R Impact of changing fossil fuel supply 

R Impact of changing fossil fuel cost 

D Future supply of fossil fuel

M Oil and associated brine seeps 

M Greenhouse (GH) gas natural flux

R In situ processes affecting water quality 

R In situ fossil fuel quality, quantity and

distribution 

D Bioavailability of toxins & componds

M Hydrates as a source of GH gas (stability)

R Element cycling 

R Major modern carbon sinks 

D Energy component of element/compound 

cycling

M Contamination related to produced waters

R Water as it relates to production/extraction

D Produced water impact

Denver, S for USG

Distribution relates 

ERP role significan

CO2 sequestration?

ERP role S/C; C fo

30
Table 3. Continued.

Research Topic Cntr Studies 

Fossil Fuel By-products

Fuel Quality

Effect on Ecosystems & human Health

Oil spills

M Assessment of by-products- temporally

M Assessment of by-products-spacially

R Water as it relates to by-products

R Air quality as it relates to fossil fuel use

D Geologic aspects of waste disposal

D Geochemical aspects of waste disposal

D CO2 sequestration as waste disposal

M Quality of resources

R Policy/Reg--fossil fuel characterization

D Global Fuel Quality as it relates to air quality

R Policy/Regs-Human Health

D Ecological distribution

D Endangered+threatened species

D Resource land exchange

M Oil spills as they relate to water quality

This is part of imple

This is part of imple

EPR role significan

EPR role significan

Land use issue

31