COMMERCIAL

BUREAU CF

STANDARDS

STANDARDS

SEP 2 5 193°

LIBRARYMONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

AIRPLANE VIEW OF NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

ISSUED BY THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D C, U.S.A.

Vol. 7, No. 3 SEPTEMBER, 1930

For sale by the Superintendent of Dccumer. ts, Washington , D. C. - See page 3 of cover for prices
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. Lamont, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

George K. Burgess, Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

S. F. Tillman, Editor

DIVISIONS OF THE COMMERCIAL STANDARDIZATION GROUP

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE, Edwin W. Ely.

The division of simplified practice was formed in November,

1921, to provide a clearing house or centralizing agency through

which the manufacturer, distributor, and consumer groups

could meet to discuss their common problems and decide upon

eliminations which would prove of mutual benefit to all con- cerned. The activities of the division are purely cooperative

in character. It orders nothing; it dictates nothing; the ini- tiative must come from business itself. It has no regulatory nor police powers to enforce adherence to the simplified-practice

recommendations that industry develops under the auspices

of the United States Department of Commerce. Its chief function is to serve as a neutral meeting ground for the purpose

of bringing together producers, distributors, and consumers, whose aims are sometimes divergent and possibly antagonistic,

and who would be unwilling to cooperate, except through some

unbiased central agency. Following the approval of the tentative simplified-practice recommendation by a general .conference

of all interested elements thereof, the project is then presented

to the entire industry by letter referendum for its approval and

written acceptance, the publication and indorsement of the recommendation on the part of the Department of Commerce

being dependent upon acceptance of the program by at least 80 per cent, by volume, of the manufacturers, distributors, and

users concerned.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION, J. S. Taylor.

The division of building and housing cooperates with business, technical, and professional groups in practically all its undertakings on building and housing. Its work to modernize

building codes and to encourage improved standards for the

quality of building construction promotes the practical application of the latest development in design and use of build- ing materials. This division was also formed in 1921. In furthering home ownership, an effort is made to develop an enlarged, steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating

demand for soundly built dwellings, the largest single class of buildings which the construction industries provide. The

division also cooperates with many business and professional groups in efforts to distribute building activity more evenly

throughout the year, and to secure less fluctuation from year

to year. The work on city planning and zoning has in mind

the broad objective of buildings made more useful because

well located with respect to other buildings, a well-coordinated

street system, and appropriate public works. Good city

planning and zoning likewise encourages stability in land

values and property uses, and thereby contributes to the demand for durable structures.

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS, A. S. McAllister.

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote and

facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so

it carries on activities involving cooperation with technical

societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and municipal

Government specifications making and using agencies; producers, distributors, and consumers; and testing and research

laboratories. The cooperation with technical societies and

trade associations includes ascertaining the standardization

and specification promoting activities of these organizations,

and bringing to their attention the work being done by the commercial standardization group. The cooperation with

governmental agencies and other consumers includes the bringing of Federal specifications and commercial standards to the

attention of the maximum number of producers and the maximum number of users of commodities complying with these

specifications and standards, thereby assisting in broadening

the field of supply. The cooperation with producers involves the compilation and distribution of lists of manufacturers who

have expressed their willingness to certify to purchasers, upon

request, that material supplied by them on contracts based on

certain Federal specifications or commercial standards comply

with the requirements thereof. The cooperation with distributors involves bringing to their attention the benefits to be

derived by them as both buyers and sellers from handling

nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The

division prepares the directories of governmental and nongovernmental testing laboratories; the Directory of Specifications;

and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the first volume of which, Standards and Specifications in the WoodUsing Industries, has been issued. It also aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook.

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS, I. J. Fairchild.

The commercial standards unit, now known as division of trade standards, was created on October 1, 1927, for the purpose

of aiding those industrial and commercial groups desiring to

establish standards of grades, quality, or measurements for their products or their purchases on a purely voluntary basis. The division functions only at the direct request of the in- dustry concerned. Its procedure is similar to that of the divi- sion of simplified practice, except that at least 65 per cent of the industry, by volume of annual production, must accept

the commercial standard in writing before it is published by

the Department of Commerce. A certification plan is applied on request as a means of increasing the effectiveness of such

standards. Provision is made for regular revision of the standard

through the appointment of a standing committee to consider

periodically any necessity for revision of the standard, in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with progress in the

industry.

Except where otherwise indicated, for further information address

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

WASHINGTON, D. C.
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 7 WASHINGTON, D. C., SEPTEMBER, 1930 Number 3

CONTENTS

FEATURE articles

Page International road builders to meet 85

Quieting the airplane cabin 75

Simplification and standardization in procurement and

storage 70

Standardization and improvement of textiles 81 Standardization as applied to Signal Corps equipment-- 92

Standardization in the Army Air Corps 67 Standardization of cruising motor boats 73

Standardization of mail cars and terminal railway post

offices 83

Standardization of military motor trucks 84

Standardization of tests for fastness of colored textiles.- 86 Standard rules guard school children 88

The Association Francaise de Normalization 74

Zinc-coated products improved by standardized buying

practice 89 FOREIGN NEWS

British specification for electricity meters 94

British standard for flame-proof switches 91

British standard for railway axles 72 Canadian standard for steel structures 94

STANDARDIZATION NEWS

Page Current activities of the American Standards Association. 90 Flour standards adopted by Department of Agriculture. 94

New and revised A. S. T. M. standards 93 Revision of Federal specifications 82

S. A. E. motor-coach specifications discontinued 72 Standards developed for knit underwear 91 Standardization briefs. 79

Standard rural mail boxes...- 95 To develop standard for pressure and vacuum gauges 94 To consider further standardization of ball-bearing lock nuts and washers 1 94 TRADE STANDARD NEWS

Standard for staple vitreous china plumbing fixtures available in printed form 80 BUILDING AND HOUSING NEWS

Appointments made to building code committee 82

Books of interest to home owners listed 87

SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE NEWS

Changes made in clay tile simplification 69

Dental supplies simplified 69 Program for solid section steel windows 85

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

An interesting fact in the growth of the bureau is the steady increase in the number of visitors. From all over the world experts come to see the work in progress in many specialties. Not alone the

experts but in growing numbers many of our people visit the bureau from a public-spirited desire to acquaint themselves -with its research work. All visitors, from the newspapermen, who have called the

bureau a “house of wonders,” to the specialists, who use its services, are welcome, for it is their bureau

in a very real sense. They are the owners of the business and its beneficiaries. The annual per capita

cost of 2 cents which the average citizen pays toward the operation of the bureau yields returns sometimes a hundredfold or a thousandfold. How science turns wastes into profits, increases the useful life of materials, adds new efficiencies to industry, advances new arts, such as aviation and radio, by research

and discovery—these are to be seen first-hand in the scientific and technical laboratories of the bureau.

A cordial invitation is extended to all citizens interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories

of the Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at 2.15 p. m.

daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may be arranged at other times by writing to the

bureau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s Manual may be had for the asking. This lists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of typical discoveries and inventions which have been notable, basic contributions to radio, aviation, and other modern

arts and industries.

George K. Burgess, Director.

10178—3i 1 65
CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING

AND HOME OWNERSHIP

The presidential announcement on home building and home ownership, made August 1, 1930, is as follows

After wide consultation with interested leaders, I have decided to undertake the organization of an adequate

investigation and Study on a nationwide scale of the problems presented in home ownership and home building,

with the view to the development of a better understanding of the questions involved and the hope of inspiring better organization and removal of influences which seriously limit the spread of home ownership, both town

and country.

The conference will be organized by a planning committee comprised of representatives of the leading

national groups interested in this field, under the chairmanship of Secretary Lamont. This planning committee

will in turn set up nation-wide subcommittees to determine the faCts and to Study the different phases of the

question. The conference will deal with the whole broad question of home construction and home ownership.

It will embrace such questions as finance, design, equipment, city planning, transportation, etc. One of the important questions is finance. The present depression has given emphasis to the fact that the

credit system in home building is not as soundly organized as other branches of credit. Commerce, industry,

installment buying, and to a large extent farm mortgages, all have more effective financial reservoirs. There have

been months during this depression when shortage of capital available for home-building purposes has been so acute that this branch of construction has fallen off greatly, while other forms of credit have been available throughout the depression. In order to enable the purchase of homes on what amounts to the installment plan,

it is necessary to place first and, often enough, second mortgages.

The building and loan associations have performed a great service in this field, but they can not, without

assistance, carry the burden. First mortgages, carried so largely by the savings banks and insurance companies,

have been affected by competition with bonds and other forms of investment. Second mortgages, which are also necessary to many people, have, if we take into account commissions, discounts, and other charges, risen in rates in many cities to the equivalent of 20 or 25 per cent per annum, all of which, not only Stifles home ownership,

but has added to the present depression by increasing unemployment in the trades involved

The finance question, however, is only one of many. Greater comfort and reduction in cost of construction

in many parts of the country through improved design, the better layout of residential areas are all of first importance. The expansion and betterment of homes in its bearing upon comfort, increasing Standards of living,

and economic and social Stability, is of outstanding importance.

It is not suggested that the result of the conference will be recommendations for legislation but rather a coordination. Stimulation, and larger organization of the private agencies. There, however, needs to be a Study

of the mortgage laws of many States with view to more intelligent attitude to the home builder. The heads of

the following associations have been asked to aCt as initial members of a planning committee for the conference: American Civic Association, American Farm Bureau Federation, American Federation of Labor, American

Home Economics Association, American Institute of Architects, Associated General Contractors, Association

of Life Insurance Presidents, Better Homes in America, Chamber of Commerce of the United States, General

Federation of Women’s Clubs, National Association of Builders’ Exchanges, National Association of Real Estate Boards, National Congress of Parents and Teachers, National Farmers’ Union, National Grange, Russell Sage

Foundation, Savings Bank Division American Bankers’ Association, United States League of Building and Loan

Associations, and the Women’s National Farm and Garden Association. Others'will be added.

The date of the conference will be determined by the planning committee. Funds have been provided

privately to cover the entire research and other’aCtivities of the conference.

John M. Gries, who " several years was chief of the division of building and housing in

the Department of Commerce, will a£t as executive secretary.

66
SEPTEMBER, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 67

STANDARDIZATION IN THE ARMY AIR CORPS

Aerial Superiority Dependent on Available Aircraft; Interchangeability of Parts, Through Simplification

and Standardization, Makes This Possible

By F. Trtjbee Davison, Assistant Secretary of War for Air

The interest of the Air Corps in standardization of

parts and of accessory equipment for airplanes dates

from the very inception of the aircraft manufacturing

industry. With its large number of planes, engines,

and accessories, drawn from widely separated and

generally competitive production agencies, the advisability of standardization from the viewpoint of commercial efficiency alone is at once apparent.

The foregoing is emphasized when military considerations are brought forward. The Air Corps is one of the Nation’s principal elements of defense, and

as was demonstrated in the World War, superiority in

the air is of the utmost importance to the success of

a campaign. Aerial superiority is dependent, not

upon airplanes in stock, but upon airplanes that are

in condition to fly. The number of aircraft that can

be kept in action is largely dependent upon the availability and ease of replacement of parts required in

their maintenance. In the future the traditional

horseshoe nail, for lack of which the battle was lost,

may well be supplanted by the outside hose connection which kept the plane on the ground.

Because of the necessity for the interchangeability

of utility parts and accessories the Air Corps has

proceeded to establish standards for the important re- placement parts of aircraft. Such standardization

is necessarily a slow process, as development of new

aircraft and accessories would be retarded if standardization were established prematurely. In this

respect the Air Corps has carefully weighed the

merits of each item subject to standardization. Generally speaking, the process has involved three distinct

phases.

Utility standards.

The first phase of standardization was to establish

what are termed utility standards; these being such

items as bolts, nuts, clevis pins, washers, turnbuckles,

shackles, grommets, union connections, tank flanges,

and water, fuel, and oil hose. With these standards

established, it is possible for the Air Corps to carry

in stock one item which can be used for replacement on a standard airplane procured from any source. In addition to simplifying replacement, standardization has enabled the Air Corps to save considerable

money in the amount of stocks and of replacement

tools which it is required to have on hand in order

properly to maintain aircraft.

The second and probably the greatest phase of

standardization was to establish standard mounting

dimensions for such accessories as generators, starters,

propellers, instruments, landing and tail wheels, car- buretors, fuel pumps, throttle controls, and batteries.

With the establishment of limiting and mounting

dimensions of such accessories it has been possible to replace one manufacturer’s article with that of another

without the use of an adapter.

The third phase, but by no means the least important, was the establishment of standard specifications

covering requirements and test procedure for materials. Whenever an article or material is considered

for standardization, existing data prepared and published by recognized standards societies, the Federal

Specifications Board, and other Government department specifications, are considered. In this manner,

there is no duplication of effort by the Air Corps,

and standards which are suitable for use in militarj7 aircraft are adopted without change.

Example of standardization.

One of the best examples of standardization may

be seen in the manner in which the Air Corps standardized metal propellers. During the war, and for

a considerable time thereafter, the tapered shaft was

used on aircraft engines. The propeller hub with a

flange and bolts around the edge of the flanges se- cured the wooden propeller to the outer flange. The

assembled propeller was keyed and fastened to the

tapered extension of the crank shaft of the engine

in a manner similar to the practice used in mounting the rear wheels on the axle of an automobile.

When the metal propeller had passed through the

experimental stage and proved its worth, the Air

Corps set up requirements and dimensions for a number of sizes of straight spline crank-shaft ends for

engines. At the same time, standardization was ef- fected in regard to the propeller hub spline which

was to fit the crank-shaft spline. The propeller hub

of metal propellers is machined from forgings and

is made of two pieces and these two halves of the

metal propeller secure the detachable blade in place

at the desired pitch angle by means of clamp rings

and bolts. The clamp rings and bolts of various sizes were

standardized. The end of the propeller blade which

fits into the hub was also standardized and dimensions and tolerances established for the various sizes. The propeller hub is a chrome vanadium steel forging, while the detachable blade is fabricated from an aluminum alloy forging. Materials for both are standard. These two items are invariably procured

from separate sources and in order that the blades

would fit the various hubs it was to the best interests

of the Air Corps to establish this series of standards.

Standardization in general has been greatly facili- tated by the annual Army-Navy standards conference,

the purpose of which is to promulgate standards which

are required for, and common to both services and at the same time obtainable from the manufacturer.

About six months before each conference, Army and

Navy Air Service representatives hold a preliminary

conference to consider the subjects to be standardized

and the revision of standards previously accepted. In

this manner both services are in harmony as to the

requirements they desire. Drawings and specifications are prepared to cover

the requirements for the subjects selected to be standardized and circularized among the interested indus-
68 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [SEPTEMBER, 1930

tries. This gives the manufacturers an opportunity

to study the requirements and to determine whether

they are reasonable, easy to produce in quantity, and

the cost of production not excessive.

The sixth and most recent of these annual confer- ences was held at the materiel division, Air Corps,

Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio, on May 5. 1930. It was

attended by approximately 200 aircraft and aircraft

accessory manufacturers and their representatives, in

addition to a large number of Army and Navy officials. Altogether 67 subjects were considered. These subjects were divided into 9 groups and a subcommittee

appointed to handle each group. The airplane subcommittee considered such subjects as brake pedals,

arrangement of the cockpit, seats, standard form for

recording detail and group weights, landing wheels,

control pulleys) spacing of rib lacing cord, engine and

fuselage cowling hinge, fasteners and pins, determination of air loads in dives, and tolerances for aircraft

bolts. Standardizing the cockpit.

In standardizing the arrangement of the cockpit of

airplanes an attempt has been made to locate instruments, refueling pump, throttle control, stabilizer adjustment, and fire-extinguisher control in the same rel- ative position for all aircraft. The completion of the

standard arrangement for the equipment in the cockpit

of an airplane will necessarily be slow as the requirements for seaplanes and landplanes are different.

However, such portions of the recommendation as can

be used by both the Army and Navy Air Services will

be standardized with a view to bringing the other re- quirements gradually into agreement and thereby completing the standardization.

The committee recommended favorable action on

airplane seats, and the only question affecting their

standardization was whether or not they were strong

enough to withstand the loads imposed upon them

when the airplane is catapulted into the air from a battleship. Standard specifications setting forth the

requirements and methods of tests for landing wheels

of airplanes received favorable action. Control pulleys furnished another problem. The original control pulley was a plain bearing pulley and was satis- factory for the purpose for which designed. Since the

plain bearing pulley was standardized, the ball and

roller bearing manufacturers have developed a light,

strong, reliable antifriction bearing for use in the

place of the plain bearing.

This, of course, necessitated a change in the standard specification for control pulleys ; and requirements

and test procedures were established to cover the new

antifriction bearing pulleys in such a manner that the

latter are interchangeable with plain bearing pulleys.

This method of bringing into being another standard

resulted in a considerable saving, as the old pulleys in

stock are satisfactory for replacement and can be used

;

while new airplanes will be equipped with the antifriction bearing type pulley.

With the increase in performance of airplanes, especially in regard to their high speed, it became neces- sary to establish a minimum allowable distance between the lacing cord for securing the fabric to the

wings. This was accomplished by standardizing the

spacing according to the limiting diving speed of the

airplane. Cowling hinges, fasteners, and pins were

adopted as standard in order that replacement of these

parts in the field could be done with more ease. Due

to the new methods of producing aircraft bolts and the

desire to reduce the clearance between bolts and fas- tenings of aircraft structural parts, the tolerance of

bolts was reduced approximately one-half without

appreciably increasing their cost. Other standards adopted.

The clothing and parachute subcommittee adopted

standard dimensions and requirements for the differ- ent sizes of flying jackets, flying helmets, and summer

flying suits required by both the Army and Navy.

This subcommittee also agreed to a standard procedure

for recording data accumulated in testing parachutes.

The electrical subcommittee successfully accomplished

the standardization of aircraft storage batteries, high

tension ignition cable, and power and lighting cable. The instruments subcommittee completed the standardization of inclinometers for aircraft, and adopted

definite tolerances for altimeters, air-speed indicators,

fuel and oil pressure gauges, tachometers, and thermometers. The materials subcommittee adopted as standard requirements and test procedure for chrome

vanadium steel (6,150), and for chrome vanadium

steel (6.135). both of which are used in the manufacture of propeller-hub forgings, for chrome nickel

sheet steel, for chrome molybdenum sheet steel, for

medium carbon (1.025) sheet steel for stream-line

tie rods, for aluminum alloy forgings, for aluminum

alloy sheets, for bars and tubes, for brass used in

the manufacture of turnbuckles, for spruce lumber for

aircraft, for 7 by 19 extra-flexible cable, for copper

tubing, for spring steel wire, and for steel tubing.

Corrosion of metals in aircraft, especially in the vi- cinity of salt air, is one of the problems which has

confronted the Air Corps for years, and the materials

subcommittee adopted as standard a new high nickel

chromium steel which has shown exceptional resist- ance to corrosion. Tie-rod specifications were revised

to include a type of tie rod which is interchangeable

with the old type tie rod and which is fabricated from

this new high nickel chromium material. Requirements for aluminum alloy, which has the physical

properties of mild carbon steel and weighs approximately one-third as much as steel, were adopted as standard. Standardization of these materials has

been in process for the last two or three years, and at this conference aluminum alloy was considered to have

developed to the point where standard requirements

and test procedures could be established for the

material.

The subcommittee on paint and dope adopted standard requirements for aircraft dope, and also established a definite viscosity for dope. It is extremely

difficult to match the colors of dope and assure the

proper shade by comparison with a varnished color

chip and this committee adopted wet colors as standard for dope to be used by both the Army and Navy

Air Services.

The power-plant subcommittee adopted a revision

of the standard specification for the acceptance test of aircraft engines in production to provide for test- ing engines which use ethylene glycol as a cooling

medium. There had been previously adopted as standard by the Army and Navy standards confer-
SEPTEMBER, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 69

ence a radiator core and this subcommittee adopted

as an addition to the present standard a one-half

section radiator core. Engine utility parts and lubricating fittings, such as bolts, nuts, etc., were recom- mended for adoption as standard. The safety clip of

the spark-plug terminal was revised and approved as standard, and cotter pins were modified to include

the extended prong type. Standard mounting dimensions and dimensions for the meshing parts between

the engine and aircraft starters were adopted. This

standard also conforms to the standard recommended

by the Society of Automotive Engineers.

The textiles and tire subcommittee approved for

standardization requirements pertaining to linen webbing, which is used in the manufacture of harnesses

for parachutes, and revised the specification for aircraft inner tubes to bring it up to date with the

latest developments of the rubber industry. The propeller subcommittee recommended for standard a re- vision of the propeller hub clamp ring standard and

also recommended a revision of the propeller hub

splines to include more elaborate and definite requirements as to the location and tolerance of the hub. The

propeller hub spline standard is a very important step

forward making the complete propeiler interchangeable on the engine and providing interchangeability

of the metal detachable blade in the propeller hub.

Of the 67 subjects considered, favorable action was

recommended on 65; the 2 subjects which were not

recommended for standardization were to be studied

further with the view to submitting them to the next

conference.

CHANGES MADE IN CLAY TILE SIMPLIFICATION

Recommendation To Be Known As Clay Tiles for Floors and

Walls

After September 15, 1930, simplified practice recom- mendation No. 61, White Glazed Tile and Unglazed

Ceramic Mosaic, will assume a new designation “ Clay

Tiles for Floors and Walls,” if the action of the re- organized standing committee is accepted and approved by the industry.

For the past year and a half the tile industry has

been endeavoring to work out a revision of this recom- mendation so as to bring it up to date and abreast

of: current practices. The first step in this direction was the reorganization of the standing committee

originally appointed at the inception of the recommendation. The neAv committee met under the auspices of the National Bureau of Standards on July 29,

and the enlargement of the scope of the recommendation to cover all classes of wall and floor tiles, ex- cepting faience, necessitated a change in name, and

the name was changed. Reducing the grades of tile from 3 to 2, the committee discarded the terms

“ selected ” and “ commercial ” and recommended the

adoption of “ standards ” and “ seconds ” as the only

two grades of tile to be produced and marketed.

Package grade certificates were also eliminated, as it was felt the master grade certificate Avould serve the

purpose for identification and grading. New minimum-grade specifications for colored glazed tile, as well as tentative revised minimum-grade specifications

for ceramic mosaic, accompanied by tentative defini- tions of terms resulted from the deliberations of this

committee. Other minor changes to bring the recom- mendation in accord with this major revision completed the work of the committee.

DENTAL SUPPLIES SIMPLIFIED

Industry Has Promulgated Several Dental Simplifications;

Others Under Consideration

Several years ago the American Dental Trade Association recognized the benefits of simplification. This

association is composed of manufacturers and distrib- utors of dental supplies and equipment, and its members, doing an annual business estimated at $100,-

000,000, represent an estimated capital of $50,000,000.

The association . appointed a simplification and

standardization committee to make a study of current

conditions, having in view the elimination of superfluous varieties of the commodities made and distributed b}^ its members, and used by the dental profession. For this study the commodities in the in- dustry Avere classified as teeth, sundries, cements and

plasters, equipment, gold, and instruments. Each

member of the committee Avas assigned one of these

groups for simplification purposes.

As a result of the preliminary work of the committee, a number of items were selected for simplification,,

and association recommendations were approved for some. Recognizing the need for the cooperation of all concerned in order to derive the maximum benefit from

the movement, the association in March, 1928, re- quested the assistance of the National Bureau of

Standards, through its division of simplified practice,

to enlist the support of all elements of the industry in

the development of definite simplified practice recommendations.

Dental hypodermic needles first project.

The first program Avas for dental hypodermic

needles. This has been indorsed by the industry and

will soon be available in printed form, as simplified

practice recommendation R108-29. The second program, for dental brush wheels, has likewise been approved by the industry and will be printed and issued

as simplified practice recommendation R116-30.

A general conference of the industry recently approved a recommended practice for the packaging of

dental plaster and investment, and this plan is now

before the industry for acceptance. Another project

being deAr eloped is for dental lathe grinding wheels

and it is expected that a simplified schedule for this

commodity will be approved before the end of the cur- rent year. It is the plan of the association to undertake the simplification of other items as rapidly as conditions Avill permit.

The wide diversification which existed in the dental

brush Avheel industry illustrates the opportunitj'- for

simplification in the dental supply field. One com- pany in 1902 listed 86 different A

7 arieties of these

Avheels and within that year eliminated 26 numbers.

On July 1 , 1929, this company found it possible to eliminate 50 additional numbers and is now cataloguing the 10 sizes listed in the simplified practice

recommendation.
70 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [SEPTEMBER, 1930 SIMPLIFICATION AND STANDARDIZATION IN PROCUREMENT AND STORAGE

Standard Specifications in Government Services Improves Purchasing; Federal Standard Stock Catalogue

Includes Systematized Storing, Inventorying, and Issuing of Supplies

By Capt. Chaeles Conaed, Supply Corps, United States Navy

The principle of standardization has been gradually

permeating both commercial and governmental activities in this country for a number of years. This has

expressed itself in a variety of ways. Individual

cases of the application of the standardization principle have become common in many instances, such as adoption of standard screw threads. Buying in quantity under standard specifications was, perhaps, the

first important manifestation of the general urge to- ward simplification and standardization of business

practice, although the primary object here was to

effect a saving of cost through the widening of competition.

Generally speaking, the efforts toward simplification and standardization which have been made

throughout the Government services and in commercial life have been directed along the special lines and

in the particular instances which have called for study

from time to time as the necessity for correction or improvement became manifest. Thus, in connection

with the procurement and storage of supplies individual items have been the object of intensified re- search in numerous instances. It is only comparatively recently, however, that the subject as a whole

has received the intelligent study necessary to place

it in the status of an important branch of industrial

practice. It will be of interest to indicate briefly the

steps which are being taken in this direction.

Buying under standard specifications presupposes

that the utilizer of the article to be bought knows precisely what he wants and the conditions which must be

met in its use. It is just as important that the quality

of the purchased article should notjbe too good as it is that it should not be inferior. Both departures from

the acceptable standard result in excessive cost. Where no standard specification exists for the article

of the quality best suited for the purpose in hand, a

description must be prepared at the time of purchase

or reliance must be placed on standard brands.

The first alternative is laborious and often unsatisfactory, the second is expensive and generally unfair

to possible competitors. The preparation of standard

specifications is nothing more nor less than the application of the well-known planning system which has

been so successful in industrial life. So much has

been written in connection with this subject, and so general has been the acceptation of the principle of

standardization in the preparation of specifications

that further comments as to its advantages is unnecessary.

One of the elements frequently necessary for the

success of a general standardization program is the

elimination of excessive sizes, dimensions, and varieties. The division of simplified practice of the

National Bureau of Standards is engaged in this phase

of standardization. Considerable progress has been

made in the direction of simplification and standardization of sizes, types, and similar characteristics of

commodities both on the part of the Government and

of commercial producers, distributors, and consumers. More than 110 simplified practice recommendations

covering specific commodity lines have been developed

and accepted by industry, with the cooperation of the

Department of Commerce.

As fast as the fundamental idea here expressed

becomes accepted throughout industry the results in

the way of economy and abolition of lost motion

promise to exercise a marked influence on the commercial life of the country. This work, of course, goes hand in hand with the standard specification

efforts and, as will be shown later, is an important

element in the complete scheme of standardization.

Standardization in special fields is exemplified by

the work of the American Marine Standards Committee made up of representative interests of the

marine and allied industries. Its purpose is to unify

practice and eliminate waste in the construction,

equipment, and operation of ships and port facilities in the interest of good economy. Membership repre- senting the Navy and War Departments, Coast Guard,

and bureaus concerned with shipping and ship building indicates the Government’s interest, which is also evidenced by the facilities and services furnished by

the Department of Commerce through the National

Bureau of Standards and by the United States Shipping Board. About 65 series of items have been

standardized and are designated by the standard numbers for purposes of reference.

Scientific storage.

The problem of scientific storage and issue of supplies and materials has long been studied by leading

industrial corporations of the country. Systematic

arrangement of stock in such manner as to be readily

accessible and with proper records to enable replenishment to be made at proper times so as to avoid both

overstocking and running out of stock was found

necessary in most commercial undertakings. As far

as the Government is concerned, the leader in this

phase of standardization has been the Navy Department.

After some years of experience in the handling of

consolidated stocks of materials there was begun in

1914 the Navy Department Standard Stock Catalogue. Rear Admiral T. H. Hicks, Supply Corps,

United States Navy, now chairman of the Federal

Standard Stock Catalogue Board, was responsible for

the initiation and compilation of the Navy catalogue.

So much success has attended the introduction and use

of the Navy catalogue that it has recently been decided to expand the principle into the adoption of

a stock catalogue for the entire Government service,

and the publication of the Federal Standard Stock

Catalogue, now in the course of preparation under

the direction of Admiral Hicks, is the result of this

determination.
SEPTEMBER, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 71

The catalogue.

The catalogue is being prepared in four sections, of

which the following is a general description

I. General index of Federal property. —The index lists in alphabetical arrangement each item of supplies regularly pro- cured, stored, and issued by or for the various departments

and establishments. Opposite the items appear three columns,

the first showing the class for storage and issue, the second showing the groups for procurement, and the third, the Federal

specification symbol number for each item for which a Federal

specification has been prepared. The general index, of course,

is for the purpose of enabling one to locate any item for which

information as to class, group, or specification is desired. This

portion of the catalogue has already been printed and issued and there will be found listed therein the names of practically

all items of material in industrial and commercial use.

II. Classes for storage and issue. —This section of the cata- logue carries full information as to how supplies should be arranged for storage and the methods which should be followed

in their issue. The basis for classification for stores is similarity of application of the materials named and the simplicity

of storage arrangements. Every item of supplies has been

placed in a class of items of similar nature. The nomenclature of items has been definitely fixed under a scientific system

so that all concerned may invariably mention the item under

the same name. In each class the items are listed in alphabetical arrangement, and the plan of storage described in this section contemplates that the items themselves shall also be

placed in the storehouses in the same alphabetical order. A stock number has been assigned to each item, which simplifies the business of handling stores. We are all familiar with the fact that catalogues issued by commercial establish- ments usually have numbers assigned to the various items

dealt in for purposes of ready identification. However, no

scientific or carefully thought out system of numbering has

been devised commercially so far as is known. In the Federal

catalogue, however, a principle has been adopted which is believed to be entirely new in this connection. By the adoption of an ingenious system, the items, being

arranged alphabetically in their respective classes, are so numbered that they run in numerical sequence throughout

the class. This numerical sequence is not an unbroken one;

that is, numbers are skipped from time to time, but proceeding

alphabetically the numbers are always of an increasing order. In the storehouses the articles are also arranged alphabetically

in each class. Consequently, with the stock number of an

item in hand one can readily proceed directly to the storage

class and thence by numerical sequence of the stock number

arrive at the precise location of the item desired. The reason

for skipping numbers intermittently is to allow for the inser- tion of new items from time to time. This is in effect similar

to the system by which the postman delivers letters to you at your home. He knows where your house must be by the street and house number on the address of the letter. Numbers not used are similar to vacant lots on the street not yet occupied

by houses. In this section (Sec. II) in columnar arrangement are given

data as to departments which use the various items in order

to facilitate interdepartmental transfer of supplies. There

also appear approximate prices for items, and a code word

for each to facilitate placing orders by radio or telegraph. In this section are also included notes on storage and storage

precautions with instructions as to the proper methods to be

followed in taking of inventories.

III. Groups for procurement. —The object of this section is to provide information regarding the source of every item of supplies used not only by the Government but by industry

as a whole. Each group represents a major division of productive industry and these groups are in turn subdivided into divisions conforming to the general trend of specialization in industry. The central idea here lies in the fact that although

articles may be classed for storage for reasons of various

kinds, such as similarity of application and use, yet when

procurement of items is in view, consideration must be given

to the source of supply rather than to the method of storage

and issue. This section (Sec. Ill) includes detailed information as to the geographical distribution of sources of supplies, variation

in practices as to production or marketing, and other data

requisite for economical and expeditious procurement. In the procurement of supplies, it is important to know all details relative to the source so far as may be possible, and to give

full consideration to the total demands which are likely to be made upon this source. These demands may arise through

a great variety of dissimilar uses of the same basic product.

All items which derive from the same source should conse- quently be considered together at the time of procurement.

'This naturally brings together for procurement purposes items

which for storage and issue purposes are maintained and

handled under widely separated conditions. Section III in course of preparation.—Section III of the catalogue is in course of preparation and will require inten- sive study on the part of governmental agencies preceding its issue, and the information relating to items will be published,

as fast as it is compiled, in loose-leaf form to be inserted

in the catalogue. This section of the catalogue is divided into seven parts, which are as follows

Part I. List of groups (alphabetical )

.-—-All materials and

supplies are arranged in such manner as to locate the diverse products of industry in major groups which cover, generally,

items originating from the same or similar sources, or the production of which is a branch of fundamental or key in- dustries. Thus, we have group A, aircraft, boats, and ships; group IT, brooms and brushes; group QQ, metals, etc. The

group symbols are arranged in alphabetical order, and under

each group are shown the divisions into which the group is subdivided for purposes of more definite location and reference. For example, under group HHH, vegetables, appears (a) beans

(lima), ( b ) beans (string), (aa) root type, etc. Thus, each

material, or product of industry, is located in a definite division of an appropriate group. A complete list of groups with all divisions follows the explanatory manner in Part I of Section

III of the catalogue. The basis used for determining divisions has been primarily differentiation in production. This dif- ferentiation may apply to (a) material, (6) processes of fabrication, or (c) the derivation of various products at successive stages of a single process. It will be necessary to read very

carefully the description of Section III, Part I, in order to obtain a comprehensive idea of the scope and purpose of this part of the catalogue. Part 2. Procurement categories. —In this part are outlined the general principles and basic policy applicable to coordinating the purchasing of the various Government activities with

a view to synchronizing demands, consolidating requirements,

utilizing land-grant freight rates, etc. For its procurement

studies the Federal Purchasing Board has adopted category

symbols to be assigned to commodities by the board to indicate

in condensed form its decision as to the procurement arrange- ments believed most advantageous to the Government as a

whole. Part 3. Simplified practice recommendations. —A foreword,

describing briefly the purpose of the simplified practice division of the National Bureau of Standards, is followed by an alphabetical list of simplified practice recommendations and a nu- mercial index of the same. These have covered more than 110

specific products and commodities up to the present time, and

have proved to be of practical value to industry. The general aim of the division of simplified practice is to assist in- dustry in reducing varieties in shape, size, dimensions, or im- material differences in products. These recommendations of the respective industries, as published in the Elimination of Waste Series of the Department of Commerce, are considered

by the Federal Specifications Board in the writing of Federal

specifications. Part If. TJmited States Government interdepartmental stand- ards.-—In this part is outlined the steps which are being taken

to establish standards to be followed in matters of routine administrative business by all activities of the executive branches of the Government. Simplicity and uniformity are

the objects in view. There has been formed an Interdepartmental Board on Simplified Office Procedure, under the supervision of the Chief Coordinator, whose duty, among others, is to standardize in the use of office equipment, materials, and

supplies. Each interdepartmental standard is assigned an

identifying number, given a descriptive subheading, and

marked with the appropriate group and division symbol de- scribed in Part I above. An alphabetical index of the adopted

standards is followed by a numerical index in the usual manner.

Part. 5. Amei'ican marine standards. —Mention has already

been made of the field covered by the American Marine Stand- ards Committee. Its scope is national, as has been indicated. In order to bring into convenient reference form the results of

its studies, there is published in this part of Section III, an

alphabetical index of the standards adopted, showing opposite

each item the American Marine Standards Committee’s series
72 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [SEPTEMBER. 1930’

number, the “standard number” assigned, and the group and

division to which it pertains. The same information is then

repeated, arranged by American Marine Standards Committee’s

series numbers. Part 6. Reserved. —Various activities of the Government are making studies of industry, etc., along lines not definitely cov- ered by parts of Section III herein described. This part is, therefore, reserved for the purpose of including standards which may be agreed upon in the future, but not assignable

to any of the other parts of this section. Part 7. Groups A to LLL, detailed data. —The purpose and

scope of these groups have been described in the foregoing part

of this article. (Sec. Ill, Groups for Procurement, above.)

This part commences with explanatory notes relative to the

publishing of data for the procurement of commodities. The

information will be arranged as follows: (a) Plan for Federal procurement, embodying recommendations as to the plan of procurement considered most generally adaptable, to the needs

of the Federal departments and establishments ; ( b ) sources

of supply, covering number and location of such sources; (c) production process, covering the general subject of methods

of production; ( d

)

marketing, competition and prices, descriptive of the general practices ordinarily followed in procuring

items; (e) uses giving information regarding the general uses

of the commodity; if) substitutes noting possibilities of satis- factory substitution; (g) simplified practice recommendations,

giving the result of any study which had been made by the

simplified practice committee of industry, working through

the division of simplified practice of the National Bureau of Standards, as a neutral centralizing agency. The above is a brief resume of the purpose of Section III, groups for procurement of the Federal standard stock catalogue.

The information to be included in this section will be so comprehensive in its character that it is impossible to describe it more definitely in the scope of a brief article. Enough has

been said, however, to stress the idea of the extent to which

standardization is being carried in this catalogue. IV. Federal specifications. —The fourth section, Federal specifications, is included as part of the catalogue owing to the intimate relation which exists between specification work and

the other portions of the catalogue. The actual formulation

and promulgation of the Federal specifications are being car- ried on by the Federal Specifications Board, which turns its

completed work over to the Federal Standard Stock CatalogueBoard for publication.

The standardization idea has been efficiently promoted by

the work of this board. Where, formerly, official Government

specifications were issued by each department and independent

establishment of the Government for items of supplies used

by each, the plan has now been adopted of issuing all specifi- cations by the Federal Specifications Board alone. The result

will be that whereas, formerly, Government specifications for

the same item were issued by separate departments—sometimes conflicting in their requirements—in future, all such conflicts wall be eliminated and but one Government specification for a given item will exist. From the above it will be seen that various efforts of the Government toward standardization of many

elements entering into procurement and storage are

finally converging and coalescing at one point, and

that the publication of the Federal Standard Stock

Catalogue will locate in one place the results of many

varied efforts along these lines. It does not appear at all improbable that industry

and commerce outside of the Government service will

quickly appreciate the advantages of a publication

which standardizes information in regard to practically all known materials and articles in use in this

country in an almost encyclopedic manner, besides furnishing detailed instructions regarding the best methods for storing, inventorying, and issuing supplies.

The adoption of a common nomenclature for all articles used in commercial life would be of immense

benefit to industry. So strong is the impression of

those responsible for the catalogue that a demand for

it will be expressed by those outside the Government,

that a definite arrangement for sale of copies through

the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., has been made.

S. A. E. MOTOR-COACH SPECIFICATIONS

DISCONTINUED

Present Specifications Eliminated As Being Out of Date; New

Code Under Consideration

In 1925 the present motor-coach specifications of the

Society of Automotive Engineers were adopted as a guide to State officials in formulating regulations that

would be sufficiently uniform in their requirements to place no serious handicap on motor-coach manufacturers or operators, and not restrict proper development of this class of vehicles.

In 1926 an informal committee, appointed by the

motor-truck committee of the National Automobile

Chamber of Commerce, drafted a uniform motor-coach

specifications code that included all items of motorcoach construction that would ordinarily be included

in State regulations and indicated those which the

committee felt are the only ones that should be governed by State regulations. The final draft of the

code was approved by a general conference of manufacturing and operating interests in Washington,

D. C., in June, 1929, and referred to the Societjr' of

Automotive Engineers, among others, for supporting

action.

The transportation and maintenance committee of

the S. A. E. studied the code and at its meeting, held

in Detroit in January, recommended that the present

S. A. E. motor-coach specification be discontinued. It was felt that the old S. A. E. specification had served

its purpose. The S. A. E. now has under consideration the new specification as published by the motorvehicle conference committee and may either adopt

this proposed specification as a whole or in part or indorse it without actually adopting it as an S. A. E.

specification.

BRITISH STANDARD FOR RAILWAY AXLES

There is an increasing tendency on the part of

British engineers to adopt tramway axles with higher

tensile strength. This demand, according to the

British Engineering Standards Association, has been

met by providing for axles of high carbon steel and

nickel-chromium steel, in its specifications for tramway axles. These specifications, which have recently

been revised, now contains separate specifications for

axles of three different qualities of material.

According to the announcement of the association,

the specifications, as revised, will meet the requirements of all tramway undertakings. Through this

revision the association has undertaken to bring the

original specifications more into line with requirements of present-day operation and maintenance.
SEPTEMBER, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 73

STANDARDIZATION OF CRUISING MOTOR BOATS

Through Standardization Boat Builders Aim to Produce More Satisfactory Cruisers

By H. R. Stutphen, president National Association of Engine and Boat Manufacturers

Boats of various forms have been in use since the

beginning of known history and, in their commercial

sense, are among the most essential means of transportation available in modern times. Standardization,

likewise, is of no modern origin, although lately

undergoing an intensive development, and was applied

to boats, in a more or less meager way, a great many

years ago. However, the small cruising boat is but a comparatively recent development and standardization is bound to play a pronounced and beneficial part in its further development. But- the term “ standardization,” in that it should imply the fact of extensive and

continued production without change, is perhaps no- where so incorrectly applied or abused as in connection with a great majority of our present so-called

standardized boats, for unfortunately, only a A^ery few

of the builders now listing them have actually reached

this happy condition.

The evolution of the modern motor boat, although

not as rapid as some other of our present-day conveniences, has been constant, and if the records and

designs of the last 35 years are inspected, it will be at once apparent that the results have been very great

indeed.

The cruising motor boat is a very intricate structure, and a complicated piece of mechanism, yet must

be capable of being operated and cared for without

trouble by the average owner. The cruiser is not only

a “home afloat,” including all living accommodations

found in the modern house, but it must stay afloat, be

capable of withstanding wind and wave without

danger, and is fitted with power plant and other neces- sary apparatus to enable it to move from place co place at the will of its owner, and usually at a speed

which only a few years ago was unattainable.

Many trades participate in construction.

In its construction it necessarily, therefore, involves

a large number of trades or professions, including

several varieties of woodworkers and about a dozen

distinct trades of other kinds. This is one of the reasons why it is most difficult to obtain standardization of these boats.

Although the various materials used by these trades

have been largely standardized as relating to ordinary

commercial use, yet many difficulties are encountered

when it is atempted to use these same materials in

the boats. Lumber has been quite thoroughly standardized and graded as regards the building trades

and for other purposes, yet very little of this regular

material is applicable to boat construction, it usually

being necessary to go into the woods and have nearly

all of the lumber used cut especially to suit. And so on, through the various materials, such as plumbing, electrical fixtures, hardware, and even paint,

they must practically all be made to suit this particular work, owing to the nature of the boats, the confined spaces embodied, and the extraordinarily severe conditions encountered, due to the remarkably corrosive effects of salt water and salt air. All of this, of course, tends to standardization of

materials along special lines suitable for marine use, both by regular manufacturers and by specialists who

devote their entire output to marine purposes. Heretofore the quantity of production has not allowed of

thorough standardization of these materials, although

the recently increased use of boats due to the public

becoming “ water minded ” should result in more in- tensive application along these lines. In this connection, it should be pointed out that this process of becoming “ water minded ” on the part of the public

is largely due to improvements in the boats, which in

turn is aided by standardized production and lowering

of costs.

Difficulties of mass production.

Another of the main difficulties encountered in mass

production of cruising boats lies in the size and weight

of the product, requiring an exceptionally large

amount of space for storage of the finished product

as well as extensive building floors. Special means

are required for handling and moving the boats, and

shipment, if by rail or by steamer, requires special

planning.

Wood is, in some ways, a much more difficult material to use in manufacturing than is steel or other

metal, owing to what may be called its changeable

nature and inequalities of grain or texture. It can hardly be depended upon to be just the same on any

two successive days, as it swells, shrinks, and warps,

according to weather conditions, so that different

kinds must be selected and treated differently for

various purposes. Yet there is nothing which can compare with wood as a material for building the

smaller yachts and motor boats, and it is far superior

to steel, for many reasons. Woodworkers from the building and other trades can not be well assimilated into boat construction, be- cause this construction is an art of its own, as the

methods are different, the shapes are not square,

practically every piece entering into a hull is bent,

tapered, curved, or beveled. Also the workmanship

must be of the very highest grade.

As an illustration of the fife of these boats, it might

be interesting to note that several of the original boats

built by the author and used at the Chicago World Fair

in 1892 are still in service as pleasure boats, nnr. many respects are just as sound as when originally

built. Since that time a very great deal has been done

along the line of standardization, and while, as stated

above, the nature and bulk of a cruising boat will

perhaps never permit the use of quantity production

methods as now practiced by, say, automobile manufacturers, some of the open-boat builders have approached these methods, and the cruiser builders, al- 10178—30 2
74 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [SEPTEMBER, 1830

though faced with a much more difficult problem in

this respect, are in some cases, where possible sales will warrant, beginning to work out real production

methods.

One of our popular models of small cruiser has con- tinued in unbroken line each year since 1920, so that

there are now many hundreds of them afloat. Although there has been steady improvement in this

model, the fundamental construction and arrangement

remains the same, and in appearance the boats of the

original series can be instantly recognized as being of

the same model as the latest edition. For these boats, as well as for other standardized models, replacement

parts are kept in stock and all vital parts, or at least

those at all liable to wear, or damage, can be promptly

supplied.

In the field of service, which is, of course, all important, progress has been made toward standardization, and the owner is now able to secure from the

builder or distributor, regular standardized storage

and overhaul service, so that the annual reconditioning

and outfitting is done on a regular schedule of work,

at predetermined prices. This is not only of great

assistance to the owner, relieving him of much trouble

and worry in having this work done, but is of material

assistance to the sales department, in as much as it enables them to intelligently inform the prospect as to this upkeep expense.

THE ASSOCIATION FRANCAISE de NORMALIZATION

French Association Encourages Economic Expansion Through Standardization

By R. Girardeau, Director General Association de Normalization

The Association Francaise de Normalization (AFNOR) was founded in 1926, in cooperation with the

principal French industrial associations and authorities. The association is a private organization. A

State subsidy was recently granted it, but its principal source of income is its membership subscription.

The aim of the association is to encourage French

economic expansion and to develop the domestic market, both through the reduction of the number of machines and machine parts used in manufacture and

through the reduction of the number of types of fin- ished products and manufactured articles. Such re- duction should have, as a result, a decrease in manufacturing costs and floating capital, by reducing

stocks and the quality of unsold merchandise. In

one way or another, the work of the association con- cerns every branch of industry.

The association collects and distributes information.

It groups together and centralizes all French organizations which have to do with standardization, and co- ordinates their work. It represents the French organizations at international standards meetings, and acts

as an intermediary between them and the Comite Superieur de Normalization (C.S.NOR), formerly

known as the Commission Permanente de Standardization (C.P.S.), constituted in the Ministry of Commerce. Although in the future this committee will

undertake the preliminary work on standards only in

exceptional cases, yet it remains the only body with

the power to give official sanction to standards

established or to be established.

Scope of activities.

One of the roles of the AFNOR, and not its least important function, is to encourage the various in- dustries to work out the standards which seem to the association to be necessary and which are called

for by the higher committee. For this purpose, the

AFNOR appoints competent committees in those in- dustries which do not possess a standardization association, composed of representatives of the various

groups interested (producers, distributors, and con- sumers), to whom the technical preliminary work on

the standards is entrusted.

The association has to see that the general instructions of the Comite Superieur de Normalization are

carried out, the whole work of standardization being

based upon such general instructions. It has to help, even to direct, the work of the bureau and standardization committees created, and publishes their findings. The association, furthermore, has been authorized by the higher committee to bring up to date the

standard specifications established by the former

Comite Permanente de Standardization and to carry on the work undertaken by that committee.

Accomplishments.

In the course of the year 1929 and the first months

of 1930, the association appointed about 20 committees

in various industries, both for the completion of cer- tain specifications worked out by the Comite Permanente de Standardization, and to follow the work on

the international agenda, and study certain projected

national standardization and simplification work.

Other committees are about to be appointed and will

shortly begin to operate.

Among the committees already appointed, the fol- lowing may be mentioned: (1) The committee on hydraulic presses (revision of publication B. I, “ General

Conditions Applicable to Markets Supplying Hydraulic Presses ”) ; (2) the committee on iron and steel products (completion of series A, specifications for

iron and steel products) ; (3) the committee on the

standardization of liquid measures ; (4) the committee

on test pressures for land boilers; (5) the committee on naval construction (completion of 14 C. P. S. specifications. “ Standardization of Naval Construction

Equipment,” and study of naval construction questions on the international agenda) ; (6) committee on steel shapes (revision of F. I-I, unification of steel shapes) ; (7) committee on the simplification of preserve cans;

(8) committee on the simplification of roofing sizes; (9) committee on the simplification of drawn-wire

products (tacks, nails, shoe nails) ; (10) committee on

the simplification of ballast forks; (11) committee on

the simplification of hand-tool equipment, including

ordinary spades, scythes, axes, hatchets, and trowels.

The association also submitted for official approval

by the Comite Superieur de Normalization the standards established by the Mechanical, Electrical, and

Automobile Standardization Bureau.
SEPTEMBEB, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 75

QUIETING THE AIRPLANE CABIN

Research Conducted to Solve Problem of Eliminating Noise in Airplane Cabins

By H. L. Dryden, National Bureau of Standards 1

The problem of silencing the airplane is one of

great current interest. The noise nuisance is generally

considered as one of the most potent influences tending

to discourage the use of airplanes by the general public. Editorials are written about it, some people think

there ought to be a law prohibiting airplanes from

making noise, and directors of research look with

longing eyes toward the problem, the solution of which

would bring fame and fortune to them and to their

organizations. Unfortunately, the problem is not a simple one, and no master key to its solution has been

discovered.

The aeronautics branch of the Department of Commerce through its research division in the National

Bureau of Standards is greatly interested in the possibility of developing practicable methods for the re- duction of the noise of airplanes and has already car- ried out investigations

in two directions, namely, on the theory of en- gine mufflers and on the

sound proofing of air- plane cabins. The work

on sound proofing is conducted in the sound

laboratory of the bu- reau by V. L. Chrisler

and W. F. Snyder under

the general direction of

Dr. Paul R. Heyl, and

some of the results have

been published in the

May, 1929, issue of the

Bureau of Standards Journal of Research. The

remarks on sound proofing in this article are based on

the work of Chrisler and Snyder.

The purpose of this article is not to announce a complete solution of the problem, but rather to present

from the viewpoint of a physicist a more or less or- dered analysis and a statement of the ideas guiding

the work at the National Bureau of Standards. In

the working out of this analysis the author wishes to acknowledge the wholehearted cooperation and assist- ance of Dr. L. J. Briggs, assistant director, and chief

of the aeronautical research division.

Producing sound.

The sensation of sound is produced by the pres- ence in the air of compressional waves set up by some

vibrating body. It is found by experiment that if the motion of the vibrating body is periodic, a musical sensation is produced and the pitch of the sound

may be correlated with the number of vibrations of

the source in unit time. If the vibrations are not

periodic, a sensation of noise is produced. In the case of an airplane, several sources are present, and the

resulting motion of the particles of air is an exceed1 Paper presented at the Fourth National Aeronautic Meeting of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Dayton, Ohio.

ingly complicated one. While it is possible to recognize certain predominant frequencies in the noise of an airplane, and while it is always theoretically possible to consider any complex vibration as the result

of a large number of simple vibrations, this article

will be limited for the most part to the second at- tribute of sound, namely, the loudness.

Experiment shows that when the loudness of a sound increases, the amplitude of the vibration of the source and of the compressional waves in the air also increases. In any small volume of the air through

which sound waves are passing there is a certain

amount of energy which can be measured by suitable

instruments. The amount of energy per unit volume

is a measure of the intensity of the wave motion.

(The exact definition of intensity is the amount of

energy transmitted by the wave motion in unit time

through a unit area in a plane normal to the

direction of travel of

the wave.)

If the intensity in- creases, the loudness also

increases, but since loudness is a sensation, the

loudness can not, strictly

speaking, be measured.

No meaning can be

given to the statement

that one sound is twice

as loud as anothe r. Nevertheless it is easily

recognized that while

the loudness increases with increasing intensity, a given increase in intensity by no means produces

equivalent effects on the ear when starting from differ- ent levels of intensity. This has led to the construction of a scale of loudness on an “ ear scale ” which

must be understood to obtain the proper perspective on the problem of silencing the airplane.

Minimum intensity required.

A certain minimum intensity is required before any

sound can be heard. While the magnitude varies considerably from ear to ear and depends to some extent on the frequency, acoustical engineers have determined an average value applicable to the average ear. When

the intensity approaches a value in the neighborhood

of 100,000,000,000 times the threshold value, the sensation becomes exceedingly painful, and the ear begins

to feel the sound rather than hear it. Thus to reduce

the most intense sound to inaudibility would require

the reduction of the intensity in this ratio. For intensities between the limits given, the ear is not equally sensitive. We may imagine an experiment

in which two sources of sound A and B of the same

character are connected alternately to the ear, and the

intensities so adjusted that the two seem equally loud

to the ear. Then suppose the intensity of A is

In this article the author tells how sound is produced and defines intensity. Experiments and in- vestigations made by the Aeronautics Branch of the

Department of Commerce are described. These

deal with the theory of engine mufflers and sound

proofing of airplane cabins. There appears to be no

prospect that a device will be developed which at the cost of a pound or two of additional weight will

eliminate the noise.
76 COMMERCIAL. STANDARDS MONTHLY [SEPTEMBER, 1930

increased until the ear can just detect that it sounds

louder than B. By measuring the change in the

intensity, the sensitivity of the ear can be determined.

To a first and sufficiently good approximation for most

purposes it is found that the intensity must be

increased by a certain percentage, approximately 26

per cent, no matter whether the original intensity is

1, 1,000, or 1,000,000. The mathematician expresses

this observation by the statement that the response of

the ear is proportional to the logarithm of the

intensity

Suppose then that a start is made with the threshold

intensity which is called 0 loudness and that the

experiment progresses in steps such that the intensity

of A is increased until a difference is heard ; that is, by

a factor 1.26; B is now made equal to A, and the

process is continued until the entire range of intensities is covered. The threshold loudness is called 0, the

first step 1, the second 2, etc., and thus the ear or loudness scale of units known as sensation units is built up.

It is found that approximately 110 units cover the

scale, the exact number being dependent on the

frequency.

Some of the consequences of the facts which have

been briefly reviewed are not very well known. Let

us suppose that the intensity of the sound produced by

the airplane engine is equal to the intensity of the

sound produced by all other sources, including the

propeller, vibration of wires, etc. The complete

elimination of the engine noise would reduce the

physical intensity in the ratio of 2 to 1, but so far as the ear is concerned the decrease is only 3 sensation

units. Unfortunate, but true. The perfect engine

muffler under these same conditions would improve

conditions very little. Of course, the assumption as to the relative intensities may be greatly in error, and

the fact has been neglected that certain frequencies

may produce more uncomfortable sensations than

other frequencies.

The second consequence is that if the sound is once produced, the use of absorption as a remedy means

that all but a small fraction of the energy must be

eliminated. To reduce the sound by 20 sensation units means that 99 per cent of the energy must be eliminated, 30 sensation units 99.9 per cent, 40 sensation

units 99.99 per cent, etc. The moral is that the sound

should be eliminated at the source, if possible.

The vibrating body.

The source of sound has been stated to be a vibrating body. The vibrating body may be a column of

air confined within more or less rigid walls or even

unconfined air flowing in such a manner as to produce

pressure changes of appreciable magnitude. The

whistle of a bullet traveling at or above the speed of

sound is produced by pressure changes in the turbulent

flow of the air closing in behind the bullet. In this

case the control of the sound is intimately related to the development of forms giving smooth air flow, a point that will be referred to later. The noise produced by a source of this type is usually not very

intense unless the air speeds approach or exceed the

speed of sound. The sources of sound of this type on an airplane are in the flow around the tips of propellers and in the flow of the exhaust gases from the

engine. The only known method which is effective in

dealing with sources of this type is to reduce the speed

of the flowing air to well below the speed of sound.

In many instances, pressure waves, which in themselves are of small amplitude, produce much greater

effects through the phenomenon of resonance. Any

thin diaphragm, such as the engine cowling; the fabric or plywood covering of a fuselage ; any air column, as for example, the air intake pipe to the carburetor; or any stretched wire has a large number of natural1 periods of vibration which, in general, are not greatly

damped. Any small pressure fluctuation tends to set up vibrations in these resonating bodies which result

finally in building up the intensity to a large value.

This procedure may be illustrated by an ordinary

tuning fork and resonator. It will be found that it

is not necessary that the resonator be tuned to the fork

frequency to produce a large effect. The flat top of an ordinary desk serves equally well. Attack on the source is most effective when the trouble is due to resonators, for with patience some of these may be

discovered and removed or provided with sufficient damping.

Propeller noise.

For several years the National Bureau of Standards

in cooperation with the National Advisory Committee

for Aeronautics has been engaged in a study of the air

flow about airfoil sections such as are used for propeller design. These experiments have been conducted at speeds from one-half the speed of sound to about 1.08 times the speed of sound. At some speed in the region

from 0.7 to 1 times the speed of sound, depending on

the thickness, the flow about the airfoil begins to change from the smooth flow characteristic of good

efficiency to the burbling type of flow which ordinarily

occurs only at large angles of attack. The air no longer follows the upper curved surface

nearly to the trailing edge, but breaks away from the

surface to form a region of violently eddying flow. In

the model tests the change in flow is accompanied by

a great increase in the noise. Under the conditions

of the set-up, the thin airfoils spanning the stream

serve as resonators which amplify the sound considerably. In this case noise is a direct evidence of ineffi- ciency, for the lift is greatly decreased and the drag

greatly increased when this type of flow begins.

The onset of the burbling flow depends primarily on

the thickness of the section as compared to its chord

length. The greater the thickness ratio, the lower the

speed at which the inefficient flow begins. The shape

of the section seems to be a far less important factor,

though not without appreciable effect. The bearing

of these facts on propeller noise is somewhat as fol- lows: For a given propeller the noise will increase as the tip speed increases. This is perhaps an obvious

fact, but it is to be observed further than when the

tip speed approaches the speed of sound the noise will

increase at a rapid rate to an unbearable din. So

far as any given propeller is concerned, it is advantageous to keep the tip speed as low as practicable

from the standpoint of noise as well as of the efficiency

of the propeller. Gearing may be said to be desirable,

provided the gears are efficient and comparatively

silent. For propellers of varying thickness it may be ex- pected 2 that at a given tip speed the thicker propeller

will give greater noise, at least if the propellers are

2 In the absence of measurements of propeller noise, the following statements must be in the form of speculations.
SEPTEMBER, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 77

constructed of the same material. The blade of the

propeller in most instances serves as a resonator, and

the material of which the propeller is made together

with the thickness determines the resonant frequencies and the magnitude of the damping. It is com- monly believed that metal propellers make more noise

than wooden propellers, but the question may be

raised as to whether the metal propellers are or are not generally operated at higher tip speeds than

wooden propellers. We know of no comparisons in

which two propellers of identical design but of differ- ent materials are operated at the same tip speed. It

is in this unsatisfactory state that the question of propeller noise must be left with the only conclusion that

the tip speed should be kept as low as possible. It is interesting to speculate as to the part played by the

vibration of the propeller blades and to wonder

whether a blade so constructed that these vibrations were heavily damped would give considerably less noise.

Engine noise and muffling.

It has always been a debatable question as to whether an engine muffler absorbs sound energy produced b}r the explosions in the engine cylinders or whether the muffler acts by modifying the flow of the

exhaust gases so that the pressure changes set up are much less intense ; in other words, as to whether the

muffler takes a sound already existing and dissipates

its energy or modifies the source so that a sound of

lower intensity is produced. Some experiments have

been made at the National Bureau of Standards to obtain information on this point. A noise was set up in an air stream passing through a siren, the in- tensity being comparable with the noise of an air- plane somewhat throttled. Mufflers of the several

common types were introduced, but no appreciable

change could be made in the noise unless a muffler of

high resistance was used, and even then the reduction

in loudness was small. While the apparatus available

did not permit the simultaneous matching of air vol- ume, frequency of impulses, and air pressure with the

volume of exhaust gases, frequency, and exhaust pres- sure of an airplane engine, the results indicate that

the muffler of an airplane engine functions primarily

by so regulating the outward flow of exhaust gases

that less sound is produced.

There are two well-recognized and effective principles on which mufflers may be operated, and a third

principle is sometimes suggested but which is less effective than the other two. The first is the bruteforce method of inserting resistance in the exhaust line so that pressure pulsations and hence the noise are re- duced. Most mufflers do function somewhat in this

manner, but the method is objectionable since resist- ance means a back pressure on the engine and hence

reduced power. Practically all automobile mufflers are of this type. They are all heavy and impracticable

for airplane use. Most of the successful airplane mufflers, if any may

be regarded as successful, operate on the second principle, namely, by reducing the speed of discharge of

the exhaust gases. It has already been mentioned that

this method is the most successful one for dealing with

sources in an air stream traveling near the speed of

sound. In practice the muffler utilizes some form of

expansion chamber which serves to damp pressure

fluctuations to some extent, but more important to cool

rapidly the exhaust gases. In some designs the cool- ing is facilitated by providing devices to introduce a

considerable amount of air which is mixed in thoroughly with the exhaust gases. It may be readily seen that the cooling of the exhaust gases produces an in- crease in density, and hence a given quantity (mass)

of exhaust gas is expelled at a lower velocity. If

sufficient cooling can be obtained, the velocity may be

reduced by a factor of 2 or more. Since the speed of

sound in the gas is also reduced in proportion to the

square root of the absolute temperature, the ratio of

the speed to the speed of sound is reduced in the

ratio \/2. The third principle often advocated is to apply the

methods of interference. In the laboratory, with pure

tones it is sometimes possible to divide the sound path

and produce at some specified location a low level of

intensity. A fact often forgotten is that somewhere

the intensity is twice as great. Furthermore a consideration of the relation between loudness and intensity shows that the intensity at the minimum must he

of the order of one one-thousandth of the intensity at the maximum, a task which demands an almost perfect

match of the amplitudes of the interfering tones. With complex sounds, the method of interference

gives extremely unsatisfactory results in the laboratory. If the first thesis is granted—namely, that the

larger part of the sound is set up in the air stream

discharging from the end of the exhaust pipe—the

use of branched pipes could not affect the major part

of the sound. The only part of the sound that could

be affected is the large and relatively low-frequency

pressure changes due to the individual explosions.

The adjustment depends on the temperature of the

gases, since the speed of sound depends on the temperature, and can be correct for only one engine speed.

Attempts to use the principle of interference on the note from a siren met with failure. There appears,

to be no successful application of this principle to* engine muffling, and there are many reasons for believing that success is not likely to be encountered

along this path.

Certain auxiliary matters in connection with engine

muffling deserve mention. In the first place there are many sources of sound in the engine besides the exhaust. The gears, cams, valves, and other movingparts set up considerable vibration of metal parts

leading to diverse kinds of noise. If care is not taken,

the engine cowling and even the muffler itself, if made

of thin unsupported sheet metal, may be set in vibration, leading to still further noise. In the second

place, it is possible in certain types of airplanes to

locate the exhaust above the upper wing so that a

large mass is interposed in the direct line between the

exhaust and the passenger cabin. Such a location

leads to a very considerable reduction in noise.

Sound proofing the cabin.

The last problem to be considered is that of the

sound proofing of the airplane cabin, in which field Chrisler and Snyder, of the National Bureau of

Standards, have carried out an extensive series of

measurements. It must be recognized at the start that

the problem is not alone one of sound transmission

through the cabin walls, but also one of sound absorption. No matter how low the transmission of sound
78 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [SEPTEMBER, 1930

through the walls, the sound within the cabin will

eventually build up to the same intensity as the sound

outside if there is no absorption within the cabin.

The low transmission simply delays the attainment of

the final intensity for a short time after the starting

of the engine.

Consider an airplane cabin of exposed surface area Aw placed in a field of sound energy such that the

energy striking the surface per unit area per unit

time is E0 . When equilibrium has been established,

suppose that the energy striking any surface in the

interior of the cabin per unit area per unit time is E.

The condition for equilibrium is that the amount of

energy entering the cabin per unit time by trans- mission through the walls equals the amount leaving

the cabin by transmission through the walls added

to the amount absorbed within the cabin. Obviously,

if there is no absorption, the intensity within the

cabin must equal the intensity on the outside of the

cabin. If the transmission of the wall is t, the amount

of energy entering per unit time tE0Aw. Similarly

the amount leaving per unit time by outward trans- mission through the walls is tEAw. If the average

absorption coefficient of the exposed surface within

the cabin is a, and the area of the exposed surface is Aa, the amount of energy absorbed per unit time is aEAa . Therefore when equilibrium is reached

tE0 Aw = tEAu + aEAa or 77t E0

, .AaO,

L ^AJ

The preceding elementary exposition, which is far

from rigorous and contains several assumptions, will serve to give the general relationships. While without absorption there is no reduction of energy within

the cabin, no matter how small the transmission, absorption alone can accomplish little. Thus if the absorbing area equals the area of the walls, and if a=l, so that all energy striking the absorbing surface

is absorbed, and if t = 1 so that the walls are trans- parent, the reduction in loudness is only three sensa- tion units. In any practical case some absorption is always present from the passengers themselves if from

no other source. Each passenger has an absorption

equivalent to a little less than 5 square feet of sur- face having 100 per cent absorption. Because absorption is always present, a reduction in the trans- mission can accomplish a great deal. When the transmission of single sheets of material

is investigated, it is found that the intensity on the

physical' scale of the sound received on the side opposite the source is approximately proportional to the

reciprocal of the 0.73 power of the weight per unit

area; in other words, to the reciprocal of the product

of the density of the material and the thickness raised

to 0.73 power. Because of the relation of the ear scale to the physical scale, the reduction of loudness in sen- sation units plotted against the logarithm of the

weight per square foot gives a straight line. To obtain a reduction of 10 sensation units requires a material weighing 0.1 pound per square foot, 20 sensation units 0.5 pound per square foot, 30 sensation units

about 3 pounds per square foot. It may be recalled

that a material1 giving a reduction of 30 sensation units

transmits only 0.001 of the energy falling on it.

Results found by Chrisler and Snyder.

The relation between the transmission and the

weight was found by Chrisler and Snyder to hold for

wrapping paper, airplane fabric, glass, plywood, aluminum, and building board. The prospect of securing

a satisfactory reduction of loudness by simple sheets of

a single material is not very bright, and attention was

turned to composite structure. In the sound insulation of buildings, air spaces prove to be of great value

so that one of the first attempts was to use two sheets

with an air space between. With light materials, as, for example, sheets of aluminum, the transmission

through two sheets separated by an air space was

greater than through a single sheet. The use of air

spaces is entirely ineffective in the sound insulation

of airplane cabins.

The next trial was the use of absorbent material be- tween the two panels, a process that is not very effec- tive in building construction. For the much lighter

panels which must be used on airplanes, actual test showed that the use of absorbent material between the

panels was very effective. With balsam wool, cotton, or hair felt as the filling materials, composite panels were built which gave a reduction as great as for a homogeneous material of twice the weight or more. With a blanket made from kapok fibers, such as are used in life preservers, a panel was constructed which

gave a reduction as great as for a homogeneous material of three times the weight. This sound absorbent

weighs only 1.14 pounds per cubic foot. A reduction

of 30 or 35 sensation units is obtained with a wall

weighing about 1 pound per square foot. The area of the walls of the cabin of modern commercial airplanes is usually from 30 to 50 square feet per passenger. The casual reader might then suppose

that 30 to 50 pounds per passenger additional weight

would be required to provide the sound protection for

each passenger weighing, say, 150 pounds and thus

that about one-fifth the useful passenger load must be

devoted to sound insulation. This is far from the

case. In the first place the cabin must have some kind

of walls in any case. If they are of airplane fabric,

they will weigh only 0.1 pound per square foot ; if of

plywood about 0.5 pound per square foot; if of

aluminum, about 0.3 pound per square foot. In the

second place a modern cabin has some type of interior

finish or lining for appearance sake. The weight of

the wall that would be provided in any case without

thought of sound insulation should be subtracted from

the 1-pound per square foot of the sound-insulating

construction.

Experience has shown that the additional weight is likely to be of the order of only 10 to 15 pounds per

passenger; say, about 0.3 pound per square foot. At

this price the noise in the cabin may be reduced to about that in a railway coach in motion, so that con- versation may be carried on with ease. This concludes the brief resume of the present situation with regard to silencing the airplane. There

appears to be no prospect that any single device will be

developed, which, at the cost of a pound or two of

additional weight, will eliminate the noise. The

imagination of the inventor is to be envied who proposed to have the sound actuate a loud speaker in such

a way as to produce a new noise of equal amplitude to
SEPTEMBER, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 79

the original, but of opposite phase so that by interference no sound at all would be heard, but there

appears no hope of progress along this line. By the same token it is unnecessary to resort to ear

plugs, telephone sets, or speaking tubes. At the

j present time a great deal can be done by careful

attention to detail to provide greater comfort to the

passenger, and at a moderate increase in weight. It will prove more profitable to carry 8 passengers in

comfort than 9 or 10 in conditions almost unbearable.

STANDARDIZATION BRIEFS

Leaders in the hospital field, medical, nursing, and

allied groups will assemble in Philadelphia at the

Bellevue-Stratford Hotel, the week of October 13, for

the Thirteenth Annual Hospital Standardization Conference of the American College of Surgeons.

A meeting of manufacturers of metal windows, held

in Washington, D. C., July 29, took initial steps looking toward the formulation of a simplified practice

recommendation covering masonry openings for metal1 windows. This recommendation will cover copper,

bronze, and steel windows. A second meeting of these

manufacturers will be held on or about September 15. It is expected that at this meeting final steps will be

taken in the drafting of a simplified practice recom- mendation.

Three documents covering standardization activities

of the American Society for Testing Materials are in

the course of preparation. The 1930 issue of the book

of A. S. T. M. standards will again appear in two

parts. Part I will contain the standards relating to metals, and Part II the standards relating to nonmetallic materials. The two parts will comprise approximately 2,300 pages and will contain all of the standards

of the society (numbering 426) in their latest revised

form. Probably the volumes will be ready for dis- tribution about October 15. The special volume con- taining all of the tentative standards (numbering 152)

in their latest revised form, is now in preparation. A

combined index of all standards and tentative standards will again be issued complete, with references to the publications in which the standards appear. It is expected that this index will be available early in

November.

The Federal Trade Commission has approved a resolution adopted May 26, 1930, at a trade practice

conference of the knit-underwear industry, covering

the use of the word “ wool ” in advertising and sell- ing garments. The rule, which will become effective

January 1, 1931, provides that the word “wool” shall

not be used in any way in the labeling, advertising,

merchandising, or selling of knit underwear unless the

percentage by weight of wool contained in the garment is stated. Garments with percentage of wool

content named may contain not less than the stated

percentage of wool by weight with the allowance of

a flat tolerance of 3 per cent plus or minus, on any

labeled percentage. Thus, the permissible range of

wool content by weight for a garment identified as having 50 per cent wool content is from 47 to 53

per cent.

A survey has recently been completed among some

2,250 canners throughout the country with regard to No. 2 and No. 1% cans. In the original recommendation which was proposed at the National Canners

Association last year, there were two No. 2 cans and

two No. lVi cans, varying in size by only one-sixteenth

of an inch. It was decided to eliminate one can under

each size heading, and thus further reduce the proposed list. The results of the survey which has just

been completed have been turned over to officials of

the National Canners Association for their information in order to facilitate the consideration of the

standard list of sizes.

Nineteen manufacturers of mercerized cotton yarns were circularized regarding adherence to the commercial standard for Regain of Mercerized Cotton Yarns,

CSl1-29, for the year ended June 30, 1930, and re- plies received from 15 of the manufacturers indicated

that adjustments on regain were called for in comparatively few cases, but wherever adjustments were made the commercial standard was used as the basis

therefor. Those who have had no occasion as yet to make regain adjustments state that they intend to use the commercial standard as a basis for such adjustments when occasion arises.

A survey of adherence to the commercial standard

for Staple Porcelain (All-Clay) Plumbing Fixtures,

CS4-29, covering production for the year ended June

30, 1930, indicates that the average adherence to the

commercial standard requirements for regular selec- tion wai’e is 95 per cent. Those who sell culls report

that the culls are marked in accordance with the rules

of the commercial standard. The average adherence

to standard types and sizes is 85.8 per cent, the deviation being due either to old stock on hand which is still salable, to old molds which have not yet worn out, or to demands from purchasers for nonstandard items.

The figures reported by each company were averaged

without weighting them according to the production

represented.

Figures received from manufacturers of brass pipe

nipples in reply to a questionnaire regarding adherence to commercial standard CS10-29, Brass Pipe Nipples, for the year ended June 30, 1930, indicate that

adherence to the requirements regarding grade of pipe

stock, thread dimensions, and inspection tolerances is 100 per cent. Some slight deviation is reported, however, from the recommended stock sizes and lengths

because of demand from purchasers for special sizes and lengths. The average of the figures reported, not
80 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [SEPTEMBER, 1930

weighted according to individual production, is 95

per cent. Ten replies have been received from 18

manufacturers circularized.

The dimensions and weight of the tennis ball are now standard the world over. The recent adoption of

larger standard dimensions for the golf ball in the

United States is a break with standard practice else- where.

The division of specifications of the National Bureau

of Standards is in correspondence with more than

66.000 firms, associations, and societies, and individuals, of whom 26,000 are public purchasing agents;

that is, purchasing out of tax money; 2,600 are non- governmental purchasing agents; 22,000 are manufacturers; 15,000 are distributors; 700 are technical

and trade associations.

The present list of testing laboratories in the United

States, officially compiled by the National Bureau of

Standards, now contains reference to 383 laboratories.

More than 600 manufacturers of softwood lumber

are now on the “ willing-to-certify ” list of the National Bureau of Standards. Work on the hardwood

list has just begun.

The following rules, edited by the Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker (VDE), the German Association of Electrical Engineers, have now been printed in

English. Standards for the classification and testingof electrical machines. Standards for the classifica- tion and testing of transformers. Rules for leadcovered cables in power plants. Rules for insulated

conductors in heavy-current installations. Rules for

sheathed conductors.

STANDARD FOR STAPLE VITREOUS-CHINA PLUMBING FIXTURES AVAILABLE

IN PRINTED FORM

Standard Representative of More Than Five Years’ Cooperative Work on Part of Industry

As a culmination of more than five years of cooperative effort, a printed pamphlet entitled “ Staple

Vitreous China Plumbing Fixtures, Commercial

Standard CS20-30 ” has recently been released by

the National Bureau of Standards for general dis- tribution.

The commercial standard covers nomenclature,

definitions, grading rules, types, sizes, dimensions, and

general practices, including marking of culls and

labeling for water-closet bowls, tanks, lavatories, and

urinals, recommended as standard bj7 the industry.

The standard recognizes the fact that minor blemishes

and defects in the material, from which vitreous china

plumbing fixtures are made, are unavoidable, and

within certain limitations, do not affect the value or

utility of the fixture. Methods of grading are given

for each type of ware and the maximum blemishes

allowable on “ regular selection ” ware are listed. Besides quality of ware as determined by appearance,

finish, and freedom from defects, the commercial

standard establishes standard roughing-in measure- ments in order to assist in the design and construction

of buildings and to relieve many difficulties surrounding the installation of fixtures by the plumber. These

dimensions are shown on sketches in the printed

pamphlet.

Through the medium of the commercial standard,

the industry has established standard measurements

for the more important dimensions of these fixtures in

order that the architect, tire plumber, and the con- sumer may become familiar with the sizes and types

regularly available with full coin petition "and be en- abled to complete detailed plans for bathrooms, kitchens, and laundries prior to making a decision as to what company’s ware is to be installed.

All fixtures specifically mentioned in the standard

are to have the trade-mark or name of the actual manufacturer applied in such manner as to be permanent.

Labels, applied at the factory only, are to be used

only on such ware as conforms to the requirements for

“ regular selection ” as set forth in the grading rules. “ Labels for regular selection ” ware are worded as. follows

This is a high-class and valuable piece of vitreous china and should be handled as such. This piece has been classified as “ regular selection ” after a thorough

inspection by competent and experienced men. The

term “ regular selection ” does not mean that this

article is without blemish. It is impossible to make

vitreous china plumbing fixtures without flaws of some kind and these have not been overlooked in

the grading of this article. This piece has been graded in accordance with uni- form grading rules adopted by the Sanitary Potteries

in conjunction with the United States Bureau of Standards of the Department of Commerce.

No labels are used on “ culls ” (ware grading below

“regular selection ”), but such ware is marked by the- maker with two parallel lines cut through the glaze

into the body of the ware at locations recommended

by the advisory committee so that they may be found

readily after installation of the fixture. These cuts are filled with a bright-red varnish or enamel which is resistant to the action of hot water. Crates containing “ culls ” are also marked with two splashes of red1 on one end of the crate so as to be visible without tear- ing down stacks for identification purposes during

shipment or inventory of the ware. This commercial standard is not meant to interfere

with the manufacture or sale of special sizes and types

of vitreous*china plumbing fixtures sometimes required,,

but is intended to aid commercial progress toward

ideals of plumbing fixture quality and performance and

as a basis for marketing.

As stated above, copies of the pamphlet may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 10

cents per copy.
SEPTEMBER, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 81

STANDARDIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF TEXTILES

Control of Textiles Based on Federal Research; Bureau of Standards Aided in Perfecting Army

Uniform Cloth

By Henry D. Hubbard, National Bureau of Standards

Textile research is a shining example of the control

of quality through measurements. The bureau’s chief

interest is in those measurable factors which predetermine the quality or fitness for a given use. As

every dimension of a key fits a corresponding recess in

a lock, so every dimension or magnitude of property

in a textile must meet the conditions of service re- quired. Such one-to-one correspondence of measured

production to measured need is the basis of successful

research.

The potential field for research is unlimited. Textiles, for example, assume an infinite variety of

forms—rugs, carpets, garments, bags, flags, sails,

plane wings, curtains, handkerchiefs, towels, hosiery,

ribbons, surgical bandages, parachutes, and even

shoes and hats. Each must pliably adapt itself as drapery covering, container, adornment, health, comfort, protection, and whatnot. Each use presents its problems to the technician for research, the solution of

which means progress in the arts. Their solution

creates new utilities and promotes human well-being.

Research possibilities.

Textile laboratories of all grades find their hands

full of research possibilities. In one research, a cot- ton fabric was developed for mail bags, where the high

quality demanded was duplicated at a great saving.

The ultimate fiber strength, the length of the individual fiber, the number and twist of the yarn, when

suitably embodied in the design of a fabric, give predictable quality.

As the criteria become known, it is possible to set these measured data into the spinner and loom, and

thus invariably reproduce the high quality which the

designer made possible. Such high quality is made

possible by standardizing the quality produced on the

basis of the measurements which first produced it. Now comes the next stage—to design predictably on

the basis of data accumulated as the result of each

productive factor. Cotton.

To set gears for beating raw cotton in cleaning it, we

have had an unwritten art dependent on the opinion

and judgment of the man in charge. To free it from

guesswork, a bureau research was completed and the

results published by the bureau as computing graphs.

These give automatically the set of gears suited to effective beating for each case. Such computing

graphs and nomograms are fast becoming aids to the

control of process in industry. They embody the skill of the mathematician and the data of research, and

they permit the novice to apply both in solving his

problems.

A most important factor in most of the researches

at the Bureau of Standards is the cooperation of the

industry in maintaining research workers on problems

of mutual interest.

Standardization of hosiery boxes.

A related problem was the standardization of hosiery boxes. Eighty thousand tons of box board and

cover paper are used annually in packing hosiery.

An astonishing variety of hosiery boxes were col- lected—58 for children, 39 for men, and 98 for women.

Chaos dominated the sizes and varieties. It was

found possible to reduce the variety to 80 per cent; thereby saving 5,000 tons of box board and cover paper

annually, and giving a better assortment of boxes. A

new method was devised for folding hosiery which

saves 14 per cent of the box space, and also strengthens

the package.

The many resulting economies save the industry

$3,000,000 annually. At the same time, the total sav- ings on textiles at that time were estimated as having

netted the textile industry $28,000,000.

Nine systems of measuring hosiery.

Nine systems for measuring hosiery were found in

another bureau research. The same number assigned

to a size might apply equally to other sizes, and in different places the same size was designated by various

numbers. Much confusion prevailed. By cooperation, a scientific method was devised and tested ; and

is now standard for the industry. A single method,

replacing the nine originally used, proves a gain both

to the public and to the industry.

The bureau was able to cooperate in perfecting

textile specifications for Arm}7 uniforms. Existing

specifications included requirements not encountered

in service. Tests which do not reproduce conditions

of wear tend to limit the dyer in his choice of dyes

without advantage to the service.

Laundering tests. Preliminary to such recommendations, the expected

life of garments was studied in laundering tests. The

fastness to laundering was measured. Meantime a

test for light fastness was introduced which immediately reduced unsuitable deliveries. In the development of Army fabric, the bureau duplicated the in- jurious effects of perspiration in discoloring the cloth

by the use of organic acids.

A visit to the textile section laboratory of the National Bureau of Standards is illuminating even to the expert. Here is a full experimental mill equipment, where fibers may be spun, blended, and woven

into fabric; and also be subjected to service tests or

laboratory research with the object of continued progress in minimizing waste, reducing wear, and prolonging the useful service life of textile products.

Test laboratory.

In order that all tests and researches may be comparable. the test laboratory is controlled at standard

constant temperature and humidity. The characteristics of a yarn as to length, strength, and the like
82 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [SEPTEMBER, 1930

might, in the course of daily moisture variations of

natural humidity be altered by as much as 10 per cent. Measured controls of the atmospheric humidity and

temperature now make it possible to compare tests and research results on the same uniform basis, with

correspondingly greater confidence in the scientific value of results. A current problem of the bureau is its cooperation

in the standardization of sizes of ready-to-wear gar- ments. For example, minimum measurements for

boys’ blouses, waists, shirts, and junior shirts have

been adopted by the industry at a general conference

called by the bureau and under bureau procedure.

Similar minimum measurements for sizes A, B, C,

and D have been adopted for men’s pyjamas. The

elimination of the E size will simplify stocks.

Similar projects are in process of formulation in

cooperation with the International Association of

Garment Manufacturers for women’s wash dresses,

men’s shirts, overalls, leather-lined and leather coats. Such standardization establishes a national basis for

checking sizes of garments as purchased and will be- come a uniform guide to production. In the retail trade there will be fewer returns for incorrect sizes and far less confusion as to size designation.

Another measurement problem is illustrated by the

adoption of size designations and basic body measure- ments for dress patterns, the results of which are published by the National Bureau of Standards under the

title “ Dress Patterns—Commercial Standards CS13-

30.”

APPOINTMENTS MADE TO BUILDING CODE

COMMITTEE

H. L. Whittemore, of National Bureau of Standards, and

W. A. Payne, of New York, New Members of Committee

Two new appointments to membership on the Department of Commerce Building Code Committee,

have been announced. These are : Herbert L. Whittemore, chief of the section of engineering mechanics of

the National Bureau of Standards, and William

Arthur Payne, vice president of Charles T. Wills

(Inc.), New York, N. Y.

The history of the building code committee extends

back to 1921, at which time President Hoover, then

Secretary of Commerce, appointed a body of seven

nationally known architects and engineers to suggest more logical building regulations. At that time in- vestigations of the housing situation had brought out

the fact that building activities in some localities was

seriously handicapped by antiquated and illogical re- quirements. Many differences in such requirements were brought to light, and the confusion which this

caused to architects, contractors, and others engaged

in the industry was held responsible for much lost motion and waste. During the past nine years the committee has con- tinued to function, bringing out successively recom- mended minimum requirements for small dwelling

construction, masonry walls, live-load assumptions,

code arrangement, and working stresses in building

materials. Other subjects have been partially covered,

and specific recommendations will be published from

time to time as investigations reach the point where

it is possible to state with some exactness what is the

best practice. These recommendations have been

widely utilized in the preparation of local building

codes throughout the country and have won an established place in the respect of those engaged in promoting better and^ more uniform building require- ments. Mr. Whittemore was educated at the University of

Wisconsin from which he was graduated in the mechanical engineering course, receiving the degree of

bachelor of science, and mechanical engineer. Since

1917 he has been a member of the staff of the National

Bureau of Standards, where he serves as chief of the

engineering mechanics section, whose work lies in determining the strength and other properties of various

materials. He is a member of numerous scientific

societies, and has been honored by appointment to many committees engaged in standardization work.

Mr. Payne was graduated from Lehigh University

with the degree of bachelor of science in architecture

and took postgraduate work in architectural history

and design at Columbia University. He is now vice

president of Charles T. Wills (Inc.), New York builders. In addition to his broad experience as an architect and builder, he has distinguished himself as chairman of the standards committee of the New York

Building Congress, under which standard specifications for building construction have been prepared.

REVISION OF FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS

Specifications Proposed for Revision Submitted for Comment

and Criticism Eighteen revised specifications, proposed for the National Government, are now before the departments

and others interested for comment and criticism.

These specifications also bear the new designation in

accordance with the scheme used with the Federal

Standard Stock Catalogue. For copies of the proposals or for further information pertaining to the

specifications, address the Federal Specifications

Board, the National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.

'. S. No. Commodity New designation

Ia Cement, Portland SS-C-191.

112a

217 Peeking rnhher, wire-insertion HH-P-161.Ice bags, rubber . _ __ ZZ-I-121.

218

248

249

267

267

267

310

Rags, Politzer ZZ-B-71.

Gypsum, calcined _ _ SS-G-901.

Lime, hydrated, for structural purposes. _ Fowl (fricassee) , dressed __ __ SS-L-351.

PP-F-611.

Turkeys ( pro visions) , fresh PP-M-191.

Chickens, dressed, broilers, fryers, and

roasters. Ether, petroleum

PP-C-251.

O-E-751.

356 Allov, dental, amalgam. _ U-A-451.

389

389

Coconut, prepared __ _ Z-C-571.

Hops __ .. - - HHH-H577 Acetone _ _ 491. O-A-51.

Hair, horse, curled __ _ _ C-H-lll.

Flavoring extracts and nonalcoholic

flavors (proposed).

Asphalt emulsion for repair work (proposed.

Motor trucks, classes AA, A, B, and C._
SEPTEMBER, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 83

STANDARDIZATION OF MAIL CARS AND TERMINAL RAILWAY POST OFFICES

Standard Specifications for Postal Cars and Post Offices Increase Operating Efficiency of System and

Personnel

By W. Irving Glover, Second Assistant Postmaster General

The history of mail-car standardization commences

with the appointment on September 13, 1911. of the

Standard Car Committee for the Post Office Department. Prior to the date mentioned, specifications of

a limited scope had been issued by the Post Office

Department for the construction of full railway postoffice cars in 1891, 1901, and early 1911, but it re- mained for the standard car committee to formulate

the first complete specifications for both construction

and fixtures. After several months of deliberation and conferences with railroad and car-building officials, the first specifications for construction of steel and steel unclerframe full postal cars and standard fixtures for such

cars were prepared by the committee and issued under

date of March 28, 1912. These specifications have been

revised from time to time to keep pace with changing

conditions, and have exerted quite an influence on construction of car equipment generally throughout the

United States. In so far as we are advised, the specifications of the Post Office Department were the first car construction standards printed and are believed

to b‘e the only ones extant. The issuance of our specifications in March, 1912, was followed by legislation in August, 1912, and July,

1916, which required the elimination of wooden cars from full railway post office service; and regulations

promulgated by the Postmaster General in May, 1927,

and October, 1929, governing the operation of mailapartment cars, have further restricted the use of

wooden and steel underframe equipment.

Enforcement of laws prove beneficial.

Enforcement of these laws and regulations and

the application of standards required in our specifications have materially changed the mail-car situation

during the past 18 years. On June 30, 1912, there were in railway post-office service 726 steel, 403 steel underframe, and 4,288 wooden full postal cars and

apartments of nondescript types. On June 30, 1930,

there were approximately 3,105 steel, 575 steel uncler- frame, and 865 wooden mail cars, 90 per cent of

which conform to our specification standards.

The importance of this mail-car standardization

is admitted by all. It has aided the railroad companies owning the cars to use them interchangeably on different lines, to economize in operation and maintenance, and by the stronger construction requirement

has undoubtedly obviated large payments for personal

injury and loss of life. The benefits to the Post

Office Department have been the safety and comfort

of railway postal clerks, the protection of mails, uniform working conditions, and a general higher effi- ciency in the performance of the service. In addition to these things, the entire question of compensation to railroads for service performed depends on

the standards enumerated in the specifications of the

Post Office Department.

Marked progress toward a full standardization of

full postal cars and apartments has been made each

year since the readjustment following the World War,

and it is expected that a complete standardization

will be accomplished within a very few years. This

goal will be reached, unquestionably, if the favorable

conditions of the past decade continue.

Standard terminals.

With the establishment of the parcel-post system on January 1, 1913, there was immediately a tremendous

increase in the volume of packages of merchandise

to be handled in the mails, and this resulted in so much congestion in railway post-office cars that it be- came necessary to provide extra facilities for making

distribution of such matter in transit. There were

already in existence a few of the so-called “terminal

railway post offices,” located in or adjacent to railroad

stations, and the logical solution of the distribution

problem presented by the parcel-post system seemed

to rest in an expansion of these terminal railway

post-office activities. This was accomplished by es- tablishing additional terminals at strategic points of

accumulation throughout the country in such buildings and quarters as were available, but there was

not time or opportunity then to select quarters or

fixtures best adapted to the needs of the service.

However, with the benefit of experience and the sta- bilization of the flow of mails, certain standards for

distribution facilities have been formulated and cer- tain stipulations in the matters of heating, lighting,

ventilation, sanitation, and floor construction have

been required of lessors of quarters in which terminal

railway post offices are located. The Post Office Department now furnishes its own standard terminal dis- tribution equipment and has gradually replaced the

obsolete fixtures formerly used, thereby increasing the

distributing efficiency and economizing in clerical force. Lessors have been required from time to time to make improvements in old quarters and to equip new

quarters according to the other standards mentioned.

The result is that quarters and facilities have been materially improved and made to meet accepted standards

at nearly all of the sixty-odd points where terminal

railway post offices are located, and the very few which

have not been so standardized are being brought up to requirements as existing leases expire.

The terminal railway post offices now perform an

important function in the scheme of distribution and

transportation of mail matter and provide an excellent training school for railway postal clerks, who

graduate from the terminals to road positions in order

of fitness and seniority.

The standardization of terminal quarters and facilities has, therefore, raised the efficiency not only of the

terminals but of the entire Railway Mail Service of

which they are a part.
84 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [SEPTEMBER, 1930 STANDARDIZATION OF MILITARY MOTOR TRUCKS

Standardization a Medium to Improve Military Transportation

By Col. Edgar S. Stayer, Quartermaster Corps, United States Army

In the development of military transportation,

standardization is taken into consideration from all angles. It is a subject that has rightfully earned for

itself an enviable position in the United States Army.

After more than 10 years’ study of this subject, it is possible to express certain prognostications, the background for these thoughts being the existence of data

obtained from more than 1,500,000 miles of exhaustive

road tests, in which were employed vehicles and drives

of every description.

Standardization results in, and may be considered

as analogous to, simplification. It is not always ac- corded the place in the field of endeavor that it deserves, yet simplification is responsible for mass production and the resultant monetary savings, which go

a long wa}^ toward counteracting the cry of the de- preciating dollar. It is the basis for the tremendous

mergers which occur daily in the commercial world of our Nation. It has myriads of possibilities and benefits are derived in direct proportion to the prominence

which it is accorded. Therefore, every effort should

be made toward furthering it in every field of military

endeavor.

During the World War military effort was con- fronted with the dire necessity of equipping itself with

the intricacies of 12 different cargo chassis. The units

which compose and go into the make-up of these vehicles differed to such an extent that no similarity or standardization existed. There were 27 assemblies

classed as major units in a single cargo vehicle. This,

by ordinary mathematical calculation, would indicate

that 342 major units alone had to be maintained; this

raised a serious maintenance problem due to the vast amount of diversified supplies and equipment needed

at every repair center. Changes since the war. During the years that have ensued since the war, many additional classifications have come to the front. If the number of chassis to be adopted is not limited

in some manner, it is reasonable to suppose that these

additional classifications will find some necessity for

their existence in the Armjq and should this occur, the

maintenance problem will grow beyond the poiver of

anyone or anything to control it. Standardization upon a special type and make of

vehicle, so far as military motor transportation is Concerned, is not considered as the proper method of

standardization. The proper method is rather to standardize through written specifications describing

the units which will be used to build this transportation, and which are known by service and testing ex- perience to be of sufficient durability and ability for

military needs. In furtherance of the unit replacement system, the ideal way would be for the military

service to follow the plan of certain large users of

cargo transportation by not purchasing vehicles complete. but by purchasing units and building the

vehicles with them.

There is a marked tendency in the development of

mechanical transport at the present time toward multiple drive for cargo purposes and single drives on the

front end of the vehicle for passenger service, getting

as near to the former animal-drawn vehicle as possible

by having the power of pulling instead of pushing.

The development in commercial life tends toward

larger vehicles and the towing of trailers with large

capacities. The problem of cargo transportation now

is one of capabilities for distribution rather than suit- ability for production.

In these days of mass production, mass distribution

must go parallel with it. The chain store, with its vast distribution, has called for developments in trans- portation which will no doubt be applicable to some

of the problems of military distribution. However, no development can be of great benefit to military life unless it is accompanied by standardization.

Utilizing engines of greater power.

In cargo transportation there is a decided trend to- ward utilizing engines of greater power and displacement. The demand for high vehicle speed is rapidly

leading the vehicle manufacturer to utilize larger en- gines in all forms of transportation. Not many years

ago a 4-cylinder engine of 60-horsepower peaking at 1,400 r. p. m. was considered not only a powerful one, but a high-speed one as well. To-day the same cargo

vehicle which utilized that engine would probably be

powered with a 6-cylinder 112 horsepower engine,

peaking at about 2,200 r. p. m., and an 8-cylinder engine designed for cargo truck purposes has recently

appeared on the market.

There recently appeared a series of 6-cylinder en- gines suitable for cargo transportation of from 130 to 175 horsepower output. These are internal-combustion engines of standard construction, all in production, up to a bore of 5^4 inches and a stroke of 6

inches. Utilizing engines of greater displacement

than has usually been deemed necessary will result in more assurance of sustained continuous performance

under the gruelling work that military transportation

must be subjected to. This trend toward the production of larger engines should assist in the standardization of units between vehicles. It permits a greater

number of types from which to select an engine suit- able for use in a maximum number of types of vehicles.

In simplifying cargo transportation for the military

service there appear to be three salient factors: (1)

The number of different vehicles that is required, (2)

the types or capacities that will be adopted, and (3) the

interchangeability of units among the different types

of vehicles. It can readily be seen that the answer to the first factor, to a great extent, is dependent upon the solu- tion of the second; the answer to the second factor

depends entirely upon the cooperation and determination of essentials by the using services and the procuring service. If the using service will express its need
SEPTEMBER, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 85

for vehicles in capacities and ability, rather than type

or make, it will be easy to coordinate requirements and

permit some definite number of classifications to be

determined.

A review of the situation will generally bring forth

certain requirements that may readily be met with by

a vehicle of perhaps slightly greater capacity and

ability and will undoubtedly reduce the total number

of different chassis required. If cooperation can be

obtained in this manner, the reduction of types will

he very appreciable. The third factor belongs to the

realm of engineering and can be solved in that field. Military needs can be simplified.

Each of these factors has been accorded a proper

weight, and it is indeed fortunate that the Army now

has available information relative to the ability of

many different forms of chassis from the lowly 1,000-

pound paj^ load 2-wheel drive to the very large and

powerful 50,000-pound pay load 8-wheelecl vehicle.

There is on hand a wealth of data on this subject,

which it is believed can not be duplicated. In addition, the War Department has had the cooperation of

the entire automotive industry to almost unbelievable

extent, including participation in the very notable

transportation exposition recently staged under the

auspices of the War Department.

From practical experience and the data obtained by

experimental research it is believed that military

transportation can be standardized. It is evident that

every phase of military transport activity must be

satisfied in an efficient and appropriate manner. This

can be done only through the medium of suitable

transportation and standardization will be an important factor in securing this end. {Quartermaster

Review.)

INTERNATIONAL ROAD BUILDERS TO MEET

Standardization of Road Materials and Utilization of Successful Methods of Road Construction Among

Objects of Congress

By Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief, United States Bureau of Public Roads

To bring about the adoption of uniformly successful

methods of road construction is one of the important

objects of the Permanent International Association of

Road Congresses. It is also concerned with the standardization and improvement of materials and the development of tests to determine qualities of materials.

As an aid to this end, the association, at the Fifth

International Road Congress held in Milan, Italy,

September, 1926, created, by resolution, an International Committee on Nomenclature and Tests. It was

the duty of the committee to establish a standard

nomenclature or glossary of road construction materials and methods, and to unify the testing methods

for tars, bitumens, and asphalts. The committee has

held three meetings, one in 1927, one in 1928, and the

third in June, 1930. It will report the progress it has

made at the Sixth International Road Congress to be

held in Washington, D. C., October 6 to 11, 1930.

The congress will be held under the general auspices

of the Permanent International Association of Roacl

Congresses, with headquarters in Paris. Details of

arrangement are being cared for by the American Organizing Commission, appointed by the Secretary of

State, and with headquarters at 1723 N Street NW.,

Washington, D. C. Some 500 foreign delegates will

attend, representing more than 50 of the 77 foreign

nations to whom invitations were sent by the State

Department. In addition to the foreign and diplomatic participants, about 1,000 American delegates

are expected to be present.

PROGRAM FOR SOLID SECTION STEEL

WINDOWS

The revised simplified practice recommendation No.

72, Solid Section Steel Windows, may now be considered as in effect, the National Bureau of Standards

announces. A sufficient number of signed ' acceptances have been received from manufacturers, dis- tributors, and users of steel windows to insure the genCongress divided into two sections.

The congress will be divided into two sections, one

dealing with construction and maintenance of highways, the other with traffic and administration. Each

section has been allotted three questions for discussion. The first section will consider questions regarding the results obtained by use of cement, bricks, or other artificial paving, the use of tar, bitumen, and

asphalt in road construction, and the construction of

roads in new countries. The second section will dis- cuss ways and means of financing highways, coordination of highway transport with other forms of communication. and traffic regulations in large cities and

their suburbs, and parking and garaging of vehicles.

All reports to the congress will be interpreted in four

official languages, English, French, Spanish, and German, by use of microphones and earphones.

The first plenary session, to which the public is in- vited, will be held in Continental Hall, Monday after- noon, October 8. All other sessions will convene in

the auditorium of the Chamber of Commerce of the

United States Building.

The Permanent International Association of Road

Congresses was organized in Paris in 1908. Its pres- ent membership is about 2,000. Its primary function

is to act as a clearing house for distribution of results

of research and experience bearing upon all phases of

highway development and use.

eral adoption of the program by the industry as a whole.

The most important changes made in this revised

program were the discontinuance of the “ dealer

stocks ” classification and the addition of “ commodity

products” in lieu thereof; several sizes in both the

pivoted and projected windows were added, and some

changes of types and eliminations in projected architectural window groupings were made.
86 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [SEPTEMBER, 1930 STANDARDIZATION OF TESTS FOR FASTNESS OF COLORED TEXTILES

Research Resulted in Practical Laboratory Methods for Evaluating Degrees of Fastness of

Colors in Textiles

By William D. Appel, National Bureau of Standards

The National Bureau of Standards has been working for about six years in cooperation with the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists on

the development of standard tests for fastness of

colored textiles. The problem was found to be much

more involved than anticipated and extensive technical investigations have had to be conducted. The

work is now well advanced, and although the final selection of standards has not been made, most of the

methods of test have been tentatively agreed upon.

It was recognized at the beginning of this work that

the fastness of textiles to each of the important color- destroying agencies—light, laundering, perspiration,

rubbing, weathering, sea water, etc.—must be considered separately. Even with the many dyes of untablished, the standard methods should form a very

satisfactory basis for such trade standards.

Fastness to light.

Colored textiles range in fastness to light from ex- tremely fast to fugitive, and all degrees of fastness

have their use. The great difficulty in the way of developing a standard test for fastness to light is that

dyeings do not fade in the same way under different

conditions of natural light exposure. Direct sunlight

and north skylight, for example, are different in their

fading action. Not only are the character and intensity of the light important factors but the atmosphere

about textiles influences the rate and nature of their

fading. It was found that some dyeings fade three

Light exposure raclcs at the Bureau of Standards

usual fastness that are now available, it is not possible to dye all types of textiles in all colors and to have them “ fast color ” in the strict sense. Standard tests were needed, not only to distinguish

“ fast ” colors from fugitive but to differentiate between different degrees of fastness, for the fastness

required by the various uses of textiles is different.

Thus, evening gowns, awnings, hosiery, draperies, and

men’s shirting are only a few of the uses requiring

quite different degrees of fastness to light, laundering, perspiration, and weather.

Fastness can not be satisfactorily standardized on

the basis of the dyestuff used to produce the color

because the method of application and the finishing

treatments as well as the nature of the fiber, whether

it is cotton, wool, silk, or one of the rayons, all in- fluence fastness. It was, therefore, necessary to devise tests which simulate the action of the various

color-destroying agencies.

The object of the work, then, was to develop practical laboratory methods for evaluating all of the

different kinds and degrees of fastness which are of

interest to manufacturer or user of textiles. It should

be pointed out that the development of trade standards

for the fastness of specific commodities does not lie within the scope of this project. However, when estimes faster in moist air than in dry, while the fading

in others is not nearly so much affected by atmospheric

humidity. All of these factors were studied. Typical dyeings were exposed in different parts of the country and at different seasons of the year and the observed fading was compared with that of duplicate

samples exposed to the various artificial sources of

light. A whole series of reports have been published.1 The daylight exposure frames on the roof of the

Industrial Building, National Bureau of Standards are shown in the illustration.

One result of the work is a standard sunlight exposure test which gives duplicable results as to relative

fading in a series of dyeings over a considerable part

of the year.

2

Another result is a careful comparison

of the fading of over 1,200 dyeings when exposed to the radiation from the inclosed carbon-arc lamp, the

most useful of the artificial light sources and under

various sunlight and daylight exposure conditions.8 In order to make possible a direct correlation of

the results obtained by different testing laboratories

1 See especially the reports of the Subcommittee on Light Fastness, Am. Dyestuff Reporter, 16, pp. 707-715; 17, pp. 410-422; 18, pp. 407—446.

2 1929 Yearbook of the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists, pp. 108-109.

3 Am. Dyestuff Reporter, 18, pp. 407-446.
SEPTEMBER, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 87

and by sunlight, daylight, and carbon arc lamp tests,

all of which have merit, the American Association of

Textile Chemists and Colorists has undertaken to prepare and to make available sets of dyeings representing the different degrees of fastness to light. This

should go a long way toward overcoming the difficul- ties of this important test. Fastness to laundering.

One of the first steps in the development of standard tests for fastness to laundering was the building

of a machine in which a number of samples can be

washed simultaneously each in its own soap solution.

Commercial form of standard machine for

testing fastness to washing

In this machine the temperature at which the samples

are washed can be held constant and mechanical ac- tion corresponding to that in a home washing machine

or a commercial laundry wheel can be provided.

Dyed textiles are laundered in different ways, depending on their nature. Silk and wool are usually

laundered at low temperatures with neutral soap and

little or no mechanical action. Colored cotton goods

are often washed at a higher temperature. If the

colored cotton is combined with much white cotton,

as in men’s shirts, then a moderately high temperature, alkali, possibly some bleach, and considerable

mechanical action may be required to produce satis- factory work. Because of these facts it was found

necessary in standardizing the laboratory tests to establish different methods for testing silk and wool

and to have two tests for cotton, one corresponding

to home laundering and the other to commercial laundering. These tests are given in their latest form in

the Yearbook of the American Association of Textile

Chemists and Colorists.4 Sets of dyeings representing the different degrees of

fastness to washing for the different fibers are being

developed and will be available through the association. These dyeings will serve as very practical standards with which dyeings of unknown fastness can be

compared. Later on it may be possible to work out an optical method for evaluating the fading of dyeings

in the laboratory test, but this does not appear to be

practicable at present.

Other fastness considered.

Although fastness to light and fastness to laundering are perhaps the most important to the user of

textiles, a number of other types of fastness have to be

considered. Fastness to perspiration, rubbing,

weather, dry cleaning, sea water, and to various mill

treatments or chemicals! with which textiles come in contact in the mills, such as scouring, fulling, stoAung,

carbonizing, acid, alkali, and chlorine, all have been

studied and methods of test developed.5 A special

study of the composition of perspiration is in progress

in England.6 The fastness to dry cleaning of a considerable number of representative colored textiles has

been studied at the National Bureau of Standards. 7

International cooperation.

Active studies of textile fastness are in progress in

Germany and England as well as in this country. The

German “ Fastness Commission ” published the latest revision of its tests and standards in 1928.8 The

Society of Dyers and Colourists and affiliated societies

in England have been conducting researches for sev- eral years. Reports of this work appear at frequent

intervals in the Journal of the Society of Dyers and

Colourists. These groups are in correspondence with

one another and all have expressed the hope and belief

that this Avork will eventually lead to international

standards of fastness.

4 Obtainable from tbe association, A. Morrison, secretary, 5 Canter- bury Street, Andover, Mass.

8 See the yearbook of the association.

6 McSwiney, B. A., Physiology and industry, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 45, pp. 167-170 ; 1929.

7 B. S. Jour, of Research, 3 (R. P. 80), pp. 39-51.

8 Verfahren Normen and Typen fur die Prufung der Echtheitseigen- schaften von Farbungen auf Baumwolle, Wolle, Seide, ATscosekunstseide und Azetatseide. A

r ierte Ausgabe, 1928, Verlag Chemie, G. m. b. H., Berlin W 10.

BOOKS OF INTEREST TO HOME OWNERS

LISTED

A list of titles of publications intended to be of as- sistance to home OAvners, home builders, and others in- terested in materials, equipment, and practices employed in dwelling construction, and in keeping up

and improving home properties, has been compiled by

the division of building and housing, and issued in

form of a mimeographed letter circular obtainable on

request.

The list includes both Federal Government publications, and those issued by national trade associations,

in which their products, and recommended methods of

applying and installing them, are described.

The publications listed are deAmted to such matters

as structural materials, heating equipment, electrical

appliances, plumbing, water supply, sewage disposal,

insulating, roofing, and painting as well as household

helps, house plans, and landscaping. In addition to the sources mentioned in the list, it is pointed out that

various universities and colleges, through their engineering experiment stations, agricultural extension di- visions, and other departments, publish pamphlets of

interest to home owners.
88 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [SEPTEMBER, 1930 STANDARD RULES GUARD SCHOOL CHILDREN

School Boy Patrols Guide Playmates to Safety

By Thomas P. Henry, President American Automobile Association

Standardization has now been extended to the rules

and regulations under which, during the school year, more than 2,500,000 school children are daily guided

through the maze of vehicular traffic on the streets and highways. With more than 175,000 school boy

patrolmen in A. A. A. units alone, these standard

rules will go far in increasing the morale, as well as the efficiency, of the youths engaged in this field of

safety.

Less than 10 years have passed since the first patrol was formed by the A. A. A. as an experiment in

protecting children crossing streets en route to the

class room. This program is no longer an experiment. Instead of children rushing pell mell through

the streets, where there are patrolmen, they now

await their signal, and cross in an orderly manner. The results have been told in the preservation of

the lives of the youngsters of school age. The re- markable decrease in the number of fatal accidents

to school children, while the number involving adults

increased, was only recently pictured by the Secre- tary of Commerce as one of the high spots at the ses- sions of the National Conference on Street and Highway Safety. He said that “ this improvement is largely attributable to safety education in the schools

and to the successful operation of the schoolboy

patrols.”

Standard rules will be of help.

Adoption of standard rules to govern this important safety activity will go far in providing uniformity throughout the country in the conduct of the

patrols. In the past, the work was greatly retarded

by diverse methods of instructing the boy patrolmen

and a certain confusion as to their proper function.

Idealizing the need of uniformity, a group of experts,

representing the American Automobile Association,

the National Safety Council, and the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, met recently and

adopted a set of nine rules which will universally

guide the young patrolmen in the future.

These rules are based on experience and careful observation of patrol operation in approximately 1,000

cities, in several of which this work has been carried on for from 5 to 10 years with outstanding success in

the practical elimination of accidents and the improvement of morale. The rules also are in harmony with

the best legal advice and court decisions on questions

of authority and responsibility. These rules are as follows

Function. —The function of the school boy patrol is to in- struct, direct, and control the members of the student body in crossing the streets at or near schools. Patrols should not be charged with the responsibility of directing vehicular traffic, nor be allowed to do so, other than signaling to a motorist who approaches the crossing after the student pedestrians

have left the curb. (Patrols need not and should not, therefore, be recognized by city ordinances. They must not be termed “ police ” nor recognized as such. When a patrol

member raises his hand to warn a motorist approaching a group of children who are crossing the street, he is not directing or controlling the motorist but merely calling his attention

to his obligation under the law to respect the rights and safety

of pedestrians at crosswalks. An important function of school boy patrols is to instruct the school children in safe practices

in their use of the streets at all times and places.) Selection. —Patrol members should ordinarily be appointed

either by the principal or by the officers and faculty advisor

of the authorized student organization. These members are

ordinarily boys but girls may be appointed in certain cases. They should be selected from the seventh and eighth grades, or from the sixth grade if that is the highest in the school. Patrol members should be selected for leadership and reli- ability. Their service should be voluntary and approved by

parent or guardian. Officers should serve for at least one

school term ; other members may be changed at intervals of about six weeks. Any officer or member should be removed

for cause. Size and officers . —The size of the patrol varies with street conditions and size of school. The average patrol has 10 to 12 members, including officers. Every patrol should have a captain. Lieutenants and sometimes sergeants may also be ap- pointed.

Training of patrolmen.

Instruction and supervision.-—These are essential if the

patrol is to be efficient and permanent. In general, the best

results have been obtained where the patrols operate under

immediate instruction and supervision of police officers detailed for that purpose, and acting under general supervision

of the school authority and the sponsoring body which may be

the motor club, safety council, or other civic body. New members of the patrol should, where practicable, serve with and

under the guidance of experienced members for at least a week.

Insignia. —The standard insignia for patrol members is the white Sam Browne belt made of 2-inch material. This must

he worn at all times while on duty. Special badges for offi- cers may be worn on the left breast or left arm. Auxiliary

equipment, if any, should be standard throughout the community. (If local bodies or individuals wish to encourage the

patrols by furnishing raincoats or slickers, or any other additional equipment, this should be done in consultation with the sponsoring body. In general, black raincoats are to be pre- ferred, the white belt being worn over the coat.) Flags and whistles. —Patrol members while on duty

shall not have in their possession any signs, signals,

flags, sticks, or whistles. (Whistles have no place in the

type of patrol here outlined. Flags of small size have

been successfully used in some cities to control and

direct the children, but the use of them is generally

objected to because of the danger that it will lead both

the patrol boy and the motorist to feel that the former

is controlling traffic.)

Position and procedure. —The patrol' member should

stand on the curb, not in the street, and hold back the

children until he sees a lull in traffic. When this oc- curs, he motions for the children to cross the street in a group. He still keeps his position on the curb,

except that if his view of traffic is obstructed by parked

cars or otherwise, he may step into the street a suffi- cient distance to obtain a clear view, but not more than

three paces ; after the children have crossed, he returns

to his station on the curb. Where the street is wide

or the traffic heavy, there should be two patrol boys at the crossing. One operates as described in the preceding paragraph, on the side from which the children are coming. The other operates similarly on the opposite

curb, giving attention to possible traffic approaching
SEPTEMBER, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 89

on that side and assisting the group of children to reach that curb in safety. (This, practice is recom- mended in preference to having the patrol1 boy escort the group of children across the street.)

Hours on duty. —The patrol members should reach

their posts 10 or 15 minutes before the opening of

school in the morning and at noon and should remain

until after the last bell. At noon and afternoon dis- missal they leave their classes two or three minutes be- fore the dismissal bell and remain on duty for 10 or 15

minutes while children are leaving. If any classes are dismissed earlier than the others, it is essential that

patrols be on duty at all times while children are crossing the streets. (From the standpoint of safety

and of efficient patrol operation, therefore, it is preferable that all classes be dismissed at the same time. If

not, the size of the patrol should be increased and the

groups rotated so that no one member will be absent

too long from his class.)

Relation to police officers .—At intersections when traffic is controlled by an officer or a traffic signal or both, the patrols

will direct the crossing of the children in conformity with the

directions of the signal or the officer. At intersections with- out regular traffic control, the traffic may be sufficiently heavy

to require the special assignment of a police officer at the times when children are going to or from school. When this

is done, it is recommended that the police officer should not stand in the intersection but at the curb, and, when a group

of children has been collected, escort them across the street, stopping vehicular traffic for this purpose if necessary. The

function of the patrol boys is then to hold the children at

the curb until the police officer is ready to take them across.

ZINC-COATED PRODUCTS IMPROVED BY STANDARDIZED BUYING PRACTICE

Benefits of Close Cooperation Between Shop Superintendent and Purchasing Agent

By Wallace G. Imhoff, President The Wallace G. Imhoff Co.

Close cooperation between the practical man in charge of the galvanizing department and the purchasing agent can be reflected in the gradual development of a standardized practice of buying of raw materials, the result of which will be to actually decrease

purchase costs per unit of product, and at the same

time to increase production records in the shop.

The question might be asked, “ How is this brought

about ? ” The first esential to standardization is the

selection of those raw materials which give the highest

quality of product with the lowest costs, and the

smallest number of seconds and rejections, together

with the minimum amount of labor, and number of

operations in processing of these raw materials. The

foreman, or galvanizing department superintendent,

is the only man who really knows whether it is cheaper

to use a high-priced raw material, and have the fabrication go through swiftly and accurately from the

start to finish, as compared to the results obtained

when using low-priced raw material, with a high per- centage of waste, lots of scrap, poor inefficient re- sults at all stages of operations in fabrication, trouble

and loss of time and labor in forming or drawing, and

a high percentage of rejections and seconds, with the

final aftermath of much returned product from the

customers, entailing the additional expense of freight

and other incidentals.

Constant alertness on the part of the galvanizing

superintendent as to the results he is getting from his raw materials, together with frequent checkups on

prices with the purchasing agent, will eventually lead

to a standardization of raw materials purchased, and

the price paid may not by any means be the cheapest

price.

Raw materials used.

The raw materials in the galvanizing process are usually fuel, zinc, fluxes, the steel or iron base, and

other incidental materials necessary to operate, such

as tools and equipment of various kinds and descriptions. The basis of purchase should be performance.

A higher priced raw material may give a much lower

cost per unit of finished product. The first cost is not

always to be considered as the most important feature

in a program to reduce factory costs, improve the

quality of the product, or increase the production.

In order to actually obtain results, the purchasing

agent and the shop superintendent must have perfect

confidence in the ability of each other to handle his

job. Nothing will so quickly wreck a program of

standardization as a lack of confidence, integrity, and

sincerity of purpose. On the other hand, with confidence the purchasing agent can readily see where the

savings made in efficient processing, may more than

offset a slightly higher increased first cost. Standardization of materials for galvanizing in- volve : ( 1 ) The selection of the right kind of raw materials for the purpose, (2) the selection of the best

quality raw materials for the purpose, and (3) the determination of the proper price to pay for the best raw material suitable for the purpose.

In standardization of the raw materials for galvanizing it is not necessary to pajr the highest prices

for the raw material, although in some specific cases the highest priced raw material may actually give the

lowest cost per unit of product. Continued study in

practice soon brings out the good and bad points of

all the materials that are used.

Cooperation between buyer and seller. There are still other angles also to be considered as the result of standardizing the purchase of the raw

materials. One of the angles is the cooperation between buyer and seller to fit the requirements closer to what is ’ actually needed. When confidence is also established between .buyer and seller, there is a frankness which appears that is not ordinarily present on

sharp, close buying. The lack of this frankness may

cost the buyer far more than a higher priced material,

but the purchasing agent, being out of touch with the

shop also, can not see it, and his saving in buying is only apparent, and not real. Waste, breakage, loss
90 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [SEPTEMBER, 1930

of time, loss of labor, and poor quality product may

more than offset the gain of low first cost. Still another angle of standardization is the in- crease in production likely to result from buying good

quality raw material. It machines well, it presses

well, there is little waste, little trouble, and the delays

are natural delays, rather than time losses due to trouble which is not present with a uniform, standard

material of good quality. Constant change upsets

schedules, produces irregular results, loses time, produces seconds, increases waste, and lowers the morale

of the men. All these factors give a final result of

slow down to production.

Standardization stabilizes things, makes things uniform, produces uniform' results, and raises the morale

of the workers, with the result that the quality of the

product is not only better, but an increase in production usually results as well.

CURRENT ACTIVITIES OF THE AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

Specifications Under Consideration

There is given below up-to-date information relat- ing to developments taking place in certain standardization projects being carried forward under the auspices and procedure of the American Standards Association.

Insulator tests. The American Institute of Electrical Engineers and

the National Electrical Manufacturers Association

have submitted for approval by the American Standards Association, the final draft of the proposed

standards for insulator tests prepared by the sectional

committee on power-line insulators for voltages

exceeding 750. These standards are not to be interpreted as forming complete insulator specifications, but rather as defining the method of making the various tests described when they are required. The standards are divided into the following divisions : Scope and purpose ; definitions ; payment for material tested ; testing

equipment and methods; design tests, pin insulators;

design tests, suspension insulators; routine tests, pin

insulators; routine tests, suspension insulators; appendix, variation of wet flashover voltage with water

resistance.

All of the material contained in these standards is based upon and is a complete revision of the A. I. E. E. standard No. 41, Insulator Test Specifications.

The standards have been referred to the electrical advisory committee of the ASA, which will submit its recommendations on approval to the standards

council.

Importance of safety codes.

The importance of nationally recognized safety

codes in the national safety movement was emphasized at the convention of the Association of Government Officials in Industry, held in May, 1930. A

report, unanimously approved by the convention, said

in part

It is very evident that no State legislature will be induced

to enact safety laws of the right kind unless there is presented

to it some definite, logical, and workable plan to be adopted and

followed, which would make the laws effective. Therefore, the otficials of each State are urged to study the procedure

in all of the States, and out of the fund of practical experience, formulate a plan that will make effective its own safety program. In the formulation of safety regulations and the adoption of specific safety devices, your committee suggests and

urges the consideration of the various safety codes adopted by

the American Standards Association, known as the National

Safety Codes. These constitute the best thought and judg- ment of the foremost safety engineers and experts in accident prevention work in the United States. Sixteen of these codes have been published as bulletins by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and are available upon request. Transmission roller chains, sprockets, and cutters. A new American standard for transmission roller chains, sprockets, and cutters has been approved by

the American Standards Association. The roller chains, sprockets, and cutters included in the report,

which is subject to periodic revision, are those com- monly used for the transmission of power in industrial

machinery, machine tools, motor trucks, motor cycle

and tractor drives and similar applications. The

sizes, dimensions, and other data are for standard steel chains that are considered suitable for all usual applications. Adoption of the standard does not indi- cate that other chains will not be obtainable for use where they may be required. It is recommended by

the sectional committee that chain manufacturers be

consulted by users in their selection of chains for given

applications in order to obtain the best results in

operation.

The new standard was prepared under the joint

sponsorship of the Society of Automotive Engineers,

the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and

the American Gear Manufacturers Association.

Pressure piping.

Copies of the proposed standard for fabrication of

hangers, supports, anchors, sway bracings, and vibration dampeners, are being circulated for review and

may be obtained through the ASA information service, 29 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York, N. Y.

The project is under the sponsorship of the American

Society of Mechanical Engineers.

Navigational and topographical symbols.

The American Standards Association has just approved as American tentative standard and American

standard, respectively, the projects for navigational

and topographical symbols and for symbols for photometry and illumination. The American Association

for the Advancement of Science, American Institute

of Electrical Engineers, American Society of Civil

Engineers, Society for the Promotion of Engineering

Education, and the American Societjr of Mechanical

Engineers, are joint sponsors for the projects, arid

recommended their adoption by the ASA.
SEPTEMBER, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 91

The navigational and topographical symbols submitted by the sectional committee on scientific and

engineering symbols and abbreviations are a slight

revision of the symbols used by the Federal Board of

Surveys and Maps, and those shown in the War Department Training Regulations for 1924, while the

symbols for photometry and illumination are a modification of those given in the American standard il- luminating engineering nomenclature and photometric

standards.

These symbols are part of a comprehensive program

for unification of graphical symbols, symbols for

quantities in equations and formulas, and of abbreviations as used in engineering and scientific reports,

tables, publications, and so forth, but not including

definitions of terms used in engineering and scientific practice.

To date, the following proposals developed by the

sectional committee have been approved as American

standard or as American tentative standard: Symbols for hydraulics, symbols for telephone and tele- graph use, symbols for photometry and illumination,

aeronautical symbols, mathematical symbols, and let- ter symbols for electrical quantities. There is also

pending before the association a proposed standard on

Graphical S}7 mbols for Use in Radio Communications. Foundry equipment.

A request for the organization of a technical committee to undertake the standardization of foundry

equipment under the auspices of the American Standards Association will be acted upon at the next meeting of the ASA standards council. The request was made jointly by the American Foundrymen’s Association, and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. The subjects to be included in the project, according to the American Foundrymen’s Association’s re- quest, would be the standardization of such foundry

equipment as pattern and molding machine parts

affecting interchangeability of patterns, flask pins and

holes, general dimensions of flasks for jobbing work,

ladle and ladle shank sizes, ladle sleeves, stoppers and

nozzles, stock core print sizes, shapes and finish allowances, pattern markings, rapping plates, fillet sizes,

and dowel pins for metal patterns and metal core

boxes.

The American Foundrymen’s Association has al- ready standardized the color markings for foundry

patterns. Its report on this subject, published in 1926,

has been widely accepted.

The American Foundrymen’s Association has, in the

past, sponsored two projects under ASA procedure.

There were the safety code for the protection of industrial workers in foundries, and the standards for outside dimension of plumbago crucibles for nonetilting

furnaces in nonferrous foundry practice. A number

of projects for the standardization of foundry products have been approved or are now under way under

American Standards Association procedure. Among

these are projects covering cast iron pipe, and manhole

frames and covers. New member bodies.

The announcement has just been made by the American Standards Association of the affiliation of the

Radio Manufacturers Association, and the Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry, with the American Standards Association as member bodies.

The establishment of authoritative national1 standards for radio apparatus, it is expected, will be con- siderably aided by the affiliation of the Radio Manufacturers Association with the ASA. The Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry, whose work since its organization in

1910 has been devoted almost exclusively to standardization, has been active in many ASA projects in its

field. The membership of the society includes 41 companies manufacturing valves and fittings.

BRITISH STANDARD FOR FLAME-PROOF

SWITCHES

The British Engineering Standards Association

has just issued revisions of specification No. 126, for

flame-proof air-break switches, with or without fuses,

and specification No. 127, for flame-proof air-break

circuit breakers. These specifications, which are suit- able for use with alternating-current and direct-cur- rent voltages not exceeding 660 volts, have been re- viewed by the colliery committees of the association,

with the object of making them suitable for the latest requirements of the coal-mining industry in England.

Provisions are included dealing with design, construction, rating, sizes, and marking. The question

of tests is fully dealt with, type tests being laid down

for mechanical strength, breaking capacity, flame

proofness, and temperature rise; special dieletric and

performance tests are also incorporated. A useful

addition has been made to the specification by the in- clusion, in the form of an appendix, of some notes on the problems of flame-proof inclosures, which have

been based upon the reports of the safety in mines

research board.

STANDARDS DEVELOPED FOR KNIT UNDERWEAR

Standard measurements for the following types of

knit underwear were worked out during the past year

by the research associate of the Associated Knit Underwear Manufacturers of America, cooperating with

the National Bureau of Standards, and have been

adopted by the industry.

New standard measurements cover men’s ribbed and

flat knit cotton, worstecl-merino wool and wool-cotton

drawers; men’s ribbed and flat knit cotton knee

length drawers, regular; men’s flat knit athletic

“shorts”; men’s Swiss ribbed athletic shirts; women’s

flat knit rayon union suits; women’s rayon bloomers;

women’s rayon vests; children’s ribbed cotton vests; children’s flat knit cotton pants; children’s flat knit

cotton vests; children’s and misses’ ribbed worsted,

worsted-merino wool, and wool-cotton union suits

;

men’s rayon track pants ; and men’s knitted polo shirts,

which include ribbed cotton, flat knit cotton, flat knit

rayon, flat knit wool-cotton and flat knit all-wool polo

shirts.
92 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [SEPTEMBER, 1930 STANDARDIZATION AS APPLIED TO SIGNAL-CORPS EQUIPMENT

Signal Corps Adopts Commercial Types When Feasible in Order to Simplify Procurement Problem

By Lieut. Thomas H. Haddocks, Signal Corps, United States Army

Standardization, as applied by the Signal Corps in

its development of photographic, meteorological and

communications equipment, naturally divides itself into two distinct phases, which for convenience may

be referred to as “ exterior ” and “ interior ” standardization. “ Exterior ” standardization involves a continuous

study of specifications prepared by other branches of

the Army and by the Navy; other Government agencies, particularly the Federal Specifications Board;

commercial operating and manufacturing organizations ; and civilian standardizing agencies, such as the

A. S. T. M., the A. W. P. A., A. I. E. E., etc., with a view to incorporating in the specification program of

the Signal Corps such existing specifications as are found to meet military requirements. This is accomplished either by making use of a suitable specification directly in the procurement of the article, raw

material, or manufacturing process covered by the

specification, or by including it as a subsidiary requirement of those Signal Corps specifications covering special units of equipment to which it is applicable.

“ Interior ” standardization involves a study of the

component parts of Signal Corps units of noncommercial equipment, with a view to obtaining the maximum possible use of each particular component in the

various complete units. This study is of the utmost

importance in the radio field, in which new development, involving circuit refinements and methods of

assembly, is constantly taking place.

Design not affected.

This development in many cases does not necessarily

affect the design and construction of the various component parts of a unit, such as capacitors, resistors,

transformers, tube sockets, etc., but merely their ar- rangement in the completed circuit. For this reason, standardization of these parts is highly desirable, not

only from the standpoint of securing interchangeability of parts in concurrent standard units, but also in

view of their probable continued use in future developments, thus permitting the assembling of war reserve

stocks of such parts without fear of undue wastage of

funds, and also the salvaging of such parts from units

which have been rendered obsolete and their continued

use in newly developed units.

In order to insure the maximum possible “ interior ” standardization, each component of a unit of equipment, as well as the unit itself, is assigned a Signal

Corps “ type number ” immediately upon adoption of

the unit as standard equipment. This type number

definitely places each component in the same class as

all similar items or parts which have already been

adopted, and simplifies the study required in determining whether or not an item or part already adopted

will not be suitable for use in a new unit of equipment, rather than undertake the development and

adoption of a new item or part.

This idea is carried stil'l further by the assembly on

one drawing of all standard “ active ” items or parts

of the same type. Thus, if in the development of a new radio set certain fixed mica condensers are re- quired, it is only necessary to refer to the drawing

covering condensers of this type to determine whether

suitable condensers are already incorporated in other

standard units, and to the type number descriptive file to determine whether or not suitable condensers of this

type have been adopted in the past, and consequently

may be available from stock in sufficient quantities.

When to standardize.

Another phase of standardization which is of primal importance to the Signal Corps is the question

of “when to standardize.” This is brought about by

the fact that not only are many Signal Corps items

of equipment entirely different from anything procurable in the commercial field, but, in addition, even amongst certain items of standard commercial design,

development is moving so rapidly that an article,

such as a fixed station radiotransmitter, purchased

to-day may be superseded by a superior article in

the course of six months or a year’s time.

To overcome this difficulty, the Signal Corps defi- nitely standardizes on an article only when it has

proven its worth by extended service in the field when

applied to combat equipment, and only when commercial development stability has been attained in the

case of articles of standard commercial manufacture.

This means that a noncommercial article passes

through a considerable period of procurement under

“ tentative specifications.” Once the worth of the item

of equipment has been proven, the last revision of

the “ tentative specification ” is given a final over- hauling, renumbered in its proper Army specification

class, and placed in the usual channels for procurement clearance and adoption.

In a similar manner, commercial items whose development has not yet stabilized are as a rule procured

under a “ tentative performance specification.” Such

articles are assigned a distinctive type number for

each procurement, in order that the “ replacementof-parts ” problem may be simplified and accurate records of relative performance under the various

procurements may be kept. When development sta- bilization is attained, a specification and the necessary

drawings are prepared and routine procedure is adopted with respect to procurement clearance and

adoption.

One might gather the impression from the above

that the Signal Corps is continually confronted by

special situations delaying, if not preventing, standardization. While this is true of certain items of a special nature, there are hundreds of items which the

Signal Corps procures, stores, and issues to the Army

as a whole which present no such problem. In all such cases the policy has been to follow as closely as possible commercial practice, particularly on articles,
SEPTEMBER, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 93

such as linemen’s equipment, tools, commercial types

of communication wires, etc. It has been found, that, in general, the practices of

the large communications companies are based on long

experience and much careful test work, and that, in

addition, the problem of war-time procurement is greatly simplified by adopting the identical articles used by these organizations.

NEW AND REVISED A. S. T. M. STANDARDS

Membership to Ballot on 55 Revisions, 45 Tentative Standards, Proposed as Standard, and 21 New

Tentative Standards

Revisions of 55 existing standards have been submitted to letter ballot by the membership of the

American Society for Testing Materials, according to a recent announcement of the society. In addition,

the membership is balloting on 45 tentative standards

proposed for advancement to the status of standards,

and 21 new tentative standards. The proposals comprise the following

Open-hearth carbon-steel rails. Billet-steel concrete reinforcement bars. Carbon-steel and alloy-steel forgings.

Welded and seamless steel pipe. Steel plates of structural quality for forge welding.

Lap-welded and seamless steel and lap-welded iron boiler tubes.

Steel plates of flange quality for forge welding.

Commercial quality hot-rolled bar steels. Commercial cold finished bar steels and cold-finished shafting. Refined wrought- iron bars. Wrought-iron plates.

Welded wrought-iron pipe.

Wrought iron rolled or forged blooms and forgings for loco- motives and cars. Staybolt, engine bolt and extra-refined wrought-iron bars. Hollow rolled staybolt iron, malleable castings. Bronze trolley wire. Round and grooved hard-drawn copper trolley wire. Portland cement.

Building brick (made from clay or shale), hollow burnedclay load-bearing wall tile. Hollow burned-clay floor tile. Calcined gypsum. Gypsum plasters.

Gypsum plastering sand

Gypsum plaster board. Gypsum molding plaster.

Gypsum pottery plaster.

Lampblack. Bone black. Structural wood joist, planks, beams, stringers, and posts. Tolerances and test methods for tire fabrics other than cord

fabrics. Tolerances and test methods for cord tire fabrics. Standard methods of determining weight of coating on zinc- coated articles. Testing gypsum and gypsum products.

Routine analysis of white pigments.

Distillation of gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, and similar petro- leum products. Test for viscosity of petroleum products and lubricants. Test for water in petroleum products and other bituminous

material s. Test for water and sediment in petroleum products by means

of centrifuge. Test for cloud and four points of petroleum products. Test for burning quality of kerosene oils. Test for carbon residue of petroleum products (Conradson

carbon residue). Test for distillation of natural gas gasoline. Test for burning quality of long-time burning oil for railway

use. Test for burning quality of mineral seal oil. Test for loss on heating of oil and asphaltic compounds.

Laboratory sampling and analysis of coal and coke.

Sampling and analysis of creosote oil. Test for coke residue of creosote oil. Test for distillation of creosote oil. Testing molded insulating materials. Testing insulating oils. Rules governing the preparation of micrographs of metals and

alloys. Standard definitions of terms relating to wrought iron. Tentative standards to be advanced to standards are

as follows

Tentative specifications for steel tie plates. Iron and steel chain. Gray-iron castings for valves. Flanges and pipe fittings. Zinc-coated iron or steel telephone and telegraph line wire. Zinc-coated iron or steel tie wires. Zinc-coated wire fencing. Zinc-coated chain-link fence fabric galvanized after weaving.

Zinc-coated barbed wire. Zinc-coated steel wire strand. Zinc coatings on structural steel shapes, plates, and their products.

Seamless copper tubes. Paving brick. Sand-lime building brick. Hollow burned-clay fireproofing. Partition and furring tile. Keene’s cement. Calcined gypsum for use in the preparation of dental plasters.

High-carbon tar for surface treatment, cold application.

Low-carbon tar for surface treatment, cold application.

High-carbon tar for surface treatment, hot application.

Low-carbon tar for surface treatment, hot application.

High-carbon tar cement. Low-carbon tar cement.

Coal-tar pitch for stone block filler. Gravel for bituminous concrete base. Acid-resisting asphalt mastic. Tentative methods of sampling rolled and forged steel products for check analysis.

Testing zinc-coated iron and steel wire and wire pi’oducts. Test for change of resistance with temperature of electrical heating materials. Test for approximate apparent specific gravity of fine aggregate. Test for approximate percentage of voids in fine aggregate. Test for field determination of surface moisture in fine aggregate. Analysis for color of paints in terms of physical units. Test for detection of free sulphur and corrosive sulphur com- pounds in gasoline. Test for melting point of petroleum. Test for the determination of autogenous ignition temperatures. Distillation of bituminous materials suitable for road treat- ment.

Test for fineness of powdered coal. Test for sieve analysis of crushed bituminous coal. Testing electrical porcelain. Test for toluol insoluble matter in rosin. Tentative definitions of terms relating to heat treatment

operations (especially as related to ferrous alloys.)

Coal and coke. Timber.

Textile materials and methods of testing.
94 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [SEPTEMBER, 1930 New tentative standards are as follows:

Specifications for austenitic manganese-steel castings.

Open-hearth iron plates of flange quality.

Method of test for thermoelectric power. Aluminum-alloy (duralumin) sheet. Aluminum-manganese alloy sheet. Magnesium-base alloy castings.

Reinforced-concrete pipe.

Reinforced-concrete culvert pipe.

Laboratory method of making flexure tests of concrete using

a simple beam with center loading.

Gypsum sheathing board.

Glazier’s putty.

TO DEVELOP STANDARD FOR PRESSURE AND

VACUUM GAUGES

Upon the request of the American Standards Association, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers

recently accepted sole sponsorship for the development

of an American standard for pressure and vacuum

gauges. Invitations have been addressed to 55 societies and associations, requesting them to appoint representatives on this committee, which will hold its first meeting early in the fall. The tentative scope outlined for this project is: Nomenclature and definitions of pressure and vacuum

gauges ; capacity ratings ; case sizes and mounting holes

with a view to obtaining maximum interchangeability;

dials and graduations and designations of units ; indi- cator hand and bushing; zero stop pins, bezel rings,

and their attachment to the gauge ; connections to the

gauge ; method of expressing allowable errors or accu- racy of the gauge ; requirements for accuracy in so far

as establishment of such requirements proves to be

feasible; methods of testing; rules and specifications

for installation and use of pressure and vacuum gauges.

FLOUR STANDARDS ADOPTED BY DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Definitions and standards for flour and whole-wheat

flour have been adopted by the Secretary of Agriculture as a guide to the industry and to aid in enforcing

the food and drugs act, announces the Department

of Agriculture.

Whole-wheat flour, entire-wheat flour, or graham

flour is the clean, sound, product made by grinding

wheat, and contains, in their natural proportions, all of the constituents of the cleaned grain. Flour, wheat

flour, or white flour is the clean, sound, fine-ground

product, obtained in the commercial milling of wheat,

and consists essentially of the starch and gluten of

the endosperm. It contains not more than 15 per

cent of moisture, not less than 1 per cent of nitrogen,

not more than 1 per cent of ash, and not more than

0.5 per cent of fiber.

BRITISH SPECIFICATION FOR ELECTRICITY

METERS

Although a revision of the British standard specification for electricity meters was issued as recently

as April, 1929, a further revision has now been pubAmyl acetate (synthetic).

Amyl alcohol (synthetic).

Butyl propionate (90 to 93 per cent grade).

Ethyl lactate (synthetic).

Method of test for dilution of crankcase oil. Method of test for determination of vapor pressure of natural

gasoline (Reid method).

Timber piles. Method of test for specific gravity, 38°/15.5° C., of creosote

fractions. Definitions of terms relating to timber preservatives.

Method of test for comparing the thermal conductivity of

solid electrical insulating materials.

lished by the British Engineering Standards Association. The new edition, however, differs from the 1929

edition only in the addition of a clause relating to standard terminal conditions, and a series of diagrams illustrating these connections.

These terminal connections are a mandatory feature

of the specification, and therefore constitute a very

important addition which is of interest to both manufacturers and users of meters. The specified limits

of error, which were appreciably reduced by the 1929

edition, remain unchanged, and meters having an ac- curacy within the limits laid down by the specification

would be classed as Grade I, if the proposals recently

made by the International Electrotechnical Commission became effective.

CANADIAN STANDARD FOR STEEL STRUCTURES

An increase is reported in the allowable stress for

axial tension from 16,000 to 18,000 pounds in the sec- ond edition of the Canadian standard covering steel structures for buildings. The announcement of the

Canadian Engineering Standards Association also

states that other allowable stresses have been corre- spondingly increased.

The column formula has likewise been revised, and

certain changes have been made in the allowable

stresses for bending, shearing, and bearing. The

specification now conforms to the latest Canadian

Engineering Standards Association specifications for

steel railway and highway bridges. Recommendations are given in the appendix regarding live loads, snow loads on roofs, and wind loads.

TO CONSIDER FURTHER STANDARDIZATION

OF BALL-BEARING LOCK NUTS AND WASHERS

Standardization of the boundary dimensions of several types of ball bearing, especially those used by the

automotive industries, was effected by the standards

committee of the Society of Automotive Engineers

nearly 20 years ago. These standards, which have

been refined by the ball and roller bearings division of

the standards committee a number of times since then, were the basis of the present American standard for

the single-row annular bearings in the light, medium,

and heavy series. At a recent meeting of the ball and roller bearings

division of the S. A. E., it was indicated that the bear-
SEPTEMBER, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 95

ing locking nuts and washers made by several of the

bearing manufacturers are so nearly alike that the

manufacturers, as well as the bearing users, would be

greatly benefited by more complete standardization of

these nuts and washers. Accordingly, a subdivision

committee has been appointed to study the subject.

STANDARD RURAL MAIL BOXES

New Type of Box Designed to Facilitate Delivery

A new standard rural mail box has been adopted

for use by new patrons of rural delivery, or those who

are under the necessity for any reason of replacing

their boxes, or who desire to avail themselves of a

receptacle of sufficient capacity to hold the parcel-post

packages ordinarily received by them, according to a recent announcement of the Post Office Department.

By furnishing the new large-size boxes, patrons will

avoid the necessity of meeting the carriers to receive

parcel post of a size too large to be contained in the

smaller boxes, or of authorizing the delivery of such

parcels outside of the boxes at the risk of the addressee,

should loss or damage result from such delivery.

More than 5,300,000 boxes are located on rural

routes, and as the smaller or older types of boxes may

be continued in use, so long as they remain serviceable,

it will be some time before they are supplanted by the new type. The advantages of the boxes of the greater

capacity may be readily appreciated when it is known

that from estimates made from an actual count of

mail last year, it was determined that in excess of

15.300.000 parcels were collected by rural carriers

from the patrons of their routes, and more than 129,-

600.000 were delivered by carriers to their patrons.

With the object of standardizing, without specifying the type of supports that shall be used in con- nection with the erection and maintenance of the boxes

of patrons on rural routes, and to the end that these

supports shall be suitable for the purpose and more in

keeping with other objects along improved highways,

the Postmaster General recently ordered that these

sujoports shall be of neat design, and shall be painted

white.

o

SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, and commercial

PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE

national BUREAU of standards

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH

The new Journal describes the bureau’s re- search results in science and technology. The

union of science and its applications in one

ournal shortens the lag between discovery

and application.

All engaged in industry and commerce should

have available for current use and permanent

reference, the Bureau of Standards Journal of

Research.

Early in its firSt year the Journal developed a

liCl of paid subscribers double the anticipated

maximum.

This Journal is full of interest to executives

and technicians controlling industries and

commercial enterprises. It enables them better to promote efficiency by determining the

scientific measured controls of process through

experimental and theoretical research.

Issued monthly

Subscription price, $2.75 per year

TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN

The Bureau of Standards periodical with a WAR RECORD! Started during the dark

days of 1917 to keep the Army and Navy and

other branches of the Government informed

of progress in scientific war research at the

bureau. Upon urgent request this publication was continued and expanded to serve the

Government, science, and industry.

The TECHNICAL NEWS BLJLLETIN will

keep you informed of current progress in the

scientific and technical work of the bureau’s

laboratories, and gives each month a liSt of

the publications of the bureau. A complete

cross index is published with the December

issue.

You can not afford to be without the TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN. Every article is short and to the point. The busiest executive can afford the time to read it. Off

'°SeMc

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS

MONTHLY

Issued monthly

Subscription price, 25 cents per year

STANDARDS YEARBOOK

FOR 1930

This new governmental periodical is a review

of progress in commercial simplification and

standardisation. It is the only journal of its kind. It covers the national movement initiated by President Hoover for the reduction

of needless siz,es and varieties of products and

the promotion of voluntary commercial

Standardisation by industry.

The Secretary of Commerce in the firSt issue

of this new journal said: “Certain Standards,

such as those used for weights and measures,

* * * have been fixed by legislative enactment. Mandatory Standards of this character, however, are few in number when compared with the large and steadily growing

volume of Standards developed by industry

and commerce and voluntarily maintained.

* * * The activities of the Commercial

Standardisation Group of the Bureau of

Standards are concerned with Standards

adopted by voluntary agreement.”

Subscription price, $1 per year

The new Standards Yearbook for 1930 is the

fourth annual issue ofa publication devoted to the great and growing field of Standardisation

in its broad aspects. It gives a summary of

progress.

Standardisation is a world-wide movement.

It covers all industries. It is part of the application of scientific methods to industry. Its achievements are of interest and concern to business men and manufacturers as well as to

engineers. To the technician it is full of

example of methods and results of suggeStive

and Stimulating value. To business men it discloses trends which deeply concern their

interest.

NOW READY Price, 75c. ORDER AT ONCE

“Standardization is becoming an aspect of all well- ordered activity rather than an incidental

activity supplemental to others .”

To obtain regularly the above-described monthly periodicals send your order, with remittance, addressed: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Foreign prices (countries other

than the United States and its possessions, Canada, Mexico, Newfoundland, Cuba, and Republic of Panama) are: Tournal, $3.75; Bulletin, $0.40; Monthly, $1.25; Yearbook, $0.90
“ * * * this department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * * its ideals are clear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field " —President Hoover, at the laying of the corner stone of the new building

of the U. S. Department of Commerce, June 10, 1919

THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary of Commerce

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal air ports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, William M. Steuart, Director. Taking censuses of population, mines and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a

census of manufactures every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products;

and publication monthly of Survey of Current Business. BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

William L. Cooper, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attaches, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, and district and cooperative offices in 65 cities. The

maintenance of commodity, technical, and regional divisions to afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, George K. Burgess, Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the. planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals. Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operatiorToF plants producing it.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish,

in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods, improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery

statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and

the protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam, Commissioner Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners.

COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director

Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological

investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, Arthur J. Tyrer, Commissioner.

Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamen.

Supervision of registering, enrolling, licensing, numbering,

etc., of vessels under the United States flag, and the annual

publication of a list of such vessels. Enforcement of the navigation and steamboat inspection laws,

including imposition of fees, fines, tonnage taxes, etc. STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE, Dickerson N. Hoover, Supervising Inspector General. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certi- fication of able seamen and lifeboat men, and the investigation

of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks,

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents. Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued. RADIO DIVISION, W. D. Terrell, Chief

Inspection of radio stations on ships; inspection of radio

stations on shore, including broadcasting stations; licensing radio operators; assigning station call letters; enforcing the terms of the International Radiotelegraphic Convention; and

examining and settling international radio accounts.

U S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930