# EUR-Lex - 52013PC0017 - EN

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# 52013PC0017

**COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS Clean Power for Transport: A European alternative fuels strategy /* COM/2013/017 final */**

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COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO
THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL
COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS

Clean Power for Transport: A European
alternative fuels strategy

1.           Introduction

Europe is heavily dependent on imported oil for its mobility and
transport: in 2010, oil counted for 94% of energy
consumed in transport, with 55% the largest consumer, 84% of it imported, with
a bill of up to € 1 billion a day in 2011, leading to a significant deficit in
the EU trade balance of around 2.5% of GDP. Our supply of oil, and thus our
mobility, depend to a large degree on politically unstable regions raising
security of supply concerns. Price hikes driven by speculation on the impact of
oil supply disruptions have cost the European economy an additional € 50
billion per year over the last four years.

The effect of the oil dependency on the European economy is too
large to neglect – the Union must act to end it. A strategy for the transport
sector to gradually replace oil with alternative fuels and build up the
necessary infrastructure could bring savings on the oil import bill of € 4.2
billion per year in 2020, increasing to € 9.3 billion per year in 2030, and
another € 1 billion per year from dampening of price hikes.

Support to the market development of alternative
fuels and investment in their infrastructure in Europe will
boost growth and a wide range of jobs in the EU. Research
convened by the European Climate Foundation finds that 'greening' cars could
generate about 700,000 additional jobs by 2025. Vigorous action of the Union as
a first-mover on innovative alternative fuel solutions (for instance on batteries and powertrains) will also create new
market opportunities for European industry and bolster Europe's competitiveness
on the emerging global market.

Whilst further efficiency improvements spurred
by EU regulations on vehicle emissions of CO2 will continue to represent the
lowest hanging fruits in the short to medium term, low-CO2 alternatives to oil are
also indispensable for a gradual decarbonisation of
transport, a key
objective of the Europe 2020 strategy for smart,
sustainable and inclusive growth[1], towards the target of a 60% reduction of CO2
emissions from transport by 2050 set out in the "Roadmap to a Single
European Transport Area – Towards a Competitive and Resource Efficient
Transport System" (2011 White Paper on Transport)[2]. Such fuels are often also
beneficial in helping urban areas to meet Union air quality obligations.

Powered two-wheelers, using different alternative fuels, could also contribute
to these objectives.

At present, the market development of alternative fuels is still
held back by technological and commercial short-comings, lack of consumer
acceptance and missing adequate infrastructure. The current high cost of
innovative alternative fuel applications is largely a consequence of these
shortcomings. Initatives to support alternative transport fuels exist at both
EU and national level but a coherent and stable overarching strategy with an
investment friendly
regulatory framework needs to be put in place.

For these reasons, this Communication sets out a
comprehensive alternative fuels strategy and the road to its implementation
covering all modes of transport. It aims at establishing a long-term policy
framework to guide technological development and investments in the deployment
of these fuels and give confidence to consumers.

An accompanying
legislative proposal[3] provides a general direction for the
development of alternative fuels in the Single European Transport Area. Member
States would have the flexibility to develop policy frameworks for the market
development of alternative fuels in their national context. The proposal also
sets binding targets for the necessary infrastructure build-up, including
common technical specifications. For electric recharging points, the proposal provides
a single connector solution ensuring interoperability across the EU and
certainty for the market.

The strategy proposed in this Communication builds
on substantial work with industry, public authorities
and civil society - in the European Expert
Group on Future Transport Fuels[4],[5],
the Joint Expert Group Transport & Environment[6], Cars 21[7],
public consultation[8], and studies[9].

For a long time the Union has invested in research and development
into alternative fuels. The Commission's proposal for energy taxation based on CO2 emissions
and energy content[10]
supports alternative fuels. EU legislation limiting the CO2 emissions
from cars and vans[11]
has stimulated industry to develop low-CO2 alternative fuel technologies. However, previous
European initiatives supporting alternative fuels[12], including market quota[13] and favourable taxation[14], have been followed up in
uneven and disjointed ways.

Some Member States have adopted ambitious targets on the deployment
of alternative fuels and taken initiatives on infrastructure[15] with some progress seen. In
other Member States, discussions on initiatives have only started recently and
progress is slow. But there is a common trend throughout the European Union to
use the potential of alternative fuels in transport. Different technological
choices in different parts of Europe, however, have led to a fragmentation of
the internal market, creating technology border lines inhibiting the mobility
of alternatively fuelled vehicles across Europe. Market penetration is hampered
by the lack of infrastructure and common technical specifications, and requires
additional specific policy measures.

Europe-wide coordination is needed to ensure proper functioning of
the internal market and large-scale deployment of alternative fuels. A stable
policy framework with binding targets for infrastructure build-up is essential
to attract private investment into alternative fuel and infrastructure roll-out,
without burdening public budgets. Public intervention creating a clear
regulatory framework should ensure consumer trust in the early stages of market
take-up and complement the significant efforts already being made by Member
States and industry.

2.           A
comprehensive Mix of Alternative Fuels

A consistent long-term strategy on alternative
fuels has to meet the energy needs of all transport modes and be consistent with
the EU 2020 strategy, including decarbonisation. However, the alternatives
available and their cost differ between modes. The benefits of alternative
fuels are initially larger in urban areas where pollutant emissions are of
great concern and in freight transport where alternatives have reached a
sufficient level of maturity. For certain modes of transport, in particular
long-distance road freight and aviation, limited alternatives are available.
There is no single fuel solution for the future of mobility and all main
alternative fuel options must be pursued, with a focus on the needs of each
transport mode.

A strategic approach for the Union to meet the long-term needs of
all transport modes must therefore build on a
comprehensive mix of alternative fuels. All options
need to be included in the strategy without giving preference to any particular
fuel, thereby keeping technology neutrality. EU-wide availability and common
technical specifications should be provided for all alternative fuels presented
in table 1.

Table 1: Coverage of transport modes and travel range by the main alternative fuels

Security of energy
supply to transport is warranted by the wide diversification of sources for the
different alternative fuels, in particular through the use of the universal
energy carriers of electricity and hydrogen, and the close link to renewable
energy sources.

2.1.        LPG (Liquefied
Petroleum Gas)

LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) is a by-product of the hydrocarbon
fuel chain. Its use in transport increases resource efficiency. Currently, it
derives from crude oil and natural gas; and in the future possibly also from
biomass. Currently, gas (natural gas as well as LPG) is being flared of in huge
quantity [16]
(140 billion cubic meter in 2011). LPG is widely used in Europe, accounting for
3% of motor fuels and powering 9 million cars. LPG infrastructure is well
established, with some 28,000 dispensing sites in the EU but with a very uneven
distribution across the Member States. Its advantage consisting in producing low
pollutant emissions, however, has been diminishing as the EURO standards have
progressed to lower general emission limits. There remains, however, a clear
advantage in particulate emissions. LPG might still expand its market share but
will likely remain a niche market.

2.2.        Natural
gas including biomethane

Natural gas can be supplied from large
fossil fuel reserves[17],
from biomass and waste as biomethane, where production should come from
sustainable sources, and in future also from "methanisation" of
hydrogen generated from renewable electricity[18].
All can be injected into the natural gas grid for supply from a single network.
Natural gas offers a long-term perspective in terms of security of supply to
transport and a large potential to contribute to the diversification of transport
fuels. It also offers significant enviromental benefits, in particular when it
is blended with biomethane and provided that fugitive emissions are minimised. Natural
gas also presents an advantage in lower emissions.

LNG
(Liquefied Natural Gas)

Natural gas in
liquefied form (LNG) with high energy density offers a cost-efficient
alternative to diesel for waterborne activities (transport, offshore services, and
fisheries), trucks and rail, with lower pollutant and CO2 emissions and higher energy efficiency. LNG is
particularly suited for long-distance road freight transport for which
alternatives to diesel are extremely limited. Trucks might be able to meet the
more stringent pollutant emission limits of future EURO VI standards
cost-efficiently.

LNG is also an
attractive fuel option for vessels in particular to meet the new limits for
sulphur content in marine fuels decreasing from 1 % to 0.1 % from 1 January
2015 in Sulphur Emission Control Areas (SECAs) in the Baltic Sea, North Sea and
English Channel as set by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO)[19]. These obligations will be
relevant for about half of the 10,000 ships currently engaged in intra-EU shipping.
LNG is an attractive economic alternative also for shipping outside SECAs,
where sulphur limits will decrease from 3.5% to 0.5% from 1 January 2020, and
globally.

Lack of fuelling
infrastructure and common technical specifications on refuelling equipment and
safety regulations for bunkering hamper market uptake[20]. LNG in shipping, on the other
hand, could be economically viable, with current EU prices considerably lower
than for heavy fuel oil and low sulphur marine gasoil, and prospects of
increasing spreads in future.

LNG development into
a global commodity can improve security of energy supply in general by boosting
the use of natural gas as fuel for transport. LNG use in transport can also
increase the value of gas otherwise flared.

CNG
(Compressed Natural Gas):

Natural gas
vehicle technology is mature for the broad market,
with close to 1 million vehicles on the road in Europe and around 3,000 filling
stations. Additional refuelling stations could easily be supplied from the
existing dense natural gas distribution network in Europe, provided the quality
of gas is sufficient for CNG vehicles.

CNG vehicles have
low pollutant emissions and have therefore rapidly gained ground in urban
fleets of buses, utility trucks and taxis. Optimised gas-only vehicles can have
higher energy efficiency.

An economically
viable market development could be expected by private initiatives as CNG
vehicles are competitive with conventional vehicles in price and performance,
and natural gas is cheaper than petrol and diesel. But public intervention is
necessary to avoid fragmented EU level markets and to enable EU-wide mobility
for CNG vehicles.

GTL
(Gas-To-Liquid)

Natural gas can also
be transformed to a liquid fuel by first decomposing it to a "synthesis
gas", consisting of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, and then by refining to
a synthetic fuel with the same technical characteristics as conventional fuels,
fully compatible with existing combustion engines and fuel infrastructure.
Synthetic fuels can also be produced from waste feedstock. They improve the security
of supply and reduce pollutant emissions of present vehicles. Moreover they promote
advanced engine technologies of higher energy efficiency. High cost, however,
presently limits market take-up.

2.3         Electricity

Electric vehicles
(EVs), using a highly efficient electric motor for propulsion, can be supplied by
electricity from the grid, coming increasingly from low-CO2 energy sources. Flexible recharging of vehicle
batteries, at times of little demand or ample supply, supports the integration
of renewable energy into the power system. EVs emit no pollutants and no noise and
are therefore particularly suited for urban areas. Hybrid configurations,
combining internal combustion engines and electric motors, can save oil and
reduce CO2 emissions by improving the overall energy efficiency of
propulsion (up to 20%) but are, without external recharging possibilities, not
an alternative fuel technology.

The technology
of electric vehicles is maturing, and the
deployment of EVs is picking up. Member States aim to have 8-9 million EVs on
the road by 2020. The main issues are high cost, low energy density and heavy
weight of batteries. These limit the driving range of vehicles considerably.
Normal recharging takes several hours. Fast, possibly inductive recharging or
battery swapping can alleviate the problem. Improvements in battery technology
are essential for the market take-up of EVs. Electric two-wheelers share all
the assets of EVs and can support their broad market penetration.

Lack of recharging
points, with a common plug, is a major obstacle to market uptake. They would
need to be located at home, at the workplace and also in public spaces. At
present, the majority of Member States do not have sufficient number of
publicly accessible recharging points, and have not announced policies to
develop an adequate network of recharging facilities.

EVs can also be
used for electricity storage and grid stabilisation and, in order to allow for
a flexible electricity pricing system based on demand/supply, a controlled
interaction with the electricity network will be needed.

Electricity can
supply clean power also to waterborne transport. Shore-side electricity use by
ships berthed at ports has been recommended where air quality or noise limits
are exceeded[21].

2.4.      Biofuels
(liquid)

Biofuels are currently the most important type of alternative fuels,
accounting for 4.4%[22]
in EU transport. They can contribute to a
substantial reduction in overall CO2 emissions, if they are produced sustainably
and do not cause indirect land use change. They could provide clean power to
all modes of transport. However, supply constraints and sustainability
considerations may limit their use.

Biofuels can be produced from a wide range of feedstock through technologies
in constant evolution and used directly or blended with conventional fossil
fuels. They include bioethanol, biomethanol and higher bioalcohols, biodiesel
(fatty-acid methyl ester, FAME), pure vegetable oils, hydrotreated vegetable
oils, dimethyl ether (DME), and organic compounds.

First generation biofuels are based on food crops
and animal fats. They mainly include biodiesel and bioethanol. In order to mitigate against possible impacts of some biofuels, the
Commission has proposed[23]
to limit the amount of first generation biofuels that can be counted towards
the Renewable Energy Directive[24]
targets to 5%, and increased the incentives for advanced
biofuels such as those made from
ligno-cellulosic biomass, residues, waste, and other non-food biomass,
including algae and microorganisms. Post 2020, the Commission is of the
opinion that only the latter biofuels should receive public support.

Liquid biofuels commercially
available today are mainly "first generation" biofuels. Blends with
conventional fossil fuels are compatible with the existing fuel infrastructure,
and most vehicles and vessels are compatible with the blends currently
available (E10 - petrol with up to 10% bioethanol and diesel with up to 7% FAME
biodiesel content). Higher blends may require minor adaptations of power trains,
and corresponding fuel standards need to be developed. High-level
petrol-ethanol blend containing 85% ethanol (E85) is used in only few Member
States in flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs) that can also use lower blends.

Consumer acceptance
of biofuels has been hampered by the lack of coordinated action across Member States
when introducing new fuel blends, the lack of common technical specifications,
and the lack of information on the compatibility of new fuels with vehicles.

Some biofuels such
as hydro-treated vegetable oils can be blended at any ratio with conventional
fuels and are fully compatible with existing refuelling infrastructure and road
vehicles, vessels, locomotives, and planes for up to 50% blends.

For aviation, advanced
biofuels are the only low-CO2 option for substituting kerosene. The
compatibility of bio-kerosene with today's planes has been proven. Cost,
however, has to become competitive. The 'Flightpath 2050'[25] initiative aims at 75%
reduction in CO2 emissions and 90% reduction in nitrogen oxide (NOx)
emissions.

2.5.        Hydrogen

Hydrogen is a universal energy carrier and can be produced from all
primary energy sources. It can serve as transport fuel and as storage medium
for energy from solar and wind power. Its use therefore has the potential to
improve the security of energy supply and reduces CO2 emissions. Hydrogen is most efficiently deployed in
a fuel cell which is twice as efficient as a combustion engine. It may also be
used as feedstock to produce liquid fuels of various kinds that can be blended
in or substitute normal petrol and diesel fuels.

The technology for
hydrogen fuel cell vehicles is maturing, and is being demonstrated in passenger
cars, city buses[26],
light vans and inland ship applications. They have performance, range and
refuelling times comparable to gasoline and diesel vehicles. Presently about
500 vehicles are in operation, and around 120 hydrogen refuelling stations in
place. Industry has announced a roll-out of vehicles, including hydrogen
powered two-wheelers, for the next years, and several Member States plan for
hydrogen refuelling networks. European type approval regulation includes
hydrogen vehicles.

The main issues are
high cost of fuel cells and the absence of a refuelling infrastructure network.
Industry studies indicate that costs can be reduced to the levels of conventional
petrol and diesel vehicles by 2025[27].

Ships and vessels
can use clean power supply by hydrogen-supplied fuel cells. Small boats have
run on hydrogen while larger vessels would mainly use auxiliary power supplied by
hydrogen fuel cells when they are at berth. Fuel cells operated with hydrogen
could replace diesel engines in trains.

3            Priority
Fields for further EU Action

Priorities for further action need to be
set according to the stage of technological maturity and market development as
well as future perspective of the different fuels, focussing on infrastructure,
technical specifications, consumer information, co-ordination of public
expenditures to reduce costs and improve impacts, and R&D.

3.1  Addressing alternative fuels infrastructure

The proposal for a "Directive on the
deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure"[28] is a major step to solve the
"chicken and egg" problem where alternative fuel infrastructure is
not built as there is an insufficient number of vehicles and vessels, the
manufacturing industry does not produce them at competitive prices as there is
insufficient consumer demand, and consumers in consequence do not purchase them.
This proposal provides for sufficient infrastructure coverage to ensure
economies of scale on the supply side and network effects on the demand side. It
focuses on the fuels where failures of market coordination are particularly
relevant, that is electricity, hydrogen and natural gas (LNG and CNG). Without
such an action all other efforts to promote alternative fuels risk remaining
ineffective.

The Commission has initiated work towards a
comprehensive strategy on LNG for shipping, involving in particular the
European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA) and representatives from industry. This
topic is addressed in an accompanying Staff Working Document[29].

The investment in the build-up of
alternative fuels infrastructure (estimated at € 10 billion) will pay back with
the market take-up. Direct public funding for infrastructure build-up is not
needed if Member States use the wide range of policy tools at their disposal,
such as building permissions, concessions, procurement regulations, access and charging
regulations and non-financial incentives. European
Union funds, on the other hand, are available for the market development of
alternative fuels and the build-up of their infrastructure.

Moreover, a market-take
up for gaseous alternative fuels will also create an incentive to reduce
hydrocarbons' venting and flaring which would in turn create supply savings as
well as climate and environmental benefits.[30]

3.2  Developing common technical specifications

Most urgent is the implementation of common technical specifications
in the Union for the interface between EVs and recharging points. The lack of
an agreement on a "common plug" is now considered one of the heaviest
impediments to the broader market uptake of EVs in Europe[31].

Common technical and safety specifications are also needed for
hydrogen, CNG and LNG refuelling points and for the injection of biomethane
into the natural gas grid. For biofuels, high blend standards should be
formulated.

The proposed infrastructure Directive addresses the key issues of
standards and requires the implementation of common technical specifications
for alternative fuel infrastructures.

3.3       Addressing consumer acceptance

Privileged access rights, including charging, e.g. in urban access
restriction zones, are effective non-financial incentives to use alternative
fuel vehicles. Adressing this subject is considered for the urban mobility actions
announced in the 2011 Transport White Paper.

Information campaigns and large-scale demonstration projects should
improve acceptance of new technology concepts and inform citizens. Horizon 2020
will support these activities.

Harmonisation of consumer information on fuel quality and vehicle
compatibility and on the availability of recharging/refuelling points, as well
as on environmental, financial and safety aspects is important to create
consumer acceptance, in particular for biofuels and synthetic fuels. This is addressed
in the accompanying legislative proposal.

Guidelines on financial incentives for
consumers to purchase clean and efficient vehicles are indispensable in order
to coordinate the demand-side measures adopted in Members States. This subject
is addressed in a forthcoming Commission Staff Working Document "Guidance
on financial incentives for clean and energy efficient vehicles"[32].

3.4  Addressing the technological
development

R&D funding within Horizon 2020 should prioritise research,
demonstration or market-oriented projects for alternative fuels on all transport
modes according to the different stages of their technological and economic
development.

Specific technology roadmaps for alternative fuels will be developed
in the frame of the Strategic Transport Technology Plan[33]. Where several options exist
for the same application, fuel prioritisation should be guided by a
well-to-wheels analysis, such as developed in studies coordinated by the Joint
Research Centre (JRC) of the European Commission[34].

Public-private partnerships should be further developed based on the
experience gained with European Technology Platforms and Joint Technology
Initiatives (JTIs). The European Green Cars initiative, the Fuel Cells and
Hydrogen Joint Undertaking, Clean Sky, and SESAR have driven development in
their respective areas and a new Joint Technology Initiative on the bioeconomy
is under preparation.

New partnerships should support technology development and
accelerate market introduction, such as the Smart Cities & Communities
initiative[35].
The Commission will facilitate information exchange and coordinated regional
action across the EU with the European Electromobility Observatory.

Research and development of advanced biofuels, the only alternative
fuel option for aviation, need further investment. The European Industrial
Bioenergy Initiative launched in November 2010 in the framework of the
Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan)[36],
aims at large scale commercial availability of advanced bioenergy, including
resource-efficient biomethane production, by 2020.
Dedicated financing instruments and market incentives will support the
construction of production plants for aviation and other advanced biofuels,
with the aim to attain the target of two million tonnes of sustainable biofuels
by 2020 for civil aviation in the Union, as set out by the European Advanced
Biofuels Flightpath launched by the Commission in 2011[37], together with major airlines,
aircraft manufacturers and biofuel producers.

New research facilities for Electric Vehicle / Smart Grid
Interoperability in the Joint Research Centre (JRC) will support EVs and smart
grids. The facilities will include full vehicle, component, including battery,
and smart grid testing capabilities in support of international standardisation
activities. The JRC will promote the development of harmonised testing
methodologies and global standards for EVs, their power grid interoperability
and their recharging technologies through an international partnership with the
US Department of Energy (Argonne National Laboratories).

Batteries and fuel cells are key technologies and a comprehensive
R&D strategy needs to be launched to regain knowledge in Europe.
Electrochemistry, as a core scientific knowledge, therefore needs to be
promoted in R&D and professional education. Manufacturing, including
hydrogen production from renewables and on-board storage should be given
support to regain and strengthen European competitiveness in this field.

Union funded projects address LNG
infrastructure and deployment needs: for shipping the North European LNG
Infrastructure Project, the Clean North Sea Shipping (CNSS) project, the marine
engine project HELIOS, and for heavy duty vehicles the LNG Blue Corridor
project. Further research is needed on dedicated engines and after-treatment
for CNG and LNG powertrains and light-weight fuel tanks.

4.         Conclusions

The
market development of alternative fuels should break the dependence on oil and
contribute to improving the security of Europe's energy supply, support
economic growth, strengthen the competitiveness of European industry, and
reduce greenhouse gas emissions from transport.

The increasing demand for energy for transport
and the need to break transport's dependency on oil can only be met by the
comprehensive mix of alternative transport fuels presented in this
Communication. The growing interest for natural gas – for maritime and
inland-waterways, for long distance road haulage applications, and light duty
vehicles - as well as electricity for short distance road transport - indicates
that it would be possible, in the short to medium term, to both increase the European
supply of energy for transport as well as reduce dependency on imported oil. At
the same time, accelerating the development of advanced biofuels – which have potential
for all transport modes, but are the only option for aviation - and the
progressive build-up of electricity and hydrogen supply networks to provide
area wide coverage for road transport are essential for rapid market development.
In parallel, research and development of critical components for electric
propulsion such as batteries, should deliver significantly improved range,
performance, durability and reduced costs for a competitive market offer.

This
Communication and the accompanying legislative proposal catalyse the
transformation of Europe's energy supply for transport. With the requirements to establish national policy frameworks for
alternative fuels and the build-up of infrastructure with common technical specifications,
the EU will complete the policy measures on the development of alternative
fuels, from research to market penetration, by ensuring availability of the
fuels in the market.

No public spending is required for the build-up
of alternative transport fuel infrastructure if the Member States use the wide
range of measures available to mobilise private investment cost-efficiently. Union support will be available from TEN-T funds, Cohesion and
Structural Funds together with the European Investment Bank lending.

A broad basis among industry, policy and civil
society should be maintained for the future development of
alternative transport fuels, using the existing European expert groups with
participation from industry, civil society, and the Member States.[38]

The Commission will continue to support the
Member States, review progress and propose any necessary changes and adjustments
taking into account technological and market developments.

[1]               COM (2010) 2020

[2]               COM
(2011) 144

[3]               COM
(2013) 18

[4]               Report of the European Expert Group on Future
Transport Fuels, 25 January 2011
http://ec.europa.eu/transport/urban/cts/doc/2011-01-25-future-transport-fuels-report.pdf

[5]               Report of the European Expert Group on Future
Transport Fuels, 20 December 2011, http://ec.europa.eu/transport/urban/cts/future-transport-fuels_en.htm

[6]               Report of the Joint Expert Group Transport &
Environment, 22 May 2011: http://ec.europa.eu/transport/urban/cts/doc/jeg_cts_report_201105.pdf

[7]               CARS 21 High
Level Group Final Report, 6 June 2012: http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/automotive/files/cars-21-final-report-2012_en.pdf

[8]               Public Consultation on alternative fuels, 11 August –
20 October 2011: http://ec.europa.eu/transport/urban/consultations/2011-10-06-cts_en.htm

[9]               http://ec.europa.eu/transport/urban/studies/doc/2011-11-clean-transport-systems.pdf

[10]             COM(2011)169

[11]             Regulation (EC) No 443/2009 of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 setting emission performance
standards for new passenger cars as part of the Community's integrated approach
to reduce CO2 emissions from light-duty vehicles, OJ L 140, 5.6.2009, p. 1 and
Regulation (EU) No 510/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council
of 11 May 2011 setting emission performance standards for new light commercial
vehicles as part of the Union's integrated approach to reduce CO2 emissions
from light-duty vehicles, OJ L 145, 31.5.2011, p. 1.

[12]             Communication from the Commission to the European
Parliament, the Council, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of
the Regions on alternative fuels for road transportation and on a set of
measures to promote the use of biofuels, COM (2001) 547

[13]             Directive 2003/30/EC of the European Parliament and of
the Council of 8 May 2003 on the promotion of the use of biofuels or other
renewable fuels for transport, OJ 123, 17.5.2003, p. 42.

[14]             Council Directive 2003/96/EC of 27 October 2003
restructuring the Community framework for the taxation of energy products and
electricity, OJ L 283, 31.10.2003, p. 51.

[15]             Impact Assessment SWD(2013) 5 and related Summary
SWD(2013) 6

[16]             World bank http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/2012/07/03/world-bank-sees-warning-sign-gas-flaring-increase

[17]             IEA, World
Energy Outlook 2011; natural gas: http://www.iea.org/aboutus/faqs/gas/

[18]             http://www.research-in-germany.de/46100/2010-05-06-storing-green-electricity-as-natural-gas,sourcePageId=8240.html

[19]             Directive 2012/33/EU of the European parliament and of
the Council of 21 November 2012 amending Council Directive 1999/32/EC

[20]             North European LNG infrastructure project; final report
May 2012

[21]             Commission Recommendation of 8 May 2006 on the
promotion of shore side electricity for use by ships at berth in Community
ports (2006/339/EC)

[22]             Source: http://ec.europa.eu/energy/publications/doc/2012_energy_figures.pdf
(data relating to 2010)

[23]             COM (2012) 595 - Proposal
for a directive of the European Parliament and of the council amending
Directive 98/70/EC relating to the quality of petrol and diesel fuels and
amending Directive 2009/28/EC on the promotion of the use of energy from
renewable sources

[24]             Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of
the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy from
renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC
and 2003/30/EC, OJ L 140, 5.6.2009, p. 16.

[25]             Flightpath 2050, Europe’s Vision for Aviation. Report
of the High Level Group on Aviation Research. Luxembourg: Publications Office
of the European Union, 2011.

[26]             http://www.global-hydrogen-bus-platform.com/

[27]             “A portfolio of power-trains for Europe: a fact-based
analysis. The Role of Battery Electric Vehicles, Plug-in Hybrids and Fuel Cell
Electric Vehicles”,
McKinsey & Company, 2010

[28]             COM(2013)
18

[29]             SEC (2013) 4

[30]             It is estimated by the World Bank that the annual
volume of natural gas being flared and vented worldwide each year is about 110
billion cubic meters (about 3 % of all gas marketed in the world), enough to
provide natural gas for the annual consumption of Germany and Italy,
http://www.climate.org/publications/Climate%20Alerts/sept2012/flaring-venting-emissions.html

[31]             COM (2012) 636 Final

[32]             SEC(2013) xxx

[33]             COM(2012) 501 final of 13/09/2012

[34]             http://iet.jrc.ec.europa.eu/about-jec/sites/iet.jrc.ec.europa.eu.about-jec/files/documents/wtw3_wtw_report_eurformat.pdf

[35]             COM (2012) 4701

[36]             http://ec.europa.eu/energy/technology/set_plan/set_plan_en.htm

[37]             http://ec.europa.eu/energy/renewables/biofuels/flight_path_en.htm

[38]             Inter alia the
European Expert Groups on Future Transport Fuels and the Joint Expert Group
Transport & Environment.