ENERGY CONSERVATION

THROUGH EFFECTIVE

ENERGY UTILIZATION

NBS SPECIAL PUBLICATION 403

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE/ National Bureau of Standards

A CONFERENCE

SPONSORED BY

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION

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Energy Conservation Through

Effective Energy Utilization

1973 Engineering Foundation Conference

New England College

Henniker, New Hampshire

August 19-24, 1973

Edited by:

Jesse C. Denton

National Center for Energy Management & Power

University of Pennsylvania

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19174

Stephen Webber and John Moriarty*

Institute for Applied Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

* Transferred to Federal Energy Administration

Co-Sponsored by:

National Bureau of Standards Washington, D.C. 20234

National Science Foundation

1800 G Street, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20550

Engineering Foundation

345 East 47th Street New York, N.Y. 10017

U.S. DEPARIMENT OF COMMERCE, Elliot L. Richardson, Secretary

Dr. Betsy Ancker-Johnson, Assisfani Secreiary for Science and Technology

NATIONAt BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Acting Director

Issued June 1976
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Main entry under title:

Energy conservation through effective energy utilization.

(National Bureau of Standards special publication; 403) "CODEN: XNBSAV."

Supt. of Docs, no.: C 13.10:403

I. Energy conservation —Congresses. I. Denton, Jesse C.

II. Webber, Stephen. III. Moriarty, John E. IV. United States. National Bureau of Standards. V. United States. National Science Foundation. VI. Engineering Foundation, New York.

VII. Series: United Stales. National Bureau of Standards. Special publication; 403. QClOO.Uf)? no. 403 [TJ163.3] 602Ms [333.7] 76-18680

National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 403

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Spec. Publ. 403, 251 pages (June 1976) CODEN: XNBSAV

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON: 1976

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 (Order by SD Catalog No. C13.10:403). Price $3.30 (Add 25 percent additional for other than U.S. mailing).
PREFACE

A conference on "Energy Conservation Through Effective Energy Utilization" was held at New England College, Henniker, N.H., August 19-24, 1973 by the Engineering Foundation.

Funding for the conference expenses was provided by the Engineering Foundation, the National

Bureau of Standards, and the National Science Foundation. The conference was co-chaired by

Dr. Jesse C. Denton, National Center for Energy Management and Power, and the late

Dr. Robert R. Gatts, National Bureau of Standards.

The conference objective was to study the opportunities and implications of more effective

utilization of thermal energy on an interdisciplinary basis. The conference focused on effective utilization of thermal energy as a means of energy conservation to identify areas

in which research is needed and should have significant impact. The conference was successful in identifying some specific research tasks but in other cases, because of the broad

ramifications and diversity inherent in the topic, it was only possible to identify vital

research areas which need to be amplified and elaborated in greater detail to provide sharper

focus for specific research topics. It is hoped that the proceedings will stimulate a national dialogue leading to substantive progress toward a balanced national program for

energy conservation. There is, of course, much left to be done in thermal process technologies as applied in industrial processes, in industrial equipment, and in heating, ventilating,

and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment for buildings. A clear message from the conference is- that technology availability is not the pacing factor. Rather, the institutional factors

relating to economics, management, finance, and national policy are the pacing factors for

the introduction of much technology that is already available. The conference demonstrated

that engineering design, when the other factors permit, can and does result in

striking reductions in the energy intensiveness of thermal process technologies.

The proceedings of the conference reflect, in chronological sequence, the main presentations by the speakers. The single exception is the grouping of the Messrs. Berg and

Shepherd presentations into an "Introduction" for the proceedings. The several discussion

panels provided daily outputs which were incorporated in the rapporteurs' reports delivered

in the Summary and Critique session of the last day of the conference.

Every effort has been made to minimize the editing and to reflect each author's

original material as given. The editing criterion used was to shorten a paper only to avoid

repetition of material or to reduce the technical details with respect to equipment. Great care was exercised to retain the major items of concern presented by each speaker.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No.

I . INTRODUCTION

Effective Utilization of Energy and Other Natural

Resources

,

C.A. Berg, National Bureau of Standards 2 (Now private consultant)

Energy Conservation Goals and Methods,

Robert E. Shepherd, Department of Commerce 13

II. NATIONAL CONTEXT FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION

National Benefits of Energy Conservation

Leon R. Glicksman and David C. White, Massachusetts

Institute of Technology 21

Options for Energy Conservation,

B. Hannon, University of Illinois 43

Measures of Thermal Energy Utilization,

B.B. Hamel and H.L. Brown, Drexel University

Economic and Environmental Implications of Effective

Utilization of Energy,

Jesse C. Denton, University of Pennsylvania 65

III. ENERGY MANAGEMENT PRACTICE

Industrial Energy Analysis and Forecasting,

D.R. Limaye, J.R. Sharko, and J.H. Kayser,

Decision Sciences Corporation 77

Management's Role in Industrial Thermal Energy

Utilization,

Allen S. Cook, American Can Company 95

Development of Industrial Energy Management Policies,

Michael C. Noland, Midwest Research Institute

Case Histories of Effective Energy Utilization in

Industry

,

William Rudoy, University of Pittsburgh

IV. APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL PROCESS TECHNOLOGY

A Projection of Energy Demand by the Iron and Steel

Industry

,

D. Larson, Institute of Gas Technology • ^21

V
Page No.

IV. APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL PROCESS TECHNOLOGY (cont.)

Potential Energy Savings in the Forming o£ Paper,

T. Speidel, Thermo Electron Corporation, and

D. Kallmes, M/K Systems

Potential for Energy Conservation in Heating,

Ventilating and Air-Conditioning Equipment

for Buildings

G. Kelly, T. Kusuda, and J. Hill,

National Bureau of Standards 163

ASHRAE and Energy Conservation,

Preston E. McNall, Jr., Johnson Service Company,

and Chairman, ASHRAE Research 5 Technical

Committee 193

V. INSTITUTIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION

Factors Controlling the Manufacture and Marketing

of Energy Conserving Products,

J.B. Comly and CM. Huggins, General Electric

Corporate Research § Development 199

Economic, Energy, Environment Tradeoffs,

Paul Swatek, Massachusetts Audubon Society 215

Regulatory, Legal and Tax Constraints on Energy

Conservation - Polemic or Fact?

Hon. Charles Warren, Assemblyman, California

State Assembly 225

Financial Feasibility of Energy Conservation

Sheldon Sixfin, The Chase Manhattan Bank 237

VI. SIM^Y AND CRITIQUE

National Context for Energy Conservation,

Jesse C. Denton, University of Pennsylvania 245

Energy Management in Industry,

Robert G. Gatts, National Bureau of Standards 247

(Deceased)

Application of Thermal Process Technology,

Kenneth G. Kreider, National Bureau of

Standards 251

Institutional Considerations Respecting Energy

Conservation,

Samuel Z. Klausner, University of Pennsylvania 253
APPENDIX A

Energy Conservation Through Effective Energy

Utilization, Engineering Foundation Conference,

August 1973

APPENDIX B

Participants in Engineering Foundation

Conference

ABSTRACT

These proceedings of the 1973 Engineering Foundation Conference focus on effective

utilization of thermal energy as a means of energy conservation. It is hoped publication will help stimulate the national dialogue toward a balanced national program for more energy conservation.

The varied professional backgrounds of the participants provided an interdisciplinary

approach for action steps to be taken in areas where research is needed and will provide

a significant impact. For example, the development of better stack controls was recom- mended as a specific research task, and the improvement of energy accounting systems and

energy use norms was recommended as a useful research area. Broad agreement was reached

that there is much left to be accomplished in thermal process technology as used in industrial processes i in industrial equipment, and in heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment for buildings.

A clear conclusion of the conference is that while new technology is important the

introduction of much technology that is already available is equally, if not more, important. Institutional barriers relating to economics, management, finance, and national policy keep available technology standing in the wings. The conference papers

and discussions show that engineering design, when it can be rigorously applied, does

result in striking reductions in energy use in the thermal process technologies.

Keywords: Automobile; break- even analysis ; conservation; cooling; economics;

energy; environment; fuel; heating; industry; imports; management; manufacturing;

paper; petroleum; resources; standards; steel; thermal; thermodynamics.

ix

I. INTRODUCTION

I

National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 403

Proceedings of 1973 Engineering Foundation Conference (issued June 1976)

EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION OF ENERGY AND OTHER

NATURAL RESOURCES

by

C. A. Berg

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D. C. 20234

An overview of the Nation's energy problems is presented to provide a basis of definition for the term "energy crisis." The term does not

represent a crisis of depletion of energy resources but rather refers

to energy cost. The dependency of the United States on fuel imports

illustrates the problems that questionable reliability and increasing

costs of fuel imports pose for American industry. Improving energy use efficiency would reduce energy consimiption and, considering rising

energy costs, may prove to be economically attractive to industry. A

policy of national life-term costing of equipment, which includes energy

cost of that equipment, should be promoted rather than the present criterion of justification which is based primarily on first costs. Further,

a rational economic method for achieving effective and balanced use of

all natural resources, based on total life-term costing, is advocated.

Key words: Costs; economics; energy; fuel; imports

Over the last few years public attention has been increasingly attracted to energy- problems. More effective and better organized efforts must be brought to bear to resolve the

Nation's energy problems. This paper outlines a view of the problems and attempts to provide

a basis of definition for the term "energy crisis."

The supply of fuel is a serious concern, but the exhaustion of fuels does not constitute

the energy crisis. Table 1 shows the world (per capita) consumption of fuels by the principal consumers. These data illustrate several things. First, the United States is the

largest per capita consumer of fuels in the world. Second,- the United States, compared with

the other industrialized nations, consumes vast quantities of fuel. Table 2 shows oil

imports by millions of barrels per day for the United States and Western Europe. One sees that the United States' imports are estimated to double in the period from 1973 to 1980. We may go from importing approximately 20% of the oil we consume to importing 50%, or more, of our oil. Present estimates indicate that the cost of imported fuel may then be between $20 to $30 billion a year. The importation of fuels to continue the operation of industry and

to support life functions which are essentially dependent upon fuel, including electrical

power generation, is a serious matter. We have been a large energy producer. We have been

able to operate our industries on low-cost, high-quality fuels without having to rely on

imports. That day has passed.

The world crisis means a turning point; the turning point reached in energy availability

is that prices of fuel will no longer decline. Fuel availability can no longer be assumed.

The costs and the stability of sources of fuel will become increasingly important considerations in the conduct of all operations that depend upon fuel.

Table 3 shows sources of petroleum imports into the U.S. Petroleum is one of the most

sensitive types of fuel. The Middle East has an outstandingly strong position in supplying

the United States with oil, as does the Caribbean. Neither area is noted especially for long

term stability. These less-developed regions, characterized by political flux, are endowed

with rich petroleum resources. They also are the major sources of petroleum imports for the

United States.

Table 4 shows the oil reserves presently known to exist. The United States has on the

order of 45 billion barrels of proven reserves. The Middle East has 350 to 360 billion

barrels. To appreciate what that means in terms of the period of consumption that the reserve could support, recall Table 1. If the United States were to provide its own oil out of its proven reserves, these reserves would last 15 to 20 years. Historically, however,

the proven reserves of the United States have seldom been much more than 10 to 15 years of

3
the contemporary rate of consumption. There is a reason for that. "Proven reserves" means

oil which is known to exist by actual drilling; the oil is known to be there and can be

extracted. The proven reserves are the result of heavy investment; one does not normally

drill holes to find oil until a market is established.

Table 1 World Energy Consumption - per capita (1970)

Coal EquivEilent

Country or Region in kilograms

World 1,897

Market economies:

Developed 1/ 5,914

Other 330

Communist areas: Europe (including U .S .S .R) 4,404

Asia 543

United States 11 ,128

Canada 8,997

Australia 5,374

United Kingdom 5,358

West Germany 5,151

U.S.S.R 4.436

France 3,799

Japan 3,215

Italy 2,885

Argentina 1 ,686

China 522

India 189

Nigeria 45

Yemen 13

- North America, Western Europe, Japan, Australia/New Zealand, South Africa, Israel. Source: Petroleum Press Service, April 1973

Table 2 Oil Imports (million barrels/day)

1972 Est. 1973 Est. 1980

United States 4.7 6.0 10 - 12 Western Europe .... 14.4 15.5 22 - 26

Japan 5.0 5.5 10 - 13

TOTAL 24.1 27.0 42 - 51

Source: Presidential Message Fact Sheet, April 18, 1973.

4
Table 3 Sources of Crude Oil and Oil Product

Imports into the United States

Country or Region 1965 1970

M Bbls

1971 1965 1971

\

1973-^

rianaria 325 690 800 13.2 20 .

6

20

1 565 2 ,135 2 ,170 63 .

5

56 . 0

^ Other Western > 38 Hemisphere .... 60 5 30 2.4 0.8^

Western Europe 5 210 145 0.2 3.7 ^ Middle East 350 175 390 14.2 10 .

1

North Africa 55 75 90 2.2 2.3

West Africa 15 50 105 0.6 2.7

90 70 130 3.7 3.4 > 42 U.S.S.R. , Eastern

5 5 0.1

Other Eastern

Hemisphere 5 10 0.3

World 2.465 3,420 3,875 100.0 100.0 100

Source: British Petroleum Company, Statistical Review of the World Oil Industry

(published annually) . - Presidential Energy Message Fact Sheet, April 1973. Current Rate

Table 4 Worldwide "Published Proved" Oil Reserves, end of 1971

Country/area

Barrels Share of total (billion) (percent)

United States 45.4 6.8

Canada 2/ 10.2 1.5

17.1 2.8

Other Western Hemisphere 14.5 2.3

Total Western Hemisphere 87.2 13.4

Western Europe 14.8 2.3

58.9 8.9

Middle East 366.8 57.6

U.S.S.R. . Eastern Europe . China 98.5 15.4

Other Eastern Hemisphere 15.6 2.4

Total Eastern Hemisphere 554.6 86.6

World (excluding U.S.S.R. , Eastern

Europe , China 543.3 84.6

World 641.8 100.0

i' Including estimated North Slope reserves of 9.6 billion barrels. - Includes oil that can be recovered for natural gas. Proved reserves are generally taken to be the volume of oil remaining in the ground which geological and engineering information indicate with reasonable certainty to be recoverable in the future

from known reservoirs under existing economic and operating conditions. The data exclude the

oil content of shales and tar sands.

Source: British Petroleum Company . Statistical Review of the World Oil Industry 1971 (1972).

5
There is an important difference between proven reserves and estimated resources . The

term "resources" is used to describe fuel which may be found if an oil field or coal mine were

developed. The estimated resources of petroleum make the absolute physical supply of fuels appear less serious a problem than do petroleum reserves . Venezuela, for example, is esti- mated to have resources of a trillion barrels of heavy oil. The United States has estimated re- sources of a trillion barrels of heavy oil. The United States has estimated resources of a trillion barrels of oil in oil shale. Canada has 600 billion barrels of oil in oil-bearing sands. Producing

these estimated resources may be a problem, however. It is very costly to remove oil from shale

and sand, and costly to refine heavy oil. According to this analysis, the United States has an abundance of coal. Coal experts have

estimated that we could support our present coal consumption for about 500 years on known re- serves. If we were to mine 15 inch veins and restrict strip mining to those sites where the surface could be reclaimed, we could probably satisfy our needs for coal for 1500 years. However,

in some cases the coal has high sulfur content. In most cases it has fairly high ash content. Coal can be expensive to clean up and expensive to use . The cost of using this fuel is going

to rise

.

Even though fuel resources are finite and can eventually be exhausted, the supply of petroleum and coal is not in imminent jeopardy. The crisis is that the low cost at which fuels can be made available is in jeopardy.

The reliability and stability of petroleum sources and the increasing costs of using all forms of fuel constitute an issue which American industry must take seriously. The United

States has been operating with cheap fuels. Excess consumption of fuels has often been designed

into industrial processes because the price of fuels has been dechning. We have been in industrial competition with countries such as France, Japan, and West Germany. These countries are ac- customed to importing costly fuels for the operation of industry. As a general rule, the efficiency

of fuel utihzation in countries which are essentially dependent upon petroleum imports or coal imports is somewhat greater than in those countries which are richly endowed with cheap, high

quality fuels. The argument that the U.S . can pay an increasing import fuel bill by merely increasing exports is based upon the questionable premise that our industries are now equipped to operate with sufficient efficiency at substantially higher fuel prices to permit us to export effectively. This premise is not born out by examination of present day industrial plants.

Besides facing a problem of limited availability and high price of fuels , we might also find

that we might have to import industrial technology to make effective use of the more costly imported

fuels. We can avoid this vicious cycle with prompt and effective action.

Is it possible for the United States to reduce fuel imports by using fuels more efficiently?

To answer this question one needs to know two things: How much fuel does the United States consume in various practices , and with what efficiency is the fuel used? Table 5 gives the sum- mary data from the Stanford Research Institute report on "Patterns of Energy Consumption in the

U.S.A.", and these data provide a preliminary answer to the first of the above questions.

These data show several major aspects of fuel use in the United States. The ultimate use of fuel occurs in three major areas. The first, the support of building services in residential and

commercial buildings , accounts for about 33 to 34% of all fuels consumed in the U.S.A. For every

kilowatt hour consumed in construction of a large building , about one kilowatt hour per year will

be required to operate the building services . The second large sector , the operation of industrial

processes, accounts for about 40 percent of all fuel consumption. The third major area, transportation, accounts for roughly 25% of our total fuel consumption.

We should not overlook the minor areas of fuel consumption. Using high quality fuel to provide low temperature heat is a waste . The data show that water heating in residential and

commercial buildings accounts for 4% of the national fuel consumption . Also , cooking in residential buildings accounts for somewhat more than 1% of the total national fuel consumption.

These mundane practices which seldom require heat above 100 degrees C, consume a large

quantity of high-quality fuel. Industrial electrolytic processes (including refining of aluminum) account for about 1%

of the total fuel consumption in the country . Hot water heating for the purpose of bathing and

washing clothes consumes about four times as much fuel as the whole aluminum industry . Yet

,

in public discussions of fuel conservation , the aluminum industry has attracted more notice than

the more mundane processes of everyday life. For example, according to industrial standards on hot water heaters , a new unit running in steady state shows a heat transfer efficiency of 70%. The householder tends to assume that the device functions properly because the water is coming

out hot, while the heat-transfer efficiency, after some corrosion, soot formation aid dust accumulation, may actually drop as low as 35%. Even if hot water heaters were kept clean and operating

effectively so that the heat transfer efficiency were maintained at 65%, the nation's hot water

heaters would still be wasting more fuel than the whole aluminum industry consumes. This is not 6
Table 5 ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN THE UNITED STATES BY END USE

1960 - 1968

(Trillions of Btu and Percent per Year)

Percent of Consumption Annual Rate National Total

Sector and End Use 1960 1968 of Growth 1960 196f

Residential

Snace heatinp 4 ,848 6 .675 4.1% 11 .3% 11 . 0%

Water heating 1,159 1,736 5.2 2.7 2.9

Cooking 556 637 1.7 1.3 1.1 wlutiiCo ui. y -Lii

g

93 208 10 .

6

0.2 0.3

R pfTi p^PTati nn 369 692 8.2 0.9 1 .

1

AiT pnn Hiti nni n

D" 134 427 15.6 0.3 0.7

other 809 1 ,241 5.5. 1 .

9

2 .

1

7 ,968 11 ,616 4.8 18 .

6

19 .

2

Commercial

Space heating 3.111 4,182 3.8 7.2 6.9

Water heating 544 653 2.3 1.3 1.1

Cooking 98 139 4.5 0.2 0.2

Refrigeration 534 670 2.9 1 .

2

1 .1 Air r"OTi Hi 1 1 nn 1 n cr u / u 1 113 U • D 1 fi Feedstock 734 984 3.7 1.7 1.6

Other 145 1,025 28.0 0.3 1.7

Total 5,742 8,766 5.4 13.2 14.4

Industrial

Process steam 7,646 10,132 3.6 17.8 16.7

Electric drive 3 .170 4,794 5.3 7.4 7.9

Electrolytic processes 486 705 4.8 1.1 1.2

Direct heat 5,550 6,929 2.8 12.9 11.5

Feed stock 1,370 2,202 8.1 3.2 3.6

Other 118 198 6.7 0.3 0.3

Total 18,340 24,960 3.9 42.7 41.2

Transportation

Fuel 10,873 15.038 4.1 25.2 24.9

Raw Materials 141 146 0.4 0.3 0.3

Total 11,014 15.184 4.1 25.5 25.2

National total 43,064 60,526 4.3 100.0% 100.0%

Note: Electric utility consumption has been allocated to each end use.

Source: Stanford Research Institute, using Bureau of Mines and other sources.

7
said to detract from the attention given to the problems of effective energy utilization in production

of aluminum, which is a matter of proper, and at times passionate, concern to numbers of people.

There is also a great need, however, to improve the performance of simple equipment, such as water heaters, to increase the efficiency of fuel utilization.

Examination of industrial processes reveals three large scale processes - direct heat,

process steam , and electric drive - which account for vast quantities of fuel consumption. In

this country, process steam and direct heat consume more fuel than does transportation. These

processes are known to have overall heat transfer efficiencies as low as 30%. For example, the

average cement kiln operated in steady state and in well-maintained condition will show a heat

transfer efficiency of 30% for a wet process. The efficiency may be as high as 40% for a dry

process. The efficiency of the average metal heat-treating furnace is about 30%. It appears

that heat transfer efficiencies can stand improvement. If the United States can use fuel more

efficiently, then less fuel will be consumed.

The next questions are how much will it cost to improve the efficiency of industrial plant

equipment , and whether it is economically justifiable to introduce the technology which would

reduce industrial fuel consumption? In the studies conducted in the National Bureau of Standards we found three classes of economically justifiable and technically effective measures for improving the efficiency of industrial processes. The first is to apply maintenance practices and appropriate controls of plant operations. The second is to retrofit improved equipment to the

existing plant; for example, to install better insulation or heat exchangers. The third is to replace present equipment with superior equipment.

We have found documented cases in which the application of exacting controls to steel re- heat plants has yielded 25 percent reductions in fuel requirements with increases in productivity

of 12% - an impressive reduction of fuel consumption which pays for itself. The data concerning

retrofitting equipment show that by installing stack gas recuperators on industrial furnaces

,

furnace rail insulation, or combuotion air preheaters, it is often possible to realize returns on

investment in excess of 100%. In one case an annual cost rather than an annual saving was re- ported. This involved combustion air preheaters which were to be installed in large heattreating furnaces. A considerable amount of fuel could be saved, but the device would bear

a $1,000 annual cost. Since the type of furnace to which that calculation applies can consume

$50 ,000 to $100 ,000 worth of fuel each year, a very small rise in the price of fuel could turn that cost into a substantial saving. There is an additional economic justification for conservation

devices. Many firms have now been placed on "quotas" by their gas or oil suppliers; the firm can buy just so many therms of gas , and no more, f'any of these firms have plans to expand; at least they plan to continue production. To industrial management, the prospect of paying $1,000

annually to run a device which will insure sufficiently low fuel consumption for reliable operation or planned expansion may be attractive.

If it is true that industrial equipment could be modified or replaced to use fuel more ef- fectively , and that the changes could be economically justified, why hasn't it happened? The

fundamental reason seems to be that in the justification of industrial equipment (or of building

construction) , first costs have been of higher priority than operating costs, especially those

operating costs which are associated with fuel consumption.

The classical economist has a tendency to shudder when this statement is made, because it means that industry may not function by the classical rational rules of economics . If there is a whole array of problems to try to solve with a limited amount of resources , there is a tendency

to work on those problems which are worsening and to let the ones that are improving take care

of themselves . One of the ways to assess an industrial problem is by its costs . In the past

several decades fuel prices have declined while the price of other factors of production have

risen. Thus, industrial management has tended to focus on rising costs, like labor, rather than on the fuel costs . As a result , the life term costs of energy for operation have not been given

the attention they deserve.

Ideally one might wish to see a policy implemented which would promote energy conservation through rational life-time costing of equipment. However, one would not wish to see a policy

of energy conservation instituted for its own sake. Energy is the resource which presently con- cerns us. But, if we were to promote effective use of energy without any consideration for the

consumption of other natural resources , it would be conceivable to deplete our copper reserves by producing heat transfer equipment.

Energy is only one of the valuable natural resources that we must use effectively. The

following seven graphs illustrate the supply and demand projections of several natural resources. Figure 1 shows the consumption of metals in the United States. Iron consumption is the greatest,

followed by aluminum and copper. Figure 2 shows projections of scrap, mine production, and

imports. Figure 3 shows the U.S. positon in copper is insecure. The remaining figures show

that U.S. import requirements for aluminum , zinc, and other metals are expected to climb

8
HOW THE U.S. EATS UP METALS

25

20

15

10

"n 1200 LB PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION

OF NEW MATERIALS 1970

50 LB —

25 LB 35 LB

JlEid 15 LB

1 1 r—n

& STEEL METALS

Data: National Commission on Materials Policy FIGURE 1

SOURCES OF METALS FOR THE U.S.A.

FIGURE 2

9
FIGURES CONSUMPTION OF COPPER IN THE U.S.A. 10 I — jH

1955 1960 1965

YEAR

2000

FIGURE 4 CONSUMPTION OF ALUMINUM IN THE U.S.A.

1950 1955 1960 1965

YEAR

1970 2000

10
Z 3

O>-

I-o

T

CO

00zO

FIGURES CONSUMPTION OF ZINC IN THE U.S.A

M II J III IUJJ I

U.S. MINE PRODUCTION

1

1950 1955 1960 1965

YEAR

1970 ' 2000

FIGURE 6 CONSUMPTION OF NICKEL IN THE U.S.A. 600 I

0

1950 1955 1960 1965

YEAR

1970 2000

11
FIGURE? CONSUMPTION OF LEAD IN THE U.S.A.

rapidly; our own resources of these metals are nearly exhausted. Similarly, U.S. import re- quirements for lead are expected to rise rapidly . These figures , as a whole , illustrate one

aspect of a very broad problem: the U.S. can no longer assume that vital natural resources - fuel , metals , gravel , lumber and other vital resources - will be available in abundance and at low price. In a sense, our days of abundance may have passed.

I would like to propose that one of the essential problems in energy conservation is to recognize it is not just energy which must be conserved. What is now needed is not just a set

of measures to conserve one resource at the expense of all others, but a rational economic method

for achieving effective and balanced use of all natural resources . Using the classical theoretical

notion of economics that the price of an item reflects its value is an imperfect way to compare oil with lead or other resources. But it is at least a method. When it is used with care, it offers

a more effective way to balance the use of resources than simply ignoring the question. I suggest

that we ought to seek to institute whatever measures are necessary to put total life term costing

of equipment - and buildings - at the top of the Ust of priorities for economic justification. This

would be one way to promote effective use of all the natural resources on which our way of life

,

depends

.

12
National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 403

Proceedings of 1973 Engineering Foundation Conference (Issued June 1976)

ENERGY CONSERVATION GOALS AND METHODS

by

Robert E. Shepherd

Department of Commerce

Washington, D. C. 20234

The goals of the President's energy message of early

1973 and the feasibility of the 1974 goal of a 5%

energy use reduction nationally are discussed. An

overview of the Federal government's organizational

structure is presented and discussed with reference

to attaining these goals. Voluntary energy conser- vation measures and a major educational program

directed at energy users are urged to help solve the

Nation's energy problems.

Key Words: Conservation; Energy; Organization

Tonight I would like to do three things. First, I would like to talk

about the energy goals that the President laid out in his energy messages of

April and June, 1973. Secondly, I want to talk about the particular shortterm energy conservation goal of conserving 5% of the energy that we are projected to use over the next year. Lastly, I want to discuss briefly the

present organizational structure of the federal government with respect to

carrying out these goals.

The goals of the President's energy message can be summarized in three

points. First, he has called on government and industry to develop a series

of programs to stimulate domestic energy production. That includes a very

large R&D package. A large part of the $100 million in additional R&D

funds, which were made available for this fiscal year, and of the 10 billion

dollars for the following five fiscal years will be concentrated on increasing domestic energy production.

Another point in the message was to dampen the rising rate of demand;

that is, to find new ways for energy conservation or energy efficiency.

When I talk about energy conservation tonight it is in the context of

efficiency. We want to start a whole series of programs to stimulate

domestic energy production, including programs which enable us to use coal

in an environmentally acceptable manner, to stimulate production of oil and

gas, and possibly to use resources like tar sands and oil shale. Third, we have to develop an import policy to permit us to import those fuels that we need but can't produce ourselves. Import policy at the moment is still a pretty complicated business; I won't go into it in the talk.

Now, if you see the energy goals listed above as within the context of some other major government policies, I think you can see something of the

nature of the problem that the federal government faces in moving forward on

a coherent energy policy. Really what the President has charged the government to do is to increase the domestic supply of energy in an environmentally acceptable way without increasing costs, and I submit to you that this

is an extremely difficult task. Therefore you have three major governmental

policies which run head on into each other. You may think of those policies

as vectors, and if you can figure out what direction policy is going to get

pushed, more power to you. I think the direction it will get pushed is for

13
a better meshing of environmental policy with energy policy, with an inevitable rise in the cost of energy, especially between now and 1980.

Let me digress a minute on the balance of payments situation, which is one of the national policies which have a bearing on the energy situation.

National security considerations, of course, call on us to limit our imports

as much as possible. All aspects of social iustice make it difficult to deliberately do some things that we might want to do, such as put a whooping

great tax on gasoline, a very regressive measure. I'm working on some balance of payments analysis to see what our balance of payments situation

would be in terms of oil imports in 1980, if we import ten to twelve million

barrels a day. It is, of course, important to know what will be the price

of that oil. I was at a cocktail party with a group of oil buyers and some government officials so I took my own poll. I went around the room asking

people what price they anticipated oil to be. At the end of the evening the

range in current dollars was from $6.50 a barrel to $15.00 a barrel. Now

that's a large increase over today's price. When I announced the results to • one little group, a fellow from Texas said, "Where's that fellow that offered

it at $6.50? I'll buy all he's got right now." So I think we will have very much higher energy prices in 1980.

We're going to need them, if we want to stimulate the kind of domestic

energy production that we need. The possibility of increased energy prices, however, introduces uncertainty into domestic production or supply

forecasting. If those people in that room really believed that' crude oil

will sell for $10 a barrel in 1980, then at that price you can do a lot of

secondary and tertiary recovery of oil. You could bring in an awful lot of

oil from Canadian tar sands. You could, subject to the limitations that were discussed here earlier, do a lot in the way of coal liquefaction and coal

gasification, and possibly get into shale oil. I think people believe that

the price probably won't reach $10 a barrel, because alternate methods of

domestic production could then be economically substituted for imports.

The second area I want to discuss involves short-term energy conservation goals. The President has directed the Federal Government to cut

projected energy consumption by 7 percent. That consumption cutback will

probably come primarily in buildings and building management. Those men in

Washington buildings this summer can tell you that the air conditioning was

reduced; it's turned off on weekends. Lights are being turned down, and so forth. A lot of things are being learned. GSA is now deliberately testing

thoughts they've had, and the work done in the National Bureau of Standards

on building technology is proving beneficial.

The President also called on the Nation to reduce overall energy con- sumption by 5 percent. A specific action was for the Secretaries of

Commerce and the Interior and Governor Love, the President's Assistant for

Energy and Director of the Energy Policy Office to meet with representatives

of American industries to discuss ways of cutting back unnecessary consumption of energy and to urge their active participation in the conservation

effort. For example, finding ways to use energy more efficiently is a simpler step than seeking very basic changes in the sorts of things that are

produced. The term "to urge the active participation of industry", that is,

large industry and small businesses in the industrial and commercial sectors

of the country, means that we in the government meet with business people

and urge them to actively participate in the goal to conserve energy in their

own particular industry or business. It can also mean that we would like

them to work with the government to help get the idea of an energy conservation ethic, of wiser use of energy, carried to the American people. In my own judgment the federal government needs to make a sustained and nationwide

effort to reach all segments of the United States, to ask people to take

advantage of what we already know about how to use the energy in their

businesses and in their homes more efficiently.

Now, when we talk about reducing energy nationwide by five percent,

what does it mean? It could mean a lot of different things. For example,

you could reduce energy consumption in the transportation sector by five

percent by stopping all the automobiles in Texas. Seriously, there are other

ways in which energy could be saved. There are goals capable of being

14
accomplished in the course of the year, without much more than an executive

decision to do so. Dupont's Consulting Service, (they're pretty good

because they charge for it I ) leaves me fairly well convinced that a five

percent energy economy is possible in the course of a year.

These goals can be accomplished on a voluntary basis. I think one thing we could all agree on is that this administration does not want to get

further into government regulation of industry, or government regulation of

any other aspect of American society. There's a great deal of pressure from

a lot of different groups to put measures like mandatory energy conservation

procedures into effect. We don't know enough yet to start legislating man- datory regulations or even mandatory incentives. I think, however, if

we're not successful in meeting the voluntary goals, we may well find our- selves forced by public pressure, manifested through Congress, by people who mean well but don't fully understand the implications of what they're doing,

to have some sort of mandatory energy conservation system.

More probable than that, we will be forced by the same kind of forces

to put into effect a mandatory allocation program. There has been in

existence in the country since last May, a voluntary petroleum allocation

program which was whipped up in a hurry. Given the speed with which it was drawn up, it isn't too bad. It was drawn to handle some very real problems

this spring, like getting crude oil to crude deficit refiners, getting the

product distributed to independent marketers and getting products which

these independents didn't have to their main consumers, which tend to be in

agricultural sectors of the country. The administration has been under

great pressure to institute a mandatory petroleum allocation program, which

I can assure you we don't yet know how to do. I can assure that the repercussions and implications for industry as well as for other sectors of the

country haven't been analyzed yet.

The energy distribution network, and in particular, the petroleum

distribution network, that has developed in the United States is one that up

until the last year or two had a lot of surplus in it. I won't go into all

of the ways in which the system was kept in equilibrium, but the two main

ingredients were the oil import program and the Texas and Louisiana Railroad

Commissions. The fact was that there was always some surplus in the system.

If you could do a projection that showed demand in the United States in

balance with supply, there really would be shortages on a regional basis,

because the system needs an excess to make it work. We are facing this

winter a situation in which, if we could reduce anticipated consumption by

five percent, the federal government won't need a mandatory program, which

when established will not be easily dislodged. The success of voluntary

programs may determine the extent of government intervention in and regulation of energy industries in the years ahead. A mandatory petroleum allocation program has been designed. It's published for public comment; all

comments are welcomed and will be read. The program is the best that four

very bright guys could develop over a period of two or three months. I will be amazed if anybody here really thinks it will work. We have it out

for public comment, though, so if the energy situation does force us to go

to a mandatory program later this year, we'll be as well prepared as possible

.

It seems to me that if the government and the business community

either separately or in cooperation, want to reduce energy usage by five

percent next year and lay the foundation for a long-range conservation

program, there are four ingredients necessary.

One is to tell the story; that is, tell why we need energy conservation

and what we can do to encourage the implementation of knowledge we have

today. Secondly, we can assemble and disseminate information about untried

or potential conservation approaches. Thirdly, we can continue the work in

research and development that we are presently doing. Lastly, we can emphasize new basic research.

We should start doing all of these things right now, but if we want to

have an impact on energy consumption in the United States over the next year

we have to get the message out today about what we know today.

15
That calls for the federal government to undertake a fairly massive

campaign, something like a "Save Energy Month", with a presidential

announcement on national television, meetings with industry, and local

meetings in towns and cities to make the question of energy conservation

an important one in the mind of everyone. Increasing domestic energy

production does conflict with the goals of environmental protection and lowcost energy. Conserving energy, on the other hand, is compatible with

environmental protection and with keeping costs down. Energy conservation

is something that I think American business, other sectors of the nation,

and the government could cooperate with meaningful results.

I'm not going to discuss all the concepts we have for this campaign,

but one of the things we're doing, is putting together a presentation which

will tell why we need to think in terms of energy efficiency, and will

illustrate in detail the kinds of measures that could be taken in the

various sectors of the economy. We will have a slide presentation, with

text, that anybody inside or outside the government can use. I would prepare the presentation on film and video tape, so it can be available for use over educational brodcasting, in universities, in schools. Commerce

field offices, or for Smokey the Bear or whoever else might want to give

such a show. If government would do what I think it ought to do, we'd also

have an hour of prime time on commercial television this fall, but I don't

know if that will come to pass. I would appreciate any specific ideas or

any specific recommendations of how energy can be used more efficiently,

that are graphic and attention-grabbing without distorting the long-run aims

by faulty and misleading ideas.

We've reached the third part of my speech. I thought I'd take just a few minutes to look at how the energy policy is set in the federal government today, and how it will be set, formulated and implemented after the

formation of the Department of Energy and National Resources. The reason

that you can't talk meaningfully about energy policy without involving so many agencies is because energy cuts across into every kind of program in

almost every department's responsibilities. As it becomes a higher priority, it becomes a matter of greater priority in every department and bureau

of the federal government. For example, the Labor Department is concerned

about the implications of the mandatory petroleum allocation program. If

the situation gets grim enough so it has to be put into effect, and plants

in Northeast Ohio shut down because they can't get fuel, people who work in

those plants are going to be very much affected. So the Labor Department

is involved.

The Energy Policy Office, which was formed in June and announced on June 29th, is headed by John Love, who resigned as the Governor of Colorado

to take the post. He follows Charles DiBona, who had been announced as the

senior White House energy expert in the April message. At that time, Dibona

was to report through a triumvirate of Henry Kissinger, George Schultz, and

John Erlichman. Now Mr. DiBona is charged with the overall policy formulation and policy direction for energy in the federal government. As the

problems associated with our having to import ever-increasing quantities of

oil from the Middle East come into play, there are a lot of national

security and Council Staff are getting much more heavily involved in energy

policy, particularly from the national side. We talked to them about the

President's new cost of living program. Anything to do with energy policy

is very much affected by the positions that are taken in the Cost of Living

Council with respect to cost and prices, so Mr. Schultz and his department

are also directly involved.

You don't do anything in this administration without the hidden or unhidden hand of the Office of Management and Budget in there someplace, if

only because they have the last crack at your budget. The Office of

Management and Budget is charged with organizing committees to evaluate the

comments on the mandatory petroleum allocation program and to bring about

some new and enlightened melody of environmental energy policies.

16
A great deal of effort is going on right now to create, on a defacto

basis, a Department of Energy and Natural Resources. Th^ focal point is

the Department of Interior. The Secretary of the Interior is Rogers

Morton; his deputy is Mr. Whi taker. There's a deputy undersecretary

named Ken Lay who is involved in energy conservation matters, but the

assistant secretary for energy and minerals is Steve Wakefield.

The Office of Oil and Gas has three groups within it: one is an analytical reporting group; the other two are responsible for administering oil import programs.

Data analysis is a new office in Interior; you should follow its

fortunes closely. Their job is to get the data on energy available to

the government, put it in better form, and analyze it, in order to

increase the accuracy in supply and demand forecasting and price forecasting. They look for all of the kinds of data on energy sources that

we would all like to work with when we are wrestling with problems. The

office is just beginning and it isn't fully staffed yet.

Also, we have the Energy Conservation Office headed by John Gibbons

from Oak Ridge, who is an excellent man. His special assistant is Bill

Porter, with whom I have been working until Gibbons gets on board.

Bonneville Power is a pretty big undertaking, with 10 new offices, which

when developed should be able to play a major role in improving the kind

of data that's available to the government, and to help outline coherent

longer range energy conservation policy.

The interests of other agencies can be divided between a legulatory

and a Research and Development area of interest. The person in the

federal government who's charged with sorting out on interagency basis

how to spend the $10 billion in R & D Eor the next five years, and this

year's $100 million is Dixy Lee Ray of the Atomic Energy Commission.

There will be input from all agencies, but Tixy is certainly the key

person in it.

On the Treasury side, there is Bill Simon. '^'he chairmanship of the

Oil Policy Committee was transferred from the Office of ^^mergency Preparedness to Treasury in February; I think it's either about to be

disestablished, transferred to Governor Love, or some other arrangement

made. I think there will be further reorganization of these agencies.

The Federal Power Commission is an independent Regulatory Commission established by Congress. It is probably not going to be disestablished, and will continue to have regulatory functions in the

fields of natural gas and electricity.

The Federal Trade Commission is carrying on a campaign to bring

major oil companies into court on anti-trust cases. Even if they never

do anything else in the energy field, that organization will be with us for at least another 5 to 10 years, directly involved in energy. "^he Treasury Department, which has a certain yen to have something to say

about tax and tariff policy, is going to continue to stay involved and

interested in energy matters, even though their oil policy responsibilities may be moved. They'll also continue to be very interested, of

course, in overall economic policy, which gets them into the whole

question of prices and costing, questions of balance of payments, and so forth.

The State Department is that Department which implements foreign

policy; they are going to be very much involved so long as energy in the

international field is important.

The Council of Economic Advisors will participate; they'll be

interested, as is Consumer Affairs.

The Department of Defense obviously has a direct interest in the

national defense and national security aspects of energy. They have a real interest in import policy and other policies which affect the cost

of the energy they use. Also involved in the international aspects of energy, the Central

Intelligence Agency will be asked to do all kinds of analyses and

studies about international encirgy flows.

17
The Department of Justice is going to be involved to see that justice

is done, primarily from a point of view of anti-trust consideration.

The Department of Agriculture is interested in fuel availabilities

for farmers. The Secretary of Agriculture wants to expand agriculture

production, which will help lower prices and also have agriculture products

to export. For this a lot more energy is needed in the form of gasoline,

diesel fuel, and propane, and those are the things we're having trouble

with. An expanded agricultural program for next year may plunge us into an energy shortage which will then require somebody to decide who really needs

those fuels the most, the steel factories or the farms.

Lastly, the Department of Transportation is involved on all questions

of transportation policy, and is an agency which, in terms of its regulatory and legislative influence, may have more influence on energy use patterns than any other single department in the government.

Questions :

Q. What role will the Department of Commerce play in the government's

energy program?

A. I think the primary role of the Department of Commerce should be to see that we have national policies which insure an adequate supply of

energy to the industrial and commercial users in the United States.

Also, Commerce should try to get industry to actively participate in

energy conservation matters. We have to take an active interest in

questions of energy supply, particularly domestic energy supply. A

part of Commerce known as Domestic and International Business Affairs

is interested in the conditions under which fuel is imported.

Another part of Commerce is the Maritime Administration, which manages

the maritime subsidy programs. They are interested in energy from the

point of view of what kind of tanker fleet the United States should

have

.

There are a number of energy conservation programs in the National

Bureau of Standards. Work is being done on building technology - improving the efficiency of old and new buildings. There are also

programs in industrial efficiency and consumer appliance labeling.

18
II. NATIONAL CONTEXT FOR

ENERGY CONSERVATION

National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 403

Proceedings of 1973 Engineering Foundation Conference (Issued June 1976)

NATIONAL BENEFITS OF ENERGY CONSERVATION

by

Leon R. Glicksman and David C. White

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Boston, Massachusetts 02139

Starting from the correlation between a nation's gross

national product and its energy consumption per capita,

the consequences of economic growth on the world's

estimated energy resources is discussed. In the absence

of new energy technologies or a reduction of energy

consumption in relationship to GNP , sustained high

economic growth will be difficult and costly to achieve

as our own resource base diminishes. The developing

nations of the world will be competing for resources as their own GNP ' s increase, further exacerbating the resource depletion problem. As the nations of the

world compete for scarce resources, there are potential

international complications beyond those presently

apparent in the effect of petroleum imports on America's transportation sector.

Key Words: Correlation; Economic; Energy; Imports;

International; Petroleum

Introduction

In the United States, an abundance of energy supplies and a low price

of energy have led to a steady rapid growth in energy consumption for over

150 years. Cheap energy to fuel our economic growth has been our nation's

policy. There have been few incentives to use energy efficiently or to conserve energy. Our use of energy in the past has followed the same "throw away" philosophy we have practiced for our consumer goods.

In the last two decades the United States has become a growing

importer of energy fuel. Today it is evident that careful long-range

planning is needed to assure adequate energy supplies for the future. A

serious effort to conserve energy must be made to limit our future con- sumption of energy to levels which can be met by supplies that can be

produced and consumed with acceptable environmental impacts. We will need

to rely on foreign sources for these energy supplies or to develop new

technologies that can effectively utilize our domestic solid fossil and

and nuclear fuels. A dependence on foreign suppliers could have serious

effects on our balance of payments and on our international relations. A

reliance on domestic solid fossil fuels poses environmental problems,

particularly in the large quantities of those fuels required to meet

present and projected demands.

In this paper we explore the potential role of energy conservation in

overcoming the near-term problems related to energy supplies and, more

importantly, in meeting future energy requirements without major economic

or environmental disruptions.

21
Patterns of Future Growth

For every country in the world, there is a close correlation between

a nation's gross national product per capita and its per capita energy

consumption (See Fig. 1-'-) . In this country, not only is high energy con- sumption due to a high GNP, but the energy consumption per unit GNP, which

decreased until 1965, is now rising (Fig. 22), The total amount of energy

consumed to date is a small fraction of our total estimated resources, but

the implication of a high growth rate on future consumption is serious.

The resource base of the United States shown in Table 1^ is huge, 250 Q

for fossil fuels (IQ = 10l8 btU) and double that for nuclear fuels used in

a fast breeder. The total energy consumed to date has been approximately

two Q. Figure 3 shows the future cumulative energy consumption for

various growth rates. By 2050, at a five percent growth rate, we will

have consumed 700 Q, equal to our total estimated resource basedl If the

growth rate is three percent, instead of five percent, then by the year

2100 the total energy consumed will be about 70Q, a full order of magnitude saving in fuel resources by a reduction of two percentage points in

the growth rate. Figure 4^ shows the estimated yearly cost for energy

consumption as a percent of the GNP. It is assumed that the GNP grows at

4.5% and the average cost of energy doubles in thirty years (2.5% growth

rate) due to increased unit costs of imported energy or due to the use of

domestic energy sources which are more expensive to produce. In 2020, at

a 4.5% growth rate, energy costs will be more than 20% of the GNP, and at

a 6% growth rate energy costs will be almost 50% of the GNP I It seems certain that economic pressures alone will diminish the growth rate before

such extremes are reached. However, the plateau we finally reach and the

energy resource requirements to maintain that plateau will strongly depend

on the growth rate we follow for the next few decades.

The difficulties inherent in high sustained growth rates can be shown

using the example of nuclear power for electrical generation. Let us assume, ideally that all future increases in electrical generating

capacity are met by nuclear plants; new fossil plants are added only to

make up for the capacity of retired fossil plants. Further, assume that

fast breeders are not commercially operational until 2010; after 2010 all new plants are fast breeders with a doubling time for fuel production of

eight years. Using the estimated uranium fuel costs given in Table 1, the

cost of fuel for the nuclear reactors installed between 1970 and 2010 can

be estimated. The results are shown in Figure 5^, with costs shown as a function of GNP (assuming GNP grows at 4.5% yearly). The 7.2% growth in

electrical demand represents a doubling in consumption every ten years.

In 2010, with a 7.2% growth rate, the cost of uranium will be more than

2.5% of the GNP. The cost jumps even higher as all of the projected

supplies at $50/lb. are expended. For the 7.8% growth rate a plateau

above 2% of the GNP is reached in 2000 and persists until 2030, whereas

with a 5% growth in electrical consumption, in 2005 a plateau below 1%

of GNP for uranium costs is reached. With a cost of $450/KW for nuclear

plants, the capital cost of new plants in 2010 is 2.15% and 0.8% of the

GNP for a 7.2% and 5% growth rate respectively. In the period 2012 to

2020 the difference between the fuel costs for the two growth rates is

greater than 2% of the GNP.

One can reasonably expect that new technologies such as fusion

reactors will increase the available supply of energy and possibly reduce

its cost. This technique still requires a long lead time before it will

be operational; the "pinch" in available resources until that time depends

on our ability to reduce the future growth of energy consumption.

22
ENERGY CONSUMPTION, POPULATION, AND GNP

3x1 0^

Lf) CO oo o) o

^ rsj CM GNP PER CAPITA (DOLLARS) (= Y/P)

Country Legend: A North America, Western Europe, Oceania, South Africa, Japan O East European Communist countries and U.S.S.R. # Latin America, Other Africa and Non-Communist Asia

United States Canada

United Kingdom

Belgium-Luxembourg

West Germany

Sweden Denmark

Netherlands Norway

France

Finland Switzerland New Zealand

Austria

Israel Italy

GNP PER CAPITA AND ENERGY CONSUMPTION PER CAPITA: 49 SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1965.

FIGURE 1

23
lJ3d SdV110a

r-o>eo r« (o . n cm n-n'^n—i r T—

r

V

\

\

o

I- <

CO Q

/

/

/

i\

3>IViNI 3ia01V3

NvwnH dO 3idinniAi /

oc

CM <

a> uj

'- >

I I I I I ^ I I L

oa>ooi«>co o a o

J L

uv3A/snia sNomivu

24
TABLE 1

U. S. RESOURCE BASE FOR FOSSIL FUELS AND URANIUM

Total Resource

Base - U.S.G.S.

(natural units)

0

(lO-'-^Btu)

Identifiable

& Recoverable

(natural units)

o (lO^^Btu)

COAL 3,200 X lO^tons 77 200-390 X 10^

tons

4.8 - 9.4

Low Sulfur

( fT.pqc than 1% 1 ) (100 X lO^tons) (2.4) (12 X lO^tons) (0. 29)

PETROLEUM

LIQUIDS

2,900 X 10^

barrels

16. 8 52 X 10^

barrels

0.3

Oil & Natural

Gas Liquids

NATURAL GAS 6,600 X lO^^cu ft 6.8 290 X lO^^cu ft 0.3

SHALE OIL 12

26 X 10

barrels

149.0 160-600 X 10^

barrels

0.9 - 3.5

TOTAL 249. 6Q 6.3 - 13. 5Q

URANIUM

(U30g)

($ / lb.)

U. S. Resources

"3 ^8

(lO^tons)

Q of Electricity Generated

Water Reactor

1 R (10 Btu

Fast Breeder

1 p (10 Btu

8 0. 594 0. 11 13.8

10 0.94 0. 17 21.6

15 1.45 0.25 33.6

30 2.24 0.39 53

50 10 1.76 232

100 25 4 . 4 578

1 Q = lOl^Btu

1 Q coal = 41.5 billion tons

1 Q oil = 173 billion bbl.

1 Q natural gas = 970 trillion cu ft

25
TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMED

FOR

DIFFERENT GROWTH RATES

7 X 1020

(700 Q)

35x101" _

14x 10^8

7x10l9

(70 Q)

35x10^'

14x10^"

7x10^'

(7Q)

35x10^'

14x10^'

7x10"

1-m

ap~

O) o \-00 o>

PAo TU

LU ea

in CO "o o X o o >- p~ CO II cc

LU oLU LU<1-o1-

Q= E„ e"dt

=- W -1]

r

1970 1980

1971 = 70x 10^5

2000 2020 2040 2060 YEAR

2080 2100

FIGURE 3

26
YEARLY COST* FOR ENERGY AS PERCENT OF GNP

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030

'ANNUAL COST FOR TOTAL ENERGY OUTPUT TO FINAL CONSUMER AT POINT

OF CONSUMPTION EXCEPT ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION COSTS

FIGURE 4

27
URANIUM COSTS AS PERCENT OF GNP (NON-BREEDERS)

ASSUMING 4.5% GROWTH IN GNP

FIGURES

28
Petroleum Supplies - Transportation

In the near term, the nation faces a shortage in petroleum supplies

brought about in part by environmental standards that cause increased

gasoline consumption in automobiles and by limitations on environmentally

acceptable fuels that can be burned in electrical power plants. The projections of future demand for petroleum are shown in Figure 6^. Note that

most of the additional petroleum demand is projected to be met by imports.

This projection is a function of national fuel policies; any reduction in

the rate of growth of demand will have a significant impact on our import

requirements. Since imports constitute about 25% of our present petroleum

supply, an immediate 5% reduction in petroleum demand will result in a 20%

reduction in import requirements. Table 2^ gives the uses of energy sources

in the United States. Over 50% of petroleum is consumed in transportation;

for the near future no alternate energy source is available for transportation uses. Production of petroleum from coal or oil shale is possible, but

development of economical large-scale processes and the construction of enormous processing facilities will require time and have undetermined

environmental consequences.

The only feasible way to reduce the projected import requirements in

the immediate future is by programs of energy conservation that reduce

energy waste and stress more efficient utilization of energy for each task

performance

.

The projected increase in petroleum consumption by various segments of

transportation is shown in Figure 7 . Note that the scale from 10 to 100

billion gallons is reduced; the increase in consumption by automobiles is

considerable. Unfortunately, the most efficient transportation modes are

the least used, especially for passenger transportation (Figure 8^).

The growth of petroleum consumption due to automobiles is expected to

reach a plateau. Between 1951 and 1968 the average miles driven per year

by passenger vehicles rose by less than 6%*. As the population reaches a constant level and the number of cars per family reaches a saturation level,

the total vehicle mileage should also reach a constant. The amount of petroleum consumed at that time will be determined by the decisions we make in

the next few years concerning emission controls and other constraints.

Malliaris and Strombotne have presented an interesting study of automotive conservation methods.** Table 3-'-'-', reproduced from their work, estimates the potential energy conservation of several proposals. Some of these

proposals, which involve major disruptions of people's normal habits, such

as a switch from automobiles to rapid transit for commuting, result in only

marginal conservation of energy. Further, the establishment of adequate

rapid transit facilities is a lengthy, costly program.

The proposal to reduce the weight and size of automobiles does result

in a noticeable reduction in petroleum consumption. It has been shown that

the gas consumption of an automobile is approximately linearly proportional

to the weight of the vehicle. Since the average life of an automobile is

short (in 1969, less than 10% of the cars were over 10 years old), a reduction in the average weight of new cars will in a few years substantially

reduce the average weight of the entire automobile population.

Reduction in the average weight of automobiles will also reduce our consumption of raw materials; 21% of the total steel production is used by

the automotive industry as well as 10% of the aluminum, 55% of lead, 36%

of zinc, and 65% of rubber.*

It has been estimated***that the energy expended in producing a new car

is equivalent to the energy consumed by the car in its first year of operation. The greatest part of this energy is used for metal production and

forming, which are highly energy-intensive segments of the industrial sector.

The impact on petroleum imports of conservation measures in automobile

design and operation can be seen from the following: if the rate of growth

of demand over the next few years can be reduced from 4% to 3%, the estimated

petroleum imports at the time will be reduced by 20%.

29
PROJECTED U.S. DEMAND FOR PETROLEUM

40

FIGURE 6

30
TABLE 2

ENERGY SOURCES AND USES IN UNITED STATES (1971)

% OF TCTAL ENERGY

RESIDENTIAL ELECTRIC

5 CONMERCIAL INDUSTRIAL TRANSPORTATION GENERATION TOTAL

COAL 0.57 6.47 0.01 11.16 18.21

NATURAL GAS 10.65 15.13 1.20 . 5.98 32.95

PETROLEUM 9.49 7.81 23.39 3.50 44.20

NUCLEAR 0.59 0.59

HYDRO 4.06 4.06

20.70 29.42 24.60 25.28 100.00

31
FIGURE 7
FIGURE 8

BILLIONS OF NET TON-MILES

750 500 250 0

I

1 T

RAILROADS-FREIGHT

RAILROADS-PASSENGERS

BUSES

TRUCKS

PERSONAL AUTOMOBILES

OIL PIPELINES

WATERWAYS

AIRCRAR

TOTAL, PASSENGERS

TOTAL, FREIGHT

TOTAL

NET PROPULSION EFFICIENCY

0 100 200 300 r

D

T T

TRANSPORTATION MODE USE AND EFFICIENCY

33
TABLE 3

SUMMARY OF DISCUSSED ACTIONS AND THE

CORRESPONDING PETROLEUM CONSERVATION

POTENTIAL IN PERCENT OF TOTAL TRANSPORTATION

ENERGY FOR 1970

#_ ACTION % FUEL CONSERVATION

1. Convert 50% of Passenger Car Population 9.0%

to Small Cars (22 mpg)

2. Introduce in 50% of Highway Vehicles a 11.5%

30% Reduction of Fuel Consumption

3. Eliminate 50% of Urban Congestion 1.1%

4. Achieve 50% Success in Limiting Highway 2.9%

Speeds to 50 mph

5. Persuade 50% of Urban Commuters to Car- 3.1%

Pool

6. Shift 50% of Commuters, (to & from City 1.9%

Centers) , to Dedicated Bus Service

7. Shift 50% of Intercity Auto Passengers 3.0%

to Intercity Bus and Rail, Evenly

8. Shift 50% of Intercity Trucking to 3.4%

Rail Freight

9. Shift 50% of Short Haul Air Passengers 0.29%

to Intercity Bus

10. Persuade 50% of the People to Walk or 1.6%

Bike up to 5 miles, instead of Driving

Foreign Relations

An immediate problem posed by the present growth in energy consumption

is the gap between United States petroleum consumption and domestic

production. An estimate of cost of oil imports for the next twelve years

is given in Figure 9^^. By 1983, the cost of oil imports is estimated to

range between 25 and 50 billion dollars. To avoid a trade deficit, the

present dollar volume of United States exports must approximately double

(1971, 43 billion dollars) while the dollar volume of imports of quantities

other than petroleum must remain constant. We may be forced to commit a large portion of agricultural production to foreign trade which may affect

domestic food prices in a manner similar to what we are experiencing this

year. A viable alternative to trade deficits is a strict conservation

policy. The projected costs of imported petroleum will cause severe pressure on the international monetary system and possibly cause domestic

shortages of goods sold on the world market.

Even though our energy consumption is growing rapidly, the consumption

of the rest of the world is growing faster. Figure 10^2 shows the projected

demand for Western Europe and Japan compared with the United States. The

greatest part of the world's crude oil reserves is concentrated in the

Middle East. The United States, along with Western Europe and Japan ,^ will

become major consumers of Middle Eastern oil. Figures lli3 and 12-'-'*

34
FIGURE 9

RANGE OF COSTS OF U.S. OIL IMPORTS
.A1IVQ siaaava jo SNomiiAi o o o O O O o r*. CD IT) CO CM ^ Oo

r- CD LO ^ CO .Aiiva siaauva jo SNomiw

36
FIGURE 11

1970 WORLD PETROLEUM

CONSUMPTION AND MAJOR MOVEMENTS

37
FIGURE 12

1980 WORLD PETROLEUM

CONSUMPTION AND MAJOR MOVEMENTS

38
show how the pattern of petroleum movement will shift over the next decade.

The critical problems of allocating the Middle Eastern supplies and providing the necessary shipping capacity must be solved. On one hand, one

can envision a free-for-all between the consuming nations, each offering

lucrative agreements to the producing nations for oil rights. The strain

of this competition could cause a major re-alignment of traditional

alliances. For example, if the United States and Japan were able to

monopolize most of the Middle Eastern oil supplies, Western Europe would

have to turn to Russia for petroleum. One could imagine scenarios as frightening as supplies curtailed by producing nations to raise revenues

or to influence major international decisions by their customers, or even armed intervention by consumers to assure adequate supplies.

On the other hand, the major producing and consuming nations may

realize that only long-range co-operative planning will assure supplies

and compensation adequate for all. The establishment of world-wide conser- vation policies could be an important step in assuring adequate supplies.

The energy problem may provide an impetus for an integrated world economy

with perhaps more friendship and cooperation in political dealings.

Conclusions

If the present growth rate of energy consumption is maintained in the

future, various consequences will be felt in this country. A continuation

of the high growth rate will resul'. in a rapid depletion of our economically

available supplies of fuels, possibly before alternative fuel technologies

have been developed. The high growth rate will force a much larger portion

of our future GNP to be used for energy production. The projected gap

between our projected petroleum consumption and our domestic production

will force us to rely heavily on imported fuel. If the oil-producing

countries can maintain a high tax on petroleum , it will be almost impossible

for this country to avoid a huge trade deficit. This deficit will, in turn, cause many domestic and international repercussions.

The decrease in the rate of population growth will help to reduce the

growth of energy consumption. Energy consumption will also decrease if the

unit price of energy increases sufficiently, but his decrease is at the

expense of a reduced standard of living, at least for some segments of the

population. Government regulation of fuel consumption will not be effective

unless a very complex, highly innovative and coordinated program to regulate

all fuels is instituted. If only one fuel is controlled,- for example, if

natural gas is rationed, then oil can be used as a substitute fuel and the

pressure on oil supplies will increase.

Conservation of energy appears the most desirable method to reduce

energy consumption beyond that achieved by a zero population growth. Conservation will also produce side benefits in the form of natural resource conservation, reduced air and thermal pollution, and reduced noise.

The importance of energy conservation can be fully grasped when the

present rate of growth is projected into the future. A change in the rate

of growth from 5% to 3% can reduce the cumulative use of energy for the

next 130 years by a factor of ten. Even the 3% growth rate results in enormous levels of energy consumption.

39
References

1. (Figure 1)

Darmstadter, Joel with P. D. Teitelbaum and J. G. Polach, Energy in

the World Economy , a Statistical Review of Trends in Output , TradiT

and Consumption since 1925 . Published for Resources for the Future,

Inc. Baltimore, Md. : John Hopkins Press, 1971, p. 66.

2. (Figure 2)

Hottel, Hoyt C. and Jack B. Howard, "An Agenda for Energy", In

Technology Review, January 1972, p. 39. Updated using: U.S. Dept. of

Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United

States, 1972 , Washington, D. C. : Government Printing Office; National

Petroleum Council, U.S. Energy Outlook ; A Summary Report of the

National Petroleum Council , Washington, D. C: NPC, 1972, p. 16;

Executive Office of the President, Office of Emergency Preparedness,

The Potential for Energy Conservation , A Staff Study , Washington, D.C.

:

Government Printing Office, 1972, p. A-2.

3. (Table 1)

Data from: Theobald, P. K. , S. P. Schweinfurth, and D. C. Duncan

"Energy Resources of the United States", U. S. Department of the

Interior, Geological Survey Circular 650. Washington, D. C: U.S.G.S.,

1972, Also Benedict, Manson, "Electric Power from Nuclear Fission", in

Technology Review, October/November 1971, p. 37.

4. (Figure 4)

InterTechnology Corporation, The U.S. Energy Problem, Vol . II , Appendices Volume , Part A. Prepared for the RANN Program of the

National Science Foundation. Warrenton, Va. : InterTechnology

Corporation, 1971, pp. A-36 - A-39.

5. (Figure 5)

Uranium prices taken from Benedict, Manson, op. cit. , p. 37.

6. (Figure 6)

Shell Oil Corporation, "The National Energy Outlook". Houston,

Texas: Shell Oil, 1973, p. 4.

7. (Table 2)

Executive Office of the President, Office of Emergency Preparedness,

op. cit. , p. A-2.

8. (Figure 7)

Rice, Richard A., "System Energy and Future Transportation", in

Technology Review , January 1972, p. 36.

9. (Figure 8)

Ibid.

10. (Table 3)

Malliaris, A. C. and R. L. Strombotne of the United States Department

of Transportation, "Demand for Energy by the Transportation Sector

and Opportunities for Energy Conservation". Presented at the conference

"Energy: Demand, Conservation and Institutional Problems", held at

M.I.T., February 12-14, 1973, p. 24.

40
(Figure 9)

Shell Oil Corporation, op. cit. , p. 24.

(Figure 10)

Ibid. , p. 30.

(Figure 11)

Ibid. , p. 32,

(Figure 12)

Ibid. , p. 33.

* 1970 Automobile Facts and Figures, Automobile Manufacturers

Association

** Malliaris and Strombotne, "Demand for Energy in the Transportation

Sector and Opportunities for Energy Conservation", presented at

the conference Energy: Demand , Conservation and Institutional

Problems , M.I.T., Feb., 1973

** Berry and Fels, "The Production and Consumption of Automobiles",

a report to the Illinois Institute for Environmental Quality,

July 1972.

41

National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 403

Proceedings of 1973 Engineering Foundation Conference (Issued June 1976)

OPTIONS FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION

by

B. Hannon

University of Illinois

Urbana-Champaign

Urbana, Illinois 61801

An input-output model useful in measuring energy use,

efficiency of production processes, and product uses

is presented. The model provides estimates of total

energy and employment shifts in a variety of processes

and products. Several of these demand shifts and

their potential impacts are discussed. United States

industry, in general, becomes more energy-intensive as

it grows. The impacts of demand shifts and changing

character of industry as it evolves on consumer cost,

employment, and pollution should be thoroughly understood before policy recommendations should be

initiated.

Key Words: Economic; Energy; Input-Output Model

A country that runs on energy cannot afford to run short. If it does,

its processes, from the most fundamental metal processing to incidental

pleasure transportation, decline dramatically. Yet in the United States,

where fast rising per capita energy demands (50% increase since 1952 (1, 2))

nearly intersect the home supplies of some energy forms, we turn more and more to imported petroleum as the chief source of energy. This raises the

dependence of this country on the rest of the world, raises the risk of an interrupted energy supply, and raises the risk of United States involvement

in an armed intervention to protect a foreign energy source. It is true

that we "can't afford to run short", yet the price demanded for extending

the energy supply lines may become more than the country is willing to pay.

Home supplies can be extended through the substitution of coal for oil

and gas and through the use of nuclear electric power. The substitutions

require time. The long range planning horizon for most utilities is about

10-15 years. Massive capital reallocation for fuel substitution would be

required to postpone the anticipated intersection of supply and demand (3)

.

Further, fear of the environmental impacts of strip mining for coal, power

plant emissions of heat, radiation, oxides of nitrogen and of sulfur, etc.,

auto emissions, and other air, soil and water pollutants, does not seem to

retard our unbridled consumption of energy.

The concept of energy conservation appears to be a loophole in the

fabric of the energy dilemma. Using less energy in homes, industry and

transportation, by both increased efficiency and restricted use of energy,

would decrease external dependency and avoid additional environmental

impact.

A country that runs on energy cannot afford to waste it.

Modeling Energy Use

This paper discusses the options for energy conservation by describing

a model and early results obtained by the Energy Research Group at the

Center for Advanced Computation (CAC) in the University of Illinois at

Champaign-Urbana . The work is supported mainly by the National Science

Foundation and the Energy Policy Project of the Ford Foundation.

43
CAC has developed a mathematical model as a result of an in-depth look

at the methods for conserving energy. Before speaking of conserving energy

(or of increasing energy supply) , one should have a detailed understanding

of where energy is going and the total energy cost of every good and service.

One could then determine the energy conserved by switching from one good or service to an alternative or by eliminating its use. Likewise the energy

cost of the substitution of new technology could be estimated.

A simple static model which accounts for all the activities in the

United States and for which much data has been collected is all that is

initially required. Such a model was developed by Leontief and the United

States Department of Commerce (4, 5) for dollar flows in the United States

economy. This model has been converted to an energy flow model by

Herendeen (6) for 1963, utilizing the most recent data available. The

model is linear and is described by the matrix equation

E = R (I - A)"-"- Pq (1)

E is the direct and indirect energy use of a prescribed type; R is a vector

which describes the amount of that type of energy in British Thermal Units

(BTU) per dollar of total output of each of the industries in the United

States; I is the unity matrix; A is the Department of Commerce's direct

dollar matrix of transactions between each industry and all the others;

P is an activities matrix of the dollar flow from each industry to a particular activity per dollar of that activity; and q is a vector which

describes the total amount of dollars spent under a certain proaram on each

of the activities described by P. In our model the maximum size of R is 362

elements; of A, 362 squared elements; of P, 362 rows and 220 columns, and

of q, 220 elements.

There are currently five R vectors representing coal, refined

petroleum, gas, electricity and the total primary energy. If the meaning

of R is changed slightly to occupational employment per dollar of total

output for each industry (7) , then E is the total (direct and indirect)

employment of a particular occupation required for the specified q. Currently the model can represent 165 occupations. Pollution vectors are now being fitted to the model. If we are to be realistic in setting goals

for energy conservation, the employment and pollution effects must be

understood and taken into account.

For a specified list of activities (q) , the direct and indirect energy

and employment requirements and pollution generated in the industrial and

commercial sectors can be determined for the technology in use in 1963. We are currently developing R vectors for 1967 with the hope that the A matrix

will soon be available from the Department of Commerce. At this point, we

can begin to understand how energy uses change with alterations in demands

for goods and services.

Direct energy is energy used by a particular industry to produce a unit of its goods and services. Indirect energy is that energy used by

all the suppliers of materials and services to this industry and by all the

suppliers of the suppliers, etc., to supply only those materials which were

needed for the unit of good or service. Indirect energy is the limit of an infinite sum of terms, which "increase in plurality, but decrease in value.

This process, in some case, includes the amount of production in a "feedback" process. For example, it includes the consumption of cars used by

steel company executives to make the steel which is consumed in making a car. Projecting the matrix to future years is difficult. Changes must be

made to the elements in R to reflect the change in efficiency and substitution effects of the industrial and commercial use of energy, e.g., a switch to oil from coal to generate electricity. Changes in A must reflect

the new technologies adopted by an industry, e.g., electric steel furnaces

replacing the open hearth processes. Changes in P must be made to reflect

the technological change in final processing techniques and the changes in consumer choice, e.g., the increasing amounts of paper and plastic

packaging used in retail food establishments.

44
The R vectors will change rapidly, yet as more data become available

from specific energy use studies, projection difficulties increase. The A

matrix is relatively stable (8) but the Bureau of Labor Statistics has

made several projections. The P matrix is being developed by special

investigation at CAC and the Department of Commerce. Error propagation

and sensitivity analysis techniques are under study at the Center. The

entire model with its techniques for manipulation is being installed on the national ARPA (9) computer network. Installation should be finished

for the 1963 models by August of 1973.

The matrices and vectors can be reduced to any desired size by

aggregation techniques. On the other hand, more detail than is now available is often needed and pertinent rows and colums of the A matrix

must be judiciously subdivided.

Energy Conservation Options

Many specific techniques can be imagined to conserve energy. From

this plethora of opportunities, one can discern three general categories:

efficiency of production, efficiency of product use, and control of the

rate of energy use. Each of these can be thought of in the context of

three broad classes of users - personal consumption, government and

industry - in order to realize the options for energy conservation.

Production Efficiency

Because of the low cost of energy (only 3.6% of producers' price in

1963) , it is presumed by many that industries simply do not strive to use energy efficiently in their production processes. Compelling arguments

for this point of view are made by Berg (10) , who claims that about 25%

of the total United States energy use could be saved through more efficient use. For example, savings of up to 39% could be realized in the

operation of certain equipment in the steel industry.

Railroads have improved their energy use efficiency by a factor of 10

since the early part of the century through a change to diesel fuel and

through improved hauling techniques (11). Recycling of aluminum, steel,

paper, cardboard and plastic offer rich energy saving opportunities (12).

The most pervasive energy increase in industrial processes, however,

is believed to have occurred via automation, i.e., the displacement of

labor from the production process. The ratio of production worJcers ' wages

to the cost of electricity increased steadily by 25% from 1951 to 1969

(13, 14). During that time the wholesale price index for electrical

machinery increased by 50% (15) . These factors indicate the pressure on

the industrial decision makers to eliminate the increasingly expensive

worker from the process and to substitute machines which increase its

energy intensity.

We have examined the process of automation in some detail, with the

model described in equation (1) (16) . If q is specified so as to require

a one dollar increase in delivery to final consumption from a given

industry, then Fig. 1 shows the direct and indirect energy use and

employment arising throughout the economic system. While a large proportion of the industries are centrally clustered, there are some very

energy intensive industries (asphalt coatings and asphalt paving, cement,

primary aluminum building paper, and chemicals) and some very labor intensive

industries (hospitals, hotels, credit agencies).

The pattern shown in Figure 1 represents the energy and labor

requirements of an additional dollar delivered to final demand. It

represents, for a consumer, the direct and indirect effect on energy and

employment of the expenditure of one dollar in each industry. It does

not include any multiplier effects of the expenditure. It is, therefore,

inappropriate for use in an impact analysis.

Another way to consider the problem is to examine the effects of a 10 percent proportionate growth in each industry, with an offsetting

decrease prorated among the other industries in proportion to their share

45
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48
of deliveries to final consumption. In Figures 2 and 3, first quadrant

industries are primarily agricultural; second quadrant industries are basic

material production, construction and fabrication oriented; third quadrant

industries are service oriented with a high degree of technology and high

wages, and fourth quadrant industries are service oriented without a great

degree of special labor saving technology and with low wages. Most industries

fall into quadrant 2, indicating that the nature of the structure of the 1963

economy is to respond to an increase in production by becoming more energy

intensive and less labor intensive.

Figures 2 and 3 are addressed more to the policymaker concerned about

the question of growth. The magnitudes reflect the relative dependence of

the United States society in 1963 on each of its industries. For example, a 10% increase in delivery to final demand by "motor vehicles" would have

required a direct and indirect energy increase of 34 trillion BTU and a decrease in employment of 104,000 jobs (direct and indirect). Further, a 10% increase in deliveries of postal services to final demand would have

reduced energy consumption by about 4 trillion BTU and increased employment

about 36,000 in 1963. Note that some intermediate products deliver little

to final demand.

A problem with this approach is that the gain in delivery to final

demand is absorbed proportionately from all other industries. On the other

hand, the product of an industry competes with only a few other products,

e.g., aluminum with steel and wood as structural members, steel with glass

and plastic as food containers. (This type of product competition is

described in the next section.)

If one industry's gain were at the expense of a few competitors, the

complexion of Figure 2 and 3 would change. Suppose, for instance, that a one billion dollar gain in primary aluminum deliveries was obtained at the

expense of an identical loss in steel deliveries. Then from Fig. 1 energy

use would increase about 116 trillion BTU (about 0.2% of the total) and

employment would decrease by 15,000 jobs (about 0.03% of the total). An

identical increase in primary aluminum deliveries at the proportional expense

of all other industries would produce an increased use of energy of 332

trillion BTU and a loss of 65,000 jobs.

The results so far indicate that, in general, most United States industries are trading labor for energy (becoming more energy intensive, less

labor intensive) as they grow. Such industries as well as their competitors

can be identified through the use of the CAC models (Equation 1). Thus, if

economic growth is desired it can be guided so as to minimize the impact on energy use and maximize employment demands. In any event, the model clearly

provides an estimate of the total energy and employment impact of desired

shifts in demands.

Several other process efficiency studies, either underway or completed,

include Moyers' (18) study on the value of residential insulation. Also,

Stein (19) and Socolow (20) have shown the value of better heating and

lighting techniques for public buildings and residences.

Product Use Efficiency

The variety of goods and services available in the United States todayprovides what Toffler calls "overchoice" (21) . When the historical perspective of the development of the products is added, the variety of the system

is even larger. For example, beer is available in 23 different package

combinations. At the same time about five other configurations, including

the consumer-owned container, have become obsolete. Another example of

variety is the choice of passenger transportation between cities; plane,

train, bus and car. But the intercity passenger train is now almost defunct.

One can speculate that certain members of the existing variety of

products are more energy efficient, per unit of service, than others. For

instance, it has been shown (12) that refillable bottles are about one- third less energy consumptive per unit of beverage than are paper, glass,

aluminum or steel disposable containers. Fold (22) demonstrated that if

49
the nation were to shift completely to returnable beverage containers

,

employment would rise by 130,000 jobs, and annual consumer costs would

decrease by $1.4 billion. The national energy savings would be about 0.5%,

half of which would not be saved if the consumer savings were absorbed by

an increase in average personal consumption.

Several other product comparisons are now being investigated at the

Center. In particular, the intracity auto and bus are being compared.

Results of energy and labor cost of the auto in 1963 are presented in

Table 1. The auto consumed 12.4% of the GNP, required 12.0% of the total

employment and consumed about 20.7% of the total United States energy.

This amounts to about 7900 BTU per passenger-mile and 5.5 jobs per

hundred thousand passenger-miles. Preliminary estimates indicate that

the bus is about one- third as energy intensive as the auto, and that total

United States energy use could be reduced by about five percent by a full

shift to buses. All United States transportation required (direct and

indirect) 42% of the total national energy consumption in 1963 (6)

.

An extremely interesting product alternative is the use of picture

phones as a substitute for physical transportation (23)

.

Another interesting application of the concepts of product-use

efficiency is shown in Table 2 where the total energy and employment

demands to supply a pound of protein by various means is determined. Cheese

is considerably more energy efficient than meat, milk, or fish in the forms

consumed in the United States in 1963.

Other produce alternatives, such as food preparation and packing,

clothing fibers, home appliances, etc., are also being investigated for

their unit energy and employment demands at the Center.

Table 1. Energy and Employment (Direct and Indirect)

for the Private Auto in 1963

Category Final Demand,

109 $(6)

Energy, lO^^BTU^^^

(% of total)

Employment x 10-^ Jobs^"*"^^

(% of total)

Fuel, produce 5.86

refining

retail 4.05

5860 (57.7)

1220 (11.8)

130 ( 1.3)

278.8 (3.9)

652.4 (9.1)

Oil, produce

retail

0.83

0.55

50 ( 0.5)

20 ( 0.2)

39.5 (0.5)

88.6 (1.2)

Auto, produce 14.4 3 retail 10.67

1010 ( 9.8)

350 ( 3.4)

1155.5 (16.1)

1718.7 (24.0)

Tires, produce 0.83

retail 0.55

80 ( 0.8)

20 ( 0.2)

54.6 (0.8)

88.6 (1.2)

Maintenance

and parts

Parking

21.7 340 ( 3.3)

390 ( 3.8)

1797.7 (25.1)

Highway Const.

(Fuel taxes)

Insurance

Total

4. 96

8.96

73.4

(12.4% of

total GNP)

580 ( 5.6)

280 ( 2.7)

10330 (100.0)

(20.7% of total

U.S. energy used)

471.6 (6.6)

803.1 (11.2)

7149.4 (100.0)

(12.0% of total

employment)

(a) Excludes household and government industries

employment (10.7 million jobs).

50
Table 2. The Total Energy and Employment Required to

Deliver a Pound of Protein to the Consumer thru Various

Food Products in 1963

Food Product

Meat Products

Producer '

s

Price a 1963

$/lb.

0.50

Total Produc- Production

tion Energy (b) Energy to

to Protein Ratio Energy ConKcal/lb

32,600

tent Ratio

ih)

6.3

Total Employment (b) Demands,

Jobs/millia lb.

of protein

15

Cheese, Natural

and Processed 0.30

Fluid Milk 0.12

18,800

51,200

2.6

6.1

14

1

Fresh or Frozen

Packaged Fish 0.35 17,700 6.5 10

(a) Statistical abstract of the United States 1971,

Department of Commerce; approximate

(b) Marketing energy not included, add about 10 to

15%; total caloric energy used.

The impact of such shifts on consumer cost, employment and pollution

should be thoroughly understood before policy recommendations can be made.

Rate of Energy Use

Ultimately all the product and process energy efficiency gains may be

inadequate. Then the rate of energy use would have to be restricted. What

are the priorities of restriction? How does the individual and his/her

family draw upon the energy resource base? In which areas of use (direct

and indirect) will an energy use restriction be least harmful? How does the

direct and indirect energy use per family vary with such socio-economic

variables as age and income of the family head? A study to determine the

energy cost of various lifestyles is underway at the Center. The first goal

is to establish, through the use of equation (1), the influence of age,

income, family size, etc. on the total energy budget of a family. Such

studies will reveal the family dependence of total energy for housing, food,

clothing, transportation, etc. so that if a priority of need is established,

energy savings due to rationing can be estimated. Further, the impact on low income families of an increase in energy cost can be estimated. Finally,

studies such as these can be used to plumb the energy demands of varying

degrees of affluence, or leisure, by convenience and variety of consumer products

.

A very preliminary total energy and employment comparison of the average

urban family (about three persons) in the United States in 1950 and 1960 is

made in Table 3. Several interesting tentative conclusions emerge. First, energy use and

employment change are not proportional to change in constant dollar

expenditures. Second, direct energy consumption is about one half of the

total energy demand. Third, each family generates about the expected direct

and indirect employment (1.1 per family), that the family itself provides,

i.e., working head of household and one out of 10 working spouses.'

The effect of family (four person) income level on energy demand is

shown in Table 4. Due to the preliminary nature of the estimate, the same energy coefficients were used for the same category, in each income class.

51
Table 3. Preliminary Total (Direct and Indirect) Energy and

Employment Generated by the Average U. S. Urban

Family in 1950 (3.0 people) and in 1960 (3.1 people)

Expenditure $ Energy (c) Employment (c)

, Demand-IO^BTU Demand-10'3 Jobs

ITEM 1950(b) igeo^*^^ 1950 1960 1950 1960

Food and

beverage 1,275 1,288 77.0 76. 5 176. 2 173. 7 Housing (e) 1,132 1,536 262.

1

248.8 57.8 74.0

Clothing and

Pfii >" c on ;^ 1 C^yf^ 519 592 O D • J Medical Care 287 362 11. 1 13.9 94.5 118.5

I\C OJ-y~o ^ +* i z» -n K^CL L.X^-'ii di it-l Education 287 305 9.4 10.6 39.5 42.4

Automobile and

portation 587 779 73.6 100.6 61. 7 80.4

Contributions

,

Insurance and

other expenses 565 1,071 19.4 27.0 65.8 88.9

Savings -99 +158 - 8.9 - 17.7

Taxes 510 810 9.3 14.9 28.6 45.5

Retail Margin 475 500 15.2 16.4 75.0 80.5

TOTAL 5,538 7,090 507. 5 (55. 2%

direct)

551.9

(50. 6%

direct)

674 .2 808. 5

Corrected

Total 527.4 566. 7 1,080.0 1,140.0

(a) Data taken from Bureau of Labor Statistics, "Handbook of Labor

Statistics, 1969 , Washington, D. C, 1970, pp. 333, 400

(b) In 1963 Dollars, approximate wholesale and retail margins

removed to separate column

(c) ERG-CAC Energy-Employment Policy Model, Feb. 73.

(d) Corrected for difference in energy and labor productivity ratio

for household and government industry employment, and for

unemployment

.

(e) Direct energy use is weather-dependent.

52
Table 4. Preliminary Direct & Indirect Energy Budgets of Three

Different Income Class Four Person Families, 1970

Low Budget

Dollars (a)

Total

(percent)

6,960

EnergylO^BTU (b)

(percent)

455

High Budget

(a)

Intermediate Budget

Dollars Energy- Dollars'"' EnergylO^BTU^'^) lO^BTU^^

(percent) (percent) (percent) (percent)

10,664 709 15,511 1,015

Food

Housing

(c)

Transport

Clothing

& Personal

Care

Medical

Care

Other

Consump.

Other

Costs

Social

Security

Personal

Income

Tax

Retail

(Approximate)

(22.5)

(19.1)

(16.3)

( 8.6)

( 7.8)

( 4.0)

( 4.6)

( 6.4)

(10.0)

(10.7)

(18.5)

(43.0)

(10.8)

( 6.8)

( 4.1)

( 3.0)

( 1.6)

( 5.2)

( 2.5)

( 4.7)

(18.8)

(22.3)

( 7.6)

( 8.1)

( 5.2)

( 4.9)

( 4.8)

( 3.5)

(14.3)

(10.5)

(14.7)

(48.2)

(12.5)

( 6.2)

( 2.6)

( 3.6)

( 1.6)

( 2.7)

( 3.4)

( 4.4)

(16.3)

(23.1)

( 6.8)

( 8.1)

( 3.7)

( 5.6)

( 5.6)

( 2.4)

(18.4)

(10.3)

(13.1)

(50.7)

(11.3)

( 6.3)

( 1.9)

( 4.1)

( 1.9)

( 1.9)

( 4.4)

( 4.4)

(a) U. S. Dept. of Labor, HANDBOOK OF LABOR STATISTICS , 1971 , Washington, D. C, Bulletin 1705, tables 126, 27, 28.

(b) Energy-Employment Model, Center for Advanced Computation,

University of Illinois, Urbana, Feb. 1973, Corrected for

1963 to 1970 Energy Productivity Change.

(c) Proportioned from Intermediate Income to High and Low

Budget using data from Table 3. Energy will vary with

climate

.

53
This procedure yields a total family energy demand which is roughly

proportional to income. A more detailed estimate now underway at the

Center for Advanced Computation will demonstrate how those in each

different income class vary their specific buying habits accordingly. The

data of Table 4 do reveal an energy dependency on food which declines with

income, an energy dependency on housing which rises with income and an energy dependency on transportation which peaks with the intermediate

income level. These three categories demand about 75% of the total family

direct and indirect energy. The same three categories require 58% of the

low budget income and about 47% of the other two budgets. From this information we can infer that a rise in the price of energy would be preferentially difficult for the low budget family.

Additional Research

Possibilities for future research on energy conservation are plentiful.

In particular, the impact on energy consumption of information flow through

the consumer (advertising, status gradients, etc.) needs to be quantified.

Under an energy conservation program it may need regulating.

Government activities and policies appear to have a major impact on energy use. For example, an inequitable subsidy of airlines and trucks over railroads produce unfavorable economic attractiveness for the less energy

intensive railroads. In addition, taxation programs may significantly favor

such things as family growth and urban sprawl. Also, the demonstration

effects alone of such internal federal programs as recycling paper, building

heating and lighting patterns, and highly efficient fleet automobiles, could

lead to significant future energy savings for the rest of the nation.

The energy storage and distribution systems should be optimized against

sudden shortages, particularly for critical areas of production such as agriculture. Agriculture and food processing required, on the average, in

1963, about 4.5 times as much energy in the form of fossil fuels (directly

and indirectly) as the delivered energy content of the developed food. In

all, food processing for human consumption required about 9% of the energy

consumed in the United States in 1963 (6) . Priorities for emergency

rationing should be estimated so as to maintain the fundamental energy

services to the nation. However, the conservation potential of agriculture

and food processing can be realized through use of less packaging and more

labor intensive farming.

Plans for implementing the adoption of well known means of conserving

energy should be enacted. For example, residential insulation and high

efficiency autos are very productive and well recognized areas for near- term energy savings.

Land use planning is probably the most fundamental long term key to

energy conservation. Communities could be planned around total energy

systems in which waste heat from small power plants is used to heat or cool

the community's buildings. Work and home could be located geographically

so as to minimize transportation energy requirements.

References

1. National Economic Research Associates, Inc., "Energy Consumption and

Gross National Product in the United States", 80 Broad Street, New

York, New York, March, 1971, Table 1.

2. United States Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the

United States , 1971 , Washington, p. 210.

3. Inter-Technology Corporation, The U.S. Energy Problem , Box 340,

Warrenton, Va. 22186, November, 1971, Volume 1, Summary, Figure 4, p. 9.

4. Leontief, W. W. , Input-Output Economics , Oxford University Press,

New York, 1966.

54
5. U. S. Department of Commerce, Input-Output Structure of the U.S.

Economy : 1963 , Washington, 1969, Volumes I, II, III.

6. Herendeen, R. A., "Use of Input-Output Analysis to Determine the

Energy Cost of Goods and Services", Center for Advanced Computation,

University of Illinois, Urbana, 61801, Document No. 69, 20 Feb., 1973.

7. Bezdek, Roger, "Alternate Manpower Forecasts to 1975 and 1980, Second

Guessing the U. S. Department of Labor", 1972 Proceedings of the

Business and Economic Section of the American Statistical Association,

pp. 431-436.

8. Carter, A. P., "Changes in the Structure of the American Economy",

1947 to 1958 and 1962, Review of Economics and Statistics, 49, 1967,

pp. 209-224.

9. Roberts, L. G. and Wessler, B. D. , "The ARPA Network", Advanced

Research Projects Agency, Washington, D. C. , May 1971.

10. Berg, Chas., "Energy Conservation thru Effective Utilization,"

National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. , June 1972.

11. Interstate Commerce Commission, "Transportation Statistics in the

U. S.", Washington, D. C. , annual report.

12. Hannon, Bruce, "System Energy and Recycling: A Study of the Container

Industry", American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 72-WAENER-3, 1972.

13. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment and Earnings, U.S., 1907-70,

Washington, D. C, Bulletin 1312-7, Table 5.

14. Edison Electric Institute, Statistical Yearbook of the Electric

Utility Industry for 1969 , New York, Sept., 1970, p. 53.

15. U.S. Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the U. S., 1971,

Washington, D. C, 92 edition, p. 336.

16. Folk, H. and Hannon, B. , "An Energy, Pollution and Employment Policy

Model", Center for Advanced Computation, University of Illinois,

Urbana, 61801, Document No. 68, February, 1973.

17. Hannon, Bruce and Nakagama, S., "The 1963 Direct Employment Intensity'

Vector", Center for Advanced Computation, University of Illinois,

Urbana, 61801, Document No. 63, January 1973.

18. Moyers, John C. , "The Value of Thermal Insulation in Residential

Construction: Economics and Conservation of Energy", Oak Ridge

National Lab, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 37830, Report ORNL NSF EP 9,

December, 1971.

19. Stein, Richard, "Architecture and Energy", Stein and Associates,

588 5th Ave., New York, 10036, December 1971.

20. Grot, Richard, and Socolow, R. H., "Energy Utilization in a Residential Community", Center for Environmental Studies, Princeton

University, February, 1973.

21. Toffler, Alan, Future Shock , Random House, New York, Chapter 12,

July 1970.

55
22. Folk, Hugh, "Employment Effects of a Mandatory Deposit Regulation",

Institute for Environmental Quality, State of Illinois, 309 West

Washington, Chicago, 60606, January 1972.

23. Goldsmith, A., "The Relationship of Telecommunications to Urban

Transportation", 8th Autumn Meeting, National Academy of

Engineering, 12 October 1972.

56
National Bureau o£ Standards Special Publication 403

Proceedings of 1973 Engineering Foundation Conference (Issued June 1976)

MEASURES OF THERMAL ENERGY UTILIZATION

by

B. B. HamelandH. L. Brown

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Drexel Institute of Technology

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104

It is necessary to quantify , or structure , the ideas of thermal energy

utilization in order to develop an efficiency of energy utilization. Such

a quantitative analysis is useful in assessing any modification or change

in design of an energy system . A method of analysis useful in assessing modifications in an energy system is presented. The concept of thermodynamic availability is used to determine maximum energy util- ization efficiency. The method is illustrated by evaluating the efficiencies of several water heating systems

.

Keywords: Energy; heating systems; model; thermodynamics.

The purpose of this paper is to quantify , or structure , our ideas of thermal energy utiliza- tion in order to develop an efficiency of energy utilization. Such an analysis will be useful in

assessing any modification or change in design of an energy system . Utilization is defined to have two aspects. The first, and the one of primary concern here, is illustrated by the question:

given a service function , how can the sources of energy and system elements be optimally con- nected? Secondly , can the service function be redefined so that less energy is used?

To answer these questions we define the system (Figure 1) to be composed of three basic

elements: 1) a discrete energy user which provides a service or operates on a product or material, 2) a converter, which changes the energy form for distribution and 3) an energy storage

element. The other lines in Figure 2 represent sources of energy which are supplied across the

boundary of the system and the transport transmission lines between the three elements . The

elements and energy flows are then defined in terms of energy and thermodynamic availability

.

We have examined the energy system of the house and have classified each of its components (Figure 2) . Since hot water heaters , furnaces and heat pumps are converting energy for distribution to various end uses , these were classified as converters . All other elements such

as lighting, oven, etc. , were classified as discrete energy users. We have defined thermodynamic availability (Figure 3) in such a way as to be able to compare mechanical energy with thermal energy on the same basis at different temperatures and to be able to assign a quality or value to thermal energy . We do this by determining how much work

a quantity of thermal energy can do. We recognize that heat and work are both forms of energy.

We can convert all work into heat, but we cannot convert all heat into work. The amount of work

gained from a given quantity of energy is a measure of the value of that energy. From a Carnot

cycle operating between temperatures T^and T (T greater than T , T defined as dead state) an amount of work W is produced. This is termed the availability for this system.

We compare the actual system consumption of this availability to what would be the ideal,

minimum consumption if the system elements and connections were optimal (Figure 4) . From

this we develop the effectiveness parameter , which is a measure of performance of the energy

system . This takes into account all uses of energy , both cascading and conversion , in the

system. Thus, we attempt to maximize utilization.

We demonstrate this by the example of a hot water heating system (Figure 5) . The demand

is for 150° F hot water and, in this illustration, we are constrained to the use of electric power

and the waste heat from the house. We could work this example for gas or oil as well, but. to

limit the scope of the example, we have examined only electric power. We can calculate the avedlability demanded by the 150° F hot water. It represents the minimum work required to produce

150° F hot water from 60° F ambient temperature using the ideal, Carnot heat pump.

We examine 5 different systems used to produce the hot water (Figure 6) . The first is straight resistive heating . The second is resistive heating with preheat from a house waste

heat reclamation loop. The third is direct use of a heat pump with the 60° F ambient temperature

as a low temperature source. The fourth is the use of a combination heat pump with 60° F low

57
temperature reservoir and a preheat loop; and the fifth is a heat pump with a heat reclamation

loop supplying the low temperature reservoir at some temperature T. The question is, which

of the 5 is the most effective system in supplying the energy? Which system requires the minimum availability to do the job? How are they ranked? Using the effectiveness efficiency parameter , we can make a useful comparison

.

We compared all systems to resistive heating for purposes of illustration (not to set up

resistive heating as a straw man); the larger the ratio the more effective the system. We have

evaluated the systems for various loop temperatures (Figure 7) . A heat pump alone (System 3)

ranks next to last (second only to resistive heating) as far as effectiveness is concerned . Those

systems with heat reclamation loops are much more effective. Also, we can see the impact of the

loop temperature; as we increase it along with our waste heat collection, we improve performance.

The significant gain is shown using the loop as the low temperature side of the heat pump . In such a system we are not dependent upon outside air , water or ground as our reservoir . Such

systems and others, such as low temperature solar systems, open the horizon for more effective

energy utilization through energy management . I am examining only the technical - energy

aspects . A complete analysis must include capital and operating costs , but it is apparent that energy costs will be reduced

.

We have established an entry point into system design or functional analysis which we did

not have before. We have a technical basis from which to proceed and establish our economics.

We are applying this functional analysis to very complex systems: the Pennsylvania

Power and Light Company energy-efficient home, a food processing plant (Campbell Soup), oil refineries, and total energy systems in New York. We are doing this in the initial design phases

in some cases, and during plant operations in other cases looking to plant modifications to improve

performance

.

FIGURE 1

SYSTEM DEFINITION

EACH ELEMENT IS PARAMETIZED BY AVAILABILITY AND ENERGY

INPUTS AND OUTFLOWS. A SET OF SYSTEM MATRICES RESULT.

58
FIGURE 2

HOUSE ENERGY SYSTEM

Discrete Energy Users

1) Lighting: Incandescent

2) Lighting: Fluor,

3) Small Mechanical

^) Small Thermal

5) R A N G E

6) 0 V E N

7) Clothes Dryer

8) Dishwasher

9) Clothes Washer

10) Hot Water System

11) Heating System

CONVERTERS:

a) Hot Water Heater

b) Heater

c) Heat Pumps

69
FIGURE 3

AVAILABILITY

Given a quantity (Btu's) of energy, in a THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM -CAN WE DEFINE IT'S

VALUE?

Value: How much useful work can we perform

with this energy?

C A R N 0 T Heat

Engine

Lowest

Temperature

^0 - "Dead

State"

= U - T, S

Work (W), done by system is the availability,

60
FIGURE 4

SYSTEM UTILIZATION EFFICIENCY

T1 u F F I N F A II T T 1 T 7 A T jnM FFFirTFNCY WF NFFD

T1 0 r OMPARE THE AC T U A 1 SYSTEM CONSUMPTION OF

A V A I LABILITY (Ai.,)

-LIN T 0 SOME IDEAL, MINIMUM

C 0 N S UMPTION IF TH E S YSTEM ELEMENTS AND

C 0 N N ECTIONS WERE OPT I M A L.

T H E "Ideal Syste m";; I) Discrete Energy Users:

F 0 R EACH DEU THER E I s A MirjiMUM availability

N E E D ED/ Aj^/ IF THE T H EERMAL ENERGY WERE ADDED

R E V E R S I B L Y.

II) Converters: ideal if

C A R N OT ELEMENTS W ERE U S E D,

T H E UTILIZATION E F F I C I E N c Y;

61

63
>-

oo

CD

CO

oo

CL o3 O

O

\- <

CNJ CO lU — X

C/5 LLl uj q:

05

Ln

CD oo

(J3

CNI

o3

Q.O

O

ID I- Q- <

LU

I- X

< uu

rc Q_

o3

3

I- a- < o

LU O

64
National Bureau o£ Standards Special Publication 403

Proceedings o£ 1973 Engineering Foundation Conference (Issued June 1976)

ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS

OF EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION OF ENERGY

by

J . C . Denton

Director , National Center for Energy Management and Power

University of Pennsylvania

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19174

Technology uses energy , materials , money , people , etc . to produce

products and services for society. The resultant products and their

impacts on resources , society and the environment exist in a dynamic

interrelationship . Technology transform analysis is an analytical model

which is proposed to identify and elucidate the interrelationships between these elements and to assess the consequences of their modification. The technology transform analysis is prerequisite to the application of input-output analysis if the interrelationships between energy

,

environmental, economic, and human factors is to be displayed in a compatible fashion. An abbreviated example analysis of the auto- mobile industry is presented to demonstrate the complexities which

must be included eind the subtleties which appear. Possible pitfalls of an incomplete cinalysis are discussed.

Keywords: Automobile; economic; energy; model; transform analysis

.

Technology uses energy , materials , money , people , etc . The resultant products and

their impacts exist in a complex , dynamic interrelationship . An analytical model is needed

1) to identify and elucidate the interrelationships between the elements and 2) to assess the

consequences of their modification . One of the applications of this model would be to determine

the economic and environmental implications of effective utilization of energy

.

The basis of the model is technology transform analysis (Figure 1) . A specific technology

transforms resources into desirable products and services , with an inevitable impact on the

environment. A specific technology turns an input, termed "R" , into two outputs, termed "products and services" and "environmental load" . One of the outputs we like and the other we don't

like. The lower half of Figure 1 lists four categories of resources and their outputs. We start with energy and do the sort of balance that engineers of all types learned to do a long time ago. We put energy in. Some of it gets stored in the "products and services" while, in accord with

the laws of physics and thermodynEmfiics , some energy is rejected. Materials are put in; some

materials are stored in the "products and services" , but some materials are wasted and wind

up as environmental load. The third input is people. We put people in and expect to get the same people out the other side, otherwise somebody will be upset. The environmental load

results from the impact technology has on these people. They are subject to industrial health

problems and occupational accidents, for example. By the time they reach home at the end of the day, they are a day older and have lost one day of their life-time productive capacity. If technology were like a sauna bath, they might come out better than when they went in; but it isn't. The fourth input is money. It takes money to buy equipment, money to pay the people

who run the equipment, money to buy the materials and the energy. Identifying the environmental load resulting from money was initially a problem , since technology produces money

(otherwise a venture is not profitable and shuts down in a hurry) , and we like money. If the

value added is construed to be a negative environmental load , however , then the value added

serves to balance the cost of the other environmental loads , from the society's point of view.

That is, considering the value added as a negative environmental load, if the value added were

equal to the cost of the other environmental loads , then one has a balancing system to determine

the societally acceptable environmental loads

.

The term "environmental load" does not imply either environmental "impact" or environmental "quality" . Those are issues to be discussed later in the conference. Environmental impact must include the ability of the environment to absorb a load without significant damage

.

Environmental quality must include decisions as to relative detriments of environmental impacts

.

Right now I prefer to speak only of the environmental load . These issues are difficult to address

and will not be considered further here

.

65
FIGURE 1

TECHNOLOGY TRANSFORM ANALYSIS

RESOURCES SPECIFIC PRODUCTS AND

TECHNOLOGY SERVICES (P&S)

1 ENVIRONMENTAL

LOAD

ENERGY

MATERIALS

PEOPLE IN CAPITAL IN

SPECIFIC

TECHNOLOGY

ENERGY

REJECTED

HEALTH

IMPACTS

ENERGY IN P&S

MATERIAL IN P&S

PEOPLE OUT

CAPITAL OUT

UNUSED

MATERIALS VALUE

ADDED

66
FIGURE 2

INPUT-OUTPUT FLOW TABLE

PRODUCERS FINAL MARKETS

Agri culture Mining Construe

tion Manufac

turing Trade Transportat ion Services Other Persons Investors Foreigners Government

PRODUCERS

Agriculture

Mining servic

Construction tures tment ices 5

and

Manufacturing xpendi inves J

serv f

good

Trade

tion

e

mestic n

ases

0

Transportation

c

o

ate

do

of

go o

3

Q.

Services

u

r§ s

priv

2xport C

Other

Pers Gros *j

<u z

Gove

VALUE

ADDED

Employees Employes' compen;>ation

>

—~ '

GROSS NATIONAL

PRODUCT

Owners of busi- ness § capital

Profit 1 ype income and ca| )ital cons umptior1 allowance s

Government Indirect business taxes and current surplus of govt. enterprise II III 1

s.etc.

67
FIGURE 3

ENERGY USE AND INPUT-OUTPUT

68
FIGURE 4

ENVIRONMENTAL LOAD

OUTPUT

(CONSUMPTION)

INPUT

(PRODUCTION)

ENVIRONMENTAL LOAD AND INPUT-OUTPUT

69
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U

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Co o Co Co

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< Co ft; C) fei 0 (—1 ft; eu Cl CO CO

fel cri Eh Co

t-i Ci ft: Ci ft; fe fel CO fe: Eh fe; ft, 1^ CO H Co O H Co <o < CO C3 aj ft; Qq ft;

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70
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71
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72
I visualize any company or industry as a collection of very specific technologies . In the

steel mill, for example, there is a rolling mill which rolls out a plate. There are different roll- ing mUls driven in different ways in different plants; any industry is a mix of various specific

technologies. Sufficient data are available to quantify the analysis of each specific technology.

This approach refers the energy, materials, employment, money, etc- , flows directly to the

specific technology.

Figure 2 is an input-output flow table. The producing sectors are on the left and the markets on the top. Certain producers also constitute a portion (even a large portion) of the market.

The data represented by the input-output table is the basis for other elements of the model I am

describing

.

Using the input-output table as a horizontal plane in Figure 3 and the data obtained from

technology transform analysis we erect a normal to the horizontal plane and construct an energy

use surface for each of the coefficients in the input-output plane . To account for use of different

types of energy we construct several energy use surfaces. Figure 4 indicates that exactly the same approach may be used to construct environmental load surfaces. In this case we must have

a different surface for each environmental load because the different types cannot be combined to a single load

.

We now have three types of elements: the energy use surfaces, the environmental load

surfaces, and the input-output methods which relate them to gross national product, employment,

and other national indicators. How do we apply the elements?

In order to demonstrate the approach, we did an exercise this summer. It was strictly an

academic exercise, so I will not defend the numbers. I will present the result of the first iteration; and then I am going to conjecture that there are some ways out of the dilemma that shows up

in the initial iteration, and try to forecast some of the things that we can expect to observe. The

purpose of this model is to provide a general framework in which we can relate economics,

environment and energy

.

Figure 5 is part of the Standard Industrial Classification code, a numbering system which

facilitates computer operations and structures the collection of data . These are only the most

important sectors for the example presented below

.

We wanted to identify modifications of the energy use process that would result in effective

utilization of thermal energy . We started with the assumption that the effective utilization of energy could be improved by more effective utilization of the energy by the user . In the transportation sector, one possibly effective strategy of the energy user may be to increase the lifespan

of the automobile

.

To see the effect of a single modification on the economy-energy-environment complex , we

postulated an extension of the average lifetime of the automobile subject to the constraint that

total transportation service remained constant . We searched the literature to determine the average

lifetime of an automobile, which was found to be ten years. I would conjecture that it may be

shorter today, but the data we used showed a ten year average lifetime. We assumed that the

average lifetime was extended one more year to eleven years, and, for a more drastic change,

three more years to thirteen years. We then assumed that the total use of automobiles in transportation would remain the same, so that we could reflect the additional lifetime back into the

production system to see changes in production . With a constant demand and increased lifetime

per unit, less new units would be needed. Figure 6 shows that a reduction in output does result.

In the last line, the output would be reduced by 2.5 billion dollars of value, or 6.5% of total production if the lifespan were increased to 11 years

.

The decrease in output seems efficient; less energy would be used to produce automobiles - energy would be conserved . But , what are the consequences of this reduction on other sectors

of the economy?

If automobile production is reduced, employment of production workers would be reduced

as well. Figure 7 shows that 19,000 workers would be put out of work, with a corresponding

payroll reduction of almost $200 million . Not only automobile workers would lose their jobs,

however. A reduction of production in associated industries (which supply material for the auto- mobile industry , for example) would also result, with a corresponding reduction in those sectors. Figure 8 shows the impact this unemployment would have had in 1970, when the unemployment

rate was 4.9%. A one year extension of the automobile's lifespan would have increased unemployment to 5.2%.

It costs energy to manufacture automobiles . We have searched the literature and found an

estimate of the amount of energy this represents . Energy consumption would have been lowered

,

resulting in an energy savings for the year equivalent to 3.2 million barrels of oil. That same

year (1970) the daily oil imports were 3.4 million barrels. Thus, the first iteration of this

model indicates that a 10% increase in the lifespan of automobiles would save approximately one day of oil imports at a cost of putting 19,000 people out of work.

73
Would the energy saving be worth the cost in unemployment? The question is academic at this point because the analysis is not yet complete. It is evident that we have identified only a few of the possible variables and their interrelationships out of a vast and complex system

.

In order to refine the first iteration , one must determine the specific meinner in which the

production process and its allied sectors will change to accomplish the increase in the lifetime

of the vehicle. If you were to assume, for example, that no change will be made in the manufacturing process but instead the change would be in more and better repair and maintenance of the

vehicles (assuming the same number of passenger miles) then employment in maintenance and

repair would increase and jobs (of a different type) would become available for the displaced

production workers . Likewise , for the energy saving one might change the number very significantly by the approach taken to extend the lifespan because of the interconnectedness of all of these sectors in the input-output tables

.

I am using this demonstration to indicate to you the complexity of such an analysis and the

pitfalls of drawing premature conclusions from an incomplete analysis

.

There are two points I want to make . The first is that to make an accurate prediction , an

analysis must be specific and quantitative , yet complex enough to include the consequences of the consequences on each and every interrelationship in the system. Secondly, what may initial- ly seem to be a clearcut , beneficial modification of a system may , after a complete analysis of the

total effect on the total system , be found to be an adverse effect

.

We do not yet have the ability to make a total analysis , but I believe we have the capacity to design one and to put it into operation . Only with such an analysis can National measures be taken

to modify a system in a way which will accomplish our objectives and simultaneously minimize the

accompanying detrimental impacts on the Nation's health.

FIGURE 8

PERCENT UNEMPLOYED 19 70

4.9

PERCENT UNEMPLOYED 1970

INCLUDING REDUCTIONS IN EMPLOYMENT

IN SELECTED INDUSTRIES

11 YR. L.S. 13 YR. L.S.

5.02 5.12

OIL EQUIVALENT OF ENERGY SAVED

IN ONE YEAR (from ten year average)

11 YR. L.S. 13 YR. L.S.

3.2 million barrels 7.6 million barrels

OIL IMPORTS 1970

3.4 million barrels per da

74
III. ENERGY MANAGEMENT PRACTICE

National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 403

Proceedings of 1973 Engineering Foundation Conference (Issued June 1976)

INDUSTRIAL ENERGY ANALYSIS AND FORECASTING

by

D. R. Limaye , J. R. Sharko and J. H. Kayser

Decision Sciences Corporation

Benjamin Fox Pavilion

Jenkintown , Pennsylvania 19046

Although the industrial sector is one of the largest consumers of

energy (over 33% of total energy consumption) , relatively little is known in detail about the end use characteristics in this sector because of the diversity of processes and practices. Two approaches

are discussed: a detailed engineering process analysis , involving an in-depth look at each major product in each industry; and a survey

approach employing interviews and questionnaires. Studies are presented on the Chemical and Allied Products industry (SIC 28) . A break- even analysis is employed to determine the prices at which two fuels are economically equivalent. An overall methodology is presented for integrating all of the different aspects of industrial energy analysis. The

initial steps are the identification of end use characteristics , energy

requirements per unit of output, process economics, and qualitative

factors affecting energy use. Based on these and on estimates of

total industrial output, the total energy requirements can be determined.

Key words: Break-even analysis; economics; energy; industrial.

Introduction

While the industrial market is one of the largest consumers of energy and accounts for over

33% of the total energy consumption* in the U.S., relatively little is known in detail about the

end use characteristics in this market. The applications of energy in the industrial sector are numerous and varied, and specific industrial processes have special requirements for energy.

For example , blast furnaces require a special type of coal (metallurgical coal) , glass manufacture requires gas for controlled heat , and aluminum requires electricity

.

Although the industrial market is complex in terms of types of applications, its study is facilitated by the segregation of the market into major industry categories. As can be seen from

Figure 1, only a few industries consume a large proportion of the energy. The first six SIC

groups consume over 80% of the total energy

.

In view of the current energy crisis in the U.S . , it is increasingly important to make optimum use of our energy resources. Due to the relative abundance and low cost of energy in the

past, the industrial sector (as well as other sectors) has tended to utilize energy without due

regard to opportunities for energy conservation or efficiency . There are , however , a great

number of opportunities to make improvements in the manner in which energy is consumed for a variety of industrial applications

.

In order to maximize the efficient utilization and conservation of energy , it is first necessary

to understand the nature and type of energy use , factors which influence choice of energy , and

potentials in and constraints to optimum energy utilization. This paper discusses some approaches

to analyze and forecast the utilization of energy in the industrial sector.

From Bureau of Mines figures. Total U.S. energy consumption in 1970 was 67.4 quadrillion

BTU. Industrial energy consumption accounted for 22.5 quadrillion BTU of the total.

77
FIGURE 1

MAJOR INDUSTRIAL ENERGY USERS (1967)

INDUSTRY

ENERGY CONSUMPTION

(MILLION OF KWH EQUIV.)

I OF TOTAL

ENERGY CONSUMPTION

fHFrilfAl S AND Al LIFD

PRODUCTS

72.038 20.9

PRIMARY r i\ i 1 ini\ 1 1MFTAI 11— 1 riL-OS

INDUSTRY

709/92^1 20.6

PFTROI FUM AND COAL

PRODUCTS

^108,482 11.8

"^TOMF n AY AND

GLASS

360,133 10.4

PAPER AND ALLIED 338,896 9.8

FOOD AND KINDRED

PRODUCTS

263,655 7.6

FABRICATED METAL

PRnnilfT^ AMD

MACHINERY

178,52^1 . . 5.1

TRANSPORTATION AND

ELECTRICAL

EQUIPMENT

176,030 5.1

OTHER 30^1,725 8.7

3,461,W 100.0

SOURCE: CENSUS OF MANUFACTURERS, 1967

78
FIGURE 2

FUEL USE - INDUSTRIAL SECTOR

FUEL

SPACE

COND.

BOILER

PROCESS

ENERGY

FEEDSTOCK

L 1 bn 1 1 INb/

MECHANICAL

SPACE PROCESS DRIVE

COAL X X X

OIL X X X X X

GAS X X X X X

ELECTRICITY X X

79
FIGURE 3

PRICE ELASTICITIES FOR INDUSTRIAL DEMAND*

FUEL PRICE

FUEL COAL OIL GAS ELECTRIC

SHARE

(flS) Ai A2 A3 A4

COAL -2.32 0.628 0.7^15

h—

MARK[ OIL 1.38 -3.02 i.in 0.895

1 LU

ZD

LL_ GAS 0.318 2.73 -1.68 0.013

ELECTRIC 0.145 0.0139 0.763 -1.26

BASED ON CROSS-SECTIONAL ANALYSIS OF 1962 CENSUS OF MANUFACTURES DATA.

80
Information Sources for Industrial Energy Utilization

There is , in general a paucity of information regarding energy utilization at the end use

level. References 1 and 2 give a general discussion of the information sources for energy. The

only source that gives any information at a level below the industrial market as a whole is the

Census of Manufacturers . Unfortunately, even this information is sketchy. The 1962 Census

attempted to present detailed information on fuels and electric energy consumed at the 4 digit

SIC level. However, fuel use characteristics are significantly different in different parts of the U.S. and while the Census published information on a state-by-state basis in 1962, it did

so only at the 2 digit SIC level. Furthermore, the 1967 Census completely omitted the regional

detail. *In any case , the Census or any other regularly published government source does not give

any information regarding specific end uses of energy . For information regarding energy utiliza- tion , one has to turn to industrial firms , equipment manufacturers , trade associations , engineering or consulting firms or other sources . It would be inappropriate to describe in detail here the

difficulties and problems of obtaining valid, accurate, quantitative information on energy utilization. The authors would like to point out, however, that there are significant problems. Some of the approaches that are being used to obtain information on industrial energy use are described

in another section of this paper.

Energy Use by Type of Fuel

Four major energy sources are used in the industrial sector - coal, oil, gas and electricity.

These four could be further subdivided; however, in this paper, fuels will be aggregated into

the four major energy sources.

Industrial applications can be broadly classified into the following major types:

Space Conditioning - direct fired , where the fuel is directly burned for space conditioning (i.e. , not burned under a boiler) .

Boiler Use - further subdivided into space conditioning and process

energy depending on how the steam from the boiler is utilized.

Process Energy - excluding that from boiler steam

.

Feedstock - where the fuel is used as an ingredient in the process

.

Lighting.

Mechanical Drive - as in motors

.

Each of the four major energy sources can be used for a number of these types of end uses. Figure 2 shows the broad classification of the end use for each fuel.

Effect of Price on Energy Use

A number of recent studies have been undertaken to analyze the elasticity of demands to changes in price in the industrial sector. A review of the various studies and their coverage

is found in Reference 3. Some of the more notable efforts have been those by Baughman (4) , Verleger (5) , Mooz (6) and Limaye and Sharko (7) . Although the different studies have re- sulted in varying estimates of elasticity , there is a general consensus that the industrial demand

for energy is sensitive to price.

A set of estimates for elasticity of energy consumption relative to prices was derived using

a cross-sectional analysis of the state-by-state data from the 1962 Census of Manufacturers. These

estimates are shown in Figure 3. Similar results have also been derived for five major SIC groups.

Conversations with the Bureau of the Census indicated that although the information was

collected, it was not pubUshed due to insufficient funds. The 1971 Census information has recently

been published in detail

.

81
In looking at the results of such analyses derived by statistical/econometric techniques

,

it must be noted that the different types of uses have been aggregated. Also, the data come from

a time period where there were no significant constraints on availability of energy , no environmental regulations, and relatively stable prices. Such results are of limited use in evaluating

the potential for energy savings. A more detailed analysis at end use level is required.

Analysis of End Uses

Two approaches are available for a detailed analysis of end uses in the industrial sector: A detailed engineering/process analysis, involving an in-depth look

at each major product in each industry.

A survey approach through interviews and questionnaires

.

The authors have used both these approaches in some recent studies of specific industry

groups . One study involved the Chemicals and Allied Products Industry (SIC Group 28) at the

3 digit level. Figure 4 lists some of the major products and processes /equipment for each of the

3 digit industries in this group.

In a survey approach , industrial users have been asked to provide information regarding

the following for each major process or equipment:

Qualitative and/or quantitative measures of current efficiency of utilization.

Potential for conservation.

Impact of increased fuel costs

.

Impact of fuel availability

.

Impact of environmental regulations

.

Impact of technological changes.

The survey results are being combined with detailed engineering and economic analyses

to determine the specific end use characteristics , the potential for more efficient utilization , and

the impact of various major factors affecting energy use. The results of this study will be available shortly (8) .

Factors Affecting Energy Use for Specific Processes or Equipment

A large number of different factors affect the uses of energy for particular end use applications. Some of the most important factors are, of course, the capital costs and the fuel costs. In some cases , operating and maintenance costs are significant factors . Efficiency of utilization is becoming more important as the energy crisis becomes more critical. Some of the other factors

which influence energy use are:

Process technology Equipment reliability

Space Requirements Reliability of fuel supply

.

Equipment manufacturer support Energy supplier assistance.

Labor requirements and skill levels Regulatory factors (environmental, OSHA, etc.)

.

An excellent discussion of some of these factors and their influence on specific end uses

can be found in Reference 9

.

82
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83
Analysis of Process Use

Taking into account the various factors affecting process energy use , an analytical approach

can be formulated for major processes. This is best illustrated through a hypothetical example.

Let's take Process X for which four alternatives are available:

A - Gas burner with oil standby

.

B - Propane burner with gas standby.

C - Oil burner with gas standby.

D - Electric heating.

Figure 5 shows the annual owning and operating costs, efficiency of utilization, energy re- quirements, energy costs and total costs. As can be seen from Figure 5, the choice would be A

(natural gas) . The use of C (oil) would actually conserve energy (8000 MMBTU) , but would not be economically attractive. At first sight, D seems attractive, but since D uses electricity, which

is a secondary form of energy, and involves an efficiency of about 35%, D is not attractive either

from an economic or an energy conservation viewpoint.

We, therefore, have a trade-off between A and C involving a saving in energy but a higher

cost to the user. If natural gas were not available or the price of gas increased to over $1.25, it would no longer be economically attractive; either oil would be selected or efforts would be made

to improve the efficiency of utilization. The goal of more effective utilization of energy could be

achieved for this process through economic means as the price increases. Alternatively, it could

be achieved by end use regulation by curtailing gas for this process and making it available to other processes where gas has a "high-form" value or, in other words, has inherent properties

which are required for product quality

.

A B C D

ANNUAL COST OF OWNING 10,000 15,000 12,000 30,000

ANNUAL OPERATING COST 15,000 25,000 28,000 18,000

TOTAL OWNING AND OPERATING 25,000 40,000 40,000 48,000

EFFICIENCY 40% 40% 50% 80%

ENERGY REQUIREMENTS (MMBTU) 40,000 40,000 32,000 27,000

PRICE OF ENERGY ($/MMBTU) 0.75 1.00 1.10 3.00

TOTAL COST OF ENERGY 32,000 40.000 35,200 81,000

TOTAL COST 57,000 80,000 75,200 129,000

Figure 5 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PROCESS

84
BREAKEVEN GAS PRICE ($/MMBTU)

85
PLANNING AND FORECASTING ANALYSIS

i

END

USE

CHARACTERISTICS

POTENTIAL

FOR

EFFICIENCY

IMPROVEMENT

FUTURE

USAGE

REQUIREMENTS

&

PURCHASING

OPTIONS

HI

cr

X

u

<

o

cc

a.

a.<

>

>

3

CO

>

cc I

CONDA DATA ESEARC

UJCO cr I

>

UJ

ILO RV

Q. ns

CO

Ul>

CO

ccUJ

cc si

= I- - 1^ <

CO O 0-3 3 cc F =; z

y fi < UJ o < 1 E S oc UJ 2

• • •

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UJ P CO O

h ^

5:^ Q Q

86
A useful analytical tool in process analysis is Breakeven Analysis , or the determination

of prices at which two fuels would be economically equivalent. The breakeven price is given

by the following formula.

B

MMBTU

PAB MMBTUB

MMBTU

P^„ = BREAKEVEN PRICE OF FUEL B RELATIVE TO A

P. = PRICE OF FUEL A

A„ = ANNUAL OWNING AND OPERATING COST OF B

A. = ANNUAL OWNING AND OPERATING COST OF A

MMBTU . = ENERGY REQUIREMENT IN MMBTU FOR A

MMBTU„ = ENERGY REQUIREMENT IN MMBTU FOR B

Such breakeven price equations can be very useful in determining fuel substitution potentials at the process level. An example of a breakeven chart showing the breakeven price of gas

for each of alternatives B , C and D is shown in Figure 6

.

Survey Approach

Using a survey approach , detailed information can be collected regarding end use , qualitative factors affecting fuel use patterns , anticipated technological changes , future requirements

,

etc. While the survey approach has a number of major drawbacks , such as quality of response

,

potential bias in the samples, etc. , in some cases it offers the only method for obtaining the required information

.

An example of the survey approach is shown in Figure 7. In the authors' work the pilot

surveys have usually provided an excellent indication of the quality and quantity of response and

have led to improvements in the survey instrument and a larger survey

.

An initial survey of industrial users in the East North Central region for the petroleum and

chemical industries showed the large use for process energy . Figure 8 shows the energy con- sumption broken down by type of fuel and type of use. Figure 9 shows the distribution of fuel types in space heating and process energy plus feedstock. The current studies are concentrat- ing on getting a better understanding of the nature of the process and feedstock components

.

Methods for More Effective Energy Utilization

A large number of factors have affected industrial energy usage and have resulted in efforts

to increase the efficiency of energy utilization in industrial uses. These factors include:

Increased costs of fuels and energy

.

Quality of fuels

.

Limited availability of certain types of fuel

.

87
FIGURE 8

INDUSTRIAL SURVEY

PETROLEUM AND CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES

PERCENT ENERGY CONSUMPTION BY FUEL TYPE

88
Interruptability of supply, especially gas. Increased national emphasis on energy conservation

.

Environmental regulation.

Improvements in technology.

Other regulations, such as Occupational Safety and Health, etc.

The efficiency of energy utilization in the industry can be increased by improvements in current methods and operating procedures and also by development of new equipment. A number

of different methods can be used for improving efficiency. Some of the more important ones are

briefly discussed below. A detailed discussion of these can be found in References 10 and 11.

1 . Better Utilization of Equipment

Better utilization of equipment can be achieved by carefully examining

the production processes, schedules, and operating practices. For example,

improvements can be made by:

Rearranging schedules to utilize process equipment for continuous

periods of operation , thus avoiding numerous short runs and minimizing heat-up losses.

Shutting down or idling equipment at holding temperatures whenever production is interrupted, especially on weekends.

Reducing the temperature settings on thermostats.

Reference 10 cites examples where 5 to 15% savings in gas usage have been

obtained by these methods

.

2 . Better Heat Confinement

This method involves use of the basic concept that heat is only useful where it is confined to locations where it will advantageously affect work spaces or work in process

.

Methods to prevent unnecessary heat loss include:

Close surveillance of combustion and heat transfer efficiency.

Improvement of structural heat confinement.

Maintencince of optimum flame geometry.

Reduction of building heat losses by sealing cracks, replacing

broken windows , etc.

Insulation of lines conveying steam or hot liquids

.

3 . Better Equipment Maintenance

Regular and careful equipment maintenance assures satisfactory performance

and reduces fuel consumption. Preventive maintenance can also be of great assistance.

For example:

Removal of heat transfer barriers

.

Elimination of gas or steam leaks

.

Maintenance of appropriate lining and thickness on furnaces

.

89
FIGURE 9

USE OF FUELS IN PETROLEUM AND CHEMICAL INDUSTRY

EAST NORTH CENTRAL REGION

90
FIGURE 10

ANALYSIS AND FORECASTING OF DATA

PROCESS

ECONOMICS

ENERGY USE

PER UNIT

TECHNOLOGICAL

CHANGES

ENERGY END

USE

CHARACTERISTICS

TOTAL ENERGY

CONSUMPTION

BY TYPE

OF USE

QUALITATIVE

FACTORS

ENVIRONMENTAL

FACTORS

CONSERVATION

MEASURES

TECHNOLOGY

IMPACT

OF ENERGY

UTILIZATION

PRICE

SENSITIVITY

OF ENERGY

USE

REGULATORY

FACTORS

IMPACT

ON

ENERGY

DEMAND

FUEL

PRICES

91
4 . Heat Recovery

In many industrial processes waste heat is being vented directly into the atmosphere.

If this can be recovered and utilized, the process efficiency can be improved. The waste

heat can be used to heat combustion air, to preheat incoming products, or to heat plant air for space conditioning.

5. Upgrading Existing Equipment

Replacement or improvement of existing equipment can lead to significant savings

in certain cases. Some of the methods to upgrade equipment include:

Installation of automatic temperature and flow control devices.

Substitution of sealed-in burners for open hole furnace firing.

Additional insulation.

Better heat exchange devices.

6 . New Equipment and Processes

Installation of the latest designed equipment and processes which utilize advanced

heat processing technology can accomplish a substantial amount of savings in fuels and

energy utilization. While this involves an initial capital cost, it generally allows for a reduction of energy costs and generally an improvement in product quality.

The foregoing discussion indicates that there are a wide variety of methods for improving

energy utihzation efficiency in industrial operations. Specific application of methods and techniques depends on the particular end uses in each industry.

Analysis and Forecasting

An overall methodology for integrating all of the different aspects of industrial energy

analysis in order to forecast future demands is shown in Figure 10. The basic initial steps are

the identification of end use characteristics, energy requirements per unit of output, process

economics and qualitative factors affecting energy use . Based on these and on estimates of total industrial output, the total energy requirements can be determined.

At this point an analysis of technological , environmental and regulatory factors as well

as the potential conservation measures can be performed to evaluate the impact on energy

demands. The final result could show the total demand for energy by end use, the potential for conservation , and the alternative methods for achieving the energy savings

.

Summary

This paper has attempted to highhght the problems and issues in industrial energy analysis

and forecasting and to postulate alternative investigative approaches. It is hoped that the authors'

current and future work will lead to useful results. However, a lot more work needs to be

performed. This paper would, therefore, be of value if it could serve as a basis for further

discussion and formulation of improved approaches for the collection and analysis of valid, accurate information on energy utihzation and potential efficiency improvement.

92
References

1. A Survey of Fuel and Energy Information Sources , Vols. I and U, MITRE Corporation, McLean, Va. , November 1970 (NTIS Access No.

PB 197386) .

2 . Limaye , D . R . and Sharko , J . R . , TERA - The Total Energy Resource Analysis Model,

Phase I Final Report, American Gas Association, September 1971.

3. Limaye, D. R. , Ciliano, R. , and Sharko, J. R. , "Quantitative Energy Studies and Models - A State of the Art Review" , prepared for the Council on Environmental Quality, Executive

Office of the President, Decision Sciences Corporation Research Paper Series #114.

4. Baughman, M. L. , "Dynamic Energy System Modeling - Inter-Fuel Competition". Ph.D.

dissertation. Energy Analysis and Planning Group, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

,

September 1972.

5. Verleger, P. K. , "An Econometric Analysis of the Relationships Between Macro Economic

Activity andU. S. Energy Consumption: , in M. F. Searl (Ed.) Energy Modeling , Resources

for the Future. Inc. . Washington, D. C. , March 1973.

6 • Mooz , W . E . , and Mow , C . C . , A Methodology for Projecting the Electrical Energy

Demand of the Manufacturing Sector in California , prepared for the Resources Agency

of CaUfomia with support from the National Science Foundation , RAND Corporation , Santa Monica. Calif. . R-991-NSF/CSRA , January 1973.

7. Limaye . D. R. . eind Sharko, J. R. , "Analytical Techniques for Energy Policy Evaluation" , in M. F. Searl (Ed.) Energy Modeling , Resources for the Future, Inc. , Washington, D. C. , March 1973.

8. Study of the Industrial Market, Chemical and Allied Products Segment, Summary Report,

to be available Fall 1973.

9. Consohdated Natural Gas Service Company, Inc. , A Price-Demand Sensitivity Study of the Industrial Energy Market . Volume II - Cost Analyses. Pittsburgh, Pa. , July 1972.

10. Rich, J. , "One Utility's Approach to Conserving Gas" , Industrial Gas , Vol. 51, No. 12,

December 1971

.

11. Rich. J. and Reid, D. , "A Guide to Process Combustion Methods" , Industrial Gas , Vol. 51,

No. 7, July 1971.

National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 403

Proceedings o£ 1973 Engineering Foundation Conference (Issued June 1976)

MANAGEMENT'S ROLE IN INDUSTRIAL

THERMAL ENERGY UTILIZATION

by

Allen S . Cook

American Can Company

American Lane

Greenwich , Connecticut 06830

The industrial sector has a vital role and stake in decisions with respect

to utilization of the country's thermal energy resources. Energy management responsibility requires a significant reorientation of the management

job toward energy conservation. Industrial management's present dedication is to competitive free enterprise and energy substitution for human

toil. The reorientation is toward acceptance of higher energy costs and

toward security of energy supply. Discussions are presented on what

industrial manufacturing can do and some factors external to industrial

process thermal energy utilization. In the former category a new process

technology , ultraviolet curing , is presented to exemplify conservation

results from application of a new technology . In the latter category , it is emphasized that a given company cannot operate in isolation in its energy conservation efforts without running the risk that the total energy required by the society may increase

.

Key words: Conservation; costs; economics; energy; thermal.

My employer, the American Can Company, is particularly grateful for the opportunity to be part of this conference and to express our thoughts. By way of background, I think American

Can represents a reasonably typical composite of the nation's industrial sector, which has a vital role and stake in the decisions to be made with respect to utihzation of the country's thermcil

energy resources. We are larger than average, with $2 billion in sales volume, and we cover

a wide range of industrial processes: petro-chemicals , specialty chemicals, forest products

such as lumber, pulp and paper making; metal can fabrication, of course; all forms of plastics

processing such as injection molding, blow molding, thermoforming and extrusion in a multiplicity of packaging products; printing; and a variety of package manufacturing processes

involving paper, film, foil, and composite materials.

I am not an engineer nor a scientist, but I do portray myself as a professional businessman,

with liberal arts undergraduate and business school graduate training from Harvard. My initia- tion to the energy management field was only very recent; prior to that I have been engaged in

management of aspects of American Can's many businesses , either overseeing manufacturing

activity , running a marketing and sales department , finance and planning functions and , most

recently , as General Manager and Vice President of our fine paper and forest products business

.

One might sum up my recent experiences as that of a business administrator.

The role of a business administrator is primarily to motivate others to accomplish the objectives of the enterprise. I find that the energy management responsibility requires a significant

reorientation of the management job toward energy conservation. Let me explain. The history of our Nation's industrial success is replete with examples showing that corporate individualism

operating under the profit motive in a free trade atmosphere has been the major factor contributing

to that success; and, second, no small part of these achievements has been due to industrial management's dedication to the substitution of inexpensive electric and thermal energy for human

labor in the production of goods and services . Our progress as a nation and our current material

prosperity can be directly attributed to industrial management's dedication to these two precepts

,

competitive free enterprise and energy substitution for human toil. The required reorientation we now find is the necessity for management to accept the reality

that in the future: first, energy input is no longer going to be inexpensive; and, second, that in order to secure energy supplies and to minimize energy costs , industrial society will have to act collectively in conjunction not only with its own members but also with government , the public

,

agriculture, the transportation industry, cind all segments of the energy supply industry.

95
Gentlemen , this necessity to share energy supplies on a regulated allocation basis will represent

a new and challenging way of life for industricd management. How well, how effectively, and

how quickly we react is what this newest business job title, "Energy Management" , is all about.

It will take time before manufacturing management first accepts and finally acts in accord

with this reorientation. Perhaps my own company's situation is typical. In 1972 our total costs

of doing business, exclusive of income taxes paid, were $1.9 billion. Almost $700 million, or 37% was expended for labor and salaries , and $50 million or 2.6% was spent to supply energy

to the multitude of manufacturing processes involved. With people input being fourteen fold our energy input, it is understandable that management will question the theorem that substitution

of capital and mechanical energy for labor is not still a valid industrial objective. In terms of resource allocation, with this type of labor-energy mix, even when our energy costs double to $100 million, as they soon will, management is still likely to, and, of course, should continue

to focus its improvement efforts to labor savings , where a 10% reduction would mean a seven

fold payoff for a labor cost saving project vis-a-vis an energy conservation capital expenditure.

Fortunately, there already exists a high level of understanding in U. S. management of the implications of the world's energy problems and such a simplistic cost-benefit analysis as

just used does not dominate corporate capital resource allocation pohcies. Effective managers

are well aware that what is at stake is the continuation of output and sales on which profits are generated. What will take time for industrial leadership to come to grips with is, first, that energy will no longer be inexpensive; and, second, the necessity to act collectively and publicly

with all parts of society , if we are to attain allocations of available energy supplies to the most

appropriate uses. Business management must recognize its obligation to make clear to the public

what the trade-offs are: gasoline for your car or mine versus possible industrial employment

curtailment; resources dispensed to mass transit versus highway spending; and, of course,

pollution abatement time tables versus employment, brown-outs, etc. , to name only a few such

issues . Recognition by business management that it must actively expend effort in stating its case in the inevitable energy supply allocation process that we as a nation are about to undergo

is absolutely essential in order to avoid the threats of capricious mis allocation of energy

supplies. It is in this process of unwinding its resources to meet with the public, relate its story , give and take with all parts of society , that business management has tended historically to be both slow to react and reluctant to engage . Industrial energy managers and top

industrial leadership can ill sifford to perpetuate such reticence, this time, on this topic. In order to be effective in such a confrontation , industrial management must rapidly

demonstrate both progress and skill in "energy conservation through effective energy utilization" . My remarks will review two areas of the topic: first, some thought on what we in

industrial manufacturing can contribute; and then, with the co-chairman's indulgence, I would request approval to broaden the scope of the conference theme to suggest serious

consideration of further research and study of factors external to industrial process thermal

energy utihzation, as significant possibiUties for further conservation of energy in industrial

processes. I tend to think of this subdivision of thinking as "internahties" and "externalities'." Excluding from my data base the energy used to generate electricity by utiUties , industriEil usage of fuels for thermal energy in 1970 was estimated to amount to 21 .8 quadrillion BTU's or "quads" , or about 43% of all fuel consumption of 50.9 quad. I'm sure this statistic understates

actual thermal energy demands by manufacturing, because it excludes by-product residues used

as fuel sources, such as bark, sawdust, etc. , solid wastes, and recycled process sources of energy, for example black liquor sohds used in the Kraft pulp process. It's probably more

appropriate to conclude that American manufacturing uses at least 50% of the thermal energy

produced in the country , exclusive of that required for the generation of electricity . One study

I am famihar with projects the 1970 consumption of 50.9 quad will grow to 80.6 by 1985, with

industrial manufacturing still accounting for almost 42% of it, or 33.5 quads. Obviously then,

what industry can contribute to thermal energy conservation has a very significant impact on the total energy problem. The President's conservation goal of 5% applied to 1970 industrial

usage is 1 quad, or the equivalent of 167 billion barrels of fuel oil distillates. Thinking ahead

to 1985, without compounding, if American industry achieved the 5% goal we could reduce equivalent distillate consumption 280 billion barrels per year. Now, going one step further, if American

industry is able to apply itself as effectively to a 5% conservation objective on an annual basis,

as we have been able to demonstrate when faced with other challenges , for the next 6 years the

results would be indeed spectacular. Five per cent conservation per year exceeds the forecast

of consumption demand increase of 3.8% per year. We would arrive at 1985 with industrial thermal

fuel requirements of 19.6 quads, or more than 2 quads less than we burned in 1970! Are there any

of us here today who can challenge the reasonableness of a 5% conservation goal, at least for the

next 6 years?

96
Internal industrial thermal energy conservation opportunities can be divided into three

general categories:

A. Improved utilization through engineering improvement of existing processes.

B. Process changes to utilize potential fuel sources that are currently being discarded,

such as solid waste, or used for other purposes of higher added value. These opportunities tend to be a function of cost or value per BTU related to the new investment

required to change one's process.

C. Discovery of new technology reducing the energy requirement per unit of output.

Achievement of meaningful energy savings in existing processes , savings that we all know

are there and which can be realized, is a function of management girding up its loins to do the job

by effective personnel motivation, planning and administration. For companies who make high

thermal energy input products , the establishment of a formalized energy management responsibility is highly desirable to give the effort both the focus and direction required. A new box on

the organization chart doesn't get the job done. Line business managers do that. An energy

management function gives the line manager the tools to get the job done. To get more for your

energy buck, business managers have to be first educated to what their energy use and costs are,

to what the future energy supply available is hkely to be and what it is going to cost, to what

problems or opportunities the energy crunch is going to present, and what alternative solutions

should be pursued. Getting participation from key local plant operators is the prime ingredient

to energy conservation success.

I do not mean to slight the inputs that technical staff with energy engineering skills can

contribute, but in most companies these resources are limited and there probably is a higher priority use for their skills, which I'll get to in a minute. More important, though, the local plant

operator knows his own shop. He knows where the energy "leaks" or wastage are, and generally

he's in a position to act and act fast if top management gives him the resources he needs to do the

job, be it money, technical skill, or new sources of energy supply. In our company, for example, we have instituted local plant energy conservation committees, generally spearheaded by our industrial engineers, unless the type of facility is large enough to support its own power engineer.

Line business management has given each plant an energy conservation goal and progress against

that goal is monitored, just as other management objectives are followed.

This activity has not been organized on a formalized basis for too long , but it is starting to produce both ideas and results , and I recommend it as the single most important step in an energy

management program.

A significant portion of American Can's thermal energy requirements is for the purpose of drying . Removing moisture in the paper making process is a very significant example of this

,

but in addition virtually all of our packaging operations use tremendous amounts of heat to set and cure a massive volume and range of inks and coatings applied to containers. I will be mentioning in a moment new process technology which promises to reduce thermal energy requirements for curing coatings and inks by a fantastic margin; but, in the present situation, it will

take several years to equip our operations with this new technology. In the interim , any of you

who have had experience with air drying-ovens know what a cumbersome impediment an oven tends to be in a smooth product flow and that hot air curing is not a particularly efficient process from an energy standpoint. In addition to this basic thermal inefficiency, our packaging business uses ovens in conjunction with printing and coating operations for a wide range of specific customers

requirements , so that 35 to 40% of available operating hours have to be devoted to change-over,

or "make ready" , in which period no product is moving through the drying apparatus. Well,

quite obviously , what I am describing here is an ideal opportunity for a local plant energy committee to go to work on the application of low investment energy conservation ideas . The actual

thermal engineering input required is modest and, because gas has been cheap, our company

previously couldn't justify the instruments and controls required to minimize gas usage. We

certainly can now, and our plants have flooded us with good ideas which we are implementing.

We should be able to achieve the President's 5% goal in our metal can plants on this type of present

process improvement alone. It is illustrative of what I mean by the first category of improved util- ization which I call "getting more for your buck"

.

The second opportunity I mentioned involves the use of BTU sources that are currently going

to waste. You may question the precision with which this concept matches our conference theme of effective utilization as a means of conservation. We have all read of the sizeable energy source

available in solid wastes , a term we tend to associate with a garbage truck stopping at our doorstep, or something the consuming public creates , but how thoroughly have we studied our own

industrial process wastes to determine what additional BTU's might be generated therefrom.

97
This obviously is an area which does require specialized engineering know-how before it demonstrates improved and effective results. My association with the forest products industry gives me

an advantage here, because use and reuse of all raw material inputs in the lumber-pulp-paper

industry is a way of life. It is instinctive for a pulp mill guy to look at any process by-product

and ask himself how he can wring out some energy from it. Lumber and paper people are like farmers in thought processes; they live with an organic and regenerative basic raw material,

cellulose , which gives them more opportunity than those of you who deal with stone , glass , iron

,

steel or other inorganics. The pulp and paper industry is fortunate. It already has 36% of its energy supply available internally and some plants go as high as 65%, from pulping liquor solids

and bark. Despite this already high level of energy self-sufficiency , pulp and paper mills are planning to increase their internal fuel self-sufficiency to a 50% level by 1975, by further re- processing of material.

It is my contention that a whole new vista of internal process fuel sources can be opened up

in many other industries if we put our minds to the task and use the chemical engineer's philosophy of process optimization to do the job the way the pulp and petrochemical industries do

it today.

A few examples have been uncovered already by our can makers , and bending metal cer- tainly doesn't have the advantages or recycling possibilities I just cited for the forest products

industry . We use a large gallonage of coatings , all of which are diluted with solvents before being applied to the container. We likewise employ a variety of solvents in wash-up operations during changeovers of printing presses and coating equipment. We already have one facility burning washup solvents as a heating fuel supplement. The horrendous amount of additional energy

required to incinerate the printing ink and coating solvents to meet air quality standards has

motivated us to install two pilot carbon absorption units to recycle these materials . In one in- stance we expect to recover heating fuel energy; the other should reclaim reusable solvent.

Of course , the big danger in advocating increased investigation of recycling material for its energy values is that each of us acting individually may proceed on a very logical, good payout

basis from our own viewpoints and unwittingly from the total economy standpoint create a negative

energy conservation result. It is in avoiding this error that I beUeve non-profit institutions and,

hopefully, our government can make contributions.

The cellulose in my blood keeps showing itself, but no paper meiker can go for a drive in farm country without thinking about all the fibre that agriculture creates which is not consumed.

In most cases it is not feasible as a raw material for paper, but the energy crunch has promulgated

serious evaluation of agricultural residues as a fuel source . If the incremental energy required

tp collect, store, and deliver it to the boiler is greater than the BTU's we generate, we may have

solved our own problem, but in the process we undoubtedly have made the country's problem

worse! All recycling involves this danger and one way we can avoid the dilemma of negative conservation is to stick to our own in-house process waste. I suggest the plastics industry, specialty

chemicals, soap and detergent, textiles, printing and publishing, and rubber may have hidden

BTU's they can now afford to recycle. But before these industries go all out on the idea, it is important that the total production cycle and its energy balance be studied and evaluated. If the

waste material is not now going down a sewer or into a hole in the ground, let us be careful before we decide to burn it or recycle it. For example, the plastics industry is an obvious case which today recycles some high BTU waste material to lower product technical specification uses. We all sell waste plastic to the toymakers. Before we burn that waste let's make sure the net added

BTU to produce toys from new virgin material isn't going to outweigh its heat value.

One of the reasons for this conference is to identify areas where research is needed to assist the objective. May I suggest that too few of us have an understanding of the energy inputs

and balances of our total product production process . Gaining such knowledge is virtually impossible for most of us . It can only be done at the university level or by special non-vested

interest groups with the skills and working knowledge needed. Our company makes cans from

steel and tinplate , but I confess to zero knowledge of the energy balances of the steel industry

upon whom we depend for our basic raw material . I am shocked to read , as I have on several

occasions, that our U.S . agricultural industry, whose productivity is the envy of the world, on

balance is the most inefficient energy user of them all, its caloric output being extremely wasteful in relation to its total energy input. It seems to me that identification of and clear straightforward tables of energy factors to produce the basics of our life and life style are desperately needed, if we are to make the correct decisions on energy in the future. For example, in our business

I can tell you it takes 40 million BTU to make a ton of paperboard , starting at the pulp mill , and

very shortly I'll know how many BTUs are required to fabricate that papeiboard to a food carton. But I haven't had time yet to measure the energy input of our own timberlands that supply the

basic wood to the pulp mill. Even when I complete this energy balance, which represents American Can's part of the process, I don't know where to turn to get information on what amounts of

98
energy are required for the chemicals , resins , inks , coatings , and all the other raw materials we use , to say nothing of all the transportation steps involved in producing the food carton or supplying the raw materials. This suggestion implies a massive data base is needed, and to trace every product to its roots is clearly very difficult if not impossible. Assembling the

basic building blocks or modules of energy input requirements that can be used intelligently

by all who play a role in the energy management process is certainly a possibility , and should

be pursued.

The final category for effective energy utilization is technological breakthroughs that re- duce the thermal energy input per unit. Not being of technical background, I don't believe I can offer this conference much by way of specific suggestions that should be researched. However, I can share with you our company's experience both in developing such a breakthrough

concept in our specialty chemicals division and one which we are rapidly bringing on stream in our container manufacturing plants as a commercial reality, because I'm sure it has other applications and because it is illustrative of what has to transpire if we are to get our nation's energy

demand and supply back into reasonable balance.

I've referred to the importance of thermal energy for drying container inks and coatings to American Can's business. The discovery and development of ultra-violet curing, UV, has emerged in the nick of time. Our own M 5 T chemical development in this field under the trade name

"Americure" is already in the market place for selected applications. The energy reduction in

substituting a chemical reaction triggered by ultra-violet light in the setting and curing of inks

and coatings in place of oven drying is substantial. Additionally, there are advantages in re- duction of air pollution and other significant process cost savings. A gas-fired oven equipped

with fume incineration uses 12.4 million BTU's per operating hour, 12 million of which are gas source thermal inputs. A UV installation does the same job , and maybe a little better in terms

of product quality , for a mere 102 ,000 BTU's per hour. We should all be so lucky with our energy problems

!

I don't even know the history of UV curing, whether it was a lab accident or a conscientious well-planned discovery, but I'm sure it has applications beyond what has been publicized to date to substitute for thermal energy processes. More important, it may also stimulate

investigation of other chemical reactions that can replace direct heat applications to processes.

My layman's approach to the energy problem may be wishful thinking, but I throw out the generality for what it's worth. Most of us are confronted with significant energy input increases to meet air and water quality standards in accordance with regulatory time tables that unfortunately prohibit the risk of investment in promising, but untried, new technology that may achieve

the pollution abatement standards with far greater thermal efficiency than existing proven procedures. If any of this audience can bring out at this conference the need for speed-up of research and development on promising new low energy processes, such as ion exchange, re- verse osmosis , high pressure wet oxidation , or perhaps even condensation techniques that can

substitute for the current pyrolysis and chemical additive approach to meeting air and water

quality standards , you certainly will have made an important contribution to the purpose of the conference. It seems to me the time is ripe for gaining a more sympathetic and less emotionally motivated ear in the Environmental Protection Agency and the Congress for revision

of the pollution abatement statutory time tables , if we can demonstrate we are on the threshold

of some discoveries , such as UV curing, that can do the pollution clean-up job with substantially

less thermal energy than seems to be the case with most current technology.

This concludes my thoughts on how industry should approach its internal thermal energy

consumption problems , and leads to some brief remarks on externalities that can have an important bearing on industrial thermal energy consumption. I would like to repeat quite emphatically

that industrial management is well aware that it must demonstrate positive progress in greater

energy utilization and conservation within its own house , before it can expect an understanding

hearing of its viewpoint on external factors that create increased industrial thermal energy demand. My suggestions relate to three broad areas.

I have already touched on the first of these . Imagine for a moment that our moon is habitable

and that you are an intelligent being of an advanced moon civiUzation possessed with the optics and

electronics to monitor every aspect of life on the planet earth. Wouldn't you be asking yourself how

those stupid earthhngs could have ever decided to promulgate regulations that decreased the al- ready inefficient energy utilization quotient of its chief transportation device, the internal combustion automobile engine, by a factor of perhaps as much as 50%, at the very time when a sane observer could see the raw material energy source, a non-renewable fossil, was reaching a predictable point of exhaustion? I'm referring to the American Petroleim Institute estimates that car emission control devices have increased U. S. gasoline consumption by 300,000 barrels per day,

and that 9 to 10 miles per gallon is now the average car efficiency. How could such an intelligent,

creative society as ours have failed to see that this was going to be the consequence of the entirely

99
desirable and necessary Federal Air Quality Act, given all the facts of life which the Congress

had before them when the legislation was enacted?

An understanding of the interrelationships of demands for improved environmental quality,

the supply of energy, and the potential collapse of the transportation system is beginning to emerge

.

The necessity to treat and administer these as a unified whole , rather than separate functions , is dawning upon us . The point of this story is that it is not too late to make the appropriate

adjustments to our environmental quahty standards and time tables for industrial processes and

avoid the errors of inefficient energy utilization we have capriciously imposed on the transportation industry. This does not mean that we should not go forward as energetically as possible with

the objectives of the clean air and water acts , but in the process let's do so in a manner that con- serves our limited energy resources to the utmost until we have supplanted our current fossil fuel supplies with the renewable energy sources we are developing.

My reference to the transportation industry and its problems is the second externality which

cannot be ignored in a discussion of industrial process conservation. The 1970 consumption statistics indicate 16.4 quadrillion BTU's were required in the United States to move our goods and

transport our population, all of it in the form of petroleum. A most likely forecast for 1985 re- quirements in transportation is 28.2 quads. That 15 year 72% forecasted increase in energy demand is exceeded only , in percentage terms , by the utiUty industry. Both the Rand Corporation

and Battelle Institute have done investigations of transportation energy requirements cind, al- though there are differences in their findings , there seems to be relative agreement on the follo- ing energy requirements for each transportation mode:

Water Transport 500 BTU per ton mile

Railroad 750 BTU per ton mile

Truck 2 , 400 BTU per ton mile

If our observer on the moon was amazed at the 50% decrease in automobile engine efficiency

stemming from emission control equipment, what must he think of our wisdom in utiUzing our

transportation system resources in the face of a fossil fuel shortage? What can we do to utilize more fully our existing rail or water network, which possess three to five times the energy

efficiency of the highway vehicle , instead of letting this network decay into bankruptcy? Correction of our misallocation of transportation resources has only indirect benefits to industrial

process energy conservation, in that, if we could optimize the use of rail and water modes, it would make everybody else's fuel supplies last that much longer. But the key point, it seems to me, is that we have now reached the time when industry, transportation, the pubUc and their

government must work together to redress the imbalance of transportation fuel inefficiency. If business and commerce are willing to face the responsibiUty of improved utilization within their own houses, do we not have an equal responsibility to see that the transportation industry,

which essentially is an extension of our manufacturing processes , does not squander its allocations of fuel supplies? Solutions to this very complex problem boggle the mind, especially since

transportation, by law, is in the public domain and a regulated industry subject to a frightening

array of pohtical pressure groups . I am not suggesting that this conference divert itself from its already massive assignment , but the need for equal concern and investigation of improvement in transportation energy utihzation is so readily apparent that perhaps some of you can play a role

in initiating the action required.

One final externality may be of more direct interest to the aim of the conference. Earlier

I stressed the need for business management to adjust to the necessity to work with all segments

of the economy in improving energy utilization. One area that may offer opportunity for signifi- cant energy conservation, but which requires extensive engineering effort to realize, is the

combination of industrial processes to share fuel values. This leads to consideration of another

regulated business, the electric public utilities, who in 1970 used almost 14 quads equivalent of

fossil fuels to boil water . It seems amazing for a society as developed as ours that engineering

and management of both the utilities and industry have generally avoided combining the electric

utility plant with an industrial process that could make use of the steam energy being wasted

from the typical generating plant. Many industries of which pulp and paper is but one example

have found it of benefit to both boil water for steam and generate their own power in the process

,

but for reasons I have never fully understood there are very few installations of public utility

generating capacity also producing steam for process utilization. Total 1985 electric generating

requirements for the country have been estimated at 44.3 quads, 62% of which, or 27.3 quads,

will be non-fossil fuel supplies - chiefly nuclear of course. That 44 quads compares with 16.8 Q

100
in 1970, giving some indication of the tremendous number of new generating plants that must be

installed. This seems to be an excellent opportunity for industrial processes to join together with

the utilities to conserve fuels. By the same token, it may be that the utility industry should be

taking a look at the value of utilizing industrial process energy to boil water and make electricity.

Perhaps the engineering obstacles are too great, but both the steel industry and glass making

come to mind with their tremendous furnaces to melt and refine ores, operating on a continuous

basis. Cannot some brilliant designers find a way to employ this heat source to also make generating steam without impairing the reliabiUty of the basic process furnace?

Your patience in hstening to a layman's queries of items somewhat external to your conference intent is appreciated. May I again thank you, on behalf of American Can Company, for the

opportunity to participate in the work of your conference.

Q. I'm wondering how far has your company gone in meeting the 5% goal and do you

expect that you will achieve that goal?

A. In the can-making end of the business, I think we can make this quite easily by

reducing the losses we have. Some of our other large parts of the business are dependent on electrical energy and I find that finding ways to save electrical

energy is a lot harder than thermal. When we get into our chemical and pulp and

paper I think it would be a breeze. In fact, I argued for a first year goal like 20%

in most parts of the business . General Motors brags about 20% in its first year.

Q . At one point of your talk I got the impression that you were implying that it might

be possible to make a 5% energy reduction compounded. Would you explain that?

A. I used it in a sense comparable to productivity. I was really starting with today's

base, and, if you accept that real industrial output is going to grow at about 3.8%,

theoretically the 5% conservation effort could exceed our growth and demand re- quirement and we wind up using actually less energy

.

Q. I don't think you can keep up forever.

A. But again I go back to the example. General Motors , who bragged about 20% the

first year , is not going to keep that up . That 20% the first year gives a pretty

good bite toward the effect of a 5% compounded conservation rate for 10 years.

101

National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 403

Proceedings of 1973 Engineering Foundation Conference (Issued June 1976)

DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ENERGY

MANAGEMENT POLICIES

by

Michael C. Noland

Midwest Research Institute

Engineering Division

425 Volker Boulevard

Kansas City, Missouri 64112

A systematic approach to energy management at the operational

level must be custom- fitted to specific industrial facilities.

Preliminary results of attempts to (1) determine the steps

being taken by industry in response to changing energy supply

conditions and the potential for conservation inherent in that

response and (2) develop guidelines for the establishment of

plant energy management policies in the manufacturing and

process industries are presented. The major incentive for

future conservation of energy by industry is cost. The only

alternative is regulation and enforcement. The economic

incentive involves both direct energy cost and the indirect

costs of energy security. The approach to energy problems

taken by different firms follows no discernibly systematic

pattern, varying from little concern to progressive programs.

An outline of steps in the development of industrial energy

management policies is presented.

Key words: Conservation; economic; energy; management;

manufacturing

We have the unenviable task at this conference of identifying and delineating the "opportunities and implications of more effective utilization

of thermal energy". In this morning's session we have the even less enviable charge of addressing energy management practices in industry, an even more challenging assignment than it first appears. This is because a systematic approach to energy management at the operational level cannot be

developed which applies equally well to all industrial facilities. Obviously, we cannot formulate a list of ten best energy conservation actions for the

manufacturing and process industries and expect that list to be equally

applicable to all manufacturing and process plants. Similarly, the advisability of converting to various alternative fuels can differ markedly from

plant-to-plant, region-to-region.

We can regard this conference as addressed to one aspect of a larger

question: "How can we reduce the future demand for energy?" I sometimes

think that when we discuss the potential for energy conservation in industry

we are all perched on the edges of our chairs waiting for someone to an- nounce that a breakthrough has been achieved that a simple guideline has

been developed which, if applied, could significantly reduce energy demand

without painful economic or social s ide - effects . But, alas, that hasn't

happened, and it's not likely to happen. Energy conservation - particularly

energy conservation in industry - will be achieved in elemental pieces - by

a myriad of different energy management practices applied to a myriad of

individual situations.

I believe that energy conservation in the manufacturing and process

industries can best be achieved by the development of energy policies customfitted to the needs of individual energy consumption centers. It is true

that general guidelines, such as "reduce heat in unoccupied areas" and "utilize waste heat", are helpful. It is also important that good systems

103
engineering practices be applied to energy policy development. But the

ultimate effectiveness of energy management practices depends on how applicable they are to the energy problems faced by the plant manager.

The potential for energy conservation in industry has been much more difficult to characterize than the potential in the transportation, residential, and commercial sectors.

Even the attempts to define the industrial potential have rarely involved the active participation of industry. As a result it has been

difficult to discern and record the response of industry to rapidly changing

energy economics

.

I would like to discuss with you this morning some preliminary results

of attempts to:

1. Determine the steps being taken by industry in response to changing

energy supply conditions - and the potential for conservation inherent in

that response; and

2. Develop guidelines for the establishment of plant energy management

policies in the manufacturing and process industries.

These studies have been underway for only a few months. As additional

data are obtained from surveys of industry, and as further refinement is

made of the suggested guidelines for policy development, it is very likely

that some of the results will change.

The Potential for Energy Conservation in Industry

Estimates of the potential for energy conservation in the industrial

sector can be described as tenuous, at best. Although we know how much

energy is consumed by different types of industry, the detailed consumption

data within industries are inadequate. It is difficult to estimate how much

energy could be saved by energy-conscious design of industrial process equipment. Even more important, we have no means of predicting the response of

industry to energy conservation programs - whether voluntary or mandatory.

It is this shortage of fundamental planning information, more than any other

factor, which complicates the development of energy conservation programs

targeted at industry.

In order to identify conservation potential we need to know how much of

what type of fuel is used for what purposes in which processes, by each

classification and subclassif ication of industry. To develop specific plant

energy management policies, it would be desirable to have this type of information for specific industrial manufacturing or process plants. Unfortunately, much of the information concerning industrial energy consumption is

somewhat dated, and non-specific*

Most of the potential energy savings are expected to result from

incentives to upgrade the energy efficiency of industrial processes. It is

argued that increases in energy costs, perhaps by means of an energy use

tax, will compel industry to design and develop more energy efficient pro- cesses and equipment and to accelerate the replacement of obsolete equipment

to effect energy savings. There are two central unknowns in such a scenario.

First, something must be known about the price elasticity of demand for

energy. How much will the cost of energy have to increase before the consumer (here, industry) considers it to his benefit to reduce demand. In

many segments of industry, energy costs have been such a small fraction of

operating costs or product costs that it might take a very large percentage

increase in energy cost before efficiency improvements become cost effective.

Second, energy utilization improvements in processes and equipment must

be the result of feasible design changes and development efforts. Energy

Editor's note: At this point in his paper presented to the Conference,

Mr. Noland summarized studies which indicated the potential for energy

conservation in industry. Rather than reiterate these findings, we refer the reader to the reports presented on the first day of this

Conference under the topic entitled "National Context for Energy Conservation", in this volume, and "Potential for Energy Conservation",

Office of Emergency Preparedness, October, 1972.

104
savings will be the result of an accumulation of process improvements. Each

improvement must be both feasible and cost effective.

Incentives for Energy Management in Industry

I believe there are four principal Incentives for the future conservation of energy by industry. The first is cost . . . the second is cost . . . the

third is cost . . . and the fourth is legislation . My point is obvious. Energy

savings will be realized in the industrial sector if there is an economic

reason to achieve such savings. That is the central motivation. The only

alternative is regulation and enforcement.

If we consider energy management policy in more global terms than

conservation, we can identify two obvious economic incentives for the

development of such policy on a plant-by-plant basis: 1) the savings realized by reducing energy use, and 2) the economic losses prevented by

avoiding loss of production when fuel supply is curtailed.

Demand reduction constitutes conservation. It is economically attractive only if the energy cost savings over an acceptable period of time are greater than the cost of implementing the conservation measures. It remains

difficult to convince an operations manager that he should make an invest-,

ment in energy conservation if it holds no promise of economic return.

Conservation measures can be economical, however. For example, one large

manufacturing firm in the Midwest operates on a two-shift, 5-day basis with

maintenance performed on the third shift. They now shut down energyconsuming process units, space heating, and lighting from the end of the

second shift on Friday until about 5:00 a.m. Monday. This incurs a $400-

$500 labor cost for shutdown each weekend, but a fuel savings of $5,000-

$6,000 is realized. Most firms which implement such plans find that

system controls are not usually adequate to effectively isolate those

processes or areas to be shut down.

The second incentive - energy security - is influential if the loss

associated with process downtime or facility closure due to energy curtailments is important. Many factors must be examined to evaluate the impact

of such an event. It depends on production schedule, materials and product

shelf lives, unit costs, plant shutdown and start-up costs, union

agreements concerning temporary plant closures, back-up fuel availability,

anticipated length of shutdown, and numerous other considerations.

The economic incentives for industrial energy conservation are energy

savings and energy security. Of course, it is remotely conceivable that

industry could be directed to reduce energy demand regardless of cost. We

could, by inaction, find ourselves in an emergency situation in which

industry is forced to reduce consumption in order to overcome a fuel crisis.

However, no incentive is adequate unless management attention and

talent is directed to energy utilization and efficiency. It has been our observation that most industrial management teams exhibit two philosophies

regarding energy policy. Within most companies, there is an element of

management (usually at the top levels) which has been informed of potential

energy supply problems and believes that something should be done. Within

the same company, there is frequently a management element (generally at

the operating level) which does not assign a very high priority to the task

of heading off such problems. This latter group is usually faced with more immediate operating or production problems and cannot find the time to

address a longer range potential energy problem. Unfortunately, the former

management group usually assigns the task of plant energy policy development

to the latter group. And, too often, very little substantive progress is

made

.

Survey of Energy Policies in the Industrial Sector

As a preliminary step toward developing guidelines for plant energy

policies, we have inaugurated surveys of a ii?ide cross -section of industry.

Interim results are summarized, in part, in Tables 1 and 2. We have also

contacted several dozen leading companies in the Midwest and have discussed

energy problems with their executives and operating managers. I will

attempt to distill some of their opinions.

105
TABLE 1 INDUSTRIAL FUEL SUPPLY

REGIONAL ENERGY SURVEY

Plants experiencing fuel shortages

during past year (includes winter 1972-73) 601

Natural gas 75^

Fuel oil 25%

Number of natural gas curtailments 0-15

Cumulative length of natural gas curtailments 0-90 days

(back. -up fuels used, maintenance performed)

Plants with back-up fuel provisions 70%

Fuel oil for natural gas.. 80%

Fuel oii/diesel fuel to

generate electricity. . . 25%

LP gas for natural gas.... 20%

Coal for natural gas 13%

Plants expecting shortages during next year 82%

Natural gas 65%

Fuel oil 50%

Gasoline/diesel fuel 22%

LP gas/propane 25%

Plants considering alternative energy supplies 23%

Fuel oil for natural gas

Convert to electricity

LP gas for natural gas

Back-up electric generation

Coal for natural gas

TABLE 2 INDUSTRIAL ENERGY UTILIZATION

REGIONAL ENERGY SURVEY

Plant manager rating of

plant energy efficiency: Above average 26%

Average 60%

Below average 14%

Plant manager rating of

building insulation effectiveness: Above average 0%

Average 76%

Below average 24%

Plants implementing energy conservation actions 73%

Process heat recovery

Monitoring and control of lighting levels

Capacitors to correct power factors

Improved insulation

Improved process scheduling

Increased equipment maintenance

Increased rate of equipment replacement

Improved process design

Computerization to reduce peak loads

Plants planning energy conservation actions 48%

Plants in which energy use is. increased

by environmental regulations 48%

Plant manager estimates of expected average annual increase

in cost of energy 17 1/2%/year

Source: Midwest Research Institute

106
Our surveys shcrw that the central energy problem faced by facility

managers is a lack of information on which to base management decisions.

Many plant managers and facility engineers have serious concerns about

energy costs and energy security. But most concede that they are guessing

at what energy shortages they will encounter - or what measures to take in

the future.

They are receptive to energy conservation concepts because they foresee

large increases in the cost of energy. But the conservation techniques

which have real potential in the manufacturing and process industries

require capital investment, - e.g., more energy-efficient process equipment,

better fuel controls, material recovery and recycling systems. And better

information concerning fuel regulation, distribution, and availability is

necessary to facilitate the decision-making process.

The approach to energy problems taken by the firms with which we have

worked follows no discernibly systematic pattern. Some do not believe they

will be affected by future fuel shortages. Others have experienced

shortages and are seriously concerned about energy economics and security.

About 60 percent of the firms surveyed experienced fuel shortages

during the past year. Three- fourths of the shortages were natural gas and

the remainder were fuel oil. Some firms experienced curtailments of both

fuels. Electrical outages due to severe weather were not tabulated.

Several firms experienced more than a dozen natural gas curtailments, with

accumulated durations of up to 3 months.

Number 2 fuel oil and LP gas were the principal back-up fuels. Many

firms which experienced natural gas shortages also expect shortages of

their back-up fuels. A few firms had to use periods of natural gas cur- tailment to perform plant maintenance operations.

Most industries believe that shortages of natural gas, propane, and

fuel oil will be widespread during the next 5 years. Nonetheless, many

firms are adding to their LP gas and fuel oil storage capacity as a safeguard against natural gas curtailments. Some are converting entire

facilities from natural gas to fuel oil. A few firms have expressed interest

in conversion to coal, perhaps by means of on-site gasification plants.

About one-fourth of the firms surveyed rate their facilities above

average in efficiency of energy utilization.

Approximately half of the manufacturing and process firms surveyed

attribute part of their increased energy demand to the need to conform to

environmental standards at the plant level. Most believe that environmental

regulations will have a future impact on their energy demand.

Industry appears to anticipate large increases in energy costs during

the next 3 years - 10 to 20 percent annually.

Anticipated industrial growth is expected to be reflected in increased

energy demands. Some firms regard fuel shortages and costs to be serious

constraints on near term growth.

We have categorized responses as energy conservation "actions" rather

than "programs". None of the firms surveyed have initiated systematic fuel

and energy management programs.

It is interesting to note that, although about three- fourths of the

companies cited some current energy conservation action, less than half

indicated that additional efforts were being planned. Coupled with the fact

that only a small percentage rated their plants as below average in terms of

energy efficiency, this might indicate that many firms believe they have

their energy supply and utilization problems under control.

Only a very small number of firms have indicated that they are attempting to improve process and equipment energy efficiency as a conservation measure. No firms stated that they are systematically attempting to identify areas of energy inefficiency.

One firm stated that it was replacing process equipment more frequently

than in the past in order to increase energy efficiency. In some cases,

such action could be counter to national conservation goals if energy use in

production of the new equipment is considered.

Most energy conservation initiatives in industry involve space heating

107
and lighting needs. They include improved insulation and access in plant

buildings, use o£ waste heat for space heating and coordination of heating,

air conditioning, and lighting with work schedules.

A wide variety of energy conservation methods were reported by the

firms surveyed. They included:

Use outdoor air for cooling whenever possible.

Set thermostats near minimum and maximum operating temperatures of

equipment

.

Turn off unused equipment and lighting.

Organize work schedules for minimum travel and reduced travel frequency.

Encourage carpools among employees.

Use capacitors for power factor control.

Increase insulation thickness in existing facilities.

Plan improved insulation systems for new facilities.

Recover waste heat from power generation or process heat for use in

space heating.

Equip steam generators with economizers.

Improve control of fuel nozzles and injection systems.

Reduce fuel leaks and spillage through improved maintenance.

Refine maintenance efforts to avoid decreases in energy efficiency of

equipment.

Re-evaluate illumination levels necessary for operation and reduce

where allowable.

Reduce size and horsepower of company-operated passenger vehicles.

Provide air locks for building entrances.

Periodically check heating units for combustion efficiency.

We also asked the firms surveyed to suggest governmental action which

would help alleviate the problems of energy supply and demand faced by

industry. The responses included very little reference to energy conservation programs. No mention was made of federal, state, or local incentives

to encourage conservation or otherwise reduce demand. A few firms

recommended that energy conservation be encouraged in non- industrial sectors.

Most responses indicated that energy problems in industry can be solved by

action in other sectors of the economy - action not under the control of the

private sector.

It is also useful to note that no responses suggested governmental

incentives to encourage the development of more energy efficient processes

and the replacement of old, less efficient processes. Tax incentives to

encourage capital investment for equipment or process upgrading would be an example.

To summarize the interim survey results:

Many firms have experienced fuel shortages in the recent past. The

economic impact of such shortages has depended on the availability of backup fuels.

Most firms expect shortages of either primary or back-up fuels, or both,

during the next few years and anticipate large increases in energy costs.

Most firms believe that, on an individual basis, they are adequately

addressing plant energy problems, but they have not initiated systematic

energy management and planning programs. Energy conservation actions are

few but, where taken, have proven to be of significant economic value.

Interim Guidelines for Energy Management

It is , of course, not feasible to set down criteria for developing

energy management policy which are equally applicable to all industry

situations. Two major factors prevent this. The first is the obvious fact

that energy consumption patterns differ markedly from industry- to- industry

and from plant-to-plant within an industry. Secondly, supply and

distribution of energy is regionally dependent. The latter consideration is

frequently overlooked, but availability of fuels in the U. S. depends

strongly on geography, particularly under conditions in which supply and

demand imbalances exist.

108
Nonetheless, it is useful to delineate guidelines for the development

of energy policy. In some cases, such guidelines can be an important

element in energy management and, even in the least applicable cases, can

be a check list of some utility.

The obvious shortcoming of these guidelines is a lack of specificity.

They can be justly criticized on the grounds that they don't address the

detailed problems faced by individual plant managers. They do not outline

methods to improve the energy efficiency of specific saving actions. And,

as yet, they are far from constituting a cookbook for the development of

plant energy policy.

Not much has been done to identify the energy conservation potential of

efforts to upgrade the efficiency of specific equipment. We need systematic

evaluation of what can be done to improve efficiency - detailed information

such as: Energy consumption of process A can be reduced by X percent if

modifications 1, 2, and 3 are made. This is a big, but not unrealistic,

task

.

The following is a first attempt to outline steps in the development

of industrial energy management policies. It combines items suggested by

many analysts of energy technology and energy economics. By its very nature

it solicits modifications, extensions, and refinements.

1. Designate a corporate team to investigate energy problems and

formulate an energy management policy for each facility. The individuals

responsible for energy management at each major facility should serve on this team. It should also have representation from the corporate management and planning staff and the engineering department. It should be vested

with authority adequate to investigate prevailing energy supply and demand

situations and to implement policy recommendations. The tasks of the energy

policy team should be assigned a priority consistent with the current or potential importance of energy problems in the company operation. The team

should inventory talents within the firm which could contribute to the

analysis and utilize those talents.

2. The energy policy team should specify the need for such a policy

and the objectives of the team's efforts. It should examine available

corporate energy-related data and prepare a report which outlines the overall energy status of the company. This should serve as baseline information.

3. The need for expert counsel or assistance from outside the company

should be determined early in the planning effort. If such assistance is

advisable, it should be obtained sufficiently early to contribute to the

project planning tasks.

4. A thorough inventory of energy supply and use throughout the firm

should be developed. In most cases, this task will require considerable

effort. It should result in a detailed description of how energy is

obtained and used in each facility, with information down to the level of

specific processes and equipment. It should catalog energy suppliers and

tabulate historical data concerning energy supply and price trends. Fuel

and energy cost data should be compiled as a basis for future monitoring

of the cost impact of energy actions. An inventory of fuel storage

capabilities and back-up fuel supplies should be included. This effort

should generate a data base for energy policy development.

5. One member of the team or a consultant should be assigned the task

of analyzing regional energy supply, distribution, and consumption

characteristics! The objective should be to identify trends which will

affect the availability of fuels and energy to the company, such as: consumption trends of other firms, industries, or economic

sectors which could compete for the same fuel supplies,

national issues which impact on the availability of fuels

or the distribution of fuels to different regions (e.g.,

importing crude oil),

economic trends of the region which could effect energy

availability, and

environmental regulations affecting fuel use.

109
6. An analysis o£ energy and fuel curtailments should be conducted.

This should consist of case history evaluation of past fuel shortages and

power outages with the view toward identifying predictors for such events.

For example, have natural gas curtailments been preceded by consistent

weather patterns as characterized in terms of degree-days? Assistance

should be solicited from energy suppliers in this task.

7. Systematic "energy inspections" of all facilities should be con- ducted. These are intended to identify specific areas of energy inefficiency and potential for energy conservation. The inspections should be

preceded by the development of checklists to help the inspector identify

energy- sens itive areas. Each firm, or at least each industry, will probably

find it necessary to develop custom- fitted checklists which recognize

particular energy use characteristics of the industry. Inspectors should

try to spot wasteful practices. Often a list of methods to save energy can help identify areas where wasteful practices prevail. For example, the

knowledge that automatic controls can be used to increase combustion

efficiency keeps the inspector alert for poor combustion control. The

energy inspection should also serve to find operations where loss of energy

would be critical, identify processes where back-up fuels could be used,

and, in general, develop a comprehensive picture of the energy efficiency

of the operating facilities. The inspection should include office, warehouse, and other facilities in addition to the process or manufacturing

plants. An inspection report should be filed for each site.

8. An examination should be made of such items as work and production

schedules, vehicle fleet operation, staff travel, and other activities which

constitute areas for potential energy savings. Recommendations should be

developed

.

9. A review of new technology related to the principal equipment or processes used by the company should be carried out. The objective should

be to identify technical improvements which can upgrade energy efficiency.

The results should be correlated with the output of Steps 4 and 7. 10. Maintenance and equipment replacement schedules should be

examined to determine their impact on energy efficiency. Recommendations

should be made.

11. A study of the tangible and intangible costs associated with fuel

or power shortages should be made. This should include the loss of

production and service, the costs of plant shutdown, the risk of customer

dissatisfaction, factors related to labor agreements, long-term impact on growth, and numerous other considerations. The objective of this analysis

is to develop guidelines which, with the cost data from Step 4, can be used

to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of energy actions.

12. The energy project team should utilize the output of the steps

listed above to develop recommendations for energy- related actions. The

recommendations should be classified as directed at energy economy or energy security . This is obviously a crucial task, and the effectiveness

with which it is carried out depends on the thoroughness of the preceding

efforts. The project team should now have a comprehensive understanding of

the role energy plays in the company, the areas where energy savings can be

achieved, the actions necessary to achieve those savings, the cost benefits

of the savings, the areas in which the energy security of a plant can be

reinforced, the problems encountered in obtaining fuels and energy, and

many other items. Formulation of the recommendations should draw upon as many elements of company operation as possible. An important part of this

task is to develop methods by which the recommendations can be implemented.

A formal report should be prepared which summarizes the project activities,

compiles company energy data, and presents the recommendations and the

implementation strategies. The latter two items - the recommendations and

implementation strategies - should be presented as a series of recommended

corporate energy management policies. The recommendations should include

methodology for the continued evaluation of the effectiveness of the

policies and the modification of the policies to improve effectiveness.

110
What I have outlined here is a major undertaking in operations analysis.

The effort devoted to each step and the detail in which the recommendations

are presented depend on someone's judgement concerning the importance of

energy to company operation. As I pointed out earlier, there is no need to

undertake such a study unless you are confident that it will lead to

recommendations which will save more money than they will require to develop

and implement.

I want to repeat that these suggestions are interim ones. They result

from partial studies, and it should be clear that they will evolve into

something more specific as more definitive information is compiled. By

early next year we hope to have gone through the steps outlined above for

a number of actual cases. We also hope to investigate the potential for

improving the energy efficiency of several specific industrial processes.

In the meantime I solicit your suggestions and encourage you to point out errors of commission or omission in the development of these strategies.

Q. In regard to your last comments to make sure that the pay-off is there:

from your list of recommendations, do you have any criteria to indicate

how you would actually proceed with such an analysis?

A. I think, really, you have to go through some of these steps before you

have available the type of planning information on which to base those

very crucial judgements.

Q. Let's say you get down to the point where you know the thermal load and

the amount of electricity required. Do you have any criteria at that

point?

A. I don't have any to suggest; I'm sure that on a more individual basis,

people who have worked with this in the plant probably do have some which have worked for them.

Ill

National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 403

Proceedings of 1973 Engineering Foundation Conference (Issued June 1976)

CASE fflSTORIES OF EFFECTIVE ENERGY

UTILIZATION IN INDUSTRY

by

William Rudoy

University of Pittsburgh

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15261

Energy conservation through effective energy utilization falls into three

classes: better "housekeeping" or energy management of present systems;

application of present off-the-shelf technology to existing systems; and

revision of existing systems to provide the same objective with less energy. Three general components enter into any implementation of energy conservation - technology, economics, and people. There is a great deal of off-the-shelf technology that could be employed and case

studies are presented showing significant gains in energy conservation

in the area of comfort conditioning of the industrial environment. In most cases , the rule-of-thumb economic payback period of two years

for revising a system is not met. The decision to move toward more

efficient utilization, even when the other two components are favorable,

is often influenced by the attitudes of key personnel.

Key words: Attitudes; conservation; energy; industrial; systems

How much we can reduce our present energy consumption through effective energy utili- zation falls into three general classes:

1. Better "housekeeping" or energy management of present systems.

2 . Application of present off-the-shelf technology to existing systems

.

3. Revision of the existing systems to provide the same objective with less energy.

Even though we may be working towards breakthroughs with new systems in the third

category, we can be implementing the first two now. An order of savings of fifteen to twentyfive percent seems to be a reasonable expectation as indicated in the following case histories of western Pennsylvania installations.

We should be looking for three general components of implementing energy conservation:

1) technology, 2) economics, and 3) a people factor. In most of these cases , the rule-of-thumb economic payback period of two years used by

financial people for revising a system was not met . Other considerations usually forced the

decision that brought about the more efficient utilization

.

Industry uses energy either in the manufacturing process or to provide a proper working

environment . It is necessary to understand what makes a working environment acceptable to people. A more complete analysis of all the factors may be found in the literature, for example

in Fanger's book on Thermal Comfort, in the 1972 ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, Chapter 7 on Physiological Principles, or in an article by Dr . P. E. McNall in the June/ July 1973 issue of Building Systems Design. For our discussion today, let us consider only those factors relating

directly to thermal comfort by the environment . A simplified analysis would show the human body

as a heat engine which converts energy to work; the second law of thermodynamics requires that heat be rejected. Therefore, for thermal comfort, we require a controlled net cooling process, never heating of the body. Whenever the cooling rate exceeds that which is comfortable, we seek

to reduce the cooling rate, usually by space heating (which is only one of many possible solutions

to reduce the cooling) . How does the body reject heat? Analyzing this will permit us to find alternate solutions,

perhaps with lower energy requirements. The transfer of heat and mass (evaporation of water)

from the body is determined by surrounding air conditions such as 1) temperature, 2) humidity,

and 3) motion, and enclosing surface temperatures and radiation conditions such as 1) walls.

113
CONTROL OF HOT WATER SYSTEM

SANITARY DAIRY-JOHNSTOWN, PA.

i FIGURE 1

COIL AND BY-PASS INSTALLATION

DAMPER

r

HOT WATER COIL

I

-DAMPER

FIGURE 2

114
2) ceiling, 3) floor, and 4) e:lass. A combination of all these conditions determine the net rate of heat loss from the body

.

For example, in a situation with a relatively low mean radiant surface temperature enclosing

the body , it might be necessary to maintain an offsetting air temperature of 80°F or more for any

degree of comfort. By offsetting the radiant heat loss by some sort of radiant heat directly to the

body, the air temperature which would be required might be reduced to 70 F or lower. A simplified calculation of the yearly energy requirements for space heating for a building, based or^the

degree day method, would indicate an approximate savings of 25% following a reduction of 8 F in

the space temperature.

Is this the case in actual installations? Infrared space heating applications probably are

the best examples of this kind of application. In the case of one locomotive repair shop , a number

of changes were made, the major one being the replacement of a space heating system using steam

coils with gas as the fuel with a system using gas-fired infrared heaters . Previous to the change

the lowest gas consumption was 4220 MCF (thousand cubic feet) per year. For the year 1972-1973,

the gas consumption for the infrared heaters was 2930 MCF , a reduction of approximately 30 percent. Also, better comfort conditions were achieved.

Three other infrared case histories are shown below:

Application Fuel Reduction

Production Area-Toy Manufacturer 14%

Electrical Supply Shop 30

Auto Parts Warehouse 58

The switch from unit heaters to a closed combustion infrared system by the toy manufacturer was not to conserve energy but to eliminate material problems with the interchanger on

the unit heaters. The auto parts warehouse converted because of lack of comfort with unit heaters

,

not because of the savings which accrued. The impression one gains is that, more often than not,

the system that best fits the real objective also brings along with it a better energy utilization. Next , let us move on to some other applications . A dairy in the process of expanding its production and warehouse facilities was faced with the problem of maintaining a minimum temperature of approximately 65 F in the planned 13,000 sq. ft. warehouse. Gas had been the fuel energy

of the plant and additional gas was unavailable. In the process of studying other energy sources and systems, the management of the dairy, in conjunction with the gas company representative,

looked at the possibility of using the waste heat^from the process steam boilers. The flue gas

temperature in the stack was approximately 500 F and the boiler load was high enough that the

waste heat represented more than three times the heat required for space heating in the new

warehouse. A check on the gas consumption of the boiler showed a profile that made heat re- covery possible when the thermal mass of the warehouse was included so as to average out the

low use periods. Also, the relatively loose requirement as to the swing in space temperature in a warehouse made heat recovery feasible without additional thermal storage.

Since the initial study indicated the feasibility of such a system, it was decided to have

a consulting engineer design a system for bids . The schematic layout is shown in Figure 1

.

Standard hot water forced-convection heaters were used for the warehouse space heating. The

hot water is supplied by a standard finned tube coil placed in the boiler stack. The physical layout of the coil and stack is shown in Figure 2. In this particular design a bypass was inserted,

since the heating system was not designed to accept all the heat that was available at the high

firing rates of the boiler.

An additional advantage was obtained in this application with the process steam boilers

.

Since practically all the process steam was used throughout the plant with no provision for con- densate returns to the boiler, makeup water was supplied at a temperature of from 40 F to 60 F. Therefore , a parallel heat exchanger was added to preheat the makeup feedwater when space

heating was not required by the warehouse. This indicated that the dairy would be able to heat

the new 13 ,000 square foot warehouse and to use less gas than previously. The complete system

has been operating for over a year and the results confirm the estimates.

While this application seems to be an ideal case for efficient energy utilization, there are other aspects that should be analyzed. The people factor was quite interesting. Although the

president of the dairy was an enthusiastic backer of the heat recovery system , the stationary

engineer who was in charge of the boiler room and refrigeration facilities was somewhat less so. Since he was within two years of retirement, he wanted the least amount of change or disruption

to his routine. Whenever the plans were discussed or contractors were on the job, he managed

to be busy somewhere else. The installation, of course, eventually went in, but the normal "bugs"

that arise when getting a system to operate properly had to be eliminated without the aid of the man

who properly could be expected to be most helpful. The purpose in discussing this aspect is to

il5
point out that rarely can energy conservation or any other system be implemented by technology

or economics alone. In this relatively simple case, management, plant operating personnel, a consulting engineer, contractors, and utility representatives, all had to combine to produce the

desired results

.

Coincidentally , a few months after the heat recovery system of the dairy was in operation,

a die-casting shop was faced with almost the same problem of heating a similarly-sized new warehouse. Among the sources of waste heat available was a cooling water circuit for the die-castine

machines of 800 GPM with water leaving the plant for cooling towers at 93°F and returning at 82 F. This represents a source of over 4 million BTU/HR. The estimated peak requirement for a 65 F

warehouse was 1/2 million BTU/HR. The operation of the plant is almost continuous through the

week and throughout the year. A tentative design was developed and the equipment selection from

standard- type hot water coils was made directly from manufacturer's data. In this case, however,

a different manufacturer's representative created doubt in the plant engineer's mind, since the

standard catalog for heating units did not show any ratings below a water temperature of 160 F. Since the plant engineer would have to shoulder all responsibility for any system that went in, this additional doubt helped force a decision to go with the more usual fuel burning unit heater

,

oil in this application. Although no technological breakthroughs were required for this heat

recovery system and all principles (heat transfer and thermodynamics) were simple, the application was rejected because of the novel approach with off-tlB-shelf technology.

Another area where energy use efficiency can be improved is that related to industrial

furnaces and industrial combustion systems. Cheap energy of the recent past has permitted

inefficient combustion systems to go unnoticed. The management of one refractory plant was

so shocked by the estimated fuel inefficiency based on the results of a combustion analysis of their ovens that they invested $45,000 into burner replacement, gas meters, and combustion

analysis equipment. Now they are making regular in-plant checks on the combustion process.

In addition they are using some of the waste heat from the ovens for space heating in another

plant. They are also contemplating the use of the rejected heat from the after cooler of a large

air compressor for space heating also. The other source of significant reductions in energy consumption is the gxhaust gases

from industrial furnaces. Many such furnaces operate at temperatures over 2000 F. Using the

exhaust gases to preheat the combustion air through heat exchangers called recuperators can reduce fuel consumption by 20 to 25 percent. These devices have been standard equipment in

most countries with high energy costs . For example , one German engineer who came to work in

the United States about 10 years ago for a manufacturer of recuperators couldn't believe the energy

that was being wasted. The rush to investigate the possibilities of energy savings has only recently begun and is now swamping the manufacturers of recuperators , but present-day economics

generally show payback periods longer than two years . Therefore , many possible installations are not going ahead if the only motivation is the old economic guideline.

One recuperator installation that did go in was applied to a rotary forge furnace in December, 1968. This was an experimental installation to test the validity of the savings and the operation. Data were collected over a two week period before the recuperator was installed. Gas con- sumption and work were recorded. The same data were recorded after the system was revised

and was operating properly with the recuperator. The savings ranged between 18 and 20 percent.

It was estimated that better scheduling of the work would increase this savings. In addition to this saving for the same work, there was an additional energy reduction during idl^time. Sijice

the furnace could respond much faster, the id^e temper^ure was reduced from 2400 F to 1400 F

during lulls in the working day and from 2200 F to 1300 F during weekenc^idling . When the

furnace is started up after any shutdown, the working temperature of 2400 F can be obtained in

less than an hour, compared to several hours for operation without the recuperator preheating

the combustion air. It was estimated that an additional reduction of 10 to 15 percent is possible

due to the reduction in temperature during idle time. This of course, depends on the amount of

idle time as a percent of total work time.

Other indirect benefits accrued to this application through better product quality as a result of better control of temperature and excess air. The installation of the recuperator required a period of adjustment on the part of the

operators as v/ell. The educational, or re-educational, process during this time period must

have contributed to the increase in product quality as well as to the reduced energy consumption.

These same results have been observed following the installation of other recuperators . One plant

manager puts it this way , "Just watching a furnace improves its efficiency" , referring to the

attention paid to any component by management.

Another plant manager of a medium sized steel product plant commented on obtaining a 20 percent reduction in fuel use. He first directed the energy problem facing his plant, and its possible effect on plant operations and employment, to the attention of his plant employees. He

116
then required that all fuel meters be recorded daily and the results be on his desk each morning.

He isn't quite sure what happened, but the fuel consumption rate decreased. This points up one

of the important factors present in almost every effective energy utilization case history , that of measurement.

Before summarizing our conclusions regarding the case histories, I want to show how

these energy saving programs were initiated. Almost all of the cases cited here came about as a result of a formal energy conservation program instituted in 1971 by the Peoples Natural Gas

Company of Western Pennsylvania. Seven industrial development men backed by a central staff of three specialists have been making surveys of their regular industrial customers. These sur- veys are of two kinds: one is a combustion analysis of gas burning equipment and the other is a plant survey for possibilities of energy conservation , particularly seeking out heat recovery

possibilities . Energy conservation awards in the form of appropriately inscribed wall plaques

are used to recognize outstanding achievement in energy conservation systems or ideas for energy conservation. The spin-off from these awards has been extremely successful in motivating

additional efforts. For example, an award to onesmall plant of Westinghouse Electric Corporation

may have aided in initiating a company-wide program, including prizes for the best suggestions.

An award to one consulting engineer has caused others to recognize the possibilities in designing

energy conservation systems . The skepticism that some of us have for awards is soon dispelled

by the reactions of those who receive them, and even more so by the reactions of some who believe

they should receive an award and feel left out! In summary , we can make these observations from the case histories of effective energy

utilization:

1 . Awareness of the energy dilemma is present and there is receptiveness

to energy conservation methods .

2. The application of well-established basic principles and off-the-shelf

present technology can show appreciable energy reductions in the range of 20 percent in many cases

.

3 . Recognition of the specific possibilities of energy conservation needs to be

developed on a much wider basis among: 1) plant engineers, 2) management,

3) consultants, and 4) manufacturers representatives

.

4. The present guidelines for capital expenditures on energy conservation systems

may restrict implementation. The validity of these guidelines should be examined.

5. A positive well-planned energy conservation program with specific manpower

responsibilities can show definite results.

While energy conservation is not the cure-all to our energy headache, it does provide us with the opportunity to put good engineering in practice. This, after all, is what we should

be doing with or without an energy dilemma.

Il

117

I V.

i

APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL

PROCESS TECHNOLOGY

National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 403

Proceedings o£ 1973 Engineering Foundation Conference (jc;9ned June 1976)

A PROJECTION OF ENERGY DEMAND BY

THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

by

D. Larson

Manager, Applied Combustion Research

Institute of Gas Technology

3824 South State Street

Chicago, Illinois 60616

The iron and steel industry is not only one of the larger consumers of energy (7.5^ of the total U.S. energy use in

1968), but is also a very complex industry. The interrelationships between projected demand for products and the

amounts of fuels needed for manufacturing the products are diecussed as well as the trends that could change the

amounts of fuels needed per unit of product. Conclusions

drawn are that there should be a 65% increase in production

and a 281 increase in energy consumption in the industry

between 1971 and 1985. The growth rate of energy consumption decreases with time and should almost level off by

1985. The change in energy requirements per ton of finished

product is primarily the result of technological changes.

Therefore, trends that phase out obsolete inefficient equipment can accelerate this energy utilization efficiency.

Most of the improved efficiency is expected in the ironmaking and steel-making processes and very little change

is forecast in the reheating and finishing portion of the

industry.

Key words: Energy; forecast; industry; iron; steel

Introduction ^ Numerous projections of future energy consumption recently have been

prepared to assess our country's energy situation. All these projections

have been based on growth statistics of the residential, commercial, and

industrial energy demand coupled with many other factors, such as population

growth. The number of variables that have been included differs from study

to study, but none of the studies has individually analyzed all the "fine

structure" of the energy-consuming sectors and the technological reasons

for the demand. This is understandable because this approach would require

a great deal of research and information analysis over a long period.

However, work is now under way that will add detail to earlier studies

and that may act as the basis for future modifications. As one example of

the work that is now going on, the iron and steel industry is discussed in

this section. The iron and steel industry is a major energy consumer in

the industrial sector. It also is one of the most complex industries; that

is, it uses all forms of energy and it manufactures substantial amounts of

in-house fuels in the form of coke-oven and blast-furnace gases. The

following discussion considers 1) the interrelationships between the projected demand for the products and the amounts of fuels needed for

manufacturing the products and 2) the trends that could change the amount

of fuels needed per unit of product. However, the study has made ho

assumptions about the availability of fuels and fuel switching that might

occur because of fuel scarcity.

121
FIGURE 1 PROJECTION OF DEMAND FOR ALL PURCHASED

FOSSIL FUELS

3600 I 1

2900 ' ' ' ' ' I ' ' I ' ' '

I I 1971 73 75 77 79 81 83 1985

YEAR

FIGURE 2 PROJECTED INCREASE OF ORE DEMAND AND

PIG IRON PRODUCTION

YEAR

122
The only assumptions that are made are that 1) natural gas and fuel

oil are generally interchangeable, except where the process being

considered can operate on only one type of fuel, 2) coking coal is not

interchangeable with boiler-grade coal, and 3) the use of in-house manu- factured gases between processes will continue at the same ratio as at

present. This last assumption is based on the technical and economic

considerations that originally dictated the use of in-plant gases and the

large expense that must be incurred if the type of fuel is changed.

Summary of Results

The energy used in blast furnaces, basic steelmaking processes, and

various reheating operations, which include rolling and finishing, amount

to more than 18% of the total energy consumed by all industry in the U. S. In 1971, this amounted to approximately 2950 trillion BTU. (Actually, this

figure is about 250 trillion BTU low at all time periods because it excludes

fuels used for processing imported iron and steel). This energy was consumed as fuel oil, tar and pitch, natural gas, coke-oven gas, blastfurnace gas, and coal. By 1985, steel production is expected to increase

to 200 million tons/year and energy consumption is expected to reach 3574

trillion BTU/year, as shown in Figure 1. This figure does not include

fossil fuels used by other industries to make electric power or oxygen

which is used by the steel industry. This is a 651 increase in production

and a 28% increase in energy consumption between 1971 and 1985.

Interestingly, the growth rate of energy consumption decreases with

time and appears to almost level off about 1985. However, the projected

growth rate in production increases almost linearly to 1985, as shown in

Figure 2. The ratio of data from both figures indicates that the total energy

required to make 1 ton of finished steel will decrease from about 24

million BTU in 1971 to 19 million BTU by 1985.

This change in energy requirements per ton of finished product is the

result of technological changes more than any other factor: trends that

phase out obsolete inefficient equipment, process changes that allow

greater steel production by using oxygen rather than fossil fuel, and

changes in blast-furnace operation that reduce coking rates. A summary

of fuel usage by process in 1973 and 1985 is presented in Table 1. Effects of Technological Change

The projection of future energy consumption by the iron and steel

industry is based only on existing technology and established trends for

increased use of this technology. Many new developments are being re- searched in the laboratories of industry; however, these developments are not far enough advanced to have a significant impact on the steel industry's energy consumption by 1985.

The most significant changes in energy consumption by this industrial

sector will occur in the ironmaking and steelmaking processes. Very little

change is forecast in the reheating and finishing portion of the industry.

In ironmaking, the most significant factor will be the decrease in

coke rates to the blast furnace. By 1985, coke rates are projected to be

approximately 0.5 ton/ton of pig iron, a reduction of about 20% from

current practice. However, this change will produce a significant reduction in coke-oven and blast-furnace gases, and this will increase the

demand for other fuels, such as oil and natural gas.

In steelmaking, the most significant factor in the reduction of total

energy consumption will be the phasing out of the open-hearth process and

its replacement with the basic oxygen furnace (BOF) process. Other changes

worthy of consideration are hydrocarbon injection to increase blast-furnace

production, oxygen injection into blast furnaces, and increased use of

pelletized ore rather than sintered ore. Effect of Changing Ore Treatment Method

The production of sintered ore has been decreasing steadily for the

123
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124
FIGURE 3 LINEAR PROJECTION OF ORE TREATMENT TRENDS

10L_| I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I L

1966 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84

YEAR

FIGURE 4 PROJECTED ANNUAL IRON ORE PRODUCTION BY

VARIOUS TREATMENT METHODS

1971 73 75 77 79 81 83 1985

YEAR

12 5
12 6
FIGURE 6 AVERAGE BLAST-FURNACE COKE RATE

127
FIGURE? PREREDUCTION. %

1Z8
FIGURE 8 PROJECTION OF DECREASE IN COKE REQUIREMENT

PER TON OF PIG IRON PRODUCED

A-1 13-1 646

FIGURE 9 PROJECTION OF REOUIRED COKE PRODUCTION

FROM 1971 TO 1985

66

YEAR

129
past 8 years. Much of this decline has been caused by pollution control

regulations and the costs o£ transporting untreated ore to the plane.

Concurrently, pelletizing has shown a steady increase. The pelletizing

operation can be used at the mine mouth, so the tons of iron oxide transported per unit cost increase. The trends toward less sintering and more pelletizing were projected to 1985 (Figure 3) in terms of the percentage of

total demand for ore. These data then were converted into the production

rate of ore from the three methods of crushing, pelletizing, and sintering

(Figure 4)

.

The energy requirements for sintering and pelletizing are fairly well

fixed at 1.6 million BTU/ton for sintering and 0.6 million BTU/ton for

pelletizing. By using these data together with those in Figure 3, the total

projected energy requirements for ore treatment can be calculated. In this

case, the change in treatment method almost stabilizes energy consumption

between 1971 and 1985, while production grows from 150 to 220 million tons/

year, as shown in Figure 5. Pelletizing currently uses natural gas as heating energy almost exclusively. However, fuel oil can be substituted for this application.

Historically, sintering uses 501 natural gas or oil and 50% in-plant gases

(Figure 5)

.

Effect of Changes in Blast - Furnace Operation

The primary source of energy in blast-furnace operations is coke.

During the last 10 years, the amount of coke required to produce 1 ton of

iron has been decreasing steadily, as shown in Figure 6. In 1961, 0.72 ton

of coke was required to produce 1 ton of pig iron. By 1971, coke consumption had decreased approximately 14% to 0.625 ton of coke per ton of pig

iron. The single most important reason for this decrease probably is the

increased use of pelletized ore, which increases production without increasing coke consumption per charge. The correlation between ore treatment

and coke rate is shown in Figure 7. The steel industry predicts that coke requirements will decrease to

only 0.5 ton/ton of pig iron by 1985. This further decrease is based on

the increased use of oxygen injection, hydrocarbon injection, and higher

blast-air temperatures, all of which reduce coke requirements. For the

purpose of this projection, a linear decline between 1971 and 1985 was assumed, as shown in Figure 8. The rate of decrease in the coke rate per ton of pig iron was combined

with the projected production of pig iron (Figure 2) to estimate the demand

for coking-grade coal between 1971 and 1985 (Figure 9) . With current

practices, about 1.44 tons of coking coal is required per ton of coke produced. Because no major change is expected in coking practices, the energy

demand for coking coal is expected to increase from about 2020 trillion

BTU in 1971 to about 2360 trillion BTU in 1985. (See Figure 10.)

Although the coke rate per ton of pig iron is projected to decline,

this occurs at the expense of using additional quantities of other fuels.

Hydrocarbon injection, oxygen injection, and higher blast-air temperatures

all require additional fossil fuel or energy.

Hydrocarbon injection is a rapidly growing trend because it increases

blast-furnace production. Hydrocarbon injection increases the hydrogen

available to reduce iron oxides faster than conventional carbon monoxide

from coke. Between 1967 and 1971, the amount of fuel oil used in blast

furnaces increased threefold, from 67 to 194 million gal/year. The use of

natural gas remained about constant.

Figure 11 shows that between 1967 and 1971 the percentage of iron

produced by using hydrocarbon injection increased linearly. This trend was projected to saturation at 100%, which occurs about 1980. The percentage

increase in the use of hydrocarbon injection was coupled with the projection of pig iron production (Figure 2) to obtain the estimated amounts of

iron produced, based on about 1.5 million BTU of injected hydrocarbons per

ton of pig iron. Figure 12 shows the total amount of energy estimated to

be consumed in hydrocarbon injection.

130
FIGURE 11 PROJECTION OF PERCENTAGE OF IRON MANUFACTURED

BY USING HYDROCARBON INJECTION INTO THE BLAST FURNACE

55 IIOi 1

1985

131
Increasing the blast-air temperature to decrease the coke rate also

requires additional energy. Prior to 1950, blast-air temperatures were usually below 1200°F, but current blast temperatures are between 1300°F and

1400°F. Typically, the efficiency of a blast-air stove is about 75%.

However, as the desired blast temperature increases, the efficiency de- creases because of increased heat losses in the form of higher flue-gas

temperatures. For a 1300°F blast-air temperature, about 2.25 million BTU

of energy is needed per ton of pig iron produced. Further major changes

toward higher air temperatures are not expected before 1985 because such

changes would require major capital expenses for new equipment. Figure 13

shows the projected energy consumption by blast-air stoves. Historically,

about 90% in-plant gases and 101 purchased fuels are used to fire blast-air

stoves. The anticipated split between in-plant and purchased fuels also

is shown in Figure 13.

A change to lower coke rates also will have the effect of decreasing

the availability of blast-furnace gases. This decrease will force an increased demand for purchased fossil fuels. Decreasing the coke rate from

0.65 to 0.5 ton of coke per ton of pig iron is estimated to reduce blastfurnace-gas production from 5.2 to about 3.6 million BTU/ton of pig iron.

This change was coupled with the rate of change in the coke rate (Figure 8)

and the projected production of pig iron (Figure 2) to determine the

production of blast-furnace gas between 1971 and 1985, as shown in Figure

14.

Effect of Changes in Coke-Oven Operation

The major effect of the decreased rate of coke production, as shown in

Figure 9, will be a decreased rate of growth in the production of coke-oven

gas. The manufacturing of 1 ton of coke produces approximately 14,000

cubic feet of coke-oven gas, or roughly 7 million BTU. Based on these data

and on the projected production of coke (Figure 9), we calculated the

projected supply of coke-oven gas shown in Figure 15.

While the amount of coke-oven gas available for other plant uses will

increase gradually, the growth in the amount of other fuels required for

firing the coke ovens will moderate. Typically, energy consumption for this

process is about 2.0 million BTU/ton of coke. Based on these data, we projected that the fuel demand for coke-oven underfiring will grow from only

112 to 132 trillion BTU/year. Almost all this energy is supplied by re- burning the coke-oven gas. The demand for coke-oven gas for underfiring is

shown in Figure 16.

Effect of Changes in Steelmaking Processes

The three basic steelmaking processes are 1) the open-hearth process,

2) the BOF process, and 3) the electric-arc-furnace process. The openhearth process essentially is a regenerative, reverberatory furnace in

which a long, relatively shallow bath is heated by radiation from a lumi- nous flame. After 1960, the amount of steel produced by the open-hearth

process declined in favor of the BOF and electric-arc processes.

For this study, the growth and decline trends of the three processes

were projected. (See Figure 17.) The BOF and electric-arc processes were projected linearly. The decline of open hearths was based on a 9% phaseout

of old furnaces per year. The sum of the projections for each process

agrees well with the steel industry's projection of a total production of

185 million tons in 1985.

An examination of the energy required by each process showed that the

quantities are fairly well-known and fixed. Therefore, a projection of

future energy demand can be derived by multiplying the energy demand per

unit of steel by the projected production of steel by each process. Table

2 shows the energy requirements for each process. Note that considerable

energy goes into producing the oxygen for the BOF process and the

electricity for the electric - arc - furnace process; these energy demands are considered later in this section.

132
FIGURE 12 PROJECTION OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION BY

HYDROCARBON BLAST-FURNACE IGNITION

200

YEAR
FIGURE 14 ENERGY PRODUCTION (Blast-Furnace Gas) FROM

BLAST FURNACES

560

ENERGY PRODUCTION, 10^^ BTU

460 I I II I I

'

I

I I I 1971 73 75 77 79 81 83 1985

YEAR

FIGURE 15 PROJECTED PRODUCTION OF COKE-OVEN-GAS

ENERGY BASED ON REOUIRED COKE PRODUCTION

460

COKE-OVEN GAS ENERGY, 10^^ BTU

1971 73 75 77 79 81 83 1985

YEAR

X34
FIGURE 16

PROJECTED DEMAND FOR IN-PLANT-GAS ENERGY

FOR UNDERFIRING COKE OVENS

250

YEAR
FIGURE 17 PROJECTED ANNUAL STEEL PRODUCTION TO 1985

ANNUAL STEEL PRODUCTION

10^ TONS

STEEL INDUSTRY

PROJECTION

1965 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 1985

YEAR

136
FIGURE 18

1965 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 1985

YEAR

PROJECTED DECLINE OF ENERGY USE IN OPEN-HEARTH

STEEL-MELTING FURNACES

FIGURE 19

YEAR

PROJECTED ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF FOSSIL FUELS

IN PRODUCTION OF STEEL BY THE BOF PROCESS

(Primarily Heat Used Between Charges)

137
FIGURE 20

PROJECTED GROWTH OF CONTINUOUS CASTING AND

CONVENTIONAL PRODUCTION OF STEEL

138
PROJECTED FUEL ENERGY REQUIREMENT FOR

STEEL REHEATING AND CONTINUOUS CASTING

YEAR

FIGURE 21

139
Table 2. TYPICAL ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR

STEELMAKING PROCESSES

Fossil Fuel Requirements,

10" BTU/ton

Open-Hearth Furnace 3.5

0.2

None

BOF

Electric-Arc Furnace

Based on the above data, Figure 18 shows the projected energy demand

for open-hearth steel production. Most of this energy will be supplied by

fuel oil, natural gas, or tar and pitch. The amount of in-plant gases used

is very small.

Most of the fossil-fuel energy for the BOF process is supplied by

natural gas. This energy is used primarily to maintain the vessel temperature between charges. The use of energy for this process is very linear

between 1965 and 1971, as shown in Figure 19.

An extrapolation of these data agrees with the energy consumption per

ton of steel multiplied by the projected BOF steel production. The energy

used to produce the oxygen for the BOF process is considered later in this

report

.

Energy Consumption for Continuous Cast Steels

Much of the steel produced by the above processes is cast into ingots,

allowed to cool, and then reheated in soaking pits for further finishing

into a product. However, some of the steel is directly and continuously

cast into a product. The amount of steel handled in this way is

relatively small, but projections show that this process will produce up

to 20% of all finished products by 1985. The amount of energy consumed by

continuous casting is small, but worthy of inclusion in the overall analysis.

Continuous casting consumes only about 0.25 million BTU/ton of steel. All

this energy is used for preheating the equipment and maintaining the

temperature of the steel throughout the process.

Based on the current production of about 5 million tons of continuously

cast steel, or 4% of total steel production, and on the industry's

projection of 20% of total production by 1985, the amount of continuously

cast steel by year was calculated. (See Figure 20.) Subtracting continuously cast steel production from total projected steel production (Figure

17) yields the steel produced by the conventional ingot-reheat process.

The data of Figure 20 together with the energy consumption data for

continuous casting yield the energy demand projection for continuous

casting shown in Figure 21.

Energy Consumption for Oxygen Production

The major uses of oxygen in an integrated steel mill are for the BOF

process, the open-hearth furnaces, blast-furnace injection, electric-arc

melter injection, and general steel-cutting with gas-oxygen torches. A

great deal of fossil-fuel energy is required to produce the electric power

that, in turn, is used to produce the oxygen. The production of oxygen in

a large plant requires a total of about 340 kwhr of electric power per ton

of oxygen.

Based on a study of the oxygen requirements of each of the above

processes, a projection of oxygen demand was prepared for the years between

1971 and 1985. Figure 22 shows that the bulk of this oxygen is used in

the BOF process. The demand for oxygen from open-hearth furnaces will

decline with the phasing out of the process. The demand from other processes will grow in proportion to the production growth of each process.

The amount of oxygen required for general plant usage was derived from

consumption data for 1966 to 1971. Published data for general plant

oxygen usage divided by steel production in each year showed that 0.0095 ^

0.0003 ton of oxygen is required for each ton of steel produced. Summing

the individual oxygen requirements of each process yields the total oxygen

140
FIGURE 22

PROJECTED STEEL INDUSTRY DEMAND FOR OXYGEN

AS A FUNCTION OF PROCESS TYPE

YEAR

141
FIGURE 23 PROJECTED PERCENTAGE OF OXYGEN PRODUCED BY STEEL

INDUSTRY FOR PLANT CONSUMPTION

32

% PRODUCED

83 1985

FIGURE 24 PROJECTED OXYGEN REQUIREMENT WITH RELATIVE

AMOUNTS OF PURCHASED AND SELF-PRODUCED

OXYGEN

OXYGEN

10^ TONS

142
FIGURE 25 PROJECTION OF ELECTRIC POWER REQUIREMENTS FOR

PRODUCING OXYGEN REQUIRED BY STEEL INDUSTRY

OXYGEN

%

SELF-MFG

30.0 p

27.5 -

25.0

22.5

20.0

17.5

15.0 12.5

10.0

7.5

5.0

2.50

ELECTRIC POWER

REQD FOR

OXYGEN

SELF-MFG

10^2 BTU

12

1110

9

8

7(6

5

4

3

2

ELECTRIC POWER

RE^D FOR

OXYGEN

PURCHASED

10^2 BTU

PURCHASEg,..-^

L % y^ELf- MFG

SELF-MFG-j^

.1.1 .1.1 . 1 . 1 . 1 1 1 . 1967 69 71 73 75 77

YEAR

79 81 83 1985

30.0

27.5 25.0

22.5

20.0

17.5

15.0

12.5 100

7.5

5.0

2.50

143
demand of the steel industry (Figure 22)

.

Only a small portion of the oxygen used by the steel industry is

produced in oxygen plants owned by the steel plant. In 1967, this so-called

"self -produced" oxygen accounted for only about 8.81 of the total amount

used. However, the steel industry is building an increasing amount of

oxygen plants. Figure 23 projects the increase in self -produced oxygen in

terms of the percentage of total demand from an extrapolation of data for

1967 to 1971. With this projection, the oxygen that will be self -produced

and the amount to be purchased can be calculated (Figure 24) . From this

information, we could calculate the electric power necessary to produce the

oxygen to be made by the steel industry (Figure 25) . These data are used

later in calculating the amounts of fossil fuels required by the boilers

used to generate electric power in the steel plants.

Energy Consumption for Electric Power Production

We have just shown that a considerable amount of electric power is

required to produce oxygen for the various iron- and steelmaking processes.

In addition, large quantities of electric power are consumed for electric

melting and general plant functions, such as electric motors.

The literature indicates that the electric-arc process uses about 1.7

million BTU of energy (electrical) per ton of steel produced. Based on these data and the projection of steel to be produced by the electric-arc

process (Figure 17), the energy needs for this process were projected to

1985, as shown in Table 3. The amounts of fossil fuel needed to produce

this amount of electric power are shown later and typical boiler efficiencies are considered.

Table 3. PROJECTED ELECTRIC POWER REQUIREMENTS FOR ELECTRIC

FURNACE OPERATION FROM 1973-1985

Year Projected Steel Projected Pov/er

Production, 10^ tons/yr Required, 10^^ Btu/yr

1973 24 40.8

1975 26 44.2

1977 29 49.3

1979 31 52.7

1981 34 57.8

1983 37 62.9

1985 40 68.0

The electric power demand for general plant use was derived from

literature data for 1962 to 1971, which show that electric consumption for

general plant use (excluding electric melting and oxygen productions) cor- relates closely with steel production. These data show that 0.98-1.09 million BTU of electric power is used per ton of steel produced. Based on an average mean consumption of 1.06 million BTU per ton of steel and our earlier projection of steel production, general plant electric power needs were calculated. (See Figure 26.) The electric power demands for oxygen

production, electric melting, and general plant use were summed to obtain

total electric demand (Figure 26.) This analysis showed that electric

power consumption will grow from about 164 trillion BTU in 1971 to about

292 trillion BTU in 1985.

Electric power is much like oxygen production; that is, a portion of

the demand is satisfied by in-house production and a portion is purchased.

From 1967 to 1971, the percentage of electric power that was sel f -produced

declined about 61 and very linearly. These data were extrapolated to

estimate the further decline of self -produced electric power. This

projection indicates all the electric needs of the steel industry will be

met with purchased power by about 1984 or 1985 (Figure 27)

.

144
FIGURE 26 PROJECTED REQUIREMENTS FOR ELECTRIC POWER

320

YEAR

145
FIGURE 27 RATE OF DECLINE (Linear Projection) OF STEEL-IIMDUSTRYGENERATED ELECTRIC POWER

YEAR
FIGURE 29 ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR BOILERS TO PRODUCE

PROCESS STEAM FOR THE IRON AND STEEL

INDUSTRY

1971 73 75 77 79 81 83 1985

YEAR

147
FIGURE 30 TOTAL FUEL ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR STEEL

INDUSTRY BOILERS (Steam and Electric Power)

FIGURE 31 BREAKDOWN OF IN-PLANT-GAS USE FOR STEELMAKING TO FINISHED PRODUCT PROCESSES AND

FOR USE TO GENERATE STEAM, ELECTRIC POWER,

AND MISCELLANEOUS PROCESS HEAT

YEAR

148
FIGURE 32 PROJECTION OF COAL ENERGY DEMAND FOR

OPERATING STEEL INDUSTRY BOILERS

.149
FIGURE 33 PROJECTION OF OIL AND GAS ENERGY DEMAND

FOR OPERATING STEEL INDUSTRY BOILERS

140

1971 73 75 77 79 81 83 1985

YEAR

FIGURE 34 PROJECTED DEMAND FOR HYDROCARBON FUELS

FOR "OTHER" PLANT USES

180

ENERGY CONSUMPTION

10" BTU

YEAR

150
By assuming (from literature data) that about 3.23 BTU of fossil-fuel

energy is needed to produce 1.0 BTU of electric power, the consumption of

fossil-fuel energy for electric power generation is projected to decline

from about 123 trillion BTU in 1971 to near 0.0 in 1985 (Figure 28).

Energy Consumption for Process Steam Production

In addition to producing steam to run turbines for electric power

generation, the steel industry boilers produce steam for direct process

applications, such as forge hammers. Historically, the energy required to

produce enough steam for plant operations has amounted to about 1.7 million

BTU/ton of steel produced. This average was distilled from data relating

steam generation in millions of pounds per year to boiler efficiencies and

steel production rates. Based on the projected steel production (Figure 17)

and the energy required for steam as shown above, a projection (Figure 29)

of fossil-fuel energy demand from 1971 to 1985 was prepared. This analysis

shows that energy consumption for steam production will increase some 140

trillion BTU/year over the next 12 years.

The result of a decreasing demand for steam for self -generated

electric power together with an increase in demand for direct process steam

(Figure 30) will be an increase in fossil-fuel consumption until about 1978

and then a decrease from 1978 to 1985.

The steel industry boiler can readily operate using in-plant gases,

natural gas, oil, or boiler-grade coal. Typically, any excess in-plant

gases are burned in the boilers, and purchased fuels make up the differences

between total demand for energy and availability of in-plant gases. We

summed the demands for in-plant gases by all other processes described

earlier and then subtracted this sum from the total available in plant gas

supply (Figures 14 and 15) . This analysis showed that the availability of

in-plant gases for boilers will increase slightly from 1973 to 1977 and then

decline from 1977 to 1985 (Figure 31).

As a result, purchases of other fossil fuels will be increased. The

sure-to-come increased demand for purchased fuels for boilers can be

satisfied by coal, oil, or natural gas. We cannot be certain what fuel

split will result from the current energy situation. An historical analysis

would indicate that coal firing will decline rapidly (Figure 32) and be

replaced by oil and natural gas (Figure 33). However, shortages of oil and

gas may change the historical trend very significantly.

Demand for Energy for General Plant Uses

The iron and steel industry uses sTgnificant quantities of energy for

such things as flame-cutting of steel and direct-fired space heating. The uses are too numerous to project energy consumption on an individual basis.

However, the total consumption of energy for these general applications is

equivalent to about 10.5% of all other process energy, excluding coal for

coking. A summation of energy demands by all other processes multiplied by

0.105 shows that the consumption of energy for all "other" uses will rise

steadily from about 138 trillion BTU in 1971 to about 175 trillion BTU in

1985. See Figure 34.

Aggregation of Detailed Analysis

In order to determine the demand for energy in the form of fossil fuels

by the steel industry, all the fore-going information was integrated into

an overall industry energy balance. This resulted in the data shown in

Figure 1, which is a projection of the demand for all purchased fossil

fuels between 1973 and 1985. In addition to the direct demand for fossil

fuels, the steel industry will purchase fuels indirectly in the form of

electric power and oxygen. This result also is derived from the foregoing discussion and the energy balance and is shown in Figure 35.

151
E 35 PROJECTION OF TOTAL PURCHASED ELECTRIC

POWER, BOILER-GRADE COAL, AND PURCHASED

OXYGEN (Energy Equivalent) ENERGY

YEAR

152
National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 403

Proceedings of 1973 Engineering Foundation Conference (Issued June 1976)

POTENTIAL ENERGY SAVINGS IN THE FORI II NG OF PAPER

by

T. Speidel, Thermo Electron Corp.

P. 0. Box 269

Sword Street

Auburn, Massachusetts 01501

D. Kallmes, M/K Systems

The United States produced 59 million tons of paper and paper products

in 1972 requiring 320 x IQ-^^ BTU exclusive of the energy required to produce the necessary wood pulp. The conventional paper forming

process is described in brief. A new method of forming paper is

described having the potential of saving 40% of the energy conventionally required to form paper. Tlie new method can make high quality

paper utilizing up to 2% suspended wood pulp. A helical mixer with a high shear component in the jet permits a 35% decrease in the heat

required during the process. This process is particularly attractive

where fuel oil or fuel gas is used to supply the heat rather than

waste bark and black liquor.

Key Words: Energy; industrial; paper

Summary

In 1972, the United States produced 59 million tons of paper and paper products. This

paper production required 320 x 10 BTU, exclusive of the energy required for first producing the necessary wood pulp. The conventional paper forming process is described in brief. A new method of forming paper, as developed by Thermo Electron Corporation's Lodding Engineering Division, has the potential of saving 40% of the energy conventionally required to form paper. This uev; method, as embodied in the Lodding K-Former, and the energy saving

potential are described in detail.

Conventional Paper Forming Process

Today, most wood pulp that is made into paper is formed on a machine whose basic principle was invented in 1799. Tliis machine is called a Fourdrinier after its inventors.

Figure 1 shows a schematic of such a machine. The pulp mixture, or stock (199 lbs. of water

per 1 lb. of wood fiber), is pumped into a head box which feeds the water-pulp mixture from

the slice opening, as a jet, onto an endless, rapidly-moving screen known as the Fourdrinier

wire. The large water to fiber ratio (0.5% solids content; termed 0.5% consistency of the

stock) is presently required to assure a uniform dispersion of the fiber free from fiber

f locculation.

As the stock mixture is deposited onto the wire, the excess water is drained through

the wire by the forming board, foils, and flat boxes. By the time the wire reaches the couch

roll where the web is transferred from the Fourdrinier wire to the press felts, a thin, wet

web, now 4 lbs. of water per 1 lb. of fiber (20% consistency), is formed. The press felts

(endless belts of heavy cloth) carry the weak paper web through the successive sets of press

rolls. These rolls remove further water in much the same manner as huge wringers. The web

now begins to resemble paper and can support its own weight. After the web of paper goes through the presses there is 1.5 lbs. of water per 1 lb. of fiber, or a 40% consistency.

153
154
From the presses the web of paper moves into the dryers, a series of rotating cylinders

continually fed with high pressure steam. The web is alternately wrapped around top and

bottom dryer cylinders so that the remaining v/ater is evenly evaporated from both sides of the web. T\\e dried paper web contains 0.05 to 0.07 lbs. of water per pound of fiber. This

small amount is necessary to prevent brittleness. As a final step, the paper is passed

through a series of heavy revolving steel rollers, known as calenders. The calenders give

the sheet of paper the finished surface. The paper is wound into jumbo rolls, 8 feet in

diameter. These rolls are moved to winding machines where they are cut into smaller rolls

of various widths and diameters as required by the users.

Thus, the present forming of 1 lb. of paper starts with stock of 1 lb. of fiber and 199

lbs. of water, from which 195 lbs. of water is drained on the Fourdrinier wire, 2.5 lbs. of

water is mechanically removed in the presses, and 1.5 lbs. of water is evaporated in the

dryers

.

Problems with Present Day Ileadboxes

As every paperiiiaker knov^s only too well, pulp fibers flocculate extremely rapidly and

the floes are difficult to break up. Tlie rate at which a suspension flocculates is a function of several characteristics, in particular the length of its fibers, their concentration

or consistency, and the amount of microturbulence which the suspension contains. By microturbulence, we mean energy supplied over extremely small distances, of the order of millimeters or less. This energy is best supplied by creating pressure drops, changing the

direction of flow, etc.

It has only recently been demonstrated that following the removal of energy input,

microturbulence dissipates and excessive flocculation (i.e., over and above the amount in a random suspension) sets in within a matter of milliseconds. Table I shows the order-ofmagnitude of the times required for incipient flocculation at various consistencies.

TABLE I

CONSISTENCY

TIME REQUIRED FOR MICROTURBULENCE

TO DISSIPATE, SECONDS

0.5% ABOUT 0.5

1 .0% ABOUT 0.1 2.0% 0.04 3.0% 0.01 4.0% 0.001

It should be evident that microturbulence must be supplied to the stock throughout its

passage through the headbox, or the stock residence time must be kept well below a second.

Every headbox that has essentially a box-like structure meets neither of these requirements,

i.e., none of them supply any true microturbulence , and the residence time in them is three

seconds or over. Thus, it is impossible for a headbox to deliver anything but a flocculated

suspension to a v/ire, v/hich has to be redispersed on the Fourdrinier before it can be formed

into a saleable sheet.

Conventional headboxes even out the incoming flows by providing a cavernous volume, or

dead space, in which they intermingle. Throughout most of its passage through the headbox,

the flow of the stock is laminar. A very small amount of low energy, large scale (i.e.,

operating over a large distance) turbulence is introduced by tlie slowly turning rectifier

rolls. The low level and the large scale of this turbulence is dramatized by the "holey

155
FIGURE 2 EXAGGERATED EFFECT OF SLICE SCREW

ADJUSTMENT ON SLICE SHAPE

t i

Downward Motion of Center Screw Causes Upward

Deflection of Slice Lip Beyond Neighboring Screws

FIGURES K-FORMER

SLICE SCR

TAPERED MANIFOLD

SLICE NOZZLE MIXER SECTION

FIGURE 4 SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF FLOWS

OUT OF END OF MIXERS

156
roll" pattern which often appears in a sheet. In fact, we believe that the only contribution

which a rectifier roll can make to def locculation is to break up extremely large floes into

intermediate or smaller sized ones. It is impossible for a rectifier roll to break up floes

into individual fibers.

The major difference among headboxes lies in the uniformity of the badly flocculated

flows which they deliver to the wire. Headboxes with well-designed manifolds operating

within their design specifications produce much more uniform flows than those with an unequal

cross-direction feed. If a manifold is designed or operated in such a manner that it tends

to deliver a non-uniform flov/ to a headbox, the headbox per se is virtually powerless to correct it because its resistance to flow is negligible. A higher flow (per unit width)

coming in on one side of a headbox virtually passes straight through it and can only be

partially slowed down by closing down of the slice opening. In other v/ords, a headbox is a zero-resistance system or a short-circuit . If it contained resistances across its width

which were relatively large compared to that of the manifold and its laterals, then the headbox rather than the manifold would govern the delivery of stock to the slice.

In order to compensate for all of their shortcomings, individually and in combination

(i.e., non-uniform flows, variable consistency, headbox deflections, lateral stock motion

on the wire, etc.), headboxes are equipped with slice screws. A slice screw is basically a crude and inaccurate valve. Cutting the flow in one zone of the slice by adjusting one screw causes the flow to increase slightly in the two adjacent areas (see Figure 2).

Obviously, any change in the flow to the back of a headbox (due to a speed or basic weight

change, etc.) v/ill cause a change in the flow at the slice which, in turn, x-zill negate some

or all of the corrections due to the previously-made slice screw settings. Clearly, there

is no way in which the slice screw settings can permanently correct the deficiencies of a headbox.

Recognizing the shortcomings of corrections made by slice screws, the paper industry

has resorted to computerizing the slice screws rather than correcting the basic hydraulic

inadequacy of headboxes: their virtually total lack of resistance to flow.

Construction of the Lodding K- Former

Three years ago, Lodding first recognized the underlying shortcomings of conventional

headboxes. We set out to find a device capable of transporting the stock from the manifold

to the slice in such a way that it delivers a jet that is ultra-uniform in its dimensions

and velocity, that simultaneously maintains or even enhances the uniformity of dispersion

of its fibers, and that has high intensity micro-turbulence. Tlie result is the Lodding

K-Former.

The underlying principle of the K-Former is that when a fluid or stock is spun sharply

around an axis, a tremendous amount of mixing, shear, or microturbulence is created. However, a spin or vortex in a stock delivered to a Fourdrinier wire must be avoided at all costs in order to prevent terrible streaking or worming. Hence, the second part of the problem was to find a means of rectifying and evening out the flow of individual spinning stock

flows in a minimum of time before their microturbulence dies out.

The K-Former employs a bank of parallel single blades making a 180° twist in 2-1/4"

long, one-inch square ducts to create the desired microturbulence. A 100" machine would

have 100 of these mixers set side by side, and a 200" machine would have 200 mixers. ITie mixers are fed from the manifold by a special connecting section which eliminates all possible chances of fiber hangup, plugging, etc., as shown in Figure 3.

Tlie feed and discharge edges of the t\;isted blades are set parallel to the plane of the

sheet. Thus, the stock which enters the top chamber of each mixer leaves via the bottom one, and vice versa.

All the twisted blades have the same sense of rotation; it is irrelevant whether it is clockwise or counterclockwise. Wien viewed from the discharge end, the flows, out of the

top chambers of a clockv;ise twisting unit, tend to spiral downward and to the right; those

out of the bottom, upward and to the left. Tliese spirals are eliminated in the rectifier

chamber which directly follows the mixer section.

157
The rectifier chamber is a short section (l"-3" in length, depending on the application),

the same height as the turbulator ducts or with a linear taper. It is empty except for a rigid, thin, horizontal rectifier blade in its center the length of the chamber, butted up against the trailing edge of the twisted blades (see Figure 3).

The rectifier blade eliminates most of the spiral component of the flows discharged

from the top chambers simply by preventing them from making their downward and to the right

movement, and by allowing mixing of adjacent flows. The flov/s from the bottom chambers are treated similarly. I'Jhen the two flows are combined at the end of the rectifier chamber, any

residual spirals as well as any tendency of the top flow to twist to the right, or the

bottom to veer to the left, are eliminated as shown in Figure 4.

Wakes which might be created by the vertical walls separating the ducts are eliminated

by the transverse component of the stock flov/s, as well as by its high level of microturbulence. The rapid elimination of potential wakes allows for the use of extremely short slicenozzles in which the residence time of the stock is too short for the microturbulence to dissipate significantly.

The rectifier chamber is usually tapered, over a length of 1" to 3", from one inch down

to the maximum height of the slice opening for two reasons. Firstly, it minimizes the residence time of the stock in this section. Secondly, the small acceleration given the stock

helps to maintain microturbulence.

The flow from the rectifier chamber is delivered to the wire by means of a short nozzle

(3"-6" in length) . Tliis nozzle has a variable taper so that the slice opening can be adjusted to the desired value.

Because of the intense microturbulence generated by the Lodding K-Forraer stock delivery

system, and the very short residence times, tlie utilization of high consistency stocks is

allowed on the Fourdrinier wire without tlie danger of f locculation. ITliereas a conventional

headbox operates in the range of 0.5 to 1.0% consistency (199 lbs. to 99 lbs. of water per

1 lb. of fiber); the Lodding K-Former can operate at 1.0, 2.0 or 3.0% consistency (99, 49, or 32 lbs. cf water per 1 lb. of fiber) and make acceptable paper.

Lodding K-Former Operating Experience

The first Lodding K-Former has been operating continuously in a tissue mill since

flarch 15, 1973. The machine previously produced a hand towel product at 0.4 to 0.5% headbox

consistency. After replacing the headbox v/ith the Lodding K-Former, the same hand towel

sheet is now made at consistencies of 0.8 to 1.4%. In addition, operating with the K-Former,

the same machine is now able to produce a lap-pulp sheet from de-inked v;aste paper at headbox

consistencies up to 2.3%.

Energy Considerations

It should be apparent that the use of higher consistency stocks in the 1-2% range v;ith the K-Former and the ability to press wet webs to much higher solids contents should result

in a very considerable reduction in tlie amount of energy required to drive a paper machine

and to dry the paper. Tliis section shows approximately what these energy savings might be

in a typical situation.

A specific example for this calculation was used because it is impossible to obtain

detailed information on an average paper machine; it simply does not exist. Every paper

machine is unique, and its drive requirements differ from that of every other machine.

Furthermore, one item - the energy to dry the sheet - predominates, and a very detailed

picture of the drive requirements would be somewhat meaningless. Tlierefore, an energy

analysis was taken for a typical newsprint machine for which the best data were available.

Two sets of calculations are presented. First, the energy consumption of a typical

conventional machine is calculated, primarily using data from T.VPPI Data Sheet 014.07, Power Requirements of Fourdrinier ;iachines. Second, the energy consumption was estimated for a hypothetical paper machine consisting of a K-Former and a reduced number of drier cans.

158
It has been shovm that the saturation point of fibers is 65-70% solids. In other words,

if all of the water were removed from the inter-fiber pores of a web, but the fibers remained

saturated, the web would have a solids content of 65-70%. This range tlien represents the

theoretical maximum solids content which can be acliieved in pressing. Higher values could

only be achieved by crushing and damaging the fibers.

A web formed from high consistency stock is more porous; therefore, water and moisture

are more readily removed by pressing than a conventionally formed sheet. In tests using a single press with a loading of only 190 pounds per lineal inch, pli (norm.al multiple press

loadings are on the order of 1000 pli) , a newsprint sheet formed by the K-Former has been

pressed to a solids consistency of 47%.

We believe that K-Formed sheets could be pressed by modern presses to somewhere in the

50-55% range. As can be seen from Table II, an increase in the solids content of the web

entering the drier section from 40%, which is about the value nov; achieved on the average,

up to 50% represents more than a one-third reduction in the amount of steam required for

drying: going to 55%, almost a halving. These savings can, of course, be passed directly

back to fuel savings. Thus, K- Forming opens up the possibility for tremendous savings in

the fuel consumption of a paper mill.

TABLE II

PER CENT

SOLIDS

POUNDS OF WATER

WHICH HAVE TO BE

REMOVED BY DRYING ONE

POUND OF PAPER TO 93%

PER CENT

REDUCTION IN STEAM CONSUMPTION

OVER 40% SOLIDS

35 1.78 40 1.42 45 1.14 20

50 0.92 35

55 0.74 48

60 0.59 58

Table III compares the operating conditions and normal running loads of the major units

of a typical conventional newsprint machine to those of a hypothetical K-Former machine producing the same tonnage. Table IV gives the calculated power consumptions for the same two machines

.

159
TABLE III

OPERATING CONDITIONS

CONVENTIONAL LODDING

MACHINE K-FORI-tER

Machine Width, in. 250 250

l-Iachine Speed, fpm 2500 2500

Basis Weight, lb/3000 ft^ 32 32

Daily Production, tpd 400 400

Headbox Consistency, % 0.6 2.0

Jet Speed 2500 2500

Wire Retention, % 66.7 85

Fan Pump Flow, gpm 17000 4000

Fan Pump Pressure, psi 60 85

Solids Content Entering Dryer, % 40 50

TABLE IV

POWER CONSUIIPTION PER TON OF PAPER

FOR 400 TONS/DAY PAPER MACHINE

COrWENTIONAL LODDING

:iACHINE K-FORMER

ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS kw-hr kw-hr

Stock Feed System 102 35

Fourdrinier 9 5

Presses 18 10

Dryers 20 12

Calender & Reel 10 10

TOTAL KW-IIRS/TON 159~ 72

THERIIAL REQUIl^MENTS Btu/ton Btu/ton

Dryers 3.7 X 10^ 2.4 X 10^

160
Even though these calculations are of an approximate nature, and are made for only one specific example, several general conclusions can be drawn.

1. The dryer section is by far the largest single user of energy in a paper mill. Even after assuming that the total energy consumption of this example mill is 50% larger

than the value we calculated (we omitted refiners), the energy required at present to dry

the sheet from 40% to 93% solids still represents 80% of the total consumed.

2. The ability to form a sheet which can be pressed mechanically up to 50% solids

instead of 40% reduces the energy requirements of this phase of the operation only by just

over a third (152/435 = 0.35). If a sheet could be pressed to 55%, which is not altogether

out of the question, the energy required would be almost halved. Clearly, the largest

potential savings in energy reside in the dryer section by virtue of what might be accomplished in the press section.

3. Using higher consistency stocks, i.e., 1-1/2 - 2-1/2% instead of 1/2 - 1%, will

result in a substantial reduction in the power required to drive the fan pumps. ITiis power

savings is even larger than that which can be gained by the complete elimination of the

Fourdrinier section.

4. For the specific example employed, the energy savings resulting from going to a higher consistency and the elimination of the Fourdrinier section are still only about 1/6

and 1/12 of those which can be made by increasing the solids content of the wet web in the

press to 50% instead of 40%.

5. IVhile the specific energy savings which can be achieved on every paper machine will

differ from those calculated above, we are confident that the relative orders-of-raagnitude

of the savings will be the same. Therefore, from the standpoint of energy considerations,

we have no doubt that the major effort of the paper industry should be geared toward producing saleable papers v/hich can be mechanically dewatered to 50% solids or higher. From

the work done to date, it appears that this is feasible by forming relatively bulky wet

webs

.

161

National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 403

Proceedings of 1973 Engineering Foundation Conference (Issued June 1976)

POTENTIAL FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION IN HEATING,

VENTILATING, AND AIR-CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT FOR BUILDINGS

by

G. Kelly, T. Kusuda. and J. Hill Thermal Engineering Systems Section

Center for Building Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D. C. 20234

Approximately one-third of the Nation's energy use is presently used in

residential and commercial buildings. Over seventy percent of the energy

is being used for heating, cooling, and providing hot water. The potential

for energy conservation through proper design and use of heating, ventilating , and air conditioning equipment within or in the proximity of buildings

is discussed. The topics presented include a discussion of the positive and

negative features of both unitary and central HVAC equipment, a description

of typical all-air and air-water HVAC systems, the heat pump and how it can be combined with other equipment to conserve energy, and the recovery of energy from the building exhaust air. A brief description is given of total energy systems, modular integrated utility systems, and the utihzation of waste heat from incineration plants. Considerable savings could be obtained

from judicious choice pf standard equipment based on energy conservation

considerations. The use of life cycle costing rather than lowest possible

first cost would vastly upgrade the present standards of practice.

Key words: Conservation; cooling; cost; energy; heating

Introduction

Although it has been well recognized that the energy consumption for heating and air conditioning in buildings can be reduced considerably by adding more insulation, reducing air leakage, and decreasing the window area, little attention has been paid to the energy waste taking

place in the heating, ventilation, air conditioning (HVAC) systems. Among buildings of similar

construction with respect to type, insulation and window area, and having similar occupancy, the

annual energy consumption could easily vary by a factor of six , depending upon a number of factors, including the type of HVAC system employed. Figure 1 shows a histogram, taken from

data published by the Electric Heating Association, of the annual average rate of energy consumption expressed in watt/ft. of floor area of 29 all-electric buildings. The normalized annual average rate of energy consumption varies from 2.0 for an energy conserving building to 8.0 for buildings that use resistance heating and conventional cooling. This points out the potential

significance of HVAC systems on energy conservation in buildings.

This potential for energy conservation through the proper design and use of conventional

HVAC equipment is addressed in the first part of this paper. Consideration is given to the use of both individual unitary equipment and large central systems. Since central systems are usually

employed in large buildings , several typical all-air and air-water systems are discussed from

the standpoint of energy conservation. This is followed by a section on heat pumps which deals

with the specific application of both vapor compression and absorption heat pumps in HVAC systems. The final section on standard equipment used in the heating and cooling of buildings con- cerns itself with the recovery of "waste"energy from exhaust air. Run-around coils, thermal

wheels and the use of heat pipes are also discussed.

The second part of the paper deals with several systems which have a significant potential for conserving energy, but are not presently in common use. The special systems which

are discussed are total energy systems , modular integrated utility systems , incinerator plants

where the "waste" heat is recovered, and systems which employ solar energy in the heating and

cooling of buildings

.

163
S9Niaiins do ON

uu

CO3o

164
Unitary. Equipment Versus Central HVAC Systems

When technical options for energy conservation in HVAC equipment are discussed, one must give separate consideration to individual package type unitary HVAC equipment and large

central systems because there are major differences in their operation and control. The individual

unitary equipment is usually installed within the space to be heated or cooled, and its heating or cooling operation can be controlled strictly according to the need of that space. The central unit, on the other hand, serves many spaces, each having different heating and cooling requirements

at any given time . For example , on an October day the area on the south side of a building may

need cooling while the rest of the building requires heating. The central system in this case

is expected to provide chilled air or water, depending upon the system, to the south facing zone, and simultaneously heated air or water to the rest of the building

.

The energy saving options to be considered for the individualized unitary system are

strictly related to improving the mechanical components and the manner in which they are as- sembled and maintained. Efforts are being made to improve the performance of this HVAC equipment through a labeling program. The manufacturers of the window type air conditioners are,

for example, being asked to label the Btu/watt-hr value on their units. With respect to maintenance, an optimum schedule should be estabhshed for adjustments, changing of filters, tightening

of fan belts, lubrication of moving parts, checking of refrigerant charge, etc. For central systems, the above options for the unitary package are still valid. Additional

consideration must be given, however, to the manner in which the heating and cooling effects produced at the central plant are distributed throughout the building.

The ideal HVAC system should be able to provide comfort to occupants in the conditioned

space irrespective of the outdoor weather and the changes in the usage requirement of the space.

Environmental parameters that have the most effect on comfort and are controllable by the HVAC

system are the following: 1) air quality , cleanliness, and odor, 2) temperature, 3) humidity,

4) air velocity, 5) mean radiant temperature, and 6) noise. Most HVAC systems are designed

to provide a satisfactory level of these parameters under a given set of design conditions which

specify the outdoor temperature, humidity, wind condition, solar radiation, lighting level, occupant diversity and activity level, and the equipment and appliance usage schedule.

On actual installations however, the specified design conditions seldom, if ever, occur. Moreover, the conditions under which the system must operate are always changing. The greatest energy waste in HVAC equipment usually occurs when the system cannot cope with these

changing requirements . In many cases the occupants in a large building find the space overcooled during the summer, overheated during winter, heated during the summer or cooled

during the winter.

These types of system malfunctions can be readily corrected for small buildings having

individual HVAC unitary equipment. Heaters and/or coolers can be regulated manually to satisfy the occupants' need at a specific time under specific conditions. If the individual home

owner is paying his own gas and/or electricity bill, the energy waste can be made a minimum

simply by adjusting the thermostat or shutting off the unit completely when heating and/or

cooling are not needed. The overheating, overcooling , summer heating, or winter cooling

problems are usually found with the large central systems , which are typically located in an unoccupied area of the building.

Although its ability to meet the changing demand of each individual space is limited,

the central system is found in large buildings more often than the decentralized individual unitary

system for the following reasons:

1 . Energy efficiencies of boilers , pumps , fans , and refrigeration equipment are usually higher for larger central units than for small individual unitary equipment.

2. CentraUzed location of the major equipment consolidates operation and maintenance

and permits the maximum choice of air filtration systems , odor and noise control systems , and

high quality durable equipment.

3. The central system is readily adaptable for heat recovery or heat reclaim operation.

The heat recovery system uses heat exchangers between the building exhaust air and outdoor makeup air whereas the heat reclaim system picks up the heat from lighting or other forms of heat

generated within the interior zones of the building

.

4. Air distribution and draft control is easily accomplished in the central system.

165
166
167
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168
5. Hazards due to heavy electrochemical equipment in the occupied space are avoided.

6. The central system is adaptable to automatic controls.

Typical Central HVAC Systems

The most commonly used central HVAC systems are all-air systems or air-water systems.

These systems include: single duct, constant volume; single duct, variable volume; single duct,

reheat; double duct; multizone; two-pipe changeover; three pipe; four pipe; and induction.

Details of these systems are given in the 1973 Systems Volume of the ASHRAE Handbook (1) . Although it is not the intention of this paper to describe all of these central systems

,

some typical ones will be discussed in the context of energy conservation.

a. Single Duct Constant and Variable Volume Systems

Figure 2 depicts a schematic of a single duct-single zone system which could be either constant volume or variable air volume (VAV) , depending upon the air outlet unit in the room's

ceiling. In order to respond to the changing space load, the constant volume system regulates

its heat delivering capacity by changing the supply air temperature. This is accomplished by

regulating the heating coil temperature during the heating season or cooling coil temperature

during the cooling season. The variable volume or VAV system on the other hand maintains a constant coil temperature during each season, but regulates the supply air flow rate to meet the

changing load. This can be done by either a damper in the VAV box at the ceiling or by dumping

part of the supply air into the ceiling plenum space. The air supplied to the space exchanges heat

with the air in the space. The space air is then returned to the central plant through the return

air duct. Since the occupants of the space that is being conditioned generate excess carbon dioxide, odor, and smoke, these contaminants are diluted by mixing them with outside air. This

is the reason that a part of the return air is exhausted and replaced by make-up outdoor air as indicated in Figure 2

.

On many days during spring and autumn, the space heat loss could be exactly matched

by the heat given off by the lights, equipment, and occupants; no net heating or cooling is re- quired. The single VAV duct systems have difficulty in meeting this zero load condition since

the supply air flow cannot be made zero. A minimum of supply air must be fed into the space

regardless of the thermal load in order to satisfy the space ventilation requirement.

b. Single Duct Reheat System

It is not difficult to control the supply air temperature by regulating the heating or cooling coil temperature if a single duct system is connected to a single zone such as shown in Figure 2. In actual practice however, the system supplies air to more than one space. Particularly during the intermediate seasons , it frequently happens that one space calls for heating

while others require cooling. It is impossible to satisfy these different space requirements

in the single duct systems described above. A common practice employed is to cool the central

supply air to the lowest likely required temperature and modulate it up to the desired supply

air temperature for the other spaces by the reheat coil such as shown in Figure 3.

It is obvious that the reheating of the air which is once cooled by refrigeration causes a double expenditure of energy. The energy waste is greater in the constant volume system than

the VAV system because the latter system requires heating of a smaller quantity of air. In addition, the VAV system that dumps a part of the supply air into the ceiling plenum obviously is not

as conserving of energy as the VAV system where the volume control is done with dampers.

Figure 3 shows that the air conditioned space is divided by fictitious dashed line

into a perimeter zone and an interior zone. While the heating/cooling requirement for the perimeter zone is constantly affected by the outdoor climate conditions , the interior zone load is usually

constant, requiring continuous cooling during the occupied hours. Figure 4 shows how the single zone reheat system can be used in an energy conserving way to meet the requirements of these

two different zones. The system has been recommended by the New York consulting firm of Dubin

,

Mindell, Bloome and Associates for a new federal office building to be built in Manchester, New

Hampshire. In this system, the interior zone is supplied with cooled air through VAV boxes,

while the perimeter zone has independent fan-coil units which contain separate circuits for the

heating coil and the cooling coil. Since two pipes are connected to each coil at the fan-coil unit,

this may be considered a four-pipe system. When the space requires cooling, the cooling coil is activated. If heating is required, the heating coil is activated. These two coils will never be

activated simultaneously in the same unit, although the unit in one space could be heating while

169
170

others are cooling . The four-pipe system requires that hot water as well as chilled water be

available throughout the year in the central plant . A unique feature of the federal office building

that will use this system is that the hot water will be provided not by the burning of fossil fuels but rather by reclaiming the heat from the condenser of the water chilling unit . This energy is ordinarily rejected to outdoor air. On many days throughout the year, the hot water generated

in the condenser of this water chiller, which is used to satisfy the cooling need of the interior zone, is more than enough to satisfy the heating requirements of the perimeter zone. It is customary , however , to install a conventional hot water heater to supplement the deficient heating

capacity of the condenser water during a few extremely cold days

.

c. Dual Duct System

Another commonly used central all-air system is the dual-duct system which is illustrated

in Figure 5. In this system, both heated air and cooled air are provided in two separate supply

ducts to all the spaces to be air conditioned. At the ceiling plenum above the space, mixing boxes

are used to yield a desired supply air temperature which meets the heating or cooling load at a specific instant and at a specific location. Although the total air flow of the dual duct system

after mixing usually remains constant, it could also be varied by a VAV box. The dual duct

system is definitely not energy conserving because it requires mixing of heated air with chilled

air to obtain the proper degree of heating or cooling . The system could be made energy conserving , however, if the heating coil was provided with hot water from the chilling machine's con- denser or reclaimed heat from the lighting fixtures

.

d. Three-Pipe System

One of the most interesting energy conservation HVAC central systems is the McFarland

3-pipe system (2) which is depicted in Figure 6. In this system the air coils in the central plant, ' as well as in the individual spaces are fed with two supply pipes and one return pipe.

The coils in the supply and return air ducts are fed with chilled water from the chiller

and room temperature water from the run-around loop . These are mixed to provide the desired

coil temperatures. The perimeter reheat coils are supplied with the hot condenser water and

the room temperature run-around water . With a delicate balancing and mixing of the chilled

water , run-around water and condenser water , it is possible to attain a very high degree of

energy conservation. Details of this system are given in reference G)

.

e. Economizer Cycle

When the outdoor temperature and humidity conditions are favorable, it is possible to shut off the cooling plant and use the cool outdoor air to cool the interior zone . This operation

is called using an economizer cycle. The dampers indicated in Figures 2 through 6 for the

outdoor air intake , the return air duct and the exhaust air duct are controlled to regulate the

mixing rate of outdoor and return air to achieve economizer cycle operation. The economizer

cycle can obviously be a very energy conserving feature of a HVAC system and its use should be

very much encouraged. Ross F. Meriwether used a computer simulation (3) to predict the energy

savings by the use of an economizer cycle with a dual duct and VAV system for an office building

in San Francisco. The results were as follows:

TABLE 1 Predicted Annual Cooling Energy Consumption for

a San Francisco Office Building (Ton-Hour)

No Economizer Cycle Economizer Cycle

Dual Duct 2,040,916 825,393

VAV 1 ,582,240 745.531

As can be seen from this table , the energy savings resulting from employing the economizer

cycle are significant indeed.

172
The Heat Pump and Energy Conservation

A heat pump is a device which utilizes work to extract heat from a source at one temperature and reject this heat plus the heat equivalent of the work done to a higher temperature sink.

It may provide a heating function by extracting heat from an outside source and delivering heat

to the inside space or it may provide for the cooling of the space by removing heat from it and

rejecting it to the surroundings. Simultaneous heating and cooling can be done if the space is both the source and sink of all or part of the heat transferred.

There are two types of heat pumps in common use today. One type uses the vapor compression refrigeration cycle and the other uses the absorption refrigeration cycle. The basic

components of the vapor compression machines are a condenser, a throttling valve, an evaporator, and a compressor. As illustrated in Figure 7, high pressure liquid refrigerant undergoes

a constant enthalpy expansion through the throttling valve and is then fed into the evaporator

where it picks up heat. It leaves the evaporator as either a saturated vapor or a slightly superheated vapor and passes on to the compressor where it is compressed to the condenser pressure.

In the condenser it gives up heat and leaves as a high pressure liquid to complete the cycle.

The four major components of an absorption machine are a generator, a condenser, an evaporator and an absorber. In the generator, heat is applied to a solution of refrigerant and

absorbent. The refrigerant is driven out of solution by this heat and passes into the condenser

while the absorbent travels to the absorber. In the condenser the refrigerant vapor becomes

a liquid by giving up its heat of condensation. The liquid refrigerant then undergoes a re- duction in pressure and flows into the evaporator where it absorbs heat and evaporates. The

resulting vapor continues on to the absorber where it dissolves in the absorbent. The solution

is then returned to the generator , completing the cycle as shown in Figure 8

.

a. The Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle

The vapor compression heat pumps are classified according to the type of compressor

employed. The compressor may be either the positive displacement type , including the reciprocating, rotary and helical rotary (screw) compressors or the centrifugal type (4) . While the

different compressors have different operating characteristics , in general the positive displacement compressors tend to be capable of operating over a wide range of temperature lifts or heads

,

while the centrifugal compressors do not have a high lift capability with low volumes of gas

during part load operation (4, 5) . On the other hand, the centrifugal compressors have a greater volumetric capacity, size for size. This makes the positive displacement compressor more

suitable for handling small heating loads and the centrifugal compressor more suitable for large cooUng loads. In applications involving both large heating and cooling loads, the practice

appears to be to use either a centrifugal compressor with a higher compressor speed and/or

larger impeller or to use a cascade system employing two or more centrifugal compressors

(6) . The compressors may be driven with either an electric motor or an engine. Although a heat engine would probably be the most suitable engine drive if a reliable one was available

,

the most common types in use are the gas engine, the diesel engine and the gas turbine.

The potential of the heat pump for energy conservation can be illustrated by considering the coefficient of performance , COP for a small , unitary , electric driven , air-source

heat pump operated in a heating mode. The COP , which in this case is defined as the ratio

of heat delivered to the work done , is presented in Table 2 for a typical unit. *

It can be seen from this table that a typical COP will^vary from about 3 . 9 to 1 . 4 as the

outside temperature ranges from 60 F to -10 F. Thus, at 45 F, this heat pump will deliver 2.9

units of heat for each heat equivalent unit of work done. While this might at first seem a tremendously efficient way of heaf>ug a building, the picture is less bright when one takes into account

the fact that only about 30%** of the heat energy of the fuel burned at the power plant in making

electricity will reach the heat pump. Thus what will be called in this paper the effective COP

(EFF. COP) of the power plant-heat pump combination is really (2.9 x .3) or . 87 at an outside

temperature of 45 F . Other values of the EFF . COP at different outside temperatures are given

*The COP'S in Table 2 are taken from Carrier Catalog #38AC and are for a unit hgving an

instantaneous heating of 112,000 Btu per hour at an outdoor air temperature of 40 F. **30% is intended to be representative of the efficiency of converting fuel into electricity and

distributing it to the point of use

.

173
FIGURE 7 VAPOR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE

HEAT

OUT

1

CONDENSER

THROTTLING

VALVE 0 COMPRESSOR

EVAPORATOR

T

HEAT

IN

FIGURE 8 ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION CYCLE

GENERATOR

SOLUTION

PUMP

T

REFRIGERANT

FLOW

CONDENSOR

HEAT

IN X

T

HEAT

OUT

X

ABSORBENT

FLOW

ABSORBER

T

EVAPORATOR

HEAT

OUT

T

HEAT

IN 174
in Table 2. While this downgrading of the COP due to power plant inefficiency and transmission

losses is unfortunate, the electrically driven heat pump is far more efficient than resistance

heating, which would have an EFF . COP of . 3 . It is also better, during a large part of the heating season, than a gas or oil fired boiler which would have an efficiency between 75% and 80%

with continuous operation at its maximum heating capacity.

TABLE 2

Typical Values of COP and EFF. COP for an Electric

Motor Driven Air-Source Heat Pump (for Resistance

Heating: COP = 1, EFF. COP =.3)

Outside Temperature (°F) -10 0 20 40 45 60 COP*

(Sa

EFF. COP = (.30) COP

(Saturated Suction Temperature = 110°F) 1.4 1.8 2.3 2.8 2.9 3.9

(Saturated Suction Temperature = 110°F) .42 .54 .69 .84 .87 1.2

Takes into account defrost cycles and outdoor fan.

The heat pump with engine drive has seen only very limited use in the past because of

its high first cost, high level of maintenance and poor record of reliability of the engine. This

picture has, however, changed considerably in the last few years. New materials development

and higher rotating speeds with lower piston speeds (shorter stroke) have resulted in engines

with longer lives, increased brake horsepower and lower cost (7) . While these improvements

have not brought the cost of buying and maintaining an engine driven heat pump down to the

level of an electrically driven one, these costs are much more than offset by the reduced operating

cost if use is made of the heat recovered from the jacket, manifold and exhaust gas of the engine.

The smaller operating cost of the engine driven heat pump is due to its high EFF. COP

and thus more efficient use of fuel. As an illustration, Table 3 gives the heat equivalent of fuel input per bhp output and the amount of heat recoverable for a particular naturally aspirated gas engine (8) . The heat recovery system is an ebullient cooling type which takes advantage of the

heat of vaporization of the jacket water by allowing steam to be generated in the jacket itself. TABLE 3

Heat Recovery Rate for a Naturally Aspirated Gas Engine

Heat Recovered Heat Recovered Total

Fuel Input Manifold 6 Jacket Exhaust Gas Heat

(Btu/bhp-hr) (Btu/bhp-hr) (Btu/bhp-hr) (Btu/bhp-hr)

8400 2350 1250 3600

Using the information in this table and assuming that the COP of the engine driven heat pump is the same as the COP of the heat pump discussed above with electric drive**(See Table 2) , we

find the EFF. COP of the engine driven system as follows:

(COP) (2544) + Total Heat Recovered

EFF. COP = Fuel Input

where use is made of the fact that 1 HP = 2544 Btu/hour. This results in the EFF. COPs shown

in Table 4.

Actually the COP for the engine driven heat pump will be slightly higher because an electric

motor is only 85 to 90 percent efficient.

175
TABLE 4

The EFF . COP of a Air-Source Heat Pump Employing a Naturally Aspirated Gas Engine Drive

Outside Temperature (°F) -10 0 20 40 45 60

EFF. COP .85 .95 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.6

A naturally a^pirated^as engine driven heat pump will thus have an EFF. COP in the

temperature range 60 F to -10 F, between 1.6 and .85 as opposed to an EJ'F. COP between

1.2 and .42 for an electrically driven heat pump. Put another way, at 45 F the electric motor

driven heat pump will use almost 50% mo^e fuel than the heat pump with gas engine drive for each unit of heat produced, while at -10 F this figure increases to 100% more fuel consumed.

The above analysis and the results presented in Tables 2 through 4 indicate that an engine driven heat pump is the most effective device available today for heating from the standpoint of energy conservation. This analysis does not, however, take into account non-steady

operation of either the engine driven or motor driven heat pump because the required information is not available. In addition, the discussion was limited to the direct use of the recovered

heat from an engine driven heat pump for heating purposes. This recovered heat can also be

used to drive an absorption heat pump to provide either heating or cooling. This will be discussed further in the section on the Absorption Refrigeration Cycle.

The electric driven or engine driven heat pump can utilize either outside or inside heat sources and sinks (9) . The most commonly used outside source-sink is air which is universally

available and free. This medium is used almost exclusively on residential installations for this reason. Water from well, lakes and rivers is also an excellent source-sink. Unfortunately the

cost of drilling wells or owning a lake makes these source-sinks prohibitive to almost all residential and small commercial installations. In addition, extensive heating up and cooling down

of lakes and rivers can have a detrimental effect on their ecology. The earth can also be used

as a source-sink of heat although it has not been found in the past to be very practical and dependable. The use of solar collectors as a heat source for heat pumps is still in the research

stage. The idea, however, has considerable appeal because of the heat pump's ability to absorb

the solar heat at a relatively low collector temperature (9) . In addition, operating at low col- lector temperatures reduces the heat losses of the collector and consequently increases its efficiency

.

When the space inside the building is both a source and sink of heat, the heat pump

acts as a heat transfer system . The transfer cycle involves taking heat from areas of the building where cooling is required and making it available where heating is needed. This is sometimes also referred to as bootstrap heating or heat reclaim (10) . The transfer cycle has application in many office buildings where the interior areas require cooling all year long during

occupied hours (10) . This is due to the numerous sources of heat, such as lights, people, computers, cafeterias, elevators, transformers, motors, etc. (11) . In addition, heat can be salvaged

when needed from the building exhaust air, the lavatory exhaust air, and sewage system. This

heat is then available for space heating, reheat for humidity control, preheating domestic hot

water, etc. The advantages of the transfer system are that heating and cooling are provided at the same time, the heat pump operates at a relatively high COP , and the wasteful bucking of mechanical coohng equipment and fossil fuel heating equipment against each other is eliminated. The disadvantage of the transfer system is that, unless some means of heat storage is provided, heat is only available when a cooling load exists. When more heat is being lost from the building than is being generated by internal sources , which may be the case when the building is unoccupied and/

or the outside temperature is low , an additional source of heat must be provided. This can be

done by using the heat pump system to extract heat from an external source, such as the outside

air, or by employing additional conventional heating equipment, such as resistance heaters or gas or oil fired boilers.

To illustrate this method of heat reclaim , let us consider some of the heat transfer cycles

which are presently being used in many buildings. Figure 9 shows a water-to-water heat pump

employing a double bundle condenser (12) . The condenser contains two entirely separate water

circuits; one going to the building heating coils and the other to a cooling tower. This allows

part of the heat rejected by the compressor consisting of the coohng load plus the horsepower

input, to be used in heating, while the remainder is rejected to the cooUng tower without contaminating the house water circuits.

176 .
FIGURE 9 HEAT PUMP WITH DOUBLE CONDENSER

COOLING TOWER

HOUSE WATER CONDENSER

C

HEATING

COIL

TOWER WATER CONDENSER

THROTTLING

VALVE COMPRESSOR

!

EVAPORATOR

c

Z> coo

COI

LING I )IL 6

177
FIGURE 10 CASCADE REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

C

COOLING TOWER

THROTTLING

VALVE

HEATING

COIL

CONDENSER

I

COMPRESSOR

I

HEATING

MACHINE

EVAPORATOR

CONDENSER

I

COMPRESSOR

I

COOLING

MACHINE

EVAPORATOR

C

COOLI

COI

178
CASCADE REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

FIGURE 11 WITH OUTSIDE HEAT SOURCE

COOLING TOWER

X]

HOUSE WATER CONDENSER

TOWER WATER CONDENSER

THROTTLING

VALVE

I

COMPRESSOR

COOLING > COIL

L_ CONDENSER

I

COMPRESSOR

OUTDOOR

COIL

2> HEATING

COIL

MACHINE NO. 1

MACHINE NO. 2

179
A cascade transfer cycle is shown in Figure 10 in which the cascading is accomplished

by water (12) . It uses two heat pumps , one of which can be called the cooling machine and the

other the heating machine. Assuming that the heating machine is off the line, the cooling machine

behaves in a completely conventional manner, rejecting heat from the compressor to the cooling

tower. When the two machines are cascaded, higher than normal heating water can be obtained

since the evaporator of the heating machine has as its heat source the hot water leaving the

condenser of the cooling machine. In addition to providing moderately high temperature water,

another advantage of this system is that only the heat required for heating will be delivered at the high condensing temperature of the heating machine. Any heat that is not needed will be

rejected to the cooling tower at the lower condensing temperature of the cooling machine (13) . The disadvantage of the two systems shown in Figures 9 and 10 is that heat is only

available as a by-product of cooling. As stated earlier, when more heat is required than can be

provided by simple transfer, an additional source of heat must be provided. Figure 11 illustrates

a method of handling this problem. Figure 11 (12) shows a cascade system in which refrigerant

is used to accomplish the cascading. When machine #2 is not in operation, the system behaves

like a simple transfer system, extracting heat from areas where cooling is required and rejecting

it where heating is needed. During the severe part of the winter when an additional source of heat is necessary, machine #2 extracts heat from an outdoor source, e.g. , air or water, and

delivers it to its condenser. This heat along with the heat from the cooling load is then used

by machine #1 in heating the building.

Storage units can also be used with systems employing heat pumps. During the day,

heat can be extracted from the outside air, a solar collector or the interior of the building and

stored in the storage tank at a high temperature. At night, when the outside air temperature is low or the collector is no longer operating, this heat can then be used directly for space heatirg . This will result in a higher system COP than if the heat pump were operated both day and night.

During the summer, the process can be reversed with the heat pump operating at night to store

cool water in the storage tank. In the day this cool water can then be used directly for cooling,

again resulting in a high COP for the system.

b. The Absorption Refrigeration Cycle

Although many combinations have been tried, only the ammonia-water and water-lithium

bromide cycles remain in common use in absorption refrigeration equipment (14) . In the ammoniawater heat pump, ammdnia is the refrigerant, water is the absorbent and the condenser is almost

always air cooled. In the water-lithium bromide system, water is the refrigerant and lithium

bromide is the absorbent. This last type of heat pump is available with either a single-stage

generator or with a two-stage or double-effect generator. In the double-effect cycle, the first- effect generator receives the external heat which drives the refrigerant from the absorbent. This

hot refrigerant vapor goes to the second generator where it is partially or fully condensed and

its heat used to generate low temperature, low pressure refrigerant vapor from a solution which

has flowed from the first generator and has been cooled by passing through an economizer cycle.

Water-lithium bromide heat pumps , with either a single- or double-effect generator, usually employ water-cooled condensers.

In determining its ideal or Carnot efficiency, an absorption refrigeration cycle may be

replaced by a combined heat engine cycle and a vapor compression cycle (15) . The heat engine

takes a quantity of heat, at a temperature T , converts part of the energy to work W and rejects

the remainder to a sink at temperature T.. "The refrigerating machine takes the work W, absorbs

a quantity of heat at a temperature T„ ana rejects an amount of heat to a sink at temperature T . Assuming typical values (16) of T^, T^, T^ , for an ammonia-water absorption machine, a singleeffect water-lithium bromide absorption machine and a double-effect water-lithium bromide absorption machine, we find the Carnot cooling and heating COPs given in Table 5. This table also gives

the typical cooling and heating COPs that would normally be obtained by each type of machine (15) . These typical COPs assume that the generator of each machine is direct-fired and that the flue gas

loss and heat loss from the hot parts of the machine itself constitute 30% of the total heat input, Q^.

From the information in Table 5, it can be seen that the cooling COP typically obtained from an ammonia-water absorption machine is only 24% of the Carnot cooling COP. This rather poor COP is partially due to losses from the rectifier , which is used in ammonia-water absorption machines to remove water vapor (absorbent) from the ammonia vapor (refrigerant) leaving the generator (15,

18) . The typical single-stage water-lithium bromide absorption machine is thermodynamically

very good as can be seen from the small difference between the actual cooling COP and the Carnot

cooling COP. The problem, however, with this type of machine is that the Carnot COP is very low

due to the low temperature of the generator. This can be rectified by going to a double-effect

180
generator which raises the Carnot cooling COP to 2.4. This doubles the cooling COP which

is typically obtained with a single stage generator and results in a value which is sUghtly over unity

.

TABLE 5

Ideal and Real COPs for Absorption Refrigeration Machines

Type of Absorption Machine , T T T

1.' 2' 3

Carnot

Cooling

COP

Cooling

COP

Typically

Obtained

Carnot

Heating

COP

Heatings

COP

Typically

Obtained

2.8 1.13

1.93 1.25

3.4 1.8

(water copied condenser) , T, = 325 F.T„ = 105F,T„ = 45 F

Large motor driven centrifugal heat pumps , operating over the temperature ranges used

in the above examples , usually have a cooling COP in the neighborhood of 3 . This makes for an

effective cooling COP of about .9 , assuming that only 30% of the heating energy of the fuel burned

at the power plant in making electricity reaches the heat pump. Because of this, the ammoniawater absorption machine and the single-stage water-lithium bromide machine, which have cooling

COPs around .43 and .55, respectively, are not commonly used unless there is a cheap source of heat available. Two such sources of cheap heat might be steam produced as a result of some industrial processes or waste heat from engines. If the engines are used to drive vapor compression

heat pumps , absorption machines are often run off the waste heat to provide additional cooling. In

this case , the heat rejected by the absorption machine is usually not recovered since extra heating

is usually not necessary when additional cooling is being provided.

The double-effect water-lithium bromide machine has a cooling COP comparable to, if not

slightly better than, the effective cooling COP of the typical vapor compression heat pump. Because of this , it should definitely be considered as an alternative to a motor driven vapor compression heat pump. It may be either direct fired or used with waste steam or waste heat from an

engine. In the latter case , if the engine is being used to drive a vapor compression heat pump,

a very high cooling COP for the total system can be obtained. The double effect machine may also be combined with steam turbine driven centrifugal compressors (16) . Steam from the noncondensing turbine is used to provide the heat for the absorption machine.

The ammonia-water and single effect water-lithium bromide absorption heat pumps have

heating COPs comparable to a motor driven heat pump, while the heating COP of the double-effect

water-lithium bromide absorption machine is comparable to an engine driven heat pump. Unfortunately, with the absorption machines in existence today, the heating COP drops very rapidly

as one tries to increase the temperature of the condenser or decrease the temperature of the evaporator. This means that if one wishes to use the heat from the absorption machine at a reasonable

heating COP , one cannot use the outside air as a heat source, but must employ a transfer cycle

and use very large heating coils located in the space or zone to be heated. This last condition

greatly increases the total cost of the system

.

Another reason water-lithium bromide absorption machines have not been used extensively

in ^he past for heating is that it was necessary to control the condenser water temperature to within -5F degrees of the design temperature to avoid the problem of crystallization. A new advance

in the state-of-the art has now removed this constraint, allowing this type of absorption machine

to operate with an uncontrolled condenser temperature (17) . A proposed system for the GSA Manchester Building utilizes the absorption heat pump in

a transfer cycle for both heating and cooling. This system will be described in the section entitled Solid Waste Utilization. If this turns out to be an effective use of an absorption machine,

consideration should be given in the future to employing such a transfer system as a means of conserving energy. In the meantime, additional research is urgently needed which will result

Ammonia-water (air cooled condenser) , 1.8 .43 T^ = 390 °F , T2 = 125 F , Tg = 38 F

Single stage water- lithium bromide .93 .55 (water copied condenser) , T

J = 176 F , T2 = 105 F , Tg = 45 F

Double effect water-lithium bromide 2.4 1.1

181
in improved designs (like the double-effect generator) and new working fluids (15) , that will

increase the COP of the absorption heat pump and allow it to operate adequately over a wide range

of evaporator and condenser temperatures.

Heat Recovery Systems

A heat exchanger that transfers energy from make-up air to exhaust air in a central

ventilation system can be considered another type of energy conservation system. These ex- changers are usually one of the following three types: 1) run-around coil, 2) thermal wheel,

and 3) heat pipe exchanger.

The run-around system shown in Figure 12 employs standard finned tube coils, both in the entering make-up air stream and exhaust air stream. Liquid is circulated, either by pump or by natural convection, through these two coils, which are connected in series. The heat from one duct is then picked up and delivered to another duct. The usual heat recovery effectiveness

(19) of the system is approximately 60%.

Thermal wheel type heat exchangers employ a rotating wheel 16 to 22 inches thick, (see

Figure 13) , which is packed with a heat absorbing material such as aluminum or stainless steel shavings. Exhaust air is drawn through one side of the wheel, warming the media. The wheel

turns, is continuously warmed by the exhaust air stream, and rejects this heat to the incoming

make-up air. Contamination is kept to a minimum (1% or less) by using a purging device, which

returns the first makeup air that passes through the heat wheel back to the exhaust stream. Although heat recovery effectiveness is very high (on the order of 80%) , extra energy is required

to turn the wheel and to pass the air through the wheel.

For summer operation , a total heat wheel may be used. This device is packed with lithium

chloride- impregnated corrugated asbestos instead of metal shavings . The lithium chloride is a dessicant which absorbs moisture as well as heat. The heat recovery effectiveness of the total heat wheel can go as high as 90%. The power consumption required to operate the total heat wheel

is usually smaller than for the metal one because a smaller pressure drop usually occurs. The application of the type of heat pipe heat exchanger shown in Figure 14* to HVAC

systems is relatively new. The pipe is usually a finned metal tube , the inside of which is filled with refrigerant 12 or water and a capillary wick lining material. The refrigerant evaporates as

it is heated in the exhaust air stream (winter operation) and the vapor travels through the center

of the pipe to the make-up air duct side and condenses. The condensed liquid flows through the

wick along the interior surface of the pipe to the warm exhaust air side by capillary pumping

action. The heat recovery effectiveness of this device is on the order of 60%. An important consideration for using the heat pipe , however, is that it is a completely passive exchanger requiring no additional source of energy.

Special Systems

In this section consideration is given to systems which, although not commonly employed

in the heating and cooling of today's buildings, have a significant potential for energy conservation .

a . Total Energy and Modular Integrated Utility Systems

The total energy (TE) system is a central system that generates electric power on site and utilizes the waste heat from the power generating process for the generation of domestic hot

water and for space heating. The engine waste heat is also frequently used as the energy source

for an absorption machine, thus providing space cooling.

The total energy system is said to consume approximately 20 to 50 percent less fossil fuel than a conventional system to deliver the same amount of enerev • A typical energy plant is located at or very near the user's site and the electric power is supplied by generators which are driven by gas turbines, gas engines, diesel engines, steam turbines, steam engines, or heat

engines. The majority of existing systems, however, use either gas engines or diesel engines.

Heat from the engine's jacket and hot exhaust gases are used to generate hot water or low

pressure steam

.

*This diagram was adapted from the promotional literature of Q-Dot Corporation,

4219 Sigma Road, Dallas, Texas 75240.

182
FIGURE 12 RUN-AROUND HEAT EXCHANGER

OUTSIDE AIR

FIGURE 13

183
FIGURE 14 HEAT PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER

184
FIGURE 15 HUD/NBS

TOTAL ENERGY SYSTEM

HW

200° F HOT WATER

HEATER

2-16000

MBH

HT

HOT WATER

BOILER

2-400 HP

t

T FUEL

It

I

ENGINE

5-626 HP

GENERATOR

5-600 kw

-1-5-790 MBH

HEAT

RECOVERY

BOILER

WATER LOOP

DRY

COOLERS

2-7000 MBH

ABSORP.

REFRIG.

2-526 ton CL

45° F

EL

WASTE -

HW HOT WATER LOAD, GPH

HT HEATING LOAD FOR THE SPACE, BTU/HR

CL COOLING LOAD FOR THE SPACE, BTU/HR

EL ELECTRICAL LOAD FOR THE LIGHTING AND EQUIPMENT, WATT

FUEL FUEL CONSUMPTION, GPH

WASTE HEAT WASTED TO THE AMBIENT, BTU/HR

T TIME, HOUR

185
FIGURE 16 MODULAR INTEGRATED UTILITY SYSTEM ( MIUS )

COOLING TOWER

WATER

SUPPLY

00 CO 00

A A A A

LIQUID WASTE

TREATMENT

SANITARY

LANDFILL

RECOVERED

HEAT

POWER PLANT

INCINERATOR

186
Approximately 500 total energy plants have been installed throughout the United States since 1960, mostly under the auspices of the gas supply industry. The primary application of the

TE system has been to motels, schools, shopping centers, planned communities, and hospitals.

Well publicized examples include the 5080 unit Rochdale Village in New York, the 3600 KW systems

in the TWA facility of the Kansas City International Airport and a shopping center in King County,

New York. A complete listing of the total energy installations is available in reference (20) . Past experiences have shown that the total energy system is not usually feasible unless

the following conditions are satisfied.

1. The supply of engine waste heat matches the heat demand. If this is not possible,

a means must be provided to store the excess heat for use at other times.

2. Maintenance for the power generating facilities , which is an extra burden

for most HVAC operators, is available at an acceptable cost.

3. A long range fuel supply is assured.

4. Efficient engines which operate on gas as well as oil are used.

5. Noise and air pollution problems are accounted for and adequately solved.

The National Bureau of Standards is currently working with the Department of Housing

and Urban Development to evaluate the Total Energy System's potential for decreasing the amount

of fuel required to provide the utility services to an apartment complex of 500 units and for obtaining better control of noise and air pollution problems (21) . The installation is being made

at a site in Jersey City, New Jersey as a part of the HUD Operation BREAKTHROUGH program.

Figure 15 depicts a schematic layout of the total system that consists of diesel engine driven

generators , supplementary hot water boilers , absorption chillers , hot water heaters , an^ a dry-cooling tower. This equipment is all located in a single water loop. Hot water (200 F)

generated at the hot water heater and chilled water (45 F) produced by the absorption chiller

will be sent to six apartment buildings, one commercial building, two schools and one indoor

swimming pool.

The Jersey City TE plant is being extensively instrumented to determine its thermal

efficiency , the daily and seasonal load patterns , the reliability of the utility services , the success

of noise pollution control, the maintenance and repair requirements, the owning and operating

costs and the occupants' response to this system. The Jersey City site is almost completed at present and the field measurements are expected to start in July 1974.

The Atomic Energy Commission's Oak Ridge National Laboratory recently made a study

for extending the total energy concept to a city the size of Philadelphia (22) . Considered in their analysis were steam turbine-driven power generators that utilize heat from nuclear reactors,

conventional as well as fast breeder type. On a project of this magnitude, the total energy plant

could provide heat for many applications other than space heating/cooling and hot water generation. Other uses could be industrial processing, sewage plants, snow melting systems, drying

facilities, and greenhouses.

Perhaps the most interesting application of the total energy concept is in the MIUS program of the Department of Housing and Urban Development (23) . The acronym MIUS stands for Modular Integrated Utility Systems and combines energy, water, solid waste disposal and sanitation services into a single utility , such as shown in Figure 16. The goal of the HUD project is to achieve a 50% reduction in energy waste in electric power generation , an 80% reduction in liquid waste disposal and 85% reduction in solid waste disposal by appropriate recycling procedures. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration has been participating in the project because of their experience in the development of life supporting systems for spacecraft. Other federal agencies, such as AEC , the Environmental Protection Agency, and NBS

are also participating in setting up a prototype installation to evaluate the concept. The final selection of the various utihty subsystems of the demonstration MIUS installation will depend

upon climatic factors, population density, total population, consumer mix, local geology and

local resources such as water, natural gas, and land. A preliminary study made by the Oak

Ridge National Laboratory recommended internal combustion engines as prime movers for ^e

MIUS and indicated that the best choice for the heat recovery system would be 240 F to 250 F

system suitable for use with a single-stage absorption chiller. The final heat rejection

may be by means of a cooling tower or a cooling pond. The pond, in addition to serving

as a heat rejection system, could be used as source of water for fire protection, to hold run-off

storm water and to serve to improve the appearance of the MIUS site.

187
FIGURE 17 PROPOSED GSA/MANCHESTER

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

AAA

. .

LOW TEMP. TANK

188
b. Solid Waste Utilization

An average American produces 7.2 pounds of soUd waste per day (24) . Assuming that the heating value of city refuse is approximately 1/4 that of coal, the total solid waste in the

15 U.S. would be equivalent to 1 . 653 x 10 BTU per year or equivalent to approximately 2 . 5%

of the annual energy consumption if all this waste could be converted to energy. The sohd

waste can be used as a fuel to generate steam, which in turn drives turbine generators, heats

hot water and operates absorption chillers. The idea of recovering heat from sohd waste incinerators is not new. One of the most famous installations is the TIRU plant in Issy Le

Moulineaus , on the outskirts of Paris (25) . The plant processes Paris city trash at a rate of 27 tons /hour and feeds it into the incinerator-boiler that generates 1800 tons of steam a day at 930 psig. The high pressure steam is used to generate 24 MW of electricity during the summer

and to provide hot water and space heating for various dwelUng units , schools , hospitals , and

commercial buildings in Paris at a rate of 285,000 lbs. of steam per hour during the winter.

Except for large installations , such as the U.S. Naval station facilities at Norfolk , Virginia

(600 tons/day) and the City of Chicago's plant (1200 tons/day) , the use of heat recovery incinerators has been limited in the United States

.

The City of Nashville , Tennessee is currently planning a central steam and chilled

water distribution system for 27 downtown buildings which will be serviced by the heat from

the incinerator-boiler. The boiler plant will produce 215,000 lbs. per hour of 400 psig steam. This steam will be used for cooling as well as heating with the use of steam driven centrifugal

refrigeration water chillers having 13,500 tons of capacity. The chilled water at 45 F and

steam at 125 psig will be sent through an underground heat distribution system.

A small scale experimental facility for opeating a 15 ton absorption water chiller with

a trash incinerator is being considered for the GSA Manchester Building, which was mentioned

earlier. Figure 17 shows a schematic diagram of the building's system. The incinerator-boiler

is connected to the high temperature water loop , which picks up additional heat from the engine

driven generator and provides hot water to operate an absorption chiller. The electricity generated by the engine driven generator in this system will be used to run the electric motordriven centrifugal chiller with a double bundle condenser. The heated water at the double

bundle condenser is in turn available for space heating through the use of terminal reheat

coils which were discussed earlier.

c. Solar Energy

The potential for conserving energy in building environmental equipment through the use of solar energy as a supplementary source appears to be very significant.

Buildings can be heated, cooled, and/or have their hot water supply generated with

solar energy by the use of some type of solar receiver or collector in which a fluid such as water or air is heated. The heated fluid is then passed into the building for use directly in a heating system, domestic hot water system, as a heat source for an air conditioning unit, or

to be put into storage for later use

.

There have been approximately 20 to 30 experimental solar heating systems constructed

in houses and laboratories during the past 25 years with a half dozen or more of them still in use. Reference 26 gives a good summary of most of them, showing the kinds of collectors,

thermal storage material and transfer fluids used. One-half of the solar buildings have been

residential, two were small office buildings and the remainder consisted of laboratories.

Eighteen were erected in the continental United States

.

The concept of solar air conditioning is intriguing but has not been carried forward

nearly as fast as heating. Solar energy has been successfully used to drive absorption refrigeration systems at the Universities of Florida (27) and Wisconsin (28) . Recently a study has been reported where a complete house in Brisbane, Australia was air conditioned by

such a system (29) . The major emphasis to date on solar energy utilization in buildings has been for residences. It is expected that more and more emphasis will be given to using solar energy in commercial buildings for several reasons

.

1. Commercial buildings usually have simultaneous heating and coohng requirements over long periods of the year which would result in a much fuller util- ization of the energy than in residences.

189
2. Most energy conserving designs for these buildings already include thermal

storage, thus not adding this cost to the incremental cost of the addition of a solar energy system.

3 . Many systems will require a much smaller thermal storage system

(relatively speaking) than in residences since most of the energy

collected can almost always be used immediately.

4. Absorption cooling equipment is available in th^ 100-ton range which can use

the relatively low water temperatures available from simple flat

plate collectors . This equipment is directly applicable for use with many

commercial buildings which have cooling requirements. Absorption units, on the other hand, are much more expensive than electric compression

systems in residences

.

Conclusion

This paper has considered the potential options for energy conservation in buildings

resulting from the application of both conventional HVAC equipment and special systems . It has

not dealt with the entire HVAC field, but has instead considered specific examples which are

illustrative of the state-of-the-art in the designing and use of building environmental systems

for energy conservation.

References

1. ASHRAE Handbook and Product Directory - 1973 Systems , American Society of Heating,

Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, 345 East 47th Street, New York, N.Y. 10017

2. McFarland, A. L. . "Three-Pipe Systems: Concepts and Controls," ASHRAE Journal , pp. 37-41 , August 1967.

3. Meriwether, R. F. , "Computer Programs for Energy System Analyses,"

APEC Journal , July 1971.

4. ASHRAE Guide and Data Book - Equipment 1972 , Chapter 12, ASHRAE, New York.

5. ASHRAE Guide and Data Book - Equipment 1972 , Chapter 18, ASHRAE, New York.

6. O'Neil. J. F. , "The Economics of the Heat Pump," Engineering Journal , p. 42,

November 1985.

7. Barrangon, M. , "The Gas Engine," ASHRAE Journal , pp. 50-53, February 1970.

8. Fleming , W. , "Total Energy Concepts for Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers,"

ASHRAE Journal , pp. 32-39, December 1970.

9 . Ambrose , E . R . , Heat Pumps and Electric Heating , John Wiley and Sons , New York , 1966

.

10. Szabo, B. S. , "Internal-Source Heat Pump Systems," Air-Conditioning, Heating, and

Ventilating , p. 51, June 1966.

11. Tambyn , R. T. , "Bootstrap Heating for Commercial Office Buildings," presented at the

ASHRAE Semiannual Meeting, New York, February 11-14, 1963.

12. Japhet, R. A. , "Considering Heat Reclamation? Here are Your Options,"

Heating, Piping, and Air Conditioning , pp. 89-95, April 1969.

13. Ostrander, W. S. , "Centrifugal Compressor Heat Reclaim Systems - Where Now?,"

Building Systems Design, pp. 23-27, May 1972.

190
14. ASHRAE Guide and Data Book - Equipment 1972 , p. 135, ASHRAE , New York.

15. Whitlow, E. P. , "Trends of Efficiencies in Absorption Refrigeration Machines,"

ASHRAE Journal , p. 44, December 1966.

16. ASHRAE Handbook and Product Directory - Systems 1973 , p. 29, ASHRAE

New York

.

17. Archie, John L. , "Absorption Refrigeration Systems - 1971," ASHRAE Journal . p. 41 , September 1971.

18. ASHRAE Guide and Data Book - Equipment 1972 , p. 139, ASHRAE, , New York.

19. ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals 1972 , p. 34, ASHRAE, , New York.

20. "Total Energy," Total Energy Publishing Company, 522 Briar Oak Lane,

San Antonio , Texas

.

21. Achenbach, P. R. , and J. B. Coble, "The Application of Total Energy Systems

to Housing Developments NBS Special Publication 361 , Vol. 1

,

Performance Concept in Buildings , 1972.

22. Miller, A. J. , "Use of Steam-Electric Power Plants to Provide Thermal Energy to Urban Areas," ORNL-HUD-14, NTIS

23. Samuels, G. , and W. J. Boegley, Jr. , "Preliminary Concept Recommendations for Near-Term MIUS ," Oak Ridge National Laboratory Report, 1973.

24. Cohan, L. J. , and J. H. Fernandis , "The Heat Value for Refuse,"

Mechanical Engineering , September 1968.

25. Beader, R. J. , "Incineration Plant-Plus Power , January 1967, pp. 62-64.

26. "Conservation and Better Utilization of Electric Power by Means of Thermal

Energy Storage and Solar Water Heating," Phase I Summary Report, the

University of Pennsylvania (NSF Grant No. GI 27976) , October 1, 1971.

27. Farber, E. A. , "Design and Performance of a Compact Solar Refrigeration System,"

ASME Paper 70-WA/Sol-4, 1970.

28. Duffie, J. A. , R. Chung, and G. O. G. Lof, "A Study of a Solar Air Conditioner,"

Mechanical Engineering , August 1963.

29. Sheridan, N. R. , "Performance of the Brisbane Solar House," Solar Energy , Vol. 13, pp. 395-401, 1972.

30. Dubin, Fred S. , Statement to the Subcommittee on Energy of the House Science

and Astronauticc Committee, June 12, 1973.

191

National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 403

Proceedings of 1973 Engineering Foundation Conference (Issued June 1976)

ASHRAE AND ENERGY CONSERVATION

by

Preston E. McNall, Jr.

Johnson Service Company

and

Chairman, ASHRAE Research and Technical

Committee

ASHRAE is concerned with all aspects of environmental control

for people, as well as for plants and animals as the latter

relate to food production and processing. The ASHRAE Guide is

discussed and its excellent treatment on thermal comfort in

buildings is emphasized. The need for better energy management and the importance of first cost to the building industry

in speculative type investments is discussed. The utility of

reheat HVAC systems is emphasized since they are easy to

maintain and have low initial costs. ASHRAE has considerable

know-how which is not optimally used at present because of

inadequate incentive. Labor is no substitute for energy

since a man is worth only 10<): per day in energy expended.

Key words: Energy; environment; food

I am pleased to be able to address you today, but I am sorry I could not

have more time to prepare, since I am filling in for another speaker who

suddenly became ill.

ASHRAE (The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers) is a technical society, not a trade association, as some people assume. It is concerned with all aspects of environmental control for

people, as well as for plants and animals as the latter relate to food

production and processing. Although mechanical engineers are the largest

group of members, other technologies are also well represented, such as chemistry, material science, medicine, physiology and psychology.

ASHRAE is unique in many ways, but of importance here is its research

program. It is the only society which funds and conducts a sustained re- search program. A portion of each of its 25,000 plus members' dues is

allocated for research. Industry and individual contributions and the income

from its annual equipment exposition are also used for research. Currently,

the annual effort is about $300,000. This is not large by Federal standards,

but it is precious to ASHRAE. Its Research and Technical Committee allocates

it to various projects. The results must be non-proprietary and in the

public domain.

This research effort, started in the early 1920's, has been reduced to

practice in the ASHRAE Handbook, now a 4 volume, 6-1/2" thick set. Over 800

technical experts, serving on over 80 separate committees (including energy

utilization and energy conservation) aid its preparation. Energy conservation is no newcomer to ASHRAE, whose first research was concerned with

measuring and predicting heat flov/ through walls and other building components . ASHRAE ' s responsibility in the current U.S. energy situation is as fol lows

:

1. Approximately 201 of U.S. energy is used in the heating and cooling

of spaces occupied by people (homes, factories, offices, schools, etc.).

This is primarily gas and oil, with some electricity.

2. Approximately 51 of U.S. energy is used in refrigeration associated

with foods, from proceessing plants, storage, transportation, etc., to the

household refrigerator. This is primarily electric, with some gas and oil.

193
Therefore, 25% of the U.S. energy is used in the equipment and systems

designed, built and installed with ASHRAE knowledge. This is a significant

amount and therefore, significant savings are probable.

If ASHRAE is as knowledgeable as I have claimed, why haven't we already

designed and built optimum energy systems? There are many reasons, but two

significant ones have to do with our past "free ride", so far as energy cost

was concerned, and our business practices with speculative builders. Recent

studies have shown that for a typical commercial building, only 10-15% of

the annual cost is energy related. Another 10-15% is for maintenance and the

lions share remaining (70-80%) is for capital cost. Economics dictates that

first cost and interest rates are far more important than energy. The

speculative builder will sacrifice a "quality" job and sell out to the

ultimate owner, leaving him with a "low dollar" energy wasting system. Even

the non- speculative builder would tend to make similar decisions until he sees the "energy crisis" clearly coming. This explains the many existing

energy -was ting systems, such as the reheat system, which cools all the system

air to, say, 55°F and then heats it up as needed, with double energy costs in some cases. Past economics approved such systems, which do give very good

comfort performance. A tenant paying $7 - $10 per sq. ft. per year demands

comfort

.

Significant energy savings can be made in the short-range by modest

investments in "tuning-up" or adding to existing systems, with existing

hardware and technology. ASHRAE members can do this now. There are also many computerized control systems in use which could be

considered for some larger existing systems. This relatively new technology,

applied to heating and air-conditioning systems, allows a much more efficient

operation by providing almost instantaneous data for the operator to use in

controlling the system. Even more sophistication, already available, provides

preprogramming the computer with control strategies so that operating

efficiencies can be even further increased, past man's capability to con- tinuously react to all his decision variables. A large water chiller, for

example, could have a significant increase in efficiency if the chilled water

could satisfy the load and be 1°F warmer.

The President's goal of 5% should be easy to attain by the above means,

without drastic measures.

One of those "easy" suggestions is changing thermostat settings. It is

true that considerable savings could be realized with lower winter and higher

summer control points, and this could be done today, for a short-range saving.

However, before we implement this, we should consider the consequences.

ASHRAE has sponsored comfort research for 50 years. Our present data shows

the following. Lightly clothed people in an office or residential environment prefer 75°F. This seems to be true, winter and summer, regardless of

national origin or weather climate around the world. Quality of life is

largely dependent on our environment. If we remove the stress caused by

people fighting their environment, we release more energy for man's higher

pursuits. If we lower winter thermostats, we must encourage people to wear heavier clothing. In the summer, though, the limits of decency on clothing

have perhaps been reached.

As an aside, it may have occurred to some that we might save energy by

limiting or controlling "labor saving" appliances or machines. Let's put

this in perspective. A healthy young male, who is doing heavy physical labor,

(ditch-digging, for example) can produce equivalent watt-hours of energy in an 8 hour day of less than lOij: worth of electrical energy. Clearly, increased reliance on manual labor is no practical answer. Over the last 25 years, ASHRAE has documented energy saving systems

which have been built, in some cases as demonstration projects. These

involve heat pumps, heat recovery systems, solar heating and cooling systems,

etc. Much of this information is now being used in some systems built in

recent years and some now being designed and built by a few enlightened

owners. Many will take advantage of such existing knowledge and will benefit

in the future. Savings in energy use of up to 30% should easily be possible

in new construction, without resorting to exotic or yet- to-be-developed

194
hardware

.

Why don't we do it? In my opinion, the main deterrent to employing our extensive existing know-how to energy conservation is a lack of incentive

for the people who are in the decision-making positions - the present

building owners-- (homeowners to those owners of large building complexes).

I believe, with proper incentives, present and near-future savings could

approach 20-30% easily, without a significant effect on living standard or comfort

.

There are many long-range possibilities. Twenty percent of our energy

is used to heat and cool people. But a person metabolizes at the rate of

only about 400 BTU/hr. on the average. This is a relatively small amount.

A family of 4 could heat and cool themselves with about $15 worth of natural

gas per year if it were 100% efficient! Recent research at Kansas State

University has indicated that a liquid or air-cooled hood, covering the head

and neck, can effectively cool a person working in a hot environment. At the same time, it allows good freedom of movement and permits the rest of the

body to sweat efficiently, which entire body cooling with air jets or liquidcooled suits tends to inhibit. The energy could be provided with a small

refrigeration system, similar to that of a household refrigerator. The

energy savings of such a future "people oriented" system could be dramatic.

There are countless other examples.

In summary, ASHRAE has know-how available today to make a great impact

in energy conservation. However, a building system is a complex system,

including

:

Architectural and structural details

Weather-climate environment

Building usage - (hotel, office, etc.)

Heating and cooling systems

Control methods and strategy

Available energy sources, rates, etc.

There are thousands of combinations of the above six variables. An

optimum energy conservation system is difficult to design. It is not a game

for amateurs, it is not a game for "quick-draw" solutions, like "don't heat

with electricity", nor is it a game for "instant experts" who leap on the

energy bandwagon. It needs to be done by professionals who understand the

total concept of these complex systems.

To conclude, ASHRAE has considerable know-how which is not optimally

used at present because of inadequate incentives. For the future, ASHRAE '

s

organization of experts can provide some of the nation's best stewardship

for the massive research effort needed in this important area.

19 5

V. INSTITUTIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR

ENERGY CONSERVATION

National Bureau o£ Standards Special Publication 403

Proceedings of 1973 Engineering Roundation Conference (Issued June 1976)

FACTORS CONTROLLING THE MANUFACTURE AND

MARKETING OF ENERGY CONSERVING PRODUCTS

by

J. B. Comly and C. M. Muggins

General Electric Corporate R 5 D P.O. Box 43

Schenectady, New York 12301

The complex of factors relating to decisions to manufacture

and market new or improved products is discussed, with ex- amples taken from consumer equipment of importance in

conservation of energy at the point of utilization. The heat

pump and the incandescent light bulb are used as specific

examples. Premature marketing of the heat pump as a heating

system impaired its degree of acceptance. The tradeoff between energy efficiency and replacement cost of the incandescent light bulb illustrates the optimization of these

two factors in a product. Technological development alone

does not assure immediate implementation of energy efficient

systems. The prospect of commercial success of a product should

be evaluated well before that product is brought to market.

Key words: Costs; energy; heating; manufacturing; marketing

The rapidly growing awareness of the possibilities for conservation of

energy which lie in more effective utilization of energy at the point of use

is indicated by the proliferating proposals for improvements in equipments

which use energy. Many of these ideas are novel - for example, the use of

solar energy to heat or cool buildings, or the use of heat pipes to speed up

the cement conversion process; others represent modifications in the design

or applications of equipment which is already widely in use. For example,

improving the efficiency of air conditioners, making more efficient light

bulbs, or improving the performance of heat pumps, furnaces, refrigerators,

or ovens.

It is tempting to technical people like us to zero in on an interesting

and innovative technical idea and to push it to the point of demonstrating

full scale technical feasibility. We then assume implicitly that the idea

should have a large impact on society simply because of its technical merits.

However, the "technology" which is required to serve a large consumer

market is much broader than the simple engineering feasibility of a new idea.

A specific product configuration must be defined in concrete form; designs

must be prepared which allow the product to be manufactured, to be reliable

in operation over many years, and to be serviceable and maintainable.

Technical information and trained people must be available in the field to assure that the product can be properly specified and installed, and service

for it must be available. Various costs must be considered and addressed at

the design stage, including engineering, tooling, capital equipment, plant,

start-up, materials, and labor. The risk of failure of the product either

technically or in the market place must be addressed and compared with the

payoff possibilities, and alternate uses for the resources needed for the

job must be explored.

Factors in the market place must also be reviewed. The idea must serve

a need felt directly by the prospective purchaser, and its first cost must

not be prohibitive to him. He must have sufficient knowledge of the product

199
(ELECTRICITY)

1

INDOOR 0 ^1 I ^ Q + W OUTDOOR

AIR I I AIR

EER = Q/W (BTU/HR-WAH)

FIGURE la

W

(ELECTRICITY)

IZZI INDOOR 0 + W 1 0 OUTDOOR

AIR I I AIR

COP = (0 + W)/W (DIMENSIONLESS)

FIGURE lb

200
so that he can judge its overall value to him, the special features it may

have of interest to him, the ease with which he can use the product, how

easy it will be for him to service it during its lifetime, and whether that

lifetime seems to be acceptable to him.

In this paper some of these factors will be illustrated by discussing

two examples of consumer products which relate to energy conservation: the

heat pump, and the life, cost, and efficiency of light bulbs.

Heat Pumps

Heat pumps and central air conditioners are very closely related. Both

are refrigeration machines employing an evaporation/condensation cycle, with

a compressor to effect the required pressure changes. Figure la shows a highly simplified version of the energy flows for air conditioners. The work

input W is made by an electric motor, assumed to be 100% efficient. The

indoor air heat exchanger picks up heat Q and delivers it, along with the

work input to the outside air. The Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) which is

used to describe the unit's efficiency is the ratio of the heat removed from

indoors, Q, to the electricity used, W, and is generally expressed in mixed

energy units, BTU/hr-watt. The EER for air conditioners ranges from about

4.4 to 11.5 at design conditions.

A heat pump (Fig. lb) operating in the heating mode is simply an air

conditioner operating in reverse, using input work W to collect heat Q from

the outdoor air and delivering the sum Q+W, indoors to heat the house. The

Coefficient of Performance (COP) is the ratio of heat delivered to the house,

Q+W, to the work input, W, and is generally expressed in dimens ionless units.

Typical instantaneous operating COP's range from 1.25 to 3, depending on the

outdoor temperature and other factors.

The heat pump operating in the heating mode as shown in Fig. lb delivers

from 1.25 to 3 times as much heat (i.e., the COP) to the house as it uses

from the electrical lines. The heat pump is thus an important energy con- serving product. Its history and present design illustrate the tradeoffs

which must be made in engineering, manufacturing, and marketing such products .The heat pump principle was first discussed by Lord Kelvin in 1853.*

Practical demonstrations began in the 1930 's with the development of

hermetically sealed compressors. GE's history includes experimental office

building systems installed in the 1930's with utility companies in Ohio and

in New Jersey, three more units sold through normal sales channels in 1947 in

Connecticut, Alabama, and Ohio, and another three units sold in 1949 in

various locations.

The market really opened up after 100 pilot models were sold in 1953

through central air conditioning distribution systems. Other manufacturers

moved in 1952-1953 to market packaged unitary heat pumps to the residential

market

.

Growing at the average rate of 1S% , the market reached 50,000 units in

1960, with about 15% of all central air conditioning (unitary) applications

for residences being supplied by heat pumps. Figure 2 shows the growth of

the heat pump market from its beginning to 1972.

During the 1950's the heat pump performed well in areas where its

primary function was cooling; however, major field problems arose where

heating was important. All manufacturers found they had insufficient knowledge of the stresses on compressors caused by the high pressure ratios

experienced with very low outdoor temperatures, and the field failure rate

grew to unacceptable proportions. In 1962 GE withdrew its heat pump from

northern markets, and began a major study on reliability of compressors and

on the field problems which the industry faced.

The reliability problem was solved by the mid 60's, but the damage done

to the heat pump's reputation was severe; the sales growth rate was much

smaller during the next decade, about 7% per year on average. At present

^ William Thomson, "The Power Required for the Thermodynamic Heating of

Buildings", Cambridge § Dublin Math. J., Nov. 1853, p. 124.

201
(SQNVSnOHi) SilNn

202
only 4% of all unitary applications (central air conditioners) are heat pumps.

The program which GE mounted resulted in dozens of reports in our corporate

laboratories, and possibly hundreds in the operating department. The GE

Climatuf compressor now in use is the result of a large number of

improvements including current and temperature cutouts, internal pressure

relief valves, designs for stresses in shipping, noise reduction, carefully

tailored starting torque, improved and more reliable heat exchangers, re- duced refrigerant charge requirements, faster condensor defrosting, more reliable outdoor fans, and designs for directing what noise there is away

from where people are most likely to be.

The importance of reliability in this kind of equipment is clearly very

great

.

The Seasonal Performance Factor (SPF) , or seasonal average COP of a heat pump installation results from a number of factors, both in how it is

designed and in the weather conditions it faces. Table 1 shows how the COP

depends on outdoor temperature in a typical heat pump.

TABLE 1

5 ton Heat Pump COP vs . Outdoor Temperature

Power in Heat out

T indoor T outdoor (BTU) (BTU] COP

70 F 45 F 23 600 60 000 2.5

70 F 20 F 18 100 35 000 1.9

70 F 10 F 16 600 29 000 1.75

The decrease in COP at lower outdoor temperatures is a result of higher

compression ratio due to lower suction pressure and the lower density of the

gas being circulated.

Heat pump installations are sized to meet the summer cooling load rather

than the winter heating load. This is necessary because an oversized cooling

installation gives poor humidity control. The fraction of time an over-sized

cooling unit runs to keep the air cool is too small to allow a large fraction

of incoming air to flow over low temperature coils and thus condense out the

moisture in the air. Since this sizing approach generally results in an installation which has insufficient capacity to handle the heaviest heating

loads in the winter, supplemental electric resistance heating is provided

for peak heating needs. To derive the SPF one must include this use of

electricity at an effective COP of 1.0. The resulting use of electrical

energy and SPF is illustrated in Table 2. Although the percentage saving is higher in milder climates, the actual

energy saved is greater in colder climates, because of the larger annual heat

loss . Another interesting comparison is that of the use of energy by the heat

pump with other systems, when energy usage is evaluated back through to the

utility generating or supply plant. In an analysis done for the New York

area, the heat pump, with SPF of 1.7, used 59^ as much fuel as straight

electric resistance heating, as shown on Figure 3A. The figure also shows

that the heat pump used about the same fuel energy as a typical gas fired

furnace and somewhat less than an oil furnace. The solid bars on the chart

refer to the same equivalent house for each heating system. The dotted

portions of the bars refer to additional air infiltration which will normally

occur when combustion furnaces are used. Another interesting point is that

in practice electric baseboard heating equipment tends to use somewhat less

energy than an electric furnace simply due to individual room thermostat

controls. Finally, the fuel used by the power plant is often heavy crude oil,

coal, nuclear, or hydro power instead of gas or light distillate fuel oil,

so that if this factor were also considered, the comparison to use of the

203
Table 2

Residential Energy Usage (Heating Season)

(For 4-bedroom, 2-story house with standard insulation for

electrical heating)

Heating Hours Energy for Energy for Energy % Savings

Below Below Electric Heat Saved by by Use

Location 65°F 20°F Furnace Pump H.P. of H.P. SPF

Chicago 6,380 589 18,890 11,970 6,920 36.6 1.6

St. Louis 5,329 348 14,440 8,430 6,010 41.6 1.7

Ft. Worth 3,833 71 7,460 3,470 3,990 53.4 2.1

204
RESIDENTIAL HEATING COMPARISON

FOR

UTILITY ENERGY REQUIRED BY

VARIOUS HEATING SYSTEMS (NEW YORK AREA)

ELEC. FURNACE

ELEC. BASEBOARDOIL FURNACE

GAS

FURNACE

HEAT

PUMP

HEATING SYSTEMS

FIGURE 3A

205
more precious gas or oil fuels would become even more favorable to the heat

pump

.

The extra energy saving that would result from even higher COP in heat

pumps seems attractive. To explore this possibility, lets look first at the

factors that degrade COP.*

Figure 3 shows how the COP goes from a theoretical maximum (Carnot)

COP of 21.2, down to approximately 2.5 which is actually obtained.

These factors are explained as follows:

Carnot - - The theoretical maximum COP = T2/(T2-T-j^)

Air Flow --The air moved to move heat inaoors must

be hotter than indoor temperatures, say 100°F, and

similarly for outdoor air.

Heat Exchanger -- Temperature drop must occur across

the heat exchange surfaces.

Fans - - Fan power to move air is used for the indoor

section, but outdoor fan power goes to waste.

Pipes and Valves -- Pressure drops within the heat

pump refrigerant loop decrease efficiency.

Rankine Cycle - -Difference between the actual con- densing cycle and the ideal

.

Compressor Cooling - -Hermetic compressors put motor

losses into the refrigerant before compression as a matter of operating convenience and to reduce costs.

Miscellaneous --Other small losses in the system.

Large cost increases have been found to accompany any substantial changes

in these elements of heat pump design.

Value to the customer is a key consideration in designing this kind of

equipment. Consider a 2-1/2 ton cooling system using either an electric

furnace or a heat pump installation. We assume a 1600 sq. ft. residence in

Ashland, Ky . , with normal electric-heating insulation. The heat pump saves about 40% of the heating season electricity with a consequent saving in the users electrical bill of $84. The cost spread between an electric furnace

installation and a heat pump in this case is on the order of $300. Thus the

customer saves his extra investment cost in about four years.

A 20% improvement in COP might be made by increasing heat exchanger area,

along with some other modifications. However, with current technology we estimate that this might increase the cost of the heat pump equipment and

installation by 50%. The heat pump premium would then be $800 and the annual

fuel savings would be $105, yielding a payback period of about 8 years,

assuming no interest is imputed on the extra investment. Our belief is that

the market for this improved heat pump would be limited, so that making

improvements using current technology would not pay off substantially.

Now suppose a major invention is made which seems to promise a major

improvement in COP, large enough to promise a reasonable payback period for

the customer (3-5 years), if he made this extra $800 investment in the

equipment. Even if successful, the introduction costs for this new invention

are also a challenge which must be met. Let's look at the risks the manu- facturer takes if he converts his plant to the new design. We assume the

product has been tested in prototype and we believe some units will sell, but

we aren't entirely sure how many people will buy it at a premium in cost; and

we feel some risk about how well it will perform over the long term in the

field and the consequent warranty costs we might incur. The investment

we have to make to supply between 50,000 and 200,000 units per year, the

number we need to impact between 2.5% and 10% of the new housing starts each

year, is about $25 million. This includes engineering, tooling, factory

modification, start up, and equipment investment costs and m addition in-,

eludes training of sales and service people over a two year period. The

"s W. A. Spofford, "Heat Pump Performance for Packaged Air Source Units",

ASHRAE J, , April 1959.

206
w.

FACTOR T2 (°F) Tt (°F) COP

IDEAL (CARNOT) 70 45 21.2 AIR FLOW 100 35 8.6 HEAT EXCHANGER 105 25 7.1 FANS FAN POWER 4.2 PIPES AND VALVES PRESSURE DROP 4.0 RANKINE CYCLE (80% OF IDEAL) 3.5 COMPRESSOR COOLING 3.0 MISCELLANEOUS 2.5

FIGURE 3

207
$25 million investment would all have to take place before we got any- significant income from the new product, and before we were sure that the new product would continue to sell and would perform well in the field. We

would have to defer plans for other product changes, improvements, or expansions to provide the costs, and engineering and manufacturing manpower

to be able to make this changeover.

In summary, continued search for technical breakthroughs in heat pump

performance are desirable, but market and economic requirements are such

that real hurdles must be overcome before even a real breakthrough could be

expressed in production.

Over the years many such new ideas have been investigated in great

detail, only to find that the product will not go because of economic or other factors which may be unrelated to the technological feasibility of the

idea. The path from a new technical idea, demonstrated in the laboratory,

to a product with large enough market to have significant impact on a national problem like the energy crisis is complex and challenging. Major

financial risks are associated with attempts to project such ideas into

major markets. For this reason, product improvements tend to occur in

evolutionary fashion rather than in single revolutionary solutions.

Light Bulbs

The complex tradeoff of customer value is illustrated very clearly by

the light bulb industry, where lifetime cost of light and energy efficiency

have been the ruling factors for decades. Figure 4 shows how the production of light in the USA has grown since the beginning of the electrical

light industry, clearly an exponential-style behavior. Superimposed on the

growth curve is a curve representing the electrical demand caused by this

growth in lighting. If technology had stopped with the incandescent lamp,

the electrical demand curve would have followed the lighting curve; however,

because of the greatly increased efficiency of fluorescent lamps over incandescents , the curve is much flatter. The relative efficiency ranges

for different lamp technologies is shown in Figure 5. There has been a steady progression of new, more efficient technologies over the years.

In fact the individual technologies have experienced efficiency

improvements with time, too (Figure 6). The incandescent lamp saturated in

the 1940's, following decades of increase. The fluorescent lamp is still

rising, and promises to do so for many years to come. Questions are often asked about incandescent light bulbs without

recognizing that different effects are closely coupled. Such questions as "Why don't lamps last longer?", "Why do they cost so much?", and "Why can't

they be made more efficient?" can only be answered together.

The tradeoff of life for efficiency is illustrated in Table 3. TABLE 3 Lamp Efficiency vs. Life (100 watt lamps)

Service Life (hrs) Efficiency (L/W)

Rough 1000 12.3

Vibration 1000 14.2

General ' 1000 16.8

General 750 17.5

Photoflood 50 - 19.8

To increase the efficiency of an incandescent lamp the filament must be run hotter. If the filament runs hotter, tungsten boils off at a greater

rate and leads to earlier failure: a simple trade of life for efficiency.

Figure 7 illustrates in schematic form how the cost of light varies with

lamp design life. Lamps with very high efficiency have very short life,

hence the cost of bulb replacement dominates and is high. Lamps with very

long life operate at low efficiency, increasing the energy use per unit of

208
EQUIVALENT ELECTRICAL DEMAND

FIGURE 4

I

209
210
BULB REPLACEMENT ELECTRIC POWER , I COST COST /

^

OPTIMUM

LAMP LIFE

FIGURE?

211
output, over-compensating for the reduced rate o£ replacement of light bulbs.

These longer-life bulbs are more expensive to make, and thus face the con- sumer's natural resistance to a higher priced product. There is an optimum

in the lamp design, at which the cost of light is a minimum. It is at that

optimum that most modern incandescent bulbs are designed.

Many factors beyond the control of the manufacturer, and even the

homeowner, influence the life of light bulbs in the home. Figure 8 shows

schematically how the light output and life of incandescent bulbs varies

with under- and over- voltage . A house near the local distribution transformer might experience as much as 15% overvoltage in the evening when

system line voltage is boosted to assure that customers further away get

the full voltage expected. If that happens regularly when a particular set

of lights is on in a house, the lifetime of those lamps may fall precipitously.

Summary

THere are many opportunities to conserve energy using technology which

already exists but which has not been fully applied in every day use. Heat

pumps could be used economically in many more new housing installations,

and in replacement of more old equipment than is now being done; a reasonable goal might be to use heat pumps in at least 15% of all new central air

conditioning installations again, as was the case in the late 1950's.

Shifting from incandescent to fluorescent lamps would save energy for the

nation and money for consumers.

The descriptions in this paper illustrate the complex of factors which

must be considered when making manufacturing and marketing decisions on new products, or product improvements; energy conserving products are not

different from others in this respect.

As good new ideas arise for new equipment or for ways to redesign

existing equipment to operate more efficiently, they should be explored

thoroughly. However, basically good ideas may be pursued in unproductive

directions and be lost. Even at an early stage the complex process of

technology transfer from the laboratory to operations must be begun, and a clear-headed business evaluation of the real commercial prospects for success must be made. Using this approach, many of the pitfalls which might

arise as the idea nears commercialization may be anticipated, and successful

solutions may be worked out early enough to avoid a major crisis as the idea moves to the prototype stage.

212
40 100 150 % DESIGN VOLTAGE

FIGURE 8

213

National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 403

Proceedings of 1973 Engineering Foundation Conference (Issued June 1976)

ECONOMIC, ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT TRADE-OFFS

by

Paul Swatek*

Environmental Affairs Coordinator

Massachusetts Audubon Society

Lincoln, Massachusetts 01773

The individual is a member of a community of interdependent

parts. His instincts prompt him to compete for his place in

the community, but his ethics prompt him also to cooperate.

Believing that pecuniary motivation is high on the list of

human priorities, freer market mechanisms than presently ex- ist are urged. The market should be unshackled, both removing

subsidies to the energy industry (oil depletion allowance) and

having the producers internalize the now externalized social

and environmental cost of their operations. Such measures are projected to be effective in all energy consuming sectors,

await the development of no new technologies, require no legislation of rigid criteria and technical standards, require no bureaucracy, rely on the normal operation of the free market,

do not depend on changes in basic motivation of consumers, and

will work and produce an efficient allocation of resources.

Key words: Costs; economics; energy; environment

Introduction

"All ethics so far evolved rest upon a single premise: that the individual is a member of a community of interdependent parts. His instincts prompt

him to compete for his place in the community, but his ethics prompt him also

to cooperate (perhaps in order that there may be a place to compete for)."

"The land ethic simply enlarges the boundaries of the community to

include soils, waters, plants, and animals, or collectively: the land."

( Sand County Almanac ) I begin this discussion of economic, energy, environment trade-offs by

quoting Aldo Leopold, because the fundamental truth that he enunciated a quarter of a century ago provides a philosophical underpinning to the con- servation-become-environmental side of the frequently vigorous debate that is

taking place today over allocation of the earth's resources. The earth and

the community of plants and animals (including man) that are sustained by it

and the energy of the sun are together parts of an elaborate ecological network. In the natural state, energy flows from the plants and plankton up

through the herbivores and carnivores. Material wastes produced by one part

of the system are utilized by other parts in such a way that nearly all

matter is cycled and recycled.

The system is so interdependent that an alteration to one element inevitably is felt by other elements, and it is so complex that is has proven

impossible for man to predict with much certainty all of the effects of his

substantial tinkering with natural ecosystems.

As man-made environments and economic systems have approached the

complexity of natural systems, man has also experienced failures to predict

their behavior, with unfortunate consequences.

It is the escalation of these unplanned assaults on the land and natural

ecosystems, and on the public health and social welfare, especially those

associated with the extraction of fuels, their conversion to other energy

forms, and their end use, that has brought the traditional conservationist

Member, Board of Directors, and National Treasurer

215
and now the so-called "environmentalist" so strongly into the energy decision

making picture.

Energy is the common element that ties Glen Canyon, the Grand Canyon,

Alaska and Canada's western coast, the hills and streams of Appalachia,

Maine's Penobscot Bay, the clean air regions of the West, and the nation's

coastlines and continental shelf together in conservationists' minds, for it

is in the search for energy sources that men have been willing to exchange

the ecological integrity and long-term productivity of significant natural

resources in order that our modern civilization can indulge its extravagant

appetite for energy. This energy connection became clear to conservationists

at the same time that society began to question the acceptability of the

environmental and social impacts associated with mining coal, auto-based

urban transportation systems, and the hazards of an imperfect nuclear

technology

.

Thus, in the last several years, environmentalists have paid increasing

attention to some of the fundamental factors influencing energy use, con- vinced that they provide some of the best handles for tackling problems to

those who would protect the land and preserve livable environments.

Existing Incentives for Energy Waste

Resources have traditionally been allocated according to the dictates of

economic and technical, rather than environmental, factors. In this country,

we have relied on a market system using the dollar as the primary measure of

value. Energy decisions have been guided by the perceived needs and shortterm interests of individual components of the system more than by a plan

conceived and coordinated to meet the long-term best interests of the whole.

The theory of our economic system is that the price of a good reflects

its value to society and that the market will allocate goods and services in an optimal fashion. Yet we have allowed extraordinary 'economic and political power to accumulate in the hands of some, especially the energy

industries, and that power has been used to distort the market allocation of resources in very significant ways.

As examples, I would cite such direct subsidies as the oil depletion

allowance, the write-off of "intangible drilling costs", the favorable tax

treatment of royalty payments to foreign governments, and the limited

liability provisions of the Price -Anderson Act (which exempts the utilities

industry from assuming more than a small portion of the liability in the

event of a major nuclear accident). In addition, it is the general taxpayer, not the coal industry or user, who now pays the cost (annually about

$1.5 billion) of payments to miners who are victims of black lung disease.

Until recently, industry has not been expected to assume the very

substantial economic and non-economic costs associated with pollution it causes. Now that abatement of pollution is required, legislatures have

apparently decided that special tax benefits to those who invest in add-on

abatement equipment will be a preferred tool in cleaning up the environment.

In terms the economists use, we are not internalizing the costs of

producing and using energy. The use of energy is cheap, even when the

expense of producing it is great. The victim of pollution and the general

taxpayer bear the costs instead of the user. The effect of the low price is an inflated demand for energy at the low

price and a distortion of resource-allocation priorities. Demand is inflated

further by the practice still followed by most utilities of using a promotional rate structure, so that the more energy one uses the less per unit

one pays for it.

The policy of low energy prices has contributed to high levels of

material consumption and, by traditional measures, a higher "standard-of

living". However, in the face of the consequences that we are now seeing

from the exponential growth in resource consumption, the basic wisdom of the

energy policies that I have outlined above must be called into question. A

growing number of people have concluded that the high material standard-ofliving is not necessarily coincident with a high quality of life.

216
Economic Incentives for Energy Conservation

The previous analysis invites an exploration of the benefits of re- versing some of the above-mentioned policies. Most environmentalists feel

that the results look quite promising and merit a try. Working through the

pricing mechanism offers a number of distinct advantages:

1. It promises to be effective in all energy-consuming sectors.

2. It awaits the development of no new technologies. Rather, it

has the effect of stimulating innovation.

3. It avoids legislation of rigid criteria and technical standards.

4. It requires no bureaucracy for its implementation and administration.

5. It relies on normal operation of the free market system.

6. It expects no changes in the basic motivations of consumers and

business managers.

7. Economists tell us that it will work, and that in the process it

will produce an efficient allocation of resources.

A few examples illustrate how increases in the price of energy will

work to dampen demand and improve supply.

In the domestic and commercial sectors, as the data becomes available

and buyers learn how to interpret it, there will be strong incentives to

purchase more energy-efficient equipment. This is especially true, for instance, of such home appliances as refrigerators, freezers, and air conditioners which use lots of energy and where energy-efficiencies per unit of

performance vary by 501 and more. As energy prices escalate, the operating

savings achieved by using more efficient equipment will also escalate and

manufacturers will have a greater incentive to market energy-efficient

equipment to compete for the more energy-conscious consumer dollar.

The effect of raising fuel costs on consumption by the automobile may

be estimated by comparing European and American gasoline prices and car

sizes. In Europe, gas prices are much higher, and car mass and fuel con- sumption are much lower. Because of the very large portion of energy used

in the transportation sector, this effect alone will be very significant.

In similar ways, rising energy prices will make investment in insulation and other energy- conserving measures more economic. Increases in the

prices of goods whose manufacture is energy- intens ive will disfavor their

use and result, in some cases, in the substitution of less energy-expensive

materials to achieve the same function.

Even in situations in which direct energy input now accounts for only a small portion of the cost of producing a product, a boost in energy prices

will sometimes be enough to tip the market balance to a new process or to a competitor. It has been one of the great strengths of the American free

enterprise system to exploit such minor competitive advantages.

On the supply side of the supply-demand equation, increasing the market prices for fuels will make it possible to exploit sources of energy

that were uneconomic before, because the cost of obtaining them with an acceptably minimal environmental impact will no longer be too high.

Imperfections in a Strictly Economic Approach

I do not mean to ignore the disadvantages of an energy conservation

strategy that relies primarily on internalizing the costs of energy production and the consequent increase in energy prices to bring supply and

demand back into balance and to allocate resources wisely.

Such a strategy, for instance, would not be likely to reduce demand for

energy by SI this year , but if we are to believe the economists, it could in

four or five years. There is a lag as the realization that prices of energy

are on the way up sets in and as more energy-efficient equipment replaces

older less-efficient equipment. This lag may be a serious liability, if

quick results are needed. It is encouraging, however, to think that the

turn around in electric power rates that has occurred in the past several

years may already be working to lower demand. It will be interesting to

note whether those utilities which three years ago first instituted price

increases experience slower growth rates in the next few years. (Note: The

long-term price elasticity of demand for energy, as reported by a number of

economic studies recently published, appears to be in the range around -1.2.

217
This means that a one percent increase in energy price this year produces a decrease in demand several years later of more than one percent. Arguments

that try to dismiss this long-term effect are specious - "Do you mean to tell

me that you think that the American consumer will be willing to leave his car

in the garage and walk to work!")

There is an additional disadvantage of the price mechanism in that the

rise in price of energy will tend to have an immediately regressive social

impact. Use of energy increases roughly 70% as rapidly as does family in- come. Thus, the energy bill for the poor family is likely to be a greater

percentage of income than it will be for the more affluent family. Fortunately, fairly simple measures are available to reduce this impact, at least

as far as domestic utility bills are concerned. Most environmentalists

support proposals to set a lower unit price on a uniform basic allotment of

energy for each domestic user with unit prices scaled up as total use in- creases . While discussing the social impacts of reallocating our energy priorities, it would be a mistake not to mention some of the ways that our present

system discriminates against the poor. As an example, I would cite trans - portation systems. A disproportionate share of federal assistance has

flowed to highways and air travel, both energy- intensive modes of transport,

at the same time that urban mass transportation, an efficient mode, has

languished. Yet, the urban poor, especially the aged, the young, and the

infirm, who benefit little from the investment in air and auto facilities,

would benefit more from public transportation improvements. So would the

energy picture.

In continuing to permit pollution from energy-related facilities, we have tended, also, to pass the externalized costs on to the poor, for it is

the poor who tend to inhabit the more environmentally degraded neighborhoods.

In many cities, the highway that brings the affluent suburban commuter to

work runs through the bedroom of the poor, and the power plant that supplies

the downtown high-rise office building emits its sulfur dioxide to damage the

urban dweller's lungs and property. I mention this primarily to point out

that an energy policy that increases prices to reduce pollution will also

produce benefits, and that these benefits will accrue to the poor as well as the wealthy.

There is a third potential social impact to be derived by raising energy

prices. As the price of energy has decreased and the price of human labor

has gone up, it has been economic to substitute machines for man. A rise in

energy costs should make this substitution less economic in the future with

a resultant beneficial impact on the job picture (new energy- for-labor

substitutions will lessen), at a time when unemployment is high.

By endorsing a fundamentally economic approach to energy conservation,

I do not mean to imply that a purely economic approach will be either

sufficient or politically easy to achieve.

One of the most fundamental flaws in our market system is its failure

to protect common property resources. Traditionally, air and water have

been considered free goods, allocated on a first-come first-served basis,

to be used or abused pretty much at will. The consequences of this system

have been aptly described by Garrett Hardin in his now well-known "Tragedy

of the Commons". Each member of the New England town had the right to use

the common green space at the town center as a grazing place. With few cows and enough grass the system was in equilibrium, but as the size of the herd

increased, the grass was unable to recover from the heavier use and the common was destroyed as pasture. At any point in this process, it was in

the economic self interest of any member of the community to add a cow to

the herd, because all benefits - milk and meat - belonged to the owner; to

the extent that there was a cost to the rest of the herd or the pasture, it was shared by the entire community. This was true even as the carrying

capacity of the common was approached and exceeded.

Hardin's suggestion is that what is needed is "mutual coersion,

mutually agreed upon". Or put another way, when the market system fails, some sort of regulation is required.

218
Regulation by federal statute has been necessary to protect air and

water quality from pollution produced from energy fuels. By requiring com- pliance with federally established standards, externalized costs are internalized and the market system's allocation-of -resources machinery

operates, but now with reduced environmental degradation. What constitutes

"excessive" degradation is determined, in a mechanistic sense, by the standards, which are established by the political process. More will be said

about this later.

At this point I should mention the pollution tax, an alternative and

perhaps complementary approach to solving the commons problem which has

many backers these days, among them the Coalition to Tax Pollution, and the

Administration. Basically, the idea is that a tax is assessed per unit of

pollutant emitted. The current proposal for a sulfur tax would call for a levy of 20 cents per pound of sulfur emitted, a level at which it would be more economic to abate sulfur dioxide emissions as needed.

In a number of ways, this technique offers a better approach than the

regulatory- standards approach. Only one standard - the price per unit of

pollutant emitted - needs to be set. It applies uniformly across all industries and requires no assessment of "best available" technology. Enforcement machinery is replaced by a monitoring system and a tax collection

apparatus. Industry, faced with an ever-present incentive to abate, is free

to choose its approach to abatement.

The Trade-Offs

With either the standards approach or the pollution tax, fundamental

priority decisions are made, of course, when the numbers are set. If you

accept the basic premise that price is the most influential factor (that we

can control) which affects energy supply and demand, then these numbers are

the key to how we determine what trade-offs there will be between environmental quality, energy quantity, and economics.

How should this balance be determined? If the data base were available

to do it, one might suggest that the most rational procedure would assess

the cost of damage from a given amount of pollutant, estimate the cost of

abating the pollutant to various levels, choose that level of abatement whose

cost (including energy cost) matches the cost of the damage at that level,

and then to apply standards and/or a pollution tax designed to achieve the

desired level of abatement. If we were able to carry out such a calculation

to solve our energy, environment, economics trade-off decisions, we could,

at least in theory, optimize the solution so as to avoid environmentally

damaging undercontrol and economically expensive overcontrol.

I hardly need to say that the decision-making system in use today is not

the one I have described. In most cases we do not have the knowledge and

data needed to solve the problem in the above manner. Instead, we substitute

for this technical calculus a political calculus which performs the integration in the absence of the required technical input because it has to do

it. It is the only method that we now have to make the difficult trade-off

decisions. Presumably, as we learn more about the energy/ecosystem/economics/

abatement technology interactions, we will be able to introduce more quantitative information into our consideration of the alternatives. I would point

out, however, that to be politically useful and effective, the source of the

technical input must be credible to the public. Because of the wild oscillations in energy industry stances on issues recently, I suspect that it will

take some time and perhaps some changes in standard operating procedures for

industry credibility to be re-established in the political forum.

I never foresee a time, however, when the political calculus will cease

to be the ultimate determinant of resource allocation decisions. This is

because it will probably never be possible to quantify and reduce to common dollar units the value of all of the resources impacted by energy technology.

How do you attach a dollar value, for example, to the clean air of the

Four Corners area or the Big Sky country of Montana? One could analyze the

number of kilowatt-hours of electricity that would be generated over the

Z19
lifetime of the plants proposed to operate there and figure out how much more

it would cost to generate that much power in a more acceptable way. But

against what figure would you compare that? Economists have fun trying to

establish such numbers by looking at public vacation expenditures to learn

what people are willing to pay for the experience of visiting this beautiful

country. I suppose one could try to extract relevant numbers from comparative real estate and salaries data, from questionnaires and the like. The

comparison, however, eventually boils down to a value judgement; and each

man's point of reference is his own. When the political calculus comes into

play, the intangible factors weigh in with the technical factors.

Before leaving the question of value, I should mention the existence of some fascinating attempts to assign quantitative values to non-market natural

resources. As an example, I would cite an interdisciplinary effort being

conducted at the University of , Massachusetts at Amherst under the overall

direction of Dr. Joseph Larson which attempts to quantify the values of

wetlands as water resource, wildlife habitat, and cultural/aesthetic amenity.

Also, a number of programs are underway throughout the United States to

inventory and evaluate "natural areas", and federal land use legislation is

pending which establishes criteria for areas of "critical environmental con- cern". One must mention the work of Luna Leopold who came up several years

ago with a scheme to rate unique natural resources and the analysis of John

Krutilla^ which demonstrates that a truly unique and valuable natural re- source (his example: Hell's Canyon on the Snake River) may have enormous present value, meriting preservation, if the demand to experience it in its

natural state is increasing. This may be true even if there is not today a market for the experience (i.e.. It is available at no charge.)

I mention these land use matters because land use impacts, in addition

to emissions impacts, are among the most significant environmental factors

that are influenced in a major way by energy decisions. Strip mining chews

up the land, spitting it out either reclaimed or unreclaimed, but in either

case profoundly altered. Energy facility siting brings changes to landscapes by itself and plays an important role in shaping development patterns

by its secondary effects.

Land, in this nation, has been treated as a commodity to be bought and

sold according to the dictates of the market system. This basic concept is

written into the Bill of Rights. A transformation is well under way, however.

Certain rights in land will in the future be treated more as common property

resources are. Exercise of these rights will be strictly regulated. The

land ethic of Aldo Leopold is at work. A utility familiar with siting

problems knows well that land use considerations now present significant

constraints to its decision-making. This is as it must be.

In addition to the social and environmental factors that I have already

cited, there are obviously other considerations which weigh into the

decision-making process. Balance of payments is an interesting case in point.

As imports of petroleum grow, attempts are being made to even the trade

balance by boosting exports - of scrap metals, enriched uranium, western

forests, agricultural products, and other resources. There are environmental

impacts associated with each of these commodities. This is testimony to the

truth that the trade-offs are almost infinitely complex and that the wise

choices are sometimes obscurely hidden.

The political process determines the trade-offs by balancing interests,

many of which I have described. The success with which interests are balanced, however, depends on attitudes.

The consumer wants convenience and material affluence and a pleasant

environment, all at the same time. The businessman wants a free hand to

carry out his business, and we all tend to resist change, especially when it

A Guide to Important Characteristics and Values of Freshwater Wetlands

in the Northeast, edited by Joseph S. Larson, Publication #31 of the Water

Resources Research Center, Univ. of Mass., Amherst, Mass., July 1973.

2 To Conservation Reconsidered, by John Krutilla, American Economic

Review, Vol. 57, pp 777-786, Sept. 1967.

220
assails our parochial, short-term self-interest. For these reasons it would

be difficult to initiate measures, for example, that would create new jobs

in one place at the expense of existing jobs, even if the net job impact is

beneficial. In such situations it is sometimes necessary to forge ahead,

despite objections. The political process has to make such decisions every

day; if the solution is wise, the flak will be minimized.

Despite human desires, demand cannot indefinitely challenge supply.

We know this from the law of conservation of matter. We know we cannot for- ever extrapolate the present into the future without unacceptable environmental and social disruptions. Of course, when we set new courses, we should seek those ways that minimize the necessary disruptions.

I suspect that we cannot really fully understand the nature of the

trade-offs until we recognize the way in which material growth challenges

personal freedom. It is helpful to me to think of the problem in the

following terms, by analogy with a Chinese checkers board and a bag of marbles. When one places the first marble on the board, it has maximum freedom

to move. Addition of the second imperceptibly restricts the freedom of the

first, but the system is more interesting in the sense that one marble can now skip over the other. Ten marbles on the board enriches the system more,

but restricts freedom to move very little. When the board is half filled,

the average marble begins to notice that half the time the next space is

occupied. When the board is completely full, all freedom of movement and

nearly all of the richness of interaction is gone.

If you think that you will never be a marble on a completely filled

Chinese checkers board, you never have been in a traffic jam. The laws of

thermodynamics work, and they work on humans. For an idea of what happens

to individual freedom and liberty in a society that is operating somewhat nearer to the practical environmental limits than the United States now is,

consider mainland China. Viewed from this perspective, one begins to realize that the trade-offs among economics, energy, and the environment also

involve our personal freedom. This is why society needs the sort of ethical

system that I mentioned at the outset.

A Policy

To close this somewhat abstract discussion of economic, energy, environment trade-offs I would offer the following example of how the principles

that I have outlined can be applied. In January 1973, the Board of Directors

of the Sierra Club adopted two brief energy policy statements relating to

economic policy and energy conservation.

"Current and past economic policies with regard to energy are a major

cause of the problems we face with respect to environmental impact and

energy supply and demand. New economic policies can be a major factor in

bringing about a more rational and less environmentally destructive pattern

of energy development and use. The Sierra Club believes that the prices of

all forms of energy should cover energy's true costs. This will favor those

energy sources which have minimum environmental impact while penalizing

those with the most serious impact. It should also blunt the growth in

total energy demand.

"The Sierra Club specifically recommends:

(1) Rapid phasing out of all economic subsidies to energy industries.

Examples include depletion allowances on the extraction of energy resources,

which should be replaced by recovery of amortized investment costs only; the

favorable tax treatment of imported oil; the tanker subsidy program; and

the subsidy of hydro-electric projects by means of specious calculations of

recreational and flood control benefits and the use of a discount rate less

than the opportunity cost of capital.

(2) Removal of environmental and social subsidies by internalization

of environmental and social costs. For example, emissions of pollutants

should be taxed, and the industry, and ultimately the user, should be re- quired to pay for the costs of pollution abatement, adherence to stringent

regulations to protect the health and safety of workers, full compensation

to the victims of occupational diseases and injuries such as black lung

221
disease, etc. Pollution taxes must be set at a level high enough to assure

that they will be effective in abating pollution. They should also be high

enough to cover all direct and indirect costs to society of the polluting

activity

.

(3) Revision of rate structures to better assure that energy is priced

at its full cost. This should follow the principle of marginal cost pricing,

i.e., the settling of prices at that level which covers the full costs of new supplies of energy. Included in marginal cost pricing should be the

charging of higher rates during periods of peak demand, to cover the higher

costs of providing new capacity and to provide an incentive for reducing

energy use. The possibility of windfall profits for energy companies from

marginal cost pricing should be eliminated by imposing an energy tax to

divert surplus revenue to the government.

(4) The imposition of severance taxes upon the extraction of non- renewable energy resources should follow the rapid phasing out of subsidies.

(5) Termination of the fuel import quota systems. If some system for

reducing the fuel imports is considered important for reasons of national

policy, a tariff system should be substituted.

"The revenues from the above taxes could well be spent to cover the

costs of government programs to develop less wasteful and environmentally

damaging ways of producing and using energy, to pay for surface restoration

of old mine workings, and to cover the costs of monitoring and effective

regulation of health, safety, and environmental impact. However, a trust

fund may not be desirable, since it may tend to circumvent rational budgetmaking and setting of priorities."

"Special efforts should be made to insure that those of low income do

not suffer from the generally higher level of energy prices which can be

expected to result from having the user of energy pay energy's true costs.

Fortunately, the economic reforms which we advocate will have a far greater

impact on the users of large quantities of energy than on the poor. However, until our society devises an effective program to address the economic

needs of the poor, special provision must be built into the energy rate

structure to assure all domestic users of minimum quantity of energy to meet

basic needs at rates that will not adversely impact the poor."

"Energy conservation must be made a major national goal. We must es- tablish federal, state, and local policies, as well as encourage personal

attitudes, which will promote more efficient energy use and better con- servation of energy resources. The following steps are some of many which

should be pursued with vigor:

(1) Land use controls and urban designs to reduce transportation

demands

.

(2) Efficient and attractive public transportation systems and smaller, more efficient private vehicles.

(3) "Total energy" systems, which usefully employ "waste" heat.

(4) Energy-efficient buildings designed to lower requirements for

artificial heating, cooling and lighting.

(5) The direct use of pipeline quality gas instead of electricity

generated from such gas for heating, and the use of heat pumps where practical .(6) Products with longer lives, lower average energy demand, and

greater efficiencies. These features should be specified on product labels.

(7) The recycling of materials and reuse of containers, and the

elimination of unnecessary packaging.

(8) The use of renewable energy sources, such as solar energy, wind

power, and geothermal power.

(9) Improved energy conversion, storage, and transmission efficiencies."

This conference has demonstrated amply that energy conservation

measures are available and technologically feasible. All that is needed

are the incentives to motivate the decision-makers to act. The economic

222
and regulatory measures that conservationists advocate will work,* we believe, and in a manner that will minimize adverse social and economic

impacts

.

* Note the large energy savings in the industraal sector, anticipated

from actions to "raise energy prices by tax and/or regulation," that are projected in the Office of Emergency Preparedness report on "The Potential

for Energy Conservation" published in October, 1972.

223

National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 403

Proceedings of 1973 Engineering Foundation Conference (Issued June 1976J

REGULATORY, LEGAL, AND TAX CONSTRAINTS

ON ENERGY CONSERVATION - POLEMIC

OR FACT?

by

Honorable Charles Warren

Assemblyman, California State Assembly

State Capitol

Sacramento, California 95814

Recognizing the vital role of power in society, an education

and voluntary basis for balancing the different mechanisms in

the market (such as the adjustment of electric rate structures)

is urged. In the last analysis, if this approach is unsuccessful,

regulation will be required drawing upon the power of the State.

Regulatory enactments should be directed toward behavioral norms

in the every day activities of people rather than adjudicating

conflicts. The State would set standards for the building industry, controlling lighting and insulation, be prepared to

establish allocations of energy, and prescribe levels of operating efficiency. Since the standards proposed are esentially

performance criteria rather then product quality criteria, one could enforce conformity at the point of end use.

Key words: Energy; legal; regulatory; standards

"You mean you can't take less.... it's very easy to take more than nothing." Mad Hatter.

"When I use a word.... it means just what I choose it to mean - neither

more nor less." Humpty Dumpty.

Introduction

My topic today is the legal, tax, and regulatory constraints in achieving energy conservation. I have divided the topic into several parts to more clearly set forth issues this topic suggests. After detailing our work,

I shall point out the conservation elements in our system, their theoretical

constraints, and some examples of how these constraints are brought to bear

in the legislative arena.

I would emphasize that legal, tax and regulatory constraints do not

equate with governmental constraints and that governmental constraints are the real issue.

Before discussing the variety of constraints to energy conservation in

the legislative arena, let me first provide you with some background of the

California State Assembly's initial involvement with the energy problem.

Initially, we were bombarded by the electrical utility industry with

information concerning the need to eliminate delay, dissent, and deliberation in the process of siting thermal electric power plants. The industry

contended it was not able to accommodate demand because of the existing

siting procedures, and sought to reduce the many steps involved in that

process to one. The characterizations by the utility industry of its problem, as well as the clearly one-sided arguments it provided the legislature,

indicated to us that the issue was much bigger and more complex than we had

been led to believe. Certainly the counter arguments of conservationists

indicated this. (Incidentally, although they are not experts in energy,

legislators develop the ability to perceive meritricious arguments and

related presentations.)

Legislative leadership became convinced that an independent assessment

of the problems was needed, as well as a framework to clarify the various

issues presented by representatives of both the utility industry and con225
servation organizations.

At that time, the policy options concerning siting were considered

paramount, particularly from a public policy point of view, but overriding

the primary considerations was the nagging intuition that perhaps the issue

was so large that meeting all forms of demand was not possible . Therefore,

an overall review of electrical conservation issues was also considered

essential

.

The California State Assembly commissioned, with the assistance of the

National Science Foundation, two studies from the Rand Corporation of Santa

Monica: "Planning for Power Plant Siting" and "Slowing the Growth Rate".-*- It was our intention not to use the results as a form of some theoretical

exercise, but to elucidate issues and to subject these issues to the review

of both the "special" interests and the general public.

Although the reports and their methodology were directed to the electrical energy quandary, the investigation and subsequent recommendation mix

was applicable to all forms of energy, fully recognizing the need to do

further work in such forms.

The energy conservation report required analysis of depletion rates of

all primary energy fuels, and necessarily impinged upon other forms of

energy either as complements or substitutes for electrical energy.

Following the receipt of the Rand reports, and in order to develop a consensus, lengthy interrogatories were prepared and submitted to all

California utilities, conservation groups and appropriate governmental agencies. All responded and their answers were reviewed, compared and collated. Thereafter, public hearings were held on those subjects on which the

responses indicated disagreement. Expert and lay witnesses from throughout

the United States appeared before our subcommittee, testified, and submitted

additional written evidence.

Following the hearings, legislation was drafted which is believed to

be without precedent in the United States - Assembly Bill 1575.

Problem Definition

We formulated the following issues for our Rand investigators: What

is our current rate of growth in demand for electrical energy and what is

the projected trend of such demand? Should the electricity growth rate be

reduced? If so, how much could it be reduced? What would be the impact of

reducing the electricity growth rate on the people, the economy, and the

environment of California? What would be the impact if we did nothing?

Perhaps the most mind-boggling factor to a layman was the projected

rapid rate of expansion of the electrical utility industry: capacity doubling approximately every 8 to 10 years, consumption in California in the

year 2000 approximately 7 times what it was in 1970, and a need for con- structing up to 130 new generating units about 1200 megawatts in size.^

1 - R. H. Ball, R. G. Salter, S. Dole, B. Frederick, M. Hammer, W. E. Mooz,

R. Papetti, and G. Richards, California's Electricity Quandary: II . Planning for Power Plant Siting , R- 11 1 5- RF/CSA , Rand Corporation,

September, 1972.

R. D. Doctor, K. P. Anderson, M. B. Herman, S. H. Dole, M. J. Hammer,

P. T. McClure and C. B. Smith: California's Electricity Quandary: III . Slowing the Growth Rate, R-1116-NSF/CSA, Rand Corporation, Sept., 1972.

The first volume in the series was a study done for the California State

Resources Agency: W. E. Mooz and C. C. Mow, California's Electricity

Qu andary: I. Estimating Future Demand , R-1084-NSF7CSRA, Rand

Corporation , September 1 9 7 2.

2 - California State Assembly Planning and Land Use Committee; Subcommittee

on State Energy Policy, Survey of Energy Problems and Programs . Sacramento, California, June, 1973.

3 - California Public Utilities Commission, Report on Ten-Year and Twenty - Year Forecasts of Electrical Utilities' Loads and Resources, July, 1972.

226
These parameters were taken together with the report's assessment of

available resources which, although optimistic, is within tolerable limits.

The results are somewhat startling:

1. I£ low rather than high estimates of ultimately recoverable re- sources are correct, then, including massive imports and synthetic

fuel development, even coal will be exhausted in the mid 21st

century

.

2. If high estimates are not accurate, then we will not have time to

develop alternatives.

3. Low priced uranium may in itself become a scarce resource.

I believe our subcommittee was impressed, particularly after our extensive hearings, to learn that in addition to the potential resource scarcity,

nuclear development would be substantially slowed because of controversy

over emergency core cooling systems, radioactive waste disposal, and inherent problems of internal sabotage or external assault.

I realize that in some circles this latter analysis is either "laughedoff" or relegated to a plot of "nongrowth" extremists, but I believe after

hearing from the AEC's Deputy Director for Licensing, Mr. Edson Case, and

Mr. Frank Pittman, Director of Waste Management and Transportation, that the concerns are real.

Coupling these concerns with other obvious problems, such as resource

depletion, capital accumulation under present utility industry financing

techniques, and the patent land, water and air quality impacts of a sevenfold increase in the supply system for California, we reached the conclusion

that a detailed understanding of electrical energy demand determinants or driving forces was essential and that positive loop reinforcement and

exponential growth rates must ultimately attenuate either in a rational or understood manner or, if not, in an irrational and dislocative manner. Perhaps the same argument can be made regarding all forms of energy,

freeways, megalopolis, or even lemmings, but believe me, to laymen it was quite a shocking revelation. The conclusion was reinforced when the world's

largest private utility was unable, after detailed questioning, to come to

grips with the issue or provide any counter analysis of what was agreedupon hard data.

The approach of our legislation attempts to systematize the relationship among several factors. These factors include: 1) demand, 2) the

expected pecuniary, nonpecuniary , and environmental impact of that demand,

3) specified minimal conservation actions to reduce further undesired con- sequences, 4) other verified supply needs and, 5) the capacity mix to

support the supply needs.

Conservatio n as a Parameter ~ ATtKougTi r^m an avowed layman when it comes to hardware, my level of

expertise has increased with regard to legal, social and political aspects

of the energy dilemma.

Certain definitions or choices of words of art have accelerated the

debate. Because the Rand reports cite the control of growth as a necessary

parameter, studies by Stanford Research Institute, which were commissioned

by the California Utilities in response to our hearings, raise the issues

of correlation between per capita G.N. P. and per capita energy consumption.

I have seen additional studies by Borschani at U.C. Berkeley (who is now with the Ford Foundation Energy Policy Project) which raise some interesting aspects of this American axiom. For example. Great Britain and New

Zealand have nearly identical per capita G.N. P., but New Zealand consumes

only half the energy per capita that Britain does. It might be interesting

4 - R. D. Doctor, K. P. Anderson, et.al., California's Electricity Quandary : III. Slowing the Growth Rate , p. 17.

5 - Stanford Research Institute, Meeting California's Energy Requirements , 1975-2000 , Menlo Park, California, May 1973.

227
to see some work which groups European common market countries and which

reflects the recent dollar devaluation.

This type of argument, which may seem extraneous to those engaged in

hard research and development, is crucial as a socio-political restraint on conservation when those opposed to articulated governmental energy policies

attempt to paint conservation as necessarily growth - inhibit ing

.

Perhaps the major legal constraint on a macro scale is the ability or inability to "make your case". What I mean by this is that under regulatory

power of the state, a wide variety of alternatives exist, but the degree of

interference with private options or the interjection of active state

governmental participation in the market place - (understanding that low

visibility or inchoate policies have aided the entire energy industry as well as other special interests for decades) - must be explicitly justified.

However, one very practical consideration is that, even stipulating the

need for conservation, no active constituency exists to push these types of

programs through a long and cumbersome legislative process.

Some Conservation Options and Their Constraints

Although prudence and common sense might dictate that those sectors or uses which are the most inefficient, ranging from transportation at 25%,

electrical generation at 35%, residential/commercial at 75%, and industrial

at 75%,^ should be regulated in that order, constraints, be they social or historical, are more easily applied in those areas which have a regulatory

history

.

In the abstract, options obviously available include:

1. Financial incentives or disincentives to induce technical

innovation by tax deductions, credits and accelerated

depreciation.

2. Regulation of inefficient uses directly through the police

power by restrictions, specific methods, or standards.

3. Public education and persuasion.

4. Promotion by government of various technical options by

demonstration projects.

Our consultants at Rand indicated that a mix was probably best and

presented a series of policy options (See Appendix 1). They did recommend,

however, that as the policies broadened from an educational and voluntary

basis to more restrictive policies, they be brought on line in a slow as- cending order to provide an economic indicator of the results on those

potentially affected.

Again on a theoretical basis the constraints appear to break into

several major categories:

1. Potential limitation by federal preemption under or in

conflict with the Interstate Commerce Clause.

2. Conflicts with existing state level regulatory or line

agencies whose missions have been extremely supply-oriented along with their clientele.

3. Conflicts with existing federal regulatory authorities

and their originally enacted policies.

4. Equalization, sensitivity, due process and progressive

requirements of tax policies.

5. Problems of retroactive regulation.

Opponents of the bill and proponents of the status quo organize their

arguments, and in fact "create" the legal and regulatory impediments, on a highly subjective basis. A legislative decision should be based on political acceptability or conversely public awareness, established technical

know-how, and economic sensitivity.

6 - A. L. Austin, B. Rubin, and G. C. Werth, Energy: Uses, Sources, Issues

AEC Document UCRL-51221, p. 1-19.

228
Applied Conservation Policy

Because a conservation policy must be based on agglomeration, it is

necessary to choose those areas where government may operate with a series

of sustained effects rather than merely setting and mandating absolute

targets to solve the abstract problems.

An example of quick and decisive legislative action, totally legal and

regulatorily acceptable, with a variety of unforeseen results, is the Clean

Air Act of 1970. While recognizing that the quantification of standards

precluded bureaucratic foot dragging, it also mandated programs which impinge on a variety of other factors including energy and mass transit.

Some regulatory constraints are present because existing institutions

have historical responsibilities for electrical energy. In California's

case, the State Public Utilities Commission has specific responsibility for

rate structure and site certification.

The first change in our legislation is the general responsibility for

conducting on-going assessments and forecasts of the demand-supply curves

for all forms of energy. We seek the balanced use of all forms of energy to

meet the state's needs and to avoid possible undesirable consequences of

reliance on a single source of energy.

Conservation responsibilities include the reduction of wasteful, inefficient, unnecessary or uneconomical uses by.

(a) pricing of electrical and other forms of energy;

(b) improved housing design and insulation;

(c) restriction of promotional activities;

(d) improved appliance efficiency; and

(e) use of advanced power generation technology.

Based on their assessments, the commission established by our legislation is to recommend to the legislature their proposals for state action

to develop potential sources of energy and to reduce its wasteful and

inefficient uses in other ways.

More specifically, within one year after the effective date of the

bill, the commission is empowered to.

(a) prescribe minimum standards for lighting, insulation, climate

control systems and other building design aspects which are economically feasible.

(b) prescribe per unit energy requirement allotments based on square

footage for various classes of buildings.

(c) prescribe minimum levels of operating efficiency for all appliances whose use requires significant amounts of electrical energy

on a state-wide basis. In this connection, within six months

following the date of such minimum levels, the sale of appliances

which are not certified by the manufacturer to be in compliance

with such minimum levels shall be prohibited.

(d) prescribe minimum standards of efficiency for construction and

operation of any new facility which are technically and econom- ically feasible.

It is hoped by these measures to reduce the annual rate of growth in

the demand for electricity to more manageable proportions and thereby to

reduce substantially the number of power generating facilities presently

anticipated.

Frankly, this is the heart of the approach represented by my bill and

represents the first time any governmental agency has recognized its

responsibility to reduce the demand curve. It is important to note that no specific rate of growth is recommended or set forth, leaving to the com- mission itself such decisions after it has had opportunity to acquire the

7 - California State Assembly Bill 1575, 1973-74 Regular Session, Proposed

Section 25401.

8 - California State Assembly Bill 1575, 1973-74 Regular Session, Proposed

Section 25402.

229
detailed data provided in the planning and forecasting elements and re- quiring further legislative action.

For purposes of this paper, let us assume - a questionable assumption

for some - that the methods themselves are entirely feasible, but their

impacts are open to question.

The major legal objection to these types of duties is that direct legislative delegation has empowered the commission to affect the lives of our citizens and that perhaps such delegation is one which lacks exactitude.

The imprecision, at least in an emotional sense if not truly legal sense,

raises the constitutional problem of due process - something by the way

which is not uncommon on a whole series of issues. I would suggest that the

legislative mandate is clear. The very determinations, such as minimum

levels of operating efficiencies on those appliances which require a significant amount of electrical energy on a state-wide basis, are precisely

the type of over-view strategy to be worked out by a deliberative body which

will hold public hearings to receive expert and lay testimony and expert

staff evaluation.

Can we do each of the specific functions? We believe that each is

feasible. However, some of the proposals may impinge upon the U. S. Constitution's commerce clause. Unless the Congress preempts the entire energy

field under its almost plenary commerce powers, state legislation can be

drafted which technically is not violative of federal mandate; however, many

of these functions, if executed on the federal level, would provide a uniformity which would insure limited economic dislocation.

Many regulatory issues have been raised by those who are not enamored

with governmental intervention. These are directed primarily, however, to

the philosophy of such governmental activity. The Stanford Research

Institute study provides, for example, that such actions are incremental

and ineffective and that, as a theorem, governmental involvement will insure

inadequate distribution of benefit and will cause market place distortion.

Our most universal approach is tied to that portion of the bill which

involves the pricing of electrical energy. We have had greatly conflicting

evidence on the price elasticity of electricity, particularly between the

Rand and S.R.I, studies. It is interesting to note, however, even S.R.I,

suggests that on a macro scale the growth in demand for electrical energy

is projected to decrease as prices increase naturally.

The commission is empowered to make recommendations concerning electrical energy pricing to the PUC and Board of Directors of publicly owned

utilities in order to reduce wasteful, unnecessary or uneconomic energy

consumption through differential rate structures. Also, to be considered

as demand suppressant techniques are cost-of -service allocation, elimination as a business expense of advertising or promotional activity, peak

load pricing, and other pricing measures.

These are to be accepted by the PUC or the Board of Directors, unless

rejected as not feasible. The rejecting entity must communicate the reason

for its decision to the legislature and Governor.

Because our growth in electrical energy demand is expanding most

rapidly in the commercial sector, and because of the inherent requirement

of technical know-how to deal with industrial processes, it was felt that

the most leverage and greatest flexibility could be exercised by the pricing mechanism.

The economics of this approach are, of course, the subject of debate;

however, again the major constraint is the existing regulatory scheme which

has been developed to induce greater consumption.

One of the major options proposed by Rand (See Appendix 2) involves

the substitution of gas for electricity as an end source. Various stastical data indicate there would be an overall energy saving if gas were

burned as a direct end energy source rather than in electrical generating

boilers

.

We did not adopt this proposal, but even if we thought it extremely

meritorious, somewhat one-sided decisions by the Federal Power Commission

have negated this as an energy saving strategem.

230
We fund our proposed operation by a $.0002 (2/10 of a mil) surcharge

on electrical energy use in California, which assures an annual funding

level of approximately $32 million. This funding, along with pricing mechanism alterations, has been attacked for a variety of reasons which, although not constitutional in nature, are based on strong equity considerations . Because our pricing and surcharging will be based on use, it will have

the effect of making rate schedules less regressive. In addition, it is

felt to be the least disruptive mechanism.

Although our legislation has centered on electrical energy, our system

can be applied to all forms of energy and we now have a contract with Rand

to explore overall energy policies.

In conclusion, my message to this body is that legal, regulatory, and

tax constraints are illusory in that they hide the true nature of the

opposition, which is political: the exercise of political persuasion in the

development of public policy.

The true constraints are whether direct state/federal/local police

powers will be brought to bear, whether the public understands the necessity

for such action, and finally whether the effectiveness of such powers can

be sustained while we seek alternatives through adequate research and

development

.

Appendix 1

POLICIES FOR SLOWING THE GROWTH RATE

FOUR TYPES OF POLICY OPTIONS

Policies that can be used to slow the rate of growth in electricity

demand are of four basic types:

• Policies designed to elicit voluntary responses from consumers. Among these are (1) consumer education measures that would teach basic

energy conservation practices, (2) a program of labeling electrical

appliances with energy efficiency ratings or with average annual

energy costs to use the appliance, and [3) provision of financial

incentives for development and use of energy- conserving appliances

and devices.

• Policies designed to change the user cost of electricity (for example,

through sales or use taxes or through changes in utility rate

schedules)

.

" Policies designed to change the purchase costs of electrical equipment.

These include sales taxes, taxes based on the estimated average annual

electricity use of the equipment, elimination of promotional rebates

to builders and users, and tax relief for either users who install more efficient equipment or manufacturers who make such equipment.

• Prescriptive policies. These include changes in building code

requirements, bans on the manufacture, sale, or installation of

certain types of equipment, restrictions on the wattage or minimum

efficiency of electrical equipment and appliances, restrictions on new building permits, and explicit rationing of electricity and other

forms of energy.

231
SUNMARY OF CHARACTERISTICS OF FIVE eiERGY CONSERVATION POLICIES

Building Design Advertising and Electricity Use Rationing § Restrict

and Construction Promotion Efficiency Rate ing Certain Uses or Changes Changes Incentives Changes Devices

Problem Too much electricity is used for space conditioningAdvertising and promotions aimed at in- creasing use of elec- tricity

Electrical devices

are inefficiently

designed and used

Rate schedules give in- centives for high volume

use

Energy is provided

without regard for need

Policy Use design and materials that improve effi- ciency

Permit only ads and promotions that en- courage more effi- cient use of elec- tricity

Provide incentives

for production and use of more effi- cient electrical

apparatus

Adjust rates to dis- courage or reschedule

use

Restrict availability

of electricity or certain electrical devices

Action Change the State Housing Code or

the Uniform

Building Code

and local codes

CPUC advertising and promotion regulationsTax system changes

or subsidies or bonuses; labeling

Increase rates across

the board; raise unit

costs for high volume

use

Schedule brownouts

or blackouts

Variations Voluntary compliance; standards

issued by lenders

or insurers

Variations in strin- gency and interpre- tation

Negative sanctions

for devices not meeting efficiency

minimums

Adjust rates for hour, day or season; various

rate schedules

Timers or governors

on devices ; temporal

,

seasonal or geographical restrictions

Parties in the Decision

Process

State legislature; ICBO and

local city

councils

CPUC, utility companies, Legislature

Legislature CPUC, utility companies Legislature, CPUC

Parties Affected

Developers

,

architects, hoire or commercial building buyers

Electrical manufacturers, utilities Manufacturers, ven- dors , customers and consumers

Large users of electricity, perhaps all usersUtilities, manufacturers , consumers

Institutional Effects Agencies alreacy

exist for both

adoption and implementation

Nominal No existing organi- zation to develop

and administer the policy

Nominal No existing agency to develop or monitor

restrictions

Problems § Bottlenecks Localized

requirements Citizen actions against utilities; interpretation of

Setting standards

and verifying per- formance

Developing equitable

and effective rates Identifying essential

uses and users

the regulations

Timing: 1 to 2 years for Up to 1 year for Adoption 5 adoption; effects adoption; both im- Effects would increase mediate and long-term

over years effects

3 to 4 years for adoption of a thorough program; effects would occur

over several years

About 1 year for adoption; both immediate § long-term effects3 or 4 years for adop- tion of a thorough

program; effects will

begin immediately

Type of

Impact

Direct, predictableIndirect , not very predictable

Indirect, not very predictableIndirect, partially

predictable

Direct, predictable

Effects

:

Economic

,

Social § Political

Building may cost more for design, and possibly for construction;

less operating

cost for elec- tricity; HUD may resist increased home purchase prices

Lower utility bills; fewer appliances or

features sold; dif- ferent living habits, status for decreasing

use of electricity:

some opposition by electrical manu- facturers

Lower bills; direct benefit to some manufacturers; cer- tain use patterns

might change

New economics of scale, some prices may rise; opposition would

come from major users

Some prices may rise; work hours or days to be rescheduled in some

cases; opposition would come from those most affected

232
APPENDIX 2

Table A-1 summarizes the electricity savings expected over the long

term from implementation of each of the policy objectives described in the

text. The reader should use caution in combining results of two or more objectives, as they are not necessarily additive. For example, large savings

can be expected either by increasing the insulation (line 5) or by utilizing

solar energy (line 6). If both are done simultaneously (line 7), however,

the reduction in electricity requirements is smaller than would be estimated

by simply adding the savings from each effect.

The policy objectives shown in the table include the following:

Line 1: Average efficiencies of room air-conditioner units is increased

by 50 percent above current practice.

Line 2: Residential lighting requirements are reduced by 50 percent.

Line 3: Residential electricity requirements are reduced by 10 percent

through use of low energy designs for new buildings.

Line 4: Accelerated trend toward multi-family housing reduces projected

residential electricity demand by 20 percent.

Line 5: Insulation of new homes is improved sufficiently to reduce heat

losses and gains by 50 percent in gas-heated homes and by 40

percent in electrically heated homes.

Line 6: Solar heating systems supply 70 percent of residential heating,

water heating, and cooling needs in new construction.

Line 8: Gas appliances replace electricity for space heating, water

heating, cooking, and clothes drying.

Line 12: Gas appliances replace electricity for space heating, water

heating, cooking, clothes drying, central air conditioning,

and refrigeration.

Line 16: Gas replaces electrical systems for heating and air conditioning

in the commercial sector.

Line 17: Lighting requirements in the commercial sector are reduced by

one-third overall.

Residential electricity use is projected as 216 billion kWh and 138

billion kWh in the year 2000 for the CUP and RBCP, respectively. Total

electricity use in California is projected as 848 billion kWh and 679 billion

kWh for the CUP and RBCP, respectively. Capacity savings are calculated on the basis of 230 MWe per billion kWh consumed each year.

Changes in residential, electrical utility, and statewide gas consumption

resulting from implementation of each policy objective are shown in Table A-2.

The "25-percent basis" columns assume that 25 percent of the electricity

demand saved would have been generated by burning gas, an assumption consistent vith current projections for the year 2000. Percent changes in total

gas demand are based on projections of 5650 trillion Btu and 5190 trillion

Btu for total gas demand in the year 2000 for the CUP and RBCP, respectively.

233
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235

National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 403

Proceedings of 1973 Engineering Foundation Conference ' (Issued June 1976)

FINANCIAL FEASIBILITY OF ENERCY CONSERVATION

by

Sheldon Sixfin

Technical Director of Environmental Systems

Technical Service Department

The Chase Manhattan Bank

6th Floor

One Chase Plaza

New York, New York 10015

Energy availability is approached from a purely economic

point of view. The technology to be used is determined by

the rate of return on the investment. A sample cost feasibility analysis for a 100,000 square foot industrial plant

is presented as an example. Besides price, the ultimate

criterion for choosing an energy source is its availability.

Where critical energy shortages are foreseen, incentives

must be provided to encourage the flow of capital in the

directions necessary to alleviate the shortages. Private

investors should be compensated for the risk that they

undertake in the location and development of energy resources.

Key words: Costs; energy; financial; resources; risk

At 11:00 on the night of July 25, 1956, the Italian liner, Andrea

Doria, was traveling toward New York City in fog along the shipping lane

off Nantucket Lightship. At the same instant, the Swedish passenger ship

Stockholm was traveling away from New York on a parallel lane. Within

moments they were destined to collide. The impact occurred at 11:09 p.m.

and by dawn the Andrea Doria was down.

Today, as passengers on this "spaceship earth", we all face a crisis

not unlike the events of July 25, 1956. On the one hand, we have a rapidly

growing world population. On the other hand, our precious land and energy resources that must support future populations are being limited by our growing requirements and usage.

This collision of forces is inexorable unless we take immediate and

substantial steps now by clearing away the fog that surrounds the subject

of energy conservation. We still have time to change course and avert the

disaster. What then are some of the specific problem areas that we must

address? I will mention a few:

1. The need for industrial energy conservation.

2. The principal sources of energy in the U.S.

3. The requirements for energy in the U.S.

4. The economics of investment in equipment which saves energy.

5. Criteria for determining financial feasibility of such investments.

6. Methods using the above criteria.

7. Projections of energy costs.

8. Capital requirements of the energy industry.

9. Proper allocations of capital resources.

10. Availability of supplies and of capital.

With respect to the need for industrial energy conservation, it is

important to recognize that 2/3 of energy use in the U.S. is for businessrelated purposes and only 1/3 for private purposes.

If we consider the energy used for private purposes, approximately 33°o of this is used in the household - for such requirements as electric lights

and appliances; approximately 33% is used for household heating; the final

third is used for transportation. If we consider that portion of transportation energy which moves people to and from work as a bus iness - related

use, then over 75% of the energy in the U.S. can be considered used for

Z37.
bus iness - related purposes.

Although certain economies can be achieved in household use, in household heating, and in private automobile use, the extent o£ these economies

is limited when one also considers the population growth of the U.S.

However, when we look at the industrial area, we find that there are vast fields in which energy conservation is possible. With more sophisticated use of heat exchanger technology and by the use of other energy con- servation techniques, process changes can be implemented. These can achieve

major fuel savings. It is in the area of bus iness - related and industrialrelated uses where we can achieve the greatest energy economies.

The principal sources of energy in the United States are oil, natural

gas, coal, water power, and nuclear energy. Oil is currently the largest source of primary energy and is expected to be so in 1985 because it is so versatile. Among the sources of primary energy, oil is the only one that

is used in the five major markets for energy use - industrial, electric

utility, transportation, residential and commercial; it is virtually the

only source that can presently serve the transportation market's needs.

Conceivably, coal might also be used as a fuel for transportation purposes,

but it would have to be converted to a liquid first.

Of the overall growth of the nation's needs between 1970 and 1985, oil

alone is expected to accommodate half. To a significant degree, the

exceptionally strong increase in the demand for oil reflects the rapidly

developing shortage of natural gas. If there was no supply limitations,

the potential demand for gas in 1985 would be far greater than is presently

pro j ected

.

Natural gas is truly a premium fuel and is much preferred by a wide

range of consumers, but under no realistic circumstances can the supply of

gas be expected to be adequate for the full potential demand. Consumers,

therefore, will be forced to substitute other sources of primary energy.

The deficit in gas availability will have to be made up by oil or coal.

One of the ways in which this deficit can be made up is through the gasification of these materials. Both oil and coal are likely to be converted

into synthetic gas and burned in that form.

The requirements for energy in the U.S. can be split into the five

major national markets noted above. The requirements can also be analyzed

geographically by five major regions: the West, the Rocky Mountain states,

the Gulf Coast, the North Central region and the East Coast. The latter

two regions are deficit areas in respect to primary energy; that is, they

both consume far more than they produce within their borders. As such they

are realistically more vulnerable in the event of energy shortages. This is

a fact that is increasingly apparent to consumers as time goes on. Reac- . tions can well be expected.

Further details on the sources of energy, the demand for energy and the

general outlook for energy in the United States to 1985 is provided in a booklet which is published by the Energy Economics Division of the Chase

Manhattan Bank entitled "Outlook for Energy in the United States to 1985".

The economics of a given course of action relates to the profit or fiscal position of a respective consumer or purchaser. It may be favorable

or unfavorable depending upon the prevailing conditions. Since a purchase

of any kind of energy conserving equipment entails the investment of capital as well as the expenditure of money for operating costs, the economics

associated with the venture are usually best expressed in some kind of

language or terms which relates the ultimate gains, if any, to the capital

investment. It is not sufficient to simply determine that an investment

will make or save money - it is necessary to determine at what rate it will

make money - what rate of return (interest) may be expected from the investment. This will permit a fair comparison of the prospective benefits

from such an investment with the benefits offered by other available investment opportunities.

There are no simple short cuts for making a complete economic appraisal

of any proposed business venture. There are also no mysteries about the

procedure. The purchase of equipment, such as engines and turbines, should

238
ordinarily be viewed as an investment made for the sole purpose of yielding

an attractive return. However, the results of this analysis can be affected

if questions of availability of supply come into play. This question of

availability will be discussed later.

There are several easily identifiable factors which collectively determine the economics of any application. These criteria for determining

financial feasibility are as follows:

1. Capital Cost

2. Projected Operating Cost

3. Current Energy Cost

4. Projected Escalation of Energy Cost

5. Discount Rate (Current ^ Projected)

6. Internal Rate of Return

7. Net Present Value

8. Discounted Cash Flow

9. Availability Considerations

These criteria must be applied to determine cost feasibility of any

project. The Industrial Division of the Caterpillar Tractor Company has

developed some specific methods for analyzing cost feasibility. The Caterpillar format achieves an analysis which defines the quantity of annual "net

cash flow". This analysis is applied primarily to considerations of an on- site power system vs. a conventional utility system. The determination of

"net cash flow" is a common procedure for comparing financial investments and

is a real developed dollar amount which may be used as a basis for mathematical expressions relating to the amount of differential capital investment.

A sample cost feasibility analysis for a 100,000 square foot industrial plant

can be given as an example. (Tables 1 and 2).

This example and the associated print-out which further discusses the

rate of return and the payout period is available on request from John 0.

Henderson of the Caterpillar Tractor Company, Peoria, Illinois, who has

graciously provided me with this information.

In order to perform an analysis such as this, it is important to obtain

a proper projection of energy costs during the life of the project. The

following table gives a projection of energy costs per million BTU in 1973

dollars for energy delivered at the Gulf Coast, U.S.:

1980 1985

Coal (Low Sulfur Wyoming) $ .87 $1.08

Natural Gas (New Sources or LNG equivalent) 1.43 1.76

Oil (Low Sulfur Residual) 1.25 1.53

(These projections were provided through the courtesy of Robert Spencer.)

A few comments should be made at this point about the capital requirements of the energy industry and the proper allocation of capital resources.

All of our analysis assumes that the energy industry will obtain all the

capital it needs for expansion purposes. In a free capital market, this is

true only if the rate of return on the investment of capital resources is

equal to or better than the rate of return for similar risk investments

elsewhere. Where critical energy shortages are foreseen, incen-tives must be

provided to encourage the flow of capital in the directions necessary.

The private financial sector is well equipped for the task of allocations of capital resources. It is, however, of vital importance that the

economic climate be such to permit private investors to be compensated for

the risk that they undertake in the location and development of energy re- sources . 239
In conclusion, I would like to stress the importance of energy supply

availability. Our previous considerations provide a method to analyze the

financial feasibility of an energy conservation project in terms of characteristic financial criteria.

However, such an analysis breaks down, if, for example, there is no availability of energy at the prices quoted. This condition holds true at

the present time in the natural gas industry. Gas which is regulated in

price and now sells for an average of approximately $.22 per million BTU at

the well-head is under allocation and is not available at all times to all

customers. Therefore, the customers must look to an alternative source of

supply if possible; sometimes because of technical factors, such as a gas

burning unit which cannot be easily converted to oil or coal, it is impossible

to use such an alternative source. Under these conditions, our limiting

factor becomes availability rather than cost considerations. This factor is

the most important one facing us today. The likelihood of continuing

availability of given fuel sources over the lifetime of the project may be

the critical issue and our analyses must be subordinated to this consideration.

TABLE 1 Sample Cost Feasibility Analysis

Industrial Plant , 100,000 square feet, Central United States operating five

days per week.

Purchased electrical power , cost for year equals $62,525.

Existing mechanical power consists of one diesel driven air compressor.

On-site power plant will consist of 3-G398 electric sets and 1-G398 power

unit to drive air compressor.

Maintenance Cost

G-398 electric set $.80 per hr.

G398 engine .65 per hr.

Fuel Cost is $.35 per MCF.

The T/E system will be completely automatic.

Tax Rate

Federal - 48%

State - 4%

Property tax and insurance is 1% . Usable heat is 65% of available engine system heat.

Differential investment is $195,000 which is depreciated over 12 years.

Differential expense that is deductable before taxes is $25,000.

Investment tax credit is $10,500.

Borrowed capital is $^85,000 for 10 years at a simple interest rate of 8%.

Cash flow period is 15 years with a salvage value at end of period of $35,000.

Load factor is not an imput item. This will be calculated by the computer.

240
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VI. SUMMARY AND CRITIQUE

NATIONAL CONTEXT FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION

by

Jesse C. Denton

University of Pennsylvania

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

The general topic for the first day's papers was "The National Context for Energy

Conservation". Dr. Charles Berg opened the conference with his paper, "Effective Utilization of Energy and Other National Resources". Dr. David C. White then presented "National

Benefits of Energy Conservation", followed by Dr. Bruce Hannon's "Options for Energy

Conservation". Dr. B. B. Hammel discussed "Measures of Thermal Energy Utilization". Dr. Jesse C. Denton spoke on "Economic and Environmental Implications of Effective Energy

Utilization". Robert Shepherd, of the Department of Commerce, spoke on "Energy Conservation

Goals and Methods".

Dr. Berg, from the National Bureau of Standards, stated that the term "energy crisis" was not a crisis of energy depletion but rather energy cost. He cited the United State's

dependency on fuel imports to illustrate the problems that questionable reliability and

increasing costs of fuel imports pose for American industry. Improving energy use efficiency

would reduce energy consumption and, considering rising energy costs, may prove to be econo- mically attractive to industry. Dr. Berg promoted a policy of rational life term costing

of equipment, which includes energy costs of that equipment, rather than the present

criterion of justification, which is based primarily on first costs. In conclusion, he

advocated a rational economic method for achieving effective and balanced use of all natural

resources, based on total life term costing.

David C. White, from MIT, spoke next. After indicating the correlation between a nation's gross national product and its energy consumption per capita. Dr. White pointed

out the consequences of economic growth on the world's estimated energy resources. In the

absence of new energy technologies or a reduction of energy consumption in relationship

to the GNP, sustained high economic growth will be difficult and costly to achieve as our own resource base diminishes. The developing nations of the world will be competing for resources as their own GNP's increase, further exacerbating the resource depletion problem.

Besides discussing the effect of petroleum imports on America's transportation sector.

Dr. White envisioned potential international complications as the nations of the world

compete for scarce resources.

Dr. Bruce Hannon, from the University of Illinois, presented an input/output

model used to measure energy use efficiency of production processes and product uses. The

model provides estimates of total energy and employment shifts as consequences of demand

shifts in a variety of processes and products. He concluded that U.S. industries, in

general, become energy-intensive as they grow. He recommended that impacts be thoroughly

understood before policy shifts are initiated.

Dr. B. B. Hammel, from Drexel University, presented a method of analysis useful in

assessing modifications in an energy system. The concept of thermodynamic availability is

used to determine maximum energy utilization efficiency. He demonstrated this method by

evaluating the efficiencies of several water heating systems.

245
Dr, Jesse Denton, of the National Center for Energy Management and Power, talked

about the application of technology transform analysis as a basis for an input/output

analysis which describes the interrelationships between energy, environmental, economic, and

human factors. He used the example of an abbreviated, once-iterated analysis of the

automobile industry to demonstrate the complexity of such an analysis and the pitfalls of

drawing premature conclusions from an incomplete analysis. He cautioned that the first

iteration of a projected modification of a system may be misleading.

Robert Shepherd, from the Office of Energy Programs in the Department of Commerce,

concluded the day's presentations with his evening talk. He discussed the goals of the

President's energy messages of early 1973 and the feasibility of the 1974 goal of a 5%

energy use reduction nationally. He also provided a view of the Federal government's

organizational structure in terms of the energy situation. Mr. Shepherd urged voluntary

energy conservation and a major educational program, among other measures, to solve the

nation's energy problems. The panel discussions concluded the following:

1) We recommend that a national educational program be developed to encourage more efficient energy utilization. The promotion should be conducted by suppliers

of energy and aimed at both the individual consumer and the top management of industry

and commerce. It may be necessary to undertake field (demonstration projects to show that

energy conservation measures can be cost-effective. These projects, together with selected

case studies, should be widely publicized, and accompanied with technical material.

2) We favor a voluntary approach to energy conservation. If that fails, we prefer

incentives to regulations. Voluntary actions must be adequately publicized and funded; an accurate appraisal of their effectiveness is also necessary. Methods of energy con- servation can be categorized as follows in terms of time horizons: 1) energy management,

2) use of present technology, and 3) use of new technology. The government must be willing

to encourage conservation measures in all sectors of the economy.

3) Detailed strategies for implementation of conservation measures must be

developed for specific energy end use sectors. Input/output analysis shows promise as

a guide for future energy conservation decisions.

4) We recommend that a national program be developed to encourage improved

maintenance of vehicles, industrial, and home equipment. The goal of such a program

would be more efficient operation and longer useful life of the equipment.

5) We recommend that architects and engineers be encouraged to give full con- sideration to those features which would reduce the energy requirements of and minimize

waste in building design and construction.

6) Conservation of energy is a worthwhile goal, but other factors should also

be taken into account. For example, safety, durability, reliability, direct and indirect

costs of technology and products should be considered.

7) Highest conservation priority should be given those fuels in short supply.

8) We need maximum process control of energy uses. Data collection and analysis

is fundamental for resource planning.

9) Public officials need to be motivated as well as educated to adopt a resource conservation policy in their development of policies and regulations.

10) Lack of technology is not so much a barrier to energy conservation as is a lack

of economic incentive. Cost-effective measures of energy conservation must be encouraged

in all sectors of industry.

246
ENERGY MANAGEMENT IN INDUSTRY

by

Robert R. Gatts

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 2023*+

Conference Inputs

On Tuesday morning, four speakers presented some facts and perceptions from their

experiences with energy management. Mr. Dilip Limaye from Decision Sciences Corporation

spoke on "Industrial Energy Analysis and Forecasting", Mr. Allen Cook from the American

Can Company discussed "Management's Role in Industrial Thermal Energy Utilization", Dr. Michael Noland from the Midwest Research Institute described "Plant Energy Policies in

the Manufacturing and Processing Industries", and Professor William Rudoy of the University

of Pittsburgh provided case histories of his experiences in "Effective Energy Utilization

in Industry".

On Tuesday evening the several discussion groups reviewed the information and

perceptions provided by the morning speakers, introduced other concepts and information,

and drew general conclusions. Those conclusions, integrated with summaries from the

Tuesday morning papers are presented herein. The resulting description of the situation

is the perception developed by the total conference.

The Problem

With approximately 40% of the national use of energy going for industrial processing,

(notably direct heat, process steam, and electrical drive) a situation has been developing

in which many industrial firms have experienced fuel shortages in the recent past and expect

shortages of either primary or back-up fuels or both during the next few years. Under

these conditions energy will no longer be inexpensive.

Collective action is required by the industrial sector, the transportation sector,

the agriculture sector, the government and the general public. This action must include a strenuous effort within industry to use fuels and electricity more effectively.

There is a high level of appreciation of this problem by top management of large

U.S. corporations, but lower levels of operating management do not give energy conservation

a high priority. An important factor in this priority is the relatively low total costs

of energy (perhaps 2 to 3%) in comparison to labor costs (30 to 40%). Many firms believe

that, individually, they are adequately addressing plant energy problems, but they have

not initiated systematic energy planning and management programs.

In a considerable number of instances efforts to conserve energy within industrial

plants have met with outstanding success, achieving savings of the order of 20 percent

or more with changes in maintenance or operating practices or by investment in equipment

modifications with pay back periods of two years or less from the cost savings on energy

used.

These instances are numerous and the achievements demonstrated are convincing.

However they do not represent a data base suitable for accurate prediction of the potential

for energy conservation nor do they provide a basis for concisely generalizing energy

management procedures.

247
Characteristics of the Problem

A systematic approach to energy management at the operational level cannot be

developed to apply equally well to all industrial facilities. There is no systematic

pattern discernable in companies in their approach to fuel conservation. The potential

for energy conservation in industry is more difficult to characterize than in the

transportation, commercial, or residential sectors.

Applications of energy to industrial processes are numerous and varied but

aggregation of industry into major energy using sectors (usually by SIC code) aids in

collecting data. Energy consumption patterns differ markedly from industrial sector to industrial sector and from plant to plant within an industrial sector.

Energy conservation must be achieved in elemental pieces by a niyriad of different

energy management practices applied to as many different situations. This is another

way of saying that the conservation of energy in industry is an engineering function and must be approached with a significant and careful engineering effort which will custom-fit

energy conservation policies to the needs of individual consumption centers.

An engineering manager, concerned because of perceived large energy price increases

or because of softness in the security of his energy supply, lacks information on which

to base engineering decisions. He is concerned but guessing as to the best measures to take. He may be held back by capital investment requirements for more effective process

equipment, better fuel controls, thermal energy recovery systems, or material recovery

and recycling systems.

He undoubtedly needs better information on future fuel regulations, pricing, distribution, and availability to facilitate his decisions. He will lack price elasticity information on an overall basis for his own operation and for his industry and region. He will

lack methods and data by which he can predict technical and economic feasibility of

improvements as a function of effort. Specific information as to the reduction of energy

consumption in a given equipment or process as a consequence of specific modifications is not easily available but must be estimated by rather detailed engineering calculations,

for which the necessary data may not be availabl

Internal Potential for Energy Conservation

The very complexity of industrial processes which are responsible for difficulties

in generalizing and predicting the results of efforts Co conserve energy also provide a wide variety of opportunities for energy conservation if approached with appropriate understanding of energy balances, thermal process technology, and materials properties.

Opportunities for affecting energy use can be reached through:

* Process technology

* Equipment reliability

* Dependability of fuel

* Support of the equipment manufacturer and the energy commodity supplier

* Labor requirements and skills

* Space requirements

* Regulatory factors

248
Methods of improving energy utilization include:

' Better utilization of equipment

* Better heat confinement

* Better maintenance

* Heat recovery

* Retrofitting and up-grading equipment

* New improved equipment and processes

By-product material recovery and recycling

* New and better thermal process technology

The engineering manager considering the implementation of energy conserving equipment and practices can be encouraged by the many instances where outstanding success has

been achieved and the virtually unknown instance where a reasonable engineering effort has

failed to save energy.

A serious effort to conserve energy within an industrial firm should be based on

a management plan. This may vary from a relatively simple plan for a small firm to a formal management plan for a larger corporation. Elements of such a formal plan would

include the following as appropriate.

* A corporate team - responsible for energy management

with authority to plan and implement policy.

* A statement of policy need and objectives prepared

by the team.

* Outside counsel and assistance

* A thorough energy inventory of supply and use schedules,

suppliers, historical data of supply and prices and of

fuel shortages and power outages.

* Energy facilities inspection schedules.

* Review of technology related to principal equipment

and processes.

* Cost of likely power or fuel shortages.

* Actions for energy economy.

* Actions for energy security.

External Forces for Energy Conservation

There are many forces for energy conservation in industry which can arise outside

the individual firm but which can have major effects on conservation of energy within the

firm, within an industry, or within several industries.

249
1. Information in many forms can be important: case studies of

successful programs illustrating opportunity. and demonstrating

feasibility, basic data for engineering calculations, and

lists of energy conservation methods for suggesting possibilities.

Such information could be complied and developed by industry

associations, universities, or government laboratories and

communicated through appropriate publications and seminars to individual firms.

2. Tax policy incentives by government can provide economic

incentive for capital investment in energy saving equipment

which would otherwise not be purchased.

3. Price rate structures could encourage lower energy consumption

by imposing rates which increase with usage which is larger

than a norm for the processes being used.

4. Shipping rate structures could encourage shipment of reclaimed

materials for recycling to favor their use over new materials

where resulting energy savings would occur.

5. Energy accounting systems and energy use norms could be provided

by government supported research for smaller industrial firms

to use in appraising their energy use rates.

6. Government supported research on fuel price elasticity and other

aspects of energy availability models and supporting data bases

could provide predictors as a basis for energy availability

expectations

.

7. Government supported research on technologies for reclaiming and

recycling industrial wastes could result in processes which

conserve energy and other natural resources.

8. University extension services could be used for educational

programs and for cooperative research programs with industry

and commerce.

9. State and federal regulations which encourage or require

unnecessary use of energy could be reexamined and modified

as appropriate.

10. All appropriate costs, including social costs, of energy

utilization could be internalized to resolve conflicts

between energy conservation management and economic

energy management.

These opportunities for motivating or inducing energy conservation are listed

as possibilities but it is the sense of the conference that these options be carefully

considered for implementation in appropriate situations by appropriate agencies in and

out of government.

250
APPLICATION OF THERMAL PROCESS TECHNOLOGY

by

Kenneth G. Kreider

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 2023^

Presentations were made concerning energy conservation in industrial processes and

equipment in the third morning session. They were Dr. George Kelly's presentation,

"Potential Options for Energy Conservation in Heating, Ventilating, and Ai r-Condi tioni nq Equipment for Buildings"; Dennis Larson's "A Projection of Energy Demand by the Iron and Steel Industry"; Thomas Speidel's presentation on Thermo Electron's paper-forming

machine which utilizes higher consistency pulp; and Preston McNall's remarks on the

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) program

on energy conservation. The subject of energy conservation in industrial processes and

equipment was also discussed in the evening task groups and I will try to summarize the

four presentations, the task group discussions, and articulate some of the conclusions

and recommendations.

Dr. Kelly emphasized the large amounts of energy consumed in commercial buildings

and discussed the potential for energy conservation through proper design and use of

building equipment. He presented a discussion of the features of unitary and central

heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment. He described both all-air

and air-water HVAC systems and elaborated on the virtues and shortcomings of the heat

pump. Engineering descriptions of both vapor compression and absorption type heat pumps were given together with discussions on how the heat pump can be combined with other

equipment to save energy. Total energy systems, modular integrated utility systems, and

the utilization of waste heat from incineration plants were also covered.

The paper considered in detail the potential options for energy conservation in buildings resulting from the applications of standard HVAC equipment and presently

available special systems. It is evident that considerable savings could be obtained

by judicious choice of standard equipment based on energy conservation considerations.

The use of life cycle costing rather than lowest possible first cost would vastly upgrade

the present standards of practice. In addition, the use of innovations such as heat pumps

and improved heat recovery devices promise significant improvements in HVAC efficiencies.

Dennis Larson's paper discussed energy demand in the iron and steel industry. This

industry is not only one of the larger consumers of energy (7.5% of the total U.S. energy

in 1968)*, but it is a very complex industry. His paper considered the interrelationships

between projected demand for the products and the amounts of fuels needed for manufacturing

the products, and the trends that could change the amounts of fuels needed per unit of

product.

He concluded that there would be a 65% increase in production and a 28% increase

in energy consumption in this industry between 1971 and 1985. However, the growth rate

of energy consumption decreases with time and should almost level off tDy 1985. The change

in energy requirements per ton of finished product is primarily the result of technological changes. Therefore, trends that phase out obsolete inefficient equipment can accelerate this energy utilization efficiency improvement. Most of the improved efficiency

is expected in the iron-making and steel-making processes and very little change is forecast in the reheating and finishing portion of the industry.

"Patterns of Energy Consumption in the U.S..", Office of Science and Technology", 1972.

251
Tom Speidel's presentation on paper forming from high consistency pulp emphasized

the energy savings from this basic processing change. He reviewed the standard wire

belt fourdrinier paper-making process which uses 200 pounds of water for one- pound of

wood pulp. The new processing equipment which is similar to the Swedish high consistency

former (HCF) can make high quality paper utilizing up to 2% suspended wood pulp. A helical mixer with a high shear component in the jet permits a 35% decrease in the heat

required during the process. This process would be particularly attractive where fuel

oil or fuel gas are used to supply the heat rather than waste bark and black liquor.

Preston McNall described the ASHRAE energy conservation program. He pointed out that labor is no substitute for energy since a man is worth only 10(J per day in energy

expended. He described the ASHRAE Guide and pointed out the excellent work in it on

thermal comfort in buildings. Also emphasized was the need for better energy management

and the importance of first cost to the building industry in speculative type investments.

Mr. McNall noted the utility of reheat HVAC systems since they are easy to maintain and

have low initial costs.

Some general conclusions can be drawn from the presentations and the panel

discussions.

1. Proper application of existing technology and

equipment can effect large energy savings.

2. Awareness of energy conservation possibilities

could be improved. Government promoted demonstrations of good examples would be useful.

3. Utilizing waste heat from industrial processes and

equipment can be significant for energy conservation.

4. Total energy systems offer important opportunities

for energy conservation.

5. Although the steel industry is improving the

basic steel-making and iron-making process

efficiencies, the processes relating to finishing

and reheating may require more attention.

6. New methods for utilizing low-grade fuels

should be developed.

7. Technological improvements in heat pumps, solar

collectors, and automatic burner ignition devices

should be promoted and publicized.

8. Improved stack gas control developments should

be sponsored.

9. Economic motivation must be provided if the

standard of energy conservation practice is to be improved. Taxation and banking/financial

policy may be the proper tools. If this approach

has shortcomings, regulations related to energy

conservation may be required.

This last recommendation appears to the author to have a message. If economic

motivation or government regulation is required for the success of energy conservation

programs, then it would seem that energy conservation programs will require complex

rationale and close cooperation between government and industry.

252
INSTITUTIONAL CONSIDERATIONS RESPECTING ENERGY CONSERVATION

by

Samuel Z. Klausner

University of Pennsylvania

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Four papers were presented at the fourth morning of the conference on the topic

"Institutional Considerations of Energy Conservation". J. B. Comly presented "Factors Controlling the Manufacture and Marketing of Energy Conserving Products". Paul Swatek

then presented his views in his paper, "Economic, Energy, Environment Trade-Offs".

Charles Warren, Assemblyman from the California State Assembly, discussed "Regulatory,

Legal, and Tax Constraints on Energy Conservation -- Polemic or Fact? Sheldon Sixfin

concluded the day's presentations with "Financial Feasibility of Energy Conservation".

The solutions to "the energy problem" are determined by the manner in which the

problem is conceived. The basic observation which sets the problem is the perceived

imbalance between the rates of energy consumption and energy supply. Another con- ference might have turned to the question of supply (the more typical American response

to any shortage) and sought improved ways of extracting fuels or of exploiting some exotic source. We have chosen, in the way of the Buddhist sage and of the Protestant

reformer, to look at our habits of material consumption. We judge our patterns of con- sumption in the light of individual perfidy; for that we are suffering. Some modest part

of the energy consumption enhances the quality of our existence, our health, our strength

against adversaries, and our mastery over other gifts of nature.

J. B. Comly, of General Electric Corporate Research and Development, pointed out that technological development alone does not assure immediate implementation of energyefficient systems. He showed that premature marketing of the heat pump as a heating

system impaired its degree of acceptance. The tradeoff between energy efficiency and

replacement cost of the incandescent light bulb illustrated the optimization of these two factors in a product. Mr. Comly concluded that the prospect of commercial success of a product should be evaluated well before that product is brought to market.

Believing that pecuniary motivation is high on the list of human priorities,

Paul Swatek of the Massachusetts Audubon Society puts his faith in mechanisms of a freer market than we have known for some decades. He is certainly not a partisan

of the industries, for he would unshackle the market, both removing subsidies to the

energy industry (such as the oil depletion allowance) and have the producers internalize

the now externalized social and environmental cost of their operations. He is attracted

by an apparent social simplicity of these and other production mechanisms. They are effective in all energy consuming sectors, await the development of no new technologies,

require no legislation of rigid criteria and technical standards, require no bureaucracy,

rely on the normal operation of the free market, do not depend on changes in basic

motivations of consumers, and, most reassuring of all, economists maintain that it will

work and produce an efficient allocation of resources. Anticipating an audience question

about the failure of some economists to discover short-term price elasticity for electricity,

he reported a long-term price elasticity of demand of about -1.2.

Mr. Warren, recognizing the role of power in society, says he is prepared to rely

for market balance of mechanisms in the market (such as an adjustment of electric rate structures would produce) on an educational and voluntary basis, but in the last analysis

he relies on regulation. Behind regulatory enactments is the police power of the state.

He would bring this power to bear, not simply as a Locke or other early modern political

theorist would in adjucating conflict, but in specifying behavorial norms in the every day

activities of people. He would set standards for the building industry, controlling

lighting and insulation, be prepared to establish allocations of energy, and to prescribe

levels of operating efficiency. Since the standards which he proposes are essentially

253
performance criteria rather than product quality criteria, he would presumably be able to police conformity at the point of end use.

Sheldon Sixfin, of the Chase Manhattan Bank, approached energy availability from a fiscal point of view. The technology to be used is determined by the rate of return on the

investment. Besides price, the ultimate criterion for choosing an energy source is its

availability. He suggested, "Where critical energy shortages are foreseen, incentives must

be provided to encourage the flow of capital in the directions necessary Private

investors (should) be compensated for the risk that they undertake in the location and

development of energy resources."

The panels made the following recommendations:

1) Potential interruptions of gas and electric service should

be expected and proper preparations made.

2) Streamline procedures for processing nuclear power plant plans.

3) Develop a national education program on energy conservation,

in which both the government and utilities participate to disseminate educational material.

4) Identify and determine the effectiveness of industrial energy

conservation methods. Identify institutional constraints on energy

conservation.

5) Publicize case histories of successful energy-saving measures

for industrial management.

6) Implement regulatory actions to encourage energy conservation.

Among the possibilities are: tax write-offs for homeowners who make

energy-conserving improvements, negative tax incentives, such as a gasoline or pollution tax, and building standards established by

the FHA and VA to optimize conservation.

7) Initiate zoning reform of "shared-energy" systems.

8) Review policies for subsidizing various transportation

modes.

254
Appendix A

ENERGY CONSERVATION THROUGH EFFECTIVE ENERGY UTILIZATION

1973 Engineering Foundation Conference

A conference on "Energy Conservation through Effective Energy Utilization", is scheduled at New England College, Henniker, New Hampshire, August 19-24, 1973 by the

Engineering Foundation in cooperation with the National Bureau of Standards. Co-Chairman

of the conference are Dr. Jesse C. Denton, National Center for Energy Management and

Power, and Dr. Robert R. Gatts, National Bureau of Standards.

The conference is being co-sponsored by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers and the National Center for Energy Management and Power.

The conference will deal, on an interdisciplinary basis, with the opportunities and

implications of more effective utilization of thermal energy. The conference will focus

on effective utilization as a means of energy conservation to identify the areas in which

research is needed and will have significant impact. In some instances, the conference

may identify specific research tasks, but, in other cases, it is anticipated that the con- ference will identify vital research areas which will need to be amplified and elaborated

in greater detail to provide a partial basis for a National program of energy conservation.

The detailed substantive input to such a program could be derived from intensive workshops

conducted subsequent to this conference.

The conference will focus on the thermal process technologies as applied in

industrial processes, in industrial equipment, and in building HVAC equipment. This focus

on thermal process technology will help to develop a national perspective on energy con- servation in industrial processes and HVAC equipment comparable to the existing perspective

on energy conservation in building design and construction.

The program will consist of four days of presentations and discussion sessions dealing with the elements of energy conservation and a summary session on the fifth day. A typical day will see a paper presentation and discussion period in the morning followed by

afternoon or evening discussion sessions. The morning sessions will be common, but the

discussion sessions will be concurrent in groups of 15 to 20. The papers presented at the

conference and summary material from the discussion sessions will be published in the con- ference proceedings and distributed widely to persons who play decisive roles in energy

conservation - government, industry, labor, academia, and public interest groups.

255
Appendix A

PROGRAM

Monday August 20

9:00 - 12:30 p.m. National Context for Energy Conservation

National Benefits of Energy Conservation

Distribution of Potential Impact Across Sectors

Measures of Effectiveness of Thermal Energy

Utilization

Economic and Environmental Implications of

Effective Utilization of Thermal Energy

7:00 - 10:00 p.m. Discussion Sessions

Tuesday, August 21 9:00 - 12:30 p.m. Energy Management Practice

Effectiveness of Thermal Energy Utilization in

Industrial Processes

Options in Energy Management for Industrial

Processes

7:00 - 10:00 p.m. Discussion Sessions

Wednesday, August 22 9:00 - 12:30 p.m. Applications of Thermal Process Technologies

Variations in Current Practice for Industrial

Processes

Potential Options for Energy Conservation in Industrial Processes and Equipment

Potential Options for Energy Conservation in

Building Equipment

7:00 - 10:00 p.m. Discussion Sessions

Thursday, August 23

9:00 - 12:30 p.m. Institutional Considerations of Energy Conservation

Design, Manufacture, Acquisition, Application Chain

for Industrial Equipment

Cost, Energy Environment Accounting

Regulatory, Tax, Legal Constraints

Financial Feasibility of Energy Conservation

2:00 - 5:00 p.m. Discussion Sessions

7:00 - 10:00 p.m. Preparation of Summaries

256
Friday. August 24

9:00 - 12:00 Noon Summary Session and Critique

National Context for Energy Conservation

Energy Management Practice

Applications of Thermal Process Technologies

Institutional Considerations of Energy Conservation

257
Appendix B

PARTICIPANTS IN ENGINEERING FOUNDATION CONFERENCE

ON

ENERGY CONSERVATION THROUGH EFFECTIVE ENERGY UTILIZATION

New England College, Henniker, N. H. August 19 - 24, 1973

Gifford H. Albright

Pennsylvania State University

101 Engineering Unit "A" University Park, Pennsylvania 16802

J. Ben Austin

Bucknell University

Lewisburg, Pennsylvania 17837

M. Balasubramanian

University of Pennsylvania

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19174

W. R. Becraft

Space Division

General Electric Company

Valley Forge Space Center

P.O. Box 8555

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19101

Charles Berg

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

William A. Blecher

United Aircraft Research Laboratory

East Hartford, Connecticut 06108

Hal Bloomberg

38 Exter Street

Brooklyn, New York 11235

Robert S. Bostwick

Florida Power & Light Company

P.O. Box 3100

Miami, Florida 33101

Harry Brown

Drexel University

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19174

Robert A. Clifton

Bureau of Mines

4105 Wilson Boulevard

Arlington, Virginia 22203

Dr. James B. Comly

General Electric Company

Schenectady, New York 12345

Allen Cook

American Can Company

Greenwich, Connecticut 06830

Wil 1 iam T. Cox Department of Agriculture

Washington, D.C. 20250

Paul Craig

National Science Foundation

1800 G. St., N.W. Washington, D.C. 20550

Joseph F. Cuba

ASHRAE

United Engineering Center

345 East 47th Street

New York, New York 10017

Charlotte Cuba

ASHRAE

345 East 47th Street

New York, New York 10017

James Curl in Library of Congress

10 First Street, S.E. Washington, D.C. 20540

Jesse Denton University of Pennsylvania

264 Towne Building

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19174

258
Dave Didion

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

Eldon G. Ehlers

American Gas Association

1515 Wilson Boulevard

Arlington, Virginia 22109

Robert R. Gatts

National Bureau of Standards

A152 Technology Building

Washington, D.C. 20234

Leon Glickman

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Boston, Massachusetts 02139

Bernard Hamel

Drexel University

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104

Howard Harrenstien

University of Miami

Coral Gables, Florida 33124

Saul Hoch

General Electric Company

777 14th Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20005

Harold Hoi lister

U.S. Atomic Energy Commission

1717 H. Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20426

James H. Inglis

Federal Power Commission

825 North Capitol Avenue, N.E. Washington, D.C. 20426

R. Gerald Irvine

NYS Public Service Commission

44 Holland Avenue

Albany, New York 12208

Neldon L. Jensen

Bureau of Mines

1800 C. Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20240

Will iam J. Jones

Energy Laboratories

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Building 26-145

Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139

R. A. Kelly

Flinn & Dreffein Engineering Company

3504 Commercial Avenue

Northbrook, Illinois 60062

Glen Kendall

Environmental Protection Agency

Room 1019, Waterside Mall, West Tower

401 M. Street, S.W. Washington, D.C. 20460

W. B. Kirk

American Gas Association, Laboratories

8501 East Pleasant Valley Road

Cleveland, Ohio 44131

Samuel Klausmer

University of Pennsylvania

4025 Chestnut Street

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19174

G. Lamb

University of Pennsylvania

Room 716 Maloney Building

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19174

Dennis Larsen

Institute of Gas Technology

3424 South State Street

Chicago, Illinois 60616

Dilip Limaye

Decision Sciences Corporation

Jenkintown, Pennsylvania 19046

Quentin Looney

Department of Commerce

Washington, D.C. 20230

Oscar Manly

Visdyne Corporation

Burlington, Massachusetts 01803

Robert G. Massey

National Bureau of Standards

A124 Technology Building

Washington, D.C. 20234

Preston E. McNall

Johnson Service Company

507 East Michigan

Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53201

F. McQuade

University of Pennsylvania

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19174

259
Patricia J. McWethy

National Science Foundation

1800 G. Street, N.W. K700

Washington, D.C. 20550

John Mockoviak

Grumman Aerospace

Bethpage, Long Island, New York 11714

R. B. Mosely

Shell Oil Company

P.O. Box 2463

Houston, Texas 77001

A. Dwayne Nelson

3 M Company

3 M Center Building 230-2

St. Paul, Minnesota 55101

Mike Noland

Midwest Research Institute

Kansas City, Missouri 64112

John Patterson

Esso Research & Engineering Company

P.O. Box 215

Linden, New Jersey 07016

Anton Roeger

Texas Eastern Transmission, Incorporated

Box 1612

Shreveport, Louisiana 71130

Donald A. Reppert

Monsanto Company

800 N. Lindberg

St. Louis, Missouri 63166

Barry Riordan

Council on Environmental Quality

722 Jackson Place, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20006

Peter Romano

Grumman Aerospace

Bethpage, Long Island, New York 11714

William Rudoy

University of Pittsburgh

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213

Maxine Savitz

National Science Foundation

1800 G. Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20590

Loren C. Schmid

Batelle - N.W. Richland, Washington 99352

George Schrenk

University of Pennsylvania

Towne School

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19174

Robert E. Shephard

Department of Commerce

Office of Energy Programs

Washington, D.C. 20230

Karl Sittel

Reentry & Environment Systems Division

General Electric Valley Forge

Technology Center

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19101

Sheldon Sixfin

Chase Manhattan Bank New York, New York 10015

Emerson W. Smith

Postal Service

475 L'Enfant Plaza West, S.W. Washington, D.C. 20260

Richard T. Smith

Southwest Research Institute

Box 28510

San Antonia, Texas 78284

Philip Snyder

Westinghouse Fluid Systems Laboratory

1291 Cumberland Avenue

West Lafayette, Indiana 47906

Thomas Spiedel

Thermo-Electron Corporation

Auburn, Massachusetts 01501

P. Swatek

Massachusetts Audubon Society

South Grate Road

Lincoln, Massachusetts 01773

Arthur Takata

I IT Research Institute

10 West 35th Street

Chicago, Illinois 60616

Theodore Teichmann

KMS Fusion Incorporated

3941 Research Park Drive

Ann Arbor, Michigan 48170

E. M. Sparrow

University of Minnesota

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455

260
Appendix C

Table of Conversion Factors to Metric (SI) Units

Physical Quantity

(and symbol used in paper) To convert from

to multiply by

Length X inch meter 2.54* X 10-'

foot m 3.048* X 10-' Area inch' m' 6.4516* X 10-*

foot' m' 9.290 X 10-' Volume inch-' m' 1.639 X 10-'

foot' m' O QQO \y 1 A — " ^.ooZ X iu Temperature Fahrenheit Celsius Temperature difference Fahrenheit Kelvin K — ( A/r1 /I 8 Pressure men ng (our ) newton/m' ^ ^77 V 1 03 O.O ( 1 A AV/ Mass iDm xg 4 'i^fi V 10-' Mass/ unit area M lbm/ft= ksr/m' 4.882 Ibm/ft' week kg/m's 8.073 X 10-« Density p Ibm/ft' kg/m' 1.602 X 10' Thermal conductivity k Btu hr ft' (F inch) W 1.442 X 10-' mK

U-value U Btu hr ft' F W 5.678 m' K

Thermal resistance R F/(Btu, hrft') K,'(W/m') 1.761 X 10-' Heat flow Btu/hr ft' W/m' 3.155 Water vapor:

permeability M grain kgm 'Ns 1.457 X 10-"

hr ft'(in.Hg, in.) permeance P.P grain kg/Ns 5.738 X 10-"

hrft'(in.Hg) (perm)

*Exact value; others are rounded to fourth place.

In view of present practice in thermal process technology, the common units of measurement used by the various speakers are retained

in this publication.

However, in recognition of the United States as a signatory to

the General Conference on Weights and Measures, which gave official

status to the metric (SI) system of units in 1960, many useful conversion factors are provided in the table above.

Readers interested in making further use of the uniform nomenclature that metric units offer are encouraged to refer to:

The International System of Units (SI), NBS Spec. Pub. 330, 1974 edition.

Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Wash.,

D.C. 20402. SD Cat. No. C 13.10:330/3. Price 65 cents.

The Standard Metric Practice Guide

American Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race Street,

Philadelphia, Pa. 19103. E 380-72. Price $1.75. Also available

from the American National Standards Institute, 1430 Broadway,

New York, N.Y. 10018. ANSI Z 210.1 Price $1.75.

SI Units and Recommendations for Use of Their Multiples.

American National Standards Institute. ISO International Standdard 1000, 1973 edition. Price $1.50.

261
NBS-114A (REV. 7-73)

U .S. DEPT. OF COMM. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NO. NBS Spec. Pub. No. 403

2. Gov't Accession

No.

3. Recipient's Accession No.

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

ENERGY CONSERVATION THROUGH EFFECTIVE ENERGY UTILIZATION

5. Publication Date June 1976

6. Performing Organization Code

7. AUTHOR(S) J.C. Denton, S. Webber, and J. Moriarty

8. Performing Organ. Report No.

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NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

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National Bureau of Standards

National Science Foundation

Engineering Foundation

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Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 76-18680

16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary ol most sigfiificant information. If document includes a significant bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.) These proceedings of the 1973 Engineering Foundation Conference focus on effective

utilization of thermal energy as a means of energy conservation. It is hoped publication will help stimulate the national dialogue toward a balanced national program for more energy conservation.

The varied professional backgrounds of the participants provided an interdisciplinary

approach for action steps to be taken in areas where research is needed and will provide

a significant impact. For example, the development of better stack controls was recom- mended as a specific research task, and the improvement of energy accounting systems and

energy use norms was recommended as a useful research area. Broad agreement was reached

that there is much left to be accomplished in thermal process technology as used in industrial processes, in industrial equipment, and in heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment for buildings.

A clear conclusion of the conference is that while new technology is important the

introduction of much technology that is already available is equally, if not more,

important. Institutional barriers relating to economics, management, finance, and national policy keep available technology standing in the wings. The conference papers

and discussions show that engineering design, when it can be rigorously applied, does

result in striking reductions in energy use in the thermal process technologies.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name; separated by semicolons ) , • i , , , . Automobile; break-even analysis; conservation; cooling;

economics; energy; environment; fuel; heating; industry; imports; management;

manufacturing; paper; petroleum; resources; standards; steel; thermal; thermodynamics.

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