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Smoke Movement and Smoke

Control on Merchant Ships

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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Bureau of Standards

National Engineering Laboratory

Center for Fire Research

Washington, DC 20234

December 1981

Final Report

Prepared for: Office of Merchant Marine Safety

QC U.S. Coast Guard

100 Washington, DC 20593

U56

m. 81 -2433

1981

FEB 3 1982

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NBSIR 81-2433

SMOKE MOVEMENT AND SMOKE

CONTROL ON MERCHANT SHIPS

John H. Klote and Richard H. Zile

U S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Bureau of Standards

National Engineering Laboratory

Center for Fire Research

Washington, DC 20234

December 1981

Final Report

Prepared for: Office of Merchant Marine Safety

U.S. Coast Guard

Washington, DC 20593

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Malcolm Baldrige, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Director
-a-'- jf? > '

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF FIGURES v

LIST OF TABLES vi

Abstract 1

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. BACKGROUND 2

2.1 Smoke Movement ...... 3

2.1.1 Stack Effect 3

2.1.2 Buoyancy 6

2.1.3 Wind 7 2.1.4 HVAC System 8

2.2 Principles of Static Smoke Control 9

2.3 Principles of Dynamic Smoke Control 10

2.3.1 Air Flow 11

2.3.2 Pressurization . 13

2.4 Door Opening Forces 15

2.5 Dynamic Smoke Control Systems ...... 16

2.5.1 Pressurized Stairwells 16

2.5.2 Zone Smoke Control 17

3. FIELD TEST PROGRAM 18

3.1 Tracer Test Procedures 19

3.2 Tests on the Exxon Houston 21

3.2.1 Test No. 1 22

3.2.2 Test No. 2 23

3.2.3 Test No. 3 23

3.2.4 Test No. 4 . 24

3.2.5 Test No. 5 24

3.3 Tests on the Sea-Land Express 25

3.3.1 Test No. 1 26

3.3.2 Test No. 2 27

3.3.3 Test No. 3 28

3.3.4 Test No. 4 28

3.3.5 Test No. 5 29

4. DISCUSSION 29

4.1 Horizontal Smoke Movement . 29

4.2 Vertical Smoke Movement 30

4.3 Smoke Control Problem 31

4.4 Pressurized Stairwells 31

4.5 Zone Smoke Control 32

4.6 Pressurized Stairwell with Zone Smoke Control 32

iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont’d)

Page

4.7 Smoke Exhaust System 32

4.8 Test Methods 33

4.9 Engine Room Fire 33

5. RECOMMENDATIONS 33

5.1 Fire Tests 33

5.2 Computer Analysis 34

5 . 3 Engine Room Fires 34

5.4 Passenger Ships 34

5.5 Military Ships ..... 35

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 35

7. REFERENCES . 35

Iv
LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1. Air movement resulting from normal and reverse stack effect 37

Figure 2. Elevation of ship's house on the Exxon Houston ... 38

Figure 3. Main deck of the Exxon Houston 39

Figure 4. The 01 deck of the Exxon Houston ^0

Figure 5. The 02 deck of the Exxon Houston

Figure 6. The 03 deck of the Exxon Houston h2

Figure 7. The 04 deck of the Exxon Houston ^2

Figure 8. The 05 deck of the Exxon Houston h2

Figure 9. Wind direction diagram ^3

Figure 10. SF^ concentrations for test no. 3 on the Exxon Houston hh

Figure 11. SF^ concentrations for test no. 4 on the Exxon Houston ^5

Figure 12. Elevation of ship's house on the Sea-Land Express . 46

Figure 13. Main deck of the Sea-Land Express 4T

Figure 14. The 01 deck of the Sea-Land Express . . . 48

Figure 15. The 02 deck of the Sea-Land Express 49

Figure 16. The 03 deck of the Sea-Land Express 50

Figure 17. The 04 deck of the Sea-Land Express ........ 51

Figure 18. The 05 deck of the Sea-Land Express 52

Figure 19. The 06 deck of the Sea-Land Express 53

Figure 20. Fan coil unit on the Sea-Land Express 54

Figure 21. SF^ concentrations on 04 deck for test no. 1 on

the Sea-Land Express 55

Figure 22. SF^ concentrations on different decks for test

no. 1 on the Sea-Land Express 56

V
LIST OF FIGURES (cont’d)

Page

Figure 23., SFg concentrations on 04 deck for test no. 2 on the

Sea-Land Express . ........ . 57

Figure 24.. SF^ concnetrations on 01 deck for test no. 3 on the

Sea-Land Express 58

Figure 25. SF^ concentrations on 02 deck for test no. 4 on the

Sea-Land Express 59

Figure 26. SFg concentrations on different decks for test no. 4 on the Sea-Land Express ^9

Figure 27., SF^ concentrations for test no. 5 on the Sea-Land

Express 6l

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1. Summary Data for Tracer Tests on the EXXON Houston . , 22

Table 2. Summary Data for Tracer Tests on the Sea-Land Express . 26

vi
SMOKE MOVEMENT AND SMOKE CONTROL ON MERCHANT SHIPS

John H. Klote and Richard H. Zile

Abstract

In the past ten years considerable progress

has been made in developing systems to control smoke

movement in building fires. At present no such smoke

control systems are in use on merchant ships. This

paper discusses the basic concepts of smoke movement

and smoke control with emphasis upon shipboard applicability. A report of simulated smoke movement tests

performed on two merchant vessels is presented. Based

upon these test results potential methods of smoke

control for merchant vessels are discussed. Recommendations are made for future study.

Key words: Ships; smoke control; smoke movement; stack

effect; sulfur hexaf lourlde; tracer tests; ventilation

systems

.

1 . INTRODUCTION

Smoke is recognized as a major killer in fire situations.

Traditionally when a fire has been discovered, the heating, ventilation,

and air conditioning system (HVAC) is shut down in an effort to prevent

it from (1) spreading smoke and (2) supplying oxygen to the fire. This

has been true for ships as well as for buildings. However, in spite of

shutting down the HVAC system, smoke frequently obscures exit routes and

flows to locations remote from the fire.

1
In the past ten years a concept of controlling smoke movement in

building fires has been developed. A large number of buildings now

exist with such smoke control systems. The objectives of this project

were to investigate smoke movement on merchant ships and to evaluate the

feasibility of conventional means of smoke control on merchant ships.

This study concentrates on smoke movement and control in the ship’s

house, a structure on the ship that contains the galley, sleeping quarters,

and recreational facilities.

Initially the study was to include the engine room. However, the

large volume rates of intake air required by the engine dominates air

movement in the engine room. While it is normal practice during a significant engine room fire to shut down the engines, this could not be

done during these field tests. Therefore, no tests were conducted in

the engine room.

This report provides a brief background of smoke movement and

discusses the field tests of two merchant vessels with a focus toward

the applicability of conventional smoke control measures used in buildings

to merchant ships.

2 . BACKGROUND

The general concepts of smoke movement and smoke control have

evolved in the last few years. Unfortunately there is no one source document which presents these fundamental concepts. In general terms, a smoke control system must be designed so that it is not overpowered by

the driving forces which cause smoke movement. An understanding of the

concepts of smoke movement and of smoke control are necessary to the

intelligent development of smoke control systems. Therefore, this

section presents a brief discussion of these fundamental concepts.

2
2 . 1 Smoke Movement

The driving forces causing smoke movement are stack effect, buoyancy,

wind, and the HVAC system. Discussion of these concepts as they pertain

to smoke movement in buildings can be found in the literature [1-4]^.

The principles Involved are also valid for smoke movement on ships.

Generally, in a fire smoke movement will be caused by a combination of

these driving forces. The following is a brief discussion of these

driving forces.

2.1.1 Stack Effect

During winter there is frequently an upward movement of air within

shafts in buildings. These shafts may be stairwells, elevator shafts,

dumbwaiter shafts, mechanical shafts or even mail chutes. In these

cases air flows into the lower portion of the shaft and flows out of the

upper portion of the shaft. This phenomenon referred to as stack effect,

is caused by differences in hydrostatic pressure due to two air columns

at different temperatures. The pressure difference is expressed as:

AP =

(p^ - p) gh

where

p^ = air density outside the shaft

p = air density inside the shaft

g = acceleration due to gravity

h = distance from the neutral plane.

The neutral plane is an elevation where the hydrostatic pressure

inside the shaft equals the hydrostatic pressure outside the shaft.

Using the ideal gas law the above relation can be expressed as

Numbers in brackets refer to the literature references at the end of

this paper.

3
AP ( 2 . 1 ) = ^

R

;) h

where

P = absolute atmospheric pressure

R = gas constant of air

= absolute temperature outside the shaft

T = absolute temperature inside the shaft.

Considering standard conditions of one atmosphere at 21°C (70°F),

the above equation can be expressed as

AP = 3460 (~ - |) h

o

where

h = distance from the neutral plane (m)

T = temperature (°K)

oT = temperature (°K)

AP = pressure difference (Pa)

or, AP = 7.64 (^^ ^

o

where

h = distance from the neutral plane (ft)

= temperature (°R)

T = temperature (°R)

AP = pressure difference (inches of H

2

O).

For a structure such as a ship's house that is 20 m (60 ft) tall

with a neutral plane at mid-height and a difference between the inside

and outside temperature of 40°C (72°F), the above formula indicates that

a maximum of 19 Pa (0.076 inch H

2

O) pressure difference would be induced

4
by stack effect. The condition described earlier consisting of an upward air flow in shafts in the winter is sometimes called normal stack

effect. This is to distinguish it from the downward air flow in shafts

encountered in the summer when the outside air temperature is greater

than the inside air temperature. This downward air flow condition is

called reverse stack effect. Stack effect is usually thought of as existing between a building and the outside. The air movement in

buildings caused by both normal and reverse stack effect is illustrated

in figure 1. In this case the pressure differences in the above equations

would actually refer to the pressure difference between the shaft and

the outside of the building.

In unusually tight buildings with exterior stairwells, reverse stack effect has been observed even during winter conditions [5]. In

this situation, the exterior stairwell temperature was considerably

lower than the building temperature; i.e., the stairwell was the cold

column of air and other shafts within the building were the warm columns

of air.

When considering stack effect between a building and the outside,

if the leakage paths are fairly uniform with height then the neutral

plane will be located near the mid-height of the building. However,

when the leakage paths are not uniform, the location of the neutral

plane can vary considerably, as in the case for shafts which are vented.

McGuire and Tamura [4] provide methods for calculating the location of

the neutral plane for some vented conditions.

Smoke movement from a building fire can be dominated by stack

effect. The following are descriptions of the different types of smoke

movement which can result from normal and reverse stack effect.

In a building with normal stack effect the existing air currents

(as shown in figure 1) can move smoke considerable distances from the

place of fire origin. If a fire is below the neutral plane, smoke moves

with the building air into and up the shafts. Once above the neutral

5
plane the smoke flows out of the shafts into the upper floors of the

building. If the leakage between floors is negligible, the floors below

the neutral plane will all be smoke free with the exception of the fire

f loor

.

Smoke from a fire located above the neutral plane would be carried

by the building air flow to the outside through leaks in the exterior of

the building. If the leakage between floors is negligible, then all the

other floors will remain smoke free. When the leakage between floors is

not negligible then there would be an upward smoke movement to the floor

above the fire floor.

The air currents caused by reverse stack effect are also shown in

figure 1. As would be expected these forces affect smoke movement in

the reverse of normal stack effect.

2.1.2 Buoyancy

High temperature smoke from a fire has a buoyancy force due to its

reduced density. The pressure differential between a fire compartment

and the ambient can be expressed by an equation of the same form as equation 2.1.

AP = ^ (^ - |) h (2.2)

o

where

T^ = absolute temperature of the surroundings

T = absolute temperature of fire compartment

h = distance from the neutral plane.

The neutral plane is the plane of equal hydrostatic pressure

between the fire compartment and the ambient. For a fire with a fire

compartment temperature of 750°C (1380°F) the differential pressure 1.5m

(4.9 ft) above the neutral plane is 12.6 Pa (0.0505 inch H^O) . Fang [6]
has studied pressures caused by room fires during a series of full-scale

fire tests. During these tests the maximum differential pressure

reached was 16 Pa (0.064 inch H

2

O)

.

In a building with leakage paths in the ceiling of the fire room,

this buoyancy induced pressure causes smoke movement to the floor above

the fire floor. In addition, this pressure causes smoke to move through

any leakage paths in the walls or around the doors of the fire compartment.

As smoke travels away from the fire, its temperature drops due to heat

transfer and dilution. Therefore, the effect of buoyancy decreases with

distance from the fire.

2.1.3 Wind

In many instances wind can have a pronounced effect on smoke movement

within a building. The pressure, P^, that the wind exerts on a surface

can be expressed as

P

V y

C p V'

2 w o (2.3)

where

= pressure coefficient

p = outside air density

o V = wind velocity

The pressure coefficients are in the range of -0.8 to 0.8, with

positive values for windward walls and negative values for leeward

walls. The pressure coefficient depends on building geometry and varies

locally over the wall surface. For buildings located in relatively flat

terrain, wind velocity increases with height due to the boundary layer

effect. Detailed information concerning wind velocity variations and

pressure coefficients is available from a number of sources [7-10].

7
A 60 km/s (37 mph) wind produces a pressure on a structure of 130 Pa

(0.52 inch H

2 O) when the pressure coefficient is 0.80. The effect of

wind on air movement within tightly constructed buildings with all doors

and windows closed is slight. However, the effects of wind can become

important for loosely constructed buildings or for buildings with doors

or windows open. Usually the resulting air flows are complicated and

for practical purposes computer analysis is required for an approximation of building air flows.

Frequently in fire situations a window breaks in the fire compartment. If the window is on the leeward side of the building, the negative

pressure due to the wind vents the smoke from the fire compartment.

This can greatly reduce smoke movement throughout the building. However,

if the broken window is on the windward side then the wind forces the

smoke throughout the fire floor and frequently throughout a number of

floors above and below the fire floor. This both endangers the lives of

building occupants and hampers fire fighting.

Pressures induced by the wind in this type of situation can be

relatively large and can easily dominate air movement throughout the

building

.

2.1.4 HVAC System

The HVAC system frequently transports smoke during building fires.

In the early stages of a fire the HVAC system can serve as an aid to

fire detection. When a fire starts in an unoccupied portion of a building, smoke is transported by the HVAC system to a space where

people can smell the smoke. However, as the fire progresses the HVAC

system will transport smoke to every area that it serves, thus endangering

life in all those spaces. The HVAC system also supplies air to the fire

space which aids combustion. For these reasons, HVAC systems have been

traditionally shut down when fires have been discovered. Even with the

HVAC system off smoke can flow through the HVAC ducts to endanger life

8

j
at places far from the fire. If there are fire dampers in these ducts,

generally considerable smoke will flow past the dampers before the

fusible links melt. In addition, shutting down the HVAC system does

nothing to prevent smoke movement through other paths due to stack

effect, buoyancy, or wind. In the last ten years a concept has arisen

which uses the HVAC system to limit smoke movement within a building.

This concept will be discussed in section 2.5.

2.2 Principles of Static Smoke Control

Smoke control can be either static or dynamic. For static smoke

control, components such as partitions, doors, and floors are used to

stop the movement of smoke. Aboard ships the names of these components

are different; however, they still can be used for static smoke control.

The driving force of smoke movement for static smoke control is buoyancy,

whereas the driving forces for dynamic smoke control are the HVAC system

and specially dedicated fans.

The two basic principles of static smoke control are:

1. Smoke movement can be limited by components such as decks,

bulkheads and hatches.

2. Smoke can be removed from a fire space by smoke vents or smoke

shafts.

The effectiveness of a component in limiting smoke movement depends on the leakage paths in the component and on the pressure difference

across the component. Pipe penetrations through decks or bulkheads,

cracks where bulkheads meet decks, and cracks around hatches are a few

of the possible leakage paths. In ship construction many of these

leakage paths can be eliminated by welding components together and by

sealing or gasketing other cracks. The pressure difference across these

components depends upon stack effect, buoyancy, wind, and the HVAC

system, as discussed in section 2.1.

9
The effectiveness of smoke vents and smoke shafts depends on the

proximity to the fire, the buoyancy of the smoke, and the presence of

other driving forces.

Elevator shafts and stairwells in buildings have been used as smoke

shafts. In fires these shafts frequently distribute smoke to floors far

from the fire. This problem can be eliminated by the use of smoke

shafts which have essentially no leakage on floors other than the floor

of the fire.

2.3 Principles of Dynamic Smoke Control

Dynamic smoke control uses the components (bulkheads, decks, hatches,

etc.) of static smoke control in conjunction with pressure differentials

and air velocities generated by mechanical fans. The two basic principles

of dynamic smoke control are:

1. Air flow by Itself can control smoke movement provided that

the air velocities are of sufficient magnitude.

2. Pressure differentials across barriers can act to control

smoke movement.

Because dynamic smoke control relies on air flow and pressure

differentials produced by fans, it has the following advantages:

1. Dynamic smoke control is less dependent upon tight barriers.

Reasonable leakage areas in barriers can be allowed for in the

design.

2. Stack effect, buoyancy, and wind are less likely to overcome

dynamic smoke control than static smoke control. In the

absence of dynamic smoke control, these driving forces cause smoke movement to the extent that leakage paths allow. How10
ever, in dynamic smoke control these driving forces are opposed by the differential pressures and velocities of the

system.

3. Dynamic smoke control can be designed to prevent smoke flow

through an open doorway in a barrier by the use of air velocity

Doors in barriers are open during evacuation and are sometimes

accidentally left open or propped open throughout fires. In

the absence of dynamic smoke control, smoke flow through these

doors is common.

Unfortunately dynamic smoke control does have the disadvantage that

the system cannot operate in the event of a power failure to the system

fan. The ideal solution to this problem is for the system to be designed

to convert to a static smoke control system in the event of power failure

The following sections discuss the basic principles of dynamic

smoke control.

2.3.1 Air Flow

Theoretically a counter air flow can be used to stop smoke movement

through any space. Two places where air velocity can be used to control

smoke movement are open doorways and in corridors. The problem of

preventing smoke movement through doorways is currently being researched.

Thomas [11] has developed a relation for the critical velocity to prevent

smoke from flowing upstream in a corridor.

U = k

c ,^, 1/3

wpcT'^

where

= critical air velocity to prevent smoke backflow

Q

= energy release rate into corridor

11
w = corridor width

p = density of upstream air

c = specific heat of downstream gases

T = absolute temperature of downstream gases

k = constant of the order of 1

g = acceleration of gravity.

The downstream properties are considered to be taken at a point

sufficiently far downstream of the fire for the properties to be uniform

3 3

across the cross section. Considering p = 1.3 kg/m (0.081 Ib/ft ),

c = 1.005 kJ/kg°C (0.24 BTU/lb°F), T = 27°C (81°F), and k = 1 the above

equation becomes

U = 0.03 (%^/^

c w

where

= critical velocity (m/s)

Q

= energy (W)

w = width (m)

or

U =5.7 (%^^^^

c w

where

= critical velocity (ft/min)

Q

= energy (BTU/hr) w = width (ft)

.

The above relation can be used when the fire is located in the

corridor or when the smoke enters the corridor through an open door, an air transfer grill, or other opening. For an energy release rate of 37 kw

12
(126,000 BTU/hr) into a corridor 1 m (3.3 ft) wide the above relation

yields a critical velocity of 1 tn/s (200 ft/min). However, for a larger

energy release rate of 2.4 MW (8 x 10 BTU/hr) the above equation yields

a critical velocity of 4 m/s (800 ft/min) for a corridor of the same

width. This value is approximate because only an approximate value for

k was used. However it is indicative of the kind of air velocities

required to prevent backflow of smoke from fires of different sizes.

This illustrates that air flow can be used to control smoke movement without the benefit of partitions and doors to help stop the smoke.

However, this is not the primary means of controlling smoke movement

because the quantities of air required are so large. The use of air

flow is important in preventing smoke movement out of a smoke zone when

a door in the boundary of that smoke zone is open. However, the primary

means of controlling smoke movement is by air pressure across partitions,

doors and other building components.

2.3.2 Pressurization

As stated earlier, air pressure is the primary means of controlling

smoke movement in buildings. In fact, pressurization creates high

velocities in the small gaps around doors and in construction cracks and

thereby prevents backflow through these openings.

The air flow rate through a construction crack, door gap, or other

flow path is proportional to the differential pressure across that path

raised to the power n. For a flow path of fixed geometery, the power n

is theoretically in the range of 0.5 to 1. However, for all flow paths,

except extremely narrow cracks, using n = 0.5 is reasonable and the flow

can be expressed as

where

13
F = flow rate

C = flow coefficient

A = cross sectional area of flow path

AP = differential pressure across the flow path

p = density of air entering the flow path.

The flow coefficient depends on the geometry of the flow path as well as turbulence and friction. In the present context, the flow

coefficient is in the range of 0.6 to 0.7. For one atmosphere at 21°C

(70°F) and for C = 0.65 the above equation becomes

F = 840 A

where

F = flow rate (£/s)

A = area (m ) AP = differential pressure (Pa)

or

F = 2600 A /ap

where

F = flow rate (cfm)

2 A = area (ft ) AP = differential pressure (inch H

2 O)

2 2

A closed door with a crack area of 0.01 m (0.11 ft ) and with a pressure differential of 25 Pa (0.1 inch H^O) would have an air leakage

rate of approximately 42 £/s (89 cfm). Several field tests have been

conducted on real buildings using the gas sulfur hexaflouride as a tracer to study simulated smoke movement and to study the effectiveness

of various smoke control systems [1,5,12-14]. In these tests pressure

14
on the order of 1 Pa (0.004 inch H

2

O) across partitions and closed doors

has been sufficient to prevent upstream migration of the simulated

"smoke"

.

In order to control smoke movement, the pressures produced by a smoke control system must be sufficiently large so that they are not

overcome by stack effect, smoke buoyancy, and the forces of the wind.

However, the differential pressure produced by a smoke control system

should not be so large as to result in unreasonably high door opening

forces

.

2.4 Door Opening Forces

The determination of what is a reasonable door opening force is

difficult. Clearly, a person's physical condition is a major factor in

determining a reasonable door opening force for that person. The Life

Safety Code of the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) [15]

states that the force required to open any door in a means of egress

shall not exceed 222 N (50 lb). Many smoke control system designers

consider this a very high value. On a merchant vessel it is probably

reasonable to assume that the officers and crew are in good physical

condition under normal circumstances. However, it should be realized

that exposure to smoke during a fire can adversely affect a person's

physical capabilities, further complicating the determination.

The force required to open a door is the sum of the forces to

overcome the differential pressure across the door and to overcome the

door closer. This can be expressed as

F

T

WAAP

2(W-t)

where
= the total door opening force

F_ = the force to overcome the door closer

C

W = door width

A = door area

AP = differential pressure across door

t = distance from the door knob to the knob side of the door.

• This relation assumes that the door opening force is applied at the

knob.

2.5 Dynamic Smoke Control Systems

The principles presented in section 2.3 have been employed to

provide dynamic smoke control systems in buildings. The two most common

systems are pressurized stairwells and zone smoke control and are discussed in the following sections.

2.5.1 Pressurized Stairwells

In an effort to provide smoke-free stair passages during a fire, a number of stairwells have been built with pressurization systems.

Ideally these systems use air pressure to prevent smoke infiltration. A

number of papers have been written concerning analysis, design and field

testing of pressurized stairwells [1,2, 3, 5].

A stairwell pressurization system must maintain sufficient pressures

to prevent smoke infiltration when all doors are closed. For this case

the flow rate of pressurization air would be low because it would only

consist of leakage air around the closed doors and through building

cracks and any other small leakage areas. If this flow rate is too high

then the resulting high levels of pressurization can result in unreasonably high door opening forces. However, a much larger air flow rate

would be needed when stairwell doors are open in order to prevent smoke

backflow through the open doors.

16
Pressurization systems have been built which achieve these different

air flow rates by means of automatic control. An alternate solution is

to supply the larger air flow rate to the stairwell even when all doors

are closed and to vent the excessive air to prevent unreasonably high

door opening forces. The excessive air can be vented through a transfer

grill or a barometric damper. This alternate approach is less complicated and less expensive than using automatic controls.

In the winter, the pressures across the upper doors of a pressurized

stairwell can be quite high while the pressures across the lower doors can be very low or even negative. The opposite condition can exist in

the summer. An equation has been derived by Klote [15] for the air flow

rate in a simple building when the outside and inside temperatures are

different. The simple building consists of one without leakage paths

between building levels. However, a real ship house may have leakage

through the decks or vertical connections by means of shafts. In order

to analyze a pressurized stairwell connected to such a ship house a computer program could be used. Such a computer program has been

developed at NBS [16] . In the design of a pressurized stairwell it is

recommended that initial calculations be performed on the simple building

model. If the resulting pressure differentials are acceptable then no computer analysis is required because this method is conservative.

2.5.2 Zone Smoke Control

The zone system of smoke control generally uses the HVAC system to

control smoke movement. Specially dedicated smoke control fans can also

be used. When this system is employed a building is divided into a number of smoke zones. In the event of a fire, air is exhausted from

the smoke zone where the fire is located and air is supplied to the

other zones. These air flows acting over the leakage areas of a smoke

zone cause pressure differences across the boundaries of the smoke zone

in which the fire exists. Ideally this pressurization will prevent

smoke movement to building spaces outside of the zone in which there is a fire.

17
When the HVAC system is used for smoke control the following events

should occur when the system is activated:

1. The supply air to the zone where the fire is located should be

shut off.

2. The return air system is placed in 100 percent exhaust mode

for the zone where the fire is located.

3. The supply air to all zones where there is no fire is set at

100 percent outside air.

4. The return air system is shut off for all zones where there is no fire.

A number of such systems have been built and tested [12,13]. These

systems are generally automatically activated with provision for manual

override. However, these systems should not be activated by a pull box

because such activation cannot determine the smoke zone in which the

fire is located.

3. FIELD TEST PROGRAM

Methods which have been used at NBS for smoke movement and smoke

control research are (l) fire tests, (2) chemical smoke tests, (3)

tracer tests, and (4) pressure mapping. These field tests were to be

performed on merchant ships under normal operation. Real fire tests and

chemical smoke tests were eliminated because these tests would Interfere

with normal ship operation. Pressure mapping consists of measuring

differential pressures across barriers, i.e. closed doors. This is done

by placing a flexible plastic tube in a crack around the closed door and

attaching one end of it to a differential pressure transducer. Unfortunately, the doors of interest on these ships were so tightfittlng that

the tube was crushed and differential pressures could not be measured.

Therefore, field measurements were restricted to tracer tests.

18
The gas sulfur hexaflouride (SF^) has been extensively used as a tracer in smoke movement and smoke control tests because it is ( 1 ) 2 colorless, (2) odorless, (3) nontoxic , and (4) stable. These attributes

result in tests which do not interfere with the normal operation of the

facility being tested. In addition, SF^ is virtually unused industrially

in the United States. This means that SF, can be used as a tracer with

6

practically no fear of interference of SF^ from another source.

Field tests were performed on two ships and were restricted to the

house which contains living quarters, galley and other service spaces.

3.1 Tracer Test Procedures

The tracer gas, SF,, was released at a constant rate in the simu3

° lated burn room . In all these tests the burn room door was open to the

corridor of the ship and all of the burn room samples were taken in the

doorway. It was anticipated that the tracer tests on the ship would be

different than similar tests in buildings. In large buildings SF^ is

released at a constant rate. Because the volumes of the buildings are large and because of the existing air currents in buildings, the burn

room concentration remains relatively constant. However, on ships it

was expected that because of the lower air movement and smaller volume

of the house, that the burn room concentration of SF, would increase

o throughout the test. For this reason a flow meter which operated in a lower range (0.70 to 75 m2, of SF, per min) was obtained for these tests.

D The release rates were varied from test to test until it was determined

that a release rate of 4.5 m£/min would yield good test results.

Air samples throughout the house were collected and analyzed to

determine smoke movement in the event of a fire. Generally samples were

collected at the same location three or four times during a test. In

2 OSHA concentration limit of SF5 is 1000 ppm as set forth in the

Federal Register, Vol. 36, No. 157, August 13, 1971. However, concentrations used in the tests described in this paper do not exceed 2 ppm.

3 The term "burn room" will be used from here on to mean simulated burn

room.

19
some cases spot samples were collected at a location at only one time

during the test. These spot samples were collected to determine if a location were free of SF^ or to determine the path of SF^ movement. Gas

samples were analyzed by a portable gas chromatograph having an electron

capture cell fitted with a 200 me tritium source. Data reduction was obtained by means of a calibration curve for concentrations from 0 to

180 ppb. Samples of concentration higher than 180 ppb were diluted and

then analyzed.

The purpose of these tracer tests was to determine the paths of

smoke movement in the event of a real fire. However, smoke from a real

fire has a buoyant force that the tracer test does not simulate. The

tracer tests simulate cold smoke movement which results from low energy

4 fires . The relative concentrations of smoke resulting from a high

energy fire would be different; however the paths of smoke movement

would most probably be the same.

The tests discussed in the following sections show that the SF^

concentrations did increase with time as expected. The peak concentrations of SF^ varied from 320 to 1200 ppb. For this reason the figures

in this report have different scales for the SF, concentration. The

D scales were chosen for each test so that the concentrations throughout

the ship could be easily compared with the burn room concentration for

that test. Care should be exercised in comparing the results of different tests.

At present no method has been developed for evaluating the hazard

to human life in a real fire based on the results of a tracer test.

However, the presence of SF, at a location indicates the existence of a

b

path which could transport smoke to that location during a real fire.

The quantity of smoke thus transported would depend on the quantity and

Cold smoke movement also exists at a considerable distance from a high

energy fire. However, because of the limited size of a ship house

this situation is only partially relevant to this study.

20
temperature of smoke produced by the fire and the extent to which other

driving forces such as stack effect and wind exist. For these reasons all but very small concentrations of SF^ are of concern. For discussion

in this paper, all concentrations of SF^ greater than one percent of the

maximum burn room concentration will be considered significant.

3.2 Tests on the Exxon Houston

The Exxon Houston is a sixteen year old oil tanker. The ship’s

house has six levels, and the general arrangements of the decks are shown in figures 2-8. The symbols used in these figures are listed on figure 4.

The HVAC system in this ship is a 100 percent outside air system.

Outside air is heated or cooled as necessary and distributed throughout

the house from the fan room located on 01 deck. An exhaust system draws

air from equipment spaces and toilets and reuses it for spot cooling in

the engine room. Additional ventilation air for the machinery room is

also supplied from the outside and combustion air for the boiler is

drawn from the top of the boiler room. The net effect of this is that

the boiler room is maintained at a considerable overpressure with

respect to both the outside and to the ship's house.

Five simulated smoke movement tests were performed on the Exxon

Houston. Outside temperatures, wind data, status of the HVAC system and

the flow rates of SF^ are provided in the following table.

21
Table 1. Summary Data for Tracer Tests

on the EXXON Houston

Test No.

Outside

Temp (°C)

Wind

Speed

(m/ s)

Wind

Direction

HVAC

Status

SF^ Flow

(m£/min)

1 30 16 0° On .5

2 30 16 0° On 7.5

3 32 3 5° Off 7.5

4 31 4 5° Off 4.5

5 25 4 5° Off 4.5

Wind data is relative to the ship

The convention for wind directions relative to the ship in this

report is given in figure 9. The temperature inside the ship during all

these tests was in the range of 20° to 24°C (68° to 75°F).

3.2.1 Test No. 1

In this test the burn room was located in a cabin on the main deck

as shown in figure 3. The HVAC system was in normal operation. This

test was performed to determine the path of SF^ movement when the HVAC

system was operating. For this reason only spot samples were collected.

The SF^ was released at a rate of 0.5 mii/min, resulting in burn room

concentrations in the range of 0 to 15 ppb. Samples were taken on all

the other decks and in a number of locations in the forward portion of

the main deck. None of these samples contained any measurable quantity

of SF, . This indicated that the SF, release rate for this test was too

6 6

low, and this test was only useful as a calibration test.

22
3.2.2 Test No. 2

This test was a repeat of test No. 1 except that the SF^ flow rate was increased to 7.5 m£/tnin. In this test the burn room concentration

of SF^ rose to 900 ppb at 3 minutes. During this test spot samples were

taken at a number of locations to determine the path of SF, movement.

o SFg flowed from the burn room through the adjacent section of corridor

and into the adjacent equipment room where it entered an exhaust grill.

This air was dumped into the engine room for spot cooling. At 30 minutes

into the test the spot cooling supply at the main console in the engine

room had 65 ppb SF , . There were also concentrations on all the above

0

decks in ranges from 11 to 39 ppb with the lower concentrations on the

upper decks. Again a number of locations were sampled in the forward

portion of the main deck such as the officer’s mess and the boatswain’s

store and none of these samples contained any measurable quantity of

SFg. During this test the first assistant engineer stated that frequently

the engineer on duty in the engine room is the first to smell smoke from

a fire in the house. This is reasonable and confirms the findings,

because the air exhausted from the house is supplied to the engine room

as spot cooling.

3.2.3 Test No. 3

This test was similar to the second test except that the supply and

exhaust systems were turned off to simulate the current practice for

real fire situations. Figure 10 shows the SF^ concentrations on different

decks for this test. These samples were all measured in the corridor

near the stairs. As can be seen from figure 10 the concentration decreases

with deck height. In previous tests in buildings, this type of air flow

has been found to be characteristic of the situation where the leakage

paths are primarily between floors and not due to leakage through shafts.

Samples were also collected in the forward portion of the main deck and

as in test no. 2 the levels of SF^ were negligible in all these samples.

23
3.2.4 Test No. 4

The burn room for this test was the first assistant engineers

quarters on 03 deck. Because the volume of 03 deck was small a lower

release rate of 4.5 m£/min was used. The supply and exhaust fans were

turned off as in test no. 3. This test was made to determine the

vertical SF^ movement, and figure 11 shows SF^ concentrations on different

decks during this test. The concentrations of SF^ on the decks directly

above and below the fire room were very high. However, the levels of

SFg on all other decks is negligible. Again this type of flow is characteristic of the situation where the leakage is primarily between the

decks. Spot samples were collected at a number of locations on the main

deck and the SF, concentrations in these samples were again negligible,

o

3.2.5 Test No. 5

The burn room for this test was located in the galley on the main

deck. The supply and exhaust systems were again turned off as would be

the case in the event of a real fire. The samples taken on the port and

starboard corridors of the main deck within the first five minutes of

the test had no traceable level of SF , . Once this was realized spot

D samples were taken throughout the forward portion of the main deck. The

primary movement of SF^ was through the galley serving window into the

crew mess and down the corridor and into the boatswain storage area. This flow path is shown in figure 3. A constant flow of air to the

outside was observed through a hatch in the ceiling of the boatswain

storage area. The SF also migrated into the officers mess and the port

D corridor by the galley. The concentrations in these areas were about

one-fourth the concentration in the path from the galley to the boatswain

storage area. Samples were also collected in the forward corridor of

the main deck as well as on all the other decks and the SF, concentrations

6

in all these samples were negligible.

24
3.3 Tests on the Sea-Land Express

The Sea-Land Express is a new container ship with a seven level

house, and the general arrangements of these decks is shown in figures

12-19. The house area was served by two HVAC systems, one for the port

side and another for the starboard side of the house. The air handling

units for these systems are located in two mechanical rooms on the main

deck as shown in figure 13. The basic configuration of the air handling

units is shown in figure 20. The system contains one fan which both

supplies air to living spaces and pulls exhaust air back to the fan coil

units. The proportion of return air to outside air is controlled by

manually adjusting dampers. These units supply conditioned air to the

ship's office on the main deck and to all the spaces on the above decks.

The return air is taken from 02, 03, 04, and 05 decks. On these decks

the return air inlets are located at the ends of the corridor near the

doors to the outside. The return air flows from the conditioned spaces

through door grilles into the corridor and then down the corridor and

into the return inlets. This air then goes back to one of the fan coil

units on the main deck. There are no inlets on the main deck, 01 deck,

and 06 deck. All the air supplied to these decks is either vented to

the outside or exhausted to the outside.

Five simulated smoke movement tests were performed on the Sea-Land

Express. Outside temperatures, wind data, status of the HVAC systems

and the flow rates of SF, are provided in the following table.

D

44

25
Table 2. Summary Data for Tracer Tests on the

Sea-Land Express

Test No.

Outside

Temp (°C)

Wind

^ Speed

(m/s)

Wind

Direction

HVAC

Status

SF, Flow

(mS/min)

1 28 10 45° On 4.5

2 26 10 45° Off 4.5

3 17 6 5° On 4.5

4 13 7 323° Off 4.5

5 11 4 270° Off 4.5

^ Wind data is relative to the ship

The convention for wind directions is the same as that used for the

Exxon Houston, and is given in figure 9. The temperature inside the

ship during all these tests was in the range of 20° to 24°C (68° to

75°F).

3.3.1 Test No. 1

In this test the burn room was located in the first assistant

engineer's office on 04 deck as shown in figure 17. During this test

the HVAC system was in normal operation. This test was conducted to

determine the extent to which the HVAC system would distribute SF^ and

to determine the threat to a crew member trapped in a cabin. The SF^

concentrations on 04 deck are shown in figure 21. Air is drawn from the

burn room down the port corridor to the exhaust grill at the end of the

port corridor. This explains why the concentration at the aft end of

the port corridor is so close to the burn room concentration. The

concentrations at other locations on 04 deck are considerably lower.

SFg samples were collected in the relief officer room (B) which is

located at the end of the port corridor. The concentrations in this

room were slightly lower than the concentration in the air leaving the

26
supply grill in the ceiling of the room. This indicates the SF^ in the

relief officer room (B) was primarily coming from the HVAC system. This

was anticipated because there was a very noticable air flow from the

room to the corridor which would inhibit SF, infiltration to the room

6

from the corridor.

The SF- concentration on the other decks of the ship's house and

D the burn room concentration are shown in figure 22. The concentrations

on the other decks are similar to the concentrations measured in the

relief officer room (B) in figure 21. The SF^ on these other decks was

o transported through the HVAC system and possibly to some extent by

leakage paths between decks.

3.3.2 Test No. 2

This test was the same as test no. 1 except that the HVAC system

was shut off as would be the case in a real fire. A major reason for

this test was to determine the SF, movement to the other decks, and

6

samples were collected on all the other decks throughout the test. The

SF^ concentrations on the other decks were negligible throughout the

test. This showed that there was essentially no vertical leakage within

the ship's house.

In order to determine the threat to a crew member trapped in a cabin, samples were collected in the relief officer room (B) and these are shown in figure 23. The door to the relief officer room (B) had an open return air grill in it and this was obviously the primary path for

the significant quantity of SF, that entered this cabin. The concentrao tions in this cabin were very similar for both tests no. 1 and 2.

However, in test no. 1 the SF^ in this cabin entered primarily through

the HVAC system.

27
3.3.3 Test No. 3

The burn room for this test was the crew lounge on 01 level as shown on figure 14. The HVAC system was operating normally for this

test and the galley exhaust fans were shut off. The SF, concentrations

D for the burn room and other locations on the 01 level are shown in

figure 22. As one might expect, the SF^ concentrations in the 01 level

D corridor decrease with distance from the burn room. The concentration

in the galley was less, but still significant. However, the concen- tration of SF, in the hospital was insignificant. In addition, SF^

D b

samples were also collected on the other decks and the SF, concentrations

b

of these samples were all negligible. This indicates that again there was essentially no vertical leakage within the ship's house even though

the HVAC was operating. The HVAC system did not recirculate the SF^ as in test no. 1 because there are no air returns on level 01 where the SF,

b was released.

3.3.4 Test No. 4

The crew linen locker on level 02 was used as the burn room for

this test as shown in figure 15. The HVAC was shut off as would be the case in a real fire. This test was made to determine the extent of SF,

6

movement on the deck of the burn room and to determine the extent of

vertical SF^ movement. In order to determine the extent of danger to a crew member trapped in a cabin samples were collected in the Chief

Steward's room on 02 level with the door closed. The SF, concentrations

6 on 02 deck for this test are shown in figure 25. The SF^ concentration

in the corridor of 02 deck was quite high. It can be seen from figure

25 that the SF^ level in the Chief Steward's room was significant. As

in the case of test no. 2 this cabin door had an open return air grill

which was obviously the primary path for SF, flowing into the cabin. It

b

is apparent from figure 25 that there was a high level of SF, in the

b

corridors of 02 deck.

28
Samples were also collected on other decks and these concentrations

are shown in figure 26. It can be seen that the SF^ concentrations are essentially zero for all the levels sampled excepted for 05 deck. A

slight quantity of SF^ reached 05 deck, undoubtably by stack effect. A

number of pressure measurements were made in a effort to find the shaft

which transported the SF^ to the 05 level. Unfortunately this was

unsuccessful. In any event the concentration of SF^ on 05 deck was so low that this unidentified leakage path probably presents no serious

threat.

3.3.5 Test No. 5

For this test the first mate's office on 05 deck was used as the

burn room as shown in figure 18. The HVAC system was again shut off as would be the case in a real fire. This test was made to determine if

similar smoke movement would exist when the burn room was on 05 deck as happened on other decks in the test nos. 2 and 4. The SF, concentrations

o from this test are shown in figure 27. As in earlier tests the corridor

concentration was high. Samples were collected in the third mate's room

with the door closed. Again, as in test nos. 2 and 4, the SF^ concentrations in the third mate's room were significant. However, the SF,

D concentrations in the officer lounge were negligible, most likely due to

its distance from the burn room and the fact that it was separated from

the corridor by a closed door. Air samples were also collected on the

other decks and the SF^ concentrations were negligible.

4. DISCUSSION

4.1 Horizontal Smoke Movement

The main emphasis of the tests on the Exxon Houston was vertical

SF^ movement, with the exception of test no. 5. Test no. 5 was the

special case of a simulated galley fire where SF, was carried by the

5

existing air currents out of the ship after passing through the crew's

mess and the boatswains storage. However, on the Sea-Land Express all

29
of the tests clearly indicated only horizontal movement. As might be

expected SF concentrations within the corridor decreased with distance

b

from the burn room. Test nos. 2, 4 and 5 (sections 3.3.2, 3.3.4, and

3.3.5) all show that there is significant SF^ movement from the corridor

into cabins on the fire deck. This SF^ movement was through the ventilation return grills located in the cabin doors.

These grills are located in the lower part of the doors and the

extent of smoke infiltration would probably be somewhat less in the

event of an actual fire due to buoyancy effects. Nonetheless, this

poses a life threat in a real fire situation. In addition, high smoke

concentrations in the corridor would hinder evacuation as well as fire

fighting.

4.2 Vertical Smoke Movement

In test no. 4 on the Sea-Land Express the burn room was 02 level

and the other decks had no SF^ except for a slight quantity on 05 deck,

presumably due to stack effect. There was no evidence of SF^ movement

by stack effect in any of the other tests on the Sea Land Express or on the EXXON Houston.

There was essentially no leakage of SF. between decks on the Sea

b

Land Express (test nos. 2-5). However, there was considerable leakage

of SF^ between decks (test nos. 3 and 4) of the Exxon Houston. While

the exact leakage paths and the events that created them could not be

determined, it is important to remember that such leakage can exist.

Smoke control systems that are developed for merchant vessels should

probably be capable of satisfactory performance even if such leakage

paths exist between decks.

30
4.3 Smoke Control Problem

Based upon the preceding discussion of horizontal and vertical

smoke movement one possible scenario of a fire in a cabin, storage room

or equipment space can be developed. The smoke flows out of the burn

room into the corridor and into the HVAC return. The HVAC system

spreads the smoke throughout the ship's house. Someone smells the smoke

and turns in an alarm, and the HVAC system is shut off. The corridor of

the fire floor is totally obscured. Possibly sleeping crew members are trapped as smoke enters the return grills in their cabin doors. If

there are leakage paths between decks, smoke flows into other decks.

Valuable time is wasted determining on which deck the fire is located.

Once the fire deck is determined, more valuable time is wasted locating

the fire through the obscured corridor. During this wasted time the

fire grows larger and the threat to any trapped crew members becomes

greater.

Ideally a smoke control system including smoke detectors should be

part of the fire protection system in order to limit the smoke movement

problems, and thus allow faster location and extinction of such fires.

4.4 Pressurized Stairwells

Pressurized stairwells (1) provide a means of exit from the fire,

(2) can be used as a staging area for firefighters, and (3) provide air

flow which can clear the corridor of smoke from the corridor to the burn

room door. Air flow from a stairwell to a corridor exists when the

stairwell door is open. In order to clear a corridor of smoke, the air

flow rate into the corridor must be sufficiently large as discussed in

section 2.3.1. The analysis provided in section 2.3.1 is for air

flowing in one direction through a corridor that has essentially no leakage paths in the sidewalls. This is different from the case on a merchant ship which has return air grills in the doors, and further

study is needed. Air for such a system could be provided by the HVAC

system or a special fan.

31
4.5

Zone Smoke Control

The zone smoke control concept could be used to exhaust the smoke

from the fire deck and pressurize the other decks. Such a system would

prevent or reduce smoke leakage through decks. Even though this system

would remove some smoke from the fire deck, obscuration and toxic gases

would still possibly be a problem on the fire deck.

The use of existing HVAC system for zone smoke control poses

problems. HVAC systems that lend themselves to zone smoke control have

separate fans for supply and exhaust. The recirculating HVAC system

(figure 20) has no exhaust fan. The 100 percent outside air system has

both fans but modification to zone smoke control would require expensive

ductwork changes and addition of smoke dampers. Considering the limited

benefit of zone smoke control to the particular smoke problem described

in section 4.3, it is doubtful if such a system would be justified for a retrofit situation. In the case of new ships further study of zone smoke control is in order.

4.6

Pressurized Stairwell with Zone Smoke Control

This system provides the advantages of both systems, i.e., pressurized stairwells and zone smoke control. It can prevent smoke from

moving to other decks and it can provide a smoke free section of corridor

from the stairwell to the burn room when the stairwell door is opened.

However, the same considerations concerning retrofit for the zone smoke

control also apply to this system.

4.7

Smoke Exhaust System

Test nos. 1 and 2 on the Exxon Houston showed that when the HVAC

system was operating, it purged SF^ from the ship house. This is

because this ship has a HVAC system which operates on 100 percent outside air. The exhaust air from the house was used for spot cooling in

the engine room.

32
A possible method of smoke control for such a ship would be to

leave the exhaust system operating during a fire but to duct the exhaust

air directly outside rather than through the engine room. However, even though this system would remove some smoke from the fire deck, obscuration and toxic gases would possibly still be a problem. And, because

this system does not include pressurization of the other decks, smoke

flow to those decks is also possible.

4.8 Test Methods

The tracer tests performed on these two ships provided considerable

information on leakages and the paths of smoke movement in the event of

a real fire. However, because the tracer lacked buoyant forces, obscuration and toxicity, these tests should not be Interpreted as providing

complete information regarding the actual smoke danger presented from a fire.

4.9 Engine Room Fire

As discussed in the introduction, tests could not be performed in the

engine rooms during this test series. However, an important observation

can be made. As in the case of the ship's house, smoke obscuration in

the event of an engine room fire can prolong location and extinguishment

of the fire. This problem is made more severe because of the large size

of the engine room. Furthermore, the potential of an engine room fire

is relatively high due to the presence of fuels and lubricants. This

problem needs further investigation.

5. RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Fire Tests

The use of pressurized stairwells and zone smoke control is feasible

for merchant vessels. Full-scale fire tests are needed (1) to determine

33
the effectiveness of zone smoke control in reducing the levels of

obscuration and of toxic gases on the fire deck and (2) to investigate

the smoke clearing effect of air flowing from an open door of a pressurized stairwell into the fire deck. Emphasis is placed on the fire

deck because reduction of obscuration on this deck can save valuable

time during fire fighting.

5.2

Computer Analysis

It is recommended that a computer model of smoke movement and smoke

control in a merchant ship’s house be developed. This model could be

used as a research tool to gain a better understanding of smoke control

on the fire deck, to extend the test results to other geometries, and to

develop design guidelines.

5.3

Engine Room Fires

It is recommended that a study of smoke control in engine rooms be

undertaken. In these large spaces, buoyancy would be a major driving

force of smoke movement. Accordingly, tracer tests would not be appropriate because of absence of any buoyant force in such tests. The most

appropriate tests would be full-scale fire tests. Possibly a system

which used power venting would be appropriate for engine room fires.

5.4

Passenger Ships

It is recommended that future studies be made concerning smoke

movement and smoke control on passenger ships. The passenger ship is

more complex due to the larger number of people, the more complicated

architecture, and the more complex HVAC systems. Basic information

concerning flow paths and leakages is needed for passenger vessels and

SF^ tests would be an appropriate way in which to obtain this information.

34
5.5 Military Ships

The basic concepts of smoke control discussed in section 2 are also

applicable to military ships. Basic information concerning flow paths

and leakages can be obtained from SF^ tests. Specific solutions to the

smoke control problems on these ships would depend upon specific details

as to the ship’s function, interior ship layout, and type of HVAC

system. Obviously, different solutions would be appropriate for different

ships. The primary goal of such a study would be to reduce smoke obscuration so that the fire could be located and extinguished as quickly as possible.

6 . ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to the Exxon Company and the Sea Land Company who

allowed NBS to test on their merchant ships. In particular, we extend

our appreciation to Captain Ford of the Exxon Houston and Captain Berger

of the Sea-Land Express for their cooperation and for the cooperation of

their officers and crews. Appreciation is also expressed to William

Stull of NBS for his help in performing the tests on the Exxon Houston.

7 . REFERENCES

[1] Benjamin, I. A., Fung, F., and Roth, L. , Control of smoke movement

in buildings: a review, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), NBSIR 77-1209,

July 1977.

[2] Hobson, P. J. and Stewart, L. J., Pressurization of Escape Routes

in Buildings, Heating and Ventilating Research Assn. , Bracknell

Berkshire, England, January 1973.

[3] Fung, F. C. W. , Evaluation of a Pressurized Stairwell Smoke Control

System for a 12 Story Apartment Building, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.),

NBSIR 73-277, June 1973.

[4] McGuire, J. H. and Tamura, G. T., Simple Analysis of Smoke-Flow

Problems in High Buildings, Fire Technology, Vol. 11, No. 1,

pp. 15-22, February 1975.

35
[5] Klote, J. H. j Stairwell Pressurization, ASHRAE Transactions 1980,

American Socieity of Heating Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning

Engineers, Vol. 86, Part I, pp. 604-623, 1980.

[6] Fang, J. B., Static Pressures Produced by Room Fires, Nat. Bur.

Stand. (U.S.), NBSIR 80-1984, February 1980.

[7] Sachs, P., Wind Forces in Engineering, Pergamon Press, New York,

1972.

[8] Houghton, E. L. and Carruther, N. B. , Wind Forces on Buildings and

Structures, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1976.

[9] Simiu, E. and Scanlan, R. H. , Wind Effects on Structures: An

Introduction to Wind Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York,

1978.

[10] MacDonald, A. J., Wind loading on Buildings, John Wiley & Sons, New

York, 1975.

[11] Thomas, P. H. , Movement of Smoke in Horizontal Corridors Against an Air Flow, Institution of Fire Engineers, Quarterly, Vol. 30, No.

77, pp. 45-53, 1970.

[12] Fung, C. W. F. and Zile, R. H. , Test and Evaluation of the Smoke

Control Capabilities of the San Diego Veterans Administration

Hospital, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), NBSIR 77-1225, April 1977.

[13] Fung, C. W. F. and Ferguson, J. B., Test and Evaluation of the

Smoke Control Features of the Seattle Federal Building, International Conference on Firesafety in High-Rise Buildings, General

Services Administration, November 1974.

[14] Integrated Systems, Inc., Smoke Movement Studies at the NIH

Clinical Center, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), NBS-GCR-79-183, November

1979.

[15] Code for Safety to Life from Fire in Buildings and Structures,

NFPA 101-1981, National Fire Protection Association, Inc.,

Batterymach Park, Quincy, MA, 1981, 5-2. 1.1. 4. 3.

[16] Klote, J. H. , Smoke Control by Stairwell Pressurization, Engineering

Applications of Fire Technology Workshop, Society of Fire Protection

Engineers, Boston, MA, to be published.

[17] Klote, J. H. , A Computer Program for Analysis of Pressurized

Stairwells and Pressurized Elevator Shafts, Nat. Bur. Stand.

(U.S.), NBSIR 80-2157, January 1981.

36
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39

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NBS»114A (REV. 2-80

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET (See instructions)

L PUBLICATION OR

REPORT NO,

NBSIR 81- 2h23

2o Performing Organ. Report NoJ 3. Publication Date

I January 1982

4, TITLE AND SUBTITLE

SMOKE MOVEMENT AND SMOKE CONTROL ON MERCHANT SHIPS

So AUTHOR(S)

John H. Klote and Richard H. Zile

6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION (If joint or other than N BS, see instructions)

national bureau of standards

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

7. Contract/Grant No.

8. Type of Report & Period Covered

Final Report

9. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS (Street. City, State, ZIP)

U.S. COAST GUARD

OFFICE OF MERCHANT MARINE SAFETY

WASHINGTON, D.C, 20593

10.

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

1^2] Document describes a computer program; SF-185, FIPS Software Summary, is attached.

11.

ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most significant information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here)

In the past ten years considerable progress has been made in developing

systems to control smoke movement in building fires. At present no such smoke

control systems are in use on merchant ships. This paper discusses the basic

concepts of smoke movement and smoke control with emphasis upon shipboard

applicability. A report of simulated smoke movement tests performed on two

merchant vessels is presented. Based upon these test results potential

methods of smoke control for merchant vessels are discussed. Recommendations

are made for future study.

12.

KEY WORDS (S/'x to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only proper names; and separate kev words by semicolon s) Ships; smoke control; smoke movement; stack effect; sulfur hexaflouride;

tracer tests; ventilation systems.

13. AVAILABILITY

Sunl imited

I I For Official Distribution. Do Not Release to NTIS

[~n Order From Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

20402.

Order From National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, VA. 22161

14. NO. OF

PRINTED PAGES

67

15. Price

$9 .00

USCOMM-DC 6043-P80

iIif