U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Data Series 898

Basement Domain Map of the Conterminous 

United States and Alaska
Cover: Isoclinally folded Paleoproterozoic tonalite orthogneiss from newly identified Wallace domain basement, northern Idaho.
Basement Domain Map of the 

Conterminous United States and Alaska

By Karen Lund, S.E. Box, C.S. Holm-Denoma, C.A. San Juan, R.J. Blakely, 

R.W. Saltus, E.D. Anderson, and E.H. DeWitt

Data Series 898

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

SALLY JEWELL, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2015

For more information on the USGS—the Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural and living 

resources, natural hazards, and the environment, visit http://www.usgs.gov or call 1–888–ASK–USGS.

For an overview of USGS information products, including maps, imagery, and publications, 

visit http://www.usgs.gov/pubprod

To order this and other USGS information products, visit http://store.usgs.gov

Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the 

U.S. Government.

Although this information product, for the most part, is in the public domain, it also may contain copyrighted materials 

as noted in the text. Permission to reproduce copyrighted items must be secured from the copyright owner.

Suggested citation:

Lund, Karen, Box, S.E., Holm-Denoma, C.S., San Juan, C.A., Blakely, R.J., Saltus, R.W., Anderson, E.D., and 

DeWitt, E.H., 2015, Basement domain map of the conterminous United States and Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey 

Data Series 898, 41 p., http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/ds898.

ISSN 2327-638X (online)
iii

Contents

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................1

Origin and Growth of Crust Types ...............................................................................................................2

Origin of Crust Types ..........................................................................................................................11

Mechanisms of Continental Growth................................................................................................11

Secular Evolution of Domains, Their Tectonic Origins, and Crust Types............................................11

Early Earth Domains ...........................................................................................................................11

Sialic Protocontinent.................................................................................................................11

Lateral-Extensional Orogen .....................................................................................................12

Intracratonic Mobile Belt .........................................................................................................13

Supercontinental Cycle Domains.....................................................................................................13

Metals Endowments....................................................................................................................................14

Metal Endowments Characteristic of Archean and Proterozoic Domains...............................17

Metal Endowments Characteristic of Phanerozoic Domains .....................................................18

Discussion.....................................................................................................................................................18

Basement Concepts and Map Construction ..................................................................................18

Role of Basement in Formation of Mineral Deposits ...................................................................20

Summary........................................................................................................................................................24

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................27

Figures

1. Map of basement domains of the conterminous United States and Alaska ......................3

2. Index map of basement-domain study regions in the United States.................................19

3. Map of a time-slice reconstruction of United States basement domains according 

to the time when each domain was added to the continent...............................................21

4. Map of basement domains that formed as oceanic arc crust............................................22

5. Map of basement domains that potentially contain geologic environments 

conducive to formation of porphyry-type mineral deposits ................................................23

6. Map of basement domains overlaid on the North American magnetic map ...................25

7. Map of basement domains showing gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc and other 

deposits of the conterminous United States and Alaska.....................................................26

Tables

1. Basement domains of the United States including Alaska ...................................................4

2. Primary metal endowments of geologic environments that may be present in 

each crust type interpreted for basement domains in the United States .........................15

3. Status of compilation for each study region of the United States .....................................20
iv

Abbreviations Used in This Report

b.y. billion years

m.y. million years

sedex sedimentary exhalative

PGE platinum-group elements

REE rare-earth elements

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

VMS volcanogenic massive sulfide
Abstract

The basement-domain map is a compilation of basement domains in the conterminous United States and Alaska 

designed to be used at 1:5,000,000-scale, particularly as a 

base layer for national-scale mineral resource assessments. 

Seventy-seven basement domains are represented as eightythree polygons on the map. The domains are based on interpretations of basement composition, origin, and architecture and 

developed from a variety of sources. Analysis of previously 

published basement, lithotectonic, and terrane maps as well as 

models of planetary development were used to formulate the 

concept of basement and the methodology of defining domains 

that spanned the ages of Archean to present but formed 

through different processes. The preliminary compilations for 

the study areas utilized these maps, national-scale gravity and 

aeromagnetic data, published and limited new age and isotopic 

data, limited new field investigations, and conventional geologic maps. Citation of the relevant source data for compilations and the source and types of original interpretation, as 

derived from different types of data, are provided in supporting descriptive text and tables.

The tectonic settings for crustal types represented in the 

basement domains are subdivided into constituent geologic 

environments and the types of primary metals endowments 

and deposits in them are documented. The compositions, 

architecture, and original metals endowments are potentially 

important to assessments of primary mineral deposits and 

to the residence and recycling of metals in the crust of the 

United States portion of the North American continent. The 

databases can be configured to demonstrate the construction 

of the United States through time, to identify specific types 

of crust, or to identify domains potentially containing metal 

endowments of specific genetic types or endowed with specific 

metals. The databases can also be configured to illustrate other 

purposes chosen by users.

Introduction

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) conducts mineral 

resource assessments at a variety of scales including the 

national scale. Such studies help ensure adequate mineral 

supplies and effective stewardship of resources in the future, a 

critical conclusion of the National Mineral Resource Assessment of 1995 (U.S. Geological Survey National Mineral 

Resource Assessment Team, see Schruben, 2002). A challenge in assessing mineral resources at the national scale is 

in employing systematic and uniform approaches based on 

methodologies and datasets appropriate to that broad scale. 

For example, national-scale assessments can be frustrated 

by traditional geologic maps that portray surface geology 

and widespread cover sequences, that are commonly at more 

detailed scales, and that are not integrated across political 

boundaries. Geologic map data are generally inappropriate 

for identifying broad national-scale mineral endowments and 

mineralizing processes because they depict the surface geology that commonly conceals the mineralized (or source) rocks 

and fundamental geologic structures. Research into crustal 

metal endowments, mineral belts, and mining districts as a 

means of discriminating mineral resource trends is needed to 

improve the accuracy and validity of mineral resource models 

and assessments.

In considering regional crustal processes in relation to ore 

deposits, Titley (2001), using models of metallogenic provinces (Petrascheck, 1965), explored the concept that basement 

(defined as

“...The crust of the Earth below sedimentary deposits, extending downward to the Mohorovičić discontinuity. In many places the rocks of the complex are 

igneous and metamorphic and of Precambrian age, 

but in some places they are Paleozoic, Mesozoic, 

or even Cenozoic.” (American Geological Institute, 

2008, p. 57)) 

Basement Domain Map of the Conterminous United States 

and Alaska

By Karen Lund, S.E. Box, C.S. Holm-Denoma, C.A. San Juan, R.J. Blakely, R.W. Saltus, E.D. Anderson, and 

E.H. DeWitt
2 Basement Domain Map of the Conterminous United States and Alaska

composition and architecture are fundamental and critical 

elements of metallogenesis on a lithospheric scale. Previous 

USGS mineral resource evaluations do not adequately consider this concept, that basement characteristics (including age 

and formation processes) influenced the nature or distribution 

of mineral deposits. Maps of basement domains based on their 

origin and composition (as opposed to maps limited to the 

cratonal portions or tectonic maps) of the entire United States 

remain unavailable. In the context of regional to national 

resource assessments, this lack of consistent information 

makes it difficult to incorporate data about the basement. 

This study presents an interpretation of the inherent 

composition, origin, and architecture of the largely unexposed 

basement underlying the United States in order to produce a 

national-scale map of basement domains. The map reflects 

a new approach for investigating mineral deposit systems in 

the context of whether they formed (1) as part of the primary 

tectonic setting of basement domains, (2) by processes that 

thickened the original crust to form continental crust, or (3) in 

special cases, during multiple reactivations of crust and structures by younger, superposed orogenic events. Although many 

of the domains portrayed in this map continue into Canada and 

Mexico, maps showing post-Laurentian basement domains 

of all ages are not available for those areas. The main goal 

of this study is to identify domains that compose the United 

States portion of North American basement for the purpose of 

evaluating original metal endowments in basement domains 

at a national scale. The suggested scale for use of the map is 

1:5,000,000 to match other national datasets used in national 

assessments by the Mineral Resources Program.

Origin and Growth of Crust Types

Continental crust (defined as “That type of the Earth’s 

crust which underlies the continents and the continental 

shelves: it is equivalent to the sial,...” (American Geological 

Institute, 2008, p. 139)) forms where preexisting mafic crust 

and overlying supracrustal rocks are modified and thickened 

during intracrustal tectonic events that produce deposition, 

deformation, metamorphism, partial melting, underplating, 

and magmatism (Rudnick and Gao, 2003; Hawkesworth and 

others, 2010). Continental crust contains basement domains of 

widely differing origins and evolutionary histories. The most 

widely recognized basement domains are shield and platform 

blocks (cratons that have been stable and undisturbed for 

about 1 billion years (b.y.)) that formed as ancient (generally 

during Archean and Paleoproterozoic time, possibly extending 

into the early Mesoproterozoic) orogenic belts. Other basement domains include younger (Mesoproterozoic to the present) blocks that formed in extensional or collisional orogenic 

belts. In both cases, reworked juvenile igneous crust evolved 

to continental crust and ultimately to basement (Cawood and 

others, 2013). The basement domain map presented herein 

portrays the U.S. basement inclusive of both buried and 

exposed subaerial continental crust and submerged continental 

crust on continental shelves (fig. 1).

In general, maps and studies of U.S. basement are 

restricted to and portray only exposed or inferred Precambrian continental basement (for example, Condie, 1982; Hoffman, 1988; Sims, 1990; Boerboom and others, 2005; Sims 

and others, 2005; Holm and others, 2007; Whitmeyer and 

Karlstrom, 2007). It is also common in some contexts to consider crystalline rocks beneath younger cover successions as 

“basement.” The important difference between the basement 

map presented in this study and most maps of U.S. basement 

is the concept that relatively young basement domains also 

formed from original juvenile components. Thus, although 

commonly more limited in definition, the term “basement” 

as used herein is not restricted to Precambrian cratons. The 

concept of metamorphic rocks as basement does not match 

the definition of basement given previously. By using criteria 

widely applied to identification either of terranes or of cratons 

(but not usually combined), the term basement as used herein 

encompasses the fundamental crustal elements of all ages that 

compose basement in the conterminous United States and 

Alaska. Combinations of geochemical, geophysical, geological, and age characteristics (table 1) identify domains as 

discrete entities. Data table 1 illustrates the variety of tectonic 

settings and processes that formed and transformed juvenile 

rocks into continental basement.
Figure 1. Basement domains of conterminous United States and Alaska.

140°

40°

30°

60°

180°

140°

160°

70°

60°

20°

50°

10°

130° 120° 110° 100° 90° 80° 70° 

0 250 500 750 0 250 50

0 500 1,000 KILOMETERS0 250 500 MILES

Western Quesnellia

Cascadia

Siletzia

Calaveras-Baker

Foothills-Wallowa

Shoofly-Olds Ferry

Wallace

Farmington-Selway

Broooks-Seward

Koyukuk-Selawik

Unalakleet north

Koyukuk-Yukon delta

Koyukuk-Holycross

Koyukuk-Toksook

Koyukuk-Bethel Basin

Farewell-Kilbuck

Walrus-Goodnews

Peninsular-Bristol

Peninsular-Talkeetna

Yakutat-Malaspina

Yakutat-Pamplona

Yakutat-Dangerous

Alexander Taku

Wrangellia

Windy-McKinley

Windy-McKinley

Yukon-Tanana lower

Farewell-Innoko-Idono

Koyukuk-Indian Mountain

Koyukuk north

Brooks Range

Brooks -Northslope Mag

Brooks -Northslope1

Koyukuk-Anvik

Porcupine Farewell buried

Farewell-McGrath

Wickersham

Rudy

Yukon-Tanana upper

Laurentiatriangle

Peninsular-Iliamna Chulitna-Broad Pass

Peninsular-Tlikakila

Walrus-Togiak

Chugach

Nyac

Unalakleet south

Grouse Creek

Great Valley Great Plains

Mid-continent

Mojave

Mazatzal

Shawnee

Laurentides

SCAB

E

Carolinia

Gand

Superior

Dakota Superior Superior Mid-continent

Minnesota River

Minnesota River

Charleston

Suwannee-Wiggins

Piedmontia

Sabine

Salinia

Franciscan

Golconda-Roberts Mountain

Wyoming

Medicine Hat

Great Falls

Okanogan

Kootenay

Pend Oreille
Table 1. Basement domains of the United States including Alaska (see fig. 1 for basement domain map).—Continued Domain_Name Alternate_Name Crust_Type Crust_Formation_Age Accretion_Type Accretion_Age References_ 

Minnesota River -- Sialic protocontinent 3600–3000 Ma -- -- Sims and others, 1987; Hoff- man, 1988; Bickford and others, 2006; Schmitz and others, 2006 Superior -- Sialic protocontinent 2750–2600 Ma Collisional 2.7–2.5 Ga Gibbs and others, 1984; Sims and others, 1987; Hoffman, 1988; Bickford and others, 2006; Schmitz and others, 2006; van Schmus and oth- ers, 2007 Dakota Trans-Hudson Intracratonic mobile belt 1848–1750 Ma -- -- Dutch and Nielson, 1990; Ross and others, 1991; Sims and others, 1991; Dahl and oth- ers, 1999, 2006; Schneider and others, 2007; McCor- mick, 2010 Mojave Mojavia Lateral- extensional orogen 1840 Ma -- -- Wooden and DeWitt, 1991; Barth and others, 2000; Due- bendorfer and others, 2006; Bickford and Hill, 2007; Whitmeyer and Karlstrom, 2007; Mueller and others, 2011; Nelson and others, 

2011

Great Plains Yavapai Lateralextensional orogen 1800–1720 Ma -- 1.71–1.68 Ga Sims and others, 1987; Carlson, 2007; Whitmeyer and Karlstrom, 2007 Mazatzal -- Lateralextensional orogen 1720–1650 Ma -- 1.65–1.62 Ga Sims and others, 1987; Van Schmus and others, 2007; 

Whitmeyer and Karlstrom, 2007; Jones and others, 2013

Mid-continent Keweenawan Intracontinental 

rift

1100–1000 Ma -- -- Van Schmus and Hinze, 1985; 

Sims and others, 1987; Van Schmus and others, 2007

Wyoming -- Sialic

protocontinent

3500–3200 Ma -- -- Graff and others, 1982; Tosdal 

and others, 2000; Mueller and others, 2004; Mueller and Frost, 2006; Foster and others, 2006; Grauch and others, 2003; Rodriguez and Williams, 2008
Table 1. Basement domains of the United States including Alaska (see fig. 1 for basement domain map).—Continued

Domain_Name Alternate_Name Crust_Type Crust_Formation_Age Accretion_Type Accretion_Age References_ 

Pend Oreille -- Sialic

protocontinent

2670–2650 Ma -- -- Whitehouse and others, 1992; 

Doughty and others, 1998; Doughty and Chamberlain, 2008; Lewis and others, 2011; Brown and others, 2012

Medicine Hat -- Sialic

protocontinent

3300–2600 Ma -- -- Ross and others, 1991; Boerner 

and others, 1998; Buhlmann and others, 2000; Lemieux and others, 2000

Grouse Creek -- Sialic

protocontinent

2700–2600 Ma -- -- Cameron, 2010; Strickland and 

others, 2011

Farmington-Selway -- Intracratonic 

mobile belt

1670 Ma -- -- Leeman and others, 1985; Wolf 

and others, 2005; Foster and others, 2006; Mueller and others, 2011; Nelson and others, 2011; Strickland and others, 2011

Wallace -- Intracratonic 

mobile belt

1870 Ma -- -- Armstrong and others, 1977; 

Armstrong, 1988; Mueller and others, 1995; Foster and Fanning, 1997; Foster and others, 2006; Doughty and Chamberlain, 2007; Lewis and others, 2011

Great Falls -- Intracratonic 

mobile belt

1870–1790 Ma -- -- O’Neill and Lopez, 1985; 

Lemieux and others, 2000; Kellogg and others, 2003; Mueller and others, 2002, 2005; Vogl and others, 2004

Kootenay -- Passive margin 780–500 Ma Collisional Jurassic Colpron and Price, 1995 Western Quesnellia -- Oceanic arc 385–175 Ma Collisional 170 Ma Cheney and others, 1994; 

Roback and Walker, 1995; Dostal and others, 2001; Unterschutz and others, 2002

Okanogan -- Oceanic arc 320–250 Ma Collisional Mesozoic Brown and others, 2012 
Table 1. Basement domains of the United States including Alaska (see fig. 1 for basement domain map).—Continued Domain_Name Alternate_Name Crust_Type Crust_Formation_Age Accretion_Type Accretion_Age References_ 

Shawnee Granite-rhyolite, Llano Lateral- extensional orogen 1550–1350 Ma in situ cratonization 1.45–1.35 Van Schmus and others, 1996; McLelland and others, 1993; Mosher, 1998; Patchett and Ruiz, 1989 SCAB Southern and central Appala- chian basement Extensional accretionary orogen 1400–1100 Ma Collisional 1.1 Ga Fischer and others, 2010; Loewy and others, 2003; Tohver and others, 2004 Laurentides Blue Ridge- Taconide Passive margin 1250–750 Ma Collisional Late Ordovician- Early Silurian Williams, 1978; Stanley and Ratcliffe, 1985; Barr and others, 1998; Hibbard and others, 2006, 2010 Carolinia Carolina and (or) Raleigh Oceanic arc 670 Ma Collisional Devonian Hibbard and others, 2006, 2007 Charleston Brunswick Oceanic arc 1000–542 Ma Collisional -- Horton and others, 1989; Hatcher and others, 2010 Piedmontia Peri-Laurentia Extensional accretionary orogen 1000–416 Ma Collisional Devonian and younger Drake, 1989; Horton and oth- ers, 1989; Horton and others, 2010; Tull and others, 2014 Ganderia -- Passive margin 630–488 Ma Collisional 455–423 Ma van Staal and others, 2009 Meguma -- Passive margin 542–472 Ma Transpressional Famennian Hadley, 1970; van Staal, 2007; 

van Staal and others, 2009

ECMA East Coast Magnetic Anomaly Large igneous province 228–176 Ma Magmatic -- Eldholm and others, 2000 Suwannee-Wiggins Peri-Gondwana Passive margin 530–511 Ma Collisional 325–300 Ma Dallmeyer, 1989; Thomas, 

1991, 2010; Horton and others, 1991; Heatherington and others, 2010; Shaulis and others, 2012

Sabine -- Continental arc 360–299 Ma Collisional 325–309 Ma Viele and Thomas, 1989; 

Keppie and Ramos, 1999; Poole and others, 2005
Table 1. Basement domains of the United States including Alaska (see fig. 1 for basement domain map).—Continued

Domain_Name Alternate_Name Crust_Type Crust_Formation_Age Accretion_Type Accretion_Age References_ 

Salinia Salinian block Lateralextensional orogen 1700 Ma Strike-slip 30–0 Ma Mattinson and James, 1985; Barth and others, 2003; 

Barbeau and others, 2005

Golconda-Roberts 

Mountain

-- Accretionary 

wedge

380–350 Ma Collisional 350 Ma Dickinson, 2006; Wright and 

Wyld, 2006; Holm-Denoma and others, 2011

Shoofly-Olds Ferry -- Oceanic arc 365–187 Ma Collisional 135 Ma Edelman and others, 1989; 

Snow and Scherer, 2006; Northrup and others, 2011

Calaveras-Baker -- Accretionary 

wedge

315–215 Ma Collisional 135 Ma Hacker, 1993; Vallier, 1995; 

Dickinson, 2008; Dorsey and Lamaskin, 2008

Foothills-Wallowa -- Oceanic arc 280–165 Ma Collisional 135 Ma Vallier, 1995; Dickinson, 2008; 

Dorsey and Lamaskin, 2008; Ernst and others, 2008

Great Valley -- Oceanic basin 175–165 Ma Magmatic? 165 Ma Cady, 1975; Shervais and 

others, 2005

Franciscan Franciscan 

equivalents

Accretionary 

wedge

165–50 Ma Underthrusting 165–50 Ma Saleeby, 1982; Ernst, 2011; 

Snow and others, 2010; Wakabayashi and others, 2007

Siletzia -- Oceanic basin 60–50 Ma Collisional 50 Ma Babcock and others, 1992; 

Parsons and others, 1999

Cascadia -- Accretionary 

wedge

50–0 Ma Underthrusting 50–0 Ma Tréhu and others, 1994, 2012; 

Stewart and Brandon, 2004

Farewell-InnokoIdono -- Continental arc 2600–2100 Ma Collisional 135–115 Ma Miller and others, 1991; Brad- ley and others, 2014 Farewell-Kilbuck -- Continental arc 2600–2100 Ma Collisional 135–115 Ma Box and others, 1990; MollStalcup and others, 1996 Laurentia triangle -- Continental arc 2450–1850 Ma Collisional 1.85 Ga Villeneuve and Theriault, 1991; 

Gehrels and others, 1999; Pilkington and Saltus, 2007

Brooks-Northslope1 -- Passive margin 2000 Ma -- -- Moore and others, 1994, 1997; 

Fuis and others, 2008 

Brooks-Northslope 

Mag

-- Passive margin 2000 Ma -- -- Moore and others, 1994; Saltus 

and others, 2006
Table 1. Basement domains of the United States including Alaska (see fig. 1 for basement domain map).—Continued Domain_Name Alternate_Name Crust_Type Crust_Formation_Age Accretion_Type Accretion_Age References_ 

Brooks Range -- Passive margin 2000 Ma -- -- Moore and others, 1994; Fuis and others, 2008 Till and others, 2008 Ruby -- Passive margin 2000 Ma -- -- Arth and others, 1989a; Roeske and others, 1995, 2006 Brooks-Seward -- Passive margin 2000 Ma -- -- Akinin and others, 2009; Amato and others, 2009; Till and others, 2011 Farewell-McGrath -- Passive margin 2000 Ma -- -- McClelland and others, 1999; Bradley and others, 2003 Porcupine -- Passive margin 2000–1000 Ma -- 1–2 Ga Dover, 1994; Till and others, 2006; Saltus and Hudson, 2007 Farewell buried -- Back-arc basin 1000 Ma -- -- McClelland and others, 1999; Bradley and others, 2003 Yukon-Tanana upper -- Passive margin 700–350 Ma Collisional/StrSlip 215 Ma Dusel-Bacon and Williams, 2009; Piercey and Colpron, 2009 Yukon-Tanana lower -- Passive margin 700–350 Ma Collisional/StrSlip 215 Ma Hansen and Dusel-Bacon, 1998; Dusel-Bacon and Williams, 2009; Piercey and Colpron, 2009 Wickersham -- Passive margin 700–350 Ma Collisional/StrSlip 215 Ma Moore and Nokleberg, 1988; 

Bradley and others, 2007; Dusel-Bacon and Williams, 2009

Alexander -- Oceanic arc 600 Ma Collisional/StrSlip 140 Ma Samson and others, 1989, 1991; 

Gehrels and Berg, 1994

Taku -- Passive margin 380 Ma Collisional 140 Ma Rubin and Saleeby, 1991; 

Gehrels and Berg, 1994

Chulitna-Broad Pass -- Oceanic arc 380 Ma Collisional/StrSlip 80 Ma Clautice and Newberry, 2006; 

Gilman and others, 2009; Hampton and others, 2009

Peninsular-Iliamna -- Oceanic arc 310 Ma Collisional 80 Ma Reed and Lanphere, 1973; 

Detterman and others, 1996; Bacon and others, 2012

Wrangellia -- Oceanic arc 310 Ma Collisional 80 Ma Aleinikoff and others, 1988; 

Glen and others, 2007; Greene and others, 2010
Table 1. Basement domains of the United States including Alaska (see fig. 1 for basement domain map).—Continued

Domain_Name Alternate_Name Crust_Type Crust_Formation_Age Accretion_Type Accretion_Age References_ 

Walrus-Goodnews -- Accretionary 

wedge

280–135 Ma Collisional 135–115 Ma Box and others, 1993; Decker 

and others, 1994

Windy-McKinley -- Passive margin 275 Ma Collisional/StrSlip 100 Ma Nokleberg and others, 1994; 

Nokleberg and others, 2007; Hampton and others, 2009

Walrus-Togiak -- Oceanic arc 225–135 Ma Collisional 135–115 Ma Box and others, 1993; Decker 

and others, 1994; Miller and others, 2007

Peninsular-Bristol -- Oceanic arc 215–185 Ma Collisional 80 Ma Marlow and Cooper, 1980; 

Cooper and Marlow, 1983

Peninsular-Talkeetna -- Oceanic arc 215–185 Ma Collisional 80 Ma Detterman and others, 1996; 

Hacker and others, 2008, 2011; Farris, 2009

Peninsular-Tlikakila -- Accretionary 

wedge

180 Ma Underthrusting 80 Ma Wallace and others, 1989; 

Amato and others, 2007

Koyukuk-Bethel 

Basin

-- Oceanic arc 175–125 Ma Collisional 135–115 Ma Hoare, 1961; Patton and Box, 

1989; DGGS Staff and others, 1995

Koyukuk-Toksook -- Oceanic arc 175–125 Ma Collisional 135–115 Ma Box and Patton, 1989; Patton 

and Box, 1989

Koyukuk-Holycross -- Oceanic arc 175–125 Ma Collisional 135–115 Ma Hoare, 1961; Box and Patton, 

1989; Patton and Box, 1989

Koyukuk-Yukon 

delta

-- Oceanic arc 175–125 Ma Collisional 135–115 Ma Hoare and Condon, 1962; Box 

and Patton, 1989; Patton and Box, 1989

Unalakleet south -- Back-arc basin 175–125 Ma Collisional 135–115 Ma Patton and Box, 1989; Patton 

and Moll-Stalcup, 1996; Patton and others, 2009

Koyukuk-Anvik -- Oceanic arc 175–125 Ma Collisional 135–115 Ma Box and Patton, 1989; MollStalcup and Arth, 1989; 

Patton and Box, 1989; Patton and others, 2009

Unalakleet north -- Back-arc basin 175–125 Ma Collisional 135–115 Ma Patton and Box, 1989; Patton 

and Moll-Stalcup, 1996; Patton and others, 2009

Koyukuk-Indian 

Mountain

-- Oceanic arc 175–125 Ma Collisional 135–115 Ma Arth and others, 1989b; Box 

and Patton, 1989; Patton and Box, 1989; Patton and others, 2009
Table 1. Basement domains of the United States including Alaska (see fig. 1 for basement domain map).—Continued Domain_Name Alternate_Name Crust_Type Crust_Formation_Age Accretion_Type Accretion_Age References_ 

Koyukuk-Selawik -- Oceanic arc 175–125 Ma Collisional 135–115 Ma Arth and others, 1989b; Box and Patton, 1989; Patton and Box, 1989; Patton and others, 2009 Koyukuk north -- Oceanic arc 175–125 Ma Collisional 135–115 Ma Box and Patton, 1989; Patton and Box, 1989; Patton and others, 2009 Nyac -- Oceanic arc 170–110 Ma Collisional 135–110 Ma Box and others, 1993; Decker and others, 1994; Wenz, 2005 Chugach -- Accretionary wedge 75–0 Ma Underthrusting 75–0 Ma Plafker and others, 1994; Amato and Pavlis, 2010; von Huene and others, 2012 Yakutat-Pamplona -- Large igneous province 55 Ma Collisional/StrSlip 50–0 Ma Plafker and others, 1994; Worthington and others, 2012 Yakutat-Dangerous -- Large igneous province 55 Ma Collisional/StrSlip 50–0 Ma Plafker and others, 1994; Worthington and others, 2012 Yakutat-Malaspina -- Large igneous province 55 Ma Collisional/StrSlip 50–0 Ma Plafker and others, 1994; Worthington and others, 2012 
Secular Evolution of Domains, Their Tectonic Origins, and Crust Types 11

Origin of Crust Types

The compositions, original tectonic settings, and 

basement-forming processes associated with the large Archean 

and early Proterozoic basement core of the United States 

(central and southwestern parts of Laurentia) differ in many 

respects from those prevalent in the later Proterozoic and the 

Phanerozoic. Cratonization occurred by a variety of “premodern” tectonic processes (that is, ancient tectonic processes may 

have operated at different geographic or time scales than do 

more modern processes). Some premodern processes may have 

been unique to that time period owing to secular evolution of 

the planet (Pollack, 1986; Dewey, 2007; Petit, 2010; Rollinson, 

2010; Van Kranendonk, 2010; Nagel and others, 2012).

By Mesoproterozoic to Neoproterozoic time, prevailing 

tectonic processes had begun to transition into those consistent 

with modern (Mesoproterozoic to the present) processes. Late 

Mesoproterozoic and younger crustal domains in the United 

States and Alaska were modified and thickened into continental crust but were not cratonized, as were the older domains. 

Interpreting original tectonic setting is commonly difficult 

because orogenic activity may have dismembered or incompletely preserved the original associations (that is, accretionary 

prisms are identified as part of volcanic arc settings but also 

in some cases as domain fragments). The basement domain 

map presented here does not portray orogenic events that 

overprinted basement domains (and their structural, metamorphic, or igneous manifestations), although a tectonic map that 

portrays those events could be developed as a derivative of 

this basement domain map. 

Mechanisms of Continental Growth

Modern continents grow—add crust to a continental 

margin—through three basic accretion processes. A common mechanism is accretion of both exotic and native crustal 

fragments along consumptive plate boundaries (Condie, 2005; 

Kearey and others, 2009). The exotic fragments may consist 

of more primitive crustal fragments, such as seamount, island 

arc chain, oceanic plateau, and backarc or oceanic basin. 

Other fragments may be native continental blocks transported and reattached. A second mechanism accretes crust 

as a consequence of failed rifting and extensional orogenesis 

within continents. A third, less commonly discussed, extensional process that also results in continental growth involves 

prolonged slab-rollback (or slab-retreat) processes associated 

with lateral growth (for example, extensional accretionary 

orogens, Collins, 2002a,b). In modern examples, this type of 

continental growth involves complex, short-lived (≈10 million years (m.y.)), and laterally extensive tectonic switching 

in the continent-fringing backarc region. It is a consequence 

of transient slab rollback (relative to the overriding plate) 

and resultant local rifting and basin inversion in the overriding plate (Betts and Giles, 2006; Gray and others, 2007). The 

backarc region may evolve into continental crust (Cawood and 

others, 2011) through as much as 250 m.y. (Collins, 2002b).

The secular evolution of the planet requires that tectonic 

processes changed during the more than 4 b.y. history of U.S. 

basement geology. The accretionary processes described in 

the previous paragraph are those operative in modern tectonism, but these processes had ancient tectonic analogues that 

also formed basement. In particular, Archean greenstone belt 

domains were formed by tectonic processes that are not presently operative (Adam and others, 2012). High heat production (radiogenic heat and residual heat from planet formation 

and amalgamation processes) during the Archean depleted 

incompatible elements of the mantle during formation of early 

oceanic crust (Rollinson, 2010; Van Kranendonk, 2010; Polat, 

2012). Hybrid or protomodern tectonic processes may have 

been responsible for formation of other domains such as late 

Paleoproterozoic to Mesoproterozoic domains.

Relations among domains are complicated where 

basement that formed in one setting becomes a fundamental element reworked in a second crust-building event (for 

instance, passive marginal basin was converted to extensional 

accretionary orogen in the Piedmont domain of the Appalachian region (Barr and others, 1998; van Staal and others, 

1998; Tull and others, 2014). A second complication involves 

native fragments that originally formed as part of proto–North 

America but translated or rifted and subsequently reattached; 

both the eastern and western Laurentian Phanerozoic margins grew by means of this style of tectonic amalgamation. 

Determining the geospatial origin of the affected fragments 

is correspondingly difficult (Wyld and Wright, 2001; Hibbard 

and others, 2006; Colpron and others, 2007; Lund and others, 

2008). Another structural complication, difficult to portray 

on a two-dimensional map, is the obduction of one crustal 

domain over another.

Secular Evolution of Domains, Their 

Tectonic Origins, and Crust Types

Early Earth Domains

Much about early Earth crust-forming processes is controversial, but most agree that the operative tectonic processes 

differed in important ways from those involved in “modern” 

late Proterozoic and Phanerozoic basement formation (Armstrong, 1991; Hamilton 1998; Shervais, 2006; Hawkesworth 

and others, 2010; Rollinson, 2010; Van Kranendonk, 2010; 

Adam and others, 2012; Polat, 2012). The number and scale 

of early sialic protocontinental masses is also controversial 

because of their poor preservation and extremely limited exposure (Bleeker, 2003; Condie, 2007).

Sialic Protocontinent

The oldest rocks in the Archean sialic protocontinental 

domains are ultramafic (such as high-magnesium komatiite) 

and mafic volcanic rocks that reflect extraction of large 
12 Basement Domain Map of the Conterminous United States and Alaska

volumes of magma from the mantle at oceanic ridges, as 

a consequence of high heat production in the mantle (Rollinson, 2010; Van Kranendonk, 2010; Polat, 2012). Closely 

associated supracrustal volcanogenic turbiditic sedimentary 

rocks were deposited in associated ocean basins. Other mafic 

to felsic volcanic rocks, plutonic rocks, and related volcanogenic sedimentary rocks may have formed in proto-oceanic 

arcs (Van Kranendonk, 2010; Polat, 2012). High temperature gradients prevailing in the Archean [?] crust resulted in 

greenstone- and eclogite-facies metamorphism and the partial 

melting of mafic to ultramafic crust; early-style subduction 

caused greenschist to amphibolite facies metamorphism 

(Polat, 2012). Both types of metamorphism promoted partial 

melting of metamorphosed basalt, producing voluminous 

felsic batholiths of the tonalite-trondhjemite-granite association (Jahn and others, 1981; Adam and others, 2012; Nagel 

and others, 2012). Metamorphosed volcanic and volcanogenic 

sedimentary belts were in-folded between domal-shaped 

tonalite-trondhjemite-granite-association batholiths, thereby 

preserving metamorphic rocks in large synformal hinges 

separated by the batholithic antiformal hinges and resulting in 

characteristic granite-greenstone belt complexes.

The presence of Paleoproterozoic lower crustal layers 

below Archean upper crust in some domains suggests that 

early-formed crust underwent thermal evolution and thickened 

to form cratons during Paleoproterozoic modification along 

the margins of Archean sialic protocontinents (Pollack, 1986; 

Gorman and others, 2002). Premodern cratonization generated roots or cratonal “keels” about twice as thick as those 

in younger continental crust, which caused Archean domains 

to resist younger deformation and structural reactivation and 

destruction by plate tectonic processes (that is, subduction) 

in later Proterozoic and Phanerozoic supercontinent cycles 

(Nance and others, 2014).

Lateral-Extensional Orogen

Broad Paleoproterozoic to early Mesoproterozoic 

orogenic belts (or orogens; see Sims and Peterman, 1986; 

Hoffman, 1988; Van Schmus and others, 1996; Whitmeyer and 

Karlstrom, 2007) abut the southern margins of the Archean 

domains (fig. 1). They are generally envisioned as having been 

amalgamated in processes similar to those active in modern 

accretionary collages (for example, Bowring and Karlstrom, 

1990; Karlstrom and Humphreys, 1998; see references in 

Whitmeyer and Karlstrom, 2007). However, the products of 

magmatism and deformation, which would correspond to collisional tectonism along the margins of adjacent Archean sialic 

protocontinental domains, are extremely limited or absent 

(Bickford and Hill, 2007; Jones and others, 2009, 2013; see 

references in Whitmeyer and Karlstrom, 2007). 

Rocks in the Paleoproterozoic and early Mesoproterozoic domains (fig. 1) contain much primitive basalt and 

bimodal volcanic rocks that are characterized by distinctive 

intraoceanic arc and backarc affinities and thick turbidite 

fan successions (Hill and Bickford, 2001; Whitmeyer and 

Karlstrom, 2007; DeWitt and others, 2010a); locally this 

suite contains primitive mafic and ultramafic complexes, 

dikes, and sheeted dike complexes (Dann, 1997). Isotopic and 

geochemical data indicate that these rocks formed as juvenile ensimatic crust in ocean and backarc basins (Aleinikoff 

and others, 1993; Hill and Bickford, 2001; Holm and others, 

2005; Duebendorfer and others, 2006; DeWitt and others, 

2010a). Temporally associated, large, calc-alkaline batholiths intruded these rocks (table 1) (Duebendorfer and others, 

2001; Karlstrom and Williams, 2006). These primitive-basin 

Paleoproterozoic domains in Laurentia initiated synchronously with a period of widespread rifting of Archean sialic 

protocontinental domains (Bleeker, 2003). 

Rock unit ages, deformational and metamorphic events 

(Van Schmus and others, 1993), and mantle derivation of 

magmas, as suggested by Nd and Pb isotope data (Wooden 

and DeWitt, 1991; Aleinikoff and others, 1993; Wooden and 

others, 2012), document the progressive crustal growth (accretion) outward from the Archean domains. These domains 

are underlain by extensional-style oceanic (hot and seismically low-velocity) upper mantle (Gorman and others, 2002). 

Temporally overlapping magmatism and deformation in each 

Proterozoic domain were ongoing for 100–150 m.y. These 

relations suggest domain formation involving prolonged outward growth accompanied by multiple, short-lived orogenic 

events that alternated between (1) rift and slab rollback forming transient ocean-crust-floored and backarc rift basins and 

(2) flat or shallow subduction or slab polarity flip that formed 

narrow transient orogenic belts. The lateral-extensional belts 

(orogens) manifest as narrow, short-lived fragments, oceanic 

arcs, accreting arc, and forearc interleaved with oceanic (and 

backarc) basin rocks in relations similar to those of assemblages in modern extensional accretionary orogens (see Collins, 2002b; Gray and others, 2002).

Other evidence pointing to this origin is that, although 

juvenile igneous rocks underlie large portions of the lateralextensional domains, rocks in the domains also commonly 

contain evidence of older crust on the basis of isotopic inheritance signatures. This isotopic inheritance is explained by the 

presence of extended older crust (Archean or mixed Archean 

and earlier Paleoproterozoic), rafted blocks of older crust 

within intervening juvenile crust, or incorporation of detritus 

shed from the older (Archean or mixed) provenance onto the 

younger (Paleoproterozoic) oceanic crust (for example, Duebendorfer and others, 2006; Bickford and Hill, 2007; Egan and 

Meredith, 2007; Whitmeyer and Karlstrom, 2007; Nelson and 

others, 2011).

Evolution from juvenile crust to basement was accomplished by transient and intermittent deformation (Harris and 

others, 1987; Condie, 1992; Duebendorfer and others, 2001) 

and granulite facies metamorphism (Condie, 1992; Hill and 

Bickford, 2001; Duebendorfer and others, 2001; Whitmeyer 

and Karlstrom, 2007). The metamorphism was related in part 

to large-volume magmatism (Williams and Karlstrom, 1996; 

Dumond and others, 2007) that accompanied high heat flow in 

thinned (extended) crust. 
Secular Evolution of Domains, Their Tectonic Origins, and Crust Types 13

Ferroan (A-type) granite and rhyolite are particularly 

abundant in these late Paleoproterozoic and especially Mesoproterozoic domains (Anderson, 1983; Anderson and Morrison, 

1992; Shaw and others, 2005; Goodge and Vervoort, 2006; 

DeWitt and others, 2010b). These magmas were likely generated during crustal extension, when the rigid juvenile crust 

of these lateral-extensional orogens was sufficiently thinned 

to allow upwelling of asthenosphere, decompression melting or underplating, high heat flow, and partial melting of the 

crust (Jones and others, 2010; Dall’Agnol and others, 2012). 

The prevalence of these ferroan granitic magmas at this time 

probably reflects the transition in the Earth’s ongoing structural 

evolution to modern plate tectonic processes (Dall’Agnol and 

others, 2012). Locally thick supracrustal quartzite successions 

of about the same age as the ferroan igneous events provide the 

timing of depositional basins and relatively short-lived crustal 

extension, possibly caused by slab rollback events (Jones and 

others, 2009). Such late-tectonic magmatic and supracrustal 

basin formation events may both contribute to basement formation (Gray and others, 2007).

Intracratonic Mobile Belt

Narrow Paleoproterozoic intracratonic mobile belt 

domains between Archean sialic protocontinent domains are 

composed of tholeiitic and komatiitic basalt, possible komatiite, volcanogenic turbidite deposits, island arc successions, 

and plutonic rocks (O’Neill and Lopez, 1985; Mueller and 

others, 2002; Egger and others, 2003; Burger, 2004; Corrigan and others, 2005; White and others, 2005; Foster and 

others, 2006; Mueller and Frost, 2006; Strickland and others, 

2011; Gaschnig and others, 2013). Using modern collisional 

tectonic models, these domains were previously interpreted 

as (1) intracratonic deformation zones (Boerner and others, 

1998; Buhlmann, and others, 2000; Lemieux and others, 

2000), (2) active collision zones between Archean continents 

(Ross, 2002; Corrigan and others, 2005; Hajnal and others, 

2005), or (3) crust (of unspecified origin) captured during collisions between Archean sialic protocontinents (Mueller and 

others, 2002, 2004, 2005; Harms and others, 2004). Isotopic 

data indicate that a large proportion of rocks in the intracratonic mobile belt domains originated as complex intracontinental rift basins floored by juvenile crust (Baird and others, 

1996; Dahl and others, 1999, 2006). Supporting a rift origin 

are age and isotopic evidence (table 1; Ross and others, 1991; 

Doughty and others, 1998; Dahl and others, 1999, 2006; 

Lewis and others, 2011), which suggest that Archean sialic 

protocontinental domains separated by the mobile-belt rocks 

originated as part of a single crustal domain (the Wyoming 

and Superior domains, Dahl and others, 1999, 2006). The 

intracratonic mobile belts are all broadly synchronous (Harms 

and others, 2004) and possibly initiated by mantle-plume 

activity (as suggested for the Dakota domain; Schmitz and 

others, 2006) that caused breakup of Archean sialic protocontinental domains. Other dating studies (table 1, FarmingtonSelway domain) have produced complex age data suggesting 

development scenarios that involved (1) supracrustal rocks 

with Archean provenance (Nelson and others, 2011) atop 

rocks that underwent Paleoproterozoic extension and magmatism or (2) incomplete rifting of older basement (Mueller and 

others, 2011). Within the juvenile rift-related rocks, restricted 

zones of island arc magmatic rocks and evidence of shortlived structural and metamorphic events parallel the domain 

axes (McCormick, 2010); these orogenic zones are interpreted as late or terminating phases of domain development 

(Mueller and others, 2005; Dahl and others, 2006; Schneider 

and others, 2007). Age data (table 1) suggest relatively rapid 

tectonic switching from rifting to slab failure and tectonic 

reversal whereby juvenile crust was consumed in transitory 

local, zone-parallel subduction zones. Seismic imaging has 

not revealed remnant, subducted slabs or extensive magmatic 

arcs related to collisional accretion (Buhlmann and others, 

2000; Lemieux and others, 2000), thus corroborating ideas 

that these intracratonic mobile belt domains represent an 

extensive, early type of failed rift system in which short-lived 

incipient subduction systems formed restricted island arcs and 

collisions without major consumptive margins.

Intracontinental mobile belts are particularly associated 

with younger extensional reactivation and accompanying rapidly subsiding, deep sedimentary basins, especially the Mesoproterozoic Belt and Lemhi basins in the Wallace and Great 

Falls domains, the Paleozoic-Mesozoic Williston basin in the 

Dakota domain (Baird and others, 1996; McCormick, 2010), 

the Neoproterozoic Uinta Mountain basin in the FarmingtonSelway domain (Dehler and others, 2005), and the Mesoproterozoic basin overlapping the boundary between the Yavapai 

and Mazatzal domains (fig. 1; Daniel and others, 2013). As 

is true for the lateral-extensional domains, Mesoproterozoic 

extension and deposition were followed by ferroan magmatism (Wallace domain; Evans and Zartman, 1990; Ferguson 

and others, 2007; Lewis and others, 2007) and orogeny 

including magmatism (Picuris orogeny; Daniel and others, 

2013), both of which may have contributed to cratonization. 

Relative to adjacent Archean sialic protocontinental domains, 

the Paleoproterozoic intracratonic mobile-belt domains, 

which were reactivated by Mesoproterozoic extension, 

subsequently produced more voluminous Phanerozoic crustal 

magma (Foster and others, 2006) and contain more abundant 

overprinted mineral deposits (Klein and Sims, 2007).

Supercontinental Cycle Domains

During planetary evolution, tectonic settings transitioned 

from ancient earth types to the present settings. Modern, 

subduction-related tectonic processes became dominant by 

the middle part of the Mesoproterozoic, reflecting maturity 

of Earth crustal structure, heat flow, and convective recycling 

(Cawood and others, 2006; Dewey, 2007; Van Kranendonk, 

2010). These processes operated in similar time scales and 

at similar geographic scales to those associated with modern plate tectonics (for example, extensive stable island-arc 

systems or marginal rift basins were established). Descriptions 
14 Basement Domain Map of the Conterminous United States and Alaska

of these well-defined settings and discussions of the geologic 

processes responsible for their formation are widely available 

(for example, Condie, 2005; Kearey and others, 2009).

Recurrent processes involved supercontinent assembly 

and breakup. One result was repeated collisions between 

the older domains, whereby domains were added around the 

cratonal core. Nonnative domains were added as well as the 

translation and reattachment of some native domains (Fischer 

and others, 2010). Another result of the supercontinent cycles 

was an early stage of intracontinental rifting that added crust 

before ultimately forming a failed rift (midcontinent rift, 

table 1; Van Schmus and Hinze, 1985).

In supercontinent breakup, rift margins formed on 

both sides of Laurentia (the complex cratonic core of North 

America). Resultant passive margins promoted formation of 

large marginal-rift sedimentary basins on transitional crust 

(Hoffman, 1991). Along the eastern margin, repeated Phanerozoic arc-continent and continent-continent collisions added 

allochthonous and para-autochthonous domains, including 

exotic juvenile and older continental fragments (table 1). 

Along the western margin (shown on fig. 1 as defined by the 

0.706 initial Sr isopleth; Armstrong and others, 1977; Armstrong, 1988; Carlson and others, 1991; Fleck and Gunn, 

1991; Tosdal and others, 2000; Fleck and Criss, 2007; Benford 

and others, 2010), prolonged sediment deposition in passivemargin domains were punctuated by late Paleozoic contraction 

causing these domains to be thrust faulted over and accreted 

onto the edge of Laurentia. Subsequent development of a prolonged consumptive plate boundary resulted in orthogonal and 

tranpressional collisions, complicated by secondary marginparallel translation that formed the accretionary collage of 

Alaska and western Cordillera of the conterminous United 

States. These domains originated in a variety of tectonic 

settings, including both allochthonous oceanic domains and 

those native to North America (mostly in the form of slivers of 

passive-margin domains, table 1).

Metals Endowments

The rocks associated with each original tectonic setting 

and geologic environment (table 1) are potentially enriched in 

specific groups of metals that originated as particular mineral 

deposit types (table 2). Such enrichments represent primary 

accumulations that formed synchronously with and as part 

of the same processes responsible for the development of the 

hosting basement (“constructional phase deposits” of Groves 

and Bierlein, 2007). Potential metal accumulations, depicted 

as potential original endowments in the context of geologic 

environments of particular tectonic settings (table 2), are 

expressed by the full array of grades from subeconomic to 

economic. Thus, although potentially buried or not sufficiently 

concentrated to constitute ore deposits, these original metal 

endowments may be deposits in their own right or may have 

been available for remobilization by younger magmatic and 

(or) hydrothermal systems to form mineral deposits by a broad 

variety of younger mineralizing processes.

The origins of some Archean-Paleoproterozoic (to 

possibly early Mesoproterozoic) host rocks and the mineral 

deposits or metal endowments contained therein are relatively 

unusual because of similarly unusual geotectonic processes that 

operated during early planetary evolution (De Wit and Thiart, 

2005; Groves and Bierlein, 2007; Cawood and Hawkesworth, 

2012). In addition, the formation of Archean to early Mesoproterozoic host rock is more closely related to formation of 

their original metal endowments than is true for many younger 

basement-domain types. These close relations among older 

basement-domain types and original metal endowments largely 

reflect the thick roots and resultant buoyancy of the domains, 

which render ancient continental crust relatively resistant to 

younger deformation and destruction. Consequently, there have 

been fewer opportunities to remobilize and concentrate original 

metal accumulations in the Archean and Paleoproterozoic 

domains (Groves and Bierlein, 2007). 
Metals Endowments 15

Table 2. Primary metal endowments of geologic environments that may be present in each crust type interpreted for basement 

domains in the United States.—Continued

Crust_Type Geologic_Environments Primary_Metals_Deposits References

Sialic protocontinent Oceanic ridge Magmatic Ni-Cu ± PGE Cox and Singer, 1986; Arndt and 

others, 2005.

Podiform Cr ± PGE Singer and others, 1986; Cawthorn 

and others, 2005; Mosier and 

others, 2012.

Stratiform Ni-Cu-Cr ± PGE Schultz and others, 2010.

Early oceanic arc Cu-Zn-Pb ± Au-Ag volcanogenic 

massive sulfide (VMS)

Barrie and others, 1999; Mosier 

and others, 2009; Shanks and 

Thurston, 2012.

Porphyry Cu-Mo John and others, 2010; Taylor and 

others, 2012.

Supracrustal basin Banded Fe formation Cox and Singer, 1986; Bekker and 

others, 2010.

Mantle plume Diamond-bearing kimberlite and 

lamproite

Hausel, 1998; Gurney and others, 

2005; Wyman and others, 2008.

Lateral-extensional orogen Spreading ridge Stratiform Ni-Cu-Cr ± PGE Cox and Singer, 1986; Schulte and 

others, 2012.

Podiform Cr Cox and Singer, 1986; Cawthorn 

and others, 2005; Mosier and 

others, 2012.

Magmatic Ni-Cu ± PGE Arndt and others, 2005; Schultz and 

others, 2010.

Cu-Zn-Pb ± Au-Ag VMS DeMatties, 1994; Franklin and 

others, 2005; Mosier and others, 

2009; Shanks and Thurston, 2012.

Intraoceanic arc Cu-Zn-Pb ± Au-Ag VMS Hannington and others, 2005; 

Mosier and others, 2009; Shanks 

and Thurston, 2012.

Porphyry Cu-Mo John and others, 2010; Taylor and 

others, 2012.

Supracrustal basin Banded Fe formation Cox and Singer, 1986; Bekker and 

others, 2012.

Late-stage A-type igneous activity Magmatic Sn ± Nb-Ta-Zr-F and 

Zr, Y ± REE

Dall’Agnol and others, 2012.

Intracratonic mobile belt Spreading ridge Magmatic Ni-Cu ± PGE Schultz and others, 2010.

Podiform Cr Singer and others, 1986; Cawthorn 

and others, 2005; Mosier and 

others, 2012.

Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag VMS Mosier and others, 2009; Shanks 

and Thurston, 2012.

Intraoceanic arc Cu-Zn-Pb ± Au-Ag VMS Franklin and others, 2005; 

Hannington and others, 2005; 

Mosier and others, 2009; Shanks 

and Thurston, 2012.

Porphyry Cu-Mo John and others, 2010; Taylor and 

others, 2012.

Late-stage A-type igneous activity Magmatic Sn ± Nb-Ta-Zr-F and 

Zr, Y ± REE

Dall’Agnol and others, 2012.

Intracontinental rift Layered mafic intrusion and ring 

complexes

Magmatic Ni-Cu ± PGE Nicholson and others, 1992; Schultz 

and others, 2010.
16 Basement Domain Map of the Conterminous United States and Alaska

Table 2. Primary metal endowments of geologic environments that may be present in each crust type interpreted for basement 

domains in the United States.—Continued

Crust_Type Geologic_Environments Primary_Metals_Deposits References

Fe-Ti ± V Nicholson and others, 1992; Schultz 

and others, 2010.

U-REE-Nb Nicholson and others, 1992; Schultz 

and others, 2010.

Mafic volcanic and supracrustal 

basin

Native Cu Nicholson and others, 1992; Schultz 

and others, 2010.

Cu ± Pb-Zn sedex Leach and others, 2005; Goodfellow and Lydon, 2007.

Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag VMS Shanks and Thurston, 2012.

Passive margin Marginal basin (miogeocline) Zn-Pb-Ag ± Au and barite sedimentary exhalative (sedex)Albers, 1983; Dawson and others, 

1991; Goodfellow and others, 

1993; Leach and others, 2005; 

Lund, 2008.

Continental arc Magmatic arc Porphyry Cu ± Mo (± Au-Ag) Berger and others, 2008; John and 

others, 2010.

Cu-Zn-Pb ± Au-Ag VMS Hannington and others, 2005; 

Mosier and others, 2009; Shanks 

and Thurston, 2012.

Forearc wedge Podiform Cr Singer and others, 1986; Cawthorn 

and others, 2005; Mosier and 

others, 2012.

Oceanic arc Magmatic arc Porphyry Cu-Au Berger and others, 2008; John and 

others, 2010.

Au-Cu epithermal Groves and others, 1998; Simmons 

and others, 2005.

Cu-Zn-Pb ± Au-Ag VMS Hannington and others, 2005; 

Mosier and others, 2009; Shanks 

and Thurston, 2012.

Oceanic basin Spreading ridge Magmatic Ni-Cu ± PGE Arndt and others, 2005; Galley and 

others, 2007; Schultz and others, 

2010; Shanks and Thurston, 2012.

Podiform Cr Cawthorn and others, 2005; Mosier 

and others, 2012.

Black smoker and brine pool Cu-Zn and Au-base metal VMS Galley and others, 2007; Schultz 

and others, 2010; Shanks and 

Thurston, 2012.

Accretionary wedge Oceanic crust Cu-Zn-Pb ± Au-Ag VMS Alt and others, 1998; Shanks and 

Thurston, 2012.

Podiform Cr Cawthorn and others, 2005; Mosier 

and others, 2012.

Trench MVT (forearc) Leach and others, 2005.

Back-arc basin Spreading ridge Cu-Zn-Pb ±Au-Ag-Ba VMS Shanks and Thurston, 2012.

Supracrustal basin Cu ± Pb-Zn sedex Leach and others, 2005; Goodfellow and Lydon, 2007.

Extensional accretionary orogen Spreading ridge Stratiform Ni-Cu-Cr ± PGE Cox and Singer, 1986; Schulte and 

others, 2012.

Podiform Cr Cox and Singer, 1986; Cawthorn 

and others, 2005; Mosier and 

others, 2012.
Metals Endowments 17

Table 2. Primary metal endowments of geologic environments that may be present in each crust type interpreted for basement 

domains in the United States.—Continued

Crust_Type Geologic_Environments Primary_Metals_Deposits References

Magmatic Ni-Cu ± PGE Arndt and others, 2005; Schultz and 

others, 2010.

Cu-Zn-Pb ± Au-Ag VMS DeMatties, 1994; Franklin and 

others, 2005; Mosier and others, 

2009; Shanks and Thurston, 2012.

Intraoceanic arc Cu-Zn-Pb ± Au-Ag VMS Hannington and others, 2005; 

Mosier and others, 2009; Shanks 

and Thurston, 2012.

Porphyry Cu-Mo John and others, 2010; Taylor and 

others, 2012.

Supracrustal basin Banded Fe formation Cox and Singer, 1986; Bekker and 

others, 2012.

Late-stage A-type igneous activity Magmatic Sn ± Nb-Ta-Zr-F and 

Zr, Y ± REE

Dall’Agnol and others, 2012.

Large igneous province Layered mafic intrusion Magmatic Ni-Cu ± PGE Nicholson and others, 1992; Schultz 

and others, 2010.

Fe-Ti ± V Nicholson and others, 1992; Schultz 

and others, 2010.

U-REE-Nb Nicholson and others, 1992; Schultz 

and others, 2010.

Stratiform Ni-Cu-Cr ± PGE Cox and Singer, 1986; Schulte and 

others, 2012.

Metal Endowments Characteristic of Archean 

and Proterozoic Domains

In Archean sialic protocontinental and Proterozoic 

lateral-extensional and intracratonic mobile-belt domains, 

mafic and ultramafic rocks, which originated as oceanic crust 

in greenstone complexes, host magmatic Ni-Cu-PGE (platinum group elements) sulfide deposits and enrichments (Schulz 

and others, 2010). Types of banded iron formation deposits 

are closely related to submarine volcanic rocks or to passivemargin sedimentary successions that reflect associations with 

greenstone complexes, to variable atmospheric conditions 

and, in part, to ancient changes in oceanic and atmospheric 

oxidation conditions (Cox and Singer, 1986; Bekker and others, 2010). Diamond deposits formed in deep roots beneath 

the cratons in Archean sialic protocontinental domains, where 

mantle plumes melted metasomatized mantle at the base of 

thickened subcontinental lithospheric mantle (Cox and Singer, 

1986; Hausel, 1998; Piranjo, 2000; Gurney and others, 2005; 

Wyman and others, 2008). 

Several other metal endowments or deposit types hosted 

in Archean-Paleoproterozoic greenstone belts have analogues 

in Phanerozoic rocks (table 2). However, variations among 

these similar types of modern and ancient mineral-deposit 

(endowment) types were probably the result of different 

conditions or processes that prevailed early in the Earth’s 

evolution—such as higher ancient heat flow, variation in 

distribution of elements in the crust, redox conditions, and 

rates of tectonic processes. Volcanogenic massive sulfide 

deposits are associated with volcanic and volcanogenic 

rocks in the Archean-Paleoproterozoic greenstone complexes 

(Mosier and others, 2009; Shanks and Thurston, 2012). In 

the presence of rift-related hydrothermal activity, podiform 

Cr deposits formed within mafic volcanic rocks derived from 

ocean-spreading centers (Singer and others, 1986; Mosier and 

others, 2012). Stratiform Ni-Cu-Cr-PGE deposits formed in 

layered mafic-ultramafic intrusions (Cox and Singer, 1986; 

Schulte and others, 2012) associated with greenstone complexes. Mafic to felsic rocks of marine intraarc volcanic origin 

may contain early porphyry Cu-Mo deposits, although most 

Precambrian volcanic systems are eroded to levels well below 

the crustal levels at which this type of deposit forms (John and 

others, 2010; Taylor and others, 2012).

In Paleoproterozoic and early Mesoproterozoic domains, 

large genetically related Sn deposits formed in late-stage ferroan granitic magmatic systems, some of which also contain 

Nb, Ta, Y-REE (rare earth elements), Zr, and F resources 

(Dall’Agnol and others, 2012). Iron oxide–copper-gold 

(IOCG) deposits are spatially related to these granitic rocks, 

but the magmas may have been a crustal preparatory event that 

rendered the crust conducive to the formation of this deposit 

type. Most IOCG mineralizing systems were driven by much 

younger hydrothermal activity during which the metals were 

introduced (Groves and others, 2010).
18 Basement Domain Map of the Conterminous United States and Alaska

Metal Endowments Characteristic of 

Phanerozoic Domains

Metal endowments characteristic of late Mesoproterozoic through Phanerozoic domains relate directly to modern 

plate tectonic processes and settings (table 2). However, 

because tectonic events after formation of these endowments 

affected most of these domains, many mineral deposits are 

related to superposed orogenic events. Most of these orogenic mineral deposits were ultimately derived from and 

superimposed on original metal accumulations that originated 

with the basement domain. Accordingly, establishing the 

basement-forming tectonic settings (basement constructional 

stages) can guide identification of original metal endowments 

and subsequent metal assemblages (Groves and Bierlein, 

2007). In comparison to the Archean and Paleoproterozoic 

domains, metal accumulations of Phanerozoic domains, 

which formed at shallow crustal levels in their original tectonic settings, may be preserved because more limited erosion 

acted on these younger domains.

Intracontinental rift and continental rift-margin domains, 

which augmented Laurentia during protracted late Mesoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic to early Paleozoic events, generated large sedimentary basins and miogeoclines, respectively, 

built on transitional rifted crust. Both of these environments 

hosted notable sedimentary exhalative (sedex-type) mineral 

endowments and deposits (Albers, 1983; Dawson and others, 1991; Goodfellow and others, 1993; Leach and others, 

2005; Goodfellow and Lydon, 2007; Lund, 2008). Volcanism 

associated with intracontinental rifting also produced volcanogenic massive sulfide (commonly called VMS) and native Cu 

deposits in basin settings (Nicholson and others, 1992; Shanks 

and Thurston, 2012). Layered mafic rocks and ring complexes 

associated with intracontinental rifting were enriched in magmatic Ni-Cu±PGE as well as Re-Ti and U-REE-Nb (Nicholson and others, 1992; Schulz and others, 2010). 

Diverse oceanic-origin domains, which were accreted to 

Laurentia as part of the accretionary collages of the western 

Cordillera and Alaska as well as to the collisional orogenic 

belts associated with the Appalachian and Gulf regions 

(table 1), constitute a wide variety of geologic environments 

potentially enriched in metals (table 2). Oceanic crust found 

in accretionary wedge, backarc, and ocean basin domains are 

potential hosts for Cu-Zn-Pb±Au-Ag volcanogenic massive 

sulfide, podiform Cr, and Ni-Cu±PGE endowments (increased 

abundance to form deposits) (Ben-Avraham and Nur, 1983; 

Arndt and others, 2005; Cawthorn and others, 2005; Galley and others, 2007; Schulz and others, 2010; Mosier and 

others, 2012; Shanks and Thurston, 2012). Domains containing forearc trench fragments may also have genetic associations with Mississippi Valley–type (known as MVT) Pb-Zn 

deposits (Leach and others, 2005). Magmatic-arc domains, 

such as island arcs and Andean-type continental margin 

arcs, are conducive to the formation of porphyry (Berger 

and others, 2008; John and others, 2010) and volcanogenic 

massive-sulfide-style deposits or endowments (Alt and others, 

1998; Shanks and Thurston, 2012). Relatively less deeply 

eroded, young magmatic-arc domains may also contain 

Au-Cu epithermal-type metal deposits or endowments (Simmons and others, 2005).

Discussion

Basement Concepts and Map Construction

Construction of the North American continent is conventionally viewed as a series of four general, temporally 

discrete assembly phases. In that context, the first two phases 

formed Archean cratons and Paleoproterozoic orogens (parts 

of Laurentia) and, subsequently, the last two formed orogenic 

belts that were added during supercontinent assembly and 

breakup and as the Cordilleran and Alaskan accretionary 

collages. These two sets of phases are each conceptualized 

differently and not portrayed on the same maps (see Hoffman, 1988, 1997; Silberling and others, 1992; Hibbard and 

others, 2006; Whitmeyer and Karlstrom, 2007; Sims and 

others, 2008). Whereas tectonic origins are generally of primary importance to basement maps of the midcontinent and 

southwestern U.S. cratonal regions (the Laurentian parts), the 

concept of basement or its origin is little considered for other 

parts of the conterminous United States. The orogenic belts 

added during supercontinent assembly and breakup (Grenville and Appalachian orogens), including multiple tectonic 

overprints and displacements, are commonly mapped according to lithotectonic units and zones of orogenic overprint 

(Hibbard and others, 2006) rather than as discrete terranes 

or basement types (that is, the distinction between Grenville 

deformation front and the Grenville-age basement of Fischer 

and others, 2010). The Cordilleran collage is most commonly 

treated using terrane concepts in which the tectonic setting 

of supracrustal rocks, but not necessarily of the basement, is 

highlighted (Silberling and others, 1992). The differences in 

geology and tectonic evolution among the broad regions of 

the United States are striking and important, and the differing approaches generally used to define their origins do not 

promote ready comparison of basement compositions or of 

potential metal endowments.

The basement domain map presented herein was constructed region by region (fig. 2) by using a unifying approach 

for the constituent elements of basement domains underlying 

the entire United States. Despite differences relative to the 

amounts of original data as compared with compilation of 

published interpretations used to synthesize each regional map 

(table 3), the map was constructed to characterize the original 

tectonic setting in which each domain developed and according to the general scheme described in this report. Thus, the 

basement of each identified domain (table 1) has a characteristic geochemical signature, structural fabric, paleotectonic and 

paleoclimatic history, and potential inherent metal endowment 
Figure 2. Basement-domain study regions of the United States.

40°

50°

30°

60°

180°

140°

160°

70°

60°

20°

50°

130° 120° 110° 100° 90° 80° 70° 

0 250 500 750 

0 250 500 M

0 500 1,000 KILOMETERS0 250 500 MILES

Central and Southwest

Northern Rocky Mountains

Western Cordillera

Southeastern Laurentia

and Appalachians

Gulf Coast

Alaska
20 Basement Domain Map of the Conterminous United States and Alaska

Table 3. Status of compilation for each study region of the United States (see fig. 2 for regions). 

Study_Region_Name Status Source

Alaska Domain interpretations revised based on published 

geochronologic, geologic, and geophysical data

Box, S., and Saltus, R.

Western Cordillera Domain interpretations revised based on published 

geochronologic, geologic, and geophysical data

Box, S., and Blakely, R.

Northern Rocky Mountains Preliminary domain interpretations based on new and 

ongoing geochronologic and geologic studies and on 

geophysical maps

Lund, K., and Anderson, E.

Central and Southwest Boundaries from compilation. Revised interpretations of 

original tectonic setting

Lund, K.; See references, table 1

Southeastern Laurentia and Appalachians Revised interpretations based on ongoing geochronologic 

and geologic studies and compilation

Holm-Denoma, C.

Gulf Coast Compilation Lund, K.; See references, table 1

(table 2). Synthesizing the characteristics by using these data 

resulted in a relatively finite number of original tectonic settings. Because basement of all ages was classified in terms of 

original tectonic setting, the settings and their characteristics 

are common across the various regions of the country despite 

different subsequent tectonic histories. This approach also 

highlights the changes in tectonic setting and mineral endowment produced during planetary evolution.

The relatively uniform approach to characterization of 

U.S. basement domains led to a reevaluation of tectonic settings and aspects of continental growth for some domains. 

The map of interpreted basement domains (fig. 1) depicts 

extension-dominant orogenesis (lateral-extensional orogen and 

intracontinental mobile belt) as a principal contributor to crustforming processes and possibly the predominant process that 

formed basement in the Paleoproterozoic. More than a third 

of the area of the conterminous United States seems to have 

originated by this efficient process of intermittent and transient 

switching between (1) relative slab retreat (extensional accretion) causing basin formation and (2) relative convergence, 

which caused arc or forearc development and collision-related 

thickening (arc accretion). Thus, substantial continental 

growth was accomplished by generating magmatic and sedimentary additions in an overall extensional setting (Collins, 

2002b; Giles and others, 2002; Gray and others, 2007). Interpretation of slab rollback models proposed to explain accretion 

of continental crust (Bickford and Hill, 2007; Jones, Connelly, 

and others, 2009; Jones, Barnes, and others, 2013) represents 

a departure from the generally accepted “assembly” scenario, 

which depends on collisional accretion as the predominant 

process of growth during the Paleoproterozoic (for example, 

Whitmeyer and Karlstrom, 2007).

Another benefit of the approach used to create the new 

basement domain map is that its development in a geographic 

information system framework allows conceptualization 

of broadly different derivative products. For instance, the 

database can be used to create time slices for the tectonic 

construction of the U.S. parts of North American basement 

(fig. 3), either for all regions together or with basement in the 

conterminous United States and Alaska being considered separately. Reconstructions of this sort can be tailored to the needs 

of the user—for example, to show age groupings of basement 

domains (fig. 1), selected crust types (fig. 4), or selected metal 

endowment types (fig. 5).

Role of Basement in Formation of Mineral 

Deposits 

North American mineral deposits formed through many 

prolonged crust-building and orogenic cycles of continental 

amalgamation and breakup as well as of accretionary collages that reactivated structures, thickened crust, and recycled 

crustal materials. The tectonic settings and mechanisms of 

formation of orogenic and postorogenic mineral deposits are 

the subject of many decades of research (see for example, 

Hedenquist and others, 2005). What is less well defined is 

the source of the metals and, in the larger sense, which metals were derived from subducted slabs, the mantle, or innate 

endowments in continental basement (for example, Petrascheck, 1969).

Studies of regional mineral deposit distribution relative to 

the origin of enveloping terranes and cratonal fragments (that 

is, basement domains) have documented contrasting metal 

accumulations in crust of different origins (Albers, 1983; 

Tooker, 1983). Original tectonic setting is clearly important to 

metal accumulations in some supracrustal rock associations 

(Leach and others, 2005; Goodfellow and Lydon, 2007; Lund, 

2008). Similarly, early Earth processes that produced unique 

chemical compositions of Archean-Paleoproterozoic crust 

and genetically related underlying metasomatized mantle are 

thought to be instrumental in the occurrence of specific types 

of younger metal deposits (Groves and Bierlein, 2007). Consequently, the composition and original metal endowments of 

individual basement domains and of different geologic settings 

within domains (table 2, fig. 5) may be important progenitors 
Figure 3. Time-slice reconstruction of United States basement domains according to the time when each domain was added to the continent, as formation age or accretion age (see table 1).

40°

30°

60°

180°

140°

160°

70°

60°

20°

50°

130° 120° 110° 100° 90° 80° 70° 

0 250 500 70 250 

0 500 1,000 KILOMETERS0 250 500 MILES

EXPLANATIO

Crust Formation A

0 to 165

110 to 180

185 to 325

299 to 542

600 to 100

1000 to 141350 to 15

1670 to 18

1000 to 202450 to 36

(Ma)
Figure 4. Sample map product of basement domains that formed as oceanic arc crust.

40°

30°

60°

180°

140°

160°

70°60°

20°

50°

10°

130° 120° 110° 100° 90° 80° 70° 

0 250 500 750 0 250 500 M

0 500 1,000 KILOMETERS0 250 500 MILES
Figure 5. Sample map product of basement domains that potentially contain geologic environments conducive to formation of porphyry-type mine

40°

30°

60°

180°

140°

160°

70°

60°

20°

50°

10°

130° 120° 110° 100° 90° 80° 70° 

0 500 1,000 KILOMETERS0 250 500 MILES

EXPLANATION

Porphyry Types

Cu–AuCu–Mo

Cu–Mo, Au–

0 250 500 750 0 250 500 M
24 Basement Domain Map of the Conterminous United States and Alaska

of mineral deposits by contributing metals from original basement endowments (Titley, 2001).

Each subsequent tectonic event that participated in 

continent growth—whether compressional or extensional—

reactivated structural zones, localized sedimentary basins, and 

magmatism. Many of these structural zones became pathways 

that influenced and controlled mineralizing fluids. In addition, 

orogenic and postorogenic processes that act on or within the 

crust remobilize and recycle metals and contribute to mineral 

deposit formation (see discussion and references in Groves 

and others, 1998; Leahy and others, 2005; Groves and Bierlein, 2007). 

Further, reactivation of deep-seated structural framework 

components inherited from earlier events may help to focus 

younger deformation and to provide structural pathways as 

suggested for the Colorado Mineral Belt, for example (Tweto 

and Sims, 1963; Karlstrom and Humphries, 1998). Similarly, 

the juvenile crust of the concealed Paleoproterozoic Great 

Falls tectonic zone may have contributed metals to the Cretaceous and Tertiary upper-crustal Cu-Mo deposits (Klein and 

Sims, 2007) of the Idaho-Montana porphyry belt (Armstrong 

and others, 1978; Rostad, 1978). The importance of structural 

reactivation of basement features in forming multistage mineral belts, such as the world-class Carlin-type gold deposits of 

the Great Basin is also well documented (Emsbo and others, 

2006). Accordingly, orogenic overprinting and recycling have 

the potential to form complex and long-lived mineral belts that 

contain multiple ages and styles of mineral deposits.

The map presented herein provides one possible template 

for basement domains. It provides a dataset evaluating the 

types, distribution, and origins of metal endowments in basement domains and for how continent-scale structural events 

influenced the composition and location of younger mineral 

deposits. The map broadly identifies domain elements of the 

United States including Alaska so that (1) major regional 

structural zones within and between them can be identified and 

evaluated in terms of their role as conduits for mineralizing 

systems and (2) continent-scale magmatic and hydrothermal 

systems can be identified in terms of their origin in response to 

rift or collisional events and their capability to have introduced 

metals into the upper crust or remobilized metals in the upper 

crust. Future mineral resource assessments can utilize the 

framework data included as part of this map and, digitally layered with other national-scale geoscience datasets (figs. 6 and 

7), these data can be used to evaluate continent-scale mineral 

resource potential and to define associations among certain 

types of mineral deposits in relation to the original tectonic 

setting of host basement domains. The map synthesizes an 

approach to defining the tectonic and paleogeographic evolution of metal-endowed regions of the United States. Better 

discrimination of basement character, origin, and relation to 

mineral deposits can be used to test and refine this approach.

Summary

The approach used to create this basement domain map 

employs the terrane concept, which recognizes that continents 

are composed of many crustal fragments of different ages and 

types. Further, the study synthesizes the variety of processes 

through which terrane fragments become continental crust and 

basement. The processes of continental-crust formation and 

evolution into basement domains have changed through the 

course of planetary development.

Two basic styles of continental growth (accretion) 

contributed to U.S. basement assembly. The most commonly 

recognized type of accretion was collision-related consumption of crust and juxtaposition of exotic and native fragments 

against (adjacent, onto, and under) the developing continental 

margin (typically seamounts, island arc chains, backarc basins, 

and tectonized fragments such as melange). These processes 

either resulted in or were preceded by collisions of continental masses, causing both orogenic thickening and attachment 

of allochthonous continental basement (for example, the 

Appalachian orogenic cycle). Translation and reattachment of 

native basement slices is a variant of the first type of accretion. Accretion caused by extension resulted from variable 

subduction rates (slab rollback) along noncollisional margins. 

Extensional accretionary orogenesis is typically nondestructive and generates growth of continental crust outward from 

the preexisting continental margin.

Synthesizing the original tectonic setting and original 

metals accumulation, in relation to basement evolution, highlights potential innate metal endowments in diverse basement 

domains. Cratons resist tectonic reactivation and deformation 

and, thus, their metals endowments tend to be preserved in the 

state prevailing during formation and cratonization. Associating the origin of basement domains and their original metal 

endowments may clarify relationships among various domains 

and spatially associated mineral deposits of various types and 

ages. The accuracy and validity of regional mineral resource 

assessments may be improved by considering basement origin, 

composition, history, and architecture.
Figure 6. Basement domains overlaid on the North American magnetic map (NAMAG, 2002).

40°50°

30°

20°

130° 120° 110° 100° 90° 80° 70° 

0 250 500 750 0 250 500 
Figure 7. Basement domains layered with plot of principal metal deposits database revised from Long and others (1998) showing gold, silver, coppelements, nickel, lead, zinc and unclassified deposits of the conterminous United States and Alaska. 

140°

40°

30°

60°

180°

140°

160°

70°

60°

20°

50°

10°

130° 120° 110° 100° 90° 80° 70° 

0 250 500 750 0 250 50

0 500 1,000 KILOMETERS0 250 500 MILES

EX
References Cited 27

References Cited

Adam, John, Rushmer, T., O’Neil, J., and Francis, D., 2012, 

Hadean greenstones from the Nuvvuagittuq fold belt and the 

origin of the Earth’s early continental crust: Geology, v. 40, 

p. 363–366; doi:10.1130/G32623.1.

Akinin, V.V., Miller, E.L., and Wooden, J.L., 2009, Petrology 

and geochronology of crustal xenoliths from the Bering Strait region—Linking deep and shallow processes in 

extending continental crust, in Miller, R.B., and Snoke, 

A.W., eds., Crustal cross sections from the western North 

American Cordillera and elsewhere—Implications for 

tectonic and petrologic processes: Geological Society of 

America Special Paper 456, p. 39–68.

Albers, J.P., 1983, Distribution of mineral deposits in accreted 

terranes and cratonal rocks of the western United States: 

Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 20, p. 1019–1029.

Aleinikoff, J.N., Plafker, G., and Nokleberg, W.J., 1988, 

Middle Pennsylvanian plutonic rocks along the southern 

margin of the Wrangellia Terrane, in Galloway, J.P., and 

Hamilton, T.D., eds., Geologic studies in Alaska by the U.S. 

Geological Survey during 1987: U.S. Geological Survey 

Circular 1016, p. 110–113.

Aleinikoff, J.N., Reed, J.C., and Wooden, J.L., 1993, Lead 

isotopic evidence for the origin of Paleo- and Mesoproterozoic rocks of the Colorado Province, U.S.: Precambrian Research, v. 63, p. 97–122; doi: 10.1016/0301-

9268(93)90007-O.

Alt, J.C., Teagle, D.A.H., Brewer, T.S., Shanks, W.C., III, and 

Halliday, A.N., 1998, Alteration and mineralization of an 

oceanic forearc and the ophiolite-ocean crust analogy: Journal of Geophysical Research—Solid Earth, v. 103, no. B6, 

p. 12,365–12,380.

Amato, J.M., Bogar, M.J., Gehrels, G.E., Farmer, G.L., and 

McIntosh, W.C., 2007, The Tlikakila complex in southern Alaska—A suprasubduction-zone ophiolite between 

the Wrangellia Composite terrane and North America, in

Ridgway, K.D., Trop, J.M., Glen, J.M.G., and O’Neill, J.M., 

eds., Tectonic growth of a collisional continental margin—

Crustal evolution of southern Alaska: Geological Society of 

America Special Paper 431, p. 227–252.

Amato, J.M., and Pavlis, T.L., 2010, Detrital zircon ages from 

the Chugach Terrane, southern Alaska, reveal multiple 

episodes of accretion and erosion in a subduction complex: 

Geology, v. 38, p. 459–462.

Amato, J.M., Toro, J., Miller, E.L., Gehrels, G.E., Farmer, 

G.L., Gottlieb, E.S., and Till, A.B., 2009, Late Proterozoic–

Paleozoic evolution of the Arctic Alaska–Chukotka terrane 

based on U-Pb igneous and detrital zircon ages—Implications 

for Neoproterozoic paleogeographic reconstructions: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 121, p. 1219–1235.

American Geological Institute, 2008, Glossary of geology (5th 

ed.): Falls Church, Virginia, USA, American Geological 

Institute, 779 p.

Anderson, J.L., 1983, Proterozoic anorogenic granite plutonism of North America, in Medaris, L.G.J., Byers, C.W., 

Mickelson, D.M., and Shanks, W.C., eds., Proterozoic 

geology—Selected papers from an international Proterozoic 

symposium: Geological Society of America Memoir 161, 

p. 133–152.

Anderson, J.L., and Morrison, J., 1992, The role of anorogenic 

granites in the Proterozoic crustal development of North 

America, in Condie, K.C., ed., Proterozoic crustal evolution: Amsterdam, Elsevier Science Publishers, p. 263–299.

Armstrong, R.L., 1988, Mesozoic and early Cenozoic magmatic evolution of the Canadian Cordillera, in Clark, 

S.P., Jr., Burchfiel, B.C., and Suppe, J., eds., Processes in 

continental lithospheric deformation: Geological Society of 

America Special Paper 218, p. 55–91.

Armstrong, R.L., 1991, The persistent myth of crustal growth: 

Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 38, p. 613–630.

Armstrong, R.L., Hollister, V.F., and Harakel, J., 1978, K-Ar 

dates for mineralization in the White Cloud–Cannivan porphyry molybdenum belt of Idaho and Montana: Economic 

Geology, v. 73, p. 94–108.

Armstrong, R.L., Taubeneck, W.H., and Hales, P.L., 1977, Rb/

Sr and K/Ar geochronometry of Mesozoic granitic rocks 

and their Sr isotopic composition, Oregon, Washington, 

and Idaho: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 88, 

p. 397–411.

Arndt, N.T., Lesher, C.M., and Czamanske, G.K., 2005, Mantle-derived magmas and magmatic Ni-Cu- (PGE) deposits: 

Economic Geology 100th Anniversary Volume, p. 5–24.

Arth, J.G., Criss, R.E., Zmuda, C.C., Foley, N.K., Patton, Jr., 

W.W., and Miller, T. P., 1989b, Remarkable isotopic and 

trace element trends in potassic through sodic Cretaceous 

plutons of the Yukon-Koyukuk basin, Alaska, and the nature 

of the lithosphere beneath the Koyukuk terrane: Journal of 

Geophysical Research, v. 94, p. 15,957–15,968.

Arth, J.G., Zmuda, C.C., Foley, N.K., Criss, R.E., Patton, 

W.W., Jr., and Miller, T.P., 1989a, Isotopic and trace element 

variations in the Ruby batholith, Alaska, and the nature of 

the deep crust beneath the Ruby and Angayucham terranes: 

Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 94, p. 15,941–15,955.

Babcock, R.S., Burmester, R.F., Engebretson, D.C., Warnock, 

A., and Clack, K.P., 1992, A rifted margin origin for the 

Crescent basalts and related rocks in the northern Coast 

Range volcanic province, Washington and British Columbia: Journal of Geophysical Research v. 97, no. B5, p. 

6799–6821.
28 Basement Domain Map of the Conterminous United States and Alaska

Bacon, C.R., Vazquez, J.A., and Wooden, J.L., 2012, Peninsular terrane basement ages recorded by Paleozoic and Paleoproterozoic zircon in gabbro xenoliths and andesite from 

Redoubt volcano, Alaska: Geological Society of America 

Bulletin, v. 124, p. 24–34.

Baird, D.J., Nelson, K.D., Knapp, J.H., Walters, J.J., and 

Brown, L.D., 1996. Crustal structure and evolution of the 

Trans-Hudson orogen—Results from seismic reflection 

profiling: Tectonics, v. 15, p. 416–426.

Barbeau, D.L., Jr., Ducea, M.N., Gehrels, G.E., Kidder, S., Wetmore, P.H., and Saleeby, J.B., 2005, U-Pb detrital-zircon geochronology of northern Salinian basement and cover rocks: 

Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 117, p. 466–481.

Barr, S.M., Raeside, R.P., and White, C.E., 1998, Geological 

correlations between Cape Breton Island and Newfoundland, northern Appalachian orogeny: Canadian Journal of 

Earth Science, v. 35, p. 1252–1270.

Barrie, C.T., Hannington, M.D., and Bleeker, W., 1999, The 

giant Kidd Creek volcanic-associated massive sulfide 

deposit, Abitibi subprovince, Canada, in Barrie, C.T., and 

Hannington, M.D., eds., Volcanic-associated massive sulfide 

deposits—Processes and examples in modern and ancient 

settings: Reviews in Economic Geology, v. 8, p. 247–259.

Barth, A.P., Wooden, J.L., Coleman, D.S., and Fanning, C.M., 

2000, Geochronology of the Proterozoic basement of southwesternmost North America, and the origin and evolution of 

the Mojave crustal province: Tectonics, v. 19, p. 616–629; 

doi: 10.1029/1999TC001145.

Barth, A.P., Wooden, J.L., Grove, M., Jacobson, C.E., and 

Pedrick, J.N., 2003, U-Pb zircon geochronology of rocks in 

the Salinas Valley region of California—A reevaluation of 

the crustal structure and origin of the Salinian block: Geology, v. 31, p. 517–520.

Bekker, Andrey, Slack, J.F., Planavsky, N., Krapež, B., Hofmann, N., Konhauser, K.O., and Rouxel, O.J., 2010, Iron 

formation—The sedimentary product of a complex interplay 

among mantle, tectonic, oceanic, and biospheric processes: 

Economic Geology, v. 105, p. 467–508; doi: 10.2113/ gsecongeo.105.3.467.

Ben-Avraham, Zvi, and Nur, A., 1983, An introductory overview to the concept of displaced terranes: Canadian Journal 

of Earth Sciences, v. 20, p. 994–999; doi: 10.1139/e83-090.

Benford, B., Crowley, J., Schmitz, M., Northrup, C.J., and 

Tikoff, B., 2010, Mesozoic magmatism and deformation 

in the northern Owyhee Mountains, Idaho: Implications 

for along-zone variations for the western Idaho shear zone: 

Lithosphere, v. 2, p. 93–118.

Berger, B.R., Ayuso, R.A., Wynn, J.C., and Seal, R.R., 2008, 

Preliminary model of porphyry copper deposits: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2008–1321, 55 p.

Betts, P.G., and Giles, D., 2006, The 1800–1100 Ma tectonic 

evolution of Australia: Precambrian Research, v. 144, 

p. 92–125.

Bickford, M.E., and Hill, B.M., 2007, Does the arc accretion 

model adequately explain the Paleoproterozoic evolution of 

southern Laurentia?: An expanded interpretation: Geology, 

v. 35, p. 167–170; doi: 10.1130/G23174A.1.

Bickford, M.E., Wooden, J.L., and Bauer, R.L., 2006, 

SHRIMP study of zircons from early Archean rocks in the 

Minnesota River Valley—Implications for the tectonic history of the Superior Province: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 118, p. 94–108; doi: 10.1130/B25741.1.

Bleeker, Wouter, 2003, The late Archean record—A puzzle in 

ca. 35 pieces: Lithos, v. 71, p. 95–134.

Boerboom, T.J., and the NICE geo-group, 2005, Geologic 

map of Precambrian basement rocks in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Iowa: http://www.mngs.umn.edu/nicegeo/pdfs/

labeled_terrane.pdf.

Boerner, D.E., Craven, J.A., Kurtz, R.D., Ross, G.M., and 

Jones, F.W., 1998, The Great Falls tectonic zone—Suture 

or intracontinental shear zone?: Canadian Journal of Earth 

Sciences, v. 35, p. 175–183.

Bowring, S.A., and Karlstrom, K.E., 1990, Growth, stabilization, and reactivation of Proterozoic lithosphere in the 

southwestern United States: Geology, v. 18, p. 1203–1206.

Box, S.E., Moll-Stalcup, E.J., Frost, T.P., and Murphy, J.M., 

1993, Preliminary geologic map of the Bethel and southern Russian Mission quadrangles, Alaska: U.S. Geological 

Survey Miscellaneous Field Studies Map M-2226–A, scale 

1:250,000, 20 p.

Box, S.E., Moll-Stalcup, E.J., Wooden, J.L., and Bradshaw, 

J.Y., 1990, Kilbuck terrane—Oldest known rocks in Alaska: 

Geology, v. 18, p. 1219–1222. 

Box, S.E., and Patton, W.W., Jr., 1989, Igneous history of 

the Koyukuk terrane, western Alaska—Constraints on 

the origin, evolution and ultimate collision of an accreted 

island arc terrane: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 94, 

p. 15,843–15,867. 

Bradley, D.C., Dumoulin, J., Layer, P., Sunderlin, D., Roeske, 

S., McClelland, W., Harris, A.G., Abbott, G., Bundtzen, 

T.K., and Kusky, T., 2003, Late Paleozoic orogeny in 

Alaska’s Farewell terrane: Tectonophysics, v. 372, p. 23–40.

Bradley, D.C., McClelland, W.C., Friedman, R.M., 

O’Sullivan, P., Layer, P.W., Miller, M.L., Dumoulin, J.A., 

Till, A.B., Wooden, J.L., and Abbott, J.G., 2014, Proterozoic 

geochronological links between the Farewell, Kilbuck and 

Arctic Alaska terranes: Journal of Geology, v. 133, no. 3, 

p. 237–258; doi: 10.1086/675663.
References Cited 29

Bradley, D.C., McClelland, W.C., Wooden, J., Till, A.B., 

Roeske, S., Miller, M.L., Karl, S., and Abbott, J.G., 2007, 

Detrital zircon geochronology of some Neoproterozoic to 

Triassic rocks in interior Alaska: Geological Society of 

America Special Paper 431, p. 155–180.

Brandon, M.T., Roden-Tice, M.K. and Garver, J.I., 1998, 

Late Cenozoic exhumation of the Cascadia accretionary 

wedge in the Olympic Mountains, northwest Washington 

State: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 110, 

p. 985–1009.

Brown, S.R., Gibson, H.D., Andrews, G.D.M., Thorkelson, 

D.J., Marshall, D.M., Vervoort, J.D., and Rayner, N., 2012, 

New constraints on Eocene extension within the Canadian 

Cordillera and identification of Phanerozoic protoliths for 

footwall gneisses of the Okanagan Valley shear zone: Lithosphere, v. 4, p. 354–377; doi: 10.1130/L199.1.

Buhlmann, A.L., Cavell, P., Burwash, R.A., Creaser, R.A., 

and Luth, R.W., 2000, Minette bodies and cognate micaclinopyroxenite xenoliths from the Milk River area, southern 

Alberta—Records of a complex history of the northernmost 

part of the Archean Wyoming craton: Canadian Journal of 

Earth Sciences, v. 37, p. 1629–1650.

Burger, H.R., 2004, General geology and tectonic setting of 

the Tobacco Root Mountains, Montana, in Brady, J.B., 

and others, eds., Precambrian geology of the Tobacco 

Root Mountains, Montana: Geological Society of America 

Special Paper 377, p. 1–14.

Cady, J.W., 1975, Magnetic and gravity anomalies in the 

Great Valley and western Sierra Nevada metamorphic belt, 

California: Geological Society of America Special Paper 

168, 56 p.

Cameron, Angie, 2010, Geochronology of the lower Wildhorse gneiss complex, Pioneer Mountains, Custer County, 

Idaho: Senior thesis, Idaho State University, Pocatello, 

Idaho, 43 p.; http://geology.isu.edu/thesis/Cameron_Angie_

SrThesis2010.pdf. 

Carlson, M.P., 2007, Precambrian accretionary history and 

Phanerozoic structures—A unified explanation for the tectonic architecture of the Nebraska region, USA, in Hatcher, 

R.D., Jr., Carlson, M.P., McBride, J.H., and Martínez 

Catalán, J.R., eds., 4-D Framework of Continental Crust: 

Geological Society of America Memoir 200, p. 321–326, 

doi: 10.1130/2007.1200(15).

Carlson, D.H., Fleck, R., Moye, F.J., and Fox, K.F., 1991, 

Geology, geochemistry, and isotopic character of the 

Colville igneous complex, northeastern Washington: Journal 

of Geophysical Research, v. 96, no. B8, p. 13,313–13,333.

Cawood, P.A., and Hawkesworth, C.J., 2012, Temporal relations 

between mineral deposits and global tectonic cycles—Implications for prospectivity, in Jenkin, G.R.T., Lusty, P.A.J., 

McDonald, I., Smith, M.P., Boyce, A J., and Wilkinson, J.J. 

 (eds.), Ore deposits in an evolving earth: Geological Society 

[London] Special Publications 393; doi:10.1144/SP393.1.

Cawood, P.A., Hawkesworth, C.J., and Dhuime, B., 2013, The 

continental record and the generation of continental crust: 

Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 125, p. 14–32; 

doi: 10.1130/B30722.1.

Cawood, P.A., Kroner, A., and Pisarevsky, S., 2006, Precambrian plate tectonics—Criteria and evidence: GSA Today, 

v. 16, p. 4–11.

Cawood, P.A., Leitch, E.C., Merle, R.E., and Nemchin, A.A., 

2011, Orogenesis without collision—Stabilizing the Terra 

Australis accretionary orogen, eastern Australia: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 123, p. 2240–2255; 

doi:10.1130/B30415.1.

Cawthorn, R.G., Barnes, S.J., Ballhaus, C., and Malitch, K.N., 

2005, Platinum group element, chromium, and vanadium 

deposits in mafic and ultramafic rocks: Economic Geology 

100th Anniversary Volume, p. 215–250.

Cheney, E.S., Rasmussen, M.G., and Miller, M.G., 1994, 

Major faults, stratigraphy, and identity of Quesnellia in 

Washington and adjacent British Columbia, in Lasmanis, 

Raymond, and Cheney, E.S., eds., Regional geology of 

Washington State, Washington Division of Geology and 

Earth Resources Bulletin 80, p. 49–71.

Clautice, K.H., and Newberry, R.J., 2006, Chulitna—Space 

alien or not [abs.]: Geological Society of America Abstracts 

with Programs, v. 38, no. 5, p. 91.

Collins, W.J., 2002a, Hot orogens, tectonic switching, and 

creation of continental crust: Geology, 535–538.

Collins, W.J., 2002b, The nature of extensional accretionary orogens: Tectonics, v. 21, p. 1–12; doi: 10.1029/2000TC001272.

Colpron, Maurice, Nelson, J.L., and Murphy, D.C., 2007, Northern 

Cordilleran terranes and their interactions through time: GSA 

Today, v. 17, p. 4–10; doi: 10.1130/GSAT01704-5A.1.

Colpron, Maurice, and Price, R.A., 1995, Tectonic significance 

of the Kootenay terrane, southeastern Canadian Cordillera—An alternative model: Geology, v. 23, p. 25–28.

Condie, K.C., 1982, Plate-tectonics model for Proterozoic 

continental accretion in the southwestern United States: 

Geology, v. 10, p. 37–42.

Condie, K.C., 1992, ed., Proterozoic crustal evolution: 

Amsterdam, Elsevier Science Publishers, 536 p.

Condie, K.C., 2005, Earth as an evolving planetary system: 

Amsterdam, Elsevier Science Publishers, 574 p.

Condie, K.C., 2007, The distribution of Paleoarchean crust, in

Van Kranendonk, M.J., Smithies, R.H., and Bennett, V.C., 

eds., Earth’s oldest rocks, Amsterdam, Elsevier Publishers, 

Ch. 1.2, p. 9–18.
30 Basement Domain Map of the Conterminous United States and Alaska

Cooper, A.K., and Marlow, M.S., 1983, Preliminary results of 

geophysical and geological studies of the Bering Sea shelf 

during 1982: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 

83–322, 8 p.

Corrigan, David, Hajnal, Z., Nemeth, B., and Lucas, S.B., 2005, 

Tectonic framework of a Paleoproterozoic arc-continent to 

continent-continent collisional zone, Trans-Hudson orogen, 

from geological and seismic reflection studies: Canadian 

Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 42, p. 421–434.

Cox, D.P., and Singer, D.A., 1986, eds., Mineral deposit models: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1693, 379 p.

Dahl, P.S., Hamilton, M.A., Wooden, J.L., Foland, K.A., Frei, 

R., McCombs, J.A., and Holm, D.K., 2006, 2480 Ma mafic 

magmatism in the northern Black Hills, South Dakota—A 

new link connecting the Wyoming and Superior cratons: 

Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences v. 43, p. 1579–1600.

Dahl, P.S., Holm, D.K., Gardner, E.T., Hubacher, F.A., and 

Foland, K.A., 1999, New constraints on the timing of early 

Proterozoic tectonism in the Black Hills (South Dakota), 

with implications for the docking of the Wyoming Province 

with Laurentia: Geological Society of America Bulletin, 

v. 111, p. 1335–1349.

Dall’Agnol, Roberto, Frost, C.D., and Ramo, O.T., 2012, 

IGCP Project 510 “A-type” Granites and Related Rocks 

through Time—Project vita, results, and contribution to 

granite research (editorial): Lithos, v. 151, p. 1–16.

Dallmeyer, R.D., 1989, 40Ar/39Ar ages from subsurface crystalline basement of the Wiggins uplift and southwesternmost 

Appalachian Piedmont—Implications for late Paleozoic 

terrane accretion during assembly of Pangea: American 

Journal of Science, v. 289, p. 812–833. 

Daniel, C.G., Pfeifer, L.S., Jones, J.V., III, and McFarlane, 

C.M., 2013, Detrital zircon evidence for non-Laurentian 

provenance, Mesoproterozoic (ca. 1490–1450 Ma) deposition and orogenesis in a reconstructed orogenic belt, northern 

New Mexico, USA—Defining the Picuris orogeny: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 125, p. 1423–1441.

Dann, J.C., 1997, Pseudostratigraphy and origin of the early 

Proterozoic Payson ophiolite, central Arizona: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 109, p. 347–365; doi: 

10.1130/0016-7606(1997)109.

Dawson, K.M., Panteleyev, A., Sutherland Brown, A., and 

Woodsworth, G.J., 1991, Regional metallogeny, in Gabrielse, Hugh, and Yorath, C.J., eds., Geology of the Cordilleran orogen in Canada: Geological Society of America 

Geology of North America, v. G-2, p. 709–768.

De Wit, M.J., and Thiart, C., 2005, Metallogenic fingerprints 

of Archaean cratons, in McDonald, Iain, Boyce, A.J., Butler, 

I.B., Herrington, R.J., and Polya, D.A., eds., Mineral

 deposits and earth evolution, Geological Society [London] 

Special Publications 248, p. 59–70.

Decker, John, Bergman, S.C., Blodgett, R.B., Box, S.E., 

Bundtzen, T.K., Clough, J.G., Coonrad, W.L., Gilbert, W.G., 

Miller, M.L., Murphy, J.M., Robinson, M.S., and Wallace, 

W.K., 1994, Geology of southwestern Alaska, in Plafker, 

George, and Berg, H.C., eds., The geology of Alaska: 

Geological Society of America Geology of North America, 

v. G-1, p. 285–310.

Dehler, C.M., Sprinkel, D.A., and Porter, S.M., 2005, Neoproterozoic Uinta Mountain Group of northeastern Utah—

Pre-Sturtian geographic, tectonic, and biologic evolution, 

in Pederson, J.L., and Dehler, C.M., eds., Interior western 

United States: Geological Society of America Field Guide 

6, p. 1–25; doi: 10.1130/2005.fl d006(01).

DeMatties, T.A., 1994, Early Proterozoic volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits in Wisconsin—An overview: Economic Geology, v. 89, p. 1122–1151.

Detterman, R.L., Miller, J.W., Case, J.E., Wilson, F.H., and 

Yount, M.E., 1996, Stratigraphic framework of the Alaska 

peninsula: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1969-A, 74 p. 

Dewey, J.F., 2007, The secular evolution of plate tectonics and the continental crust—An outline, in Hatcher, 

R.D., Jr., Carlson, M.P., McBride, J.H., and Martínez 

Catalán, J.R., eds., 4-D framework of continental crust: 

Geological Society of America Memoir 200, p. 1–7; doi: 

10.1130/2007.1200(01).

DeWitt, E.H., Premo, W.R., and Klein, T., 2010a, The early 

Proterozoic Poudre basin, an important constraint of 

1.77–1.73-Ga tectonic events in northern Colorado [abs.]: 

Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, 

v. 42, no. 5, p. 654.

DeWitt, E.H., Premo, W.R., and Klein, T., 2010b, Factors 

controlling generation and distribution of 1400-Ma plutons 

in Colorado [abs.]: Geological Society of America Abstracts 

with Programs, v. 42, no. 5, p. 654.

DGGS Staff, Zonge Engineering Research Organization, Inc., 

and GEONEX Aero Service, 1995, Total field magnetics of 

the southeastern Bethel basin, Alaska: Alaska Division of 

Geological and Geophysical Surveys Report of Investigation 95-1, 2 sheets, scale 1:125,000.

Dickinson, W.R., 2006, Geotectonic evolution of the Great 

Basin: Geosphere, v. 2, p. 353–368.

Dickinson, W.R., 2008, Accretionary Mesozoic-Cenozoic 

expansion of the Cordilleran continental margin in California and adjacent Oregon: Geosphere, v. 4, p. 329–353.

Dorsey, R.J., and LaMaskin, T.A., 2007, Stratigraphic record 

of Triassic-Jurassic collisional tectonics in the Blue Mountains Province, northeastern Oregon: American Journal of 

Science, v. 307, p. 1167–1193.
References Cited 31

Dostal, Jaroslav, Church, B.N., and Hoy, T., 2001, Geological and geochemical evidence for variable magmatism and 

tectonics in the southern Canadian Cordillera—Paleozoic 

to Jurassic suites, Greenwood, southern British Columbia: 

Canadian Journal Earth Sciences, v. 38, p. 75–90.

Doughty, P.T., and Chamberlain, K.R., 2007, Age of Paleoproterozoic basement and related rocks in the Clearwater 

complex, northern Idaho, U.S.A., in Link, P.K., and Lewis, 

R.S., eds., Proterozoic geology of western North America 

and Siberia: Society for Sedimentary Geology Special Publication 86, p. 9–36.

Doughty, P.T., and Chamberlain, K.R., 2008, Protolith age and 

timing of Precambrian magmatic and metamorphic events 

in the Priest River complex, northern Rockies: Canadian 

Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 45, p. 99–116; doi: 10.1139/

E07-067. 

Doughty, P.T., Price, R.A., and Parrish, R.R., 1998, Geology and U–Pb Geochronology of Archean basement and 

Proterozoic cover in the Priest River complex, northwestern 

United States, and their implications for Cordilleran structure and Precambrian continent reconstructions: Canadian 

Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 35, p. 39–54.

Dover, J.H., 1994, Geology of part of east-central Alaska, in

Plafker, George, and Berg, H.C., The geology of Alaska: 

Geological Society of America Geology of North America, 

v. G-1, p. 153–203.

Drake, A.A., Jr., 1989, Metamorphic rocks of the Potomac 

terrane in the Potomac Valley of Virginia and Maryland, in 

International Geological Congress, 28th, Field Trip Guidebook T202: Washington, D.C., American Geophysical 

Union, 22 p.

Duebendorfer, E.M., Chamberlain, K.R., and Fry, B., 2006, 

Mojave-Yavapai boundary zone, southwestern United 

States—A rifting model for the formation of an isotopically 

mixed crustal boundary zone: Geology, v. 34, p. 681–684; 

doi: 10.1130/G22581.1.

Duebendorfer, E.M., Chamberlain, K.R., and Jones, 

C.S., 2001, Paleoproterozoic tectonic history of the 

Mojave-Yavapai boundary zone: Perspective from the 

Cerbat Mountains, northwestern Arizona: Geological 

Society of America Bulletin, v. 113, p. 575–590; doi: 

10.1130/0016-7606(2001)113<0575:PTHOTC>2.0.CO;2.

Dumond, Gregory, Mahan, K.H., Williams, M.L., and Karlstrom, K.E., 2007, Crustal segmentation, composite looping 

pressure-temperature paths, and magma-enhanced metamorphic field gradients—Upper Granite Gorge, Grand Canyon, 

USA: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 119, 

p. 202–220; doi: 10.1130/B25903.1.

Dusel-Bacon, Cynthia, and Williams, I.S., 2009, Evidence for 

prolonged mid-Paleozoic plutonism and ages of crustal

 sources in east-central Alaska from SHRIMP U-Pb dating 

of syn-magmatic, inherited and detrital zircon: Canadian 

Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 46, p. 21–39.

Dutch, S.I., and Nielsen, P.A., 1990, The Archean Wyoming province and its relations with adjacent Proterozoic 

provinces, in Lewry, J.F., and Stauffer, M.R., eds., The 

Early Proterozoic Trans-Hudson orogen of North America: 

Geological Association of Canada Special Paper 37, 

p. 287–300.

Edelman, S.E., and Sharp, W.D., 1989, Terranes, early faults, 

and pre-Late Jurassic amalgamation of the western Sierra 

Nevada metamorphic belt, California: Geological Society of 

America Bulletin, v. 101, p. 1420–1433.

Egan, S.S., and Meredith, D.J., 2007, A kinematic modelling 

approach to lithosphere deformation and basin formation—

Application to the Black Sea, in Karner, G.D., Manatschal, 

G., and Pinheiro, L.M., eds., Imaging, mapping and 

modelling continental lithosphere extension and breakup: 

Geological Society [London] Special Publications 282, 

p. 173–198; doi: 10.1144/SP282.9. 

Egger, A.E., Miller, E.L., Dumitru, T.A., and Wooden, J.L., 

2003, Timing and nature of Tertiary plutonism with regard 

to extension in the Grouse Creek Mountains, Utah: International Geology Reviews, v. 45, p. 497–532.

Eldholm, Olav, Skogseid, J., and Planke, S., 2000, Atlantic 

volcanic margins—A comparative study, in Nottvedt, Arvid, 

Larsen, B.T., Olaussen, S., Torudbakken, B., Skogseid, 

J., Gabrielsen, R.H., Brekke, H., and Birkeland, O., eds., 

Dynamics of the Norwegian margin: Geological Society 

[London] Special Publications 167, 472 p.

Emsbo, Poul, Groves, D.I., Hofstra, A.H., and Bierlein, 

F.P., 2006, The giant Carlin gold province—A protracted 

interplay of orogenic, basinal, and hydrothermal processes 

above a lithospheric boundary: Mineralia Deposita, v. 41, 

p. 517–525; doi: 10.1007/s00126-006-0085-3.

Ernst, W.G., 2011, Accretion of the Franciscan complex 

attending Jurassic-Cretaceous geotectonic development 

of northern and central California: Geological Society of 

America Bulletin, v. 123, p. 1667–1678.

Ernst, W.G., Snow, C.A., and Scherer, H.H., 2008, Mesozoic 

transpression, transtension, subduction and metallogenesis in northern and central California: Terra Nova, 20, 

p. 394–413. 

Evans, K.V., and Zartman, R.E., 1990, U-Th-Pb and Rb-Sr 

geochronology of middle Proterozoic granite and augen 

gneiss, Salmon River Mountains, east-central Idaho: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 102, p. 63–73; doi: 

10.1130/0016-7606(1990)102<0063:UTPARS>2.3.CO;2.
32 Basement Domain Map of the Conterminous United States and Alaska

Farris, D.W., 2009, Construction and evolution of the Kodiak 

Talkeetna arc crustal section, southern Alaska, in Miller, 

R.B., and Snoke, A.W., eds., Crustal cross sections from the 

western North American Cordillera and elsewhere—Implications for tectonic and petrologic processes: Geological 

Society of America Special Paper 456, p. 69–96.

Ferguson, C.B., Duebendorfer, E.M., and Chamberlain, K.R., 

2007, Synkinematic intrusion of the 1.4-Ga Boriana Canyon 

pluton, northwestern Arizona—Implications for ca. 1.4-Ga 

regional strain in the western United States: Journal of 

Geology, v. 112, p. 165–183; doi: 0022-1376/2004/11202-

0003.

Fischer, C.M., Loewy, S.L., Miller, C.F., Berquist, P., Van 

Schmus, W.R., Hatcher, R.D., Jr., Wooden, J.L., and Fullager, P.D., 2010, Whole-rock Pb and Sm-Nd isotopic 

constraints on the growth of southeastern Laurentia during 

Grenville orogenesis: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 122, p. 1646–1659.

Fleck, R.J., and Criss R.E., 2007, Location, age, and tectonic 

significance of the western Idaho suture zone, in Kuntz, 

M.A., and Snee, L.W., eds., Geological studies of the 

Salmon River suture zone and adjoining areas, west–central 

Idaho and eastern Oregon: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1738, p. 15–50.

Fleck, R.J., and Gunn, S.H., 1991, The use of integrated geologic, geochemical, and isotopic studies in the identification 

and interpretation of lithospheric boundaries in the northwestern United States [abs.]: Geological Society of America 

Abstracts with Programs, v. 23, p. 210. 

Foster, D.A., and Fanning, C.M., 1997, Geochronology of 

the northern Idaho batholith and the Bitterroot metamorphic core complex—Magmatism preceding and contemporaneous with extension: Geological Society of 

America Bulletin, v. 109, no. 4, p. 379–394; doi: 10.1130 

/0016-7606(1997)109<0379:GOTNIB>2.3.CO;2.

Foster, D.A., Mueller, P.A., Vogl, J.J., Mogk, D.W., and 

Wooden, J.L., 2006, Proterozoic evolution of the western margin of the Wyoming craton—Implications for the 

tectonic and magmatic evolution of the northern Rocky 

Mountains: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 43, p. 

1601–1619.

Franklin, J.M., Gibson, H.L., Jonasson, I.R., and Galley, A.G., 

2005, Volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits: Economic 

Geology 100th Anniversary Volume, p. 523–560.

Fuis, G.S., Moore, T.E., Plafker, G., Brocher, T.M., Fisher, 

M.A., Mooney, W.D., Nokleberg, W.J., Page, R.A., Beaudoin, B.C., Christensen, N.I., Levander, A.R., Lutter, W.J., 

Saltus, R.W., and Ruppert, N.A., 2008, Trans-Alaska 

Crustal Transect and continental evolution involving subduction underplating and synchronous foreland thrusting: 

Geology, v. 36, p. 267–270.

Galley, A.G., Hannington, M., and Jonasson, I., 2007, Volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits, in Goodfellow, W.D., 

ed., Mineral deposits of Canada—A synthesis of major 

deposit-types, district metallogeny, the evolution of geological provinces, and exploration methods: Geological 

Association of Canada Mineral Deposits Division Special 

Publication 5, p. 141–161.

Gaschnig, R.M., Vervoort, J.D., Lewis, R.S., and Tikoff, B., 

2013, Probing for Proterozoic and Archean crust in the 

northern U.S. Cordillera with inherited zircon from the 

Idaho batholith: Geological Society of America Bulletin, 

v. 125; p. 73–88; doi:10.1130/B30583.1.

Gehrels, G.E., Johnsson, M.J., and Howell, D.G., 1999, Detrital zircon geochronology of the Adams Argillite and Nation 

River Formation, east-central Alaska, U.S.A.: Journal of 

Sedimentary Research, v. 69, p. 135–144.

Gehrels, G.E., and Berg, H.C., 1994, Geology of southeastern 

Alaska, in Plafker, George, and Berg, H.C., eds., The geology of Alaska: Geological Society of America Geology of 

North America, v. G-1, p. 451–468.

Gibbs, A.K., Payne, Barton, Setzer, Thomas, Brown, L.D., 

Oliver, J.E., and Kaufman, Sidney, 1984, Seismic reflection 

study of the Precambrian crust of central Minnesota: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 95, p. 280–294.

Giles, D., Betts, P., and Lister, G., 2002, Far-field continental 

backarc setting for the 1.80–1.67 Ga basins of northeastern 

Australia: Geology, v. 30, p. 823–826.

Gilman, Tony, Feineman, M., and Fisher, D., 2009, The Chulitna terrane of south-central Alaska—A rifted volcanic arc 

caught between the Wrangellia composite terrane and the 

Mesozoic margin of North America: Geological Society of 

America Bulletin, v. 121, p. 979–991.

Glen, J.M.G., Schmidt, J., Pellerin, L., McPhee, D.K., and 

O’Neill, J.M., 2007, Crustal structure of Wrangellia and 

adjacent terranes inferred from geophysical studies along 

a transect through the northern Talkeetna Mountains, in

Ridgway, K.D., Trop, J.M., Glen, J.M.G., and O’Neill, J.M., 

eds., Tectonic growth of a collisional continental margin: 

Crustal evolution of southern Alaska: Geological Society of 

America Special Paper 431, p. 21–41.

Goodfellow, W.D., and Lydon, J.W., 2007, Sedimentary exhalative (SEDEX) deposits, in Goodfellow, W.D., ed., Mineral 

deposits of Canada—A synthesis of major deposit-types, 

district metallogeny, the evolution of geological provinces, and exploration methods: Geological Association of 

Canada, p. 163–184.

Goodfellow, W.D., Lydon, J.W.T., and Turner, R.J.W., 

1993, Geology and genesis of stratiform sediment-hosted 

(SEDEX) zinc-lead-silver sulphide deposits, in Kirkham, 

R.V., and others, eds., Mineral deposit modeling: Geological Association of Canada Special Paper 40, p. 201–251. 
References Cited 33

Goodge, J.W., and Vervoort, J.D., 2006, Origin of Mesoproterozoic A-type granites in Laurentia—Hf isotope evidence: 

Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 243, p. 711–731.

Gorman, A.R., Clowes, R., Ellis, R., Henstock, T., Spence, G., 

Keller, G., Levander, A., Snelson, C., Burianyk, M., Kanasewich, E., Asudeh, I., Zoltan, H., and Miller, K., 2002, Deep 

Probe—Imaging the roots of western North America: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 39, p. 375–398.

Graff, P.J., Sears, J.W., Holden, G.S., and Hausel, W.D., 1982, 

Geology of the Elmers Rock greenstone belt, Laramie 

Range, Wyoming: Geological Survey of Wyoming Report 

of Investigations 14, 23 p.

Grauch, V.J.S., Rodriguez, B.D., and Wooden, J.L., 2003, 

Geophysical and isotopic constraints on crustal structure 

related to mineral trends in north-central Nevada and 

implications for tectonic history: Economic Geology, v. 98, 

p. 269–286.

Gray, D.R., Foster, D.A., and Bierlein, F.P., 2002, Geodynamics and metallogeny of the Lachlan orogen: Australian 

Journal of Earth Science, v. 49, p. 1041–1056.

Gray, D.R., Foster, D.A., Maas, R., Spaggiari, C.V., Gregory, 

R.T., Goscombe, B., and Hoffmann, K.H., 2007, Continental growth and recycling by accretion of deformed 

turbidite fans and remnant ocean basins—Examples from 

Neoproterozoic and Phanerozoic orogens, in Hatcher, 

R.D., Jr., Carlson, M.P., McBride, J.H., and Martínez 

Catalán, J.R., eds., 4-D framework of continental crust: 

Geological Society of America Memoir 200, p. 63–92; doi: 

10.1130/2007.1200(05).

Greene, A.R., Scoates, J.S., Weis, D., Katvala, E.C., Israel, S., 

and Nixon, G.T., 2010, The architecture of oceanic plateaus 

revealed by the volcanic stratigraphy of the accreted Wrangellia oceanic plateau: Geosphere, v. 6, p. 47–73.

Groves, D.I., and Bierlein, F.P., 2007, Geodynamic settings 

of mineral deposit systems: Geological Society [London] 

Journal, v. 164, p. 19–30.

Groves, D.I., Goldfarb, R.J., Gebre-Mariam, M., Hagemann, 

S.G., and Robert, F., 1998, Orogenic gold deposits—A 

proposed classification in the context of their crustal distribution and relationship to other gold deposit types: Ore 

Geology Reviews, v. 13, p. 7–27.

Groves, D.I., Bierlein, F.P., Meinert, L.D., and Hitzman, M.W., 

2010, Iron oxide copper–gold (IOCG) deposits through 

earth history—Implications for origin, lithospheric setting, 

and distinction from other epigenetic iron oxide deposits: 

Economic Geology, v. 105, p. 641–654.

Gurney, J.J., Helmstaedt, H.H., Le Roux, A.P., Nowicki, T.E., 

Richardson, S.H., and Westerland, K.J., 2005, Diamonds—

Crustal distribution and formation processes in time and 

space and an integrated deposit model: Economic Geology 

100th Anniversary Volume, p. 143–178. 

Hacker, B.R., 1993, Evolution of the northern Sierra Nevada 

metamorphic belt—Petrological, structural, and Ar/Ar 

constraints: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 105, 

p. 637–656.

Hacker, B.R., Kelemen, P.B., Rioux, M., McWilliams, 

M.O., Gans, P.B., Reiners, P.W., Layer, P.W., Söderlund, 

U., and Vervoort, J.D., 2011, Thermochronology of the 

Talkeetna intraoceanic arc of Alaska: Ar/Ar, U-Th/He, 

Sm-Nd, and Lu-Hf dating: Tectonics, v. 30, TC1011; doi: 

10.1029/2010TC002798.

Hacker, B.R., Mehl, L., Kelemen, P.B., Rioux, M., Behn, 

M.D., and Luffi, P., 2008, Reconstruction of the Talkeetna 

intraoceanic arc of Alaska through thermobarometry: 

Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 113, B03204; doi: 

10.1029/2007JB005208 

Hadley, J.B., 1970, The Ocoee Series and its possible correlatives, in Fisher, G.W., and others, eds., Studies of Appalachian geology—Central and southern: New York, Wiley 

Interscience, p. 247–259.

Hajnal, Zoltan, Ansdell, K.M., and Ashton, K.E., 2005, Introduction to special issue of Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences: The Trans-Hudson Orogen Transect of Lithoprobe: 

Canadian Journal of Earth Science, v. 42, p. 379–383; doi: 

10.1139/E05-053.

Hamilton, Warren, 1998, Archean magmatism and deformation were not products of plate tectonics: Precambrian 

Research, v. 91, p. 143–179.

Hampton, B.A., Malkowski, M.A., and Deloge, J., 2009, Comparison and tentative correlation of Devonian-Triassic strata 

across tectonic terrane boundaries along the Denali fault, 

Alaska Range, southern Alaska [abs.]: Geological Society 

of America Abstracts with Programs, v. 41, no. 7, p. 301.

Hannington, M.D., de Ronde, C.E.J., and Petersen, S., 2005, 

Sea-floor tectonics and submarine hydrothermal systems, 

in Hedenquist, J.W., Thompson, J.F.H., Goldfarb, R.J., and 

Richards, J.P., eds., Economic Geology 100th Anniversary 

Volume, p. 111–141.

Hansen, V.L., and Dusel-Bacon, Cynthia, 1998, Structural and 

kinematic evolution of the Yukon-Tanana upland tectonites, 

east-central Alaska—A record of late Paleozoic to Mesozoic 

crustal assembly: Geological Society of America Bulletin, 

v. 110, p. 211–230.

Harms, Tekla, Brady, J., Burger, H., and Cheney, J., 2004, 

Advances in the geology of the Tobacco Root Mountains, 

Montana, and their implications for the history of the 

northern Wyoming Province, in Brady, J.B., and others, 

eds., Precambrian geology of the Tobacco Root Mountains, 

Montana: Geological Society of America Special Paper 377, 

p. 227–243; doi: 10.1130/0-8137-2377-9.227.
34 Basement Domain Map of the Conterminous United States and Alaska

Harris, C.W., Gibson, R.G., Simpson, C., and Eriksson, K.A., 

1987, Proterozoic cuspate basement-cover structure, Needle 

Mountains, Colorado: Geology, v. 15, p. 950–953.

Hatcher, R.D., Jr., 2010, The Appalachian orogen—A brief 

summary, in Tollo, R.P., Bartholomew, M.J., Hibbard, J.P., 

and Karabinos, P.M., eds., From Rodinia to Pangea—The 

lithotectonic record of the Appalachian region: Geological 

Society of America Memoir 206, p. 1–19.

Hausel, W.D., 1998, Diamonds and mantle source rocks in the 

Wyoming craton with a discussion of other U.S. occurrences: Wyoming State Geological Survey Report of Investigations 53, 93 p. 

Hawkesworth, Chris, Dhuime, B., Pietranik, A., Cawood, P., 

Kemp, T., and Storey, C., 2010, The generation and evolution 

of the continental crust: Geological Society [London] Journal, 

v. 167, p. 229–248; doi: 10.1144/0016-76492009-072.

Heatherington, A.L., Mueller, P., and Wooden, J.L., 2010, 

Alleghanian plutonism in the Suwannee terrane, U.S.A.—

Implications for late Paleozoic tectonic models: Geological 

Society of America Memoir 206, p. 607–620.

Hedenquist, J.W., Thompson, J.F.H., Goldfarb, R.J., and Richards, J.P., eds., 2005, Economic Geology—100th Anniversary Volume, 1136 p.

Hibbard, J.P., van Staal, C.R., and Rankin, D.W., 2010, Comparative analysis of the geological evolution of the northern 

and southern Appalachian orogen—Late Ordovician–Permian, in Tollo, R.P., Bartholomew, M.J., Hibbard, J.P., and 

Karabinos, P.M., eds., From Rodinia to Pangea—The 

lithotectonic record of the Appalachian region: Geological 

Society of America Memoir 206, p. 51–69.

Hibbard, J.P., van Staal, C.R., Rankin, D.W., and Williams, 

H., 2006, Lithotectonic map of the Appalachian orogen, 

Canada–United States of America: Geological Survey of 

Canada Map 2096A, scale 1:1,500,000. 

Hill, B.M., and Bickford, M.E., 2001, Paleoproterozoic rocks 

of central Colorado—Accreted arcs or extended older 

crust?: Geology, v. 29, p. 1015–1018; doi: 10.1130/0091-

7613(2001) 029_1015:PROCCA_2.0.CO;2.

Hoare, J.M., 1961, Preliminary geology along the Lower 

Yukon River, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 61–64, scale 1:500,000.

Hoare, J.M., and Condon, W.H., 1962, Preliminary geologic 

map of the Lower Yukon–Norton Sound region, Alaska: 

U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 62–134, scale 

1:500,000.

Hoffman, P.F., 1988, United plates of America, the birth of a 

craton—Early Proterozoic assembly and growth of Laurentia: Annual Reviews of Earth and Planetary Sciences: v. 16, 

p. 543–603.

Hoffman, P.F., 1991, Did the breakout of Laurentia turn Gondwanaland inside-out?: Science, v. 252, p. 1409–1412.

Hoffman, P.F., 1997, Tectonic genealogy of North America in 

Earth structure, in van der Pluijm, B.A., and Marshak, S., 

eds., An introduction to structural geology and tectonics: 

New York, McGraw-Hill, p. 459–464. 

Holm, D.K., Anderson, R., Boerboom, T.J., Cannon, W.F., 

Chandler, V., Jirsa, M., Miller, J., Schneider, D.A., Schulz, 

K.J., and Van Schmus, W.R., 2007, Reinterpretation of 

Paleoproterozoic accretionary boundaries of the northcentral United States based on a new aeromagnetic-geologic 

compilation: Precambrian Research, v. 157, p. 71–79.

Holm, D.K., Van Schmus, W.R., MacNeill, L.C., Boerboom, 

T.J., Schweitzer, D., and Schneider, D., 2005, U-Pb zircon 

geochronology of Paleoproterozoic plutons from the northern midcontinent, USA—Evidence for subduction flip and 

continued convergence after geon 18 Penokean orogenesis: 

Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 117, p. 259–275; 

doi: 10.1130/B25395.1.

Holm-Denoma, C.S., Hofstra, A.H., Noble, P.J., and Leslie, 

S.A., 2011, Paleozoic stratigraphy and kinematics of the 

Roberts Mountains allochthon in the Independence Mountains, northern Nevada, in Steininger, Roger, and Pennell, 

B., eds., Great Basin evolution and metallogeny: Geological 

Society of Nevada 2010 Symposium, Reno, Nev., Proceedings, p. 1039–1054.

Horton, J.W., Jr., Drake, A.A., Jr., and Rankin, D.W., 1989, 

Tectonostratigraphic terranes and their Paleozoic boundaries 

in the central and southern Appalachians, in Dallmeyer, R.D., 

ed., Terranes in the Circum-Atlantic Paleozoic orogens: Geological Society of America Special Paper 230, p. 213–245.

Horton, J.W., Jr., Aleinikoff, J.N., Drake, A.A., Jr., and Fanning, C.M., 2010, Ordovician volcanic-arc terrane in the 

central Appalachian Piedmont of Maryland and Virginia—

SHRIMP U-Pb geochronology, field relations, and tectonic 

significance, in Tollo, R.P., Bartholomew, M.J., Hibbard, 

J.P., and Karabinos, P.M., eds., From Rodinia to Pangea—

The lithotectonic record of the Appalachian region: Geological Society of America Memoir 206, p. 621–660.

Jahn, B.-M., Glikson, A.Y., Peucat, J.J., and Hickman, A.H., 

1981, REE geochemistry and isotopic data of Archaean 

silicic volcanics and granitoids from the Pilbara block, 

Western Australia—Implications for the early crustal evolution: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 45, p. 1633–

1652; doi: 10.1016/S0016-7037(81)80002-6.

John, D.A., Ayuso, R.A., Barton, M.D., Blakely, R.J., Bodnar, 

R.J., Dilles, J.H., Gray, Floyd, Graybeal, F.T., Mars, J.C., 

McPhee, D.K., Seal, R.R., Taylor, R.D., and Vikre, P.G., 

2010, Porphyry copper deposit model, chap. B of Mineral 

deposit models for resource assessment: U.S. Geological 

Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5070–B, 169 

p; http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2010/5070/b/.
References Cited 35

Jones, D.S., Barnes, C.G., Premo, W.R., and Snoke, A.W., 2013, 

Reactivation of the Archean-Proterozoic suture along the 

southern margin of Laurentia during the Mazatzal orogeny—

Petrogenesis and tectonic implications of ca. 1.63 Ga granite 

in southeastern Wyoming: Geological Society of America 

Bulletin, v. 125, p. 164–183; doi: 10.1130/B30577.1.

Jones, J.V., III, Connelly, J.N., Karlstrom, K.E., Williams, 

M.L., and Doe, M.F., 2009, Age, provenance, and tectonic 

setting of Paleoproterozoic quartzite successions in the 

southwestern United States: Geological Society of America 

Bulletin, v. 121, p. 247–264.

Jones, J.V., III, Sidoway, C.S., and Connelly, J.N., 2010, Characteristics and implications of ca. 1.4 Ga deformation across 

a Proterozoic mid-crustal section, Wet Mountains, Colorado, 

USA: Lithosphere, v. 2, p. 119–135; doi: 10.1130/L78.1.

Karlstrom, K.E., and Humphries, E.D., 1998, Persistent influence of Proterozoic accretionary boundaries in the tectonic 

evolution of southwestern North America—Interaction 

of cratonic grain and mantle modification events: Rocky 

Mountain Geology, v. 33, p. 161–179.

Karlstrom, K.E., and Williams, M.L., 2006, Nature of the 

middle crust—Heterogeneity of structure and process due 

to pluton-enhanced tectonism, an example from Proterozoic 

rocks of the North American Southwest, in Brown, Michael, 

and Rushmere, T., eds., Evolution and differentiation of the 

continental crust: Cambridge, U.K., Cambridge University 

Press, p. 268–295.

Kearey, Phillip, Klepeis, K.A., and Vine, F.J., 2009, Global 

tectonics: West-Sussex, U.K., Wiley-Blackwell, 482, p.

Kellogg, K.S., Snee, L.W., and Unruh, D.M., 2003, The Mesoproterozoic Beaverhead impact structure and its tectonic 

setting, Montana-Idaho—40Ar/39Ar and U-Pb isotopic constraints: Journal of Geology, v. 111, p. 639–652; http://www.

jstor.org/stable/10.1086/378339.

Keppie, J.D., and Ramos, V.A., 1999, Odyssey of terranes 

in the Iapetus and Rheic oceans during the Paleozoic, in

Ramos, V.A., and Keppie, J.D., eds., Laurentia-Gondwana 

connections before Pangea: Geological Society of America 

Special Paper 336, p. 267–276. 

Klein, T.L., and Sims, P.K., 2007, Control of epigenetic metal 

deposits by Paleoproterozoic basement architecture, in

Lund, Karen, ed., Earth science studies in support of public 

policy development and land stewardship—Headwaters 

province, Idaho and Montana, U.S. Geological Circular 

1305, p. 17–26.

Leach, D.L., Sangster, D.F., Kelley, K.D., Large, R.R., Garven, G., Allen, C.R., Gutzmer, J., and Walters, S., 2005, 

Sediment-hosted lead-zinc deposits—A global perspective, 

in Hedenquist, J.W., and others, eds., Economic Geology 

100th Anniversary Volume p. 561–607.

Leahy, Kevin, Barnicoat, A.C., Foster, R.P., Lawrence, S.R., 

and Napier, R.W., 2005, Geodynamic processes that control 

the global distribution of giant gold deposits: in McDonald, 

Iain, Boyce, A.J., Butler, I.B., Herrington, R.J., and Polya, 

D.A., eds., Mineral deposits and earth evolution, Geological 

Society [London] Special Publications, 248, p. 119–132.

Leeman, W.P., Menzies, M.A., Matty, D.J., and Embree, G.F., 

1985, Strontium, neodymium and lead isotopic compositions of deep crustal xenoliths from the Snake River 

Plain—Evidence for Archean basement: Earth and Planetary 

Science Letters, v. 75, p. 354–368.

Lemieux, Sophie, Ross, G.M., and Cook, F.A., 2000, Crustal 

geometry and tectonic evolution of the Archean crystalline 

basement beneath the southern Alberta Plains, from new 

seismic reflection and potential-field studies: Canadian 

Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 37, p 1437–1491.

Lewis, R.S., Brewer, R.A., Jansen, A.C., Guevara, V.E., 

Vervoort, J.D., and Baldwin, J.A., 2011, Below the Belt—A 

road log of Archean and Paleoproterozoic rocks in the eastern Clearwater complex, Idaho: Northwest Geology, v. 40, 

p. 143–157.

Lewis, R.S., Vervoort, J.D., Burmester, R.F., McClelland, 

W.C., and Chang, Z., 2007, Geochronological constraints on 

Mesoproterozoic and Neoproteroic(?) high-grade metasedimentary rocks of north-central Idaho, U.S.A., in Link, P.K., 

and Lewis, R.S., eds., Proterozoic geology of western North 

America and Siberia: Society for Sedimentary Geology 

Special Publication 86, p. 37–53.

Loewy, S.L., Connelly, J.N., Dalziel, I.W.D., and Gower, C., 

2003, Eastern Laurentia in Rodinia—Constraints from 

whole-rock Pb and U/Pb geochronology: Tectonophysics, 

v. 375, p. 169–197.

Long, K.R., DeYoung, J.H., Jr., and Ludington, S.D., 1998, 

Database of significant deposits of gold, silver, copper, 

lead, and zinc in the United States: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 98-206 A,B, 33 p. http://pubs.usgs.gov/

of/1998/0206a-b/.

Lund, Karen, 2008, Geometry of the Neoproterozoic and 

Paleozoic rift margin of western Laurentia—Implications 

for mineral deposit settings: Geosphere, v. 4, p. 429–444; 

doi: 10.1130/GES00121.1.

Lund, Karen, Aleinikoff, J.N., Yacob, E.Y., Unruh, D.M., and 

Fanning, C.M., 2008, Coolwater culmination—Sensitive 

high-resolution ion microprobe(SHRIMP) U-Pb and isotopic evidence for continental delamination in the Syringa 

embayment, Salmon River suture, Idaho: Tectonics v. 27, 

doi:10.1029/2006TC002071.

Marlow, M.S., and Cooper, A.K., 1980, Mesozoic and Cenozoic structural trends beneath the southern Bering Sea shelf: 

American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 

v. 64, p. 2139–2155.
36 Basement Domain Map of the Conterminous United States and Alaska

Mattinson, J.M., and James, E.W., 1985, Salinian block U-Pb 

age and isotopic variations—Implications for origin and 

emplacement of the Salinian terrane, in Howell, D.G., ed., 

Tectonostratigraphic terranes of the CircumPacific region: 

Circum-Pacific Council Energy Mineral Resources, Earth 

Science Series 1, p. 215–226. 

McLaughlin, R.J., Kling, S.A., Poore, R.Z., McDougall, K., 

and Beutner, E.C., 1982, Post-middle Miocene accretion 

of Franciscan rocks, northwestern California: Geological 

Society of America Bulletin: v. 93, p. 595–605.

McLelland, J.M., Daly, S.J., and Chiarenzelli, J., 1993, 

Sm-Nd and U-Pb isotopic evidence of juvenile crust in 

the Adirondack lowlands and implications for the evolution of the Adirondack Mountains: Journal of Geology, 

v. 101, p. 97–105.

McClelland, W.C., Kusky, T., Bradley, D.C., Dumoulin, J., and 

Harris, A.G., 1999, The nature of Nixon Fork ‘‘basement,’’ 

west-central Alaska [abs.]: Geological Society of America 

Abstracts with Programs, v. 31, no. 6, p. 78.

McCormick, K.A., 2010, Precambrian basement terrane of 

South Dakota: South Dakota Department of Environmental 

and Natural Resources Bulletin 41, 45 p.

Miller, M.L., Bradley, D.C., Bundtzen, T.K., Blodgett, R.B., 

Pessagno, E.A., Jr., Tucker, R.D., and Harris, A.G., 2007, 

The restricted Gemuk Group—A Triassic to Lower Cretaceous succession in southwestern Alaska, in Ridgway, K.D., 

Trop, J.M., Glen, J.M.G., and O’Neill, J.M., eds., Tectonic 

growth of a collisional continental margin: Crustal evolution of southern Alaska: Geological Society of America 

Special Paper 431, p. 273–305.

Miller, M.L., Bradshaw, J.Y., Kimbrough, D.L., Stern, T.W., 

and Bundtzen, T.K., 1991, Isotopic evidence for early 

Proterozoic age of the Idono complex, west-central Alaska: 

Journal of Geology, v. 99, p. 209–223. 

Moll-Stalcup, E.J., and Arth, J.G., 1989, The nature of the 

crust in the Yukon-Koyukuk province as inferred from the 

chemical and isotopic composition of five Late Cretaceous 

to early Tertiary volcanic fields in western Alaska: Journal 

of Geophysical Research, v. 94, no. B11, p. 15,989–16,002.

Moll-Stalcup, E.J., Wooden, J.L., Bradshaw, J., and Aleinikoff, 

J.N., 1996, Elemental and isotopic evidence for 2.1–Ga arc 

magmatism in the Kilbuck terrane, southwestern Alaska, 

in Moore, T.E., and Dumoulin, J.A., eds., Geologic studies in Alaska by the U.S. Geological Survey in 1994, U.S. 

Geological Survey Bulletin 2152, p. 111–130.

Moore, T.E., and Nokleberg, W.J., 1988, Stratigraphy, sedimentology, and structure of the Wickersham terrane in the 

Cache Mountain area, east-central Alaska, in Galloway, J.P., 

and Hamilton, T.D., eds., Geologic studies in Alaska by 

the U.S. Geological Survey during 1987: U.S. Geological 

Survey Circular 1016, p. 75–80.

Moore, T.E., Wallace, W.K., Bird, K.J., Karl, S.M., Mull, 

C.G., and Dillon, J.T., 1994, Geology of northern Alaska, 

in Plafker, George, and Berg, H.C., eds., The geology of 

Alaska: Geological Society of America Geology of North 

America, v. G-1, p. 49–140.

Moore, T.E., Wallace, W.K., Mull, C.G., Adams, K.E., Plafker, 

G., and Nokleberg, W.J., 1997, Crustal implications of 

bedrock geology along the Trans-Alaska Crustal Transect 

(TACT) in the Brooks Range, northern Alaska: Journal of 

Geophysical Research, v. 102, p. 20,645–20,684.

Mosher, Sharon, 1998, Tectonic evolution of the southern 

Laurentian Grenville orogenic belt: Geological Society of 

America Bulletin, v. 110, p. 1357–1375.

Mosier, D.L., Berger, V.I., and Singer, D.A., 2009, Volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits of the world—Database 

and grade and tonnage models: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 2009–1034, 46 p.; http://pubs.usgs.gov/

of/2009/1034/.

Mosier, D.L., Singer, D.A., Moring, B.C., and Galloway, J.P., 

2012, Podiform chromite deposits—Database and grade and 

tonnage models: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2012–5157, 45 p. and database; http://pubs.

usgs.gov/sir/2012/5157/.

Mueller, P.A., Burger, H.R., Wooden, J.L., Brady, J.B., 

Cheney, J.T., Harms, T.A., Heatherington, A.L., and Mogk, 

D.W., 2005, Paleoproterozoic metamorphism in the northern Wyoming Province—Implications for the assembly of 

Laurentia: The Journal of Geology, v. 113, p. 169–179.

Mueller, P.A., Burger, H.R., Wooden, J.L., Heatherington, 

A.L., Mogk, D.W., and D’Arcy, K., 2004, Age and evolution of the Precambrian crust of the Tobacco Root Mountains, in Brady, John, and others, eds., Precambrian geology of the Tobacco Root Mountains, Montana: Geological 

Society of America Special Paper 377, p. 181–202.

Mueller, P.A., and Frost, C.D., 2006, The Wyoming Province—

A distinctive Archean craton in Laurentian North America: 

Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 43, p. 1391–1397.

Mueller, P.A., Heatherington, A.L., Kelly, D.M., Wooden, J.L., 

and Mogk, D.W., 2002, Paleoproterozioc crust within the 

Great Falls tectonic zone—Implications for the assembly 

of southern Laurentia: Geology, v. 30, p. 127–130; doi: 

10.1130/0091 7613(2002)030<0127:PCWTGF>2.0.CO;2.

Mueller, P.A., Shuster, R.D., D’Arcy, K.A., Heatherington, 

A.L., Nutman, A.P., and Williams, I.S., 1995, Source of the 

northeastern Idaho batholith—Isotopic evidence for a Paleoproterozoic terrane in the northwestern U.S.: The Journal of 

Geology, v. 103, n. 1, p. 63–72; doi: 10.1086/629722.

Mueller, P.A., Wooden, J.L., Mogk, D.W., and Foster, D.A., 

2011, Paleoproterozoic evolution of the Farmington zone—

Implications for terrane accretion in southwestern Laurentia: Lithosphere, v. 3, p. 401–408.
References Cited 37

Nagel, T.J., Hoffmann, J.E., and Muncher, C., 2012, Generation of Eoarchean tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite from 

thickened mafic arc crust: Geology, v. 40, p. 375–378.

Nance, R.D., Murphy, J.B., and Santosh, M., 2014, The 

supercontinent cycle—A retrospective essay: Gondwana 

Research, v. 25, p. 4–29; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.

gr.2012.12.026.

Nelson, S.T., Hart, G.L., and Frost, C.D., 2011, A reassessment of Mojavia and a new Cheyenne Belt alignment in 

the eastern Great Basin: Geosphere; v. 7, p. 513–527; doi: 

10.1130/GES00595.1.

Nicholson, S.W., Cannon, W.F., and Schulz, K.J., 1992, Metallogeny of the midcontinent rift system of North America: 

Precambrian Research, v. 58, p. 355–386.

Nokleberg, W.J., Plafker, G., and Wilson, F.H., 1994, Geology 

of south-central Alaska: in Plafker, George, and Berg, H.C., 

eds., The geology of Alaska: Geological Society of America 

Geology of North America, v. G–1, p. 311–366.

Nokleberg, W.J., and Richter, D.H., 2007, Origin of narrow terranes and adjacent major terranes occurring along 

the Denali fault in the eastern and central Alaska Range, 

Alaska: in Ridgway, K.D., Trop, J.M., Glen, J.M.G., 

and O’Neill, J.M., eds., Tectonic growth of a collisional 

continental margin—Crustal evolution of southern Alaska: 

Geological Society of America Special Paper 431, 

p. 129–154.

North American Magnetic Anomaly Group (NAMAG)—Viki 

Bankey, Alejandro Cuevas, David Daniels, Carol A. Finn, 

Israel Hernandez, Patricia Hill, Robert Kucks, W. Miles, 

Mark Pilkington, Carter Roberts, Victoria Rystrom, Sarah 

Shearer, Steven Snyder, Ron Sweeney, and Julio Velez), 

2002, Magnetic anomaly map of North America: U.S. Geological Survey Special Map.

Northrup, C.J., Schmitz, M., Kurz, G., and Tumpane, K., 2011, 

Tectonomagmatic evolution of distinct arc terranes in the 

Blue Mountains Province, Oregon and Idaho: Geological 

Society of America Field Guide, v. 21, p. 67–88.

O’Neill, J.M., and Lopez, D., 1985, Character and regional 

significance of Great Falls tectonic zone, east-central Idaho 

and west-central Montana: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 69, p. 437–447.

Parsons, Tom, Wells, R.E., Fisher, M.A., Fleuh, E., and ten 

Brink, U.S., 1999, Three-dimensional velocity structure of 

Siletzia and other accreted terranes in the Cascadia forearc 

of Washington: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 104, 

no. B8, p. 18,015–18,039.

Patchett, P.J., and Ruiz, J., 1989, Nd isotopes and the origin of 

Grenville-aged rocks in Texas—Implications for Proterozoic evolution of the United States midcontinent region: 

Journal of Geology, v. 97, p. 685–695.

Patton, W.W., Jr., and Box, S.E., 1989, Tectonic setting of 

the Yukon-Koyukuk basin and its borderlands, western 

Alaska: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 94, n. B11, 

p.15,807–15,820.

Patton, W.W., Jr., and Moll-Stalcup, E.J., 1996, Geologic 

map of the Unalakleet quadrangle, west-central Alaska: 

U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Map 

I–2559, scale 1:250,000, 39 p.

Patton, W.W., Jr., Wilson, F.H., Labay, K.A., and Shew, N., 

2009, Geologic map of the Yukon-Koyukuk basin, Alaska: 

U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Map 2909, 

scale 1:250,000, 26 p.

Petit, Charles, 2010, Continental hearts: Science News, v. 178, 

p. 22–26.

Petrascheck, W.E., 1965, Typical features of metallogenic 

provinces: Economic Geology, v. 60, p. 1620–1634.

Petrascheck, W.E., 1969, Ore metals from the crust or mantle: 

Economic Geology, v. 64, p. 576–578.

Piercey, S.J., and Colpron, M., 2009, Composition and 

provenance of the Snowcap assemblage, basement to the 

Yukon-Tanana terrane, northern Cordillera: Implications for 

Cordilleran crustal growth, Geosphere, v. 5, p. 439–464.

Pilkington, Mark, and Saltus, R.W., 2007, The Mackenzie 

River magnetic anomaly, Yukon and Northwest Territories, 

Canada—Evidence for Early Proterozoic magmatic arc 

crust at the edge of the North American craton: Tectonophysics, v. 478, p. 78–86.

Piranjno, Franco, 2000, Ore deposits and mantle plumes: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, Kluwer Academic Press, 559 p.

Plafker, George, Moore, J.C., and Winkler, G.R., 1994, Geology of the southern Alaska margin, in Plafker, George, and 

Berg, H.C., eds., The geology of Alaska: Geological Society 

of America Geology of North America, v. G-1, p. 389–450.

Polat, Ali, 2012, Growth of Archean continental crust in oceanic island arcs: Geology, v. 40, p. 383–384; doi: 10.1130/

focus042012.1.

Pollack, H.N., 1986, Cratonization and thermal evolution of 

the mantle: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 80, 

p. 175–182.

Poole, F.G., Perry, W.J., Jr., Madrid, R.J., and AmayaMartínez, R., 2005, Tectonic synthesis of the OuachitaMarathon-Sonora orogenic margin of southern Laurentia—

Stratigraphic and structural implications for timing of 

deformational events and plate-tectonic model, in Anderson, 

T.H., Nourse, J.A., McKee, J.W., and Steiner, M.B., eds., 

The Mojave-Sonora megashear hypothesis—Development, 

assessment, and alternatives: Geological Society of America 

Special Paper 393, p. 543–596; doi: 10.1130/2005.2393(21).
38 Basement Domain Map of the Conterminous United States and Alaska

Reed, B.L., and Lanphere, M.A., 1973, The Alaska-Aleutian 

Range batholith—Geochronology, chemistry, and relation to 

Circum-Pacific plutonism: Geological Society of America 

Bulletin, v. 84, p. 2583–2610.

Roback, R.C., and Walker, N.W., 1995, Provenance, detrital 

zircon U-Pb geochronometry, and tectonic significance 

of Permian to Lower Triassic sandstone in southeastern 

Quesnellia, British Columbia and Washington: Geological 

Society of America Bulletin, v. 107, p. 665–675.

Rodriguez, B.D., and Williams, J.M., 2008, Tracking the 

Archean-Proterozoic suture zone in the northeastern Great 

Basin, Nevada and Utah: Geosphere, v. 4, p. 315–328; doi: 

10.1130/GES00120.1.

Roeske, S.M., Dusel-Bacon, C., Aleinikoff, J.N., Snee, L.W., 

and Lanphere, M.A., 1995, Metamorphic and structural history of continental crust at a Mesozoic collisional margin, 

the Ruby terrane, central Alaska: Journal of Metamorphic 

Geology, v. 13, p. 25–40.

Roeske, S.M., McClelland, W.C., and Bradley, D.C., 2006, 

Ruby terrane, north-central Alaska—Composite of continental affinity rocks [abs.]: Geological Society of America 

Abstracts with Programs, v. 38, no. 5, p. 12.

Rollinson, Hugh, 2010, Coupled evolution of Archean continental crust and subcontinental lithospheric mantle: Geology, v. 38, p. 1083–1086; doi: 10.1130/G31159.1.

Ross, G.M., 2002, Evolution of Precambrian continental lithosphere in western Canada–Results from Lithoprobe studies 

in Alberta and beyond: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 

v. 39, p. 413–437; doi: 10.1139/e02-012.

Ross, G.M., Parrish, R.R., Villeneuve, M.E., and Bowring, 

S.A., 1991, Geophysics and geochronology of the crystalline basement of the Alberta Basin, western Canada: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 28, p. 512–522.

Rostad, O.H., 1978, K-Ar dates for mineralization in the 

White Cloud–Cannivan porphyry molybdenum belt of 

Idaho and Montana—A discussion: Economic Geology, 

v. 73, p. 1366–1368.

Rubin, C.M., and Saleeby, J.B., 1991, Tectonic framework of 

the upper Paleozoic and lower Mesozoic Alava sequence—

A revised view of the polygenetic Taku terrane in southern 

southeast Alaska: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 28, 

p. 881–893.

Rudnick, R.L., and Gao, S., 2003, Composition of the continental crust, in Rudnick, R.L., ed., The crust: Oxford, U.K., 

Elsevier-Pergamon, v. 3, p. 1–64; ISBN 0-08-043751-6.

Saleeby, J.B., 1982, Polygenetic ophiolite belt of the California Sierra Nevada–Geochronological and tectonostratigraphic development: Journal of Geophysical Research, 

v. 87, p. 1803–1824.

Saltus, R.W., and Hudson, T.L., 2007, Regional magnetic 

anomalies, crustal strength, and the location of the northern 

Cordilleran fold-and-thrust belt: Geology, v. 35, p. 567–570.

Saltus, R.W., Potter, C.J., and Phillips, J.D., 2006, Crustal 

insights from gravity and aeromagnetic analysis–Central 

North Slope, Alaska: American Association of Petroleum 

Geologists Bulletin, v. 90, p. 1495–1517. 

Samson, S.D., McClelland, W.C., Patchett, P.J., Gehrels, G.E., 

Anderson, R.G., and others, 1989, Evidence from neodymium isotopes for mantle contributions to Phanerozoic 

crustal genesis in the Canadian Cordillera: Nature, v. 337, 

p. 705–709.

Samson, S.D., Patchett, P.J., McClelland, W.C., and Gehrels, 

G.E., 1991, Nd isotopic characterization of metamorphic 

rocks in the Coast Mountains, Alaskan and Canadian 

Cordillera—Ancient crust bounded by juvenile terranes: 

Tectonics, v. 10, p. 770–780.

Schmandt, Brandon, and Humphreys, E.D., 2011, Seismically imaged relict slab from the 55 Ma Siletzia accretion to 

northwest USA: Geology, v. 39, p. 175–178.

Schmitz, M.D., Bowring, S.A., Southwick, D.L., Boerboom, 

T.J., and Wirth, K.R., 2006, High-precision U-Pb geochronology in the Minnesota River Valley subprovince and its 

bearing on the Neoarchean to Paleoproterozoic evolution 

of the southern Superior Province: Geological Society of 

America Bulletin, v. 118, p. 82–93; doi: 10.1130/B25725.1.

Schneider, D.A., Heizler, M.T., Bickford, M.E., Wortman, 

G.L., Condie, K.C., and Perilli, S., 2007, Timing constraints of orogeny to cratonization–Thermochronology 

of the Paleoproterozoic Trans-Hudson orogen, Manitoba 

and Saskatchewan, Canada: Precambrian Research, v. 153, 

p. 65–95.

Schruben, Paul, recompiler, 2002, Assessment of undiscovered 

deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc in the United 

States, a portable document (PDF) recompilation of USGS 

Open-File Report 96–96 and Circular 1178: U.S. Geological 

Survey Open-File Report OF–02–198.

Schulte, R.F., Taylor, R.D., Piatak, N.M., and Seal, R.R., 

II, 2012, Stratiform chromite deposit model, Chap. E in 

Shanks, W.C., III, and Thurston, Roland, eds., Mineral 

deposit models for resource assessment: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5070–E, 

131 p.

Schulz, K.J., Chandler, V.W., Nicholson, S.W., Piatak, Nadine, 

Seal, R.R., II, Woodruff, L.G., and Zientek, M.L., 2010, 

Magmatic sulfide-rich nickel-copper deposits related to 

picrite and (or) tholeiitic basalt dike-sill complexes—

A preliminary deposit model: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 2010–1179, 25 p; http://pubs.usgs.gov/

of/2010/1179/.
References Cited 39

Shanks, W.C. Pat, III, and Thurston, Roland, eds., 2012, Volcanogenic massive sulfide occurrence model: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5070–C, 

345 p.

Shaulis, B.J., Lapen, T.J., Casey, J.F., and Reid, D.R., 2012, 

Timing and rates of flysch sedimentation in the Stanley 

Group, Ouachita Mountains, Oklahoma and Arkansas, 

U.S.A.—Constraints from U-Pb zircon ages of subaqueous ash-flow tuffs: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 82, 

p. 833–840.

Shaw, C.A., Heizler, M.T., and Karlstrom, K.E., 2005, 40Ar/30Ar thermochronologic record of 1.45–1.35 Ga 

intracontinental tectonism in the southern Rocky Mountains—Interplay of conductive and advective heating with 

intracontinental deformation, in Karlstrom, K.E., and 

Keller, G.R., eds., The Rocky Mountain region—An evolving lithosphere: American Geophysical Union Geophysical 

Monograph 154, p. 163–184.

Shervais, J.W., 2006, The significance of subduction-related 

accretionary complexes in early Earth processes Geological 

Society of America Special Papers, v. 405, p. 173–192; doi: 

10.1130/2006.2405(10).

Shervais, J.W., Murchey, B.L., Kimbrough, D.L., Renne, P.R., 

and Hanan, B., 2005, Radioisotopic and biostratigraphic age 

relations in the Coast Range ophiolite, northern California—Implications for the tectonic evolution of the western 

Cordillera: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 117, 

p. 633–653.

Silberling, N.J., Jones, D.L., Monger, J.W.H., and Coney, P.J., 

1992, Lithotectonic terrane map of the North American 

Cordillera: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Series Map I–2176, scale 1:5,000,000.

Simmons, S.F., White, N.C., and John, D.A., 2005, Geological characteristics of epithermal precious and base-metal 

deposits: Economic Geology 100th Anniversary Volume, 

p. 485–522.

Sims, P.K., 1990, Precambrian basement map of the northern midcontinent, U.S.A.: U.S. Geological Survey IMAP 

1853–A, scale 1:1,000,000, 10 p.

Sims, P.K., 1990, Precambrian basement map of the northern 

Midcontinent USA: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous 

Investigations Series Map I–1853–A, scale 1:1,000,000.

Sims, P.K., Kisvarsanyi, E.B., and Morey, G.B., 1987, Geology and metallogeny of Archean and Proterozoic basement 

terranes in the northern midcontinent, U.S.A.—An overview: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1815, 51 p.

Sims, P.K., Lund, K., and Anderson, E.D., 2005, Precambrian 

crystalline basement map of Idaho—An interpretation of 

geomagnetic data: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Map 2829, scale 1:1,000,000.

Sims, P.K., and Peterman, Z.E., 1986, Early Proterozoic Central Plains orogen—A major buried structure in the northcentral United States: Geology, v. 14, p. 488–491.

Sims, P.K., Peterman, Z.E., Hildenbrand, T.G., and Mahan, 

S., 1991, Precambrian basement map of the Trans-Hudson 

orogen and adjacent terranes, northern Great Plains, U.S.A.: 

U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Series 

Map I–2214, 53 p., 1 map sheet, scale 1:1,000,000.

Sims, P.K., Saltus, R.W., and Anderson, E.D., 2008, Precambrian basement structure map of the continental United 

States—An interpretation of geologic and aeromagnetic 

data: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Map 

3012, scale: 1:8,000,000.

Singer, D.A., Page, N.J., and Lipin, B.R., 1986, Grade and 

tonnage model of major podiform chromite, in Cox, D.P., 

and Singer, D.A., eds., Mineral deposit models: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1693, p. 38–44.

Snow, C.A., and Scherer, H., 2006, Terranes of the Western 

Sierra Nevada Foothills metamorphic belt, California: A critical review: International Geology Review, v. 48, p. 46–62.

Snow, C.A., Wakabayashi, J., Ernst, W.G., and Wooden, J.L., 

2010, Detrital zircon evidence for progressive underthrusting in Franciscan metagraywackes, west-central California: 

Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 122, p. 282–291.

Stanley, R.S., and Ratcliffe, N.M., 1985, Tectonic synthesis of 

the Taconian orogeny in western New England: Geological 

Society of America Bulletin, v. 96, p. 1227–1250.

Stewart, R.J., and Brandon, M.T., 2004, Detrital-zircon fission-track ages for the ‘Hoh Formation’—Implications for 

late Cenozoic evolution of the Cascadia subduction wedge: 

Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 116, p. 60–75. 

Strickland, Ariel, Miller, E.L., and Wooden, J.L., 2011, The timing of Tertiary metamorphism and deformation in the Albion–

Raft River–Grouse Creek metamorphic core complex, Utah 

and Idaho: Journal of Geology, v. 119, p. 185–206.

Taylor, R.D., Hammarstrom, J.M., Piatak, N.M., and Seal, 

R.R., II, 2012, Arc-related porphyry molybdenum deposit 

model, chap. D of Mineral deposit models for resource 

assessment: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5070–D, 64 p; http://pubs.usgs.gov/

sir/2010/5070/d/.

Thomas, W.A., 1991, The Appalachian-Ouachita rifted margin 

of southeastern North America: Geological Society of 

America Bulletin, v. 103, no. 3, p. 415–431.

Thomas, W.A., 2010, Interactions between the southern Appalachian–Ouachita orogenic belt and basement faults in the 

orogenic footwall and foreland, in Tollo, R.P., Bartholomew, 

M.J., Hibbard, J.P., and Karabinos, P.M., eds., From Rodinia to 

Pangea—The lithotectonic record of the Appalachian region: 

Geological Society of America Memoir 206, p. 897–916.
40 Basement Domain Map of the Conterminous United States and Alaska

Till, A.B., Dumoulin, J.A., Harris, A.G., Moore, T.E., Bleick, 

H.A., and Siwiec, B.R., 2008, Bedrock geologic map of 

the southern Brooks Range, Alaska, and accompanying 

conodont data: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 

2008–1149, scale 1:250,000, 88 p.

Till, A.B., Dumoulin, J.A., Phillips, J.D., Stanley, R.G., and 

Crews, J.M., 2006, Generalized bedrock geologic map, 

Yukon Flats region, east-central Alaska: U.S. Geological 

Survey Open-File Report 2006–1304, scale 1:500,000, 25 p.

Till, A.B., Dumoulin, J.A., Werdon, M.B., and Bleick, H.A., 

2011, Bedrock geologic map of the Seward Peninsula, 

Alaska, and accompanying conodont data: U.S. Geological 

Survey Scientific Investigations Map 3131, 2 sheets, scale 

1:500,000, 1 pamphlet, 75 p., and database, available at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/sim/3131/.

Titley, S.R., 2001, Crustal affinities of metallogenesis in 

the American southwest: Economic Geology, v. 96, 

p.1323–1342.

Tohver, Eric, Bettencourt, J.S., Tosdal, R., Mezger, K., Leite, 

W.B., and Payolla, B.L., 2004, Terrane transfer during 

the Grenville orogeny—Tracing the Amazonian ancestry of southern Appalachian basement through Pb and 

Nd isotopes: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 228, 

p. 185–200; doi: 10.1016/S0012-821 X(02)00561-7.

Tooker, E.W., 1983, Correlation of metal occurrence and 

terrane attributes in the northwestern conterminous United 

States: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 20, p.1030–

1039. doi: 10.1139/e83-093.

Tosdal, R.M., Wooden, J.L., and Kistler, R.W., 2000, Inheritance 

of Nevadan mineral belts from Neoproterozoic continental 

breakup, in Cluer, J.K., Price, J.G., Struhsacker , E.M., Hardyman, R.F., and Morris, C.L., eds., Geology and ore deposits 

2000—The Great Basin and Beyond: Geological Society of 

Nevada Symposium Proceedings, 15–18 May 2000: Reno, 

Nevada, Geological Society of Nevada, p. 451–466. 

Tréhu, A.M., Asudeh, I., Brocher, T.M., Luetgert, J.H., 

Mooney, W.D., Nabelek, J.L., and Nakamura, Y., 1994, 

Crustal architecture of the Cascadia forearc: Science, New 

Series, v. 266, no. 5183, p. 237–243.

Tréhu, A.M., Blakely, R.J., and Williams, M.C., 2012, 

Subducted seamounts and recent earthquakes beneath the 

central Cascadia forearc: Geology, v. 40, p. 103–106.

Tull, J.F., Holm-Denoma, C.S., and Barineau, C.I., 2014, Early 

to Middle Ordovician back-arc basin in the southern Appalachian Blue Ridge: Characteristics, extent, and tectonic 

significance: Geological Society of American Bulletin, v. 

126, p. 990–1015, doi:10.1130/B30967.1.

Tweto, Ogden, and Sims, P.K., 1963, Precambrian ancestry of 

the Colorado mineral belt: Geological Society of America 

Bulletin, v. 74, p. 991–1014.

Unterschutz, J.L., Creaser, R.A., Erdmer, P., Thompson, R.I., 

and Daughtry, K.L., 2002, North American margin origin 

of Quesnel terrane strata in the southern Canadian Cordillera—Inferences from geochemical and Nd isotopic characteristics of Triassic metasedimentary rocks: Geological 

Society of America Bulletin, v. 114, p. 462–475.

Vallier, T.L., 1995, Petrology of pre-Tertiary igneous rocks in 

the Blue Mountains region of Oregon, Idaho, and Washington: Implications for the geologic evolution of a complex 

island arc, in Vallier, T.L., and Brooks, H.C., eds., Geology 

of the Blue Mountains region of Oregon, Idaho, and Washington—Petrology and tectonic evolution of pre-Tertiary 

Rocks of the Blue Mountains region: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1438, p. 125–209.

Van Kranendonk, M.J., 2010, Two types of Archean continental crust—Plume and plate tectonics on early Earth: American Journal of Science, v. 310, p. 1187–1209.

Van Schmus, W.R., Bickford, M.E., Sims, P.K., Anderson, 

R.R., Shearer, C.K., and Treves, S.B., 1993, Proterozoic 

geology of the western midcontinent basement, in Reed, 

J.C., Jr., and six others, eds., Precambrian—Conterminous 

U.S.: Geological Society of America Geology of North 

America, v. C-2, p. 239–259.

Van Schmus, W.R., Bickford, M.E., and Turek, E., 1996, 

Proterozoic geology of the east-central mid-continent basement, in van der Pluijm, B.A., and Catacosinos, P.A., eds., 

Basement and basins of eastern North America: Geological 

Society of America Special Paper 308, p. 7–32.

Van Schmus, W.R., and Hinze, W.J., 1985, The Midcontinent 

rift system: Annual Reviews of Earth and Planetary Science, 

v. 13, p. 345–383.

Van Schmus, W.R., Schneider, D.A., Holm, D.K., Dodson, 

S., and Nelson, B.K., 2007, New insights into the southern 

margin of the Archean-Proterozoic boundary in the northcentral United States based on U–Pb, Sm–Nd, and Ar–Ar 

geochronology: Precambrian Research, v. 157, p. 80–105.

van Staal, C.R., 2007, Pre-Carboniferous tectonic evolution 

and metallogeny of the Canadian Appalachians, in Goodfellow, W.D., ed., Mineral resources of Canada—A synthesis 

of major deposit types, district metallogeny, the evolution of 

geological provinces, and exploration methods: St. John’s, 

Newfoundland, Mineral Deposit Division of the Geological Association of Canada and the Geological Survey of 

Canada, p. 793–818.

van Staal, C.R., Dewey, J.F., Mac Niocaill, C., and McKerrow, 

W.S., 1998, The Cambrian-Silurian tectonic evolution of the 

Northern Appalachians and British Caledonides—History 

of a complex, west and southwest Pacific-type segment of 

Iapetus in Blundell, D.J., and Scott, A.C., eds., Lyell—The 

past is the key to the present: Geological Society Special 

Publications, v. 143, p. 199–242.
References Cited 41

van Staal, C.R., Whalen, J.B., Valverde-Vaquero, P., 

Zagorevski, A., and Rogers, N., 2009, Pre-Carboniferous, 

episodic accretion-related, orogenesis along the Laurentian 

margin of the northern Appalachians: Geological Society, 

London, Special Publications, v. 327, no. 1, p. 271–316; 

doi:10.1144/SP327.13.

Viele, G.W., and Thomas, W.A., 1989, Tectonic synthesis of 

the Ouachita orogenic belt, in Hatcher, R.D., Jr., Thomas, 

W.A., and Viele, G.W., eds., The Appalachian-Ouachita 

orogen in the United States: Geological Society of America 

Geology of North America, v. F-2, chapter 27, p. 695–728.

Villeneuve, M.E., and Theriault, R.J., 1991, U–Pb ages and 

Sm–Nd signature of two subsurface granites from the Fort 

Simpson magnetic high, northwest Canada: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 28, p. 1003–1008.

Vogl, J.J., Foster, D.A., Mueller, P.A., Wooden, J.L., and 

Mogk, D.W., 2004, Lithology and age of pre-Belt Precambrian basement in the Little Belt Mountains, Montana—

Implications for the role of the Great Falls tectonic zone in 

the Paleoproterozoic assembly of North America: Northwest 

Geology, v. 33, p. 15–34.

von Huene, Roland, Miller, J.J., and Weinrebe, W., 2012, Subducting plate geology in three great earthquake ruptures of 

the western Alaska margin, Kodiak to Unimak: Geosphere, 

v. 8, p. 628–644.

Wakabayashi, John, and Dumitru, T.A., 2007, 40Ar/39Ar ages 

from coherent, high-pressure metamorphic rocks of the 

Franciscan complex, California—Revisiting the timing of 

metamorphism of the world’s type subduction complex: 

International Geology Review, v. 49, p. 873–906.

Wallace, W.K., Hanks, C.L., and Rogers, J.F., 1989, The 

southern Kahiltna terrane—Implications for the tectonic 

evolution of southwestern Alaska: Geological Society of 

America Bulletin, v. 101, p. 1389–1407.

Wenz, Z.J., 2005, An investigation of the geology and gold 

mineralization in the Nyac District, southwest Alaska: 

Bureau of Land Management Alaska Open-File Report 103, 

156 p. 

White, D.J., Thomas, M.D., Jones, A.G., Hope, J., Németh, 

B., and Hajnal, Z., 2005, Geophysical transect across a 

Paleoproterozoic continent-continent collision zone—The 

Trans-Hudson orogen: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 

v. 42, p. 385–402.

Whitehouse, M.J., Stacey, J.S., and Miller, F.K., 1992, Age 

and nature of the basement in northeastern Washington and 

northern Idaho—Isotopic evidence from Mesozoic and 

Cenozoic granitoids: Journal of Geology, v. 100, p. 691–701.

Whitmeyer, S.J., and Karlstrom, K.E., 2007, Tectonic model 

for Proterozoic growth of North America: Geosphere, v. 3, 

p. 220–259; doi: 10.1130/GES00055.1.

Williams, Harold, 1978, Tectonic-lithofacies map of the Appalachian orogen: Memorial University of Newfoundland Map 

1A, scale 1:2,000,000.

Williams, M.L., and Karlstrom, K.E., 1996, Looping P-T paths 

and high-T, low-P middle crust metamorphism: Proterozoic 

evolution of the southwestern United States: Geology, v. 24, 

p. 1119–1122.

Wolf, D.E., Leeman, W.P., and Vervoort, J.D., 2005, U-Pb 

zircon geochronology of crustal xenoliths confirms presence 

of Archean basement beneath the central and eastern Snake 

River Plain [abs.]: Geological Society of America Abstracts 

with Programs, v. 37, p. 60.

Wooden, J.L., Barth, A.P., and Mueller, P.A., 2012, Crustal 

growth and tectonic evolution of the Mojave crustal province—Insights from hafnium isotope systematics in zircons: 

Lithosphere; doi: 10.1130/L218.1.

Wooden, J.L., and DeWitt, E., 1991, Pb isotopic evidence for 

the boundary between the Early Proterozoic Mojave and 

central Arizona crustal provinces in western Arizona: Arizona Geological Society Digest, v. 19, p. 27–50.

Worthington, L.L., Van Avendonk, H.J.A., Gulick, S.P.S., 

Christeson, G.L., and Pavlis, T.L., 2012, Crustal structure of 

the Yakutat terrane and the evolution of subduction and collision in southern Alaska: Journal of Geophysical Research, 

v. 117, B01102; doi: 10.1029/2011JB008493.

Wright, J.E., and Wyld, S.J., 2006, Gondwanan, Iapetan, Cordilleran interactions—A geodynamic model for the Paleozoic tectonic evolution of the North American Cordillera, 

in Haggart, J.W., Enkin, R.J., and Monger, J.W.H., eds., 

Paleogeography of the North American Cordillera—Evidence for and against large-scale displacements: Geological 

Association of Canada Special Paper 46, p. 377–408.

Wyld, S.J., and Wright, J.E., 2001, New evidence for Cretaceous strike-slip faulting in the United States Cordillera and 

implications for terrane-displacement, deformation patterns, 

and plutonism: American Journal of Science, v. 301, p. 

150–181.

Wyman, D.A., O’Neill, C., and Ayer, J.A., 2008, Evidence for 

modern-style subduction to 3.1 Ga—A plateau-adakite-gold 

(diamond) association, in Condie, K.C., and Pease, V., eds., 

When did plate tectonics begin on planet Earth?: Geological Society of America Special Paper 440, p. 129–148; doi: 

10.1130/2008.2440(06).
Lund and others—Basement Domain Map of the Conterminous United States and Alaska—Data Series 898

ISSN 2327-638X (online)

http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/ds898