Ars Wtf-vl' not 10 uS

Terence wok

ea from the Library,

COMMERCIAL

STANDARDS

IUREAU OF STANDARDS

AS1S 2 5 1930 MONTHLY

LIBRARY cy

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

ISSUED BY THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D.C., U.S.A.

Vol. 7, No. 2 AUGUST, 1930

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. See page 3 of cover for prices
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. Lamont, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

George K. Burgess, Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

S. F. Tillman, Editor

DIVISIONS OF THE COMMERCIAL STANDARDIZATION GROUP

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE, Edwin W. Ely.

'The division of simplified practice was formed in November,

1921, to provide a clearing house or centralizing agency through

which the manufacturer, distributor, and consumer groups

could meet to discuss their common problems and decide upon

eliminations which would prove of mutual benefit to all con- cerned. The activities of the division are purely cooperative

in character. It orders nothing; it dictates nothing; the ini- tiative must come from business itself. It has no regulatory nor police powers to enforce adherence to the simplified-practice

recommendations that industry develops under the auspices

of the United States Department of Commerce. Its chief function is to serve as a neutral meeting ground for the purpose

of bringing together producers, distributors, and consumers, whose aims are sometimes divergent and possibly antagonistic,

and who would be unwilling to cooperate, except through some

unbiased central agency. Following the approval of the tentative simplified-practice recommendation by a general conference

of all interested elements thereof, the project is then presented

to the entire industry by letter referendum for its approval and

written acceptance, the publication and indorsement of the recommendation on the part of the Department of Commerce

being dependent upon acceptance of the program by at least 80 per cent, by volume, of the manufacturers, distributors, and

users concerned.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION, J. S. Taylor.

The division of building and housing cooperates with business, technical, and professional groups in practically all its undertakings on building and housing. Its work to modernize

building codes and to encourage improved standards for the

quality of building construction promotes the practical application of the latest development in design and use of build- ing materials. This division was also formed in 1921. In furthering home ownership, an effort is made to develop an enlarged, steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating

demand for soundly built dwellings, the largest single class of buildings which the construction industries provide. The

division also cooperates with many business and professional groups in efforts to distribute building activity more evenly

throughout the year, and to secure less fluctuation from year

to year. The work on city planning and zoning has in mind

the broad objective of buildings made more useful because

well located with respect to other buildings, a well-coordinated

street system, and appropriate public works. Good city

planning and zoning likewise encourages stability in land

values and property uses, and thereby contributes to the demand for durable structures.

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS, A. S. McAllister.

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote and

facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so

it carries on activities involving cooperation with technical

societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and municipal

Government specifications making and using agencies; producers, distributors, and consumers; and testing and research

laboratories. The cooperation with technical societies and

trade associations includes ascertaining the standardization

and specification promoting activities of these organizations,

and bringing to their attention the work being done by the commercial standardization group. The cooperation with

governmental agencies and other consumers includes the bringing of Federal specifications and commercial standards to the

attention of the maximum number of producers and the maximum number of users of commodities complying with these

specifications and standards, thereby assisting in broadening

the field of supply. The cooperation with producers involves the compilation and distribution of lists of manufacturers who

have expressed their willingness to certify to purchasers, upon

request, that material supplied by them on contracts based on

certain Federal specifications or commercial standards comply

with the requirements thereof. The cooperation with distributors involves bringing to their attention the benefits to be

derived by them as both buyers and sellers from handling

nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The

division prepares the directories of governmental and nongovernmental testing laboratories; the Directory of Specifications;

and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the first volume of which, Standards and Specifications in the WoodUsing Industries, has been issued. It also aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook.

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS, I. J. Fairchild.

The commercial standards unit, now known as division of trade standards, was created on October 1, 1927, for the purpose

of aiding those industrial and commercial groups desiring to

establish standards of grades, quality, or measurements for their products or their purchases on a purely voluntary basis. The division functions only at the direct request of the in- dustry concerned. Its procedure is similar to that of the divi

sion of simplified practice, except that at least 65 per cent of the industry, by volume of annual production, must accept

the commercial standard in writing before it is published by

the Department of Commerce. A certification plan is applied on request as a means of increasing the effectiveness of such

standards. Provision is made for regular revision of the standard

through the appointment of a standing committee to consider

periodically any necessity for revision of the standard, in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with progress in the

industry.

Except where otherwise indicated, for further information address

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

WASHINGTON, D. C.
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 7 WASHINGTON, D. C., AUGUST, 1930 ' Number 2

CONTENTS

FEATURE ARTICLES

Page Advertising standardized products 44 Commercial standards—an answer to some distribution problems 48 Government purchasing 40 Government specifications for dry cells 35 Government standard for carbon paper 53 Labeling of subgrade canned goods 52 Methods of producing paper improved by research 51 New section created within Bureau of Standards 55 Pharmaceutical standards established 44 Some problems of the small house 62 Standardization in highway equipment 42

Simplification and standardization within the electric lamp industry 46

Standardizing garage doors 41 The inter-American conference on agriculture, forestry,

and animal industry 34 The International Institute of Agriculture at Rome 61 Transportation aided by research 54 SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE NEWS

Industry developed 15 simplified programs during fiscal year 39

Screens and screening practices as applied to the grading

of abrasive grains 64

Simplified schedule of packaging of dental plaster and

investment approved 45 TRADE STANDARDS NEWS

Builders’ hardware 39

Fourdrinier wire cloth 41

Page Propose to standardize plumbers’ woodwork 57 Quality standards for mop sticks 40 Standard proposed for mirrors 41 Standard screw threads 49 BUILDING AND HOUSING NEWS

Home heating problems.’ 57 FOREIGN NEWS

France standardizes highways signs 62

British standard for plugs and sockets 47

British standard railway signalling symbols 47 Standardization of steel shapes 40 STANDARDIZATION NEWS

Ball-bearing standardization 63

Certification of maple flooring 60 Current activities of the American Standards Association 56

Diesel engine standards 53

Revision of Federal specifications 50 Standard colors for Army uniforms 58 Standard for steel pipe flanges and flanged fittings 58 Standardization briefs 59 Standardization of farm products facilitates trade 50 Standardization of iron and steel bars 60 Standardization of Woodruff keys 60 Standard system of accounts 64

Steel founders adopt standard forms 45 Use of quality labels in New England markets gains 58

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

An interesting fact in the growth of the bureau is the steady increase in the number of visitors. From all over the world experts come to see the work in progress in many specialties. Not alone the

experts but in growing numbers many of our people visit the bureau from a public-spirited desire to acquaint themselves with its research work. All visitors, from the newspapermen, who have called the

bureau a “house of wonders,” to the specialists, who use its services, are welcome, for it is their bureau

in a very real sense. They are the owners of the business and its beneficiaries. The annual per capita

cost of 2 cents which the average citizen pays toward the operation of the bureau yields returns sometimes a hundredfold or a thousandfold. How science turns wastes into profits, increases the useful life of materials, adds new efficiencies to industry, advances new arts, such as aviation and radio, by research

and discovery—these are to be seen first-hand in the scientific and technical, laboratories of the bureau.

A cordial invitation is extended to all citizens interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories

of the Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at 2.15 p. m.

daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may be arranged at other times by writing to the

bureau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s Manual may be had for the asking. This lists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of typical discoveries and inventions which have been notable, basic contributions to radio, aviation, and other modern

arts and industries.

George K. Burgess, Director.

.r)419—30- 1 33
THE INTER-AMERICAN CONFERENCE

ON AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY

AND ANIMAL INDUSTRY

By A. F. WOODS

Director of Scientific Wor\, U. S. Department of Agriculture 3

jL

AAgricultural and research technicians from the 21 American republics,

members of the Pan-American Union, will meet at the invitation of the United

States Government in the first Inter-American Conference on Agriculture,

Forestry, and Animal Industry at the Pan-American Union in Washington,

D. C., September 8 to 20, 1930. A series of round table discussions will be

held to consider problems involving the fundamental principles of scientific

research, standardisation of methods of applying those principles to agriculture

and to formulate a permanent program of inter-American cooperation for the

systematic conservation and utilisation of natural resources, development,

promotion, and protection of agricultural industries.

As bases for the discussions, a series of about 50 semitechnical papers

have been prepared by leading specialists to be printed in three languages for

the information of the delegates. These articles deal with the making of sur- veys and inventories of soils, forests, pastures, diseases, and insects; classifica- tion and utilisation of land, soil erosion, and conversation; forestry; animal

industry, breeding, nutrition, and sanitary control; plant industry, breeding

and selection, introduction of foreign plants, seed testing, forage crops for warm

climates, plant diseases and insect pests and their control, and cereal, sugar,

cacao, coffee, rubber, cotton, tobacco, and vegetable crops; agricultural education, demonstration stations, and the proposed establishment of an interAmerican agricultural tropical research station; agricultural economics, competition, statistical cooperation, marketing, transportation, standardization,

and farm management; and statistics of livestock, areas, production, imports

and exports of crops.

Any program of continuing inter-American cooperation in scientific

research as applied to agriculture will necessarily involve standardization in

definition, in methods of research, in reporting results, and in the application

of research methods to specific problems.

The coming conference on agriculture is the result of a resolution adopted

by the Sixth International Congress of American States at Havana, in 1928, the

initiative of the governing board of the Pan-American Union, the appointment

by the Pan-American Union of a national cooperating committee in each of the

American republics, and the action of the State Department in obtaining the

necessary sanction and appropriation from Congress.

The meeting of minds, discussions, comparison of experience, conversations, personal contacts and mutual understanding of specialists from the 21

American republics can not do otherwise than promote standardization, because

in the domain of scientific research international boundaries are disregarded.

34
AUGUST, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 35

GOVERNMENT SPECIFICATIONS FOR DRY CELLS

Specifications Based on Research Provide for Necessary Performance of Cells

By G. W. Vinal, National Bureau of Standards

Among the specifications issued by the Government

for many commodities the specification for dry cells and batteries occupies an unusual position. Within a few months after this specification in its revised form

was promulgated by the Federal Specifications Board

it was approved as an American Standard by the

American Engineering Standards Committee, now

called the American Standards Association. Other

specifications issued subsequently by several sections

of the American Railway Association have been made

to conform to its technical requirements. The specification is unique also in another respect, since it is one

of the few specifications that has been the subject of

comprehensive and continuous tests in the National

Bureau of Standards’ laboratory.

Samples of dry cells and batteries are received

periodically at the Bureau of Standards from manufacturers who produce the bulk of the many millions

of dry cells sold annually in this country. Few other

commodities have been tested as systematically. The

reasons for these repeated cycles of test are found in

the nature of the tests rather than in the intrinsic

importance of the dry cell itself. The Bureau of Standards receives calls from various departments of the Government for information

about dry cells as well as a host of other materials.

Fundamentally, therefore, the object of the dry-cell

tests must be to meet the needs of the Government.

Purchasing agents call for information when they

want it, without realizing, perhaps, that an adequate answer to their inquiry, so far as it concerns dry cells, must be based on past tests and experience rather than on tests that can be made quickly on samples from

some particular lot. No satisfactory way has been

found to make tests of dry cells in a day or a week or even in a month. Accelerated tests on such a chemical system mean very little. The test which represents best any particular condition of service is one

that covers approximately the same period of time

as the cells would be in actual use. Standard tests have been developed with the in- dustry and these cover certain types of service. Thus,

the specifications include heavy-service tests and lightservice tests, intermittent tests and continuous tests. From this it is evident that by the time samples from

some particular lot could be tested completely the lot would have been used up and forgotten.

Bureau selected to make tests. To meet a situation that was admitted to be unsatisfactory, a conference of representatives from the

various departments met at the request of the Chief

Coordinator, Bureau of the Budget, to devise a method

of dealing with these batteries. A survey of the

yearly needs indicated that the Government makes

considerable purchases of batteries. It was then decided that the Bureau of Standards should undertake

systematic tests on the product of those manufacturers

indicating a willingness to cooperate. These tests are known as “qualification tests” and they include the

intermittent and long-time tests which are necessary

to demonstrate the quality of the product. On the

basis of these tests it is possible to state whether any

particular brand is meeting the requirements of the

specification; but the committee went a step further

and provided that the qualification tests should also include such initial readings and tests of short duration as might be applied to samples from any particular purchases. Such tests, quickly made, indicate the

uniformity of the product and, therefore, the probability of the particular shipment complying with the

whole specification. The latter tests are known as

“ acceptance tests.” The results of the qualification tests are available

for the use of Government purchasing officers for confidential use. Each manufacturer is informed of the

results of his own product. It is not considered ex- pedient for the bureau to publish the competitive

merits, but the general effect of these tests on the in- dustry has been beneficial to the public, as will appear

later. Twenty or more manufacturers of dry cells have

asked to be included in the qualification tests year

after year. For many of them it is a source of pride

and satisfaction to meet the Government tests. Others

are avowedly after Government business, still others

lacking suitable facilities of their own for making

the standard tests are glad to avail themselves of such

a testing service. The samples are taken at the factories by the bureau’s representatives about twice each

year. Because of the ready cooperation of the industry,

the Bureau of Standards was immediately confronted

with the problem of handling a large volume of test- ing without permitting it to absorb a disproportionate

share of the bureau’s personnel and resources. This

problem has been solved successfully by installing an

automatic testing equipment constructed in large part

of materials used in the telephone field. Intermittent

tests are controlled by clock mechanism, and means are provided to speed up the taking of laboratory data.

The routine testing of 4,000 to 5,000 dry cells and

batteries per year is handled for the most part by a man of junior grade. Supervision is, of course, re- quired for the proper maintenance of the equipment

and preparation of reports.

The specification is contained in Circular No. 139,

issued by the Bureau of Standards. The word “ battery ” implies a group acting as a unit, whether the

group be of guns, or boilers, or ball players, or cells to furnish an electric current. The cell is the unit part

of the battery, but a single cell used by itself is sometimes referred to as a battery.

The specification begins by defining the batteries

to be included. It is stated that they shall be of the

salammoniac type with depolarizer. This is the ordinary type of dry cell of which many millions are made

and sold annually. It may surprise some to learn that

dry cells are not dry as the name implies. It is essential that the mixture in the cell be moist. When
36 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [AUGUST, 1930

properly constructed, the solution which the cells contain is not spillable, and no leakage should occur during the life of the cell. The types of cells and

batteries included in the specification are : (a) No. 6 dry cells, general-purpose type, suitable

for ignition and heavy service and also reasonably

good for any light service. (b) No. 6 dry cells, telephone type, made especially

for light service over a long period of time. These

cells are better than the general-purpose cells on lightduty, but are inferior on heavy, service.

( c

)

No. 6 radio A cells. These cells designed for

radio use, are often superior to the general-purpose

cells in heavy service. Because of this, there is a

and immediate service, such as reading of meters,

wiring of switchboards, etc. (/) Radio B batteries and C batteries. These batteries designed especially for use with vacuum tubes

are useful also for other purposes. They are con- venient units for high-voltage batteries.

Dry cells of the various kinds are much alike in their external appearance and are often used indiscriminately without reference to the kind of service for

which they are particularly adapted. The specification, therefore, covers fully the conditions which the

cells must meet and sets limits for the required per- formance of the sizes which have been adopted as standard, but in so far as possible the specification

Apparatus for testing dry cells A few of the cells, switches, and coils are shown at the left. Voltages are read at the telephone jacks at the right

tendency at the present time to make the generalpurpose cells more like these radio cells. Their use

for radio is decreasing with the change in character

of radio sets, but the excellent quality of the best of

these cells is likely to benefit permanently the cells designed for general purposes.

(d) Assembled batteries of No. 6 cells, these range

from 6 to 9 volts and are useful for ignition of gas

engines, blasting, burglar alarms, and many other

uses.(e) Flash-light cells and batteries. As the name

implies these are used chiefly for flash lights. These

cells are intended for intermittent use and should have

a good “ shelf life.” Very recently an industrial type

of flash-light cell having the standard dimensions of

the others has appeared. This is intended for heavy

refrains from giving details which are properly within

the province of the manufacturer and which, if in- cluded in the specification, might hamper the development of the art. Standard sizes of cells. Certain sizes of cells, seven in all, have become standard. These are the survivors of a much larger number

that were made prior to 1921. This limitation of the

sizes was accomplished by a conference of the manufacturers who met at the Bureau of Standards to help

revise the Government specification first published in 1918 under pressure of war activities. A simple nomenclature for the standard sizes of cells and the batteries containing them is described in the

specification so that the purchaser may know the num-
AUGUST, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

ber and size of cell which the battery contains. Thus

a radio B battery marked “ V 30D ” is a battery of the

vertical type having cells arranged in several layers one above the other; the total number of cells is 30 and

the size of cell is given by the letter “ D.” This cell is

li/4 inches diameter by 214 inches high.

Maximum dimensions are given for the various sizes and types of batteries which are recognized as standard. These are given in inches and also in millimeters.

Standard arrangements of the terminals are described.

The tests given in the specification are fully described so that anyone may follow them, but when any

great number of tests are to be made the use of auto- matic equipment is necessary for practical reasons. The size and kind of dry cell or battery and the service

required of it determine the kind of test to be applied.

In general, the intermittent tests are preferred to con- tinuous tests and should be made whenever possible

since there is no direct relation between the results of

continuous tests and intermittent tests of longer duration. The intermittent tests include the important factors of recuperation and the deterioration that occurs when the battery is standing idle. The duration of the

intermittent tests varies from 25 days for the heavy

service test to 190 days for the light service or tele- phone test. Delayed-service tests are also made after

3, 6, or 9 months on the shelf. Requirements.

The minimum required performance is specified for

each type of battery and size of cell. These figures

have been adopted after most careful consideration of

a vast amount of test data and by consultation with

the industry. Dry cells have improved in recent years

and this fact has been reflected in the specifications.

The specification originally formulated in 1918 has

been revised in 1923, 1927, and is again being revised

for 1930. Specifications should always keep pace with

the industry.

It would be possible to present data showing the improved performance of the various sizes and kinds of

batteries to-day as compared with 10 years ago. The

output of some types of batteries is now more than

double that formerly obtained. The larger manufacturers have devoted much time to research and this has

undoubtedly improved their product. The specifications may, perhaps, claim a part in the general improvement of dry cells and batteries. Reasonable

specifications serve both as a goal for the producer

and as a safeguard for the purchaser. The ambitious

manufacturer wants to exceed the specifications by a

liberal margin and he may at times receive a bonus

for so doing. The cooperation of manufacturers at the present time is the best evidence that any misgivings which they may have had 10 years ago are no

longer entertained. The specification is accepted as a fact. The relation of the specified performance of batteries

to the results of actual tests may be illustrated in several figures. Cuts show the results of tests of 6-inch

dry cells of the same make in 1921 and 1929. Between

1920 and 1927 the specifications called for an output

of 185 hours to a cut-off voltage of 0.75 volts. In 1927,

this cut-off voltage was raised to 0.90 volts and the

length of the required discharge reduced because the

test had been made more severe. The curves in this

figure show that the particular brand on which they

are based is now giving a longer life to the higher

37

voltage limit than it gave in 1921 to the lower limit. It is shown also that the radio cell of this brand in

1929 is giving more than double the output that the

1921 cell could give to 0.9 volt. The improvement in the cell is obvious.

One more illustration of a different kind will serve

to show the relation of the specifications to the industry as a whole. In another illustration is shown the

yearly results from 1920 to 1929 for the heavy intermittent test. The average of all the brands tested is shown in its relation to the output required by the

Automatic equipment for controlling tests of dry cells

If one clock should stop the tests will he continued by the other.

specification. The latter is a series of steps upward.

The dotted portion shows the new requirement proposed for adoption now. The highest and lowest re- sults are also shown for each year, but the highest or lowest brand in any one year is not necessarily the same

brand as in other years. The proposed requirement for

1930 is nearly double the requirement in force from

1920 to 1924.

'

Standard of quality.

The dry-cell specifications have been formulated

with the idea of establishing a single standard of

quality, which should be representative of the best in American production and at the same time provide an
38 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [AUGUST, 1930

ample competitive field. It is true, obviously, that some makes and types of cells and batteries will exceed

the minimum limits specified for the tests. Such supeEqually well a lower grade of cell might be accepted,

subject to conditions of mutual agreement between

buyer and seller.

riority is a mark of perfection in manufacture and

provides a safeguard against accidental fluctuations

carrying the tests below the required limits. At times

it may lie desirable to call for such a superquality of

Since several tests are specified for the various sizes and types of cells and batteries and no two brands

are likely to exceed or fall below the required limits

by the same amount on one test as on another, it

Relation, of the specifications to the output of No. 6 cells tested, 1920-1929 product even at an increased cost. There has been no

past experience to serve as a guide in doing this, but if certain principles are followed it seems possible.

becomes necessary to limit attention to the particular

test which represents best the service for which the

cells are to be used. For example, telephone and other
AUGUST, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 39

light intermittent uses for dry cells are covered by the

light intermittent test ; ignition and heavy service are represented by the heavy intermittent test ; flash-light

cells of the ordinary grade, by the flash-light intermittent test ; and flash-light cells of the industrial type

by the flash-light continuous test. Having selected a single test, representative of the service, it then be- comes possible to demand an output exceeding the re- quired limits of the specification by a certain per- centage or to allow a lower figure based on the established performance of any particular make or brand of

battery, providing that the requirements as to construction, dimensions, and voltage have been met. The amount by which this percentage could exceed

or fall below the limits set by the specifications must

be based on practical experience. It would seem that

each time the specification is revised upward the per- centage by which the best batteries exceed the re- quired limit would diminish, but the experience of the

past 10 years has shown a progressive improvement in

the better cells which has been reflected in the specifications. Since 1924 the average relation of the out- put of the highest and lowest brands to the specification limit in effect at the time of test taken as 100

per cent has been approximately as follows

Cell or battery Test

No. 6 dry cell —

Do

Radio B battery. Flash light

Heavy intermittent test. Light intermittent test.. 5,000-ohm continuous

Flash-light intermittent.

Percentage of specified requirement

Highest Lowest

168 90

146 64

145 66

152 71

There is little doubt that the highest figures represent the best of American manufacture. Any demand

for a percentage output in excess of that required by

the specifications, therefore, will result in a diminished field of competition. For this reason as well

as unavoidable fluctuations it would not be wise to

call for more than 25 per cent over the specification

limit. It is not equally true that the lowest figures represent the lowest quality of cell, because these tests have

not included, except in few instances, cells of the lower

grades and those containing less than the normal or

the customary amount of active materials. Twentyfive per cent below the specification limit appears rea- sonable for cells of a lower grade which at the same

time are not too low to give fair service.

The above discussion includes the important factor

of shelf deterioration only in the case of the intermittent tests. The procedure of specifying a quality

above or below the specification limit in the case of

dry cells has not been tried out in practice, and the

possibility of doing so must therefore be regarded as something of an experiment.

The nature of the dry cell and the variety of its uses have presented an unusual problem in the field of specifications and tests. Fortunately it has been

possible to solve this problem in such a way as to benefit both the Government and indirectly the public,

while at the same time winning the cooperation of

the industry. Perhaps the experience which has been

gained in this field may be useful in others.

BUILDERS’ HARDWARE

Standard Accepted by Industry to Be Effective as of June 1 Announcement by the National Bureau of Standards was made on May 21, 1930, that written acceptances

had been received from a satisfactory majority of

producers and users for the Recommended Commercial Standard for Builders’ Hardware (Nontemplate),

and therefore the standard may be considered effective

for new production as of June 1, 1930.

The standard comprises all the recommendations and

types as listed in Simplified Practice Recommendation

No. 18 (first revision), with numerous additions and

changes approved by the standing committee. Agreeable to the desire of the industry, the standard wiil be

printed in due course under the title, “ Builders’

Hardware (Nontemplate) —Commercial Standard

CS22-30.”

The central object is to establish standard nomenclature, definitions, and descriptions for regular items

of builders’ hardware, as well as standard finishes and

finish symbols which will be recognized and followed

throughout the industry. Among the new finishes

listed as standard are the following

USP. primed for painting.

US2C, cadmium plated.

US26, chromium plated.

US26D, dull chromium plated.

Exit bolts, locks, and latches are included among the new groups of standard items and are used mainly on

exit doors to theaters and other public buildings.

INDUSTRY DEVELOPED 15 SIMPLIFIED PROGRAMS DURING FISCAL YEAR

Total of 113 Recommendations Adopted to Date

Fifteen additional simplified practice recommendations were developed by industry, during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1930, bringing the total number

of general conferences to date to 127. Three of these

recommendations were approved at general conferences of the industry concerned during the second

quarter of 1930. The various industries have to date approved and

adopted recommendations covering 113 commodities,

while others are in the process of acceptance. Three

simplified practice recommendations, namely, paper

shipping tags, wheelbarrows, and soft fiber (jute)

twine, were issued as printed pamphlets during the

second quarter, and are available through the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office,

Washington, D. C., at a nominal price. A total of

100 printed recommendations have been issued up to the present time.

Thirty-nine existing recommendations were re- viewed by their respective standing committees during the past 12 months. Thirty-four of these were

reaffirmed, without change, for another year, and five were revised. Surveys of production conducted on

25 recommendations during the past fiscal year showed

an average degree of adherence of 86.7 per cent. During the preceding year, the percentage for 26 commodities surveyed averaged 85.4 ner cent
40 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [AUGUST, 1930 GOVERNMENT PURCHASING

Review of Advantages of Purchasing Through Guidance of Federal Specifications

By Rear Admiral H. H. Rousseau, United States Nary, Chief Coordinator

The use of the specifications developed by the Federal Specifications Board has greatly simplified purchasing by the numerous procuring agencies of the

Federal Government, as all purchases, for a given article, are required to be made in accordance with the same specification. It has eliminated the make-shift

method of describing articles wanted, by citing the

trade name or brand of some fairly well-known product, in the shop-worn phrase “ so and so or equal."

This practice was objectionable in that whenever an

attempt was made to purchase an article other than

that of the brand cited, the purchasing officer was immediately put on the defensive as to its being the

“equal,” especially since it very probably had been

offered at a lower competitive price. This meant tests on samples before award, as well as after delivery.

Another make-shift method has also been reduced to a minimum. It is that cumbersome plan of buying

“ as per standard sample.” Such a practice probably

limits competition and at best quite often affords but

a poor basis of comparison with the goods delivered.

Standard samples are frequently, more or less, inaccessible not only to the trade, but also to the user, and

there is the likelihood that they will deteriorate. However, there are cases where it is admittedly necessary

to have standard samples, for example, with color,

finish, texture, or some characteristic that is difficult to describe in words.

Use of specifications.

The use of specifications reduces the incidental work

of inspection and testing, and decreases the occasions

for correspondence after delivery. The specification

in effect serves three purposes. It describes exactly

what is wanted; it guides the seller in preparing the

delivery; and it provides both the seller and the buyer

with a common yardstick by which to measure the

quality and characteristics of the proffered delivery.

Furthermore, it facilitates mass purchasing, as fewer

and larger purchases are possible by the limitation of

sizes, types, and grades.

The policy of harmonizing the user's specifications

with commercial production does away with personal

preferences and trade varieties, and the premium usually paid for special production. Savings are now

reflected in the wholesale purchase of readily available

articles from mass production.

The action of the Government in limiting types,

grades, sizes, etc., induces a broader production of

existing varieties. This increased production without

increased varieties affords the manufacturer more ex- perience of production in each variety.

Larger stocks permitted.

This force of limitation tends toward larger stocks

of standard articles in the hands of merchants, wider

distribution of these stocks, and, consequently, quicker

deliveries and service. From this it follows that, by

keeping its standards within the range of ordinary

commercial production, the Government finds it possible to carry less total stock, even though it may be

advantageous to buy each type or size in larger quantities. The use of any one variety is therefore broadened to serve more purposes, and greater interchangeability of supplies and interworking parts is the re- sultant advantage.

It is believed that the method of purchase on specifications, followed by the Government would be of equal

economic value to commercial concerns.

STANDARDIZATION OF STEEL SHAPES

Belgium Association Announces the Publication of a Prelimi- nary Report on the Standardization of Profiles The Association Beige de Standardization has published “ The Standardization of Profiles.” The

studies, which have been continued with some inter- ruptions since 1919 induced the technical commission

in its meeting of December 29, 1928, to adopt four

series of shapes of beams, of U sections of equal and of

unequal angles.

The calculation of characteristics was undertaken

immediately, but this work, which requires great care, demands a considerable time, and it has appeared desirable to publish at the present time preliminary tables

which contain only the principal dimensions and

weights of the shapes definitely adopted by the commission, but which already permit consumers to concentrate their demands on the shapes recommended,

and permit rolling mills to follow the new tendency

in regulating their production programs. The final report will include, in addition to the completed tables,

further tables covering T sections on which a subcommission is now elaborating a project.

QUALITY STANDARDS FOR MOP STICKS

At a general conference of the industry held at the

Statler Hotel, Cleveland, Ohio, on July 17, a commercial standard for mop sticks was submiltecl to the

entire industry for general approval and acceptance.

The commercial standard is a minimum specification

for mop sticks used in domestic, janitor, and like service and covers the three tjrpes in most general usage

known as the domestic size, spring-lever type; janitor

size, spring-lever type; and janitor’s screw type. The

specification provides for the size and character of

the wood handles and the thickness, finish, and other

requirements of the metal parts.

Coifies of the standard as recommended by the conference may be had upon application to the division

of trade standards, National Bureau of Standards,

Washington, D. C.
AUGUST. 1030] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 41

STANDARDIZING GARAGE DOORS

Pacific Coast Door Manufacturers Association Standardize Garage Door Designs, Grades, and Sizes

By Harry L. Totter, Associate Editor, The Timberman

With the development of the automobile, there nat- urally came a demand for garage doors so that there

gradually grew up a substantial production of garage

doors by Pacific coast door manufacturers. It seemed,

however, that every customer desired some small

change in design and each manufacturer likewise had

a set of designs. The result was a multiplicity of designs and sizes, to say nothing of grades, which actually made the so-calied stock door a detail door, ex- pensive to manufacture and unsatisfactory to sell. To still further complicate the situation there was no

standard set of grading rules. After talking this situation over with the principal

Oregon and Washington garage door manufacturers,

the writer called a meeting of the producers, laid the

situation before them, and suggested that an organization be perfected to standardize garage door designs

and grades. This resulted in the formation of the

Pacific Coast Door Manufacturers Association in the

summer of 1924.

Regular meetings were then held, at monthly intervals, at which designs were selected, standard specifications for construction adopted, and standard gradFOURDRINIER WIRE CLOTH

Paper-Making Industry to Consider Adopting Standard

A request has been received from the Wire Cloth

Manufacturers’ Association for the cooperation of the

division of trade standards in the establishment of a commercial standard for Fourdrinier wire cloth for

paper-making machines.

Fourdrinier wire cloth is an endless belt used on the

wet end of a paper-making machine, through which

much of the water is separated from the pulp and on which the sheet of paper is formed.

The proposed standard is intended to serve as a basis of common understanding as to criteria between

the producers and users of this type of wire cloth. By

this method it is hoped that misunderstandings be- tween buyer and seller may be avoided, and the waste

and expense incident thereto may be eliminated. According to present plans, the standard will cover no- menclature and definitions, grading rules, kinds of

wire to be used, sizes of wires and openings, physical

requirements for wire, and recommended standard

practices in the handling, installation, and use of this

commodity.

STANDARD PROPOSED FOR MIRRORS

Industry Approves Recommended Standard

A general conference on the standardization of

mirrors was held at the Gibson Hotel, Cincinnati,

Ohio, on June 12. This conference was in the nature

of a general hearing to consider the adoption of a proposed specification covering the grading of mirrors.

The proposed standard was formulated by the stand5419—30 2

ing rules devised. Drawings of the designs adopted were then made and approved. Following this, the

data were made up into the Pacific Coast Standard

Garage Door Catalogue. This was placed in the

hands of a printer so as to permit any one interested

to secure the catalogue.

Each design in the catalogue was given a special

number, which in itself indicates the type of door.

For example, No. 63-

V

garage door means a 6-light

3-vertical-panel door. The first numeral in each case indicates the number of lights, the second numeral in- dicates the number of panels and the capital letter

“ V ” or “ X ” stands for vertical panel or cross panel,

respectively.

The catalogue, as finally adopted, embraced seven standard designs. In all, it took about eight months

to do the standardization work. Upon completion of

the standardization work the association was dis- solved, inasmuch as its purpose had been accomplished ; namely, the standardization of designs, sizes,

and grades of garage doors. The seven standard designs took the place of perhaps 60 nonstandard

designs.

ardization committee of the Mirror Manufacturers Association ; hut in order to have it generally acceptable,

all interests of the industry were invited to participate

in this conference including the mirror manufacturers,

the manufacturers of mirror plate, the distributors of

mirrors, furniture manufacturers, and others. The standard of quality was proposed as a basis of

common understanding within the industry and by its general adoption and use it is expected that interest

may be revived in the use of better quality mirrors.

It is also anticipated that packing charges, shipping

costs, and other expenses incident to exchanged merchandise which results through misunderstandings be- tween buyer and seller will be eliminated.

After certain adjustments had been made, the con- ference approved the proposed standard for recom- mendation to the industry for formal acceptance as the

standard of quality for everyday trade. The standard

establishes five grades of mirrors and limits the kind

and extent of specific defects which may occur in each

grade. Suggestions are given as to the manner in

which the mirror should be examined, and a glossary

of terms explains the various trade designations used

to denote the defects which occur more or less fre- quently in the plate glass from which mirrors are made.

In addition to the foregoing there is included a guarantee label in a series of color which may be used on mirrors that meet the commercial standard specifications to denote the various quality classifications

established. The recommended commercial standard

is now being sent to those interested, and copies may

be had upon application to the division of trade standards National Bureau of Standards, Washington.

D. C.
42 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [AUGUST, 1930

STANDARDIZATION IN HIGHWAY EQUIPMENT

Antiquated Equipment Giving Way to Modern Standardized Working Tools

By Lye A. Brookover, American Roacl Builders Association

In considering tire standardization of equipment and

methods we view it from two angles, namely, the

manufacturer and the consumer. Early manufacture was, perhaps, better standardized

than modern production. That was due, undoubtedly,

to the newness of road machinery equipment to both

manufacturer and consumer. There were but one or two factories to start with, and these manufactured

a very restricted number of items. Definite demands

and needs were obscure, but great progress was made

with the limited equipment available. The manufacturer was in control of the situation because his

product was absolutely standardized; in other words,

the consumer was obliged to take what the manufacturer offered as standard equipment.

A very great change has taken place during recent years with the appearance of numerous new names on

the manufacturers’ roster. Each factory was founded

with certain ideas, novel in many cases, of what the consumer needed in the way of most effective equipment- This influx of manufacturers has resulted in a myriad of different equipment of various models and

designs, with seemingly no definite standardization.

The consumer, at the present time, is largely in control,

because if he demands his own ideas in equipment,

such as longer or shorter blade lengths, curvatures,

bearings, wheels, or blade lifts, the manufacturer

supplies it in order to obtain the business and survive

the fierce competition which exists. Nowadays seemingly any new idea has a very good

chance of becoming accepted in production if sponsored by a sufficient number of consumers to economically justify the change. The country being so large,

conditions so divergent, and the great army of men in the road-building industry offering such a host of

ideas, presents a condition anything but standardized

when those ideas are interpreted in manufacture.

Manufacturers interested.

Manufacturers are necessarily fully conversant with

the present situation, and they are doing everything

possible to correct it in so far as they can. A few

items of production standardization which show the

tendency and the urge toward complete standardization should prove of interest. These include the same

radius for various grader blades of other and dis- similar specifications and the same spacing for panellings in various blade bits. Lifting mechanisms on various sized graders are not only becoming similar but

identical on various machines where this practice can

be found consistent with reliable and durable production. Wheels are similar in every respect except size. The shape of the frame is the same for the complete

line of manufacture. There is rapid advancement

toward complete standardization of antifriction bearings, and these are now similar except for size. Scarifier attachments for maintenance and construction

equipment are of the same style and differ only in

strength. Manufacturers who "offer both straight and

leaning wheel graders now have production so standardized that one frame will accommodate either

straight or leaning wheel devices. This also holds

true for graders having either one or two piece tele- scopic rear axles and for either spoke or disk wheels.

In other words, a point is rapidly approaching

wherein all grading and maintenance machines are very similar except in size and strength. This procedure is the only logical course when the one fundamental purpose—economy—is kept in mind. The es- sential features of any successful road equipment are

durability, capacity, and simplicity. Their relative

importance is in the order named, and when these

three essentials are satisfied all other demands and re- quirements of machine specifications are superfluous

and only increase the cost of production and the ulti- mate price the consumer must pay.

Effecting economies.

Appreciable economies are effected by the above

standardization. More parts or units may be built at a time, at a great reduction in cost. Assembly costs are minimized due to standard set-up of equipment.

The quantity of parts needed as warehouse stock is decreased, although carrying a sufficient number to care for all field requirements. The standardization

and the minimization offer an easier and more positive method of keeping machines in the field in satis- factory working condition.

We have said that the consumer is at fault in demanding innovations from standardization where they

are not essential to the purpose at hand. These

special nonstandarclized requirements merely satisfy

the personal ideas and ego of the consumer. They

are nonessentials. They impede factory production

and always increase the cost of production and the

retail price. On the other hand, the manufacturer is greatly at fault in complying with these scattered

whims. We only attempt to justify compliance

through the desire for increased business and the re- tention of old business in the face of admittedly severe competition to be found to-day.

Certain State and county organizations are assist- ing with the general problem of standardization. Certain States and groups of counties require standardized punchings and specifications, but until all States

and all buying organizations get together the requirements of a few isolated organizations merely confuse

the problem and require additional production rather

than a minimized and standard production. Too, it must be remembered that there are thousands of machines of past production in field operation, and these

must be maintained by continued production to their

specifications.

Difficult to accelerate standardization.

It is difficult to accelerate standardization because

different manufacturers have engineers with ideas de- rived from schools teaching various and different

theories in design and construction. It is hard to

effect a compromise between the varying ideas of these
AUGUST, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 43

efficient men. Th'e standardization policy of one manufacturer may be one of economy to the con- sumer—first cost ; while that of another may be one

of service to the consumer. Whereas one factory may

produce equipment to be sold on a basis of low first cost, another produces it to be sold on a basis of

satisfactory service over a long period of 3^ears. These

two policies are as divergent as are the possibilities

of mutual standardization.

There should be increased standardization in design

of machines, in lengths of blade, in weight, in frame

shape, in manufacturing policy, resulting in uniform

competition, minimized production costs, and minimized retail costs. The same may be said of machine

strengths, fewer sizes of machines at standardized

strengths and required horsepower, sufficient for maintenance and construction purposes. It would prove

decidedly cheaper to the grader manufacturer as well

as to the tractor manufacturer and the consumer. The important factors that have occasioned great

improvement in the design of both construction and

maintenance equipment are: (1) Automotive influ- ence, (2) competition among makers and among users, and (3) vast construction programs. In the consideration of maintenance equipment, different sections of

the country use different set-ups or combinations. In

past years horse-drawn equipment was all that could

be had, and took care of the problems of that day in an acceptable—if not strictly satisfactory—manner. We find horses used as motive power to-day only in

sections where they and their food requirements are abundant. Horses have given wav over the country

at large to gasoline motive power. Horse-drawn patrol

graders have been succeeded by tractors, pulled or pushed motor graders, or maintenance blades mounted

under truck bodies.

Because of the ever-increasing traffic on public highways, it has been found that motorized maintenance

equipment is the truly economical kind to be used, be- cause it improves the general quality of work, the

quantity of work in a given time, and reduces maintenance costs considerably below those of other equipment which has proved inadequate.

Present-day standardization.

Present-day standardization of maintenance equipment may be found a part of State highway department policies, which specify the use of the heaviest

and most powerful motor graders on those public highways of greatest traffic use. Lesser sized and powered

machines are used on highways of less traffic. The

tendency is toward establishment of different motor

grader sizes consistent with the amount of traffic, which ultimately will cut maintenance costs and at the same time provide entirely satisfactory work. It is as uneconomical to overwork a machine and expect more

of it than it was designed for, as it is to place a large

expensive machine on a job entirely insufficient to the

machine’s capacity.

Construction equipment is responding to the cumulative effective of many refinements, rather than to unusual and superfluous innovations in design, result- ing in machines of greater efficiency and reliability.

Manufacturing standardization points toward ease of

maintenance of construction equipment. Moving parts

are being inclosed, gears and drive chains placed in dirt-proof, oil-tight housings, and more attention is

being given to the comfort of the operator. Continued

refinements in design with rigid retention of the three

important factors, durability, capacity, and simplicity, are bound to offer increased life, lowered maintenance

expense, and increased output of the equipment consistent with its strength and power of motive traction.

A short time ago construction machinery was built

mainly of grey iron, structural shapes, standard steel plates, and forgings from ordinary steel. Specifications to-day call for alloy steels, heat-treated steels,

special forgings, cast steel, and other high-grade materials; yet, even with these higher priced materials,

standardization of parts and of machines has made it possible to offer this better equipment to the consumer

without increased cost. Construction equipment remains about the same in

general character, differing radically only in sizes,

strengths, and durability. The common scraper is still employed; so is the wheeled scraper, although these

two, for more economical haulage, have given way to

the rotary scraper and tumblebug scraper, tractor

pulled. Where horses gave way to tractors in maintenance equipment, the same is true of construction

equipment of larger capacities.

Replacement of old equipment.

The old-style horse-drawn wagons of 1% cubic yards

capacity are still in use, but they have been generally

replaced by the modern all-steel crawler-drawn dump

wagons of capacities ranging from 5 to 12 cubic yards.

Elevating graders of wood construction have been re- placed by steel construction, and crude, cumbersome

operating devices have made way for modernized appliances which not only offer increased strength, but

great flexibility, increased efficiency, and assurance of

continued operation, all spelling increased production

at greatly minimized cost and offering, at the same

time, a fair and lucrative margin of profit to those

charged with the burden of financial overhead.

Small tools, blade-construction graders, elevating

graders, crawler wagons, have reached their highly

perfected state by process of development through the

experiences of thousands of machines in the field, under all kinds of conditions in the hands of the most

critical1 contractors and public officials. No perfect

machine or machines are produced in any other way.

Construction equipment of to-day is conceded to be

small tools and blade graders for projects of load ca- pacity or yardage and elevating graders and crawler

dump wagons for projects of larger capacity and yardage and for projects demanding the borrowing of large

amounts of earth. For this latter usage, nothing quite

approaches the elevating grader and crawler dump

wagon in economy.

The public at large is interested in improved road

service and count on the road builders to furnish that

service at the lowest possible cost consistent with the

prevalent costs of labor and equipment. The manufacturer is interested in supplying satisfactory and

modernized practical equipment at a figure consistent

with cost of materials, labor, and a justifiable margin

of profit. These three groups can more conveniently

and more satisfactorily realize their objectives by a closer cooperation, a sincere and mutual sympathy,

each for the problems of the other, and a strict determination to reach those objectives through the logical

and most apparent means—standardization.
44 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [AUGUST, 1930 ADVERTISING STANDARDIZED PRODUCTS

By A. S. McAllister, National Bureau of Standards

No argument is needed to convince either wholesale or retail dealers of the desirability of knowing the exact quality of commodities purchased by them for

sale to others. If each dealer were thoroughly expert

in inspecting every type of commodity handled by him

and could devote to the work of inspection adequate

time for handling all of the commodities represented

by his transactions, he might be able to conduct his

business without depending upon written specifications. Even in this case he would be guided by his

own specifications, unwritten, it is true, but specifications none the less. When a dealer’s business so expands that he is no

longer able to act as his sole combined purchasing,

inspecting, and sales agent, he must convey to his

assistants his ideas as to the desirable quality of the

commodities handled by him. He then recognizes the

need of proper written specifications and makes them

a matter of record. With further expansion of his

business he realizes that, taken as a whole, his needs can well be served by utilizing the accumulated ex- periences of his own organization, those of his competitors, his purchasers, and his suppliers in formulating specifications for such of the staple commodities

as are represented in h is transactions. Finally, he

conies to the conclusion that industry in general and

his own interests can best be served by making use with staple commodities—not specialties—of such

specifications as have been formulated by responsible,

qualified nationally-recognized organizations and

widely adopted by the trade.

Among the staple commodities for which specifications might well be used are those that can properly

be handled on a mass-production, mass-distribution,

mass-consumption basis. Through competition the

well-known economies realized by manufacturers from

concentrating production on one standard line of

goods rather than on many lines are passed along to the wholesalers, the retailers, and the general public.

Manufacturers, wholesalers, and retailers can not

fail to recognize the potential advertising value of a statement in their sales literature to the effect that

certain staple materials sold by them are guaranteed

to conform to certain well-known specifications, standards, or grading rules. The more progressive of the

manufacturers and dealers realize that an effective

method of taking advantage of the publicity given in the formulation and promulgation of nationally rec- ognized specifications and standards is to advertise

that their products comply with these standards and

specifications.

PHARMACEUTICAL STANDARDS ESTABLISHED

Standardization Activities of American Pharmaceutical Association Reviewed; Pharmacopoeia Established

in 1820

E. F. Kelly, Secretary American Pharmaceutical Association

The American Pharmaceutical Association was es- tablished in 1852 as the result of a meeting of representatives of all branches of pharmacy called in 1851

to prevent the importation into the United States of

substandard and adulterated drugs and medicines.

Thus the first national organization of pharmacists was brought into existence. Its first efforts were to prevent a serious menace to the health and welfare

of the public through the distribution and use of drugs

and medicines which were not of the proper quality.

Organized pharmacy’s full support was given the

Government in its successful efforts to correct this condition, and the development of the highest standards

of identity, quality, and strength for medicinal substances has continued to be a principal association

activity.

These efforts materially contributed to the enact- ment of national and State pure food and drugs acts and to the establishment of agencies, under these acts, which regulate the quality and labeling of substances

used in the mitigation, cure, and prevention of disease,

a standardization achievement of primary importance

in the preservation and improvement of the public

health. The association secured the adoption of the

I nited States Pharmacopoeia ancUthe National Formulary in the national pure food and drugs act. as providing the necessary standards for the identity,

purity, and strength of drugs, which adoption was

followed in each State act. These laws could not have

produced the prompt and satisfactory results which

followed their enactment if the necessary standards

for drugs had not been available through more than

a half century of continued effort. Pharmacopoeia established in 1820.

Although the Pharmacopoeia was established in 1820. 30 years before the American Pharmaceutical Association. it had not been generally accepted by either medicine or pharmacy. One of the first committees created

by the association was that on “ the improvement of

the Pharmacopoeia,” and the association has since

given a support which has contributed to the development of this book of standards to its present high

position after 10 decennial revisions. In 1880 the as- sociation issued the National Formulary to provide

standards for drugs and medicines not included in the

Pharmacopoeia, which is necessarily limited in its scope. The fifth edition of this work was published

in 1926, and a committee is preparing the sixth edition,

which will be completed about 1936.
AUGUST. 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 45

When the United States Pharmacopoeia and the National Formulary were adopted as legal standards

their scope was further limited. The association then

undertook the compilation of the Pharmaceutical

Recipe Book, the first edition of which was issuetl in 1929. This gives formulas and directions for preparing a large number of medicines of local use or used

in hospitals and other institutions, and the formulas

were selected after careful experimentation and with

the purpose of bringing about greater uniformity.

The association has seven other committees working- on standardization besides the committees on United

States Pharmacopoeia, on National Formulary, and on

the Recipe Book, as previously mentioned. The committee on unofficial standards formulates standards, so far as it may be found to be desirable, for such drugs

and chemical products for which standards are not otherwise provided. The committee on pharmaceutical syllabus cooperates with- a similar committee from

the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy

and the National Association Boards of Pharmacy

in preparing a minimum course to be taught in the

various colleges of pharmacy.

Committee on horticultural nomenclature.

The committee on horticultural nomenclature represents the association in cooperating with other scientific- bodies in this important endeavor. The committee on

physiological testing interests itself in the development

of processes for the preparation and testing of those

drugs which do not lend themselves to other methods

of standardization. The committee on weights and

measures has for its principal activity the extension of

the use of the metric system in pharmacy and also gives

consideration to the general subject of weights and

measures so far as they affect pharmacy. The committee on international pharmaceutical nomenclature

cooperates with foreign associations in bringing about

uniformity as far as possible. In 1926 the association

organized a committee to investigate the light-protecting properties of various colored glass containers and

to determine the amount of protection afforded or deterioration produced by light from the ultra-violet and

infra-red regions of the spectrum. It is expected that

the investigations of this committee will result in the

preparation of specifications for colored glass containers for the protection of medicaments.

Early in the present century, the association fostered

the formation of the American Association of Colleges

of Pharmacy and the National Association Boards of

Pharmacy and has cooperated with these organizations

in standardizing, as well as improving the course of

education in pharmacy and the licensing of pharmacists, so that to-day a pharmacist registered in one

State can become registered by reciprocity in practically every other State in the Union.

With the association’s model law as a basis, each

State now has a pharmacy act regulating the practice

of pharmacy and limiting this privilege to those properly trained and licensed. The association was also

largely instrumental in the enactment of State laws

regulating the sale and use of narcotics and other pois- onous and dangerous drugs, and in the enactment of

the national antinarcotic law.

At the last annual meeting of the association a conference of pharmaceutical law enforcement officials was

formed to bring about greater uniformity in the pharmaceutical legislation of the several States and in the

enforcement of these laws which are for the protection

of the public. These standardization achievements as- sure to the American people drugs and medicines of

high quality and that they will be dispensed only by

those properly educated and licensed for this important

duty.

SIMPLIFIED SCHEDULE OF PACKAGING OF

DENTAL PLASTER AND INVESTMENT APPROVED

Recommendation Will Become Effective November 1, 1930 A simplified practice recommendation covering the

packaging of dental investment, artificial stones, and

plaster was approved by a general conference held

June 27. 1930, at Saranac Lake, N. Y. This meeting was held in conjunction with the annual convention of

the American Dental Trade Association.

The program establishes package classification for

these materials, and under each classification a specific

weight or limits of weight, for the net contents of the

package. The recommendation does not provide for

the shape of the package or the material entering into

its manufacture. Package sizes for 3 of the 4 classi- fications for plaster will be reduced from 22 to 3, while sizes for 4 of the 5 classifications for investment

will be reduced from 26 to 13. In addition to the

reduction in variety, the program will establish

definite package sizes for separating plasters and

artificial stones. The program was made effective from

November 1. 1930. subject to acceptance by the trade in

sufficient volume to insure its initial success. The completion of this recommendation marks a step in the general simplification program for dental

supplies of the American Dental Trade Association, of

which George A. Lilly is managing director. Recommendations have already been completed for dental

hyperdermic needles, and dental brush wheels. Others

are in the course of devlopment.

STEEL FOUNDERS ADOPT STANDARD FORMS

The Steel Founders Society of America (Inc.),

through the managing director. Granville P. Rogers,

has recently adopted and issued a standard sales agreement, order acceptance, quotation sheet, and a set of

standard trade customs for that industry.

The growth of the industry in recent years has made

it desirable to clarify and simplify the many questions

arising between buyers and sellers and to gain a more

equitable understanding of contractual relations. It

is anticipated that the buyer will be benefitted by a standard practice which places all quotations and esti- mates on a known basis, and it also calls for uniform

painting of patterns to indicate special treatment. The foundry’s liability7

, inspection, shipping, and

terms are clearly stated and are the result of cumulative experience in solving these questions for the best

interests of both parties. —American Machinist.
46 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [AUGUST, 1930 SIMPLIFICATION AND STANDARDIZATION WITHIN THE ELECTRIC LAMP

INDUSTRY

Standardization is Responsible in Large Measure for the Successful Development of the Industry

By Harold H. Green, National Lamp Co.

Simplified practice and standardization have turned

electric lighting from a rich man’s luxury to a blessing

for all people. It has made it possible to sell a lamp

to-day for 25 cents that gives more than twice as much

light as one that cost $1.50 in 1908. It is believed that

simplified practice and standardization, more than

any other. principle, has contributed to the remarkable

development in artificial lighting, and to the success

of the business of making and selling of Mazda lamps.

Let me emphasize that statement by giving you a few high lights on what has happened in the lamp

business since 1914. The average price of all commodities is much higher than in 1914, but the average

price of tungsten lamps is 44 per cent lower than in 1914. The annual sale of large lamps has increased

from 110,000,000 in 1914 to approximately 304,500,000

in 1926. Because people can now buy better lamps at lower prices, they are buying larger lamps. The aver- age wattage of tungsten lamps sold in 1914 was 47.4 watts per lamp. In 1926 it was 58.9 watts per lamp.

Work started in 1914.

Simplified practice and standardization in the in- candescent lamp business began long before 1914. Something had to be done; for if von had checked up

the number of lamps used for ordinary lighting purposes in the year 1900, you would have arrived at the

startling figure of 55,000 types. One would imagine

that with so many types of lamps to choose from, one might select something rather pleasing and distinctive

in the way of incandescent lamps. Despite the 55,000

types of lamps, a buyer had a choice of only five sizes : 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32 candlepower. All were car- bon-filament lamps ; none were colored.

It was largely because there were 175 different lamp

bases in common use and because lamps for general

lighting purposes were made in 30 voltages that the

number of types was so great. Up to this time lamps

had been made largely by hand and by companies

supplying small territories. The great number of

types did not bother the lamp makers much because no one manufacturer really made them all. But men began to see the possibilities of machine

manufacture for producing lamps of greater and more

uniform quality at lower prices. They began to see beyond the making of lamps in a sheet and peddling

them “ hot ” from a cart ; they wanted national dis- tribution and sales. That meant that lines had to be

standardized. The first efforts toward this end began

with an attack on lamp bases. The Edison screw type of base, or the medium

sci'ew base as it is now called, was chosen as the most

desirable by electric lighting companies and manufacturers. The lamp manufacturers contributed very

largely to the speed with which base standardization was accomplished by offering lamps with the standard

base, together with an adapter for fitting the lamp

into other types of sockets, at the price charged for

the lamp alone. It was but a few years before the

medium screw base superseded all others. And to-day,

26 or more years later, those earlier bases are museum

curiosities. Voltage standardization.

In the meantime the entire lighting industry was making a drive to standardize lamp voltage. There

is an interesting story connected with this. Edison’s

first practical lamps were designed to operate at 110

volts. Other lamps were manufactured for different

voltages, generally lower, such as 40, 55, and 80 volts. Since the Edison organization had developed a complete system of electrical supply, as well as the lamp,

the 110-volt system gained precedence over low-voltage

systems.

In the early days of lamp manufacturing, however,

it was impossible to predetermine the exact voltage

of a lamp and, consequently, a considerable portion of

the production ran off voltage. In order to utilize these off-voltage lamps, electric lighting companies

began supplying electrical energy at various voltages on both sides of 110. Up to 1910 no effort was made

to restrain the spread of voltages within the 100 to 130 volt range. However, by 1913 it had become possible to manufacture lamps accurately at any desired

voltage. It was then that lamp makers, in checking

over sales, reported that there was a gradual increasing concentration of demand on 110, 115, and 120 volt

lamps.

By thus eliminating variations in voltages and

liases, the number of lamp types had decreased to 342

in 1923, as compared to 55,000 in 1900. And whereas

the biggest lamp in 1900 was of only 32 candlepower,

the 342 types of 1923 included lamps of from 10 to 10.000 watts. This eliminating of types had made it possible to develop and adopt high-speed machinery

for lamp making. These machines eliminated practically all costly hand operations and made better

lamps in larger quantities and at lower prices.

Another very great advantage of lamp-type standardization was the reduction of stock. As an example, we found in 1923 that out of one warehouse stock of

2.675.000 lamps, we could ship 191,400 lamps of one

type and voltage. In Europe, where standardization

has apparently not advanced as far as in this country, out of a similar stock of approximately 3,000,000 lamps,

the largest individual stock of one type was only

3,000.

Up to 1923, we had merely worked on the elimination of types, but in that year there began the planning- of an entire new and simplified line of lamps to replace all existing types of 100 watts or under. In- asmuch as 74 per cent of large Mazda lamp sales are

for general or home lighting service, in sizes up to 100 watts, attention was first directed to this class of

lamps.

Research carried out. In this classification were 45 types of lamps, dif- fering in size, shape, and bulb finish. Quite appar-
AUGUST, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 47

ently this was an excessive number, yet investigation

showed that if any 1 of the 45 were eliminated, its place would not be satisfactority taken Ity any of the

remaining lamps. And certainly a standardization

step would not be justifiable that would impair lighting service to the public. There were but two things

to do. Continue with existing lamp types or attempt

to develop a new line of a few lamps which would offer

at least all the advantages of the old ones. The sec- ond choice was made, and experimental work was

begun at once. By the fall of 1923 it was reported that all general

lighting recpiirements could be adequately met with

five lamps in sizes of 25, 40, 50, 60, and 100 watts, with

a new bulb, pleasing in shape and stronger because of

its shape, common to all the lamps and varying only

in size to accommodate the various wattages. A newly

developed type of coiled tungsten filament was recom- mended for all the lamps, because it was ten times as strong as existing types of straight filaments and more

efficient as a light, source. It was believed, however,

that one standard bulb finish would be impossible;

that is to say, it would be necessary to continue the

manufacture of clear lamps, because of their greater

light output and various types of frosted lamps would

be required because of their light diffusing and glare

reducing qualities.

A stroke of good luck and genius.

At this time a young chemical engineer named Marvin Pipkin was employed in the lamp development

laboratory at Nela Park. Fired with the enthusiasm

of a big idea, he one morning rushed into the office of

the laboratory director and eagerly recommended the

adoption of inside-frosted bulbs for the contemplated

line of lamps. In full detail it was explained that for

at least 20 years lamp makers had recognized inside

frosting as the ideal lamp bulb finish because : Inside

frosting diffuses the light adequately and transmits 99

per cent as much light as a clear bulb, whereas various

types of outside-frosted bulbs absorb from 7 to 25 per

cent of the light. The outer surface of an insidefrosted is smooth, and, therefore, will not collect and

hold dirt that impairs appearance and cuts down light

output on outside frosted lamp bulbs. However, it was

pointed out to the young engineer that inside-frosting

so weakened the bulbs as to make them entirely impractical for lamp making.

“ Go to it and see if you can make a strong insidefrosted bulb, everybody in the lamp game tries it sooner or later,” was what they jokingly told him.

Pipkin did what even the great Steinmetz had tried

to do in vain, and he did it in two weeks time. He

came back to the office with six pearl-gray bulbs, all inside-frosted. Three of them he placed on the end

of a desk and gently pushed them over. They smashed

to bits. The other three he dropped to the floor from

shoulder height. They bounced and remained intact. He had made the inside-frosted lamp bulb practical.

He did it by merely treating the inside of the bulb with

a weaker solution of the same acid that etched it, thus

restoring its strength.

The strengthened inside-frosted bulb was at once adopted as the standard for the new line of Mazda

lamps. To those who have witnessed so much of the

benefits of a standardized line in the development of

the lamp business, standardization seems synonymous

with success.

BRITISH STANDARD RAILWAY SIGNALING

SYMBOLS

Part I of Publication Dealing With Schematic Symbols Announced

Part I of the British Standard Railway Signaling

S}r mbols, which publication deals with schematic symbols, has just been issued by the British Engineering

Standards Association. The symbols are intended for

use on drawings showing signaling requirements, and

none of them attempts to show the component parts

of the apparatus to be used. They have been so designed that they may be combined with each other in cases in which one does not adequately represent the

complete device.

For convenience of reference, the symbols have been

divided into seven numbered sections, namely, signals

(semaphore and light), points, track details, apparatus, controls, level crossings, and buildings. An

alphabetical index is given at the end of the publication. Part II. which it is hoped will be completed in a few months, will cover the wiring symbols; that is, the symbols for the actual apparatus used with their

electrical connections, and also written circuits or simplified wiring diagrams. These two publications

should prove of great interest and value to all railway

staffs concerned not only with operation but more particularly with the practical engineering side of railway working, and should be the means of saving much

time in the preparation of plans.

BRITISH STANDARD FOR PLUGS AND

SOCKETS

Revision Announced on Standard for Reversible Type of Plugs and Sockets

A revision of British standard specification No. 196,

which deals with reversible, protected-tvpe, two-pin

plugs and sockets, with earthing connections, for cir- cuits up to 250 volts between any two poles, has re- cently been issued by the British Engineering Standards Association.

Although the differences between the new (1930)

and the 1927 editions are small, the}r are of interest

from the manufacturing point of view. One of the

differences relates to the dimensions of the lug on the

nonreversible plug and socket. It has been found

that, with slight irregularities in manufacture, there was a risk, in some cases, of being able to force the

lug (the nonreversible device) into a hole in the

socket not intended for the reception of this big. A

slight modification lias therefore been made to the

dimensions in order to remove this possibility. A few

other changes, mainly of an editorial nature, have

been introduced.
48 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY [AUGUST, 1930 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS—AN ANSWER TO SOME DISTRIBUTION PROBLEMS

Setting Up of Minimum Quality Requirements Helps to Retain “ Good Will ” in Business—Low Prices

Often Met by Poor Quality

By Harry H. Steidle, National Bureau of Standards

If there is any question as to the average American’s

belief in signs, it will be quickly dissipated by turning

to the millions of nomadically inclined tourists who

have implicit faith in the markers at our cross roads.

Slowing down to “ 30 ” they get a fleeting glimpse of

the sign to Portland, Denver, or New York, and on

they go confident that they are on the right road to their destination.

What, however, would be the attitude of the tourist

who found himself 40 or 50 miles on the road to Detroit when he wanted to go to Denver? The answer

is very obvious—his confidence in road markers would

be shaken and with several repetitions of the experi- ence it would be utterly destroyed.

However, past experience has usually proven the

reliability of these signs, and the motorist trusts the

highway department, chamber of commerce, or other

agency responsible for their erection, and proceeds

without question.

Confidence in signs is by no means new, nor is it limited to those of our roadsides. In colonial da}r s we

found the hatter, bootmaker, and other artisans establishing themselves in business after long apprenticeships in their trade. They made more than just hats or boots ; they built a reputation on which their success depended and the sign of a clever workman became the

beacon of quality for the people of the town and the

surrounding countryside.

In those early days, living conditions were quite

simple, and the householder had but few decisions to make regarding the quality of his purchases. If he

decided to build a house, ii s walls would be made of

local stone or wood, and the roof of hand-split

shingles from nearby white pine, cedar, or cypress

trees. The industrious housewife spun her own yarn

and wove her own cloth with which to make the

family clothing; she compounded her own soap from

fat and bleached hardwood ashes; made her brooms

from alder branches or broom corn, and generally

provided for most of the family needs. The garden

and pasture field, supplemented with game and wild

fruits, supplied the necessary food.

Specialization in trade.

Conditions gradually changed, however, and men

realized that some could do things better than others. Along came the butcher, the baker, and candlestick

maker, who sold their own products and bought others

to satisfy their needs. Specialization continued and

instead of one man making a single product, he contributes to the making of one part of a product under

highly developed factory methods of to-day.

Production increased, and with it competition be- came keen. Competition led to lower prices, and

accompanying the lower prices there was too often

a lowering of quality to meet the price. Many new

products have found their way on to the market caus- ing a competition, not within industry but actually

between industries, and while life to-day unquestionably contains more leisure, it is likewise infinitely more complex. Heating of one’s house involves the

choice of five or six different methods: Wood, coal

(six or eight grades), gas, electricity, and numerous

grades of fuel oil. The inside walls of a home might

he made of any one of several hundred products,

ranging from ordinary plaster to lumber paneling,

or complex synthetic building boards, while there is no end to the variety of paints, plastic coverings, and

wall papers with which the interiors may be decorated. The roof may be made with shingles of a half

dozen or more kinds of wood, slate, sheet metal of

various sorts, and of a hundred composition roofings,

ranging from thin, rolled asphalt felts to stiff, hardpressed asbestos shingles.

Innumerable brooms and brushes, soaps, textiles, and

other household necessities are offered in myriad varieties in which the claims for them are infinitely more

confusing than illuminating.

When the purchaser has decided upon a particular

kind of wall covering or roofing or other commodity,

the question is only half settled. What particular

brand will give the desired service? What is good

enough to “ swear by ” ? Whose sign of quality can

be depended upon

?

The buyer is always willing to pay for articles of

merit, but he wants some assurance that he will get

that for which he is paying. Honest merchants and

manufacturers realize that they must keep faith with

their customers, but the method of establishing this

confidence becomes a serious problem.

Unfortunately there is usually a small but parasitic

element in many fields that can survive only on a thriving industry as their host. They contribute nothing to the organized advertising campaigns, they refuse to subscribe to established ethical principles, and their success—spare the term—is attained by quality reduction, price cutting, price discrimination, rebates, and

other demoralizing business practices. Little attention

is paid to the service which their products will render,

they have no concern for the future of the industry,

their products are unbranded and unidentified, and

their only similarity to articles of merit lies in their

outward appearance.

The average buyer has no means of testing or analyzing the commodities which he buys—that isn’t his

business, but it is his business to see that he gets the

best for his money, and in this respect he looks for some sign of quality.

Certification on merchandise establishes confidence.

The progressive manufacturers and dealers in merchandise of honest value would unquestionably like to give this assurance to their customers, for they fully

realize that satisfied customers are their biggest asset on the road to success. Many methods have been tried,

but the unscrupulous manufacturers claim of a product “just as good ” still perplexes the consumer when
AUGUST, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 49

there is no well-defined generally recognized basis for

comparison.

A housewife, doctor, or nurse goes to buy a clinical thermometer. One is offered without name or other

identification. Another is offered bearing a name, a trade-mark, and a serial number, together with a small

certificate that reads as follows

Place Date We, the undersigned manufacturers, hereby certify that our registering clinical thermometer marked No. — will meet all the requirements and tests as specified

in the United States Department of Commerce, Commercial Standard CS1-28 for Clinical Thermometers.

(Company) Is there any question as to which instrument would

be purchased?

The certification is a guarantee of quality to the purchasers and a basis of honest competition for the manufacturers. There is no question of a “ product just as good;” the question becomes, “ does the product meet

with the specifications—does it measure up to the

standard of quality which the manufacturers themselves have established.”

There are to-day many groups of manufactured articles, the outward appearance of which is so similar

as to baffle any ready comparison of quality by the

large majority of buyers without resort to elaborate or expensive laboratory tests, and as a natural conse- quence these goods are purchased on a price basis with some regard for outward appearance, but with little discrimination as to real quality, except when dis- closed after repeated and costly experience. It is a simple matter to compare prices. The great question

in the mind of the buyer to-day is the question of

quality. An answer to this vital question may be

found, as it was in the case of clinical thermometers,

in the use of commercial standards for quality.

The great competition to-day is between industries

and t is natural therefore that members of a given in- dustry are desirous of setting up minimum quality

levels for their commodities in order that the public

may buy with assurance and confidence and that their

products as a whole shall retain the good will and

respect of the purchaser.

Another very potent and important reason for defi- nite commercial standards lies in their providing a common base line of understanding for the industry.

The annual expense incident to the exchange of merchandise if it could be accurately calculated, would

be appalling. In addition to depreciation, shipping,

packing, and handling costs much time and expense

is involved in letter writing and telegrams and, furthermore, ill feeling is often engendered which may

be erased only after long and tireless efforts by sales departments. If we dig into the real cause of this

stupendous item of distribution cost it is quite safe to say that in the majority of cases exchanges and re- fusals to accept materials are based on nothing more

than misunderstandings—different conceptions possessed by the buyer and seller. Going a step further we find that these misconceptions are the flower of a loosely woven hit or miss,

series of quality designations upon which each manufacturer puts his own interpretations and from which

the consumer orders by the use of vague indefinite terms. With the establishment of a commercial standard

of quality definite limitations may be set to classify

accurately the various grades of any product, and uniform tests and terminology are decided upon, which

become the common language for producers, dis- tributors, and consumers. Outstanding examples of commercial standards.

Some outstanding examples of a commercial standard established to check an unhealthy industrial condition are illustrated as follows : Wallpaper is marketed under a label reading as follows

“ The manufacturer guarantees this wallpaper to meet require- ments of U. S. Commercial Standard CS16—29 issued by U. S. Department of Commerce.”

Under the auspices of the division of trade standards, a commercial standard for fuel oils developed by the American

Oil Burner Association was unanimously accepted by the in- dustry, and is now of mutual benefit to all concerned. The movement for the standardization of feldspar illustrates one covering a product that in itself is not sold for general

consumption. Through the division of trade standards, the feldspar grinders, together with their customers and others

interested, agreed upon a standard classification based on particle size and chemical composition.

Nineteen commercial standards have been formulated

and adopted by the interested producers, distributors,

and consumers. These standards cover products ranging from clinical thermometers to fuel oils, and a re- markable interest and genuine confidence is being built

up in the application and use of these common denominators of trade as “ road signs ” for the guidance

of business in this new decade of distribution.

STANDARD SCREW THREADS

American National Standard Adopted by Industry Effective July 1, 1930

A satisfactory majority of written acceptances from

producers and users having been received, the National

Bureau of Standards announced on June 2, 1930, that

Section I of the American National Screw Thread

Tables for Shop Use—Standard Screw Threads may

be considered as a commercial standard effective for new production as of July 1, 1930. A number of producers and users have followed the

reports of the National Screw Thread Commission for

several years and for such organizations the effective date will indicate no change in practice. The chief

purpose of establishing this section of the National

Screw Thread Commission’s report as a commercial

standard is to record the firms who have indicated their

intention of following the recommendation as their

standard practice as well as their intention to use

their best efforts in securing its general adoption.

The commercial standard covers limiting dimensions

and tolerances for classes 1, 2, 3, and 4 fits of the

American National coarse-thread series and fine- thread series, as well as sizes for tap drills recom- mended for the American National coarse-thread and

fine-thread series. Tht tables given comprise the most

essential dimensions as recommended by the National

Screw Thread Commission and are arranged primarily

for shop use.
50 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY T AUGUST, 1930 STANDARDIZATION OF FARM PRODUCTS FACILITATES TRADE

Large-Scale Operators Recognize Standardization as Basic Requirement for Success

The standardization of farm products, whereby

foods, feeds, and fibers are graded according to quality, has been an outstanding development of modern

American agriculture. A list of standards issued by

the United States Department of Agriculture in the

last 15 years includes more than 50 farm commodities.

These standards have been adopted by the various

State departments of agriculture.

Although the use of the Federal standards by producers and shippers is optional in most cases, an in- creasing proportion of farm pi’oducts is being sold on

the basis of grade. The standards meet the modern

merchandising requirement of sorting commodities ac- cording to quality so as to put them to the best use

for which they are suited. They also facilitate busi- ness by providing a common trade nomenclature to designate quality.

Despite the increasing use of standards, the Department of Agriculture says, in a publication on the subject, that there is still considerable discussion as to whether it pays to grade agricultural products. The

department points out that standardization is a means

rather than an end in itself. Whether or not the producer or marketer is compensated for the additional

effort and expense involved in making such classifica- tions depends, says the department, upon his subsequent marketing practices and upon the trade demand

for standardized products.

“For example,” the department says, “a country

merchant seldom establishes price differentials for

different grades when buying eggs from producers in

very small lots. In contrast, large assemblers of eggs

find it highly desirable to grade their shipments so that throughout the regular trade channels they may

be bought and sold according to accepted commercial

grades. As a general statement, it may be said that

the smaller the volume of business the less likely it is that grading to generally recognized standards will pay. In large-scale operations, however, standardization is now universally recognized as a basic re- quirement for success.

“ Broadly considered, the purpose in establishing

standards is to facilitate all of the marketing processes. Farm products may pass through many hands

in moving from the centers of production to the

wholesale markets. Many products are sold under

contract for future delivery, and a large part of the

business is transacted at long range. It is essential

that there be a common language to insure mutual

understanding between buyer and seller. But it usually is neither necessary nor desirable in such commercial transactions to require, in minute detail, specifications as to each factor influencing market quality.

A general grouping of the product into grades of the same range of value or utility is usually sufficient.” The department’s publication on this subject is entitled “National Standards for Farm Products.” It gives an outline of the development and growth of

standardization, tells how the standards are formulated and established, and discusses the factors that

determine the standards for each of the various farm

commodities.

REVISION OF FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS

Specifications Proposed for Revision Submitted for Comment

and Criticism

Forty-seven revised specifications, proposed for the

National Government, are now before the departments

and others interested for comment and criticism.

These specifications, in accordance with the scheme

used with the Federal Standard Stock Catalogue, also bear the new designation. For copies of the proposed

revisions or for further information pertaining to the

specifications, address the Federal Specifications

Board, The National Bureau of Standards, Washington. D. C.

F. S. No. Commodity New designation

5 White-lead; basic-carbonate (dry, paste in oil and semipaste

in oil). TT-W-251.

15 Paints, green (readv-mixed; semipaste) TT-P-71.

39c Tubing, rubber ... ZZ-T-831.

48c Hose, water and wash-deck. ZZ-H-611.

163 Ink, copying and record .... TT-I-521.

166 Ink, stamp-pad _ TT-I-556.

167a Ribbons, typewriter. DDD-R-311.

168a Ribbons, hectograph . . ... . ... DDD-R-291.

169a Ribbons, computing and recording machine , . _ _ DDD-R-271.

192 Brushes, casting.. ... ..... _ _ ... H-B-151.

193 Brushes, scrubbing, clothes - . H-B-521.

194 Brushes, cuspidor. . . . ... . ... ... .. If —13—1 71

.

195a Brushes, dauber, long-paddle .......... H-B-181.

F. S. No. Commodity New designation

254c 255b

256c 257b

264a 266a 268a

334a

335a

363 364

364

389 408b

421

469 490

512a

513a

514a

517a 519a

520a

521a

522a

523

524b

525a

526a

Denim, brown (shrunk) Denim, brown (unshrunk). Denim, blue, indigo (shrunk), _ Denim, blue, indigo (unshrunk) Waste, wool, colored

Ink, marking, indelible (for) fabrics. Brick, fire-clay

Clay, fire Refractories, fire-clay, plastic.

Safes, burglar-resisting

Salt, table Sauces Mincemeat

Brushes, sash-tool, oval Metol

Steel, structural (for) ships (other than naval vessels). Tubes, aircraft steel, seamless

Brushes, flowing, badger hair Brushes, flowing, squirrel-tail-hair. Brushes, flowing, skunk hair Brushes, radiator, bronzing. Brushes, stencil (flag ends cut)

Brushes, stencil (flag ends preserved) Brushes, varnish, flat (triple X thickness) _, Brushes, varnish, flat (double X thickness) _ Brushes, stippling, wall

CCC D-161. CCC-D-171.

CC-C-D-151. CCC-D-156. DDD-W-116.

TT-I-542. HH-B-671.

HH-C-451.

SS-R-191. AA-S-71.

PP-M-351.

H-B-491. U-M-191.

QQ-S-751. WW-T-701.

H-B-251. H-B-261

.

H-B-256.

H-B-451.

H-B-621. H-B-626.

II-B-706. H-B-701.

H-B-636.

Brushes, whitewash H-B-731.

Brushes, dust, painters’, flat II-B-211. Brushes, dust, painters’, round II-B-216. Boxes, packing-and-shipping, plywood cleated NN-B-601.

Boxes, wooden, nailed and lock-corner construction, empty,. NN-B-621.

Coke, foundry ! Q-C-571.

Cloth, awning

Diatomaceous silica 1
AUGUST, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 51

METHODS OF PRODUCING PAPER IMPROVED BY RESEARCH

Laboratory and Semicommercial Mill Maintained to Test Products and to Study Industrial Processes

By B. W. Scribner, National Bureau of Standards'

In the paper section of the National Bureau of

Standards are personnel and equipment which make

possible a wide variety of useful services to the public.

It lias the complete laboratory facilities required for

the wide range of testing dealt with in developing

paper quality standards and a complete semicommercial paper mill, where studies of paper-manufacturing

problems are made.

Tested under constant atmospheric conditions.

To obtain accurate results in making physical tests of paper, paper must be tested under constant atmospheric conditions of temperature and humidity, as it is very susceptible to changes in these conditions.

Information service.

The information service on paper has reached considerable proportions. During the past year replies were made to over 1,800 inquiries on paper, some of

them requiring tests or experiments in order to obtain

the required information.

A large number of visitors call either for discussion

of some paticular problems they may have, or to in- spect the paper equipment. These personal contacts

are welcomed, as more thorough information can be

given in this way than by correspondence.

The researches deal mainly with testing methods,

development of specifications of quality, and studies

.1 view of National Bureau of Standards paper machine used in studies of paper-making materials and processes For this reason, all such testing is done in special rooms which have “ manufactured weather ” ; that is, the air is cleansed and so treated that the temperature

and humidity remain practically constant. Other

laboratory facilities are available for the wide variety

of chemical and optical testing required.

In the semicommercial paper mill, raw materials can be turned into paper and the paper further processed if desired. There are machines for cutting and

dusting fibrous raw materials, for cooking them, and

for bleaching and beating the fibers. The Fourdrinier paper machine makes a sheet of

paper 26 inches wide, and while it is small as compared with its commercial brother, it is large enough,

as is all of the paper-making equipment, to yield entirely practical results. For further treatments of the

paper, a supercalendar for imparting a high glaze and

equipment for coating and impregnating paper are provided.

of paper-making materials and processes. As the bureau is a research laboratory for the Government,

special researches related to Government activities are sometimes made. These usually yield some information of industrial value.

The industrial researches are selected with consideration of the advice of the particular branch of the

industry affected in order that the problems selected

may yield the greatest benefit to all concerned. Following are details of the various paper researches, inj eluding some typical examples:

Improve paper-testing technic.

Progress in the development of quality specifications for paper is dependent to a large extent on the

progress made in the development of means of measuring quality. For this reason considerable attention

is given to improvement of paper-testing technic.

The results of the bureau’s researches on paper-test-

| ing standards are made very effective through close co-
52 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [AUGUST, 1930

operation with the Technical1 Association of the Pulp

ancl Paper Industry, in the development of official as- sociation testing methods. These methods are accepted

generally as standards. Test methods and, in some cases, test instruments re- quired to apply the methods, have been originated in

all branches of paper testing. The design of some of

the commercial testing instruments has been improved

through studies made of them, and in some instances,

better means of calibrating and adjusting them have

been devised.

Sizing of writing paper.

A study was made for several years on methods of

testing the degree of sizing of writing paper—the

property which makes the paper resistant to writing

ink. In spite of the existence of over 30 methods proposed for this purpose, none of them was found to be

adequate, and two new methods were originated which

are now in common use in the industry. The “ curl

sizing tester ” was devised for the application of one of

the methods.

Similarly, a number of other methods and instruments have been originated. In the field of fiber-composition determination, the Lofton-Merritt method for

differentiating between unbleached sulphate and sul- phite fibers is the standard procedure. A series of

charts showing the color reactions of the common

paper-making fibers with the various stains used for

their identification was prepared. These charts have

extensive use as reference standards in the identifica- tion of fibers. Devices have been developed for measuring the

opacity of paper, for finding its resistance to surface wear, for conditioning it preparatory to testing, for

measuring the expansion of paper boards, and for cal- ibrating the instrument commonly used to determine

folding endurance of paper.

Purity of paper celluloses determined.

Considerable progress has been made in the improvement of methods used in the determination of

the purity of paper celluloses, which is of importance

in judging the permanence of paper.

The. bursting test is the test for strength most

commonly used in this country. At the request of a manufacturer of a bursting strength tester, a study was made of several variables present in the usual

form of tester, which led to improvements in the

design of such instruments and increased their accuracy.

LABELING OF SUBGRADE CANNED GOODS

New Law Authorizes Department of Agriculture to Fix Standards for Products in Interest of Consumers

The Mapes bill (H. R. 730) provides new labeling

requirements on lower grades of canned foods, and,

described by its sponsors as in the interest of farmers

as well as consumers, has become law, receiving the

approval of President Hoover on July 8, it Avas announced at the White House on July 9. The bill Avas introduced by Representative Carl E.

Mapes, of Grand Rapids, Mich. It amends the general

Federal food laws by authorizing the Secretary of

Agriculture, in the interest of the consuming public,

to require distinctive and informative labeling of

canned foods “ of grades beloAv certain established

minimum requirements.”

Representative Gilbert N. Haugen, of NorthAvood,

Iowa, in reporting the measure to the House in practically the same form in which it became laAv, said

that while consumers’ protection is the main objective

of the proposed amendment, it is believed that it will

encourage the growth and expansion of the canning

industry, which is one of the most important means

of enabling the farmer to move his perishable products

profitably. The canning industry represents 6.1 per

cent of all manufactured food products in the United

States. The increase of its annual output is indicated

by comparing the annual production in 1925, which

Avas approximately 7,500,000,000 pounds, and the esti- mated production for 1928 of 9,000,000,000 pounds.

This amendment will likewise enlarge the possibilities of better credit facilities at lower rates of

interest under the Federal warehouse act. Within

recent months canned foods have been admitted to the

eligible list of products comingjunder the provisions

of the Federal warehouse act. The adoption of this

amendment will furnish an additional guaranty as to the quality of canned products in Federal licensed

warehouses and will, therefore, be a very great advantage to the Avhole canning industry.

The bill provides that canned food falling beloAv the

standard of quality, condition, or fill of container

promulgated by the Department of Agriculture must

bear a plain and conspicuous statement indicating that

it falls below that standard. It defines canned food

k ‘ as food in hermetically sealed containers sterilized

by heat, except meat and meat food products, and

except canned milk.”

The bill authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to determine and promulgate from time to time a reasonable standard for each class of canned food as will,

in his judgment, promote honesty and fair dealing

in the interest of the consumer; to modify such standards from time to time in the interest of the consumer,

and to prescribe the form of statement to be placed on each package of canned food which falls beloAv

the standard. The Secretary of Agriculture is re- quired to specify the dates on which the standards

shall be effective or the prescribed statements must be

used and to give not less than 90 days’ advance notice

of such dates. The bill stipulates that it is not to be construed as authorizing manufacture, sale, shipment, or trans- portation of adulterated or misbranded foods.

On July 10 W. G. Campbell, chief of the Food,

Drug, and Insecticide Administration of the Department of Agriculture, stated that the department is formulating standards to be applied under the neAv

laAv.
AUGUST. 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 53

DIESEL ENGINE STANDARDS

Standardization Program Adopted by Diesel Engine Division of the Standards Committee of the Society

of Automotive Engineers

Standardization for Diesel engines has been

recognized for several years as one of the important

steps lo be undertaken in the development and use of

this type of power plant. With the appointment of

the standards committee of the Society of Automotive

Engineers this year, the Diesel engine division was

organized, as it was fell that the time had arrived to develop standards for Diesel engines and to extend

many of the existing S. A. E. standards to larger sizes adaptable to Diesel engines.

The difficulties that will be encountered in amr standardization program for Diesel engines, because

of the wide range of engine sizes and horsepowers, is pointed out by the S. A. E. Journal with the state- ment that probably standardization for the large in- dustrial types of engine will be more limited than for

the types and sizes that will be used for automotive

purposes.

Prediction can safely be made that automotive types

of Diesel engines will greatly outnumber the larger

industrial and marine types, and therefore it is important to set up well-chosen standards that can become established in use before Diesel engines are made in large quantities.

Standards to be developed.

The two subjects considered most important at this

time are fuel-feed tubing and the connection dimensions for fuel nozzles in the cylinders. In general,

it was believed that tubing diameters should be standardized over a definite range, with two or possibly

three series of wall thicknesses. The division is to make a general survey of the tubing now used by the

several Diesel engine manufacturers and obtain their

recommendations as to a standard.

It is appreciated that standardization of nozzlemounting dimensions will be difficult because of the

great variety now in use, but it is believed that it is very important to the Diesel engine manufacturers,

as they emerge from the present stage of development,

that nozzle mountings be guided into as few standardized designs as possible. A questionnaire has been

outlined for this subject to obtain suggestions from

the engine and nozzle manufacturers, with the hope

that definite recommended practices could be worked

out from the information supplied.

Other subjects listed are the extension of the pres- ent S. A. E. standard for connecting-rod bolts up to and including 3-inch diameter, following the S. A. E.

or National Fine Series of thread pitches: valves;

nigh-pressure and flared-tubing connections; indicator

cocks ; fuel-pump mountings and flow-plug sizes. Another of the important items selected is slotted nuts

for sizes up to 3 inches. The present standard

S. A. E. engine-testing forms are to be reviewed for

such modifications as will make them suitable for use for Diesel engines, and a report will be prepared on

Diesel engine nomenclature that will probably follow

somewhat along the lines of the present S. A. E.

nomenclature for automobiles.

GOVERNMENT STANDARD FOR CARBON PAPER

Testing Carbon Paper Under Federal Specification to Insure Legibility of Impressions

By C. E. Waters, National Bureau of Standards

The almanac, which was printed probably not later than November, 1929. confidently predicts what the

weather will be on December 31, 1930. With equal

confidence it can be forecast that even if writing ink

and typewriter ribbons give perfect satisfaction, there

will be complaints about carbon paper this year. In its make-up and use. a sheet of carbon paper is not unlike a typewriter ribbon. Each is a device for

holding a film of ink ready for convenient transfer

to a sheet of paper. Whether the result of the transfer is satisfactory depends in each case upon the nature

of the ink and of the fabric upon which it is spread.

That the ink in one case is fluid but solid in the other

makes no difference in the principle.

Carbon paper for use with standard typewriters

generally has a rather hard coating. For noiseless

machines the paper must have a softer finish^ because

the type hit the paper with less force than the type of

standard machines. Carbon paper for pencil use is the softest of all.

The coating on black carbon paper contains carbon,

but for other colors dye lakes are used. What was

said about the permanence of these materials, when

discussing ribbons, applies to carbon paper also. As

the coating is solid, the pigment is perhaps not driven

so far into the paper as the ink from a ribbon, yet. even so. carbon copies have satisfactory permanence

if they are not subjected to too much rubbing.

As we have seen, a typewriter ribbon must be thin

so that the writing will be as sharp as possible. Carbon paper is under the handicap of making impressions from blows transmitted through the ribbon,

through the first sheet, and through its own tissue. At the back the blow of the type is cushioned by the

second sheet of paper and by the rubber platen, or

roller. It is a wonder that a single carbon copy is so sharp and distinct as it generally is. The Federal

specifications (Nos. 425 and 42fi) for carbon paper

indirectly limit the thickness of the uncoated tissue

by requiring that it shall not exceed a certain weight.
54 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [AUGUST, 1930 No attempt is made to specify the composition, thickness, and hardness of the coating, but two practical

tests are relied upon to ascertain the quality of the

finished product.

If a sheet of carbon paper that has been used but

once is held up against the light it is generally possible

to read what was written, because each type removes

a large part of the coating from the spot it hits. This

“ stenciling ” is permanent because the waxy mixture

can not floiv as the ink in a ribbon does. So in testing

its durability, or the number of successive copies if will make, carbon paper must be judged more leniently

than a typewriter ribbon.

Testing carbon paper.

The test is made by fastening a piece of the sample

so that it can not move, though the white paper is shifted from line to line as usual. The same letters in

exactly the same order are then written ten times, after

which the carbon copy is examined. The tenth line should be easily legible, and the decrease in blackness

from one line to the next should not be too great. As

the same type hits the same spot on the carbon paper

each time, this is a more severe test than actual service.

In the latter case the register of the carbon paper is not always the same, nor are the letters and words

identical, in the same order, or spaced alike. A sheet

of carbon paper that passes the durability test should

be capable of making many more than 10 copies of

letters in office routine.

Comparatively few samples of carbon paper fail to pass the durability test, in which only one copj? at a time is made. Good paper for manifolding, or making several cojfies at one time, may or may not be hard

to get. Federal specification No. 425, for light-weight

carbon paper, says that it shall be capable of making

“ not less than 10 clean, clear, legible carbon copies

at a time ” when using first and manifold sheets of the

weight specified. The intent is to secure copies so

clean and clear that even the tenth will be easily

legible. It must have no indistinct words whose

meaning must be guessed and no numeral should be

in doubt.

Because enough letters and words to carry the reader

along are found in some very bad carbon copies is not

sufficient justification for reporting that the carbon

paper meets the requirements of the specification. Yet

the testing laboratory may be blamed for not passing

carbon paper which yields only pseudolegible copies

with the characters far from being clean and clear. To revise specifications.

The proposed revisions of the two specifications for

carbon paper will put the judging of the manifolding

test upon a more definite basis, so that a lively imagination will be given less opportunity for exercise. It

is proposed that all of the letters of the alphabet, both

capitals and small letters, and all of the numerals

shall be written twice over in haphazard order. When

the last manifold capy is inspected all of the numerals

must be legible, but a small number of unreadable let- ters among the total of 104 will be tolerated. It has

been suggested that an ample tolerance would be five illegible letters. The proposed revision of the specification for lightweight carbon paper, as sent to manufacturers for

comment, requires only five manifold copies to be

made.- This apparently indicates great laxity in the

revision, but as a matter of fact this is not true. The

reader can prove to his own satisfaction that carbon

paper which meets the requirements when judged on

the new basis is of excellent quality.

More complete information about the items discussed

in this article and the two preceding may be found

in Bureau of Standards Circular No. 95, Inks, Typewriter Ribbons, and Carbon Paper, and in the books

listed at the back of that circular. The Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., sells the circulars for 10 cents each.

TRANSPORTATION AIDED BY RESEARCH

Transport is the Seven-Leagued Boots of Commerce; Equipment Standardized on High-Quality Basis

By Henby D. Hubbabd, National Bureau of Standards

(Third and concluding article of the series on transport research by Mr. Hubbard)

Autographic measuring instruments are often made

the observers and recorders of experimental motor re- search. A notable example is the National Bureau of

Standards’ observation car designed to automatically

record its own performance with respect to 16 items

of motor and car behavior under variable service conditions on the road. The design was made available

to the automotive laboratories of the country.

Among the road service researches was a study of

the practice in using brakes. The psychological re- action of the drivers was measured as a basis for

safety codes for brakes. A device, the decelerometer, was invented at the bureau to measure the rate of

stoppage of a car when the brakes are applied ; an- other device measured the reaction time of the pilot

and brakes combined.

• The success of the automotive research at the Bureau of Standards rests first, upon 70 or more specialized fields of physics, chemistry, and technology, each

with its unique staff, equipment, and tradition; sec- ond, its close cooperation with the great technical and

industrial organizations concerned with each research.

Then, too, Government units are authorized by law

to transfer funds for specific researches, and industrial

units are permitted to maintain research workers in their pay at the Bureau of Standards for cooperative

research on problems fundamental to their industries.

A good example of cooperative research is the brakelining research, as a result of which the service life of

brake linings was increased fifteenfold through the

location and measurement of failures by means of the

bureau’s life-test- device for brake linings.
AUGUST, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 00

Commerce makes, moves, and sells; that is, produces,

transports, and markets. Transport links maker and

user. Utility of place and time are vital elements in

almost every business enterprise.

Results of standardization.

More notable are the results of standardized production where standard machines, processes, and practices

unfailingly yield reproducible quality under standard

measured controls, or enhance quality as research

makes possible. In transport by land, sea, and air,

standardization touches new needs, new forces, and new arts st.il'l in the making. These involve scientific discovery and engineering. Here manufacturers may

seek at least temporary standardization, while daring

design and invention -of experimental and racing craft

for land, water, and air give little promise of finality.

A tenfeorary climax is reached in the commercial

self-steering, self-stabilized plane and in the blind flying of the consolidated N. T. 2 and the Vought 02il.

And now the Department of Commerce through its Bureau of Standards has made possible blind landing

by the use of the new combined directive beacon,

marker beacons, and landing beams. The landingpath is marked out by the radio beam perceptible 3

miles from the landing point. By keeping the plane

set so that the indicator is at a fixed point, the plane

glides to earth easily and accurately in the thickest

fog or in absolute darkness.

This century has brought transport facilities to the

door of every home, riding roughshod in tractors over- unbroken land and trackless forests, though tubes and

pipe lines, diving and riding under the sea, flying over uncharted mountain ranges mapping on the way,

over the poles of the earth, and skimming the waves

in motor boats. Indoor elevators, escalators, conveyors, and trams

provide diverse movement for persons and things.

Electric energy is projected hundreds of miles over- copper circuits; while millions of messages—sound

and sight—ride the wires or fly through space with

the speed of light.

While waterways make transportation cheaper and

aircraft gives it all degrees of directional freedom,

electric energy is instantaneous in its flight. Transport is the 7-leagued boots of commerce. It advances

by leaps and bounds. Research and standardization

are the means to such progress, while measurement is the method of discovery and of application. Together

they tend to make transportation swift, efficient, and

universal.

Commerce is the union of the practical and the ideal. It diffuses civilization. It returns vast benefits. Its galleons—argosies full of bounty—sail every sea, make life possible everywhere. As life is sustained by

the circulation of the blood, so is commerce sustained

through the arteries of transportation.

Transportation is high enterprise in mutual aid. Through it we share the ever-increasing benefits of

creative arts set to automatic machines. Through

commerce the world expands, while every community

becomes complete and integral, enjoying all the products of nature, art, and industry in other lands.

NEW SECTION CREATED WITHIN BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Duties Will Be to Prepare Federal Specifications for Certain Organic and Fibrous Commodities

To facilitate the services which the National Bureau

of Standards renders in the preparation of Federal

specifications and in the testing of certain commodities

purchased by the Government, a new section has been

created within the bureau to handle all work of this

character on rubber, textiles, paper, and leather, under

the leadership of P. L. Wormeley, for many years

chief of the rubber section.

The organic and fibrous materials division of the

bureau, which at present is made up of four sections

dealing with the materials mentioned above, is called

upon to perform a considerable amount of the total specification and test work referred to the bureau by

the various Federal purchasing agencies. Heretofore no distinction has been made betAveen research and

testing in this division, the same staff being employed

for these tAvo very different kinds of work; that is, all tests on rubber have been cared for in the rubber sec- tion, paper tests by the paper section, etc. The staff has been required to drop research work to perform

urgent tests, and, conversely, has been unable to devote

the necessary time to the drafting of new specifications,

and to the study of existing specification requirements.

Unfamiliarity with these requirements often results

in considerable delay in performing the tests. LikeAvise, it has been impossible to secure the necessary

flexibility of personnel, since the staff of each section

is familiar only with tests of one commodity. This

has meant that although test samples might be piled

up in one section, with A

7 ery few on hand in another,

there Avas no Avay of transferring the personnel to help carry the load.

Scope of new unit.

Under the direction of Mr. Wormeley, a section Avill be built up of experts on Federal specification requirements and on test methods covering eArery kind of

commodity with which the division deals. When it is remembered that more than 9,000 test items representing 200 commodities were tested by the division last year it is obvious that the neAv section will have plenty

of Avork to do. It is believed that the neAv arrangement

will permit the testing work to be done Avith the same

reliability as heretofore, but with greater promptness

and less cost. During his 26 years of Government service Mr. Wormeley has had broad experience in the testing of many

kinds of materials. As chairman of the technical committee on rubber products of the Federal Specifications Board he lias gained intimate knowledge of the

development and application of Federal specifications.

Dr. Archibald T. McPherson has been selected to fill the vacancy caused by the change of duties assigned

Mi-. Wormeley. This rearrangement became effective July 1, 1930.
56 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [AUGUST, 1930 CURRENT ACTIVITIES OF THE AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

Several Specifications Under Revision by Technical Committees

There is given below up-to-date information relat- ing to developments taking place in certain standardization projects being carried forward under the auspices and procedure of the American Standards

Association.

Bearings.

Proposed standards for annular ball bearings and

for annular ball and roller bearings, wide type, have

been approved as American standard and American

recommended practice, respectively. The new standard specifies the boundary dimensions an dtheir tol- erances, of annular ball bearings as affecting their

interchangeability. Features, such as ball raceways,

size and number of balls, ball retainers, capacities, and

speeds depend upon the designs and practice of individual manufacturers or the requirements of individual users and are not considered essential for

standardization. The standard for ball and roller bearings, wide type, include the regular standard

light, medium, and heavy series of wide type, annular

ball bearings of the Society of Automotive Engineers,

and extended sizes to supplement the regular light

and medium series only. Sizes larger than the heavy,

regular series are considered too large and heavy for

general use and are therefore not included in the

recommended practice.

The bearing dimensions apply to both the ball and

roller types of bearings to provide for complete interchangeability. The regular light, medium, and heavy

series were adopted originally by the S. A. E. for

automotive uses. The extended sizes were developed

latei' primarily for use in industrial electric motors,

but all three series throughout their entire range of

sizes are suited to other applications where special

conditions do not govern.

Drain tile. The American standard “ Specifications for Drain

Tile,” under the sponsorship of the American Society

for Testing Materials, is now before the A. S. A. sec- tional committee for revision. The following changes

have been suggested: (1) Inclusion of a requirement

for rate of applying load in making strength tests. (2) Revision of the strength test requirements to provide a closer correlation between required test strengths and loads for specified depths of pitch. (3)

Inclusion of standards and tests covering durability

in acid and alkali soils. (I) Revision of the requirements for the lower 3-edge bearing when testing large

tile, and the inclusion of the “ Minnesota ” bearing

(lower sand-bearing and upper 3-edge bearing).

Dry cells. The sectional committee in charge of the project

“ Specifications for Dry Cells and Batteries,” has ap- proved the revised specifications which have been under consideration and has submitted them to the

A. S. A. for approval. The standard of performance

requirements in the new specifications has been raised

in a number of instances over the requirements in the

present standard. In submitting the revised specifications, the National Bureau of Standards, sponsor

for the project, stated that the specification in identical in all technical requirements with that which is being submitted to the Federal Specifications Board

for approval as a Federal specification, but the form

and arrangement of the two specifications differ decidedly. For the latter, the arrangement has been

made to conform to the present requirements of the

Federal Specifications Board.

Fire-fighting equipment.

The American Mining Congress and the National

Fire Protection Association, joint sponsors for the

proposed American recommended practice for “ FireFighting Equipment in Metal Mines ” have submitted

this standard to the A. S. A. for approval. The pro- posed standard covers fire-preventive measures and

minimum facilities and equipment required for fire fighting in metal mines, including water supply, hose,

fire extinguishers, sprinkling systems, availability and

care of oxygen rescue apparatus, fire signals, regulations governing fire doors, fans, and control of ventilating during mine fires. Pipe and tubing.

Following a group of meetings of its subcommittees

on plan and scope and on pipe and tubing for high and

low temperature service, the sectional committee on

wrought-iron and wrought-steel pipe and tubing met

in Detroit on June 10. The committees reported

progress on the development of a basic formula for

wall thickness for all sizes of pipe and on the preparation of specifications for various types of pipe for

which no specifications are in existence.

Electrical definitions.

Fifteen subcommittees have been appointed to carry on work on the project “ Definitions of Electrical

Terms.” The chairman of these committees will form

an executive committee which will hold regular

monthly meetings. The work is progressing rapidly,

and it is expected that within a few months final reports of several subcommittees will be available for

general criticism and suggestion. Preliminary reports

of subcommittees Nos. 3 and 8, on transformers and

transportation, respectively, have already been circulated to members of the sectional committee for

criticism and comment.

When the work of the sectional committee is completed, there will be available to American industry a standard glossary of electrical terms which will be

exceedingly useful in the preparation of specifications

and contracts.

It is interesting to note that in the organization of

this sectional committee the sponsor, the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, invited several of the

larger companies publishing dictionaries to appoint

representatives. In every instance the publishers re- plied that they did not desire representation but. would

be glad to use the committee’s report in compiling

future editions of their dictionaries.
AUGUST, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

Factory lighting code.

The A. S. A. technical committee on the “ Code of

Lighting; Factories, Mill, and Other Work Places”

has completed its work on a new edition of the code.

The Illuminating Engineering Society, sponsor for the

project, has approved the new code, and it is now

before the standards council of the A. S. A. for approval as American standard. Many of the recom- mended values and the specifications for illumination

for different classes of work have been changed. There

has also been a general revision of the discussion of

the advantages of good lighting and methods of secur- ing it. Tolerance systems.

An article discussing the relative merits of the unilateral and bilateral systems of tolerances, by John

Gaillard, mechanical engineer of the American Standards Association, has been reprinted, and copies are now available through the A. S. A. information service. The article, which was entitled “ Application of

'holer ance System Depends Upon Nature of Production Process,” appeared in the April 26, 1930, issue of

Automotive Im 1 ustries. Refrigeration safety code.

The American Society of Refrigerating Engineers,

sponsor for the “ Safety Code for Mechanical Refrigeration ” has approved the code recently completed by

the technical committee in charge and has submitted

it to the A. S. A. standards council for consideration

with respect to its approval as American standard.

The code covers the safe installation, operation, and in57

spection of refrigeration systems, and the storage of

refrigerants. It applies to all refrigerating equipment

employing fluids which are vaporized and liquefied or compressed in their refrigeration cycle.

Committees on small tools. Technical committees on electric-welding dies and

electrode holders, milling-machine tables, splined

shafts, and splines were organized in connection with

the meeting of the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers in Detroit, June 9 to 13. The committee, on

splined shafts and splines will review the dimensions

developed by the Society of Automotive Engineers,

and will further develop spline standards for use in

other industries.

The scope of the committee on milling-machine tables

will be the standardization of table lengths and widths

of milling machines, including distances between slots to facilitate interchangeability of fixtures. The committee on electric dies and electrode holders will determine the scope of its work following the return of

a questionnaire which is being sent to producers and

consumers by the committee.

Code for floor and wall openings.

The technical committee in charge of the “ Safety

Code for Floor and Wall Openings, Railings, and Toe

Boards ” and the National Safety Council, the sponsor

organization, are inviting constructive criticism of the

code in order that the final draft may represent the

best expression of available knowledge on the subject.

The latest tentative draft of the code has been printed

by A. S. A. and can be obtained through the A. S. A.

information service.

HOME HEATING PROBLEMS

List of Published Data Available

A list of published information on home heating

problems has just been compiled by the National

Bureau of Standards. Publications issued by the Department of Commerce describe the requirements for

chimney and fireplace construction, the painting of

steam and hot water radiators, the use of domestic and

industrial fuel oils, tests of coal, methods of saving

fuel in heating houses; and the use of natural gas, coke, and its by-products.

The publications of the Department of Agriculture

relate to the operation of home heating plants, furnaces, oil burners, and also describe methods of building chimneys and fireplaces, and the use of wood for

fuel. Some publications issued by associations, other than

Government departments, are also listed. They give

useful information regarding methods of installing

furnaces; and the operation of various kinds of heating equipment, including oil burners, warm-air furnaces, and fireplaces.

A number of magazine articles covering heating

methods and problems are also shown in the list. They

may be consulted in local libraries, and are thus available to anyone who may be interested in improved

heating methods. The prices and ways of obtaining

publications are described in the list.

PROPOSE TO STANDARDIZE PLUMBERS

WOODWORK

Industry Has Asked Cooperation of National Bureau of Standards in Promulgating Commercial Standards

The National Bureau of Standards has received a request from the Institute of Plumbers Woodwork to cooperate in the establishment and promulgation of a commercial standard for their products. A representative of the bureau met with the institute in Detroit on July 22 to assist in formulating plans for the

standardization program. This project is another link

in the chain leading to the standardization of all plumbing materials in which the manufacturers of

vitreous china plumbing fixtures and porcelain (all- clay) plumbing fixtures have already cooperated with

the bureau in preparing Commercial Standards CS20-

30, “Staple Vitreous China Plumbing Fixtures” and

CS4—29,

u Staple Porcelain (All-Clay) Plumbing Fixtures.” The standardization of the various materials used in

plumbing and the elimination of many articles and devices infrequently used, has long been the desire of

architects, sanitary engineers, manufacturers, and dis- tributors of plumbing supplies, plumbers, home owners,

builders, and governmental authorities. This standardization can only be brought about by the concerted

action of the above groups and, unfortunately, some

individuals comprising a very small minority, are in- different. while a few are actually opposed to the idea.
58 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [AUGUST, 1930 STANDARD FOR STEEL PIPE FLANGES AND FLANGED FITTINGS

American Society of Mechanical Engineers Subcommittee Holds Meeting to Consider Provision of Standard

The question of increasing the pressure ratings of

the existing 250, 400, and 1,350 pound steel standards

to 300, 450, and 1,500 pounds, respectively, at 750°

F., was taken up at the meeting of the subcommittee

of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers on

steel pipe flanges and flanged fittings, held in New

York. The matter of the possibility of extending

these standards to include equipment for 150 pounds

as the lower limit was also considered, and for the

latter it was suggested that the dimensions of the

present 125-pound cast-iron standard be used, but in conjunction with reduced temperature ratings.

During the discussion at the meeting on the 200 and

400 pound standards it developed that in some sizes the flange and wall thicknesses would have to be in- creased. or, as an alternative to this, alloy steel with

a higher yield point might be used and the existing

dimensions retained. On this point action was deferred until it could be ascertained how the increase

in wall and flange thicknesses would affect the present

patterns of steel valves and fittings. In connection

with the rerating of the 1,350-pound standard it was

decided that, for sizes of 12 inches and under, it should be rerated at 1,500 pounds and 750° F.. employing alloy steel in accordance with specifications to be

drawn up by the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers; also that a new subgroup be appointed to continue this study and to complete the work already

started on the larger sizes from 14 to 24 inches in the

1,500-pound class. Steel base fittings were discussed, and inasmuch as

it was reported that the Manufacturer’s Standardization Society of the Valve and Fitting Industry has al- ready adopted a standard for these, which accurately

represented accepted practice, it was voted that this

be included in the proposed revision of the American

steel flanged fitting standard.

The difference existing between the present 250-

pound cast-steel and cast-iron standards in the matter

of flange thickness for certain sizes was mentioned,

as was the possibility of extending the steel standard

to cover sizes below 2 inches, but it was deemed advisable. for the present at least, to take no action in con- nection with either of these points.

At a previous meeting, the subcommittee decided to eliminate the 3%-inch size from all pipe flanges and

flanged fitting standards, but it was reported that the

M. S. S. V. F. I. were proceeding with a canvass

of the manufacturers in order to ascertain the practicability of this step, the subcommittee decided to reconsider its former decision and delay any action

until such a time as a further report might be available.

Considerable interest has been shown in standards

for pressure ratings higher than 1,500 pounds and in

reponse to this, it was stated, two preliminary standards had been drafted for 2,500 and 3,500 poimds at 1,000° F. These were based on the expectations that an alloy steel with a working stress of not less than

14.000 pounds would be developed. As the demand

for data on such equipment was increasing more

rapidly than had been anticipated, a committee of two,

with the privilege of adding to its personnel as might

be found necessary, was appointed.

Based on replies to a questionnaire sent to a selected

list of 536 engineers, on their expressed opinion, it was recommended that no changes in the thicknesses as covered by the tentative American standard for steel pipe flanges and flanged fittings, be considered at the

present time. It was, however, recommended that the

recently developed dimensions for optimum hubs be

checked and prepared for submission to the subcommittee.

STANDARD COLORS FOR ARMY UNIFORMS

Eighteen Standard Colors Adopted for Military Service

The colors which have been authorized for wear on

the blue uniforms of the United States Army have been

standardized and are portrayed in the United States Army Color Card just issued by the Textile Color Card

Association of the United States (Inc.). This card

contains 18 colors and has been approved and accepted

by the Quartermaster General of the Army, according

to the Quartermaster Review.

The purchasing depots of the Quartermaster Corps

will use the card as the standard for shade whenever

any textile articles are required, such as facing cloths

for stripes, chevrons, cape linings, shoulder insignia,

etc. cord edge, braids for dress coats and cap band

ribbons for dress caps, to indicate the various branches

of the military establishment.

In preparing the card, the Textile Color Card Association has worked in closest cooperation with the

Quartermaster General’s Office. Every color was

dyed to the standard on file with the War Department and passed on and accepted by the Army

experts.

USE OF QUALITY LABELS IN NEW ENGLAND

MARKETS GAINS

Total of 3,290,256 Such Labels Sold to Date More than half a million New England quality

labels have been sold in connection with the farm marketing program during a 4-month period of this year, according to the New England News Letter for July,

1930. The number of labels sold in May amounted to 172,275, making a total of 667,550 labels sold since

February 1, and bringing the total number of labels sold since the program was put into effect to 3,290,256.

The number of users of the label now stands at 869, the new users in the past four months amounting

to 185. This number by no means represents the total number of producers using the label, for each cooperative sales organization is listed as one user whereas

it may represent hundreds. In addition, 1.074,539

boxes and wrappers have been sold to 320 users. The Massachusetts Department of Agriculture has

been asked by a large tomato growers’ cooperative to

establish tomato grades and thus make the New England label available to tomato growers. This request

is a direct result of the success of labeled strawberries on the market this summer.
AUGUST, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 59

STANDARDIZATION BRIEFS

A simplified practice recommendation covering di- mensions and allowable loads per linear foot of openweb steel joists was unanimously approved at a general conference of representatives of the industry, held

under the auspices of the division of simplified practice

of the National Bureau of Standards, at Cleveland,

Ohio, on July 15, 1930. A standing committee, composed of representatives of manufacturers and users, was authorized by the conference. It is expected that

this simplification will greatl'y reduce existing con- fusion in the design of open-web steel joist construction. The recommendation, subject to approval of the

industry, will be effective as of October 1, 1930.

The Society of Automotive Engineers announces the

establishment of a new subdivision of its aircraft division, which will be known as subdivision No. 5. The

standardization of such fuel-system parts as tube clips, fuel valves, hose nipples, tank flanges, hose and hose

liners, has. been referred to this subdivision for study

and recommendation as it finds possible to make.

Heavier construction, longer leader pin bearings, and

actual rated die space are among the features of the

line of standardized die sets built by the IT. S. Tool

Co., of Ampere, N. J.

The standardization committee of the International

Association of Milk Dealers recently held a meeting to review the progress that is being made with the variety survey in connection with sizes and dimensions of

jars for cottage cheese and sour cream. The accu- mulating data will form the basis for a simplified

practice recommendation to be proposed at a general

conference this fall. A preliminary conference to consider the simplification of trunk sizes was held in conjunction with the

convention of the Trunk, Luggage, and Leather Goods

Manufacturers of America, in July, 1930. Tentative

recommendations have been approved and the National Bureau of Standards has been requested to ar- range a general conference of all interests for the

purpose of formulating a simplified list of trunk sizes. Recognizing the commercial value of establishing such

a list, a survey committee was organized to study the

needs of the traveling public and to determine the

potential economy to merchants who now find it nec- essary to carry extensive stock of trunks.

The testing of a 50-pound balance and the primary

standards of length, mass, and capacity, for the State

of Maine has been completed by the National Bureau

of Standards. It is required by law that these standards be submitted once every 10 years for verification.

tors for overhead energy transmission purposes, has

been issued by the British Engineering Standards

Association.

The numbered highways of the United States have

become the main streets of the Nation, the Bureau of

Public Roads recently stated in connection with its announcement that the work of erecting standard

markers along the 97,000 miles, embraced in the sys- tem, will be practically completed at the end of this

year’s construction season.

The standing committee for simplified practice

recommendation No. 4, Asphalt, has announced the

reaffirmation of this project, without change, for a period of one year. A survey of production for the

year 1929, conducted prior to the recent revision

meeting, indicated the degree of adherence to the

recommendation to be approximately 89 per cent.

A new edition of the National Elevator Safety

Code is in course of printing by the American Society

of Mechanical Engineers, joint sponsor with the National Bureau of Standards for this code.

Simplified practice recommendation No. 98, Photographic Paper, has been reaffirmed, without change,

for another year. A survey of the 1928 production of

photographic paper, conducted prior to the revision

meeting, indicated the degree of adherence to the

recommendation to be approximately 96 per cent.

Standard samples of mica obtained by the Bureau

of Mines from Georgia, North Carolina, Maine, New

Hampshire, Argentina, Guatemala, India, and Madagascar have been tested recently at the National Bureau of Standards. The results show that power

losses at radio-frequency are no greater in the clear

domestic mica than in the clear foreign material.

Earlier measurements showed that the domestic material is at least equal to the foreign in dielectric

strength.

Simplified practice recommendation No 116-30,

Dental Brush Wheels, is now effective. A sufficient number of signed acceptances have been received by

the division of simplified practice from manufacturers,

distributors, and users, to insure the general adoption

of the program by the industry.

During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1930, a total of 560 standard cells were tested and certified by the

Bureau of Standards.

A revision of the specification dealing with harddrawn copper (solid and stranded) circular conducSimplified practice recommendation No. R79-28,

Malleable Foundry Refractories, has been reaffirmed
60 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [AUGUST, 1930

by industry, without change, for another year. This

recommendation lias been instrumental in reducing the

stock shapes and sizes of brick and tile for malleable

foundry refractories from 188 to 15, or 92 per cent.

The Government specifications for large and for

miniature tungsten lamps are being revised by the

electrical supplies committee of the Federal Specifications Board with the assistance of lamp manufacturers. The number of lamps inspected on Government purchases during the last fiscal year exceeded

2, 000. 000. A problem under investigation at the National

Bureau of Standards is the effect of ultra-violet light

upon the transmission of special window glasses used

in solariums.

Methods of measuring the ultra-violet component

radiation in sunlight useful for healing purposes.

The ultimate object in view is the establishment of a unit of dosage.

The beef grading and stamping service of the Department of Agriculture will soon be extended to

several additional slaughtering centers. The quantity

of beef graded and stamped in the last five months

was 62 per cent greater than in the corresponding

period of last year. It is in response for wider service that the activities are to be extended.

Tests have been completed at the National Bureau

of Standards on 36 pocket watches, 13 bracelet

watches, 9 stop watches, 8 flight test stop watches

tested at —25° C., and automobile race timing device.

STANDARDIZATION OF WOODRUFF KEYS

The standardization of Woodruff keys is one of the

projects undertaken by the sectional committee on

standardization of shafting, which was organized in October, 1922, by the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers, under the procedure of the American

Standards Association.

The sectional committee at first gave its attention

to the formulation of a tentative American standard

for cold-finished shafting. It later developed tentative

American standards for plain, taper, and gib-head

stock keys, and a code for the design of transmission

shafting. Finally, in December, 1925, the standardization of Woodruff keys was undertaken by the committee.

The subcommittee on Woodruff keys made a study

of existing sizes and fits, and in June, 1926, submitted

to the larger users a preliminary proposal for review

and criticism. Several revisions were found necessary

before the proposal was approved by the subcommittee, and on March 16. 1929, preliminary copies were

widely distributed to industry for criticism and comment. The proposal has been further revised in ac- cordance with the suggestions received and approved

by the sectional committee.

STANDARDIZATION OF IRON AND STEEL

BARS

On June 3 the sectional committee on the standardization of stock sizes, shapes, and lengths for hot and

cold finished iron and steel bars of the American

Society of Mechanical Engineers held its organization meeting in New York. The scope of the committee was thoroughly discussed, and as a result the

organization of three subcommittees was authorized

as follows: (1) Hot-rolled steel, (2) cold-finished

steels, and (3) hot-rolled iron.

The members of the committee were of the opinion

that for the present these subcommittees will be able

to handle the scope of its work, which has been tentatively outlined as the standardization of the dimensions of cross section and length of hot-rolled and

cold-finished iron and steel bars having the following shapes : (1) Rounds, (2) squares, (3) triangular

sections, (4) hexagons, (5) octagons, (6) half-rounds,

(7) square-edge flats, (8) nut-steeel flats, (9) beveled- corner squares, and (10) round cornered squares; in- cluding tolerances on the dimensions of such bars.

Nationally recognized standards are to be accepted

where possible. It was also agreed to include halfovals and reinforcing bars in this tentative scope.

CERTIFICATION OF MAPLE FLOORING

Car Card Method of Certification Protects Consignees

As a measure of protection and assurance to consignees, the Maple Flooring Manufacturers Association has announced that its membership has adopted

the “ car card ” method of shipment certification now

being effectively used by leading lumber manufacturers’ associations in this country. This method of

quantity and quality certification is practically universal. In announcing adoption of the car card, or shipper’s certificate of car contents, E. C. Singler, the sec- retary of the association, points out that in addition

to the guaranty afforded by the card, there is an assur- ance to the retailer or other carload buyer, that their

orders have been met in a definite way.

The card is sealed inside the car door in a water- proof envelope to be delivered immediately to the consignee’s purchasing department upon opening the car.

It contains a statement of the kinds of wood in the

shipment, the grades of the flooring, the total number

of feet, the size (thickness and face) of the shipment

make-up, and the identification number or mark of the

mill. Manufacturers may also “bury” a duplicate

card in the shipment to insure the consignee receiving

at least one of the copies.
AUGUST, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY Cl

THE INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE AT ROME

Relation to Standardization of Agricultural Statistics and Scientific Research

By Leon M. Estabrook, Ex-Director of the World Agricultural Census

In 1901 David Lubin, a successful merchant of Sacramento, Calif., conceived the idea that the- buying

and selling and, therefore, the prices of the bread

grains of the world, the principal food of mankind,

should be standardized to the extent that the Governments of the world should assume responsibility for

issuing crop reports and statistics of agricultural production. distribution, stocks and consumption, to in- sure that such reports and statistics should be unbiased and as complete, accurate, and comparable as it is possible to make them, and that a central international coordinating agency or clearing house should

be set up to standardize methods, summarize, and

publish results for the information and guidance of

all alike. After failing to interest the Governments of the

United States, Great Britain, France, Germany, and

Austria, Lubin succeeded in securing the support of

the Italian king and Government. The international

convention which met in Rome in June, 1905, drew up

a protocal providing for the establishment of the In- ternational Institute of Agriculture at Rome to be

maintained by contributions from the member Governments, which 71 Governments have since adopted

by formal treaty.

The convention provided for three main divisions

for the collection and dissemination of information

from member Governments, agritechnique, agricultural statistics, and agricultural economics, and for an

administrative organization, for a permanent committee made up of delegates from member Governments

to serve as a board of directors, and for a general as- sembly to meet biennially to formulate programs, re- view the work accomplished, and to provide for a budget.

The institute was organized and began to function

in 1909. Its greatest development and best service

have been in the field of agricultural statistics. In

the beginning many countries were found to be without agricultural statistical organization and service

and among those that maintained such services there was great lack of uniformity and corresponding lack

of comparability. This was especially true of agricultural censuses, which are usually the bases for annual

estimates of crop and livestock production.

The need for more complete and comparable census

data was discussed at general assembly meetings of

the institute, at the biennial meetings of the International Institute of Statistics, and other international

conventions, but nothing was done about it until in 1921 a cooperative agreement was entered into between

the institute, the International Education Board, and

the United States Department of Agriculture, to un- dertake the organization of a world agricultural cen- sus in 1930, most of the funds required for the pre- liminary work being supplied by the International

Education Board.

Early in 1925 a census office was established at the

institute with a director detailed from the United

States Department of Agriculture. A preliminary

study of the agricultural censuses that had been taken

disclosed that of the 200 countries, large and small,

listed by the institute, only 60 had ever taken such a census, that since 1900 less than 10 had taken an agricultural census, and that by mere chance not more

than 3 countries had taken their censuses in the same

year, and no 2 were alike. A census program and standard form of questionnaire were prepared and were revised by two inter- national committees of statisticians and approved by

the general assembly of the institute early in 1926. Immediately thereafter the directors of the institute’s census personally visited the capitals of all countries,

except Persia, Afghanistan, and Bolivia, to discuss

with officials of agricultural and statistical departments, the details of the proposed census and to obtain

their promise of cooperation.

In November, 1928, the census program was adopted

by the International Diplomatic Conference on Economic Statistics at the League of Nations with the

additional recommendation that the census be re- peated ever}^ 10 years. The census was completed in a few countries last winter and will be completed in most

countries in 1930. As soon as available results will be

incorporated in the Monthly Bulletin and Yearbook

of the International Institute of Agriculture. When

all are completed it is planned to publish the results

in a single volume, together with copies of laws, regulations, instructions, questionnaire forms, and brief

outline of methods for each country.

This is but one illustration of how the International

Institute of Agriculture is constantly promoting the

standardization of international statistics. Problems

of agritechnique and economics are less susceptible of

standardization, but even in these fields the questionnaires that go out periodically from the institute to the member Governments of the world concerning

organization and funds for research work, plant and

animal pests and control measures, agricultural education, standardization and grading of farm products,

agricultural credit and insurance, farm labor and

standards of living, all tend to bring about a higher

degree of uniformity and standardization of methods,

organization, and results.
62 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [AUGUST, 1930 SOME PROBLEMS OF THE SMALL HOUSE

Minimum Standard of New Construction Raised in Last 10 Years

By James S. Taylor, National Bureau of Standards

The technical, financial, and personal problems that

arise in the construction of small houses are many

and complex. These problems involve decisions re- garding location of lot, style of architecture, engineering design, materials of structure, arrangement of rooms, and numerous other points.

The varying incomes, needs, and tastes of individual

families as well as differences in climate and local cus- tom must be considered in choosing the location for a house. Other factors are : Public measures, such as control of subdivision layout, and zoning and building-code regulations; transportation and educational

facilities; temporary or permanent occupancy of the

house ; and the street, sidewalk, and other utility improvements that may have been or will be made in the

vicinity.

The style of architecture may be influenced by the

custom or practice of the locality, the financial re- sources of the builder, the relative permanency of the

house, and the education, tastes, and preferences of the

family. The size of the house should be determined

by the number and convenience of the family. The

durability of a structure, its resistance to storms, varying temperatures, wind, fire, and encroaching rodents

or insects are largely dependent on the materials used

and the methods of construction. A substantial foundation is the first requisite. Adequate floor joists, well

bridged; flooring; millwork, including doors, windows, stairs, and trim, are other important elements

of the structure. Masonry, insulation, and painting

should all be considered.

Interior arrangements.

The arrangement of rooms in a house is largely a matter of family preference and convenience, but certain standards should be followed, in order that the

house may be readily sold or rented should such action

be necessary. Not only the size of the rooms, but

their number and layout, with respect to privacy, ar- rangement of furniture, convenience and economy for

housekeeping, and the routine of daily life, forms of

entertainment, and social relationships of the family

must be considered. In short, the person who builds

a house should not build it for himself alone, nor ex- clusively for his family, but for the convenience and

comfort of all who may eventually dwell therein.

Notable advances in domestic architecture have been

made in the last 10 years; the minimum standard of new construction has been raised; a large proportion

of old dwellings have been rehabilitated with modern

plumbing, electric lighting, central heating, and other

improvements; and hundreds of zoning ordinances

have been enacted to protect the home neighborhoods

of millions of families from uneconomic intrusion of

business and industrial uses of land.

But the opportunities for further development are

extensive. Well-built houses, houses that are sound

in structure, well planned and well balanced throughout, are the foundation of advance in housing standards. The several hundred million dollars spent each

year for maintenance, remodeling, and modernization

of existing dwellings could be used to greater advantage if applied with more regard to soundness of struc- ture and good layout. Opportunities for improving

houses are greater in scope and variety and possibility

of rapid advance than ever before, for the products of

modern invention and mass production are now available in many different forms for building, equipping,

furnishing, and decorating houses.

FRANCE STANDARDIZES HIGHWAY SIGNS

Highway Markings Must Conform to New Standard Specifi- cations A series of 13 important road signs, standardized

as to form, size, and color, have been approved by the

French Ministries of Interior and Public Works, and

the prefectures of all departments have been advised

that highway markings must conform to the standardized specifications, according to a dispatch received

from the assistant automotive trade commissioner,

H. C. Scliuette, of the Department of Commerce, at Paris, France.

The new standardized markings cover signs showing

directions and distances; turns, railroad crossings, entrances into towns, etc. The sizes of the lettering,

colors, dimensions of the signs, donor’s name, height

from ground, and other details are specified.

The signals committee which studied the problem

and made recommendations to the Government, was composed of representatives of touring clubs, automobile associations, the National Tourist Office, and the

French Automobile Chamber of Commerce. In arriving at their conclusions, account was taken of the dimensions of a large number of signs already in use which were donated by a tire company and which have

already been standardized, thus obviating the necessity

of spending a large sum of money for the erection

of new signs.
AUGUST, 1930] COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 63

BALL-BEARING STANDARDIZATION

International Activity Leads to Broader Scope of the Society of Automotive Engineers Work

Since the sectional committee on ball-bearing standardization was organized by the Society of Automotive Engineers and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers under the procedure of the American

Standards Association, in 1918, its work has become

lai’gely international in scope and has been based very

largely on that of the ball and roller bearings division

of the S. A. E. standards committee.

In January, 1930, a report on single-row radial ball- bearings of the light, medium, and heavy series was

approved and is one of the first American Standards

of this kind that has resulted from international

agreement. With this standard as the basis, the

S. A. E. ball and roller bearings division has reviewed

the present S. A. E. standards for the separable (open)

type, that is also referred to as the magneto type of

bearing, and the S. A. E. standard angular contact type of bearing, and to bring them into agreement

with the new standard for the single-row radial

bearings.

A new project before the ball and roller bearings

division is to recommend a definite standard for a nar- row, light series of annual ball bearings for use where

restricted dimensions and light weight are of greater

importance than the load capacity of the bearing. One

of the more important classes of apparatus for which

these bearings are used in aircraft engines and data

and suggestions from the aircraft industry were ac- cordingly secured for the attention of the division. A

subdivision report is being circulated for general approval or constructive comments by the industry before the division recommends any definite specification

for adoption.

Metric thrust ball-bearing project.

One of the projects that has been under consideration for international agreement is metric thrust ball bearings. This subject was referred to the ball and

roller bearings division by the sectional committee on

ball bearings. This type of bearing is used to a very

limited extent in the United States as compared with

European countries. Because of the appreciable differ- ences in practice in America and abroad, it does not seem to the division at present that it will be practicable to make all the changes in American practice

that would be necessary to meet the proposed standardization of this type of bearing abroad.

A subdivision report on standardization of adaptersleeve bearings for both American and English inchdimension shafts and for metric shaft sizes has been

submitted for comparison with a proposal for an

international standard received from abroad, through

the International Standards Association. These bearings affect primarily line-shaft installations and are

not of such direct importance to the automotive in- dustry as other types.

Other proposals.

A subject before the division and the American

sectional committee is the standardization of taper

roller bearings on an international basis. A tentative

proposal, submitted from abroad to the American

committees, includes a series of taper roller bearings

made to metric dimensions to interchange with standard ball bearings. As very few bearings of this type

are made in America, the division and the sectional

committee do not know to what extent standards for

this type of bearing can be established in the United

States. No information has yet been received from

abroad regarding standardization of these bearings

made to inch dimensions.

A project of rather far-reaching importance to the

automotive as well as other mechanical industries in

the United States is the standardization of generalpurpose electric-motor frame dimensions. One of the

related problems is the standardization of antifriction

bearings for this class of apparatus. The recom- mended practice for ball and roller bearings was formulated largely for use in electric motors and based on the previous S. A. E. standard for wide-type bearings.

The next step in this program, as requested by the

electrical industry, Is to establish a definite series of

bearing sizes for the series of electric-motor frame

sizes, and to recommend definite limits for shafts and

bearing housings so that bearings for electric motors

shall be completely interchangeable. The division and

sectional committee are working on this problem and

will probably prepare at least an informal recom- mendation as soon as a definite report on electric- motor frame dimensions has been finally approved.

Somewhat related to this is the proposal to standardize the bearing lock nuts and washers that are used

for many installations. A subdivision of the ball and

roller bearings division has been appointed to work

out this problem with the several bearing manufacturers. A canvass made recently, among bearing manufacturers in the United States regarding their nomenclature for various types of bearing and the component

parts for them, indicated some variation in the terms

used but not sufficient to make a standard nomenclature impracticable. A subdivision report on nomenclature for ball bearings is being circulated and a supplementary report for roller-bearing nomenclature

probably will be submitted later this year.

S. A. E.

Journal.
64 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY [AUGUST, 1930 STANDARD SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS

New System Aims to Insure Solvency Among Independent

Grocers Twenty minutes’ use a day of “ Standard System of

Accounts for Retail Grocers ” might be sufficient to save the independent grocer from insolvency, in the

opinion of the allied food committee of Louisville,

Ky., according to the chief of the domestic commerce

division of the Department of Commerce, H. C. Dunn.

Just completed by the allied food committee, and

growing out of the recent retail grocery survey con- ducted by the Department of Commerce, the new

system of account keeping is based on the needs of the

independent grocer and is designed to make possible

adequate records in order that the profit on each

commodity, the cost of each service, and the value of

each customer may be determined at a glance, stated

Mr. Dunn.

It was explained that the system consists mainly

of a newly designed journal and a ledger embodying

a simple but highly efficient arrangement. Seven main

types of grocery purchases are covered in as many

separate sections of the journal. Space is provided for

all data relevant to the cost of the product, such as source of supply, amount of purchase, and various

expense items.

By footing the columns of the journal daily, an

operation requiring a very few minutes, and carrying

the totals to the corresponding columns of the ledger,

highly valuable records are claimed to be kept with a minimum of effort, it was said. Expenses are broken

down for the merchant into several main groups

delivery, equipment, labor, stationery and supplies,

water, heat and light, rent and repairs, advertising,

taxes, and general expenses. A monthly record of

accounts payable and accounts receivable is also provided.

It was pointed out by Mr. Dunn that printed sets of instructions accompanying each set of record sheets

indicate for the grocer type of entries included under

each heading and also make for comparability of fig- ures as between different stores, so that the results obtained may be judged on the basis of records of other

merchants operating under like conditions.

Many practical applications of the survey findings,

in addition to the system of accounts just developed,

have been reported to the directors of the survey. Outstanding among these, he said, have been those of

local credit men’s associations, national wholesale gro- cery assistants, and hundreds of retail grocers, who

have remodeled their stores or improved their merchandising methods.

SCREENS AND SCREENING PRACTICES AS

APPLIED TO THE GRADING OF ABRASIVE

GRAINS

At the general conference on the simplification of

abrasive grain sizes, held at the National Bureau of

Standards on May 8, a special committee to conduct

research into screens and screening practices applied

to the grading of abrasive grains was appointed. This

committee held its first meeting from June 23 to 26 at the bureau. Numerous tests were run on various samples of grain and a number of sieves measured and

inspected through the microscope. It was the consensus of opinion of the committee that, as a result of

its preliminary studies, the aperture sizes of the openings in the screens, even though they were within the

required limits to be certified by the National Bureau

of Standards, had a direct bearing on the amount of

grain jiassing through; that is to say, two screens, both meeting the present necessary requirements to be

certified as a certain size screen, might vary slightly

within the tolerance and still give results which varied

from 25 to 50 per cent. As a result of the preliminary

studies the committee is going to take further steps to ascertain the extent of possible variation in screen

results. o
SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND COMMERCIAL

PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE

national BUREAU of standards

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH

The new Journal describes the bureau’s re- search results in science and technology. The

union of science and its applications in one

ournal shortens the lag between discovery

and application.

All engaged in industry and commerce should

have available for current use and permanent

reference, the Bureau of Standards Journal of

Research.

Early in its firSt year the Journal developed a

liSt of paid subscribers double the anticipated

maximum.

This Journal is full of interest to executives

and technicians controlling industries and

commercial enterprises. It enables them better to promote efficiency by determining the

scientific measured controls ofprocess through

experimental and theoretical research.

TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN

The Bureau of Standards periodical with a WAR RECORD! Started during the dark

days of 1917 to keep the Army and Navy and

other branches of the Government informed

of progress in scientific war research at the

bureau. Upon urgent request this publication was continued and expanded to serve the

Government, science, and industry.

The TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN will

keep you informed of current progress in the

scientific and technical work of the bureau’s

laboratories, and gives each month a liSt of

the publications of the bureau. A complete

cross index is published with the December

issue.

You can not afford to be without the TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN. Every article is short and to the point. The busiest executive can afford the time to read it. Issued monthly

Subscription price, $2.75 per year

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS

MONTHLY

*Se&c

Issued monthly

Subscription price, 25 cents per year

STANDARDS YEARBOOK

FOR 1930

This new governmental periodical is a review

of progress in commercial simplification and

standardization. It is the only journal of its kind. It covers the national movement initiated by President Hoover for the reduction

of needless sizes and varieties of products and

the promotion of voluntary commercial

Standardization by industry.

The Secretary of Commerce in the firSt issue

of this new journal said: “Certain Standards,

such as those used for weights and measures,

* * * have been fixed by legislative enactment. Mandatory Standards of this character, however, are few in number when compared with the large and steadily growing

volume of Standards developed by industry

and commerce and voluntarily maintained.

* * * The activities of the Commercial

Standardization Group of the Bureau of

Standards are concerned with Standards

adopted by voluntary agreement.”

Subscription price, $1 per year

The new Standards Yearbook for 1930 is the

fourth annual issue ofa publication devoted to the great and growing field of Standardization

in its broad aspects. It gives a summary of

progress.

Standardization is a world-wide movement.

It covers all industries. It is part of the application of scientific methods to industry. Its achievements are of interest and concern to business men and manufacturers as well as to

engineers. To the technician it is full of

example of methods and results of suggeStive

and Stimulating value. To business men it discloses trends which deeply concern their

interest.

NOW READY Price, 75c. ORDER AT ONCE

“Standardization, is becoming an aspect of all well- ordered adlivity rather than an incidental

activity supplemental to others.”

To obtain regularly the above-described monthly periodicals send your order, with remittance, addressed: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Foreign prices (countries other

than the United States and its possessions, Canada, Mexico, Newfoundland, Cuba, and Republic of Panama) are: Journal, $3.75; Bulletin, $0.40; Monthly, $1.25; Yearbook, $0.90
"* * * this department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * * its ideals are dear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field.” —President Hoover, at the laying of the corner atone of the new building

of the U. S. Department of Commerce, June 10, 1929.

THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary of Commerce

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal air ports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, William M. Steuart, Director. Taking censuses of population, mines and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a

census of manufactures every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton,

wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products;

and publication monthly of Survey of Current Business. BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

William L. Cooper, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attaches, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, and district and cooperative offices in 65 cities. The

maintenance of commodity, technical, and regional divisions to

afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, George K. Burgess, Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals. Testing of Government fuels and rnanagement of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operation of plants producing it.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish,

in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods, improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery

statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and

the protection of sponges off the coast of Florida BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam, Commissioner. Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners.

COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director

Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological

investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current, tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, Arthur J. Tyrer, Commissioner.

Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamen.

Supervision of registering, enrolling, licensing, numbering,

etc., of vessels under the United States flag, and the annual

publication of a list of such vessels. Enforcement of the navigation and steamboat inspection laws,

including imposition of fees, fines, tonnage taxes, etc. STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE, Dickerson N. Hoover, Supervising Inspector General. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certi- fication of able seamen and lifeboat men, and the investigation

of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks,

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued. RADIO DIVISION, W. D. Terrell, Chief. Inspection of radio stations on ships; inspection of radio

stations on shore, including broadcasting stations; licensing radio operators; assigning station call letters; enforcing the terms of the International Radiotelegraphic Convention; and

examining and settling international radio accounts.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930