PUBLISHED

UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE FOURTH CIRCUIT

No. 22-4595

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

Plaintiff - Appellee,

v.

JASON STEVEN KOKINDA,

 Defendant - Appellant.

Appeal from the United States District Court for the Northern District of West Virginia, at 

Elkins. Thomas S. Kleeh, Chief District Judge. (2:21-cr-00020-TSK-MJA-1)

Argued: December 8, 2023 Decided: February 21, 2024

Before AGEE, THACKER, and RUSHING, Circuit Judges.

Affirmed by published opinion. Judge Thacker wrote the opinion in which Judge Agee 

and Judge Rushing joined.

ARGUED: David W. Frame, LAW OFFICE OF DAVID W. FRAME, Clarksburg, West 

Virginia, for Appellant. Sarah Wagner, OFFICE OF THE UNITED STATES 

ATTORNEY, Clarksburg, West Virginia, for Appellee. ON BRIEF: William Ihlenfeld, 

United States Attorney, Wheeling, West Virginia, Brandon S. Flower, Assistant United 

States Attorney, OFFICE OF THE UNITED STATES ATTORNEY, Clarksburg, West 

Virginia, for Appellee.

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 1 of 25
2

THACKER, Circuit Judge:

Jason Steven Kokinda (“Appellant”), a convicted sex offender required to register 

pursuant to the Sex Offender Registration and Notification Act (“SORNA”), attempted to 

evade his registration requirements while staying at campgrounds in West Virginia. 

A federal grand jury indicted Appellant on one count of traveling in interstate 

commerce and knowingly failing to update his registration as a sex offender in violation of 

18 U.S.C. § 2250. The case proceeded to trial and Appellant stipulated that his prior sex 

offense required him to register. But Appellant argued that, by staying mobile without a 

fixed abode, SORNA did not require him to register anywhere. When the district court 

instructed the jury on SORNA’s definition of “resides,” it supplemented the term 

“habitually lives” with guidance from The National Guidelines for Sex Offender 

Registration and Notification (“SMART Guidelines”). After the jury found Appellant 

guilty, he moved for judgment of acquittal or a new trial, arguing that the district court’s 

jury instruction improperly expanded SORNA’s definition of “resides.” The district court 

denied the motion. 

Appellant makes the same argument on appeal -- that the district court’s jury 

instruction was an incorrect recitation of the law. He also argues that SORNA, as applied 

to him, violates the Tenth Amendment. And Appellant challenges two facets of his 

sentence: (1) the eight-level enhancement for his third degree sexual abuse of a minor and 

possession of child pornography and (2) his lifetime term of supervised release.

We conclude that the district court correctly instructed the jury on what the terms 

“resides” and “habitually lives” mean for purposes of SORNA. We also conclude that 

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 2 of 25
3

SORNA, as applied to Appellant, does not violate the Tenth Amendment. And we affirm 

the district court’s sentence as it was procedurally and substantively reasonable. 

I.

A.

In 2007, Appellant was arrested in New Jersey and charged with one count of 

endangering the welfare of a child and one count of distribution of child pornography. He 

pled guilty to both charges in 2009 and was sentenced to three years of imprisonment. 

Following his New Jersey sentence, Appellant served a separate Pennsylvania sentence for 

unlawful contact with a minor. Based on the New Jersey child pornography conviction, 

Appellant was required to register as a sex offender pursuant to SORNA. See 34 U.S.C. 

§ 20913; 18 U.S.C. § 2250(a). Appellant was registered in Delaware in 2015, Vermont in 

2016, and New York in 2017. In 2018, Appellant left the country without notification and 

was later deported from Israel back to the United States based on a Vermont arrest warrant. 

He was released on bond in February 2019 and remained unregistered throughout 2019. 

While unregistered, Appellant traveled to several states in the Northeast and Midwest, 

evading detection by law enforcement.

That evasion ended on September 28, 2019, when Rosanna Bell (“Bell”) called the 

police on Appellant. Bell observed Appellant talking to two pre-teen girls on the swings 

at the city park in Elkins, West Virginia. Then, Bell saw Appellant grab the buttocks of 

one of the girls while pushing her on the swing. Bell approached the girls and asked if they 

knew Appellant. P.M. -- the girl whom Appellant had grabbed -- asked if Bell “could 

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 3 of 25
4

please make [Appellant] leave.” J.A. 599.1

 Bell called the police and waited with the girls 

until law enforcement arrived. By the time law enforcement officers arrived, Appellant 

had left the park. The next day, officers noticed a man near the park matching Appellant’s 

description and approached him. When asked his identity, Appellant gave the name 

“Representative Jason Stevens.” Id. at 122. Officers arrested him and charged him with 

sexual abuse in the third degree in violation of W. Va. Code § 61-8B-9 (2019).

2

 

During the month prior to his arrest, Appellant left a paper trail of his stay in West 

Virginia. Financial records placed Appellant shopping in and near Elkins, West Virginia 

on an almost daily basis from August 24 until September 27. And receipts and witnesses 

established that Appellant rented two different campsites in West Virginia for most of 

September. At one of those campsites, Appellant used the alias “Jason Smoke.” J.A. 183. 

Additionally, an Elkins, West Virginia YMCA employee provided records demonstrating 

that a “Jason Stevens” purchased day passes on five occasions between September 10 and 

24. Id. at 201. Only four of Appellant’s transactions during the August 24 to September 

27 time period occurred outside West Virginia, indicating brief visits to Winchester, 

Virginia, and Erie, Pennsylvania. The Winchester trip occurred on September 17, with 

Appellant making a purchase back in Elkins, West Virginia later that same day. And the 

1 Citations to the “J.A.” refer to the Joint Appendix filed by the parties in this appeal.

2 “A person is guilty of sexual abuse in the third degree when he subjects another 

person to sexual contact without the latter’s consent, when such lack of consent is due to 

incapacity to consent by reason of being less than sixteen years old.” W. Va. Code § 61-

8B-9. 

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 4 of 25
5

Erie trip included transactions on September 23, with a transaction back in Elkins the 

following day. Appellant did not dispute these transactions when he testified at trial.

When Appellant was arrested, his two cell phones were seized. Later examination 

of one of the cell phones revealed thirty images depicting child pornography, along with a 

PDF file containing child pornography search terms such as “My little girl nude,” “Kiddy 

CP,” and “Preteen incest.” J.A. 653. The cell phone also contained indicia of Appellant’s 

ownership and use of the phone, including photographs of himself, his passport, and 

documents and receipts containing his name. 

B.

Appellant was indicted by a federal grand jury on one count of failing to register as 

a sex offender, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 2250(a). The case proceeded to trial. Appellant 

stipulated that his New Jersey conviction required him to register as a sex offender pursuant 

to SORNA. But Appellant argued that he never “resided” in West Virginia, so SORNA’s 

registration requirement was not triggered. 

1.

At trial, Appellant testified in his own defense. He admitted that he had not 

registered as a sex offender in West Virginia, or any state after leaving Vermont in February 

2019. But he denied that he had a home or regularly lived in West Virginia during the 

month preceding his arrest. Appellant explained that he “fully studied” SORNA’s 

registration requirements and “tried to move around as much as possible” so he would not 

need to register. J.A. 441–42. And he admitted frequenting Elkins from August 24 to 

September 19, to go to the gym, to shop, and to charge his laptop at the library and city 

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 5 of 25
6

park. But he asserted that he was “staying somewhere very far away, as [his] home base 

of operations, [as his] constructive type of temporary lodging.” Id. at 459. And he 

explained that he used false identities to conceal the fact that he is a sex offender, and 

stayed in campgrounds that did not require an identification. 

2.

SORNA requires sex offenders to register “and keep the registration current, in each 

jurisdiction where the offender resides.” 34 U.S.C. § 20913. “Resides” is defined as “the 

location of the individual’s home or other place where the individual habitually lives.” Id.

§ 20911(13). As discussed below, the SMART Guidelines define SORNA’s term 

“habitually lives.” The National Guidelines for Sex Offender Registration and 

Notification, 73 Fed. Reg. 38,030, 38,061 (July 2, 2008). 

Both Appellant and the United States proposed jury instructions to clarify SORNA’s 

registration requirement. Appellant’s proposed instruction included SORNA’s definition 

of “resides” along with a portion of the SMART Guidelines’ definition of “habitually 

lives.” Specifically, Appellant’s instruction defined “habitually lives” to “include[] places 

in which the sex offender lives with some regularity. A sex offender habitually lives in the 

relevant sense in any place in which the sex offender lives for at least 30 days.” S.A. 5.3

 

The United States’ proposed instruction also included SORNA’s definition of “resides,” 

but included a longer excerpt from the SMART Guidelines defining “habitually lives.” 

That longer excerpt stated:

3 S.A. refers to the Supplemental Appendix filed by the United States in this appeal.

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 6 of 25
7

“Habitually lives” accordingly should be understood to include 

places in which the sex offender lives with some regularity, and 

with reference to where the sex offender actually lives, not just 

in terms of what he would choose to characterize as his home 

address or place of residence for self-interested reasons. The 

specific interpretation of this element of “residence” these 

Guidelines adopt is that a sex offender habitually lives in the 

relevant sense in any place in which the sex offender lives for 

at least 30 days. Hence, a sex offender resides in a jurisdiction 

for the purposes of SORNA if the sex offender has a home in 

the jurisdiction, or if the sex offender lives in the jurisdiction 

for at least 30 days. Jurisdictions may specify in the manner of 

their choosing the application of the 30-day standard to sex 

offenders whose presence in the jurisdiction for 30 days is 

intermittent but who live in the jurisdiction for 30 days in the 

aggregate over some longer period of time. 

S.A. 27. 

The district court declined to give either party’s proposed instruction in total, opting 

to give an instruction incorporating SORNA’s definition of “resides” and the SMART 

Guidelines’ definition of “habitually lives”:

[T]he place where a person “resides” is the location of an 

individual’s home or other place where the individual 

habitually lives. “Habitually lives” includes places in which the 

sex offender lives with some regularity. “Habitually lives,” 

accordingly, should be understood to include where the sex 

offender actually lives, not just in terms of what he would 

choose to characterize as his home address or place of 

residence for self-interested reasons. The specific 

interpretation of this element of “residence” is that a sex 

offender habitually lives in the relevant sense in any place in 

which the offender lives for at least 30 days. Hence, a sex 

offender resides in a jurisdiction for the purposes of SORNA, 

if the sex offender has a home in the jurisdiction, or if the sex 

offender lives in the jurisdiction for at least 30 days. As to the 

timing of registration, based on changes of residence, the 

understanding of “habitually lives” to mean living in a place 

for at least 30 days does not mean that the registration of a sex 

offender who enters a jurisdiction to reside may be delayed 

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 7 of 25
8

until after he has lived in the jurisdiction for 30 days. Rather, a 

sex offender who enters a jurisdiction, in order to make his 

home or habitually live in the jurisdiction, is required to 

register within three business days. 

A sex offender who lacks a fixed abode or permanent residence 

is still required to register in the jurisdiction in which they 

reside. Such a sex offender cannot provide the residence 

address required because they have no definitive address at 

which they live. Even a transient or homeless sex offender is 

still required to provide a description of the place they 

habitually live. Some more or less specific description should 

normally be attainable concerning the place or places where 

such a sex offender habitually lives, including where the sex 

offender might station himself during the day or sleep at night. 

J.A. 512–13. After deliberations, the jury rendered a guilty verdict. 

Appellant filed a pro se motion for judgment of acquittal or a new trial, arguing that 

the district court’s jury instruction “broaden[ed] the scope of [the] ‘resides’ element beyond 

its ordinary English usage by using the guidelines to override the limits imposed by the 

statutory text.” Pro Se Mot. for Acquittal at 15, United States v. Kokinda, No. 2:21-cr00020 (N.D. W. Va. Sept. 8, 2021; filed Nov. 8, 2021) ECF 70-1. The district court denied 

the motion, noting that the SMART Guidelines had the force and effect of law and 

explaining that the jury instruction correctly stated the law and did not confuse or mislead 

the jury. 

3.

In advance of sentencing, the probation officer prepared a Presentence Investigation 

Report (“PSR”). The PSR identified two bases for imposing an eight-level enhancement 

for committing a sex offense against a minor while in a failure to register status pursuant 

to section 2A3.5(b)(1)(C) of the United States Sentencing Guidelines (the “Guidelines”). 

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 8 of 25
9

See U.S.S.G. § 2A3.5(b)(1)(C) (2018). The first basis was Appellant’s third degree sexual 

abuse of P.M. when he grabbed her buttocks at the city park in Elkins. The second basis 

was Appellant’s possession of child pornography on his cell phone. The United States

called witnesses at the sentencing hearing to support both bases.

First, Bell testified about the specifics of what she saw at the park when she called 

the police. She explained that she saw Appellant put his hands on P.M.’s rear end and 

squeeze her buttocks while pushing her on the swing. Bell also relayed that P.M. told her 

that Appellant had offered her money if she showered while Appellant filmed her. The 

United States also admitted P.M.’s written statement, which verified that Appellant had 

touched her buttocks while pushing her on the swing. P.M.’s statement confirmed that 

Appellant “kept asking [P.M.] and [the other girl] if he could get in the shower with [them]

when no one was home.” J.A. 614. The statement also indicated that Appellant had 

communicated with P.M. on social media to ask for nude images. 

Second, Police Chief Joseph Corkrean testified that he extracted data from 

Appellant’s phone. Because the phone was broken, Chief Corkrean extracted the raw data 

from the phone’s internal chip. This form of data extraction did not retrieve the metadata 

from the files, which would have revealed when the files were downloaded and accessed, 

but the files themselves could be analyzed. Then, Gary Weaver, an FBI Crimes Against 

Children Task Force Officer, testified that he reviewed the extracted data and identified 

thirty images that depicted prepubescent females with their genitalia fully exposed. Officer 

Weaver compared the images to the images that supported Appellant’s New Jersey child 

pornography conviction and testified that they were similar. Officer Weaver also located 

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 9 of 25
10

a file on Appellant’s phone that was created during the period Appellant owned the phone 

that contained search terms relating to child pornography. 

Appellant objected to the eight-level sentencing enhancement, arguing that he did 

not grab P.M.’s buttocks at the park in Elkins and that he did not knowingly possess child 

pornography on his cell phone. Regarding the child pornography, Appellant argued that 

because the photographs lacked metadata, the United States could not prove Appellant was 

the one to download the images on his phone. 

The district court overruled Appellant’s objection to the eight-level sentencing 

enhancement pursuant to Guidelines section 2A3.5(b)(1)(c). The court found by a 

preponderance of the evidence that Appellant committed third degree sexual abuse against 

a minor while in failure to register status, which supported the enhancement. Additionally, 

the court found that Appellant possessed child pornography, which it explained was a 

separate and independent basis for the enhancement. Application of the enhancement 

resulted in a Guidelines sentencing range of 51 to 63 months. The district court sentenced 

Appellant to 63 months of imprisonment to be followed by lifetime supervised release. 

The court emphasized that the lifetime term of supervised release was appropriate in order 

to protect the community, considering Appellant’s history of sex offenses and evasion of 

SORNA’s registration requirement. 

II.

“We review a district court’s decision to give a particular jury instruction for abuse 

of discretion, and review whether a jury instruction incorrectly stated the law de novo.” 

United States v. Hassler, 992 F.3d 243, 246 (4th Cir. 2021) (quoting United States v. 

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 10 of 25
11

Miltier, 882 F.3d 81, 89 (4th Cir. 2018)). “In reviewing the adequacy of jury instructions, 

we determine whether the instructions construed as a whole, and in light of the whole 

record, adequately informed the jury of the controlling legal principles without misleading 

or confusing the jury to the prejudice of the objecting party.” Hassler, 992 F.3d at 246

(quoting United States v. Kivanc, 714 F.3d 782, 794 (4th Cir. 2013)). Even if a jury was 

erroneously instructed, we will not set aside a resulting verdict unless the erroneous 

instruction seriously prejudiced the challenging party’s case. Hassler, 992 F.3d at 246 

(quoting Miltier, 882 F.3d at 89). 

Generally, we review constitutional claims de novo. United States v. Claybrooks, 

90 F.4th 248, 255 (4th Cir. 2024). But unpreserved constitutional claims are reviewed for 

plain error. United States v. Hager, 721 F.3d 167, 182 (4th Cir. 2013). 

After United States v. Booker, 543 U.S. 220 (2005), we review a sentence for 

reasonableness, whether inside, just outside, or significantly outside the Guidelines range,

and we apply a “deferential abuse-of-discretion standard.” United States v. Roy, 88 F.4th 

525, 530 (4th Cir. 2023) (quoting United States v. McCain, 974 F.3d 506, 515 (4th Cir. 

2020)). We first must “ensure that the district court did not commit a ‘significant 

procedural error.’” Roy, 88 F.4th at 530 (quoting Gall v. United States, 552 U.S. 38, 51 

(2007)). Only if the sentence is procedurally reasonable can we evaluate the substantive 

reasonableness of the sentence, again using the abuse of discretion standard of review. 

Gall, 552 U.S. at 51.

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 11 of 25
12 

III. 

Appellant raises four issues on appeal. First, he argues that the district court erred 

in instructing the jury on the definition of “habitually lives,” which he alleges expanded 

the definition of “resides.” Second, Appellant argues that SORNA, as applied to him, 

violates the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Third, he argues the 

district court erred in imposing the eight-level sentencing enhancement, which he alleges 

was not supported by either third degree sexual abuse of a minor or possession of child 

pornography. And fourth, Appellant argues that the district court erred in imposing lifetime 

supervised release.

A. 

Jury Instruction 

Appellant raises two arguments to challenge the district court’s jury instruction. 

First, he argues that after the Supreme Court’s decision in Nichols v. United States, 578 

U.S. 104 (2016), SORNA’s registration requirement does not apply to transient sex 

offenders who have no fixed abode. Second, he argues that the SMART Guidelines should 

not be afforded Chevron4 deference because neither “resides” nor “habitually lives” is 

ambiguous and even if they were, Chevron deference should not apply in criminal contexts. 

Because the district court’s jury instruction was a correct statement of the law and 

Appellant’s proposed construction of SORNA is contrary to its purpose, we hold that the 

jury instruction was proper. 

4 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. v. Nat. Res. Def. Council, Inc., 467 U.S. 837 (1984). 

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 12 of 25
13

1.

We begin with an overview of SORNA’s registration requirement. In 2006, 

Congress enacted SORNA as part of the Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act of 

2006, Pub. L. No. 109-248, 120 Stat. 587. Among its provisions, SORNA requires sex 

offenders to register “and keep the registration current, in each jurisdiction where the 

offender resides, where the offender is an employee, and where the offender is a student.” 

34 U.S.C. § 20913.5

 SORNA also establishes a federal criminal offense covering any 

person who (1) “is required to register under [SORNA];” (2) “travels in interstate or foreign 

commerce;” and (3) “knowingly fails to register or update a registration.” Adam Walsh 

Child Protection and Safety Act of 2006 § 141, 120 Stat. at 601–02 (codified at 18 U.S.C. 

§ 2251(a)). 

SORNA defines “resides” to mean “the location of the individual’s home or other 

place where the individual habitually lives.” 34 U.S.C. § 20911(13). To keep the 

registration current, “[a] sex offender shall, not later than 3 business days after each change 

of . . . residence, . . . appear in person in at least 1 jurisdiction . . . and inform that 

jurisdiction of all changes in the information required for that offender in the sex offender 

registry.” Id. § 20913(c). That information includes the “address of each residence at 

which the sex offender resides or will reside.” Id. § 20914(a)(3). 

5 34 U.S.C. § 20913 was formerly codified at 42 U.S.C. § 16913. Its language did 

not change when it was recodified. 

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 13 of 25
14

As authorized by SORNA, 34 U.S.C. § 20912(b), the Attorney General has issued 

the SMART Guidelines for interpretation. The National Guidelines for Sex Offender 

Registration and Notification, 73 Fed. Reg. 38,030 (July 2, 2008). Section VIII of the 

SMART Guidelines recognizes that “[r]equiring registration only where a sex offender has 

a residence or home in the sense of a fixed abode would be too narrow to achieve SORNA’s 

objective of ‘comprehensive’ registration of sex offenders, . . . because some sex offenders 

have no fixed abodes.” Id. at 38,061. The section then explains that, pursuant to SORNA,

a sex offender must register “[i]n any jurisdiction in which he has his home; and [i]n any 

jurisdiction in which he habitually lives (even if he has no home or fixed address in the 

jurisdiction, or no home anywhere).” 73 Fed. Reg. at 38,061. 

Section VIII also addresses the meaning of “habitually lives.” It explains that the 

term “is not self-explanatory and requires further definition” and that an “overly narrow 

definition would undermine the objectives of sex offender registration and notification 

under SORNA.” Id. Therefore, per the SMART Guidelines, the term “should be 

understood to include places in which the sex offender lives with some regularity, and with 

reference to where the sex offender actually lives, not just in terms of what he would choose 

to characterize as his home address or place of residence for self-interested reasons.” Id. 

at 38,062. Ultimately, the SMART Guidelines define “resides” to mean where “a sex 

offender habitually lives in the relevant sense . . . for at least 30 days.” Id. And when sex 

offenders register, those “who lack fixed abodes are nevertheless required to register in the 

jurisdictions in which they reside” and provide “some more or less specific description . . . 

concerning the place or places where such a sex offender habitually lives—e.g., 

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 14 of 25
15

information about a certain part of a city that is the sex offender’s habitual locale, a park 

or spot on the street (or number of such places) where the sex offender stations himself 

during the day or sleeps at night.” Id. at 38,055.

2.

Appellant argues that the SMART Guidelines’ definitions of “resides” and 

“habitually lives” conflict with Nichols v. United States, 578 U.S. 104. In Nichols, the 

Supreme Court analyzed whether a sex offender, Nichols, needed to update his registration 

in Kansas before he moved to the Philippines. 578 U.S. at 105. Nichols clarified that sex 

offenders who moved out of the country were not required to notify the jurisdiction they 

had left after they changed their residence. Id. at 110. The Court explained that SORNA 

“requires a sex offender who changes his residence to appear, within three business days 

of the change, in person in at least one jurisdiction (but not a foreign country) where he 

resides, works, or studies, and to inform that jurisdiction of the address change.” Id. at 

109. But SORNA “uses only the present tense [of] ‘resides,’” meaning that once Nichols

moved to the Philippines, “he was no longer required to appear in person in Kansas to 

update his registration.” Id. 

Appellant argues that Nichols held that a sex offender may depart from a jurisdiction 

where he was previously registered, without being required to “update” or “de-register” 

and that he may not need to register somewhere else because he does not “reside” anywhere 

yet. Appellant relies on a hypothetical from Nichols wherein the Court opined, “[W]hat if 

[a sex offender] were to move from Kansas to California and spend several nights in hotels 

along the way? Such ponderings cannot be the basis for imposing criminal punishment.” 

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 15 of 25
16

Id. at 111. Appellant would have us extend that hypothetical to hold that sex offenders can 

travel indefinitely to evade registration requirements, never reaching the hypothetical’s 

California. We decline the invitation to construe Nichols’ hypothetical so broadly. 

Appellant’s interpretation is at odds with the reasoning in Nichols as well as the purpose 

of SORNA. Instead, the hypothetical underscores that the act of leaving a residence does 

not count as a change of residence. “Nichols changed his residence just once: from Kansas 

to the Philippines.” Id. Similarly, here, Appellant’s course of conduct for the month before 

his arrest indicates that he changed his residence just once -- from Vermont to West 

Virginia. 

Thus, we reject Appellant’s argument that the SMART Guidelines conflict with 

Nichols. The district court’s use of the SMART Guidelines to instruct the jury on the 

meaning of “resides” and “habitually lives” was a correct statement of the law. United 

States v. Hassler, 992 F.3d 234, 246 (4th Cir. 2021).

3.

Next, Appellant argues that we should not afford Chevron deference to the SMART 

Guidelines’ interpretation of “resides” and “habitually lives” because neither term is 

ambiguous. And he argues that even if the terms are ambiguous, the SMART Guidelines 

should not be afforded Chevron deference in the criminal context. 

Based on Chevron, courts “give deference to an agency’s reasonable interpretation 

of an ambiguous statute it administers because of its expertise and because of what is 

viewed as an implicit congressional delegation of authority to interpret that ambiguity.” 

Pugin v. Garland, 19 F.4th 437, 441 (4th Cir. 2021) (citing Chevron, 467 U.S. at 865). 

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 16 of 25
17

Section 112(b) of SORNA directs the Attorney General to issue guidelines -- which it did 

in the SMART Guidelines -- to interpret and implement SORNA. 34 U.S.C. § 20192(b). 

Because Appellant challenges whether Chevron applies in this context, we begin at “Step 

Zero” and ask whether Chevron applies at all. Pugin, 19 F.4th at 441.

a.

We have acknowledged the “thoughtful and ongoing debate about whether Chevron 

can apply to interpretations of criminal law.” Pugin, 19 F.4th at 441. But the SMART 

Guidelines interpret SORNA’s civil statute, not a criminal statute. We have held that 

SORNA’s civil registration requirement is a “civil regulatory scheme.” United States v. 

Under Seal, 709 F.3d 257, 263 (4th Cir. 2013). And we have consulted the SMART 

Guidelines in other failure-to-register cases. See United States v. Helton, 944 F.3d 198, 

204 (4th Cir. 2019) (looking to the SMART Guidelines’ definitions of “sexual act” and 

“sexual contact” because SORNA did not define those terms and Congress “expressly 

delegated authority to the Attorney General” to interpret SORNA); United States v. 

Bridges, 741 F.3d 464, 468 n.5 (4th Cir. 2014) (“By leaving the operative statutory term 

undefined and delegating broad rulemaking authority to the Attorney General, Congress 

has implicitly left a gap in SORNA’s statutory scheme that the Attorney General may fill.” 

(citing Chevron, 467 U.S. at 843)). So, we break no new ground in consulting them here 

and therefore proceed to the Chevron analysis.

A Chevron analysis proceeds in two steps: (1) whether the terms “resides” and 

“habitually lives” are ambiguous; and (2) if so, whether the SMART Guidelines’ 

interpretation is a reasonable construction of the language. Chevron, 467 U.S. at 843. 

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 17 of 25
18

b.

While the operative statutory term here -- “resides” -- is defined by the statute itself, 

the term “habitually lives” is not. So the question becomes whether “habitually lives” is 

ambiguous as to where transient sex offenders reside when they try to evade SORNA’s 

registration requirements by frequently moving within a state or between states. The 

SMART Guidelines acknowledge that “habitually lives” is “not self-explanatory and 

requires further definition,” emphasizing that an “overly narrow definition would 

undermine the objectives of sex offender registration and notification under SORNA.” 73 

Fed. Reg. at 38,061. And while the term “habitually lives” would be unambiguous if we 

were determining where most Americans live, it does not provide clarity for how long a 

transient sex offender must live in a place with regularity in order to trigger SORNA’s 

registration requirement. Therefore, the term “habitually lives” is ambiguous. 

Given this ambiguity and Congress leaving the term undefined, we look to whether 

the SMART Guidelines adequately filled the gap in SORNA’s definition of “habitually 

lives.” See Bridges, 741 F.3d 464, 468 n.5 (4th Cir. 2014) (“By leaving the operating 

statutory term undefined and delegating broad rulemaking authority to the Attorney 

General, Congress has implicitly left a gap in SORNA’s statutory regime that the Attorney 

General may fill.”).

c.

We must therefore decide whether the SMART Guidelines provide “a clear and 

reasonable interpretation” of “habitually lives.” See United States v. Price, 777 F.3d 700, 

709 n.9 (4th Cir. 2015). The SMART Guidelines explain that “habitually lives” should

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 18 of 25
19

“be understood to include places in which the sex offender lives with some regularity, and 

with reference to where the sex offender actually lives, not just in terms of what he would 

choose to characterize as his home address or place of residence for self-interested 

reasons.” 73 Fed. Reg. at 38,062. The SMART Guidelines also provide a timeframe: “a 

sex offender habitually lives in the relevant sense in any place in which the sex offender 

lives for at least 30 days.” Id. This interpretation clarifies “habitually lives” and reasonably 

interprets the term to include where the sex offender actually lives -- such as the place he 

“stations himself during the day or sleeps at night” -- not just where he could characterize 

his place of residence for self-interested reasons. Id. at 38,055; see also United States v. 

Alexander, 817 F.3d 1205, 1215 (10th Cir. 2016) (recommending that jury instructions 

defining “reside” include the SMART Guidelines’ definition of “habitually lives”). And 

the definition provides a 30-day requirement, which reasonably interprets how long a sex 

offender must live somewhere to be habitual. This interpretation is not unclear or 

unreasonable.

d.

Thus, we are satisfied that the jury instructions, “construed as a whole, and in light 

of the whole record, adequately informed the jury of the controlling legal principles without 

misleading or confusing the jury to the prejudice of the objecting party.” Hassler, 992 F.3d 

at 246 (quoting United States v. Kivanc, 714 F.3d 782, 794 (4th Cir. 2013)). Therefore, 

the district court did not err when it used the SMART Guidelines to clarify these terms for 

the jury.

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 19 of 25
20 

B. 

Tenth Amendment 

Appellant argues that SORNA, as applied to him, violates the Tenth Amendment. 

He raises two arguments. First, Appellant asserts that SORNA’s registration requirement 

conflicts with West Virginia’s Sex Offender Registry Act, which he argues did not require 

him to register in the state. Next, Appellant argues that SORNA would commandeer West 

Virginia officers to register sex offenders, like himself, contrary to state law. These 

arguments are foreclosed by our precedent. 

In Kennedy v. Allera, we addressed whether SORNA violates the Tenth 

Amendment. 612 F.3d 261, 268 (4th Cir. 2010). Appellant’s arguments largely mirror 

those we rejected in Kennedy. His first argument -- that conflicting federal and state 

registration requirements violate the Tenth Amendment -- “rests on the faulty premise that 

only those who are required to register are lawfully able to register.” Id. And like the 

offender in Kennedy, Appellant cannot cite a provision of West Virginia law that prohibits 

him from registering. See id. Instead, West Virginia law required Appellant to register

after visiting the state “for a period of more than fifteen continuous days” or once he 

changed his residence to West Virginia. See W. Va. Code § 15-12-9(b)(2), (c). 

Kennedy also forecloses Appellant’s second argument, that SORNA commandeers 

state officers to register offenders contrary to state law. In Kennedy, we held that SORNA

does not “require that the States comply with its directives. Rather, SORNA gives the 

States a choice, indicating that ‘a jurisdiction that fails . . . to substantially implement 

[SORNA] shall not receive 10 percent of the funds that would otherwise be allocated.’” 

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 20 of 25
21 

612 F.3d at 269 at 269 (alterations in original) (quoting 34 U.S.C. § 20913(a)). And in 

Kennedy, we further noted that even if a defendant could “demonstrate facts or 

circumstances raising the specter of an unconstitutional commandeering, it would be the 

State, not [the defendant], that would be aggrieved” and a defendant “undoubtedly would 

face a serious standing question.” 612 F.3d at 269. Appellant does not address this pitfall 

in his argument, and we find no reason to depart from our binding precedent in Kennedy. 

C. 

Sentencing Enhancement

Appellant argues that the district court erred in imposing an eight-level sentencing 

enhancement to his base offense level for commission of a sex offense against a minor 

while in failure to register status. See U.S.S.G. § 2A3.5(b)(1)(C) (2018). The Guidelines 

incorporate the definition of “sex offense” found in 34 U.S.C. § 20911(5), which defines

“sex offense” as “a criminal offense that has an element involving a sexual act or sexual 

contact with another.” Id. § 2A3.5 cmt. n.1; 34 U.S.C. § 20911(5). And “sex offense” also 

includes “a criminal offense that is a specified offense,” which is defined to include 

“possession, production, or distribution of child pornography.” 34 U.S.C. § 20911(5), 

(7)(G). 

The district court determined that Appellant committed two offenses while 

unregistered: commission of third degree sexual abuse against P.M. and possession of child 

pornography; both of which provided independent bases for the application of the eightlevel sentencing enhancement. Appellant challenges both grounds. 

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 21 of 25
22

1.

Appellant first argues that the district court erred in imposing the eight-level 

sentencing enhancement for committing sexual abuse in the third degree against P.M. He 

argues that the district court should not have believed Bell’s testimony and that even if Bell 

should be believed, the touching of P.M.’s buttocks was not for Appellant’s sexual 

gratification. 

For a defendant to qualify for the enhancement, the Guidelines only require 

commission of a sex offense, not a conviction. United States v. Lott, 750 F.3d 214, 220–

21 (2d Cir. 2014). And the United States bears the burden of proving, by the preponderance 

of the evidence, that a sex offense was committed. United States v. Shivers, 56 F.4th 320, 

325 (4th Cir. 2022). Sexual abuse in the third degree is defined as subjecting a person who 

is less than sixteen years old to sexual contact without their consent. W. Va. Code § 61-

8B-9. “Sexual contact” includes touching, either directly or through clothing, of the 

buttocks of another person, where the touching is done to gratify the sexual desire of either 

party. Id. § 61-8B-1(6). 

At sentencing, the district court may consider sufficiently reliable information, and 

its determination that evidence is sufficiently reliable is reviewed for an abuse of discretion. 

United States v. Pineda, 770 F.3d 313, 318 (4th Cir. 2014). Its factual findings are 

reviewed for clear error. Id. The district court found Bell to be credible after she testified 

that she saw Appellant grab P.M.’s buttocks while pushing her on the swing. And Bell’s 

testimony was consistent with P.M.’s own statement that she gave to police officers the 

day of the incident. Although Appellant argues that Bell was not reliable, he does not argue 

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 22 of 25
23

that P.M. was not credible. And nothing in the record suggests that the district court’s 

credibility determinations were erroneous. 

Appellant also argues that touching P.M. was not for his “sexual gratification.” See 

W. Va. Code § 61-8B-1(6) (defining “sexual contact” to require the touching be done to 

gratify the sexual desire of either party). In context, the record is clear that Appellant 

touching P.M. was intended for his sexual gratification. The record demonstrates that 

Appellant frequented the Elkins playground, befriended underage girls, asked to shower 

with P.M. and her friend while he filmed, and messaged P.M. on social media asking for 

nude images. Thus, the district court did not abuse its discretion by imposing the eightlevel enhancement for this offense.

2.

Next, Appellant argues that testimony at sentencing did not establish that he 

knowingly possessed child pornography on his phone. He argues that because metadata of 

the child pornography files could not be gathered and he bought the phone from someone 

else, it remains unknown when the files were downloaded, accessed, and viewed and 

therefore whether he was the one to download, access, or view them. 

To prove the knowledge element of a violation of 18 U.S.C. § 2252A, a defendant 

must have knowledge of “the sexually explicit nature of the materials as well as . . . the 

involvement of minors in the materials’ production.” United States v. Miltier, 882 F.3d 81, 

86 (4th Cir. 2018) (quoting United States v. Matthews, 209 F.3d 338, 351 (4th Cir. 2000)). 

Officer Weaver testified at sentencing that the photographs retrieved from 

Appellant’s phone depicted minors engaged in sexually explicit conduct, i.e., lascivious 

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 23 of 25
24 

exhibition of the genitals. And to prove Appellant knowingly possessed the photographs, 

Officer Weaver testified that the phone was Appellant’s, the photographs were similar to

the child pornography in Appellant’s prior New Jersey child pornography conviction, and 

there was a file on Appellant’s phone -- created on a date Appellant owned the phone -- 

containing child pornography search terms such as “My little girl nude,” “Kiddy CP,” and 

“Preteen incest.” J.A. 653. Based on this record, we conclude the district court did not 

clearly err when it concluded that Appellant knowingly possessed child pornography in 

violation of 18 U.S.C. § 2252A. 

D. 

Lifetime Supervised Release 

Appellant’s final argument is that his lifetime term of supervised release is both 

procedurally and substantively unreasonable. But Appellant merely states in a conclusory 

fashion that lifetime supervision is not reasonably related to the sentencing factors set forth 

in 18 U.S.C. § 3553(a), involves a greater deprivation of liberty than is reasonably 

necessary for the purposes set forth in § 3553, and conflicts with any pertinent policy 

statements issued by the Sentencing Commission. 

In support of the imposition of lifetime supervised release, the district court focused 

on the need to protect the community and Appellant’s general belief that he was “above 

the law.” J.A. 802. The court specifically explained that it “believed that the lifetime term 

of supervised [release] . . . is the appropriate manner in which to ensure the protection of 

the community in this case without constituting excessive punishment.” Id. at 807. The 

record amply demonstrates that Appellant repeatedly and intentionally evaded registering 

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 24 of 25
25

as a sex offender, violated conditions of pretrial release, and continued to victimize 

children. Therefore, we have no trouble affirming lifetime supervised release in this case.

IV.

For these reasons, the judgment of the district court is

AFFIRMED.

USCA4 Appeal: 22-4595 Doc: 64 Filed: 02/21/2024 Pg: 25 of 25