Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.1 Introduction 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 73 

CHAPTER 3. AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT AND 

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

3.1 Introduction 

This chapter summarizes the physical, biological, social, and economic environments 

relevant to National Forest System (NFS) roadless areas within the State of Idaho20

(Idaho Roadless Areas), and the potential changes to those environments relevant to the 

Proposed Action and its alternatives. The analysis is structured around three 

alternatives: (1) the 2001 Roadless Rule; (2) Existing Plans; and (3) the proposed Idaho 

Roadless Rule; and the associated management themes, designations, prohibitions, and 

permissions. Idaho Roadless Areas are identified in appendix C of this draft EIS. 

Idaho Roadless Areas are generally undeveloped areas, typically exceeding 5,000 acres 

that meet the minimum criteria for consideration for inclusion in the National 

Wilderness Preservation System. These areas were identified during the Forest Service’s 

Roadless Area Review and Evaluation (RARE II) processes, subsequent assessments, or 

forest planning. 

Nationally, inventoried roadless areas make up about 58.5 million acres of the NFS. 

Idaho has the second largest number of roadless areas, 9.3 million acres, in the Nation, 

exceeded only by Alaska. About 15 percent of the Nation’s roadless areas are in Idaho. 

OVERVIEW OF IDAHO ROADLESS AREAS 

Of the approximately 53 million acres of land in Idaho, about 60 percent are Federal 

public lands; 12.0 million acres are Bureau of Land Management (BLM)-managed lands, 

and 20.5 million acres are NFS lands (USDA Forest Service 2006) (fig. 3-1). NFS lands in 

Idaho include 5 million acres of special legislated designations such as wilderness, 

national wild and scenic rivers, and national recreation areas, and 9.3 million acres of 

roadless areas (fig. 3-2). 

 

20 Idaho Roadless Areas are those land areas designated by the proposed Idaho Roadless Rule, where the 

management direction would apply (see appendices C and E). They are based on the most recent 

inventory available for each national forest in the State of Idaho. Forest plans were used, as well as other 

assessments and the inventory contained in the 2000 Roadless Rule Final Environmental Impact 

Statement (USDA Forest Service 2000). Using these inventories the Forest Service has identified 

approximately 9.3 million acres of inventoried roadless areas subject to the proposed rule. 
3.1 Introduction Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

74 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Non-federal

40%

NFS

38%

BLM

22%

Figure 3-1. Lands in the State of Idaho by ownership 

In National Designation

24%

Not in National 

Designation or Idaho 

Roadless Areas

31%

Idaho Roadless Areas

45%

Figure 3-2. NFS lands in Idaho, 20.4 million acres 

Idaho’s 281 individual roadless areas are spread across 12 national forests. Several 

roadless areas are shared among one or more forests, resulting in a total of 250 

combined roadless areas (table 3-1, appendix C). These roadless areas stretch from the 

Selkirk Mountains on the Canadian border to the Wasatch Range on its southern border 

with Utah. Appendix C provides a description of Idaho Roadless Areas, including a 

description of each roadless area’s unique characteristics. Appendix D provides a rating 

of the characteristics found in each roadless area. 

The landscapes of Idaho Roadless Areas are varied, ranging from tree-covered 

mountains to deep river canyons to rolling grasslands. Idaho Roadless Areas provide 

large, relatively undisturbed landscapes that are important to biological diversity and 

the long-term survival of many at-risk species. These areas support a diversity of 

aquatic habitats and communities, including habitat for 17 aquatic threatened, 

endangered, and Forest Service sensitive species (TES). Idaho Roadless Areas also 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.1 Introduction 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 75 

include a range of terrestrial habitat types such as grass and shrub lands, young 

forested stands, and old-growth forests. Forests vary from the very dry pinyon-juniper 

woodlands to cold alpine forest types at high elevations. The forests are composed of 

approximately 40 percent Douglas-fir, 20 percent spruce–fir, and 8 percent lodgepole 

pine. 

Each roadless area has unique features, recreational opportunities, and commodity 

opportunities (such as timber, minerals, and livestock grazing), including 15 percent of 

the Nation’s phosphate production. Some roadless areas are small and do not provide 

the same remote feeling as larger roadless areas. Some areas are expansive, with 

exceptional opportunities for solitude. The Boulder-White Clouds Roadless Area, for 

example, is more than 400,000 acres. 

Table 3-1. Summary of Idaho Roadless Areas by national forest 

National Forest 

NFS lands 

(acres)1

Idaho Roadless 

Area (acres)2 Percent roadless 

No. of 

roadless 

areas 

Boise 2,653,100 1,108,900 42 42

Caribou 972,400 741,700 76 34

Challis 2,463,500 1,437,600 58 28

Clearwater 1,680,000 984,400 59 16

Idaho Panhandle 2,500,000 797,000 32 45

Kootenai 46,500 35,100 75 4

Nez Perce 2,224,100 497,000 22 19

Payette 2,327,000 908,200 39 22

Salmon 1,772,500 827,700 47 30

Sawtooth 1,732,100 1,194,900 69 23

Targhee 1,312,400 736,300 56 16

Wallowa-Whitman 35,400 35,400 100 2

Other NFS lands, no roadless areas3 745,400 0 0 0

20,464,400 9,304,200 45 281

1

 Based on Land Areas Report (LAR)–as of Sept 30, 2006 (USDA Forest Service 2006). 2

 Based on most recent inventory; see discussion in chapter 2 and appendix E. 

3

 Includes national forests and grasslands without roadless areas in Idaho (Bitterroot, Wasatch-Cache National 

Forests, and Curlew National Grasslands). 

ANALYSIS FRAMEWORK

The following sections describe the general analysis methodology, assumptions, and 

projections regarding permitted and prohibited uses for timber cutting, sale, or 

removal; road construction/reconstruction; and discretionary mineral activities. 
3.1 Introduction Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

76 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

GENERAL ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY

Nature of Effects 

The proposal is programmatic in nature, consisting of direction for timber cutting, road 

construction/reconstruction, and discretionary mineral activities, which would be 

applied to future management activities. It does not prescribe site-specific activities on 

the ground and it does not irreversibly commit resources. As stated by Idaho Governor 

James Risch, this proposed rule “does not cut one tree or plow one road.” The proposed 

Idaho Roadless Rule itself would have no direct environmental effects, and any 

subsequent activity would need to be individually analyzed before any authorization is 

made. 

The EIS identifies the land areas and acres where activities could occur within Idaho 

Roadless Areas; however, not every acre would be potentially affected. The EIS relies on 

trend analysis of past, present, and reasonably foreseeable activities to disclose the 

implications of the different management themes for potential future timber cutting, 

road construction and reconstruction, and discretionary mineral activities (as 

documented in the project file, timber cutting and road construction/reconstruction 

projections; and the minerals specialist report). The trend analysis considered such 

factors as budget, fire risk, and forest plan direction. 

Analysis Tools 

A geographic information system (GIS) was used for mapping purposes. All maps were 

reviewed and calibrated to reflect the most current information. GIS was also used to 

identify those Idaho Roadless Areas that overlap with neighboring States. 

Analysis Information 

The analysis of effects began with a review of the 2001 Roadless Rule Final EIS and 

associated specialist reports (USDA Forest Service 2000a-o). The 2001 Roadless Rule 

specialist reports provide a starting point, and many were updated with additional 

relevant information. Literature published since the release of the 2001 Roadless Rule 

Final EIS was reviewed and incorporated where appropriate. Public comments 

collected during scoping were considered. Each resource specialist report (available in 

the project file) provides further descriptions of the information used. 

The analysis uses a consistent set of roadless area boundaries based on the latest 

information from national forests in Idaho (referred to as Idaho Roadless Areas). Not all 

forests are on an equal footing when it comes to roadless area boundaries. Some 

boundaries have remained unchanged for nearly 20 years, even though there have been 

activities within the roadless areas. Other forests have updated their boundaries during 

the forest plan revision process. This discrepancy is one of the reasons the State 

recognized the variation in roadless characteristics among roadless areas. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.1 Introduction 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 77 

Differences in boundaries between those found in the 2001 Roadless Rule, Existing 

Plans, and this analysis are discussed in appendix A. Boundaries have been adjusted for 

a variety of reasons including land exchanges, correction of lines on a map, improved 

GIS technology, and to some degree development. 

In addition, some refinements were made to the Idaho Roadless Rule based on an 

understanding of the intent of the State of Idaho Petition (see chapter 1 and appendix 

H). These adjustments are reflected in the analysis. 

ANALYSIS BOUNDARIES

The analysis evaluates the implications of the prohibitions and permissions within 

Idaho Roadless Areas because these are the lands that would be affected. In the case of 

some resources, such as economics, the analysis boundary extends beyond the roadless 

areas. Cumulative effects were evaluated both at the State scale and the national scale 

The potential effects on each resource were evaluated based on information regarding 

foreseeable actions (timber cutting, road construction/reconstruction, and discretionary 

mineral activities) that would be prohibited or permitted under each alternative over a 

15 year time period, unless noted. This time period was used to evaluate the amount of 

disturbance that could occur over a reasonable planning horizon. Actions beyond this 

time period are speculative because of the potential changes to vegetative conditions, 

markets, and other influences. 

Analysis Assumptions and Projections 

The following subsections describe the analysis assumptions and projections regarding 

timber cutting, road construction/reconstruction, and discretionary mineral activities. 

This information was used to evaluate the Proposed Action and its alternatives 

throughout the EIS. 

Each forest provided information regarding projects with timber cutting, removal, or 

sale; road construction/reconstruction; and the exploration/development of minerals 

that had occurred in roadless areas since the release of the 2001 Roadless Rule. Forests 

also provided information on any foreseeable future projects and the likelihood of their 

implementation based on budget. The interdisciplinary team developed projections for 

the Idaho Roadless Rule based on trends from the Existing Plans and from the 2001 

Roadless Rule, and considering the Agency’s flat budget trend and high interest in 

responding to fire risk (see the project record, Projections and Assumptions section). 

Timber cutting, sale, and removal 

Assumptions 

• Budgets would continue to be flat. Primary focus for the foreseeable future is 

responding to fire risk. 
3.1 Introduction Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

78 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

• Vegetation management practices use many techniques to help maintain ecosystem 

composition. Techniques may include: 

• Timber cutting21, including silvicultural treatments to improve forest health, as well as 

timber harvest22. 

• Slashing and cutting of vegetation, including the limbing of trees to break the 

laddering effect of fuels. 

• Prescribed burns, and wildland fire use. 

• Any timber cutting under any alternative would be designed based on applicable 

forest plan standards and guidelines (for example, protection of riparian areas or 

habitat needs for species). 

• Future timber harvest done within Idaho Roadless Areas would focus on protecting 

at-risk communities and municipal water supply systems from adverse effects of 

wildland fire. In addition, timber harvest would focus on areas where wind throw, 

blowdown, ice storm damage, or the existence or imminent threat of an insect or 

disease epidemic is significantly threatening ecosystem components or resource 

values that may contribute to significant risk of wildland fire; and areas where 

wildland fire poses a threat to, and where the natural fire regimes are important for, 

threatened and endangered species or their habitats. 

• The volume of timber harvested between 2001 and 2006 and projected to be harvested 

between 2007 and 2011 provides a reasonable basis for projecting the amount of trees 

to be cut under each alternative. 

• Where timber cutting, sale, and removal activities are prohibited, vegetation 

management activities—such as slashing, brush removal, and prescribed burns—are 

allowed and anticipated to be infrequent. 

Projections/foreseeable actions 

Table 3-2 projects the yearly average timber harvest that is reasonably foreseeable in 

Idaho Roadless Areas. This table is based on a combination of actual accomplishments 

and future projections. Timber harvest is used as an approximation for timber cutting 

(see the project record, Projections and Assumptions section). 

Table 3-2. Projected timber harvest by alternative 

Projected timber cutting 2001 Roadless Rule Existing Plans Idaho Roadless Rule 

Timber harvest yearly average (MMBF) 0.5 14 4 

Timber harvest yearly average (acres)* 100 2,800 800 

* based on the assumption that an average of 5 MBF/acre would be harvested. 

 

21 Timber cutting is the overarching term for the cutting of any tree, whether or not is has commercial 

value. 

22 Timber harvest refers to the volume of trees with commercial value that are cut and removed from the 

forest. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.1 Introduction 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 79 

Road construction/reconstruction 

Assumptions 

• Trends for road development within Idaho Roadless Areas have varied from 

historically high levels to reduced levels over the past decade, and this reduced trend 

is expected to continue. Currently it is estimated that in areas allowing road 

development, less than 5 percent has been roaded. This represents less than 1 percent 

of the total roadless acres. (See the project record, roads specialist report.) 

• Road construction or reconstruction would likely not see an increase in the foreseeable 

future (next 15 years) because the appropriated budget is flat or declining and there is 

no indication the trend will change. In addition, there is a backlog of road 

maintenance; therefore, there is no emphasis on constructing new roads that need to 

be maintained. If roads are constructed they are likely to be temporary. 

• Roads developed to support timber harvest would generally be closed after the entry. 

Temporary roads constructed for timber harvest would be decommissioned as part of 

the contract package. 

• Any road construction/reconstruction under any alternative would be designed 

based on applicable forest plan standards and guidelines.

Projections/foreseeable actions 

Table 3-3 projects the yearly average road construction/reconstruction that is 

reasonably foreseeable in Idaho Roadless Areas under the various alternatives. This 

table is based on a combination of actual accomplishments and future projections of 

activities, similar to what was described in the timber cutting section. 

Road miles associated with “other” reflect roads constructed/reconstructed for access 

to rights-of way, locatable minerals, and existing phosphates leases, including 

exploration. They may also include an incidental amount for recreation or other needs. 

Road miles associated with “timber” reflect roads constructed/reconstructed to access 

timber sales and are most likely temporary. 
3.1 Introduction Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

80 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Table 3-3. Projected road construction/reconstruction by alternative 

Projected miles of road construction/ 

reconstruction activities, annual average 

2001 

Roadless Rule 

Existing 

Plans 

Idaho Roadless 

Rule 

Permanent–other 0.8 0.8 0.8 

Temporary–other 0.2 0.2 0.2 

Reconstruction–other 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Total 1.0 1.0 1.0 

Permanent–timber 0 4 0.0 

Temporary–timber 0 2 1.5 

Reconstruction–timber 0 5 1.5 

Total 0 11 3 

Grand total 1.0 12 4 

Decommissioning 1 4 3 

Net Change 0 8 1 

Mineral Activities 

Assumptions 

Saleables 

• Demand for mineral materials (saleable minerals such as sand and gravel) from NFS 

lands would remain constant for the foreseeable future. 

Locatables 

• Locatable mineral activity would remain constant in Idaho Roadless Areas for the 

foreseeable future. If the price of metals continues to rise, there could be a 

corresponding increase in exploration activity on mining claims; however, this 

increase in exploration has not occurred over the past 7 years. 

Leasables 

General 

• Industry would explore and develop leasable minerals on non-roadless areas before 

they venture into Idaho Roadless Areas, because it is more economical to do so. 

• The current density of roads within Idaho Roadless Areas may not alone be adequate 

to allow leasable minerals to be efficiently and economically developed. Therefore, the 

prohibition of road construction or reconstruction would preclude any leasable 

mineral activity on lands where the prohibition exists. This is based on experience in 

Utah where the industry requested the BLM to suspend their oil and gas leases upon 

learning the provisions of the 2001 Roadless Rule were being retroactively applied 

(see the Minerals section). 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.1 Introduction 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 81 

• Directional drilling technology may be used in select circumstances but cannot be 

used as a principal means to develop geothermal or oil and gas resources. It is not 

expected that the industry would incur the extra expense of directional drilling 

without the promise of full economic enjoyment of the entire lease area. This is 

particularly true in Idaho Roadless Areas, where the complex geology and lack of 

existing commercial production greatly increase the financial risk of drilling. 

• No surface occupancy (NSO) stipulations on leases would preclude development of 

oil, gas, geothermal, and phosphate resources because the NSO prohibition is 

expected to cover large areas with limited private inholdings or adjacent non-roadless 

area lands where occupancy would be allowed. This is based on experience in Idaho 

where no oil and gas wells have been drilled in NFS lands with an NSO designation 

(see directional drilling discussion). 

Coal 

• There is no potential for coal development because currently there are no existing 

leases or pending lease applications on NFS lands in Idaho and no demonstrated 

industry interest; consequently, no foreseeable activity is anticipated for exploration 

or development of coal reserves. 

Oil and gas 

• There would be no interest in leasing Idaho Roadless Areas for oil and gas in the 

Targhee portion of the Caribou-Targhee National Forest, because of a leasing decision 

made in 2000 that made all the forest unavailable for leasing or available only with a 

no surface occupancy lease stipulation (see general assumption above). 

Geothermal 

• Higher energy prices and new legislative incentives contained in the 2005 Energy 

Policy Act have increased the interest to explore and develop geothermal resources. 

Geothermal resources would be developed to some degree in Idaho Roadless Areas if 

road construction, reconstruction, and surface occupancy were permitted; however, as 

noted in the general assumptions, exploration and development would focus outside 

Idaho Roadless Areas. 

• The six pending geothermal lease applications for 11,130 acres in the Boise National 

Forest, which includes about 7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area, and the 

three geothermal lease applications for 5,590 acres in the Salmon National Forest, 

which includes about 33 acres of the West Panther Creek Roadless Area, are expected 

to be offered for lease in the foreseeable future. Whether or not the roadless acreage in 

these applications is actually leased depends on what kind of road restrictions, if any, 

apply. 

Phosphate 

• All known phosphate deposits would be developed if road construction, 

reconstruction, and surface occupancy were permitted. 
3.1 Introduction Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

82 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Projections/foreseeable actions 

Locatable 

• Locatable mineral activities are projected to require less than 1 mile per year of road 

construction or reconstruction for the foreseeable future. This projection is included in 

the 1 mile of “other” road in table 3-3. If the price of metals continues to rise, there 

could be a corresponding increase in exploration on mining claims resulting in an 

increase in road construction and reconstruction within Idaho Roadless Areas. 

Leasables 

• Exploration and prospecting of existing leases is projected to require less than 1 mile 

per year of road construction or reconstruction for the foreseeable future. This 

projection is included in the 1 mile of “other” road in table 3-3. 

Oil and gas 

• It is anticipated there would be no oil and gas exploration conducted within Idaho 

Roadless Areas on the Targhee portion of the Caribou-Targhee National Forest. 

Therefore no roads or surface disturbance associated with oil and gas would occur 

within the Targhee roadless areas. 

• Four wells could be drilled on the Caribou portion of the Caribou-Targhee National 

Forest over the next 15 years (Robison 2007). Each well would require 6 miles of new 

access road to be constructed. It is unknown whether or not these wells would be 

located in an Idaho Roadless Area. It is predicted these wells would not be capable of 

economic commercial production because of the geology, historical level of drilling 

activity and success rate, the near lack of infrastructure to support oil or gas 

development, and the lack of any historical or currently producing oil/gas 

wells/fields in southeast Idaho and surrounding area (Robison 2007). 

Geothermal 

• Although there is substantial acreage of Idaho Roadless Areas with geothermal 

potential, there are no projections about how much geothermal exploration and 

development would occur on Idaho Roadless Areas. There are no existing geothermal 

leases and no history of activity on NFS lands upon which to make an estimate. 

However, there could be some interest in leasing, exploration, and development of 

geothermal resources in the extended future. 

• The only foreseeable geothermal activity is related to geothermal lease applications 

filed on the Boise and Salmon National Forests. Six geothermal lease applications 

have been submitted for 11,130 acres on the Boise National Forest, including 7,000 

acres in the Peace Rock Roadless Area. Three geothermal lease applications have been 

submitted for 5,600 acres on the Salmon National Forest, including 33 of the West 

Panther Creek Roadless Area. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.1 Introduction 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 83 

Phosphate 

• There would be only one operating phosphate mine (Smoky Canyon Mine) affecting 

Idaho Roadless Areas for the foreseeable future (next 15 years) because it is the only 

mine that is in the process of expanding into roadless areas. 

• Over a 16-year period (the length of the mine operation), the Smoky Canyon Mine 

would develop about 5 miles of haul road and disturb about 1,100 acres of the Sage 

Creek and Meade Peak Roadless Areas in the Caribou portion of the Caribou-Targhee 

National Forest. Because existing leases are involved, this development would occur 

under all of the alternatives. 

• There would likely be some development of the 8,000 acres of leased phosphate 

deposits found in the Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid 

Peak, Stump Creek, and Mount Jefferson Roadless Areas in the extended future (50 or 

more years). About 17 miles of new road construction/reconstruction would be 

needed to access these deposits. 

Saleables 

• Although no specific tonnage projection is made, the amount of mineral materials 

(sand, gravel, rock, fill dirt, etc.) that would be produced from Idaho Roadless Areas 

would be low and associated with other permitted activities. 
3.2 Vegetation and Forest Health Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

84 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

3.2 Vegetation and Forest Health 

INTRODUCTION

Idaho Roadless Areas provide a diverse array of vegetation ranging from the very dry 

pinyon-juniper woodlands to cold alpine forest types at high elevations. These lands are 

also in a variety of conditions from young forests to old, to healthy and unhealthy. The 

following analysis evaluates the potential risks to forest health from the prohibitions 

and permissions in the alternatives. Forest health is the perceived condition of forests 

based on age, structure, composition, function, vigor, level of insect and disease, 

presence and absence of exotic organisms, and resilience to disturbance including 

wildland fire. This analysis focuses primarily on the risks of insect and disease and 

exotic organisms, and potential influences of climate change. The Fuel Management 

section evaluates the resilience to disturbance such as wildland fire and the ability to 

treat hazardous fuels. 

More than 21.4 million acres of Idaho consists of forest land. Approximately 76 percent 

of the forest land in Idaho is administered by national forests. Table 3-4 displays the 

approximate forest type acreage in the State and within national forests in Idaho. 

Table 3-4. Forest cover types for the State of Idaho and national forests 

State National forest1

Forest type --------------- acres ---------- 

Pinyon/juniper 740,000 140,000

Douglas-fir 6,540,000 5,300,000

Ponderosa pine 1,540,000 1,080,000

Spruce/fir 2 3,830,000 3,430,000

Lodgepole pine 2,270,000 2,100,000

Grand fir/cedar/hemlock 3 3,180,000 1,790,000

Western larch 170,000 100,000

Other softwoods 470,000 460,000

Aspen/birch/cottonwood 860,000 540,000

Other hardwoods 210,000 110,000

Nonstocked 1,620,000 1,350,000

1 Forest Inventory Analysis database (Miles 2007). 

2

 Includes mountain hemlock. 

3

 Includes western white pine. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.2 Vegetation and Forest Health 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 85 

The predominant forest types in Idaho are Douglas-fir (31 percent), spruce/fir (18 

percent), grand fir/cedar/hemlock (15 percent), and lodgepole pine (11 percent)23. The 

tree species found in these forests are generally similar to those that would have existed 

prior to European settlement; however, existing individual forest types and species 

have changed substantially in some areas. Examples of forest types that have increased 

from historical conditions include Douglas-fir and the moist grand fir and hemlock 

forests of northern Idaho. Ponderosa pine, western larch, western white pine, and 

whitebark pine have been reduced. Douglas-fir has been reduced in coverage in the 

central Idaho mountains, and aspen declined steeply in eastern Idaho (Quigley 1997, 

pages 629, 888, 890, and 892). Wildland fire suppression, introduced exotic diseases 

(such as white pine blister rust), and past harvesting practices all contributed to these 

shifts in cover type amounts. In addition, wildland fire suppression and reductions in 

timber harvest from Federal lands have led to a change in vegetation structure and 

species composition and an increasing accumulation of forest fuels over large 

landscapes of most of the interior West, including Idaho Roadless Areas (USDA Forest 

Service 2000 and 2000c). 

Acres of forest cover types from the forest inventory for Idaho Roadless Areas are not 

currently known.24 However, a cover type map, modeled from the inventory data, is 

available. The cover type map appears to overestimate certain cover types (such as 

Douglas-fir). Noting this difference, the roadless area cover type abundance is 

approximately 40 percent Douglas-fir, 20 percent spruce/fir, and 8 percent lodgepole 

pine. All other forest types are less than 5 percent each. The non-forest types within the 

roadless areas are estimated to be 18 percent, including other vegetation types 

(grasslands, shrublands, meadows, and others), and barren areas (rock, ice, and others). 

Approximately 16.2 million acres of forest land in Idaho are considered timberlands, or 

those non-reserved lands (not withdrawn from timber production by statute or 

regulation) that are capable of growing 20 cubic feet per acre per year or more of wood. 

The most recent inventory for the State (2004–2005)25 estimates net volume of 

sawtimber trees at 189 billion board feet, an average annual net growth of more than 4 

 

23 The Forest Inventory and Assessment (FIA) database (Miles 2007) was used to estimate the extent of 

forest cover types and to display forest attributes, including volumes, size class, growth, and mortality. 

This information was used at both the State and national forest scales. The most recent FIA inventory 

reflects FIA plot measurements on more than 700 plots from 2004 and 2005, or 20 percent of the total plot 

grid. This information is updated annually; values for these attributes will change as additional plots are 

surveyed (10 percent of plots are inventoried annually). While the current inventory is not complete, it 

does reflect general forest attributes that are usable for general context at the State and national forest 

land ownership scale. 

24 A FIA cover type map was used to approximate the distribution of forest types in the Idaho Roadless 

Areas. This information was used, in lieu of the inventory, because the inventory is not sufficient at this 

time to accurately reflect the existing cover types within these areas. As the inventory measures 

additional plots, this information will become more reliable. 

25 2nd measurement of 10 year annualized cycle. 10 percent of the states plots are inventoried each year. 
3.2 Vegetation and Forest Health Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

86 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

billion board feet, with average annual mortality of 1.7 billion board feet over the same 

time period. Approximately 80 percent of the net volume, 65 percent of the net growth, 

and 94 percent of the mortality occurs on NFS lands (Miles 2007). Average annual 

removal of timber from NFS lands in Idaho from 2002–2006 was approximately 5 

percent of the estimated average annual growth for 2004–2005 (USDA Forest Service 

2007i and 2007j). These changes indicate an ongoing and substantial net increase in 

volume of wood fiber on NFS lands. 

Most of Idaho’s timberlands (68 percent) are 9-inch average diameter or more; the 5–8.9-

inch class accounts for 10 percent and stands of less than 5 inch diameter account for 17 

percent. Non-stocked areas contribute the remaining 5 percent of the size class total. 

National forest size classes are similar to the State averages (Miles 2007). A complete 

inventory for of old-growth forests (also termed late successional forests) is currently 

not available across all national forest lands in Idaho. These forests form a portion of the 

acres within the 9-inch and more size class above. 

FOREST HEALTH—INSECTS AND DISEASE: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Insect and disease populations fluctuate based upon a number of circumstances, 

including warm and dry weather, overcrowding of trees, and trees damaged by fires. 

Frequently, several factors combine to weaken trees and increase their risk to insect and 

disease damage. 

All forest trees in Idaho are subject to certain insect and disease agents. Most are native, 

with exceptions such as white pine blister rust, an introduced exotic. Insect and disease 

conditions become a forest health concern when they operate outside their historical 

range of variability, usually in response to changes in the forest composition and 

structure. Insects and diseases require suitable hosts (for example, tree species, size, 

forest structure) to successfully attack and damage trees. Climate and weather 

conditions can trigger or make outbreaks worse and intensify mortality. Because insects 

and disease require certain forest types and conditions to operate successfully, usually a 

landscape with appropriate tree species, of varying age and structure, are considered 

more resilient to large-scale outbreaks and mortality. 

Management options vary by agent but usually include silvicultural options (thinning 

to reduce density, establishment of non-host trees, or change in stand structure). Tools 

to accomplish these objectives can include timber cutting—which includes timber 

harvest (removal and sale of commercial products)—and reforestation (planting of nonhost tree species). Other methods may include preventative controls (such as tree 

spraying) or direct suppression activities (reducing populations through trapping) or 

prescribed burning. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.2 Vegetation and Forest Health 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 87 

Risk Mapping 

Approximately 3.5 million acres of forest land in Idaho are at risk for serious insect and 

disease mortality, with 3.3 million of those acres occurring on national forests26. The 

most recent estimates include more than 1.4 million acres within Idaho Roadless Areas 

where 25 percent or more tree mortality can be expected over the next 15 years. It 

should be noted that the predicted risk for the State and the Idaho Roadless Areas are 

approximately the same, from 16 percent to 18 percent, respectively for forest land. 

Global climate change will have potential effects on fire frequency and severity and 

forest insect and disease relationships. Increased fire activity has been linked to effects 

of a warming climate, as has certain insect infestations in the western U.S. and Canada 

(USDA Forest Service 2007a). Depending on the magnitude of change, increased risk 

from insects and diseases could occur in Idaho forests. 

The forest cover types described earlier in this document are susceptible to a suite of 

insects and diseases. The forest types most susceptible to damage by insect and/or 

disease agent include (USDA Forest Service 2004b, 2005a, 2006a): 

Douglas-fir cover type. Forests composed of Douglas-fir are subject to a wide variety of 

agents that may cause extensive damage. In northern Idaho (north of the Salmon River), 

Douglas-fir is very susceptible to mortality from root disease. Douglas-fir bark beetle 

populations often increase with presence of disease, fire, or low-vigor trees. During 

outbreaks, the bark beetle can cause substantial mortality, particularly in larger 

diameter trees, even those appearing to be healthy. Recent outbreaks have been 

associated with wildfires, particularly after the severe wildfires of 2000. Recent 

estimates indicate that populations are declining because of moist conditions that 

returned in 2005. However, because of the large amount of Douglas-fir cover type and 

stand structures susceptible to the beetle, risk of future outbreaks remains. Western 

spruce budworm can create heavy defoliation, and repeated infestations create 

mortality. Forests south of the Salmon River are currently experiencing increasing 

budworm infestations. 

Lodgepole pine cover type. The mountain pine beetle continues to be the most 

damaging bark beetle in Idaho. Lodgepole pine forests are particularly susceptible 

when trees reach an average diameter of 8 inches, 80 years old, and relatively high 

densities. Mortality levels have exceeded 2.5 million trees as recently as 2002. Recent 

 

26 In 1996, the Forest Service initiated a mapping effort to evaluate forest health risk on all forested lands in the U. 

S. A GIS database was created that displays NFS lands most at risk of mortality from insects and diseases. It is used 

in combination with fire regime condition class layer (Fuel Management section) to help set priorities at the national 

scale for addressing forest health problems (Lewis 2000). The forest health composite map was updated using the 

2006 insect and disease risk map (USDA Forest Service 2007) with the Landscape Fire and Resource Management 

Planning Tools Project (LANDFIRE) rapid assessment for fire regime condition map (U.S. Department of Interior 

[USDI] Geological Services 2006). The 2006 risk map is used in this analysis. LANDFIRE is a 5-year, multi-partner 

project producing consistent and comprehensive maps and data describing vegetation, wildland fuel, and fire 

regimes across the United States; see http://www.landfire.gov/index.php. 
3.2 Vegetation and Forest Health Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

88 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

estimates indicate lower mortality figures, and in some areas the beetle populations 

may be decreasing as suitable host trees become limited. 

Whitebark pine cover type. Although this cover type is restricted to cold environments 

in Idaho, limiting its extent, whitebark pine is an ecologically important species. 

Recently the combination of mountain pine beetle infestations and white pine blister 

rust has created substantial mortality in larger diameter, cone-bearing trees. Recent 

surveys in northern Idaho have inventoried blister rust infection rates of up to 90 

percent in regeneration as well. 

Grand fir cover type. Grand fir forests have been experiencing increased infestations by 

western spruce budworm. The fir engraver bark beetle has recently declined in 

population; as recently as 2002 and 2003, surveys estimated this insect had killed 120 to 

130 thousand trees in Idaho. 

Subalpine fir cover types. Western spruce budworm, fir engraver, and western balsam 

bark beetle are considered threats to subalpine fir trees. Older trees are particularly 

susceptible to mortality. The balsam bark beetle has declined recently with increasing 

precipitation in the past few years; however, in 2002 and 2003 approximately 150 

thousand trees were killed within the State. Increasing populations are occurring in 

southern Idaho. 

Aspen Decline. A single causal agent for aspen mortality has not been identified. 

Rather, a combination of disease, insects, and droughty conditions appears to be 

responsible. Table 3-5 displays the estimated acres infested by principal damaging 

agent as recorded from aerial detection flights, 2002–2003 and 2005–2006. 

Table 3-5. Principal insect and disease damaging agents in Idaho, as recorded from aerial detection flights, 

affected acres 2002–2006. 

Damage agent 

Acres affected (thousands) 

 2002 2003 2005 20061

Mountain pine beetle 339.3 344.4 519.5 307.3

Ips beetle 1.2 3.8 nd2 nd

Western pine beetle 8.6 16.7 nd 1

Spruce beetle .5 .8 nd nd

Douglas-fir beetle 52.8 49.2 47.1 14.3

Fir engraver 112 152.1 56.8 12.9

Western balsam bark beetle 74.8 99.4 86.5 40.8

Western spruce budworm 82.2 160.2 137.3 281

Aspen decline nd nd 9.8 nd

1

Incomplete data; not all areas were surveyed in Idaho. Underestimates of areas affected. 2

No data collected. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.2 Vegetation and Forest Health 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 89 

FOREST HEALTH—INSECTS AND DISEASE: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

All Alternatives 

Timber cutting. Timber cutting is defined here as any cutting of any trees for 

management purposes. Timber harvest is the process by which trees with commercial 

value are cut and removed from the forest to meet management objectives. Timber sale 

refers to a contractual process of selling the timber to a purchaser and implementing a 

series of harvesting requirements for what type, and how and when the trees are 

removed as specified by the Forest Service. 

Timber cutting is a broader term and includes timber harvest (removal of commercial 

products) as well as other actions that result in the cutting of a tree with no removal of a 

commercial product, such as slashing, chipping, mulching, precommercial thinning, or 

personal use firewood. Timber cutting could be used to support activities such as trail 

maintenance, prescribed burning and timber stand improvement. However, because of 

the cost of these activities, such cutting is projected to be limited. 

Timber sales are often used as a least-cost method (revenue is returned to the Federal 

treasury to offset the costs of preparing and carrying out the timber harvest) of 

managing vegetation to meet resource objectives or to achieve desired ecosystem 

conditions. These objectives or desired conditions include improving wildlife habitats, 

reducing fuels that may increase fire risk, recovering timber value from natural 

disasters such as windstorm or fire, reducing impact of insect and disease, and 

improving tree growth in addition to producing timber from the national forests. 

Prescribed burning. Prescribed burning is another tool that may be used to reduce 

insects and disease and address general forest health concerns. However, prescribed 

burning often cannot be done without removal of some of the ladder fuels through 

thinning or limbing the lower branches, particularly in those forests that are over dense. 

If some of the biomass is not removed it may be difficult to control the prescribed burns 

or the burns may burn too hot. None of the alternatives would preclude the use of 

prescribed burning. 

Roads and timber harvest. Roads may be required to support a timber sale, and 

frequently they must be constructed or reconstructed to meet timber harvest or other 

resource management objectives. Roads are needed to move equipment into the area 

and to haul logs or other forest products to the community where they will be 

processed. While timber can be harvested using helicopters or cable yarding systems 

from existing roads, the use of these methods depends on the value of the timber being 

removed, the terrain, and the distance to an existing road. Each timber sale contract 

specifies the yarding method and any permanent or temporary road construction and 

reconstruction required. 

Timber purchasers may be required to complete needed road reconstruction to ensure 

public safety and to meet environmental protection objectives for road use. A roads 
3.2 Vegetation and Forest Health Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

90 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

analysis is conducted to determine whether a new road is needed (36 CFR §212). When 

the Forest Service determines that roads are needed for other multiple-use activities, the 

roads are constructed to meet appropriate road specifications and retained for future 

use after the timber sale. By law (16 USC 1608 (b)), temporary roads are used only for 

the duration of the timber sale and then closed, decommissioned, or converted to a 

forest road. Even helicopter sales may require some authorized road construction, 

reconstruction, or temporary road construction to access landings for hauling logs 

(USDA Forest Service 2000 and 2000d). 

Road spacing and distance from the nearest road have a direct effect on yarding costs of 

wood fiber. As the road spacing or distance from the nearest road increases, so does the 

average yarding distance for a given harvest unit. This affects turn speeds and 

production rates, which affect yarding costs. Frequently, the edge of a harvest unit 

farthest from the road reflects the maximum external yarding distance. External yarding 

distance dictates the size class of the yarding equipment needed to retrieve the material. 

This equipment size class, in turn, determines the road width needed. Generally, wider 

road spacing means longer yarding distances, which requires larger yarders and wider 

road widths (USDA Forest Service 1999b). The location of a road is particularly 

important in an area planned for cable logging. Roads located at the break (where the 

side slope changes from gentle to steep) provide better cable deflection, which results in 

larger payloads and less ground disturbance (USDA Forest Service 1999b). 

The trend in silvicultural practices is shifting away from traditional even-aged 

management to even-aged management with leave trees, two-aged management, and 

uneven-aged managed stands. These practices are used to meet multiple ecological 

objectives. Multi-story and multi-age stands often require thinning and other 

silvicultural treatments with greater frequency, thus needing road access more often. 

Thinning to remove excessive forest fuels, before using prescribed fire, or to treat 

diseased or insect-infested stands is often economically feasible only if a road system is 

present (USDA Forest Service 1999b). From 2002 to 2006, clearcutting on Idaho’s 

national forests accounted for only 7 percent of the total cutting method used on the 

49.6 thousand acres harvested (USDA Forest Service 2007i and j). This level is expected 

to continue into the future. 

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

Under the 2001 Roadless Rule, timber cutting meeting one of the exceptions found at 36 

CFR 294.13(b) and not requiring road construction and reconstruction would be used to 

address forest health improvement objectives (for example, suppressing insect 

infestations, reducing the spread of disease, or thinning to improve vigor, and fuels 

reduction). 

Helicopter harvest would be the principal yarding method under the 2001 Roadless 

Rule for timber sales, except for those areas that may be accessed by existing roads that 

do not require reconstruction. Forest health objectives could be completed using means 

other than timber sale contracts, but these would require appropriated funds. Because 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.2 Vegetation and Forest Health 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 91 

of the lack of road access, timber cutting (exclusive of timber sales) designed to meet 

forest health objectives is likely to be minimal because of the high cost of treatment and 

available appropriated funds for such work. Most lands within one-quarter to one-half 

mile of an existing road would continue to be managed using timber harvest or other 

methods of treatment where appropriate. However, cost per acre would increase 

substantially and proportionally with distance of the project from the nearest road. 

Because of the limitations, about 1,500 acres over 15 years are projected to be treated in 

Idaho Roadless Areas under the exceptions. Almost all of the 1.4 million acres identified 

to incur more than 25 percent mortality loss over the next 15 years would remain 

untreated (table 3-6). These areas would continue to decline in forest health and would 

become less resilient to large-scale outbreaks. 

Table 3-6. Acres of at high risk of insect and disease by alternative 

Wild Land 

Recreation Primitive Backcountry GFRG 

Forest Plan 

Special 

Areas SAHTS1

Idaho Roadless 

Rule 

0 0 1,445,000 0 0 0

Existing Plans 178,000 298,000 731,000 187,000 51,000 0

Idaho Roadless 

Rule 

194,000 225,000 939,000 26,000 51,000 10,000

1

 SAHTS – Special Areas of Historic and Tribal Significance 

Existing Plans 

Under Existing Plans, timber cutting is permitted in management prescriptions similar 

to Backcountry and General Forest, Rangeland and Grassland (GFRG) themes. Roads 

could be constructed or reconstructed to provide access for timber harvest. Timber 

cutting could also be used in those areas that have road access. Based on trend 

information, about 165 miles of road are projected to be constructed/reconstructed over 

the next 15 years to support timber harvesting27. Timber cutting is projected to occur on 

about 42,000 acres over 15 years. Most of the timber cutting on these acres would be to 

done to improve forest health conditions and treat hazardous fuels. 

Of the 1.4 million acres at risk to insect and disease mortality, approximately 187,000 

acres are within the GFRG theme and 731,000 acres are in the Backcountry theme (table 

3-6). Existing Plans provide opportunities to treat high priority insect and disease areas 

through timber cutting on these lands. 

The ability to construct roads with timber harvest within GFRG, and in some areas 

Backcountry, also reduces the cost of other methods (such as mechanical treatment and 

vegetation cutting other than timber harvest) that also contributes to meeting forest 

 

27 About 180 miles total of road construction/reconstruction are projected to occur over the next 15 years. Of that 

amount, 165 miles would be in support of timber cutting and 15 miles in support of other access needs such as 

mineral leasing and exploration. 
3.2 Vegetation and Forest Health Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

92 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

health objectives. However, road construction stills requires the use of appropriated 

funding that is currently limited for such projects. 

It is unlikely that any substantial impact would occur on forest health conditions over 

the next 5 years. However, over the next 15 years, considering the amount timber 

harvest projected under Existing Plans, Existing Plans are likely to be effective to some 

degree in addressing forest health concerns in Idaho Roadless Areas. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

Under the Idaho Roadless Rule, the Primitive and Backcountry themes would permit 

timber cutting to improve threatened, endangered, proposed or sensitive species 

habitat; or to maintain or restore the characteristics of ecosystem composition and 

structure or to reduce the significant risk of wildland fire effects. In the Backcountry 

theme, roads could be constructed or reconstructed to address these limited forest 

health components. The principal objective is to protect at-risk communities and 

municipal water supply systems, as well as to address (1) areas where wind throw, 

blowdown, ice storm damage, or the existence or imminent threat of an insect and 

disease epidemic is significantly threatening ecosystem components or resource values 

that may contribute to significant risk of wildland fire; and (2) areas where wildland fire 

poses a threat to, and where natural fire regimes are important for, threatened and 

endangered species or their habitat. 

In the GFRG theme, timber cutting and road construction and reconstruction would be 

permissible. The areas identified within the GFRG theme would have the most potential 

to be treated, since all forms of treatment, including both timber harvest and timber 

cutting are allowed, and supporting road construction/reconstruction can occur. 

Timber cutting in the Backcountry theme would be done on a limited basis and would 

be done to retain roadless characteristics and meet specific forest health objectives. 

Timber cutting in Primitive would rarely be done and would maintain roadless 

characteristics. Cutting in these areas would be for stewardship purposes (fuels 

reduction, forest health) and would be light on the land (focusing on what is left 

behind, not what is removed). Based on the management direction about 45 miles of 

road construction/reconstruction associated with timber harvest are projected over the 

next 15 years28. Timber cutting is projected to occur on about 12,000 acres over the next 

15 years. 

Of the 1.4 million acres at risk to insect and disease mortality, approximately 26,000 

acres are within the GFRG and 939,000 acres in the Backcountry theme (table 3-6). The 

Idaho Roadless Rule provides opportunities to treat high priority insect and disease 

areas through timber harvest, since up to 12,000 acres are projected to be harvested over 

 

28 About 60 miles total of road construction/reconstruction are projected to occur over the next 15 years. Of that 

amount, 45 miles would be in support of timber cutting and 15 miles in support of other access needs such as 

mineral leasing and exploration. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.2 Vegetation and Forest Health 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 93 

a 15-year period, most of which would occur in the GFRG theme and some in the 

Backcountry theme. 

The ability to construct roads with timber harvest in GFRG and to a limited degree in 

the Backcountry theme also reduces the cost of other methods (such as mechanical and 

timber cutting other than timber harvest) that may contribute to forest health objectives. 

However, road construction would still require the use of appropriated funding that is 

currently scarce for such projects. 

It is unlikely that any substantial impact would occur on forest health conditions over 

the next 5 years. However, over 15 years, considering the amount lands projected for 

timber harvest, the Idaho Roadless Rule is likely to be effective in addressing forest 

health concerns in those areas that are treated. 

FOREST HEALTH—INSECTS AND DISEASE: CUMULATIVE EFFECTS

The primary cumulative impact of all alternatives is the continuing change in 

vegetation structure and species composition, and the accumulation of vegetation and 

forest fuels. Prohibition of road construction/reconstruction under the 2001 Roadless 

Rule within Idaho Roadless Areas, and in all themes other than the GFRG theme and to 

some degree the Backcountry theme for the Existing Forest Plans and Idaho Roadless 

Rule, would result in a large proportion of the roadless areas remaining largely 

inaccessible (because of lack of economic feasibility) to equipment necessary to 

accomplish vegetation management for forest health objectives. 

Some of these lands are unsuitable for timber production; on other lands, road 

construction is not currently economically feasible. Most lands within one-quarter to 

one-half mile of an existing road would continue to be managed using timber harvest or 

other methods of treatment where appropriate. However, cost per acre would increase 

substantially and proportionally with distance of the project from the nearest road. 

Trees inside these economically inaccessible portions of the roadless areas that are killed 

by insects, disease, windthrow, or fire would deteriorate and add to fuel loading. 

Wildland fires that subsequently burn these areas may cause severe impacts on soil and 

water resources because higher concentrations of natural fuels would cause the fire to 

burn hotter. However, even if road construction/ reconstruction in Idaho Roadless 

Areas were permitted, it may not be possible to treat many of these acres because of 

resource concerns and the high cost of road construction. 

It is also reasonably foreseeable that global climate change will have potential effects on 

fire frequency and severity and on forest insect and disease relationships. Increased fire 

activity has been linked to effects of warming climate, as has certain insect infestations 

in the western United States and Canada (USDA Forest Service 2007a). Depending on 

the magnitude of change, increased risk from insects and diseases could occur in Idaho 

forests. If this occurs, areas under the GFRG theme are more likely to be treated, 

whereas Backcountry and Primitive themes are less likely to be treated. 
3.2 Vegetation and Forest Health Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

94 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

The emphasis in the National Fire Plan (NFP), Healthy Forests Initiative (HFI) and 

Healthy Forests Restoration Act (HFRA) encourage addressing insect and disease 

issues; however, none of these policies dictate site-specifically where actions should be 

taken. This analysis used projections based on implementing these policies. 

NOXIOUS WEEDS: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Although the exact acreage is unknown, it is estimated that more than 8 million acres of 

Idaho lands are severely infested by one of the weeds designated by the State of Idaho 

in 1999 (Idaho Department of Agriculture [IDA] 1999). Currently, there are 57 listed 

noxious weed species in the state of Idaho. Noxious weeds can influence ecosystem 

health in several ways and can contribute to declining native plant communities by 

(USDA Forest Service 2000): 

• Causing a decline in aquatic-riparian and terrestrial habitat for wildlife; 

• Reducing forage for grazing; 

• Potentially increasing water runoff, sediment delivery, and soil erosion; 

• Causing a potential decline in water quality; 

• Reducing biological diversity; 

• Increasing negative impacts in native plants associated with Native American tribal 

interests or rights, and; 

• Increasing costs associated in maintaining quality of recreation. 

Noxious weeds become established where suitable environments exist. Frequently, 

suitable habitats are created by soil disturbance where native vegetation is temporarily 

removed and weeds invade the site. Even intact ecosystems without disturbance, such 

as bunchgrass ecosystems, can be invaded successfully by certain species of noxious 

weeds. 

Areas such as road cuts and fills, mining, timber harvest sites, and gravel pits can serve 

as long-term vectors that aid the spread of noxious weeds. 

Noxious weeds can spread through many mechanisms, including motor vehicles, other 

off-road motorized equipment, wildlife, livestock, and humans. Once established, 

noxious weeds can be very difficult and expensive to control, and almost impossible to 

eradicate. Chemical, cultural, mechanical, and biological control methods are available 

for control measures; however, effectiveness depends on the targeted weed species. 

Of the estimated 8 million acres of noxious weed infestation in Idaho, about 223,000 

acres on NFS lands have been geo-referenced and reported in the Idaho Department of 

Agriculture (IDA) data base (IDA 2007). Major weed species include meadow 

hawkweed on the north Idaho National Forests, rush skeletonweed in central and 

southwestern Idaho, and several thistles in southeastern Idaho. Spotted Knapweed 

occurs on most forests. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.2 Vegetation and Forest Health 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 95 

More than 28,000 acres infested with noxious weeds have been inventoried in Idaho 

Roadless Areas. This is approximately 0.3 percent of Idaho Roadless Areas, compared to 

1 percent of all NFS lands. However, not all roadless areas, national forests, or other 

ownerships have been surveyed for noxious weeds and reported to the IDA database. 

NOXIOUS WEEDS: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

All Alternatives 

Wildfires are likely to continue in the Idaho Roadless Areas. Wildfires can create 

suitable habitat for noxious weeds and other invasive plants, especially those in the 

grasslands, shrublands, and dry forest types (such as ponderosa pine and some of the 

Douglas-fir cover types). 

Global climate change would have potential effects on noxious weeds and fire 

frequency/severity. Increased fire activity has been linked to effects of a warming 

climate (USDA Forest Service 2007b). Depending on the magnitude of change, increased 

risk of noxious weed establishment could occur in Idaho forests, since fire temporarily 

removes native vegetation and can provided suitable conditions for noxious weed 

establishment, or expansion of existing populations. Additionally, future plant 

communities may become more or less susceptible to noxious weed encroachment. 

However, because of the uncertainty of the actual climate conditions that may vary 

across the State, it is not possible to predict the actual outcomes at this time. 

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

Under the 2001 Roadless Rule road construction/reconstruction is generally prohibited. 

About 15 miles are projected to be constructed over the next 15 years under the 2001 

Roadless Rule, primarily to access existing mineral developments. Based on the general 

prohibitions and the limited amount of roads that are projected to be constructed in the 

future in Idaho Roadless Areas, there would be a limited noxious weed to spread under 

the 2001 Roadless Rule. 

Existing Plans 

The Existing Plans generally prohibit road construction/reconstruction in management 

prescriptions similar to Wild Land Recreation and Primitive themes. It is likely there 

would be no spread of noxious weeds in these areas (about 3,452,000 acres). 

Under Existing Plans, road construction/reconstruction is allowed in management 

prescription similar to the GFRG theme and in some areas the Backcountry theme, 

increasing the likelihood of introducing and spreading road-transported noxious weeds 

and other invasive species. Survey records (IDA 2007) indicate that of the 1,262,400 

acres of GFRG, about 8,300 acres currently have noxious weeds. About 180 miles of 

road construction/reconstruction are projected. It is likely these activities would be 

dispersed across Idaho Roadless Areas. Noxious weeds and other invasive are likely to 
3.2 Vegetation and Forest Health Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

96 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

expand in these areas. Areas within GFRG themes would have the most potential for 

introduction and spread, followed by Backcountry and then Primitive themes. 

Any increase in mineral or geothermal development could potentially increase the 

introductions of weeds, due both to road access needs and to the disturbance at 

individual sites themselves. It is anticipated that best management practices, including 

appropriate weed treatment strategies, would be used to mitigate this potential adverse 

impact. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would prohibit road construction/reconstruction in the Wild 

Land Recreation, Primitive, and Special Areas of Historic and Tribal Significance 

(SAHTS), with few exceptions. It is likely there would be no spread of noxious weeds in 

these areas (about 3,103,500 acres). Survey records (IDA 2007) indicate that of the 

609,500 acres in GFRG about 2,600 acres currently have noxious weeds. Timber harvest 

and road construction would be allowed in GFRG and to a more limited degree in 

Backcountry; therefore, these areas have the most potential for weed spread. About 60 

miles of road construction/reconstruction over 15 years to support all activities allowed 

are projected. Areas where roads are constructed would provide disturbed and exposed 

soil for weeds to expand to. Under the Idaho Roadless Rule it is likely there would be 

minimal increase in weed spread. 

Any increase in mineral or geothermal development could potentially increase the 

introductions of weeds, due both to road access needs, and the disturbance at 

individual sites themselves. It is anticipated that best management practices, including 

appropriate weed treatment strategies, would be used to mitigate this potential adverse 

impact. 

NOXIOUS WEEDS—CUMULATIVE EFFECTS

Roads are often the primary vectors for noxious weed establishment and spread. 

Current State and Federal activities and authorities (such as the Idaho Invasive Plan 

[IDA 2005] and the National Strategy and Implementation Plan for Invasive Species 

Management [USDA Forest Service 2004a]) address some invasive species and their 

prevention and spread. Other programmatic policy and management direction can also 

indirectly influence the ability to construct roads. The Roads Policy and Travel 

Management Policy can provide information on what roads are needed and unneeded, 

and which roads would remain open or closed. As noted in the Road 

Construction/Reconstruction section, roads are being decommissioned more than they 

are being constructed; therefore cumulatively there are fewer roads on the landscape. 

As roads are decommissioned, fewer roads are constructed and with additional 

emphasis on noxious weed management and prevention, there would be little 

cumulative effects from the alternatives. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.2 Vegetation and Forest Health 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 97 

CARBON STORAGE AND CLIMATE CHANGE: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Coniferous forests contain large amounts of carbon, stored as biomass both in the 

above-ground biomass and soil component (Smith et al. 2004). Forests accumulate 

carbon through the process of photosynthesis, which converts sunlight and water to 

carbon. As the majority of forest ownership in Idaho is on national forest lands, national 

forests are an important source for carbon storage. 

Forests in the U.S. are thought to have been in approximate carbon balance from 1600 to 

1800. A large pulse of carbon release occurred during the 1800s, largely due to 

utilization of forests (cutting) and land conversions, primarily to agricultural uses. The 

last century saw a re-growth of forests that had been harvested and the re-establishment 

of forests on abandoned agricultural lands. These conditions resulted in net carbon 

storage, even while intensive harvesting practices were occurring simultaneously. In the 

West, the effects of fire suppression are thought to have been a contributor to this 

increase (Birdsey et al. 2006). This sequence of events was more prevalent in the eastern 

and southern U.S. than the West, including Idaho. Current forest carbon density in 

Idaho is estimated to range from 36 to 45 tons/acre. Carbon storage is thought to be 

increasing on Idaho forestlands from 0 to 0.4 tons per acre/per year as recently as 2005 

(Woodbury et al. 2007). 

Stand-replacing fire regimes can change the amount of carbon released into the 

atmosphere. Stand-replacing fires switch forest ecosystems from a carbon sink to a net 

source of carbon added to the atmosphere as decomposition exceeds photosynthesis. 

One study in Yellowstone National Park indicated that equilibrium values of carbon 

storage were resistant to large changes in fire frequency (intervals between fires). 

Because of current long fire intervals and rapid regeneration of trees, most rapid 

changes in carbon storage occur in the first century following fire, and carbon storage is 

similar for stands of different ages. However, modeled conversions of vegetation states 

from forests to non-forest vegetation indicate there could be a large impact on 

landscape carbon storage, and this process is likely to be important for many forests 

(Kashian et al. 2006). 

Effects of global climate change on forest types and species distribution has become an 

important issue as the warming of the global climate has become indisputable (Thomas 

et al. 2001, Walther et al., 2002, Parmesan and Yohe 2003, Root et al. 2003).Forest Service 

research results from one analysis predicted that existing forested ecosystems and their 

constituent species are projected to change in spatial location, extent, and abundance in 

the western U.S., including Idaho (Rehfeldt et al. 2006). 

Exact magnitude and rapidity of climate change is uncertain, especially at finer scales 

such as landscapes within a forest. General conclusions in the western U.S. include 

temperature and precipitation increases, but also high variability in annual 

precipitation, including severe drought (Fenn et al. 2006). Modeling indicates the 

importance of the periodicity of precipitation and of the interactions between 

temperature and precipitation controlling the distribution of plant communities and 
3.2 Vegetation and Forest Health Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

98 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

their species. Finer scale modeling of potential climate change effects on vegetation is 

needed (Rehfeldt et al. 2006). 

CLIMATE CHANGE: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Environmental consequences on carbon storage and climate change are presented 

within the framework of two competing strategies: passive and active management. 

Active management includes adaptive responses as additional information on this 

subject is accumulated, and monitoring results of actual management effects are 

evaluated. Active (adaptive) management strategies would generally promote human 

intervention to mitigate climate change effects and proactively participate with 

evolutionary processes through management (Tchebakova et al. 2005). Because of the 

uncertainty and complexity of the effects of climate change, predictive models 

pinpointing locations where plant communities and species can be sustained will need 

to be developed (Rehfeldt et al. 2006). 

Passive management includes reserve networks that generally promote natural 

processes. As they relate to carbon storage and climate change, these strategies would 

include permitting plant communities and their species to be allowed to adapt to the 

changing circumstances, relying on evolutionary processes to control re-assemblage of 

species and genotypes within species, with the new climatic conditions presented (Noss 

2001). 

This evaluation of effects is in line with the general scenarios presented under the 

Columbia River basin analysis in 1997 (Quigley et al. 1997). 

The 2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

The 2001 Roadless Rule is the most similar to the passive strategy, with modifications 

that include seven exceptions for road construction/reconstruction and four exceptions 

for timber harvest and cutting. One of the exceptions includes restoration of ecosystems, 

so the 2001 Roadless Rule does allow some human management. However, because of 

the lack of access anticipated from limited road development, restoration costs could 

potentially be high. Only about 1,500 acres are projected to be actively treated for 

restoration purposes over the next 15 years. Most of the plant communities and species 

in Idaho Roadless Areas would be allowed to re-adjust to the changing climatic 

conditions without human intervention. 

Existing Plans 

Existing Plans are more closely aligned with active management strategies where roads 

are allowed, because of the management permissions for road 

construction/reconstruction in the GFRG theme. Providing access through road 

construction/reconstruction should reduce the cost of potential restoration activities. 

About 42,000 acres are projected to be harvested over a 15 year period, generally to 

restore ecosystems or reduce fire risk. Although more of the plant communities and 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.2 Vegetation and Forest Health 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 99 

species in Idaho Roadless Areas could potentially benefit from active management, 

most of the acres would not likely be available for management considering the amount 

of acres that are in management prescriptions similar to Backcountry, Primitive, 

SAHTS, and Wild Land Recreation themes. Plant communities and species within those 

themes would most likely be allowed to re-adjust to the changing climatic conditions 

without human intervention. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

The Idaho Roadless Rule incorporates both passive and active management strategies. 

Passive management strategies are reflected in Wild Land Recreation, Primitive and 

SAHTS. Active management is reflected in GFRG, and to a lesser degree in 

Backcountry. About 12,000 acres over 15 years are projected to be generally to restore 

ecosystems or reduce fire risk. Most of the plant communities and species within 

Backcountry, Primitive, SAHTS, and Wild Land Recreation themes would most likely 

be allowed to re-adjust to the changing climatic conditions without human intervention. 

CLIMATE CHANGE: CUMULATIVE EFFECTS

It is reasonably foreseeable that global climate change will have potential effects on fire 

frequency and severity and forest insect and disease relationships. Increased fire 

activity has been linked to the effects of a warming climate, as have certain insect 

infestations in the western U.S. and Canada (USDA Forest Service 2007a). This 

increased fire activity could lead to increased emissions of carbon dioxide and other 

greenhouse gases from wildfires, and possibly to decreased stored carbon in western 

forests and rangelands (USDA Forest Service 2007b). 

In a general sense, as long as fire-affected ecosystems recover at the same rate as fires 

consume biomass and surface fuels, the net effect of fire on the carbon in the 

atmosphere or stored in ecosystems will be approximately neutral. If the frequency, 

extent, or severity of fire should increase because of changing climate or management 

practices, then terrestrial carbon storage will decrease and the carbon in the atmosphere 

will increase (USDA Forest Service 2007b). 

Under a changing climate, the trajectories of vegetation recovery after fire may also 

change, leading to different potentials for ecosystem carbon storage. The exact 

mechanisms and magnitude of this change are still under research (USDA Forest 

Service 2007b). 

Future research, combined with effective strategies that include increased carbon 

storage capabilities, could help offset the increase in greenhouse gases. These strategies 

could also address climate change effects on national resources (USDA Forest Service 

2007c, d, e, f, g). These strategies have yet to be developed. 
3.3 Fuel Management Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

100 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

3.3 Fuel Management 

INTRODUCTION

Although wildland fires play an integral role in many forest and rangeland ecosystems, 

decades of efforts directed at extinguishing most fires that burned on public lands have 

disrupted the natural fire regimes that once existed. Moreover, as more and more 

communities develop and grow in areas that are adjacent to fire-prone lands in what is 

known as the wildland–urban interface (WUI), wildland fires pose increasing threats to 

people and to public and private property. 

The National Fire Plan (NFP) was developed in August 2000, following a landmark 

wildland fire season, with the intent of actively responding to severe wildland fires and 

their impacts on communities while ensuring sufficient firefighting capacity and safety 

for the future. The NFP addresses five key points: firefighting, rehabilitation, hazardous 

fuels reduction, community assistance, and accountability (USDA Forest Service and 

USDI 2000). 

The NFP established an intensive, long-term hazardous fuels reduction program in 

response to the risks posed by heavy fuels loads, which were the result of decades of 

fire suppression activities; sustained drought; and increasing insect, disease, and 

invasive plant infestations. Hazardous fuels reduction treatments are designed to 

reduce the risks of catastrophic wildland fire to people, communities, and natural 

resources, while restoring forest and rangeland ecosystems to closely match their 

historical structure, function, diversity, and dynamics. Such treatments accomplish 

these goals by removing or modifying wildland fuels to reduce the potential for severe 

wildland fire behavior, lessen the post-fire damage, and limit the spread or proliferation 

of invasive species and diseases. Treatments are accomplished using a variety of tools, 

including prescribed fire, mechanical thinning, timber harvest, herbicides, grazing, or 

combinations of these and other methods. Treatments are being increasingly focused on 

the expanding WUI areas. 

The Healthy Forests Initiative (HFI), initiated by President Bush in August 2002, and the 

Healthy Forests Restoration Act (HFRA) (P.L. 108-148), approved by Congress in 

December 2003, have equipped land managers with additional tools to achieve longterm objectives in reducing hazardous fuels and restoring fire-adapted ecosystems. 

The goals and objectives of hazardous fuel reduction have evolved over the past seven 

years. In October 2000, the Forest Service issued the Cohesive Strategy in response to 

GAO report RCED-99-65 (USDA Forest Service 2000q). The 2000 Cohesive Strategy 

established a framework to restore and maintain ecosystem health in fire-adapted 

ecosystems in the West. The Cohesive Strategy focused on the need to address 

“uncharacteristic wildfire effects,” which is an increase in wildfire size, severity and 

resistance to control, and the associated impact on people, property, and fire fighter 

safety, compared to that which occurred in the native system. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.3 Fuel Management

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 101 

In 2006 the Cohesive Strategy was expanded to also address “unwanted wildfire 

effects” (USDI, USDA Forest Service 2006). Unwanted wildland fire is any wildland fire 

in an undesirable location or season, or burning at an undesirable intensity, spread rate, 

or direction. In general, wildfire is unwanted in WUI. Hazardous fuels treatments to 

reduce the risk of unwanted wildfire are generally those that provide for conditions 

where firefighters can safely suppress fire or where the risk of stand-replacing wildland 

fire is reduced. 

The criteria for prioritizing lands for hazardous fuels treatment generally correspond to: 

(1) closest proximity to communities at risk in the WUI; (2) strategic areas outside the 

WUI that prevent wildland fire spread into communities or critical infrastructure; (3) 

areas outside of WUI that are in condition classes 2 or 3; and (4) other considerations. 

The analysis evaluates the relative ability to treat hazardous fuels primarily within the 

WUI and municipal watersheds, because these are the major focus areas of the NFP, 

HFRA, HFI and congressional budget direction. The prohibitions and permissions for 

road construction or reconstruction and timber cutting, sale, or removal contained in 

the 2001 Roadless Rule, Existing Plans, and the Idaho Roadless Rule influence the 

ability to treat hazardous fuels. 

Road construction/reconstruction. The ability to construct or reconstruct roads may 

affect the ability to conduct hazardous fuel reduction projects because of two primary 

factors: (1) lack of road access makes the treatment infeasible (technologically 

infeasible); or (2) lack of road access increases the costs of treatment to a point where 

they are economically infeasible. 

Tools. Prescribed fire and mechanical treatments are the most commonly applied 

methods for addressing hazardous fuels. Mechanical hazardous fuels treatments 

generally include commercial and non-commercial timber harvest, thinning, chipping, 

and masticating (Graham et al. 2006, Rummer 2006). 

Related to uncharacteristic wildland fire. The 2001 Roadless Rule permits the cutting, 

sale, or removal of generally small-diameter timber if it maintains or restores the 

characteristics of ecosystem composition and structure, such as to reduce the risk of 

uncharacteristic wildland fire effects, within the natural range of variability created by 

the natural fire regimes. This is defined as “uncharacteristic wildland fire.” Generally, 

actions taken would be in fire regimes I, II or III and condition class 2 or 3, with the 

intent of restoring the natural fire interval process. 

Related to unwanted wildland fire. Generally, actions taken to address uncharacteristic 

wildfire would also address unwanted wildland fire; however, in some situations some 

actions may be necessary in fire regimes IV or V and/or in condition class I. For 

example, lodgepole pine forests are in fire regime IV, and mountain pine beetle attacks 

are part of their natural lifecycle, as is stand-replacing fire. If these areas are located 

adjacent to a community, it may be desirable to break up the continuity of the lodgepole 

pine or create a fuel break around the community, so the stand-replacing fire, in this 

case an unwanted wildfire, doesn’t affect the community. 
3.3 Fuel Management Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

102 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Fire Prevention. Fire prevention was also evaluated because there may be a difference 

in the alternatives relative to this element. The indicator is number of acres assigned to 

management themes with “road construction permitted” compared to “road 

construction prohibited.” 

Other elements not evaluated in detail. The analysis does not evaluate potential 

consequences related to escaped wildland fire, emergency fire prevention costs, fire 

fighter safety, or annual acreage burned by wildfire, because the alternatives do not 

influence these elements in different ways (Fire Management Specialist Report 2007, 

available in the project record). 

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Natural disturbances such as fire, wind, and insects and diseases, help shape forests. In 

Idaho, periodic fire is the dominant disturbance process that changes forests. Although 

fire is widespread, it is seldom uniform; every forest has its own characteristic pattern 

of fire intensity, frequency and size. Fire regime and condition class are used to 

characterize fire. 

“Fire regime” describes the historical pattern of fire: how often (frequency); how hot 

(intensity); and how big (scale). It describes natural fire in terms of fire-return interval 

and amount of replacement of the upper life-form29 (Hardy et al. 2000). Fire regimes are 

classified into five categories: 

I – Frequent, low to mixed severity: (0–35 year return interval, less than 75 percent of 

the upper life-form replaced). Generally low elevation interior West ponderosa pine 

forests or mountain grasslands. 

II – Frequent, high severity: (0–35 year return interval, greater than 75 percent of the 

upper life-form replaced). Generally low- to mid-elevation mountain meadows and 

aspen/conifer woodlands. 

III – Less frequent, mixed severity: (35–100+ year return interval, less than 75 percent of 

the upper life-form replaced). Generally mixed conifer, dry Douglas-fir, or 

whitebark/lodgepole pine forests. 

IV – Less frequent, high severity: (35–100+ year return interval, greater than 75 percent 

of the upper life-form replaced). Generally lodgepole pine forests and sagebrush 

shrublands. 

V – Infrequent, high severity: (200+ year return interval, greater than 75 percent of the 

upper life-form replaced). Generally, cedar/hemlock and high-elevation spruce/fir 

forests. 

 

29 Upper life form refers to the upper portion of the vegetation. For example in forested ecosystems it 

refers to the overstory trees; and in shrubland ecosystems it refers to the taller shrub component. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.3 Fuel Management

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 103 

“Condition class” (also referred to as fire regime condition class [FRCC]) describes the 

departure from historical conditions based on the number of missed fire cycles and the 

amount of change in forest structure and species composition. A qualitative risk 

ranking is assigned to each condition class: low, moderate, high. The chance of losing 

key ecosystem components in wildland fire increases from condition class 1 (lowest 

risk) to condition class 3 (highest risk)30. “Risk” is not defined as the probability of a fire 

occurring; rather, it refers to the potential harmful effects to key ecosystem components 

that may occur because of altered vegetation composition and structure and to the 

uncharacteristic wildfire effects that can occur once a wildland fire ignites and burns. 

Condition classes are defined as: 

Condition class 1 – Little departure from the natural fire regime and natural range of 

variability; risk of losing key ecosystem components is low; 

Condition class 2 – Moderately departed from the natural fire regime and natural range 

of variability; risk of losing key ecosystem components is moderate; 

Condition Class 3 – Highly departed from the natural fire regime and natural range of 

variability; risk of losing key ecosystem components is high. 

About 94 percent of Idaho Roadless Areas are classified into fire regimes and condition 

classes. The unclassified areas are rock, water, snow or ice, and bare soil, or are 

developed areas such as transportation corridors, mines, quarries, home sites, or other 

kinds of features that are not described by the fire regimes. 

Idaho Roadless Areas generally fall into three fire regimes: I (frequent, low to mixed 

severity); III (less frequent, mixed severity); and IV (less frequent, high severity) (table 

3-7). Within these categories, about 50 to 80 percent are in condition class 2, which 

means they have moderate departures from the natural fire regime. Generally, these 

areas have missed at least one fire cycle; therefore, they are likely to be moderately 

overstocked. About 440,000 acres (5 percent of Idaho Roadless Areas) are in condition 

class 3 and have significantly departed from their historical fire frequency by missing 

multiple cycles. The risk of losing ecosystem components is high, with dramatic 

changes to fire size, intensity, landscape patterns, or vegetation. About 3.4 million acres 

of high priority areas (fire regimes I, II, and III, in condition classes 2 and 3) overlap 

Idaho Roadless Areas (table 3-7). 

 

30 The fire regime condition class (FRCC) information was derived from the LANDFIRE Rapid 

Assessment (RA) (USDI Geological Survey 2006). Idaho is covered by the Northern and Central Rockies, 

Great Basin, and Northwest LANDFIRE map zones, although the majority of the State is in the Northern 

and Central Rockies. The RA process was a regional-scale effort to produce maps and models of potential 

natural vegetation groups, reference fire regimes, and fire regime condition class for the conterminous 

United States. RA data are intended for national- to regional-scale strategic planning, broad ecological 

assessments, and resource allocation. RA products are designed to fill data needs ahead of the release of 

LANDFIRE National products and will be replaced by LANDFIRE National data as they become 

available. 
3.3 Fuel Management Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

104 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Table 3-7. Acres of fire regime and condition class and percent of total acres in Idaho Roadless Areas 

Idaho Roadless Areas 

Condition class acres 

(percent of fire regime acres) 

Fire regime Acres 

Percent of 

area 1 2 3 

FR I 1,978,400 21 250,600 (13) 1,528,200 (77) 199,600 (10)

FR II 44,800 <1 10 (<1) 23,200 (52) 21,600 (48)

FR III 2,948,200 32 1,255,000 (43) 1,581,400 (54) 86,800 (3)

FR IV 3,719,400 40 566,800 (15) 3,019,200 (81) 133,400 (4)

FR V 72,400 <1 64,700 (89) 7,700 (11) 10 (<1)

Unclassified 540,300 6 

Total 9,304,200 100 2,137,100 (25) 6,159,700 (70) 441,400 (5)

Wildland urban interface. In the 2001 Roadless Rule Final EIS, WUI was described 

based on five population classes developed from the population information in the 

LandScan Global Population Database for 1998 (Lockheed Martin Energy Research 

Corporation 1999). Since the 2001 Roadless Rule, States have been defining WUI per 

direction from the NFP and HFRA. Direction encourages development of community 

wildfire protection plans. To facilitate this process, the Idaho State Fire Plan Working 

Group was formed.31 In Idaho, community wildfire protection plans are developed and 

updated at the county level and are referred to as county wildfire protection plans 

(CWPP). Currently, all counties in Idaho have CWPPs (Idaho Department of Lands 

[IDL] 2007). 

About 1 million acres (12 percent) of Idaho Roadless Areas are in the WUI. In general, 

wildfire is unwanted in WUI; hazardous fuels treatments to reduce the risk are 

generally those that provide for conditions where firefighters can safely suppress fire or 

where the risk of stand-replacing wildland fire is reduced. About 40 percent (450,000 

acres) of the WUI are in high priority areas (fire regimes I, II, and III, and condition 

classes 2 and 3) (table 3-8). 

Table 3-8. Acres of fire regime, condition class and percent of total acres for WUI in Idaho Roadless Areas 

WUI Condition class acres (percent of fire regime acres) 

Fire regime Acres Percent of area 1 2 3 

FR I 320,000 30 35,800 (11) 234,200 (73) 50,000 (16)

FR II 8,400 <1 10 (<1) 4,000 (48) 4,400 (52)

FR III 234,600 22 79,800 (34) 115,000 (49) 39,800 (17)

FR IV 481,900 45 77,300 (16) 348,600 (72) 56,000 (12)

FR V 4,600 <1 2,800 (61) 1,800 (39) 0 (0)

Unclassified 31,700 3 

Total 1,081,200 100 195,700 (19) 703,600 (67) 150,200 (14)

 

31 The Idaho State Fire Plan Working Group (State Working Group) is composed of individuals 

representing State and Federal agencies, counties, Tribes, and non-governmental organizations. It 

provides the key link between national and local levels of government to implement the NFP. The State 

Working Group provides leadership in the development of CWPP (Idaho State Working Group 2007). 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.3 Fuel Management

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 105 

For the WUI, the most desirable type of wildland fire is one of low intensity and 

severity that can be safely managed with minimal effort. Changing the distribution and 

continuity of vegetation and fuels on the landscape, particularly in areas where fires 

have the potential to be stand-replacing, can also aid fire suppression efforts by 

providing fuel breaks or other kinds of conditions where small fires or portions of large 

fires can be safely suppressed (Deeming 1990, Finney 2000, Graham et al. 1999). This 

requires surface fuel loadings that produce low flame lengths, and vegetative 

conditions that reduce the chance of fire movement from the ground into the tree 

crowns. In the case of fire regimes I and II, and in some vegetation types that fall into 

fire regime III, characteristic wildland fire is of low intensity and severity. However, in 

other vegetation types in fire regime III, and in fire regimes IV and V, high-intensity 

stand-replacement fire is characteristic. 

From 2001 through 2006 in Idaho, about half (51 percent) of the acres treated for 

hazardous fuels forest-wide were in WUI (fig. 3-3). Where treatments were conducted, 

mechanical methods were more often used in WUI than outside WUI (fig. 3-3); 

prescribed fire was used much more often outside WUI. Mechanical treatments likely 

are used more often in WUI because conditions can be altered more rapidly 

mechanically compared to prescribed fire alone. Also it may be difficult to control 

prescribed fire in untreated stands. Prescribed fire may be undesirable in WUI because 

of concerns from adjacent private property owners about risk of escape and concerns 

about smoke. 

NFPORS Data for Idaho Forests 2001-2006

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

WUI Other

Location of Treatment

Percent of Total Treated Acres

Mechanical Prescribed Fire

Figure 3-3. Percentage of treatment acres in WUI by type of treatment 
3.3 Fuel Management Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

106 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Municipal Water Supply. About 5 percent of municipal water supplies (also called 

surface drinking water supplies) occur in Idaho Roadless Areas. Twenty-five percent of 

the acres that provide municipal water from roadless areas overlap WUI; therefore, 75 

percent are in roadless areas outside WUI. Generally, high-intensity or high-severity 

wildfire is undesirable in areas that contribute to municipal water supplies. The HFRA 

encourages hazardous fuel treatment in municipal water supplies in any condition class 

3, or in condition class 2 in fire regime I, II, or III. About 40 percent (172,000 acres) of the 

municipal watersheds in Idaho Roadless Areas are in fire regimes I, II, and III, and 

condition classes 2 and 3 (table 3-9). 

Table 3-9. Acres of fire regime and condition class and percent of total acres for municipal water-supply 

areas in Idaho Roadless Areas 

Municipal water-supply areas Condition class acres (percent of fire regime acres) 

Fire regime Acres Percent 1 2 3 

FR I 91,600 22 2,800 (3) 74,700 (82) 14,100 (15)

FR II 2,700 1 0 (0) 0 (0) 2,700 (100)

FR III 121,300 30 40,300 (33) 80,700 (66) 300 (<1)

FR IV 177,000 43 6,000 (3) 163,000 (92) 8,000 (5)

FR V 400 <1 400 (97) 10 (3) 0 (0)

Unclassified 16,100 4 

Total 409,100 100 49,500 (13) 318,400 (81) 24,500 (6)

FR=fire regime

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

All Alternatives 

Wildland fires are managed using the appropriate management response (AMR) as 

determined after ignition. AMR can include wildland fire use for resource benefits 

where allowed under existing forest plans. Neither the Idaho Roadless Rule nor the 

2001 Roadless Rule would affect the wildland fire use programs on any forest. Fire 

suppression includes a full range of options, from very resource intensive (large 

numbers of personnel and equipment) to less intensive activities (few personnel and 

minimal equipment). The AMR decision to use one or a combination of options over 

others depends on many factors, including threats to life, property, and investments; 

fuel and weather conditions; natural resource concerns; terrain; and available resources 

such as personnel and equipment. 

There may be an effect from the alternatives as they relate to the ability to alter 

conditions that contribute to fire behavior, which in part affects firefighter safety and 

fire suppression success. In Idaho Roadless Areas this most often occurs in or adjacent 

to WUI or municipal watersheds because of values at risk. There is, therefore, an 

indirect relationship between the ability to treat priority areas and AMR. 

The effect of prescribed fire would be the same across the alternatives for similar 

vegetation, prescriptions, topography, soils, and other factors. The same is true for 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.3 Fuel Management

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 107 

mechanical treatments such as timber cutting, chipping, masticating, and the like. 

Differences among the alternatives are primarily in terms of which tools (prescribed fire 

or prescribed fire/mechanical) are permissible; there are differences in effects between 

prescribed fires compared mechanical treatment, and in whether or not road 

construction/reconstruction is permitted. Another difference among the alternatives is 

the objectives for treating hazardous fuels, because this determines the outcomes of the 

treatments. The vegetative structure, composition, and landscape pattern that result 

from treatments to reduce uncharacteristic wildland fire may be different than those 

that result from treatments to reduce unwanted wildland fire. 

Treatments for WUI protection may create conditions within a landscape that are not 

natural, including features such as shaded fuel breaks or areas where fuels are chipped 

or masticated. Such features may also include the removal of ladder fuels in vegetation 

types where such conditions had contributed to a natural stand-replacing fire regime; 

although this type of fire would be part of the natural fire regime, it would be 

undesirable in areas such as WUI. 

Treatments in condition Class 2. Condition class 2 areas are generally easier to treat 

because they are not as far departed from natural conditions. Therefore, they are often 

less dense, have lower natural fuel loadings, and have a more diverse landscape 

pattern. In these areas, fewer acres may require some type of initial mechanical 

treatment before prescribed fire. Mechanical treatment would focus on removing ladder 

fuels through thinning or limbing the lower branches. In areas where mechanical 

treatments may be beneficial initially, there may be a lower volume of surface fuels to 

mitigate. In addition, prescribed fire may be more feasible as an initial treatment in 

some of these areas, potentially allowing more area to be treated. 

Treatments in Condition Class 3. In the situations where condition class 3 occurs 

because of lack of past disturbance, vegetative conditions are often such that some type 

of mechanical treatment is desirable initially even in areas where prescribed fire would 

eventually be the goal. The risk can be most effectively reduced through thinning that 

removes ladder fuels, and natural and activity fuel abatement that reduces surface fuel 

loading and continuity. Ground-based systems are the most economical method for 

achieving this goal because fuels can be yarded off the site. Where this is not feasible 

but is within the reach of helicopters, fuel abatement can be a challenge where high 

volumes of activity fuel are created. On-site surface fuels can be difficult to mitigate, 

particularly with burning, in areas with deep and continuous fuel loadings. Although 

prescribed fire can be an effective tool for reducing hazardous fuels, applications are 

risky in these types of areas as well as in condition class 3 areas that have not been 

treated mechanically. 

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

About 33 percent of the WUI is fire regimes I, II, or III and condition class 2; and 9 

percent is in fire regimes I, II, or III and condition class 3 (table 3-10). About 42 percent 
3.3 Fuel Management Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

108 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

of the municipal water-supply areas in Idaho Roadless Areas is in fire regimes I, II, or 

III and condition classes 2 or 3. 

Table 3-10. Percent of wildland–urban interface (WUI) and surface drinking water in Idaho Roadless Areas in 

fire regimes 1, II, or III and condition class 2 or 3, in area similar to Backcountry theme* 

Wildland–urban interface (WUI) Surface drinking water 

Percent overall Percent in FR I, 

II, or III and 

condition class 2 

Percent in FR I, 

II, or III and 

condition class 3 

Percent overall Percent in FR I, 

II, or III and 

condition class 2 

Percent in FR I, 

II, or III and 

condition class 3 

100 33 9 100 38 4

WUI=wildland–urban interface; FR=fire regime 

* Similar to Backcountry: Timber cutting to reduce uncharacteristic wildfire risk permissible; road 

construction/reconstruction prohibited. 

Under the 2001 Roadless Rule, all acres with uncharacteristic wildland fire hazard in 

WUI and municipal water-supply areas are available to treat with prescribed fire and 

mechanical tools. Many of the acres are in condition class 2 and 3; therefore, much of 

the area is in need of treatment to reduce the risk of uncharacteristic wildland fire. 

However, because road construction/reconstruction to accomplish fuels treatments is 

prohibited, mechanical treatments would generally occur near the limited number of 

existing roads. This may compromise the ability to treat condition class 3 areas because 

these often need an initial mechanical treatment before application of prescribed fire can 

be applied safely. This is particularly true in WUI, where risk of escapes of prescribed 

fire and smoke are a concern to adjacent property owners. 

Under the 2001 Roadless Rule, hazardous fuels are defined in terms of uncharacteristic 

wildfire. In the non-lethal and mixed fire regimes (fire regimes I, II, and portions of III), 

restoring and maintaining natural vegetative conditions can reduce risks of standreplacing wildfire. However, in lethal fire regimes, the natural vegetative conditions can 

still produce stand-replacing wildfire, which is often consistent with the historical fire 

regime but undesirable in WUI because of property values and scenic quality concerns. 

Therefore, restoring natural fire regimes may not reduce wildfire risk in some WUI areas. 

However, hazardous fuels treatments that move conditions toward natural vegetative 

conditions are probably more consistent with roadless area values and features. 

Fuel treatments are likely to be more expensive and less efficient to implement, which 

would result in few acres treated based on budget projections, which suggest about 

1,500 acres would be anticipated to be harvested over a 15-year period in Idaho 

Roadless Areas under the 2001 Roadless Rule, primarily to reduce hazardous fuels. 

Based on this projection, less than one-tenth of 1 percent of the high-priority areas 

overall would be treated, or roughly less than 1 percent of the high-priority areas in the 

WUI (assuming the harvest only addresses fuel treatment needs in the WUI). 

The vegetative conditions that result from hazardous fuels treatments that reduce the 

risk of uncharacteristic wildland fire should be consistent with roadless area 

characteristics even though disturbance, particularly in mechanically treated areas, may 

be evident in the short term. Over time this should become less noticeable, particularly 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.3 Fuel Management

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 109 

in areas where activity fuels have been removed from the site or mitigated through 

burning. While vegetative communities that result from treatments may be more 

ecologically appropriate, their appearance may contrast with untreated (or 

undisturbed) areas. This may be particularly evident in non-lethal fire regimes where 

ladder fuels from conifer layers are reduced. 

Existing Plans 

Existing Plans generally permit prescribed fire only to be used in areas similar to the 

Wild Land Recreation theme. About 5 percent of the WUI is in this theme. However, 

only a small number of the total WUI acres are in fire regimes I, III, or III and condition 

class 2 in this theme (table 3-11). About 91 percent of the acres may allow for prescribed 

fire and mechanical tools to treat hazardous fuels, although the actual allowed area may 

be less depending on the Existing Plan management prescription. Road 

construction/reconstruction for hazardous fuels management may be allowed on about 

69 percent of the roadless areas, which would facilitate a greater opportunity to 

accomplish hazardous fuels treatments in condition class 3 areas. However, of the area 

available for mechanical treatment, 22 percent would not permit road 

construction/reconstruction. 

The actual amount of area where roads can be constructed or reconstructed may be less 

than estimated depending on the management prescription in Existing Plans (see 

appendix B). Acres in management prescriptions similar to the GFRG theme, which are 

21 percent of the Idaho Roadless Areas acres (table 3-11), are most likely to permit all 

tools to be used. Existing Plans may not allow for all the tools to treat hazardous fuels in 

the management prescriptions similar to Backcountry. 

Table 3-11. Percent of wildland–urban interface (WUI) and surface drinking water in Idaho Roadless Areas in 

fire regimes I, II or III and condition class 2 or 3; by Existing Plan theme equivalent 

Wildland–urban interface (WUI) Surface drinking water 

Percent overall Percent in FR I, 

II, or III and 

condition class 2 

Percent in FR I, 

II, or III and 

condition class 3 

Percent overall Percent in FR I, 

II, or III and 

condition class 2 

Percent in FR I, 

II ,or III and 

condition class 3 

Wild Land Recreation: prescribed fire only, road construction reconstruction prohibited 

5 2 <1 7 2 0

Primitive: Timber cutting to reduce uncharacteristic and unwanted wildfire risk generally permissible; road 

construction/reconstruction prohibited 

22 8 1 40 17 1

Backcountry: Timber cutting to reduce uncharacteristic and unwanted wildfire risk generally permissible; road 

construction/reconstruction generally permissible 

48 15 5 37 14 2

GFRG : Timber cutting to reduce uncharacteristic and unwanted wildfire risk permissible; road 

construction/reconstruction permissible 

21 6 2 15 5 1

Forest plan special areas: Existing Plan direction applies 

4 1 <1 1 0 0

FR=fire regime; GFRG=general forest, rangeland, and grassland.
3.3 Fuel Management Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

110 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Under Existing Plans, about 42,000 acres are projected to be harvested over 15 years in 

Idaho Roadless Areas. It is likely that most of this harvest, even in GFRG, would be 

done to reduce hazardous fuels, with the focus on reducing fuels in WUI. Based on this 

projection, about 1 percent of the high priority areas would be treated, or about 10 

percent of the high priority areas in the WUI (assuming the harvest addresses fuel 

treatment needs only in the WUI). 

About 40 percent of the municipal water supply is in a theme similar to Primitive and 

about 37 percent in Backcountry. Between these two themes, about a third of the water 

supply acres are in condition class 2. Use of prescribed fire is more likely to be the tool 

of choice in these areas because of the desire to limit new roads and because there 

generally are more options for reducing fuels in condition class 2. 

The vegetative conditions that result from hazardous fuels treatments under Existing 

Plans could have variable impacts on the values and features of roadless areas. Where 

hazardous fuels treatments are for habitat restoration or to reduce the risk of 

uncharacteristic wildland fire, impacts would likely retain roadless characteristics over 

time. The greatest change could occur in areas where hazardous fuels treatments are to 

reduce the risk of unwanted wildland fire. In some cases, particularly in the non-lethal 

fire regimes, restoring or maintaining vegetative conditions similar to the natural 

condition would reduce the risk of uncharacteristic as well as unwanted wildland fire 

effects. However, in stand-replacing (lethal) fire regimes, hazardous fuels treatments 

that benefit WUI may be fuel breaks or stand conditions that are not part of the natural 

vegetative condition. These types of treatments have a higher likelihood of changing the 

roadless characteristics. 

Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

Under the Idaho Roadless Rule, much of the WUI area (91 percent) is in management 

themes that permit prescribed fire and mechanical tools (table 3-12). Five percent is in a 

management theme where prescribed fire is the only tool for hazardous fuels 

management (Wild Land Recreation). Road construction/reconstruction is prohibited in 

the Primitive and SAHTS themes, but timber cutting to reduce hazardous fuels is 

permitted. Little timber cutting is anticipated in these areas because of lack of access. 

Fuel reduction would likely occur in locations near roads or in places where prescribed 

burning without timber cutting can occur. 

Road construction/reconstruction and timber cutting would be permitted in the 

Backcountry theme to: (1) protect at-risk communities and municipal water supply 

systems from adverse effects of wildland fire; (2) reduce hazardous fuels associated 

with wind throw, blowdown, ice storm damage; or the existence or imminent threat of 

an insect and disease epidemic that is significantly threatening ecosystem component; 

or resource values that may contribute to significant risk of wildland fire; or (3) reduce 

hazardous fuels where wildland fire poses a threat to, and where natural fire regimes 

are important for, threatened and endangered species or their habitat. These activities 

are consistent with the HFRA. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.3 Fuel Management

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 111 

Road construction/reconstruction and timber cutting to reduce hazardous fuels are 

permitted in the GFRG theme after the appropriate site-specific analysis is completed. 

Under the Idaho Roadless Rule, hazardous fuels management in WUI would be to 

address unwanted and/or uncharacteristic wildland fire. A combination of prescribed 

fire and mechanical tools and road access would provide the most opportunity to 

facilitate hazardous fuels management, particularly in condition class 3 areas. 

Table 3-12. Percent of wildland–urban interface (WUI) and surface drinking water in Idaho Roadless Areas in 

fire regimes I, II, or III and condition classes 2 or 3, by Idaho Roadless Rule theme 

Wildland–urban interface (WUI) Surface drinking water 

Percent overall Percent in FR I, 

II, or III and 

condition class 

2 

Percent in FR I, 

II, or III and 

condition class 

3 

Percent of 

surface 

drinking water 

Percent in FR I, 

II, or III and 

condition class 

2 

Percent in FR I, 

II, or III and 

condition class 

3 

Wild Land Recreation: prescribed fire only, road construction reconstruction prohibited 

5 2 <1 7 3 0 

Primitive and SAHTS: Timber cutting to reduce uncharacteristic and unwanted wildfire risk permissible; road 

construction/reconstruction prohibited 

19 8 1 29 13 0 

Backcountry: Timber cutting to reduce uncharacteristic and unwanted wildfire risk permissible; road 

construction/reconstruction permissible 

59 18 5 57 22 3 

GFRG : Timber cutting to reduce uncharacteristic and unwanted wildfire risk permissible; road 

construction/reconstruction permissible 

12 4 2 6 2 1 

Forest Plan Special Areas: Existing Plan direction applies 

4 1 <1 1 0 0 

FR=fire regime; SAHTS=special areas of historic and tribal significance; GFRG=general forest, rangeland, 

and grassland. 

About 16,000 acres of timber harvest are projected to occur over a 15-year period in 

Idaho Roadless Areas. The primary purpose would be for hazardous fuel reduction, 

and would likely focus on treatments in the WUI or municipal watersheds. Prescribed 

burning would likely be the tool outside the WUI, similar to existing trends. Based on 

this projection, less than 1 percent of the total high-priority areas would be treated, or 

about 3 percent of the high-priority areas in the WUI (assuming the harvest addresses 

fuel treatment needs only in the WUI). 

The vegetative conditions that result from hazardous fuels treatments under the Idaho 

Roadless Rule could have variable impacts to roadless characteristics. Hazardous fuels 

treatments under the Idaho Roadless Rule are to reduce the risk of unwanted wildland 

fire, which could include a broad range of treatments such as fuel breaks or creating 

stand conditions where firefighters can safely suppress fire or where the risk of standreplacing wildland fire is reduced. However, under the Idaho Roadless Rule all 

treatments would be required to meet or restore one or more of the roadless 

characteristics. 
3.3 Fuel Management Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

112 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

FIRE PREVENTION

The incidence of human-caused fire ignitions (“starts”) is assumed to be higher in areas 

that could be roaded compared to areas that remain unroaded. This is based on the 

national and Idaho 1986–1996 data that showed that the number of human-caused starts 

was greater in roaded compared to unroaded areas. 

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

The 2001 Roadless Rule would have little potential impact on the fire prevention 

program (table 3-13) because road construction or reconstruction is restricted to limited 

exceptions. About 15 miles of road construction are projected to occur over 15 years 

under the exceptions in the 2001 Roadless Rule. Based on the limited exceptions and the 

limited amount of road construction projected, there is likely to be no increase in 

human-caused starts under the 2001 Roadless Rule. 

Table 3-13. Percent of Idaho Roadless Areas that permit or prohibit road construction or reconstruction, by 

alternative* 

Road construction/ 

reconstruction 2001 Roadless Rule Existing Plans Idaho Roadless Rule 

Prohibited 0 39 34 

Permitted, under limited1

exceptions 

100 0 59 

Permitted, under variable2 0 47 0 

Permitted 0 14 7 

Total 100 100 100 

*

Excludes lands in Forest plan special areas

1

Permitted under “limited” refers to the exceptions allowed in the rules. 2

Permitted under “variable” refers to the variety of allowances in existing plans. 

Existing Plans 

For Existing Plans, about 63 percent of the management prescriptions permits road 

construction/reconstruction to some degree. About 180 miles of road 

construction/reconstruction are projected in Idaho Roadless Areas over 15 years, and 

almost half of this is reconstruction. The number of human-caused starts may increase 

in those areas where new roads are constructed, especially if they are permanent roads. 

This indicates there is a potential for an increase in the workload for the fire prevention 

program under Existing Plans. However, road decommissioning is also occurring 

which may offset the increase to some degree. 

Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would permit road construction/reconstruction on about 60 

percent of the Idaho Roadless Areas for limited purposes and on 7 percent for any 

purpose. About 60 miles of road construction/reconstruction are projected to occur 

over a 15-year period under the Idaho Roadless Rule, and only 15 miles are anticipated 

to be permanent. The Idaho Roadless Rule says that when roads are to be constructed 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.3 Fuel Management

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 113 

they should be temporary in nature. Based on the limited increase in new roads open to 

the public and the limited amount of permanent road constructed, there is likely to be 

no measurable increase in human-caused starts under the Idaho Roadless Rule. 

CUMULATIVE EFFECTS

Fire exclusion and lack of treatment in Idaho Roadless Areas may have contributed to 

the amount of area that is in condition classes 2 and 3. In the past several years, the 

greatest impact of wildland fires probably has been the alteration of vegetative 

conditions. Programmatic policy decisions such as the NFP, HFI, and HFRA have 

placed an emphasis on reducing unwanted and uncharacteristic wildland fires. Under 

the 2001 Roadless Rule there would be limited opportunity for reducing 

uncharacteristic wildland fires because of the inability to construct roads when 

necessary to treat fuels. In addition, the 2001 Roadless Rule does not address unwanted 

wildland fire. Under the Existing Plans and Idaho Roadless Rule, roads could be 

constructed in those limited situations where it would be necessary to support a fuels 

reduction project. Cumulatively, none of the alternatives are anticipated to make a 

significant difference in fire risk across all of Idaho; however, with more tools available 

the Existing Plans and Idaho Roadless Rule may permit opportunities in local areas. 

Other programmatic decisions or policies have had limited cumulative effect on fire risk 

or the ability to treat fuels. 

Past road construction or reconstruction actions in Idaho Roadless Areas may have 

affected the fire prevention program. Additional road construction or reconstruction 

under the Existing Plans and the Idaho Roadless Rule could increase the amount of area 

that may be affected by human-caused wildland fires; however, more roads are being 

decommissioned than are constructed. 
3.4 Road Construction/Reconstruction Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

114 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

3.4 Road Construction/Reconstruction 

INTRODUCTION

The following discussion provides a foundation for the analysis provided in other 

resource sections. The Proposed Action (Idaho Roadless Rule) prohibits or permits road 

construction or reconstruction depending upon the management theme; therefore, this 

analysis describes the amount of road construction and reconstruction projected to 

occur in Idaho Roadless Areas. 

The Forest Service constructs, reconstructs, and maintains roads on National Forest 

System (NFS) lands to provide needed access for implementing forest plan goals and 

objectives. As these objectives and goals change, road management objectives also 

change. It is through road management objectives (FSM 7712.31) that design standards, 

maintenance levels, and traffic management requirements, such as seasonal closures, 

are established. As forest plan goals and objectives change, so does the need for new 

roads and the objectives for managing existing roads. The Forest Service manual (FSM) 

direction is as follows: 

FSM 7712.31 - Road Management Objectives 

Establish the specific intended purpose (FSM 7701, para. 7), based on 

management direction, of the new project or projects. Document this purpose by 

developing a road management objective that contains design criteria (FSM 7720) 

and operation and maintenance criteria (FSM 7730.3). The document shall be 

signed by a line officer when approved, and retained as a permanent record. 

Document arterial and collector roads individually; however, similar local roads 

may be grouped on one document. 

National Forest System roads are generally those roads that are needed to meet the 

goals and objectives established in forest plans and that require permanent, long-term 

road access. Other roads authorized by the Forest Service include public roads that 

provide primary road access into and through NFS lands and privately owned roads 

that access private lands within and adjacent to NFS lands. With the exception of 

private roads, these forest roads are those roads to which State traffic regulations 

generally apply and are designed and maintained for “highway legal” motor vehicles, 

although use by other classes of recreational vehicles might be permitted. 

Temporary roads are authorized under contracts and permits, such as timber sale 

contracts, special use permits, oil and gas exploration permits, or facility construction 

contracts; or they may be constructed by the Forest Service for administrative access. 

These roads are needed for a short time to meet a one-time access need, usually for 1 

year and not more than 10 years. The Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources 

Planning Act of 1974 (as amended) generally requires temporary roads be closed and 

revegetated within 10 years after use. In general, the Forest Service decommissions 

temporary roads within 1 year after the need for access has terminated. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.4 Road Construction/Reconstruction 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 115 

Over the past 100 years, roads have been constructed to serve a variety of purposes. 

Before World War II, roads were constructed on NFS lands primarily for fire and 

conservation activities. From 1944 until the mid to late 1980s, the majority of roads on 

NFS lands were constructed to support timber harvest activities. Roads are also 

constructed to support other uses including recreation; permits (mining, special uses); 

road access to private lands within or adjacent to NFS lands; and road access for 

cleanup purposes (restoring abandoned mines). Once roads are constructed they may 

need to be reconstructed or maintained. 

Road reconstruction includes: (1) road improvement, which is an activity that results in 

an increase of an existing road’s traffic service level, expands its capacity, or changes its 

original design function; or (2) road realignment, which is an activity that results in 

relocation of an existing road or portions of an existing road and treatment of the old 

roadway. 

Road maintenance includes the ongoing upkeep of a road necessary to retain or restore 

the road to the approved road management objectives. Road decommissioning includes 

activities that result in the stabilization and restoration of unneeded roads to a more 

natural state. 

Unauthorized roads are those roads that exist on NFS lands without the Agency’s 

express permission. They include remnants of historical uses, such as old logging and 

mining roads, user-created roads resulting from repeated travel by recreational vehicles 

off designated roads and trails, and old temporary roads that were not 

decommissioned. 

Roads can have both beneficial and negative effects. Beneficial effects include providing 

a more developed form of access for such multiple uses as timber harvest, grazing, 

mining, fire suppression, forest management, ecosystem restoration, research, 

monitoring, recreation, subsistence uses, emergency rescue, and to meet other access 

needs; providing easier access to private lands within and adjacent to NFS lands; and 

providing historical and cultural value. Non-access-related benefits include providing 

edge habitat and firebreaks. Properly constructed or reconstructed roads can mitigate 

negative effects of past roading on water quality and riparian habitats (USDA Forest 

Service 2000k). 

Roads have known undesired and negative effects, including impacts on hydrology and 

geomorphic features such as debris slides; sedimentation; human-caused fire ignitions; 

habitat fragmentation; predation and wildlife mortality; invasion by exotic species; 

dispersal of pathogens; chemical contamination; and effects on some recreational 

experiences, water quality, soil productivity, and biodiversity (USDA Forest Service 

2000r). 

All management activities associated with NFS roads are required to comply with 

relevant State and Federal statutes such as the Clean Water Act, NEPA, and the 

Endangered Species Act (ESA). In addition, it is the Agency’s policy to use the best 

available scientific information and best management practices (BMPs) for planning, 
3.4 Road Construction/Reconstruction Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

116 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

designing, constructing, and maintaining roads regardless of where the road is located. 

Implementation of these policies can minimize, but not eliminate, some of these adverse 

environmental effects. 

Specific effects of road construction and reconstruction on individual resources are 

discussed later in this chapter. A key underlying assumption to all effects analyses are 

that road impacts are proportional to the miles of construction and reconstruction. 

Therefore, this analysis displays differences in road construction and reconstruction 

among alternatives.32 

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

The Forest Service maintains and administers approximately 386,000 miles of roads on 

NFS lands, 33,800 miles of which are in the State of Idaho. NFS roads serve a wide 

variety of forest users and join with county, State, and national highways to connect 

rural communities and urban centers with NFS lands. Recreation is the single largest 

use or activity supported by the NFS roads, accounting for approximately 90 percent of 

the daily traffic. Administrative use (9 percent) and commercial use (1 percent) make up 

the balance (Coghlan and Sowa 1998). 

Some NFS roads are designed and maintained to accommodate low-clearance 

passenger cars, and others are designed and maintained for high-clearance vehicles 

such as sport-utility vehicles, pickups, and jeeps (fig. 3-4). Within Idaho, about 7,500 

miles, or 22 percent, of NFS roads are maintained for low-clearance passenger cars. 

Another 13,800 miles, or 41 percent, of NFS roads are designed and maintained for 

high-clearance vehicles. The remaining 12,500 miles, or 37 percent, are single-use roads 

(for example, fire access) that are generally closed after their initial use and kept closed 

between uses. 

 

32 The Proposed Action does not identify what existing roads in Idaho Roadless Areas are needed or unneeded and it 

would not change current levels of roaded access; therefore, this EIS does not analyze these elements. In 2001, the 

Agency approved the Roads Policy (36 CFR §212), which provides the Forest Service direction about its 

transportation system. The Roads Policy gives managers a scientific process to inform their decision-making about 

what roads are needed and unneeded. In 2005, the Agency published a new travel management rule governing motor 

vehicle use on national forests and grasslands (USDA Forest Service 2005b). The Travel Management Policy 

requires each unit to designate roads, trails, and areas as open (or closed) to motor vehicle use by class of vehicle, 

and if appropriate, by time of year. No wheeled motorized use would be permitted unless it occurs on a designated 

route or area. Travel management decisions are made under separate travel planning processes and are ongoing for 

all Idaho national forests. 

Definitions of common terminology were coordinated between Forest Service policy efforts for the 2001 Road 

Policy, 2005 Planning Regulations, and the 2001 Roadless Rule. However, as a result of the 2005 Travel 

Management Policy, the terms “unclassified road” and “classified road” are no longer being used. Updated 

definitions are found in the 2005 Travel Management Policy (36 CFR 212.1) and the glossary. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.4 Road Construction/Reconstruction 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 117 

Closed

37%

High 

Clearance

41%

Passenger 

car

22%

Road design Miles 

Passenger car 7,540 

High clearance 13,760 

Closed to vehicles 12,510 

Total miles a 33,810 

a Does not include unauthorized roads.

Figure 3-4. Types of vehicle use on NFS roads in Idaho. (USDA Forest Service 2007k) 

While the Forest Service manages approximately 410 miles of paved roads in Idaho, the 

majority of higher standard NFS roads (6,580 miles) have gravel surfaces. About 26,820 

miles are surfaced with native, on-site materials. Figure 3-5 displays the percentages of 

these road surfaces. Many national forest visitors travel single-lane, gravel-surfaced 

roads that are maintained for low-clearance passenger vehicles. An additional 10,000 

miles of road are under the jurisdiction of public road agencies (State, counties) or 

private parties (adjacent private landowners, mining claimants) on NFS lands in Idaho 

(USDA Forest Service 2007k). 

Gravel

19%

Native 

Material 

80%

Paved

1%

Road surface type Miles 

Paved 410 

Gravel 6,580 

Native material (dirt) 26,820 

Total miles a 33,810 

a Does not include unauthorized roads.

Figure 3-5. Types of road surface on NFS roads in Idaho. (USDA Forest Service 2007k) 
3.4 Road Construction/Reconstruction Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

118 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Road maintenance activities are focused on resource protection, public health and 

safety considerations, and mission-related activities. Figure 3-6 shows the proportions 

of these annual road maintenance needs for Idaho national forests. Each new mile of 

NFS road competes for limited road maintenance funding. Annual maintenance on new 

roads costs, on average, approximately $1,500 per mile. In fiscal year 2006, the Forest 

Service received less than 20 percent of the estimated funding needed to maintain its 

existing road infrastructure (Moore 2007). 

FS Mission

22%

Resource 

Protection

38%

Public Health 

& Safety

40%

Annual maintenance 

requirements 

Millions of 

dollars 

Public health and safety 13 

Resource protection 12 

FS Mission 7 

Total 32 

Figure 3-6. Annual road maintenance needs in Idaho. (USDA Forest Service 2007k) 

The criteria used during RARE I and II permitted the presence of some roads in areas 

that were inventoried for wilderness consideration (USDA Forest Service 2000k). 

Subsequent roadless area inventories used the same criteria. Today, approximately 

1,800 miles of roads currently exist on less than 5 percent of the land area in Idaho 

Roadless Areas (table 3-14). Some of these roads pre-date the inventories, while others 

have been constructed where forest plans permitted development. 

These data represent “all roads” on NFS lands including forest roads, other public 

roads, private roads, and unauthorized roads based on the road data from December, 

200633. The unauthorized roads include but are not limited to jammer roads,“ user 

created routes,“ and other roads that were never authorized through contract or permit. 

 

33 From GIS road and travel routes data. Not all datasets were of equal detail and as much data as available were 

used to create the dataset for this analysis. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.4 Road Construction/Reconstruction 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 119 

Table 3-14. Miles of roads within Idaho Roadless Areas by national forest 

Forest Road miles 

Boise 85

Caribou 260

Clearwater 15

Idaho Panhandle 60

Nez Perce 10

Payette 30

Salmon/Challis 830

Sawtooth 215

Targhee 285

Wallowa-Whitman 20

Total 1,810

Over the past decade and a half, NFS road construction in Idaho has declined by 90 

percent, from a high of 1,315 miles in 1991 to 129 miles in 2006. The majority of these 

roads were built to support timber harvest. During the period 1991 to 1999, about 2,660 

miles of road were decommissioned each year (USDA Forest Service 2000k). From 2000 

to 2006, about 1,560 miles of road were decommissioned each year. More than 13 miles 

of road are decommissioned for every mile of new road constructed (USDA Forest 

Service 2006b). 

In Idaho, about 50 miles of road were constructed from 2001 to 2006; 260 miles of road 

were reconstructed; and 1,380 miles of road were decommissioned (fig. 3-7). In Idaho, 

more than 30 miles of road have been decommissioned over the past 6 years for every 

mile of new road constructed (USDA Forest Service 2006b). 

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

FY01 FY02 FY03 FY04 FY05 FY06

New Construction (Miles) 

Reconstruction (Miles)

Decommissioning (Miles)

Figure 3-7. Miles of road constructed, reconstructed, and decommissioned in Idaho 2001–2006 
3.4 Road Construction/Reconstruction Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

120 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

All Alternatives 

Road construction/reconstruction likely would not see an increase in the foreseeable 

future (next 15 years) because the appropriated road budget is flat or declining and 

there is no indication this trend will change. In addition, there is a backlog of road 

maintenance; therefore, there is no emphasis on constructing new roads that need to be 

maintained. If roads need to be constructed they would likely be temporary. 

Road Maintenance. None of the alternatives would restrict or limit road maintenance. 

In general, those activities needed to maintain a road’s current design standard, 

maintenance level, or traffic service level would be permitted. Maintenance activities 

needed to meet new environmental or safety requirements resulting from law, 

regulation, or policy would also be permitted. 

Road Decommissioning. None of the alternatives would restrict or limit road 

decommissioning. Road decommissioning is limited by available funding tied to timber 

harvest levels (timber sale contracts and stewardship contracts can help fund 

decommissioning) and would likely continue at recent historical trends. Any temporary 

roads constructed would be decommissioned after use. 

Table 3-15 presents the yearly average miles of projected road construction and 

reconstruction by alternative. 

Table 3-15. Miles of projected road construction/reconstruction by alternative, yearly average 

2001 

Roadless Rule Existing Plans 

Idaho Roadless 

Rule 

Permanent–other 0.8 0.8 0.8 

Temporary–other 0.2 0.2 0.2 

Reconstruction–other 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Total 1.0 1.0 1.0 

Permanent–timber 0 4.0 0.0 

Temporary–timber 0 2.0 1.5 

Reconstruction–timber 0 5.0 1.5 

Total 0 11.0 3.0 

Grand totals 1.0 12.0 4.0 

 Permanent–total 0.8 4.8 0.8 

 Temporary–total 0.2 2.2 1.7 

 Reconstruction–total 0.0 5.0 1.5 

Decommissioninga 1.0 3.2 2.7 

Net change 0 8.8 1.3 

a

 Decommissioned miles for Existing Plans and the Idaho Roadless Rule are assumed to sum the annual 

construction rate for temporary roads, plus the projected rate for the 2001 Roadless Rule. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.4 Road Construction/Reconstruction 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 121 

2001 Roadless Rule (no Action) 

Under the 2001 Roadless Rule, no roads would be constructed or reconstructed in 

support of timber cutting because that action is prohibited (table 3-14). Road 

construction/reconstruction is permissible for seven exceptions, primarily in relation to 

health and safety; for reserved or outstanding rights; or to prevent irreparable resource 

damage. Based on past trends and future planned actions, about 1 mile of road per year 

is projected to be constructed under the 2001 Roadless Rule. Over a 15-year period, 

about 15 miles of road are projected to be constructed, of which 12 miles would likely 

be permanent and 3 miles temporary. Any roads constructed or reconstructed because 

of the exceptions are subject to other laws, regulations, and policies governing these 

activities. In general, road construction or reconstruction done under one of the 

exceptions would be the minimum needed to meet the required short-term access need, 

if possible, and would be designed to minimize and mitigate impacts on the roadless 

character. 

Prohibiting new roads for timber cutting would prevent any construction activities that 

would result in adding road miles in roadless areas. The prohibition on reconstruction 

would prevent any construction activities that would result in improving or relocating 

an existing road in a roadless area. 

Existing Plans 

Under Existing Plans, road construction/reconstruction is prohibited in management 

prescriptions similar to the Wildland Recreation and Primitive themes and in forest 

plan special areas. Road construction/reconstruction is permitted in certain situations 

in management prescriptions similar to the Backcountry theme and is permitted in the 

GFRG theme (appendix B). 

Under Existing Plans about 12 miles of roads (including forest roads, public roads not 

under Forest Service jurisdiction, private roads, and temporary roads) per year are 

projected to be constructed or reconstructed under various authorities in Idaho 

Roadless Areas (table 3-14). Almost 90 percent of these roads would be 

constructed/reconstructed in support of timber cutting. Based on the average annual 

projections, about 180 miles of road would be constructed or reconstructed over the 

next 15 years under some kind of authorization. Of the 180 miles, about 72 miles of road 

construction would be permanent, 33 miles temporary, and 75 miles would be 

reconstructed. 

Most of the planned timber-related roads are single-purpose roads closed to traffic 

between uses or are short-term (temporary) roads that would be decommissioned. 

Temporary roads would typically be decommissioned within 1 year after use. 

Closing or decommissioning roads after use would reduce the long-term effects on the 

environment and roadless character. On the other hand, although temporary road 

construction must comply with law, regulation, and policy, in general temporary roads 

are not designed or constructed to the same standards as permanent roads and are not 
3.4 Road Construction/Reconstruction Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

122 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

intended to be part of the NFS transportation system. The result can be a higher risk of 

environmental impacts over the short run. The effects of road construction and 

reconstruction are described for the alternatives for each resource elsewhere in this 

chapter. 

Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

In the Wild Land Recreation, Primitive, and SAHTS themes, road construction/ 

reconstruction would be prohibited, except when provided for by statue or treaty or 

when needed pursuant to reserved or outstanding rights or other legal duty of the 

United States34. 

In the Backcountry theme, the Idaho Roadless Rule would permit road 

construction/reconstruction under several exceptions. In the GFRG theme, road 

construction/reconstruction is permissible. 

Based on these themes, and on historical and planned levels of road construction and 

reconstruction, about 4 miles of road (including forest roads, public roads not under 

Forest Service jurisdiction, private roads, and temporary roads) per year are projected 

to be constructed or reconstructed annually (table 3-14). Almost 75 percent of these 

roads would be constructed/reconstructed in support of timber cutting. Based on the 

average annual projections, about 60 miles of road would be constructed or 

reconstructed over the next 15 years under some kind of authorization. About 12 miles 

of road construction would be permanent and 26 miles temporary. An additional 22 

miles would be reconstructed. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would permit road construction/reconstruction in the 

Backcountry and GFRG themes to provide road access for phosphate exploration and 

development. The projection of 1 mile per year of road construction/reconstruction for 

other uses includes roads constructed to access existing phosphate leases (table 3-14). 

Phosphate exploration and development has been ongoing in Idaho Roadless Areas, 

and several areas are currently under lease (see Minerals section). 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would also permit road construction/reconstruction in the 

GFRG theme for any mineral or energy development. Only oil and gas and geothermal 

exploration are likely to occur in Idaho Roadless Areas (see Minerals section). Oil and 

gas are found only on the Caribou-Targhee National Forest and may be developed on 

the Caribou portion of the forest (see Mineral section). The Caribou is undergoing a 

leasing analysis that predicts four exploration wells could be drilled over the next 15 

years. Six miles of road are anticipated to be needed to access these wells. The 

projection does not account for this road access because it is unknown if the wells 

would be located in GFRG within an Idaho Roadless Area. 

The projection also does not account for geothermal energy development because at this 

time there is no trend information to reasonably predict a surge in geothermal activity. 

 

34 Other legal duty refers to obligations with other laws and regulations not expressly mentioned. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.4 Road Construction/Reconstruction 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 123 

The assumption is that geothermal development would first take place where roads are 

already developed, generally outside Idaho Roadless Areas because of the reduced cost 

of development. It is probable that sometime in the future geothermal development in 

Idaho Roadless Areas may become economical. If and when this happens, the road 

development required to develop geothermal wells could be greater than the road 

construction/reconstruction projections based on past and current trends. 

Under the Idaho Roadless Rule, new roads that are constructed must be temporary 

unless the responsible official determines that a permanent road meets the exceptions. 

Roads constructed for discretionary mineral activities must be conducted in a manner 

that minimizes effects on surface resources, prevents unnecessary or unreasonable 

surface disturbances, and complies with all applicable lease requirements, land and 

resource management plan direction, regulations, and laws. Roads constructed or 

reconstructed must be decommissioned when they are no longer needed or when the 

lease, contract, or permit expires, whichever is sooner. 

CUMULATIVE EFFECTS

During scoping the public expressed concerned about the cumulative effects of the 

prohibitions and permissions of road construction/reconstruction and how they may 

affect future access in combination with the 2001 Roads Policy and the 2005 Travel 

Management Policy. None of the alternatives include management direction regarding 

access management. 

The 2001 Roads Policy is an analysis process that provides information to inform the 

Agency of what roads are needed and what roads may no longer be needed. The 

decision to keep or decommission roads is made at a later time, either through project 

planning or other planning efforts. 

The 2005 Travel Management Policy directs the Agency to designate which roads, trails 

and areas will be open to motorized travel. All Idaho national forests are going through 

travel planning activities, including a separate public involvement process, as well as 

NEPA. The prohibitions in the three alternatives may limit the amount of new 

construction, thereby limiting any new access to roadless areas. However, based on past 

experience, there have been limited roads constructed in roadless areas, and those roads 

that have been constructed have generally been closed to motorized travel once the 

activity was completed. That trend likely will not change because of budgets and other 

priority work. None of the alternatives would have a measurable impact on access to 

NFS lands or on rural highway access when considered on a State or national scale 

because: (1) they do not include access decisions and (2) new road construction is 

projected to be minimal in the foreseeable future. 
3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

124 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

3.5 Minerals and Energy Resources 

INTRODUCTION

A wide variety of mineral and energy resources occur in Idaho Roadless Areas. Mineral 

resources may be classified into three categories: locatable minerals, leasable minerals 

and saleable minerals. The analysis evaluates how each alternative may affect the ability 

to access and recover mineral resources and provides a foundation for the analysis 

provided in other resource sections. 

Locatable minerals are generally metals (such as gold and silver) but also include rare 

earth elements such as uranium and special uncommon varieties of sand, stone, gravel, 

pumice, pumicite, and cinders. Development of such minerals is subject to the General 

Mining Law of 1872. 

Leasable minerals are those minerals that can be explored for and developed under one 

of several Federal mineral leasing acts. Leasable minerals in Idaho include energy 

mineral resources such as oil, gas, and geothermal, as well as non-energy minerals such 

as phosphate. Moreover, for lands acquired or administered under the Weeks Act (PL 

61-435) and the Bankhead-Jones Act (PL 75-210), the 1872 Mining Law does not apply 

and deposits of otherwise locatable minerals such as gold and garnet are leasable. 

Although it varies by commodity, surface use associated with the exploration and 

development of leasable minerals generally requires excavation pits, facilities, power 

lines, pipelines, communication sites, and associated transportation systems. Efficient 

exploration and development of leasable minerals is generally not possible without the 

ability to build roads. In the case of oil, gas, and geothermal resources, the industry has 

the capability to avoid disturbing sensitive surface resources by using directional 

drilling techniques. However, directional drilling is unlikely to be widely used in Idaho 

because of economic and technological limitations such as unknown resource potential 

and complex geology. 

The Government’s decision regarding whether to lease leasable mineral resources is 

discretionary, meaning that leasing may or may not be allowed. The Bureau of Land 

Management (BLM) has the exclusive authority to dispose of leasable mineral resources 

on NFS lands. However, BLM may not lease oil, gas, or geothermal resources on NFS 

lands over the objections of the Forest Service. In the case of phosphate, BLM must seek 

Forest Service recommendations for measures to protect surface resources, but may 

lease without Forest Service consent. A Federal lease conveys to the holder the right to 

explore and develop the leased commodity subject to lease terms, stipulations, and 

applicable regulations. 

Saleable minerals are common varieties of sand, stone, gravel, soil, and clay. Generally, 

they are widespread and of low value, used primarily for construction or landscaping 

materials. Their value depends on market factors, quality of the material, and 

availability of transportation. Disposal of these resources is at the sole discretion of the 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 125 

Forest Service and is subject to the provisions of 36 CFR 228, subpart C. Under these 

regulations, the Forest Service may either: (1) sell material for commercial use or for 

personal use by the public; (2) allow free use of material for public projects by other 

Federal agencies or State and local governments; or (3) use material itself for Agency 

projects on NFS lands. The regulations also require that disturbance associated with 

mineral material sites is approved by the Forest Service in an operating plan that 

includes provisions to protect the environment and reclaim the surface in a timely 

manner. 

Other areas discussed in this section include abandoned and inactive mines, geological 

and paleontological resources, and energy corridors. 

LOCATABLE MINERALS: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Valuable deposits of locatable mineral resources potentially exist in Idaho Roadless 

Areas. Of the 281 roadless areas, 102 contain an estimated 2,085 active mining claims. 

The number of claims within Idaho Roadless Areas constantly changes as new claims 

are staked and others are allowed to lapse by the claimholders. 

LOCATABLE MINERALS: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

All Alternatives 

In the long term, it is reasonable to assume that future exploration, mining, and mineral 

processing activities would continue to occur in Idaho Roadless Areas where valuable 

deposits exist. While it is not possible to accurately predict where and when 

development would occur, the existence of active mining claims within a given roadless 

area is one indicator of where there is both potential for a valuable mineral deposit and 

for future mineral-related activity. 

When necessary, construction or reconstruction of roads for locatable mineral 

exploration or development is part of the reasonable right of access provided under the 

General Mining Law. Therefore, none of the alternatives would affect rights of 

reasonable access to prospect and explore lands open to mineral entry and to develop 

valid claims. 

All proposals for locatable mineral exploration or development are subject to the 

planning and design requirements governing locatable minerals in 36 CFR 228, subpart 

A, and the appropriate level of environmental analysis. The plan of operations would 

be approved subject to modifications identified in the environmental analysis and 

would be binding on the operator. 

Under all alternatives, an estimated average of 1 mile or less per year of road 

construction or reconstruction is projected to occur in Idaho Roadless Areas during the 

next 15 years for all non-timber related activities, including mineral activities, such as 

access to locatable minerals and exploration within existing lease areas (see chapter 3, 

Assumptions and Projections). It is anticipated that should the rise in the price of metals 
3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

126 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

continue, there would be a corresponding increase in exploration activity on mining 

claims resulting in an increase in road construction or reconstruction within Idaho 

Roadless Areas. 

LEASABLE MINERALS: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Coal. Currently there are no existing leases or pending lease applications on NFS lands 

in Idaho, and no demonstrated industry interest. Consequently, no foreseeable activity 

(that is, in the next 15 years) is anticipated for exploration or development of coal 

reserves; therefore, coal will not be discussed further. 

Oil and Gas. Since 1903, about 145 wells have been drilled throughout Idaho to explore 

for oil and gas, but not one has yet yielded a commercial discovery. With no 

commercial discovery, all the oil and gas leases on NFS lands in Idaho have expired and 

there are presently no active oil and gas leases on any national forest in Idaho. 

Presently, the potential for occurrence of oil and gas is unknown to low in all Idaho 

national forests, with the exception of the Caribou-Targhee National Forest and the 

Curlew National Grassland. While there is potential for occurrence on these NFS lands, 

the potential for development is much less certain. This is evident in a 2003 U.S. 

Geological Survey’s assessment of undiscovered oil and gas resources within the 

Wyoming Thrust province (Kirschbaum 2003). This assessment made an allocation of 

the potential for undiscovered oil and gas reserves for individual States within the 

province. Idaho, which made up 38.4 percent of the province area, was allocated none 

of the undiscovered oil resources, and 1 percent of the undiscovered gas resources. 

In 2005, more than 200,000 acres of land on the Caribou portion of the Caribou-Targhee 

National Forest were nominated by the industry for oil and gas leasing. In response, the 

forest initiated a leasing analysis for both the national forest and the Curlew National 

Grasslands. The draft reasonably foreseeable development scenario being prepared for 

the EIS process predicts four exploratory wells would be drilled on the Caribou over the 

next 15 years (Robison 2007). Each well is predicted to require 6 miles of new roads to 

access the well pads. It is anticipated—based on the geology, the historical level of 

drilling activity and success rate, the near lack of infrastructure to support oil or gas 

development, and the lack of any historical or currently producing oil/gas wells/fields 

in southeast Idaho and surrounding area—that none of the four wells drilled would be 

capable of economic commercial production (Robison 2007). 

The forest supervisor of the Targhee National Forest issued an oil and gas leasing 

decision in 2000 (Reese 2000). The decision made much of the forest either unavailable 

for leasing or available for leasing with a no surface occupancy (NSO) lease stipulation. 

The large expanse of the designated NSO areas renders them virtually impossible to 

economically explore and develop. Directional drilling could be used to explore 

portions of NSO leased lands adjacent to areas where surface occupancy may be 

allowed. However, it is not expected that the industry would incur the extra expense of 

directional drilling without the promise of the full economic enjoyment of the entire 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 127 

lease area. This is particularly true in relatively unexplored areas such as Idaho 

Roadless Areas, where the complex geology and lack of known commercial production 

greatly increase the financial risk of drilling. No wells have been drilled in the Targhee 

portion of the Caribou-Targhee National Forest since the leasing decision. 

Geothermal. Geothermal resources are underground reservoirs of hot water or steam 

created by heat from the earth. Geothermal is considered a “clean” energy source 

because it does not produce any greenhouse gases. Geothermal steam and hot water 

can reach the surface of the earth in the form of hot springs, geysers, mud pots, or steam 

vents. These resources also can be accessed by wells, and the heat energy can be used 

for generating electricity or other “direct uses,” such as dehydrating vegetables or 

heating greenhouses, homes, commercial buildings, and aquaculture operations. Direct 

uses of geothermal energy do not require the intermediate to high temperatures 

required for power generation. 

The full extent of Idaho’s geothermal resource potential has yet to be discovered. Idaho 

has only recently (in 2006) experienced the construction start of its first commercial 

geothermal power facility on private land at Raft River. In addition to this single 

electrical-generating facility, Idaho also hosts 73 operating direct-use facilities at more 

than 40 separate resource areas in the State. This relatively limited geothermal 

development throughout the State has been attributed to years of low-cost hydroelectric 

power (Fleischmann 2006). 

The Geothermal Task Force of the Western Governor’s Association estimated that Idaho 

has 855 megawatts (MW) of near-term economic potential resources (that is, by 2015) 

and 1,670 MW of long-term potential (by 2025). A megawatt is enough energy to power 

300 houses. This report gives 305 MW at six identified sites and 550 MW at “other Idaho 

sites” that are not named in the reports. One of the six identified sites is on the Salmon 

National Forest and is projected to have a near-term resource capacity of 10 megawatts. 

Other than the resource estimate for the single site in the Salmon National Forest, there 

is no overall estimate of geothermal resource capacity of Idaho’s national forests or 

Idaho Roadless Areas (Geothermal Task Force 2006). 

Historically, there was interest in geothermal leasing on national forests in Idaho in the 

late 1970s and early 1980s. Areas of interest included the Island Park area of the Targhee 

National Forest, Vulcan Hot Springs in the Boise National Forest, and Big Creek Hot 

Springs in the Salmon National Forest. Although some NFS lands in Idaho were leased 

for geothermal, the leases were never developed and eventually expired. Presently, 

there are no geothermal leases on NFS lands in Idaho. 

Higher energy prices and new legislative incentives contained in the 2005 Energy Policy 

Act have renewed interest in geothermal leasing. In August 2005, Ormat Nevada 

Incorporated (Ormat), an active company in the geothermal power industry, filed six 

geothermal lease applications for 11,130 acres in the Boise National Forest, which 

includes 7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area. Ormat also filed another three 
3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

128 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

geothermal lease applications for 5,600 acres in the Salmon National Forest, which 

includes about 33 acres of the West Panther Creek Roadless Area. 

The BLM and Forest Service have initiated a national programmatic EIS for geothermal 

development to assist in geothermal leasing and permitting on BLM public lands and 

NFS lands. The draft programmatic EIS is tentatively scheduled for release in December 

2007. When completed, the EIS will help the Forest Service decide whether or not to 

allow BLM to lease lands with medium to high geothermal potential, including the 

lands contained in the Boise and the Salmon-Challis National Forest applications. None 

of the Idaho forests have a current leasing decision for geothermal resources (US 

Department of Energy [USDE], USDI BLM, USDA Forest Service 2005).

A regional geothermal resource assessment produced by the Southern Methodist 

University (SMU) Geothermal Heat Laboratory (Southern Methodist University 2004) 

was used in this analysis to identify the geothermal resource potential of Idaho 

Roadless Areas. This 2002 assessment was used because it is broad enough to provide 

coverage for all of Idaho. The SMU report produced a qualitative composite of 

information on heat flow, thermal gradient, sediment thickness, and hot springs. Based 

on these variables, the assessment produced digital map coverage of broad areas of 

geothermal resources and rated these resources as having high, medium, or low 

development potential. The SMU assessment does not include information on 

specifically where, what kind, or how much actual geothermal development would 

occur within these areas. Figure 3-8 shows the extent of the high, medium, and low 

areas of geothermal potential in Idaho. 

The SMU map is probably an optimistic projection of Idaho’s geothermal potential 

because it is based on a qualitative composite, covering broad expanses of land. 

Another estimate of Idaho’s geothermal potential can be found on the Idaho 

Department of Water Resources website at www.idahogeothermal.org. Other maps can 

be viewed at www.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/geomap.html and 

www.smu.edu/geothermal/2004NAMap/2004NAmap.htm. Although these maps are 

helpful in identifying where there is geothermal potential, there has not been any 

history of geothermal activities on NFS lands to predict specifically where, what kind, 

or how much actual geothermal development would occur within the areas of potential. 

Table 3-16 summarizes the acreage of geothermal potential from the SMU report for 

both Idaho Roadless Areas and non-roadless area NFS lands in Idaho. 

Table 3-16. Acreage of geothermal resource potential on NFS lands in Idaho 

Geothermal resource potential High Medium Low Total 

Inside Idaho Roadless Areas 4,837,400 3,960,900 505,400 9,303,700 

Outside Idaho Roadless Areas 5,370,800 5,389,200 1,436,300 12,196,300 

Total NFS lands 10,208,200 9,350,100 1,941,700 21,500,000 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 129 

Figure 3-8. Overlap of Idaho Roadless Areas and geothermal potential 
3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

130 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Phosphate. The Caribou-Targhee National Forest contains significant deposits of 

economically recoverable phosphate that is used primarily in the production of 

fertilizers. Idaho phosphate production is a significant national resource, representing 

about 15 percent of total U.S. production in 2001. Revenues from phosphate-related 

activity in Caribou County, Idaho, on Federal leases for fiscal year 2001 were almost 

$9.34 million, about 90 percent of which was generated from the national forest (USDA 

Forest Service 2003). 

The Targhee portion of the Caribou-Targhee National Forest currently has three active 

phosphate leases issued in the mid-1950s, totaling 1,690 leased acres. Of this leased 

acreage, about 1,100 acres are within the Mt. Jefferson Roadless Area. Some mining 

occurred shortly thereafter on leased portions outside and adjacent to the roadless area. 

There has been no phosphate activity in the area since that time and none is expected in 

the foreseeable future. 

Currently, the Caribou portion of the Caribou-Targhee National Forest has 49 active 

phosphate leases affecting 27,500 acres of NFS lands. Of these active leases, 

approximately 8,000 acres are within six roadless areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, 

Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, and Stump Creek) (table 3-17 and fig. 9). Some 

of these leased lands have already been mined; however the exact amount is not 

available due to the lack of GIS information for previously mined areas. All the leased 

lands within roadless areas were issued prior to the effective date of the 2001 Roadless 

Rule. It is a common occurrence for existing leases to be modified to prevent the bypass 

or waste of mineable phosphate reserves that become evident as mining advances. 

Table 3-17. Idaho Roadless Areas potentially affected by phosphate mining 

Idaho Roadless 

Area 

Acres under 

existing lease 

(leased acres 

w/in a KPLA)1

Percentage 

affected by 

existing 

leases 

KPLA acres 

with potential 

to be leased2

Percentage 

affected by 

potential KPLA 

future leases KPLA location 

Dry Ridge 1,400 (1,300) 6 800 3 Eastern edge 

Huckleberry 

Basin 

3,200 (2,800) 16 1,400 7 Northwest edge 

Meade Peak 500 (500) 1 2,500 6 Northeast edge 

Sage Creek 2,700 (2,600) 21 1,700 13 Southern portion 

Schmid Peak 40 (40) <1 20 <1 Eastern edge 

Stump Creek 160 (120) <1 120 <1 Southern edge 

Bald Mountain 0 (0) 0 1,400 8 Northeast edge 

Bear Creek 0 (0) 0 5,100 5 Northeast edge 

Poker Creek 0 (0) 0 400 2 Northeast edge 

Mount Jefferson 1,100 (0) 2 0 0 

Totals 9,100 (7,400) 13,440 

1

Not all existing lease acres are within a KPLA (known phosphate lease area). 

2

 Estimated acres do not include 1⁄2-mile buffer added to the Caribou’s KPLAs to allow for additional facilities needed 

for exploration and/or mine operations if lease is approved. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 131 

Figure 3-9. Overlap of Idaho Roadless Areas and existing phosphate leases and known unleased phosphate 

deposits. 
3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

132 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

In addition, 13,400 acres of phosphate deposits within Idaho Roadless Areas are 

unleased and are located within known phosphate lease areas (KPLAs), a U.S. 

Geological Survey designation to identify lands known to contain phosphate deposits 

(fig. 9). Table 3-16 summarizes the acreage of KPLAs within roadless areas on the 

Caribou-Targhee National Forest. The phosphate deposits generally exist on the edges 

of the roadless area, which would leave the core of the roadless area intact should 

mining occur. 

Phosphate is currently being surface mined from two mines located on the Caribou 

portion of the forest, the Dry Valley Mine and the Smoky Canyon Mine. Operations at a 

third mine on the Caribou, the North Rasmussen Ridge Mine, have been temporarily 

suspended but are expected to resume within the next 3 years. The Dry Valley Mine 

and the North Rasmussen Ridge Mine are not operating near roadless areas and would 

not be affecting roadless areas for the foreseeable future (J. Cundick 2007 pers. comm.). 

Although the Smokey Canyon Mine currently is not operating within a roadless area, it 

is the only projected phosphate mine to operate within roadless area over the next 15 

years. 

An EIS is in progress for a proposed expansion of the Smoky Canyon Mine (USDI BLM, 

USDA Forest Service, 2006 and 2007). The Smoky Canyon expansion proposes to mine 

about 2 million tons of phosphate ore per year from 2,080 acres of leased lands. The 

proposed mine plan would disturb 1,040 acres of surface in the Sage Creek Roadless 

Area and 60 acres in the Meade Peak Roadless Area. About 320 acres of the total surface 

disturbance within the roadless areas is proposed to occur off of existing lease holdings 

or on proposed lease modifications.35

Over the 16-year life of the project, the Smoky Canyon Mine expansion would construct 

about 5 miles of main haul within the roadless areas, disturbing about 120 acres. With 

an operating width of 100 feet, main haul roads require an overall disturbance with of 

100 to 500 feet, depending on terrain. In addition to the main haul road, 980 acres of 

disturbance would occur with the two affected roadless areas as the surface mine, soil 

and overburden storage piles, settling ponds, ditches, and power lines are developed. 

As the surface mine advances, it follows the long, linear surface outcrop pattern of the 

phosphate deposits. Fully developed, the active pit area would be several hundred feet 

wide and 200–400 feet deep (fig. 3-10). The mining operation continues along the trend 

of the deposit, backfilling and reclaiming the pit as the ore is removed (fig. 3-11). The 

mine would be a 24-hours-per-day operation as the overburden and ore are drilled, 

blasted, loaded, and hauled using a shovel-and-truck fleet. All surface disturbances 

would be reclaimed after the project is completed with the exception of about 70 acres 

(steep pit walls and a section of road that would be left for future use). An average of 

about 70 acres of the roadless areas would be of disturbed per year (1,100 acres/16 

years). 

 

35 There are about 520 acres with the proposed Smokey Canyon lease modifications, but only 320 acres 

would have surface disturbance. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 133 

In addition to the Smokey Canyon Mine, there are about 3,700 acres of pending lease 

modifications, prospecting permits, and exploration license applications in the CaribouTarghee National Forest. Given a history of phosphate deposits being leased outside of 

KPLA boundaries (table 3-16); it is assumed that the Caribou has additional roadless 

areas outside KPLAs with phosphate potential. Lands outside of KPLAs would need 

further exploration to determine their leasing potential. 

Figure 3-10. Open pit 

Figure 3-11. Reclaimed pit 
3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

134 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

LEASABLE MINERALS: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

All Alternatives 

Phosphate. None of the alternatives would prohibit road construction or reconstruction 

associated with developing existing leases on the Caribou-Targhee National Forest or 

the continuation, extension, or renewal of these leases. 

Consequently, the 1,100 acres of reasonably foreseeable road construction and mining 

disturbance associated with developing existing leases at the proposed Smoky Canyon 

Mine expansion is expected to occur within Sage Creek and Meade Peak Roadless Areas 

under all alternatives36. This development is likely to occur over the next 15 years. 

Projecting beyond the Smoky Canyon Mine expansion, it is reasonable to assume that 

the remaining phosphate deposits currently under lease, roughly 8,000 acres, within 

seven roadless areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid 

Peak, Stump Creek, and Mount Jefferson) would also be mined. Using the Smoky 

Canyon expansion as an example of the level of expected activity, an estimated 17 miles 

of haul road construction and other surface mining disturbance would ultimately take 

place within the seven roadless areas37. This disturbance would spread out over an 

extremely long period of time (50 or more years) as mines are eventually permitted and 

developed. 

2001 Roadless Rule 

The 2001 Roadless Rule did not prohibit mineral leasing in Idaho Roadless Areas but 

did prohibit the construction or reconstruction of roads associated with leases issued 

after January 12, 2001, the date the rule was published. Proposals for exploration or 

development of leasable minerals using existing roads or not requiring construction or 

reconstruction of roads within Idaho Roadless Areas were not affected. Prohibition of 

road construction or reconstruction in roadless areas would factor into the analysis of 

lands available for lease when leasing decisions are made. 

Oil and Gas. The Caribou-Targhee National Forest is the only forest in Idaho with 

potential for oil and gas activity in the foreseeable future (next 15 years). There are no 

existing oil and gas leases in Idaho Roadless Areas. 

The Targhee portion of the Caribou-Targhee National Forest issued a decision in 2000 

that either precludes development or places a NSO stipulation on the roadless areas on 

the Targhee; therefore, the 2001 Roadless Rule would have no effect on the oil and gas 

leasing decision already in place on the Targhee. 

 

36 This projection assumes that the 320 acres of disturbance associated with the proposed lease 

modification is determined to be consistent with the 2001 Roadless Rule. 

37 This estimate of disturbance is likely overstated because it does not account for existing leased area that 

has already been mined. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 135 

The 2001 Roadless Rule could preclude oil and gas development in roadless areas on 

the Caribou portion of the Caribou-Targhee National Forest. It is expected there would 

be no commercial interest in oil and gas leasing in roadless areas because the 2001 

Roadless Rule prohibits road construction/reconstruction to access new leases. This 

expectation is based on recent action taken by oil and gas lessees in Utah’s Uinta 

National Forest. Upon learning that their leases would be subject to the reinstated 2001 

Roadless Rule, these lessees requested that BLM suspend their leases, asserting that 

they were “prevented from operating on the leases.” 

If the four exploratory wells projected in the draft reasonably foreseeable development 

scenario require new road construction or reconstruction, they would have to be located 

outside roadless areas. However, based on the U.S. Geological Survey’s assessment that 

there is low potential for undiscovered resources in southeast Idaho, the impacts on oil 

and gas exploration and development would be minimal. 

Geothermal. There are no existing geothermal leases on Idaho Roadless Areas. 

Therefore, there would be no new roads developed under the specific exemption in the 

2001 Roadless Rule for that purpose. Any new leases issued would be subject to the 

2001 Roadless Rule road prohibitions. Assuming the density of existing roads within 

roadless areas is not adequate to explore and develop geothermal resources, it is 

expected there would be no commercial interest in geothermal leasing. This expectation 

is based on the reaction of Utah oil and gas lessees, who requested a suspension of their 

leases upon learning that their leases were subject to the roadless rule provisions, 

claiming they were prevented from operating on their leases. 

Exploration methods used for geothermal are similar to those used for oil and gas. 

Consequently, no development of geothermal resource potential is expected on the 9.3 

million acres of Idaho Roadless Areas. About 10.6 million acres of NFS lands outside 

Idaho Roadless Areas with high to moderate geothermal potential may be available for 

exploration and development, depending on the existing plan direction (table 3-16). The 

impact on the recovery of geothermal resources cannot be quantified because there is no 

specific resource estimate from which to draw. 

Phosphate. Under the 2001 Roadless Rule, there would be no new road construction or 

reconstruction within Idaho Roadless Areas on the 13,400 acres of known unleased 

deposits on the Caribou-Targhee National Forest. This assumes BLM would issue any 

new leases with a stipulation that would subject the lease to the 2001 Roadless Rule 

prohibitions; therefore, it is expected there would be no commercial interest in new 

phosphate leasing within roadless areas. Accordingly, the phosphate deposits on this 

acreage would not be mined because roads could not be built to support advance 

drilling needed to specifically define the mineable deposit. 

Although the inability of industry to lease and mine recoverable reserves from these 

lands would not be a near-term impact, for the long term this alternative would forego 

the recovery of an estimated 603 million tons of phosphate resource. This estimate 

assumed an average of 45,000 tons of recoverable phosphate ore from each acre mined, 
3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

136 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

and applied this average to the entire 13,400 unleased acres. This recoverable reserve 

figure is based on typical recovery rates of existing mines in the area and is subject to 

significant variation depending on actual conditions encountered should these lands be 

mined. 

In addition to unleased lands associated with known deposits, undiscovered phosphate 

deposits may exist within other portions of Idaho Roadless Areas. It is unlikely these 

potential resources would be explored to determine if economic reserves exist since no 

new roads could be constructed to access new drill sites. 

Existing Plans 

Management of leasable mineral resources in Idaho Roadless Areas would be guided by 

Existing Plans. If one doesn’t already exist, environmental impact statements are 

usually prepared on a forest-wide basis to address leasing decisions. Areas with 

management prescriptions to protect roadless area values either may not be leased, may 

be leased with a NSO stipulation, or may generate a forest plan amendment. Areas with 

management prescriptions that allow road construction or reconstruction may be leased 

subject to standard lease terms and any other supplemental stipulations deemed 

appropriate and necessary by the Forest Service. 

Oil and Gas. The Caribou-Targhee National Forest is the only forest with potential for 

oil and gas activity in the foreseeable future (next 15 years). The Targhee portion of the 

forest issued a decision in 2000 that either precludes leasing or places a NSO stipulation 

on the roadless areas on the Targhee. Without either a lease or the ability to occupy the 

surface, no oil and gas wells could be constructed within roadless areas on the Targhee. 

The Caribou portion of the forest is conducting an analysis to decide which NFS lands 

would be made available for leasing and under what terms and conditions (USDA 

Forest Service, USDI BLM 2006). Under the Existing Plan management prescriptions, 

road construction is permissible on approximately 89,000 acres of the 741,700 acres in 

roadless areas. It is expected there would be no commercial interest in leasing the 

remainder of the Caribou’s roadless areas because experience elsewhere has shown that 

the industry generally believes leases cannot be developed without the ability to 

construct roads. Therefore, any exploratory wells would be located within the 450,200 

acres of lands outside roadless areas and in roadless areas where road construction is 

permitted. With the low potential for recoverable oil and gas reserves in southeast 

Idaho, the availability of only a small portion of roadless areas for road 

construction/reconstruction should have minimal impact on the development of oil 

and gas resources. 

Geothermal. Without any trend data for geothermal exploration and development 

activities on NFS lands in Idaho, it is too speculative to predict the amount of new road 

construction/reconstruction that would occur in Idaho Roadless Areas under Existing 

Plans. Some level of exploration and development may occur if road construction or 

reconstruction is not prohibited under a specific forest plan prescription and if surface 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 137 

occupancy is permitted. Table 3-18 provides a summary of Idaho Roadless Areas 

acreage by geothermal resource potential and forest plan prescriptions grouped into 

equivalent State management themes. The impact on the recovery of geothermal 

resources cannot be quantified for any of the themes discussed here because there is no 

specific resource estimate from which to draw. 

Table 3-18. Acres of Idaho Roadless Areas by Existing Plan theme equivalent and geothermal resource 

potential 

Existing Plan theme equivalent Acres of geothermal resource potential 

High Medium Low Total 

Wild Land Recreation 824,000 460,900 35,900 1,320,800 

Primitive 1,507,700 454,800 169,300 2,131,800 

Backcountry 1,932,600 2,116,600 195,900 4,245,100 

GFRG 387,300 796,600 77,800 1,261,700 

Forest plan special areas 185,800 132,500 26,500 344,800 

 4,837,400 3,961,400 505,400 9,304,200 

None of the forests in Idaho have a current leasing decision for geothermal, which 

would need to be completed before lands could be offered. Leasing decisions would 

take into account roads standards for respective forest plan prescriptions and identify 

other required lease stipulations to protect surface resources. One such stipulation 

would likely be no surface occupancy on slopes steeper than 40 percent. Table 3-19 

shows the Idaho Roadless Areas acreage where surface occupancy or road building 

would be allowed because slopes are less than 40 percent. About 50 percent of Idaho 

Roadless Areas are less than 40 percent slope. 

Table 3-19. Acres of Idaho Roadless Areas by Existing Plan theme equivalent and geothermal resource 

potential with slopes less than 40 percent 1

Acres of geothermal resource potential 

with slopes less than 40 percent 

Existing Plan theme equivalent High Medium Low Total 

Wild Land Recreation 304,700 204,000 15,100 523,800 

Primitive 692,500 205,000 64,700 962,200 

Backcountry 1,095,500 1,050,600 87,400 2,233,500 

GFRG 249,500 457,700 30,500 737,700 

Forest plan special areas 90,900 61,900 12,200 165,000 

 2,433,100 1,979,200 209,900 4,622,200 

1

Based on overlay of the SMU map with the Existing Plan themes 

Geothermal resources under the forest plan management prescriptions similar to Wild 

Land Recreation, Primitive, and forest plan special areas are not expected to be 

developed because of prohibitions on road construction or reconstruction. This 

expectation is based on the experience with certain oil and gas lessees in Utah who 

believe they cannot develop a lease without the ability to construct new roads. The 

methods used to explore for geothermal are similar to those used in oil and gas. 

Furthermore, the density of existing roads is probably not adequate to explore and 
3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

138 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

develop the geothermal resource in these areas. It is also likely that in large portions of 

these areas, surface occupancy would not be allowed to avoid steep slopes and to 

protect other sensitive surface resources, further supporting the prediction that no 

development would occur. These areas constitute about 40 percent of Idaho Roadless 

Areas. 

Under the forest plan management prescriptions similar to the Backcountry theme, road 

construction or reconstruction would be permissible only under limited circumstances 

on some of the lands and precluded completely on other portions. Some forest plans—

such as the Boise, Payette, and Sawtooth—preclude road construction or reconstruction 

for new leases (see appendix B). On those lands where new or reconstructed roads are 

precluded, there would not likely be any geothermal leasing or associated activities. 

Given that road construction or reconstruction could occur in at least some of the 

Backcountry lands, there is potential that some level of geothermal activity would 

occur. If fully developed, roads, transmission lines, and other facilities would likely be 

constructed (see appendix I for a description of general development of geothermal 

resources). The Backcountry theme contains a substantial amount (46 percent) of the 

roadless areas with geothermal potential, with the majority being high and medium 

potential. About 24 percent of Idaho Roadless Areas in the Backcountry theme have 

slopes less than 40 percent and could have some potential for development (table 3-19), 

provided road construction or reconstruction is permitted. 

Management prescriptions in Existing Plans similar to the GFRG theme would permit 

road construction or reconstruction to access mineral leases. The amount of activity 

would be relative to the amount of land available. GFRG lands constitute 16 percent of 

the total roadless areas in the State. About 8 percent of Idaho Roadless Areas in GFRG 

have slopes less than 40 percent (table 3-19). These lands have potential to host some 

level of geothermal activities because of the open access. Any future exploration or 

development would undergo separate environmental analysis. If fully developed, 

roads, transmission lines, and other facilities would likely be constructed (see appendix 

I for a description of general development of geothermal resources). 

Currently lease applications have been submitted for geothermal development, which 

could affect 7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area on the Boise National Forest 

and 33 acres of the West Panther Roadless Area on the Salmon National Forest. Lands 

in the Peace Rock Roadless Area are in management prescriptions similar to 

Backcountry, and lands in the West Panther Roadless Area are in management 

prescriptions similar to GFRG. These areas could be made available for leasing 

depending on the outcome of the pending leasing decision; development as described 

in appendix I could then occur. 

Phosphate. The existing Caribou Forest Plan, covering the Caribou portion of the 

Caribou-Targhee National Forest, permits leasing of the estimated 6,500 acres of 

unleased known phosphate lease areas (KPLAs) and/or other possible roadless areas 

that contain undiscovered phosphate resources. Unleased KPLAs in the forest plan 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 139 

have a dual management prescription. In addition to the variety of prescriptions that 

apply to the unleased KPLAs, the forest plan recognizes these lands as having potential 

to be leased for phosphate exploration and possible mining. If leases are issued, the 

lands are then managed under the prescription for active phosphate mines. The 

prescription includes a half-mile buffer around the KPLA to accommodate support 

facilities or developments, including lease modifications that could be needed for mine 

activities. If phosphate leases are approved, they would be allowed reasonable access 

when future exploration drilling and mining is permitted. Reasonable access in these 

instances could include road construction or reconstruction within additional areas 

outside of the half-mile buffer around KPLAs. Using the Smoky Canyon expansion as 

an example of the level of expected activity, roughly 70 percent of the total amount of 

haul road construction necessary for a given mining project would ultimately take place 

within the half-mile buffer round KPLAs and in roadless areas. 

The 6,900 acres of unleased KPLA in the Targhee portion of the Caribou-Targhee 

National Forest would have to undergo a separate NEPA analysis in order to determine 

how much of the 6,900 acres of KPLA could actually be leased. 

There is expected to be little or no demand for unleased KPLA acreage within roadless 

areas for the foreseeable future because of the amount of reserves the industry already 

has under lease. However, in the long term (50 or more years) it is reasonable to assume 

that all 13,400 acres of unleased KPLA within Idaho Roadless Areas contain mineable 

reserves and would eventually be leased. If this should occur, roads, pits, and other 

surface mining facilities would be expected to be constructed within these roadless 

areas. This disturbance would spread out over an extremely long period of time (50 or 

more years) as mines are developed. If the unleased KPLAs are leased, there would be a 

potential to incrementally affect the forest’s roadless area acreage by less than one 

percent. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

Under the Idaho Roadless Rule, the Forest Service would not recommend, authorize, or 

consent to road construction/reconstruction for new mineral or energy leases in Idaho 

Roadless Areas managed under the Wild Land Recreation, Primitive, and SAHTS 

themes. These areas constitute 3,103,500 acres, or 33 percent of the total roadless area 

acreage in the State. The Idaho Roadless Rule would also not recommend, authorize or 

consent to authorize surface occupancy in the Wild Land Recreation, Primitive, and 

SAHTS themes. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule also would prohibit road construction/reconstruction in the 

Backcountry theme, except as associated with phosphate leasing. Surface occupancy 

without road construction/reconstruction would be permissible for all mineral leasing. 

The rule would permit both surface occupancy and road construction/reconstruction 

for phosphate resources in the Backcountry theme. 
3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

140 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

The GFRG theme would permit both surface occupancy and road construction or 

reconstruction for all leasable mineral activities. 

Oil and Gas. The Caribou-Targhee National Forest is the only forest, in Idaho with 

potential for oil and gas activity in the foreseeable future (next 15 years). The Targhee 

portion of the forest issued a decision in 2000 that either precludes leasing or places a 

NSO stipulation on any leases issued within the roadless areas on the Targhee. Without 

either a lease or the ability to occupy the surface, no oil and gas wells could be 

constructed within roadless areas on the Targhee. Without a lease, industry would have 

no authority to locate upon or drill wells to explore for oil and gas. An NSO stipulation 

means a lessee could not construct surface locations for wells on the lease. Directional 

drilling could be used to explore portions of NSO leases adjacent to areas where surface 

occupancy may be permitted. However, the large expanse of the Targhee’s NSO areas 

renders them virtually impossible to economically explore and develop entirely via 

directional drilling methods. It is not expected that the industry would incur the extra 

expense of any directional drilling without the promise of the full economic enjoyment 

of the entire lease area. This is particularly true in relatively unexplored areas such as 

Idaho’s roadless areas, where complex geology and no known commercial production 

greatly increase the financial risk of drilling. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule prohibits surface occupancy and road construction or 

reconstruction for oil and gas within the Wild Land Recreation (42,100 acres) or 

Primitive theme (44,400 acres) found on the Caribou portion of the Caribou-Targhee 

National Forest38. Similar to the previous discussion regarding the impact of the 

Targhee leasing decision, these prohibitions would preclude exploration and 

development of oil and gas resources in these areas because the large expanse of these 

areas would make it virtually impossible to develop the resource without occupying the 

site. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would permit surface occupancy within the Backcountry 

theme but prohibits road construction or reconstruction for oil and gas resources 

(371,700 acres). Despite the ability to occupy the surface, it is expected there would be 

no commercial interest in leasing lands under this theme because of the road 

prohibition. This expectation is based on the recent experience with certain oil and gas 

lessees in Utah who requested BLM to suspend the terms of their leases in roadless 

areas because they stated they could not develop the leases without the ability to 

construct new roads. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would permit surface occupancy and road construction or 

reconstruction for oil and gas exploration and development within roadless areas 

managed under the GFRG theme (251,800 acres). All but two of the roadless areas on 

the Caribou portion of the Caribou-Targhee National Forest have GFRG. Oil and gas 

 

38 Oil and gas surface occupancy and road construction/reconstruction are also prohibited in the SAHTS 

theme; however, this theme does not apply to roadless areas on the Caribou portion of the CaribouTarghee National Forest. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 141 

development would likely occur on lands in GFRG within roadless areas, or the 450,200 

acres of non-roadless lands. Given the low potential for recoverable oil and gas reserves 

in southeast Idaho, the impact on recovery of oil and gas resources under the Idaho 

Roadless Rule would also be low. 

Geothermal.—Table 3-20 identifies the acres of Idaho Roadless Areas allocated by 

resource potential and Idaho Roadless Rule theme. Geothermal resources under the 

Wild Land Recreation, Primitive, and SAHTS themes, as well as forest plan special 

areas, would not be developed because no surface occupancy and no new roads are 

permitted. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would permit surface occupancy within the Backcountry 

theme but prohibits road construction or reconstruction for geothermal resources. 

Despite the ability to occupy the surface, it is expected there would be no commercial 

interest in leasing lands under this theme because of the road prohibition, for reasons 

similar to oil and gas. Thus, 93 percent of the Idaho Roadless Areas would not 

experience any activity to develop geothermal resources. NSO means a lessee could not 

construct surface locations for wells on any leases issued. Directional drilling could be 

used to explore portions of NSO leases adjacent to areas where surface occupancy may 

be permissible. However, the large expanse of the involved roadless areas renders them 

virtually impossible to economically explore and develop entirely via directional 

drilling methods. It is not expected that the industry would incur the extra expense of 

any directional drilling without the promise of the full economic enjoyment of the entire 

lease area. This is particularly true in relatively unexplored areas such as Idaho’s 

roadless areas, where complex geology and lack of known commercial production 

greatly increase the financial risk of drilling. 

Table 3-20. Acres of Idaho Roadless Areas by Idaho Roadless Rule theme and geothermal resource potential 

Acres of geothermal resource potential Idaho Roadless Rule 

theme High Medium Low Total 

Wild Land Recreation 859,500 476,400 42,900 1,378,800 

Primitive 1,376,000 269,800 10,700 1,656,500 

Backcountry 2,064,500 2,777,600 404,700 5,246,800 

GFRG 351,600 236,500 20,400 608,500 

SAHTS1 0 68,700 68,700 

Forest plan special areas 185,800 132,600 26,500 344,900 

 4,837,400 3,961,600 505,200 9,304,200 

Under the Idaho Roadless Rule, geothermal activity on lands in the GFRG theme would 

be permitted to occupy the surface and to construct or reconstruct roads. GFRG lands 

constitute 7 percent of Idaho Roadless Areas, with the majority having high to medium 

resource potential. As discussed earlier, the Forest Service would perform a leasing 

analysis prior to leasing geothermal resources. One specific lease stipulation that is 

commonly required to be made a part of any issued leases is that no surface occupancy 

be allowed on slopes that are 40 percent or greater. As shown in table 3-21, about 63 
3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

142 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

percent of Idaho Roadless Areas in the GFRG theme have slopes that are less than 40 

percent and could be developed for geothermal. It is reasonable to expect that lands in 

the GFRG theme would experience some level of road construction or reconstruction to 

support geothermal activities sometime in the future. 

Table 3-21: Acres of Idaho Roadless Areas by Idaho Roadless Rule theme and geothermal resource potential 

with slopes less than 40 percent 

Acres of geothermal resource potential 

with slopes less than 40 percent Idaho Roadless Rule 

theme High Medium Low Total 

Wild Land Recreation 318,100 218,800 15,800 552,700 

Primitive 619,900 138,100 4,800 762,800 

Backcountry 1,170,700 1,378,100 168,400 2,717,200 

GFRG 233,600 140,800 8,500 382,900 

SAHTS 0 41,600 0 41,600 

Forest plan special areas 90,900 61,900 12,200 165,000 

Total 2,433,200 1,979,300 209,700 4,622,200 

Currently lease applications have been submitted for geothermal development 

including 7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area on the Boise National Forest and 

33 acres of the West Panther Roadless Area on the Salmon National Forest. Lands in 

both roadless areas are in the Backcountry theme under the Idaho Roadless Rule. 

Geothermal resources are unlikely to be developed in these areas because the rule 

would permit surface occupancy but prohibits road construction and reconstruction to 

access the geothermal resource. Experience elsewhere with oil and gas leases, which use 

similar exploration methods, suggest that operators believe they cannot develop leases 

without the ability to build roads. 

Phosphate. There are 13,400 of known unleased deposits on the Caribou-Targhee 

National Forest. About 12,100 acres (90 percent) of this total would be managed under 

the Idaho Roadless Rule Backcountry and GFRG themes. Under these themes, road 

construction or reconstruction would be permissible to develop phosphate resources. 

Consequently, any unleased phosphate deposits could be leased to provide for the 

mining of phosphate reserves. If fully developed, roughly 545 million tons of phosphate 

could potentially be recovered39. About 1,300 acres of known unleased deposits located 

in the Primitive theme would not likely be leased and developed because of the road 

prohibitions. 

There would be no near-term impacts on the recovery of phosphate resources under the 

Idaho Roadless Rule because the foreseeable development would occur in the 

Backcountry and GFRG themes, which are not subject to the road 

construction/reconstruction prohibitions. The longer term impact could be the potential 

loss of recoverable phosphate from the 1,300 acres of presently known unleased 

 

39 Recoverable reserve figure is based on typical recovery rates of existing mines in the area and is subject 

to significant variation depending on actual conditions encountered should these lands be mined. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 143 

phosphate areas (59 million tons estimated40) and any yet undiscovered phosphate 

within themes with road prohibitions. 

SALEABLE MINERALS: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Statewide production of mineral materials in Idaho averaged 22.67 million tons per year 

for the 3-year period from 2002 through 2004. In comparison, the total tonnage of 

mineral material dispositions from Idaho’s national forests reported for fiscal years 2003 

through 2005 are shown in table 3-22: 

Table 3-22. Mineral material dispositions from Idaho national forests, fiscal years 2003–2005 

Sales Free use Forest Service use 

Fiscal year ---------------------------------------tons------------------------------------ 

2003 14,856 31,867 122,220

2004 65,612 80,713 137,784

2005 64,303 78,149 131,905

Average 48,257 63,576 130,636

The total average production of mineral materials from NFS lands represents just over 1 

percent of the total mineral materials production for all of Idaho. Although a specific 

breakdown of amounts of mineral materials generated from roadless areas is not 

available, a survey of minerals specialists in four national forests with the largest 

reported mineral material tonnage suggests that mineral material contributions from 

roadless areas are generally small and used only for public road projects (free use) or 

local Forest Service use41. This lack of commercial interest is likely due to: roadless 

areas are generally remote compared to where mineral materials are needed; the terrain 

is too rugged for developing such a low value commodity; and there is widespread 

availability of other mineral material sources outside of roadless areas. 

The amount of road construction or reconstruction associated with the small volume of 

mineral materials produced from Idaho Roadless Areas is included in the 1-mile-peryear estimate for all non-timber roads. 

SALEABLE MINERALS: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

The 2001 Roadless Rule prohibits road construction or reconstruction associated with 

developing new mineral material sites within Idaho Roadless Areas. 

It is possible that new mineral material sites or expansion of existing sites could occur 

within roadless areas to provide material for new road construction or reconstruction 

associated with any of the exceptions under the 2001 Roadless Rule or for use on other 

 

40 Recoverable reserve figure is based on typical recovery rates of existing mines in the area and is subject 

to significant variation depending on actual conditions encountered should these lands be mined. 

41 Only free use permits within Idaho Roadless Areas were issued on these units. 
3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

144 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Forest Service projects. Such mineral material sites would have to be developed along 

an existing road or adjacent to a road being built under one of the exceptions to the rule. 

This is expected to be a rare circumstance. 

Because there has historically been little interest in the use of mineral materials from 

Idaho Roadless Areas, except for relatively small volumes for Forest Service projects, 

the effects on the production of this resource under the 2001 Roadless Rule should be 

minimal. 

Existing Plans 

About 1.262 million acres, or 14 percent of the total Idaho Roadless Areas, are within 

management prescriptions similar to the GFRG theme. These GFRG prescriptions 

permit road construction or reconstruction to develop or expand mineral material sites. 

Under most other Existing Plan prescriptions equivalent to the Wild Land Recreation, 

Primitive and Backcountry themes, road construction or reconstruction for mineral 

material purposes could occur only under very limited circumstances. 

Even with the access permitted under the GFRG theme, the remoteness of roadless 

areas and the widespread availability of mineral material sources outside of roadless 

areas, create a reasonable expectation that only a minimal volume of mineral materials 

would come from Idaho Roadless Areas. Assuming the demand for mineral materials 

remains at current levels, this trend should continue; low volumes of mineral materials 

would be produced from roadless areas, the principal uses being for Forest Service 

projects or for the limited instances when roads are constructed within roadless areas. 

The effects on saleable mineral production under this alternative would be minimal. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

The sale of common variety mineral material sales would be prohibited within Wild 

Land Recreation, Primitive, and SAHTS themes after the effective date of the Idaho 

Roadless Rule. The rule would permit the Forest Service to use mineral materials within 

these three areas to carry out various Forest Service programs involving construction 

and maintenance of physical improvements, provided no road construction is needed to 

access. 

Road construction/reconstruction associated with developing new mineral material 

sites would also be prohibited in the Backcountry theme. Sale of mineral materials 

would still be allowed under this theme when it is incidental to a permitted activity. 

Such mineral material sites would have to be developed along an existing road or 

adjacent to a road being built under one of the exceptions to the rule. This is expected to 

be a rare circumstance. 

Under the GFRG theme, road construction and reconstruction would be allowed to 

develop mineral material sites for all types of dispositions (that is, sales, free use, and 

administrative use). 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 145 

Even with the access permitted under the GFRG theme and the limited exception under 

the Backcountry theme, the remoteness of roadless areas and the widespread 

availability of mineral material sources outside of roadless areas, create a reasonable 

expectation that only a minimal volume of mineral materials would come from Idaho 

Roadless Areas. Assuming the demand for mineral materials remains at current levels, 

this trend should continue; low volumes of mineral materials would be produced from 

roadless areas, with the principal uses being for Forest Service projects or for the limited 

instances when roads are constructed within roadless areas. The effects on saleable 

mineral production under this alternative would be minimal. 

ABANDONED AND INACTIVE MINES: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Thus far, a total of 315 abandoned mines and associated facilities have been identified 

on 66 of Idaho Roadless Areas. Abandoned mines, quarries, and other mineral sites that 

pose human health, environmental, or safety risks may exist in roadless areas and may 

require some type of reclamation or mitigation. If they do exist and are releasing or 

have the potential to release a hazardous substance, they would require some type of 

response action under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, 

and Liability Act of 1980 (P.L. 96-510, Stat. 2767; 42 U.S.C. 9601, 9603, 9607, 9620) 

(CERCLA) (USDA Office of Inspector General 1996). This act addresses emergency 

response, site remediation, and spill prevention. The Forest Service has authority for 

CERCLA enforcement on NFS lands under Executive Order 12580, sec. 2(j). An 

engineering evaluation/cost analysis or remedial investigation/feasibility study would 

include provisions for proposed road construction if needed for CERCLA response 

actions, consistent with the National Contingency Plan, 40 CFR Part 300. 

Also, roadless areas may contain sites that require some type of reclamation to resolve 

violations of the Clean Water Act (USDA Office of Inspector General 1996). 

It is common for abandoned mines to have an existing road in place from when the 

mine was developed. Some road reconstruction may be needed to improve access to the 

mine itself to accomplish reclamation goals. However, these road improvements would 

be only temporary because closing and reclaiming the mine roads is integral to 

achieving the overall reclamation goals of the abandoned mine land program. 

ABANDONED AND INACTIVE MINES: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

All Alternatives 

Abandoned and inactive mine sites that represent a public safety hazard but not an 

environmental hazard are not covered by CERCLA or Clean Water Act authorities. 

Some of the 315 sites in roadless areas may fit this criterion. If so, prohibitions on road 

construction or reconstruction may prohibit the Forest Service from taking corrective 

action at a specific site to reduce a threat to public safety. 
3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

146 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

An exception under the 2001 Roadless Rule provides for the construction or 

reconstruction of roads needed to conduct a response action under CERCLA or to 

conduct a natural resource restoration action under CERCLA, Oil and Hazardous 

Substance Liability, Sec. 311 of the Clean Water Act, or the Oil Pollution Act. 

Therefore, under this alternative, the Forest Service would continue to respond to 

CERCLA violations that may be encountered at the 315 abandoned mines, quarries, and 

other mineral sites that have been currently identified within 66 of Idaho Roadless 

Areas as well as at any sites identified in the future. Construction or reconstruction of 

any necessary temporary roads for this activity would be permissible. The exact number 

of these identified sites that may result in CERCLA violations is not known until sitespecific assessments are completed. 

Existing Plans 

Under Existing Plans, the Forest Service would continue to respond to CERCLA 

violations at abandoned mines, quarries, and other mineral sites that are located within 

roadless areas where road construction or reconstruction is permissible (table 3-23). A 

forest plan could be amended to permit road construction/reconstruction if road access 

is necessary to respond to CERCLA violations in areas with management prescriptions 

that prohibit new roads. 

Table 3-23. Number of abandoned mine/facility sites by under the Existing Plan and the Idaho Roadless Rule, 

by theme 

Theme 

Existing plans 

no. of mine/facility sites 

Idaho Roadless Rule 

no. of mine/facility sites 

Wild Land Recreation 18 22 

Primitive 53 33 

Backcountry 181 247 

GFRG 55 5 

SAHTS 0 0 

Forest plan special areas 8 8 

Total 315 315 

The Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

The Idaho Roadless Rule includes an exception that would permit road construction or 

reconstruction in all themes when provided by statute or treaty or pursuant to reserved 

or outstanding rights or other legal duty of the United States. Under this exemption 

roads could be constructed or reconstructed to respond to CERCLA violations. 

Therefore, under this alternative, the Forest Service would continue to respond to 

CERCLA violations that may be encountered at the 315 abandoned mines, quarries, and 

other mineral sites that have been currently identified within 66 of Idaho Roadless 

Areas. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 147 

GEOLOGICAL AND PALEONTOLOGICAL RESOURCES: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Paleontological resources are recognized as important both for their scientific and 

natural resource values and in terms of the active protection required in their 

management. Identification of fossil resource probability in an area and the appropriate 

management prescriptions are accomplished in the forest planning process. 

Management prescriptions are generally based on scientific significance of a specimen 

and sensitivity ranking of a locality. Existing policies regulate the collection and 

disposition of vertebrate but usually not invertebrate or plant fossils. Generally, NFS 

lands are available for collecting rocks and minerals, except on lands withdrawn to 

prohibit these activities. 

Geologic processes such as landslides, earthquakes, or volcanic hazards affect human 

lives. To enhance public understanding and appreciation of them, the Forest Service 

may develop interpretive sites to highlight examples of them. 

Karst and cave resources occur on NFS lands in Idaho that are underlain by limestone 

or marble or in areas that have exposed basaltic flows. Some of the values associated 

with karst and cave resources are their ability to store and transmit groundwater, 

importance as subterranean wildlife habitats, importance as cultural resource or 

paleontological sites, and ability to provide interpretive sites or recreational 

opportunities for spelunkers or cavers. They can also present hazards, such as 

sinkholes, to resource use and development. 

The geologic and paleontological resources described above are not predicted to result 

in any new road construction or reconstruction in roadless areas; therefore, no effects 

under the Proposed Action or any alternative are expected. 

ENERGY CORRIDORS: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL 

CONSEQUENCES

Recognizing the fundamental importance of the delivery of energy supplies to the 

Nation’s economic well-being, Congress passed Section 368 of the Energy Policy Act of 

2005 to require certain Federal Agencies to designate energy corridors on Federal lands 

in 11 western states, including Idaho, and to coordinate with each other to create a 

cooperative, efficient process for applicants to apply for rights-of-way in such corridors. 

Congress stated in Section 368 that the Agencies should incorporate the designated 

corridors into their respective land use or resource management plans. Congress also 

directed the Agencies to conduct environmental reviews that are required to designate 

corridors and add the designated corridors to the plans. 

As directed by Congress in Section 368 of the Energy Policy Act of 2005, the Forest 

Service is participating in preparing a programmatic EIS to designate energy corridors 

on land it administers for oil, gas, and hydrogen pipelines and electricity transmission 

and distribution facilities in 11 contiguous western states and to incorporate these 
3. 5 Minerals and Energy Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

148 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

designations into affected Agency land use plans (USDE, USDI BLM, USDA Forest 

Service, 2005). Energy corridors not addressed in the programmatic analysis would be 

subject to a separate environmental analysis. 

None of the Idaho corridors being addressed in the programmatic EIS would affect 

Idaho Roadless Areas; therefore, no effects on roadless areas due to these designated 

energy corridors are anticipated. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.6 Physical Resources 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 149 

3.6 Physical Resources 

INTRODUCTION

The Physical Resources analysis evaluates the potential environmental consequences on 

soil, water, and air. These resources have measurable characteristics that can be 

assessed in light of the prohibitions and permissions for timber cutting, road 

construction/reconstruction, and discretionary mineral activities, as well as natural 

processes. High quality or undisturbed soil, water, and air are important characteristics 

of Idaho Roadless Areas; therefore, the analysis evaluates the potential consequences to 

these components. 

SOILS—AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

The soil resource is a key element for maintaining the productive potential of an area. 

Maintenance is dependent on the protection of the surface soils from erosion, 

displacement and compaction, and the continued input of organic matter to the soil. 

Road construction, reconstruction and timber cutting can affect soil productivity by 

compacting soils, increasing erosion, displacing soils, depleting nutrients, increasing 

overland flow in areas of high amounts of precipitation and soil disturbance, and 

reducing soil strength. 

About 23 million acres in Idaho have highly sensitive soils, of which about 3 million 

acres may be found in Idaho Roadless Areas (Natural Resource Conservation Service 

[NRCS] (STATSGO) Soils Map for Idaho). These are soils prone to surface erosion, and 

have terrain susceptible to landslides. 

SOILS—ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

The soils analysis evaluates the number of acres of sensitive soils with high hillslope 

erosion potential and/or landslide risks, by management theme. 

All Alternatives 

Best management practices (BMPs) and contract requirements.42 BMPs represent the 

state of current knowledge on preventing pollution from non-point sources. Using the 

most up-to-date BMPs for the design, operation, and maintenance of forest roads and 

timber cutting and other ground-disturbing activities would prevent or mitigate most 

 

42 BMPs are defined in The State of Idaho Water Quality Standards and Wastewater Treatment Requirements 

(Idaho Administrative Procedures Act 16.01.2003,01) as “a practice or combination of practices 

determined by the Department [of Health and Welfare] to be the most effective and practicable means of 

preventing or reducing the amount of pollution generated by nonpoint sources”. The Idaho Division of 

Environmental Quality is delegated authority to implement Section 208 of the Federal Clean Water Act to 

evaluate whether the BMPs adequately protect beneficial uses. In 1980, the Idaho Water Quality 

Standards were amended to identify the Forest Practices Act rules and regulations as the silvicultural 

BMPs for Idaho (Idaho Department of Health and Welfare 1985, 1989 as reported in Seyedbagheri 1996). 
3.6 Physical Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

150 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

adverse impacts to watershed resources, including soils. It is assumed that each project 

would implement BMPs. Forest practices audit results in Idaho show that 99.6 percent 

of BMPs are implemented (IDEQ 2007). 

Existing leases. None of the alternatives would prohibit road construction or 

reconstruction on existing leases. About 9,100 acres of phosphate deposits can be found 

in seven roadless areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, Sage Creek, 

Schmid Peak, Stump Creek, and Mount Jefferson) and are under existing lease. Some of 

these acres have been mined to date (the total amount is unknown). About 1,100 acres 

associated with the Smoky Canyon Mine expansion are reasonably foreseeable to be 

developed within the next 15 years. The Smoky Canyon Mine expansion would affect 

the Sage Creek and Meade Peak Roadless Areas. 

It is also reasonable to assume that the remaining phosphate deposits currently under 

lease, roughly 8,000 acres within the seven roadless areas would likely be permitted and 

developed sometime in the extended future (50 or more years). Using the Smoky 

Canyon expansion as an example of the level of activity expected, an estimated 17 miles 

of haul road construction and other surface mining disturbance would ultimately take 

place within the seven roadless areas. Environmental reviews would be conducted prior 

to exploration and development and any necessary mitigation to lessen impacts on soil 

resources would be considered. 

Table 3-24. Acres by management theme, by alternative having high sensitivity soils

Theme 2001 Roadless Rule Existing Plans Idaho Roadless Rule 

Wild Land Recreation 0 221,900 270,200 

Primitive 0 817,200 610,800 

SAHTS 0 0 24,100 

Backcountry 3,094,200 1,503,400 1,842,500 

GFRG 0 440,300 235,200 

Forest plan special areas 111,400 111,400 

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

About 3 million acres of the 9.3 million acres of Idaho Roadless Areas have soils that are 

highly susceptible to erosion and landslide risk (table 3-24). Generally, road 

construction can increase the risk and extent of erosion and landslide risk on these 

landtypes. Often road reconstruction can reduce the risk by fixing existing erosion and 

landslide sources (USDA Forest Service 2000r). The 2001 Roadless Rule generally 

prohibits road construction and reconstruction, thereby limiting the risk of erosion and 

landslides. Only about 15 miles of road construction or reconstruction are projected to 

occur in the foreseeable future (next 15 years) in Idaho Roadless Areas under the 2001 

Roadless Rule. This level of construction/reconstruction would have a negligible effect 

on soil processes. 

The 2001 Roadless Rule prohibits road construction/reconstruction for new mineral 

leases. Mineral and energy development would be permitted as long as new roads are 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.6 Physical Resources 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 151 

not needed and existing roads do not need reconstructed; however, without road access 

it is unlikely development would occur (chapter 3, Assumptions and Projections). Based 

on this assumption there would be limited risk to soil resources. 

Existing Plans 

Under Existing Plans road construction/reconstruction is prohibited on about 1.1 

million acres of highly sensitive soils, except for a few situations; therefore, there would 

be no effect on about a third of the highly sensitive soils. About 1.5 million acres of 

highly sensitive soils are in management prescriptions similar to the Backcountry 

theme. Road construction/reconstruction is permitted to varying degrees in Existing 

Plans (see appendix B). About 444,000 acres of Existing Plans are in management 

prescriptions similar to the GFRG theme and have highly sensitive soils (table 3-24). 

Road construction and reconstruction is permissible in the GFRG theme. 

Based on foreseeable projections (chapter 3, Assumptions and Projections) about 180 

miles of road are projected to be constructed/reconstructed in the foreseeable future 

(next 15 years) in Idaho Roadless Areas. This level of construction/reconstruction 

would have negligible effect on soil processes because the activity would be spread 

across 6 million acres. 

The Caribou Forest Plan permits leasing of the estimated 6,500 acres of known unleased 

phosphate deposits and/or other possible roadless areas that contain undiscovered 

phosphate resources. These known unleased phosphate deposits occur in six roadless 

areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, and 

Stump Creek) and would likely be developed over an extended period of time (50 or 

more years). In addition, there are 6,900 acres of unleased phosphate deposits on the 

Targhee portion of the forest within the Bald Mountain, Bear Creek, and Poker Creek 

Roadless Areas. An environmental analysis would have to be completed to determine 

how many of the 6,900 acres could actually be leased. 

There is a potential risk to soil resources on these 13,400 acres when and if development 

should occur. Site-specific analysis would occur prior to any future exploration or 

development and mitigations applied. 

Existing Plans would allow road construction/reconstruction for geothermal 

development in some locations in management prescriptions similar to Backcountry 

and GFRG. It is unknown where and to what degree geothermal resources would be 

developed; however, since about half the Idaho Roadless Areas have high to moderate 

potential it is likely some development would eventually occur. Currently lease 

applications have been submitted for geothermal exploration, which could affect about 

7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area on the Boise National Forest and 33 acres of 

the West Panther Roadless Area on the Salmon National Forest. If fully developed, 

roads, transmission lines, and other facilities would likely be constructed (see appendix 

I for a description of general development of geothermal resources). Site-specific 
3.6 Physical Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

152 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

analysis would occur prior to exploration or development of geothermal energy 

resources and would include consideration of sensitive soils. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

Under the Idaho Roadless Rule, road construction/reconstruction would be prohibited 

on about 992,400 acres of highly sensitive soils, except for a few situations; therefore, 

there would be no effect on about a third of the highly sensitive soils. About 1.84 

million acres of highly sensitive soils are in the Backcountry theme in the Idaho 

Roadless Rule. Road construction and reconstruction would be allowed in limited 

situations in the Backcountry theme. About 235,200 acres are in the GFRG theme which 

permits road construction and reconstruction activities (table 3-24). 

Based on foreseeable projections (chapter 3, Assumptions and Projections) about 60 

miles of road are anticipated to be constructed/reconstructed over the foreseeable 

future (next 15 years) in Idaho Roadless Areas. This level of construction/ 

reconstruction would have negligible effect on soil processes because it would be 

spread across about 6 million acres. In addition, the Idaho Roadless Rule emphasizes 

using techniques to reduce resource effects from road construction. 

There are 13,400 acres of known unleased phosphate deposits on the Caribou-Targhee 

National Forest. About 12,100 acres (90 percent) are located within the Backcountry and 

GFRG themes. Under these themes road construction or reconstruction would be 

permissible to develop these phosphate deposits. 

These deposits are located within nine roadless areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, 

Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, and Stump Creek on the Caribou portion of the 

forest; and Bald Mountain, Bear Creek, and Poker Creek on the Targhee portion of the 

forest) and could eventually be mined over an extended period of time (50 or more 

years). There is a potential risk to soil resources on these 12,100 acres when and if 

development should occur. Site-specific analysis would occur prior to any future 

exploration or development and mitigations applied. 

About 1,300 acres of unleased phosphate deposits are in the Primitive theme. The 

Primitive theme prohibits road construction/reconstruction or surface occupancy for 

phosphates; therefore, this area would likely not be developed (see the Minerals 

section) and there would be no effect on soil resources found in this area. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would also allow road construction/reconstruction for 

geothermal development in the GFRG theme. About 7 percent of Idaho Roadless Areas 

are in this theme, and about 4 percent could be developed because of slope restrictions 

(see the Minerals section). It is likely some of these areas would be developed over time; 

however, except for two pending lease applications there is no information about where 

or when the activity would occur. If fully developed, roads, transmission lines, and 

other facilities would likely be constructed (see appendix I for a description of general 

development of geothermal resources). Site-specific analysis would occur prior to 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.6 Physical Resources 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 153 

exploration or development of geothermal energy resources and would include 

consideration of sensitive soils. 

Currently lease applications have been submitted for geothermal exploration within 

7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area on the Boise National Forest and 33 acres of 

the West Panther Roadless Area on the Salmon National Forest. Both these areas are in 

either the Primitive or Backcountry theme; therefore, they would not be developed 

because of the inability to construct roads to access the area (see the Minerals section). 

No soil resources would be affected in these areas. 

WATER—AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Water quality. Roads, timber cutting, mining, energy development, and other landdisturbing activities may indirectly affect water quality by baring soil surfaces to 

erosion or increasing the release of certain nutrients from the decomposition of timber 

cutting byproducts (leaves, branches, and other organic matter). Nutrients such as 

nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, and calcium may increase in stream water following 

timber management activities (Hornbeck and Leak 1992). Elevated nutrient levels in 

streamflow usually return to normal in 1 to 4 years (Chamberlin et al. 1991). 

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has delegated the primary responsibility 

to implement actions that comply with the Clean Water Act to the State and Tribes to 

assure management practices comply with their requirements. State-integrated 

303(d)/305(b) reports are generally submitted to and approved by the EPA every 2 

years. These reports enumerate the number of water bodies not meeting their beneficial 

uses and State water quality standards. About 8,600 mils of stream in Idaho do not meet 

State water quality standards, of which about 445 miles (5 percent) are in Idaho 

Roadless Areas. 

Idaho has completed total daily maximum load (TMDL) analysis for many of the 303(d) 

listed watersheds. The Forest Service has been an active cooperator in this effort and 

this cooperation will continue into the future. As these reports or watershed analyses 

are completed, restoration needs are identified, prioritized, and corrective actions will 

be taken on national forests in Idaho as funding becomes available. Budgets used for 

watershed restoration may remain flat in nominal terms but decline in real terms into 

the foreseeable future. 

Water supply. Growing populations in urban and rural areas will increase demand for 

reliable quantities of high quality water for domestic, agricultural, and industrial 

purposes. Communities dependent on surface water supplies are most vulnerable to 

changes as a result of land management actions. At present 72 public water supplies use 

surface water within the State. Of the 5.2 million acres of public water supplies in Idaho, 

about 409,000 acres (8 percent) are in 59 roadless areas (fig. 3-12, table 3-26, and 

appendix D). The number of communities and the number of total users of water 

flowing from watersheds containing NFS lands are likely to increase as the populations 

grow. 
3.6 Physical Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

154 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Figure 3-12. Overlap of Idaho Roadless Areas with surface drinking water supplies. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.6 Physical Resources 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 155 

WATER—ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

The watershed analysis evaluates: (1) the number of Idaho Roadless Areas located in 

watersheds that do not meet water quality standards identified in Idaho’s 303(d) list of 

impaired watersheds; and (2) the acres of overlap with surface drinking water sources. 

All Alternatives 

Water yield and flooding. Large magnitude flood events are generally the result of 

extended periods of precipitation and/or rapid snow melt runoff that exceeds the 

capacity of the soil to hold additional water (Lull and Reinhart 1972, Swanston 1991). 

Although land use practices may reduce soil water-holding ability, flooding can occur 

regardless of the land use practices. The increased risk of flood flows from small 

research watersheds following logging has been documented. 

Small watershed studies in the Rocky Mountains indicate that a 15 percent or greater 

timber harvest (activities that generally remove the overstory canopy) can increase 

measurable annual water yield (Stednick 1996). Though possible, under foreseeable 

management scenarios, it is unlikely that any small watershed (10,000 to 40,000 acres) 

would be harvested at levels approaching 15 percent in any of the alternatives within a 

25- to 30-year tree/vegetation recovery period. Therefore, neither flooding nor total 

water yield is anticipated in these small watersheds as a result of any of the alternatives. 

However, large-scale wildfires may reduce tree cover by more than 15 percent within 

small watersheds. In this case, increased risk flooding and debris flows would be 

anticipated (Parrett et al. 2004). 

Timber harvest activities. Timber harvest includes two general types of activities that 

may affect water resources: (1) the cutting and skidding or other transport of the trees 

within the logging unit, and (2) post-logging residue fuels treatment. 

In 1974 the State of Idaho established a comprehensive Forest Practices Act (Idaho Code 

38-13). The purpose is to encourage timber harvest and related activities that maintain 

or enhance trees, soil, water, wildlife and aquatic habitat. BMPs have been promulgated 

as Rules Pertaining to the Idaho Forest Practices Act (IDAPA 20.02.1). Since their 

adoption BMPs have been an effective tool for minimizing impacts from forest practices 

(IDL 2000). In addition, Forest Service Contract Provisions have improved, specifically 

the provisions that regulate how logs are moved from where the tree was felled within 

the harvest unit to landings where they can be loaded on trucks. 

Jammer logging, with its high road densities, is no longer practiced on NFS lands. 

Traditional skid trails may still be used but today they are required to be carefully 

located to minimize the density needed and are used only under specified soil moisture 

conditions. Other practices used include logging over frozen ground and snow, more 

frequent use of felling/bunching equipment, and use of forwarders to reduce the 

number of equipment passes over soil surfaces. Skyline and/or helicopter yarding is 

now standard on steeper terrain. These practices are designed to reduce physical 

ground disturbance. 
3.6 Physical Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

156 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Fuels treatments can vary by site and may include: hand or machine piling and 

burning, broadcast burning, whole tree yarding, and either selling the slash as a 

product or burning large piles at the landing. Of these, machine piling must be carefully 

conducted to minimize impacts such as bare soil; soil compaction (with reduced 

infiltration rates, greater surface runoff, and loss of productivity); and associated 

potential surface erosion (2400-6 and 2400-6T Standard and Special Contract Provisions, 

R1/4 Soil and Water Conservation Practices). 

Fire frequency. It is anticipated that the warmer conditions with earlier snow melt seen 

in Idaho over the past decade would continue. The risk of wildland fire would likely 

increase commensurate with the warming climate. Continued efforts to reduce fuel 

hazards by thinning vegetative fuel cover, conducting controlled burns, and wider use 

of prescribed natural fire would be ongoing. Priority for fuels treatment and fire 

suppression would continue to be given to wildland urban interface areas and 

municipal watersheds (Westerling et al. 2006, Mote et al. 2005). 

Roads and timber cutting effect on runoff timing. Timing of water runoff (how 

quickly a watershed generates runoff and the time it takes for that water to travel 

downstream) can change as roads and related drainage structures intercept, collect, and 

divert water. This accelerates water delivery to the stream, by intercepting, 

concentrating, and diverting runoff resulting in more water becoming storm runoff, 

which increases the potential for runoff peaks to occur earlier, be of greater magnitude, 

and recede more quickly than in unroaded watersheds (Wemple et al. 1996, USDA 

Forest Service 2000r). In addition, timber cutting can reduce the percentage of 

precipitation that otherwise would be intercepted and evaporated before hitting the soil 

or water that would have be used by trees is available for runoff. The USDA publication 

Forest Service Roads: A Synthesis of Scientific Information (USDA Forest Service 2000r) 

summarizes most of the effects of roads and timber harvests on hydrologic regimes. 

Temperature. Road construction, reconstruction, and timber harvest may cause water 

temperature to change where groundwater is intercepted and brought to the surface or 

where loss of tree cover in riparian areas reduces shading. These effects are especially 

pronounced where the stream channel shape is wider and shallower (Hornbeck and 

Leak 1992). Temperatures may rise sharply in exposed areas and some of those elevated 

temperatures may then return to normal levels as water re-enters shaded areas 

downstream or receives cool inflow from other streams or groundwater (USDA Forest 

Service 2000g). Smaller or shallower streams are generally more susceptible to 

temperature fluctuations than larger or deeper streams (Chamberlin et al. 1991). 

Temporary roads. To address long-term road-caused erosion and sedimentation and to 

reduce road maintenance costs, a large percentage of new roads used for timber harvest 

(whether temporary or designed system roads) would be closed following construction. 

Both categories would have increased risks of erosion and sedimentation during the 

construction phase and for the first few years after construction. Temporary roads built 

with fewer design specifications may present a higher short-term risk than designed 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.6 Physical Resources 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 157 

roads with detailed construction specifications. Research in Idaho has shown that 

appropriate stabilization techniques can greatly reduce road-related erosion (Buroughs 

and King 1989). Roads closed and left in a self-maintaining, long-term storage 

condition, or decommissioned, should eventually recover to near background levels of 

erosion and sedimentation risk as vegetation reestablishes effective ground cover 

increases. The length of time would vary according to factors such as treatments used 

when road was closed, climate, soil type, and terrain. 

Budget trends anticipated. Budgets are likely to remain flat in nominal terms but 

decline in real terms. This implies: (1) reducing the miles of roads being maintained by 

putting roads into self-maintaining, long-term storage, or decommissioning 

(obliterating) them; (2) little new construction; and (3) lowering maintenance standards 

on roads remaining. These changes would occur at the very time when an aging 

population may desire more vehicle access on higher standard roads. 

Existing phosphate leases. About 9,100 acres of phosphate deposits can be found in 

seven roadless areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid 

Peak, Stump Creek, and Mount Jefferson) and are under existing lease. Some of these 

acres have been mined to date (the total amount is unknown). About 1,100 acres, 

associated with the Smoky Canyon Mine expansion, are reasonably foreseeable to be 

developed within the next 15 years. The Smoky Canyon Mine expansion would affect 

the Sage Creek and Meade Peak Roadless Areas. 

It is also reasonable to assume that the remaining phosphate deposits currently under 

lease, roughly 8,000 acres within the seven roadless areas, would likely be permitted 

and developed sometime in the extended future (50 or more years). Using the Smoky 

Canyon expansion as an example of the level of activity expected, an estimated 17 miles 

of haul road construction and other surface mining disturbance would ultimately take 

place within the seven roadless areas. It is likely new protective measures to address 

selenium would be incorporated into the mine plan of operations before these mines 

become active. In addition, three of the roadless areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, 

and Stump Creek) have 303(d) listed streams. Any future development would require 

separate analysis to address a specific plan of operations. It is likely mitigation would 

be required to reduce potential effects from selenium and address 303(d) streams. 

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

Under the 2001 Roadless Rule, road construction, reconstruction, and timber cutting 

would be permissible in limited situations. About 15 miles of road are projected to be 

constructed/reconstructed and timber cutting is projected to occur on 1,500 acres over 

the next 15 years. About 445 miles of stream have been listed as 303(d) within the 9.3 

million acres of Idaho Roadless Areas (table 3-25). There are about 409,000 acres within 

roadless areas that provide a source of drinking water (table 3-26). Based on the 

foreseeable projections, the limited road construction, reconstruction, and timber 

cutting would have negligible affects on 303(d) listed streams or drinking water. 
3.6 Physical Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

158 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Under the 2001 Roadless Rule, road construction/reconstruction would be prohibited to 

access known unleased phosphate deposits on 13,400 acres on the Caribou-Targhee 

National Forest; therefore, there would be no additional effects from phosphate mining 

these 13,400 acres (see the Minerals section). In addition, it is likely there would be little 

to no geothermal development within Idaho Roadless Areas under the 2001 Roadless 

Rule because road construction/reconstruction is prohibited; therefore, there would be 

no effect from geothermal exploration and development to water resources. 

Table 3-25. Total miles of 303(d) listed streams, by management theme, by alternative 

Theme 2001 Roadless Rule Existing Plans Idaho Roadless Rule 

Wild Land Recreation 0 15 29 

Primitive 0 62 47 

SAHTS 0 0 4 

Backcountry 445 159 210 

GFRG 0 84 31 

Forest plan special areas 0 125 125 

Table 3-26. Acres of watersheds with surface drinking water by management theme, by alternative

Theme 2001 Roadless Rule Existing Plans Idaho Roadless Rule 

Wild Land Recreation 0 26,800 29,500 

Primitive 0 165,000 119,900 

SAHTS 0 0 0 

Backcountry 409,100 151,600 230,900 

GFRG 0 61,500 24,600 

Forest plan special areas 0 4,200 4,200 

Existing Plans 

About 45 percent 43of the 303(d) listed stream segments are located in management 

prescriptions similar to the Wild Land Recreation and Primitive themes. Road 

construction or reconstruction is generally prohibited and very limited timber cutting is 

permitted (table 3-25). About 48 percent of the source drinking water supplies are also 

located in these themes (table 3-26). Therefore in these areas there would be little added 

risk to 303(d) listed streams or source drinking supplies. 

About 19 percent of the 303(d) listed stream segments, and 15 percent of the source 

drinking supplies are located in management prescription similar to the GFRG theme. 

Road construction and reconstruction are generally allowed in these areas. About 36 

percent of the 303(d) listed stream segments and 37 percent of the source drinking water 

supplies are located in management prescriptions similar to the Backcountry theme. 

Road construction and reconstruction are only allowed in limited situations (tables 3-25 

and 3-26, and appendix B). 

 

43 Includes lands in forest plan special areas. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.6 Physical Resources 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 159 

Based on foreseeable projections, about 180 miles of road are anticipated to be 

constructed/reconstructed over the next 15 years in Idaho Roadless Areas. About 70 

miles are anticipated to be permanent roads, 35 miles temporary, and 75 miles 

reconstruction. Although even well-designed and -constructed roads would create 

some increased risk of erosion and sedimentation, proper location and design and the 

use of BMPs during construction can minimize the risk; however, the risk cannot be 

totally avoided (see discussion below). 

Roads used to facilitate hazardous fuel reduction projects in priority areas could reduce 

the risks to water resources. Watershed studies have indicated that water and sediment 

yield increases from fires vary significantly depending on fire intensity and severity. 

Low-intensity-severity fires generally return to pre-fire conditions within 3 years, while 

high-intensity-severity fires may take more than 15 years to recover (DeBano et al. 

1998). Fuel reduction projects could reduce the severity of wildland fires (USDI, USDA 

Forest Service 2006). 

Currently, all Forest Service permanent and temporary roads needed for timber sales 

are designed and constructed using water, soil, and air BMPs that meet or exceed those 

required by the State of Idaho. Road design and management criteria incorporate the 

latest knowledge and experience, resulting in fewer effects, such as surface erosion, 

landslides, sedimentation, and dust emissions, on water, soil, and air resources. Proper 

design and construction of new roads and maintenance of existing and new roads can 

limit but not eliminate these effects (USDA Forest Service 2000r). 

Budgets should remain flat in nominal terms but decline in real terms. This implies: (1) 

reducing the miles of roads being maintained by putting roads into self-maintaining, 

long-term storage, or decommissioning (obliterating) them; (2) little new construction; 

and (3) lowering maintenance standards on roads remaining. To address budget 

shortfalls, emphasis has been placed on placing existing roads in long-term storage or 

obliterating them altogether. It is highly likely that many more miles of road would be 

placed into storage or obliterated than would be built in any of the land management 

themes (see Road Construction/Reconstruction discussion earlier in chapter 3). 

The Caribou Forest Plan permits leasing of the estimated 6,500 acres of known unleased 

phosphate deposits and/or other possible roadless areas that contain undiscovered 

phosphate resources. These known unleased phosphate deposits occur in six roadless 

areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, and 

Stump Creek) and would likely be developed over an extended period of time (50 or 

more years). In addition, there are 6,900 acres of unleased phosphate deposits on the 

Targhee portion of the forest within the Bald Mountain, Bear Creek, and Poker Creek 

Roadless Areas. An environmental analysis would have to be completed to determine 

how many of the 6,900 acres could actually be leased. 

Three of the roadless areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, and Stump Creek) have 

303(d) listed streams. Any future development would require separate site-specific 
3.6 Physical Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

160 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

analysis to address exploration and development. It is likely mitigation would be 

required to reduce potential effects from selenium and address 303(d) streams. 

Existing Plans would allow road construction/reconstruction for geothermal 

development in some locations in management prescriptions similar to Backcountry 

and GFRG. It is unknown where and to what degree geothermal resources would be 

developed; however, since about half of Idaho Roadless Areas have high to moderate 

potential it is likely some development would eventually occur. Currently lease 

applications have been submitted for geothermal exploration, which could affect about 

7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area on the Boise National Forest and 33 acres of 

the West Panther Roadless Area on the Salmon National Forest. If fully developed, 

roads, transmission lines, and other facilities would likely be constructed (see appendix 

I for a description of general development of geothermal resources). Water resources, 

such as 303(d) streams or surface drinking water would be considered during sitespecific analysis and mitigations applied. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

About a 45 percent of the 303(d) listed stream segments are located in the Wild Land 

Recreation, Primitive, and SAHTS themes. These themes prohibit road construction or 

reconstruction and permit very limited, if any, timber cutting (table 3-25). About 37 

percent of the source drinking water supplies are also located in these themes (table 3-

26). In these themes there would be no effect on 303(d) listed streams or source drinking 

supplies because limited activities would occur. 

About 7 percent of the 303(d) listed stream segments are located in the GFRG theme 

where road construction and reconstruction are generally permissible; and 47 percent 

are located the in Backcountry theme where road construction and reconstruction are 

allowed only in limited situations (table 3-25). 

Based on foreseeable projections, about 60 miles of road are anticipated to be 

constructed/reconstructed over the next 15 years in Idaho Roadless Areas. Of this total 

about 15 miles would be permanent roads, 26 miles would be temporary, and 22 miles 

of road would be reconstructed. The risk incurred by building small numbers of mostly 

temporary roads would be minimal and their adverse effects would last only a few 

years for those roads that are properly placed into long-term storage or obliterated 

following the management activity. In addition, the Idaho Roadless Rule emphasizes 

using techniques to reduce resource effects from road construction. 

There are 13,400 acres of known unleased phosphate deposits on the Caribou-Targhee 

National Forest. About 12,100 acres (90 percent) are located within the Backcountry and 

GFRG themes. Under these themes road construction or reconstruction would be 

permissible to develop these phosphate deposits. 

These deposits are located within nine roadless areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, 

Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, and Stump Creek on the Caribou portion of the 

forest; and Bald Mountain, Bear Creek, and Poker Creek on the Targhee portion of the 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.6 Physical Resources 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 161 

forest) and could eventually be mined over an extended period of time (50 or more 

years). None of the unleased phosphate areas overlap sources of drinking water; 

therefore, these foreseeable activities would not affect drinking water. Several 303(d) 

streams are overlap known unleased phosphate deposits in the Dry Ridge, Huckleberry 

Basin, and Stump Creek Roadless Areas. Any phosphate mining activities in these 

roadless areas would have to ensure the streams are not further impaired. 

About 1,300 acres of unleased phosphate deposits are in the Primitive theme. The 

Primitive theme prohibits road construction/reconstruction or surface occupancy for 

phosphates; therefore, this area would likely not be developed (see the Minerals 

section); and there would be no effect on water resources found in these areas. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would also permit road construction/reconstruction for 

geothermal development in the GFRG theme. About 7 percent of Idaho Roadless Areas 

are in this theme, and about 4 percent could be developed because of slope restrictions 

(see the Minerals section). It is likely some of these areas would be developed over time; 

however, except for two pending lease applications there is no information about where 

or when the activity would occur. If fully developed, roads, transmission lines, and 

other facilities would likely be constructed (see appendix I for a description of general 

development of geothermal resources). Site-specific analysis would occur prior to 

exploration or development of geothermal energy resources and would include 

consideration of water resources. 

Currently lease applications have been submitted for geothermal exploration within 

7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area on the Boise National Forest and 33 acres of 

the West Panther Roadless Area on the Salmon National Forest. Both these areas are in 

either the Primitive or Backcountry theme; therefore, they would not be developed 

because of the inability to construct roads to access the area (see the Minerals section). 

No water resources would be affected in these areas. 

AIR—AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Air Quality. Congress established a national goal to prevent visibility impairment and 

improve visibility in all class I areas. Class I air quality areas are National Forest System 

wilderness areas, national parks, or national wildlife refuges greater than 5,000 acres in 

size, designated prior to the establishment of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977. 

Class I areas can also include lands designated by tribes or States. These areas serve as 

benchmarks for monitoring changes in air quality over adjacent lands. There are four 

class I areas within Idaho and another 10 within 50 miles of the Idaho border. About 5 

million acres of Idaho Roadless Areas are within 50 miles of a class I airshed (fig. 3-13 

and table 3-27). 
3.6 Physical Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

162 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Figure 3-13. Idaho Roadless Areas within 50-mile radius of class I airshed 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.6 Physical Resources 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 163 

The goal is to reduce regional haze that now affects class I areas to near natural 

background levels. Atmospheric emissions from road construction; unsurfaced or 

gravel road dust; volatile organic compounds from gasoline or soot from diesel engines; 

open pit mining operations; and smoke from fire-use fires, slash treatment, or wildfires 

all may contribute to haze levels. The Idaho Department of Environmental Quality 

(DEQ) is consulted and authorizes prescribed burning to reduce adverse effects by 

choosing timeframes that will allow for maximum dispersion of smoke (Story and 

Dzomba 2005). 

AIR—ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

About 5 million acres of the 9.3 million acres of Idaho Roadless Areas are within 50 

miles of class I air sheds (table 3-27). Atmospheric emissions from road construction 

and use include particulate matter consisting of suspended (<25 microns in diameter) 

and larger coarse soils, nitrogen, and volatile organic compounds from gasoline 

engines, and soot from diesel engines. These pollutants contribute to visibility 

reduction. 

Mechanical and other fuel treatment before prescribed burning in areas with large fuel 

accumulations is an important aspect to meeting air quality standards. The direct 

removal of fuel reduces potential site emissions and indirectly reduces fuel 

consumption, and hence, pollutants. Emissions generated during prescribed burning in 

untreated forests could exceed standards. 

Table 3-27. Number of acres within 50 miles of a class I air quality protection area 

Theme 2001 Roadless Rule Existing Plans Idaho Roadless Rule 

Wild Land Recreation 0 832,400 879,600 

Primitive 0 1,712,300 1,406,300 

SAHTS 0 0 46,500 

Backcountry 5,542,800 2,370,600 2,871,100 

GFRG 395,200 107,000 

Forest plan special areas 232,300 232,300 

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

Under the 2001 Roadless Rule, about 15 miles of road are projected to be 

constructed/reconstructed over the next 15 years. This level of 

construction/reconstruction would have no effect on air quality. Timber cutting is 

projected to occur on about 1,500 acres over the next 15 years. It is likely some of these 

areas with vegetation treatment would be followed up with prescribed burns. Any 

burning would be completed in accordance with State air quality regulations. 

Prescribed burning on these few acres would not have a measurable effect because of 

the few number of acres treated over an extended period of time and land area. The 

removal of fuel on these few acres would measurably affect the extent and intensity of 

wildland fire because so few acres are treated. 
3.6 Physical Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

164 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Existing Plans 

About 2.8 million acres of the class 1 airsheds are located within 50 miles of 

management prescriptions that permit road construction/reconstruction and timber 

cutting (table 3-27). Under this alternative about 60 miles of road are anticipated to be 

constructed/reconstructed over 15 years. It is likely this construction/reconstruction 

would be spread across Idaho, and not concentrated in one area; therefore, there would 

be no measurable effect on air quality. Timber cutting is projected to occur on about 

42,000 acres from Idaho Roadless Areas over the next 15 years. It is likely many of these 

areas would be prescribed burned. Although smoke generated from these burns may 

affect class I areas, any burning would be completed according to State air quality 

guidelines. Smoke from prescribed burns are more manageable and predictable than 

those from wildland fires because they are required to adhere to strict burning 

guidelines. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

Under the Idaho Roadless Rule road construction/reconstruction is prohibited on about 

3,103,500 acres. Generally these areas are close to class I airsheds, because the Wild 

Land Recreation and Primitive themes generally abut wilderness areas. These 

prohibitions would not affect class I airsheds because no activities would occur. 

Road construction/reconstruction and timber cutting, sale, or removal would be 

permitted to some degree on about 3 million acres within 50 miles of a class I air shed 

(table 3-27). About 60 miles of road are projected to be constructed/reconstruction over 

the next 15 years. This level of construction would have no measurable effect on air 

quality because it is so dispersed and minute. 

Timber cutting, sale, or removal to reduce hazardous fuels and for stewardship 

purposes is anticipated to occur on about 12,000 acres over the next 15 years. As noted 

for Existing Plans, any prescribed burning completed on these acres may affect air 

quality; however, because of strict burning guidelines the overall effect would be 

negligible. 

CUMULATIVE EFFECTS

Cumulative effects for soil, water, and air resources are generally considered as 

incremental changes that alone are not overwhelming but when combined create 

impacts that are judged to be detrimental or beneficial. Assessment of managementcaused cumulative effects must be done in the spatial and temporal context of naturally 

occurring events such as wildfire, drought, floods, earthquakes, and insect infestations, 

which can all drastically alter physical conditions affecting soil, water, and air resources 

even without human-induced perturbations. 

The cumulative effects of some programmatic policy and management decisions—such 

as INFISH, PACFISH, Northern Rockies Lynx Management direction, management 

direction for grizzly bears in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, and the Roads Policy 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.6 Physical Resources 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 165 

and Travel Management Policy, as described in appendix N—are likely to improve soil, 

water, and air resources by limiting activities, identifying roads no longer needed, and 

identifying specifically which roads are open and closed to motorized travel. These 

actions have the potential to reduce road-related effects. This in combination with 

declining budgets, resulting in less road construction, and additional emphasis on 

decommissioning roads would result in a net benefit to soil, water and air resources. 

The NFP, HFI, HFRA, and Energy Policy Act were considered by projecting the 

potential activities (timber cutting and mineral development) that were foreseeable to 

occur based on the prohibitions and permissions in each alternative. Therefore, these 

policies were evaluated in the previous sections. 
3.7 Botanical Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

166 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

3.7 Botanical Resources 

INTRODUCTION

Idaho Roadless Areas contain undisturbed landscapes that provide habitat for some of 

the rarest elements of the Idaho flora—threatened, endangered, proposed, candidate, 

and sensitive plant species. 

Currently five threatened or candidate plant taxa (species, subspecies, or varieties) 

occur within Idaho Roadless Areas, according to the Idaho Conservation Data Center’s 

(ICDC) Element Occurrence Database (Idaho Department of Fish and Game [IDFG] 

2007). In addition, 69 plant taxa designated as sensitive by Forest Service regional 

foresters occur within Idaho Roadless Areas based on GIS analysis data: 28 in the 

Intermountain Region (R4) (USDA Forest Service 2004c) and 41 in the Northern Region 

(R1) (USDA Forest Service 2004d). 

The analysis evaluates the known occurrences of threatened, candidate, and sensitive 

species and their overlap with Idaho Roadless Areas, and the potential environmental 

consequences of the prohibitions and permissions to the occurrences. 

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Threatened, Endangered, Proposed, and Candidate Plants 

Table 3-28 provides a list of plants that have Federal status as threatened or candidate 

species and whether or not they overlap with Idaho Roadless Areas. There are no plants 

listed as endangered or proposed for listing under the ESA within NFS lands in Idaho. 

Of the six threatened and candidate species found in Idaho, three have known 

occurrences that are located in Idaho Roadless Areas. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.7 Botanical Resources 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 167 

Table 3-28. Threatened and candidate species on NFS lands in Idaho: Federal and State status, occurrence 

within Idaho Roadless Areas, and National Forest distribution 

Species 

name Common name Global1

 State2 Federal satus3 

Occurrence within 

Idaho Roadless 

Areas4

National forest 

distribution5 

Botrychium 

lineare 

Slender Moonwort G1 SH Candidate No Sawtooth (ph on 

all Idaho forests)

Castilleja 

christii 

Christ’s Indian 

paintbrush 

G1 S1 Candidate Mount Harrison Sawtooth 

Howellia 

aquatilis 

Water howellia G2 S1 Threatened No ph (Nez-Perce, 

Clearwater, 

IdahoPanhandle) 

Mirabilis 

macfarlanei 

MacFarlane’s fouro-clock 

G2 S1 Threatened Big Canyon Idaho Nez-Perce 

(administered by 

WallowaWhitman) 

Silene 

spaldingii 

Spalding’s silene G2 S1 Threatened No Nez-Perce (ph 

on Clearwater) 

Spiranthes 

diluvialis 

Ute ladies’-tresses G2 S1 Threatened Garns Mountain CaribouTarghee 

1 Global = Global ranking as assigned by Idaho Natural Heritage Program, G1 = Globally critically imperiled, G2 = 

Globally imperiled. 

2 State = Idaho State ranking, SH = State historical occurrence, S1 = State critically imperiled 3 Federal = listing as per the Endangered Species Act 4

 Occurrence based on GIS overlay with Idaho Roadless Areas. 

5 ph = potential habitat. 

Slender moonwort (Botrychium lineare). Slender moonwort may occur within the 

roadless areas in montane forest or meadow habitats on all forests. The only known 

population occurs at higher elevations on the Sawtooth National Forest, not within a 

roadless area. 

Christ’s Indian paintbrush (Castilleja christii). This paintbrush is found only on the top 

of Mount Harrison, Cassia County, on the Sawtooth National Forest, within the Mount 

Harrison roadless area. The species occurs within the Mt. Harrison Interpretive Area, 

with portions of the population occurring within a research natural area. Although 

portions of the population(s) fall within several roadless areas, management of this 

species is guided by a conservation agreement recently renewed (2005) by the Sawtooth 

National Forest with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Water howellia (Howellia aquatilis). Water howellia is a regional endemic that grows in 

seasonal pools, ponds, and old river oxbows. No occurrences have been found on NFS 

lands within Idaho Roadless Areas. Potential habitat for this species occurs on the Idaho 

Panhandle, Clearwater, and Nez-Perce National Forests. 

Macfarlane’s four-o’clock (Mirabilis macfarlanei). This species is a local endemic found 

on terraces and slopes supporting bluebunch wheatgrass in the Hell’s Canyon National 

Recreation Area. The six occurrences found within the Big Canyon roadless area are on 

lands administered by the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest. 
3.7 Botanical Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

168 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Spalding’s catchfly (Silene spaldingii). This species is a Palouse prairie grasslands 

endemic. In Idaho, several populations occur in the west-central portion of the State, 

including two occurrences on the Nez-Perce National Forest. No occurrences of this 

species are found within Idaho Roadless Areas. 

Ute ladies’-tresses (Spiranthes diluvialis). Five populations of Ute ladies’-tresses are 

found in the Garns Mountain Roadless Area on the Targhee portion of the CaribouTarghee National Forest. This species is jointly managed by the Forest Service and BLM 

under the South Fork Activity Plan. Habitat for this species is found along mesic 

meadows and floodplains in low gradient valley bottoms along the South Fork of the 

Snake River. 

Sensitive Plant Species 

Currently there are 69 sensitive plant taxa known to occur within 82 Idaho Roadless 

Areas, including the six threatened and candidate species previously discussed (tables 

3-28 and 3-29, and appendix K, tables K-1 and K-2). Populations of these plant species 

are infrequent and many have a localized distribution across the landscape. They are 

associated with an array of plant communities, unique habitats, and geological 

formations. The character, distribution, and extent of habitats depend on numerous 

factors: the size of the area; the type, intensity and timing of management-induced and 

natural disturbances that have occurred; and the landscape context within which they 

are found. Each species is also different with respect to critical life history 

characteristics, habitat requirements, and ecological sensitivity. Consequently, it is 

extremely difficult, and potentially misleading, to generalize the effects of various 

management activities on all these species. This is especially true with narrowly 

endemic species and populations at the fringe of their natural range. Some of the 

species occurring within certain management themes areas may be highlighted for 

discussion because of the significance of the potential effects of those activities. 

Habitat Guilds. Sensitive plant species are often found in specific habitats. Because of 

the large number of rare species within Idaho, sensitive plants can be assigned to one or 

more rare plant guilds, which are groupings based on similar habitat characteristics and 

life history requirements that are useful for analysis purposes. The groupings or habitat 

associations used for this analysis are: aquatic, riparian, fens, grasslands, wetlands and 

moist meadows, forest understory, shrublands and woodlands, subalpine meadows, 

alpine, and rock outcrops/talus slopes. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.7 Botanical Resources 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 169 

Table 3-29. Distribution of TCS1 species within Idaho Roadless Areas, by habitat guilds 

Riparian/ forest streambanks Moist cliffs, seeps, and banks 

Allium madidum Mimulus alsinoides 

Rubus bartonianus Mimulus ampliatus 

Spiranthes diluvialis 

Thelypteris nevadensis Wetlands and moist meadows 

Agoseris lackschewitzii 

Fens and fen margins Botrychium lanceolatum var. lanceolatum 

Carex leptalea Dryopteris cristata 

Drosera intermedia Epilobium palustris 

Gaultheria hispidula Hypericum majus 

Lycopodiella inundada Iris versicolor 

Meesia longiseta Schoenoplectus subterminalis 

Salix pedicellaris 

Scheuchzeria palustris Forest understory and gaps 

Trientalis arctica Allotropa virgata 

Vaccinium ocycoccos Astragalus paysonii 

Blechnum spicant 

Aquatic Botrychium lineare 

Howellia aquatica Botrychium minganense 

Botrychium montanum 

Grasslands Botrychium pedunculosum 

Allium tolmiei var. persimile Botrychium pinnatum 

Botrychium ascendens Buxbaumia viridis 

Calochortus nitidus Calamagrostis tweedii 

Halimolobos perplexa var. perplexa Cardamine constancei 

Mirabilis macfarlanei Cornus nuttallii 

Silene spaldingii Cypripedium fasciculatum 

 Hookeria lucens 

Shrublands/ woodlands Lycopodium dendroideum 

Haplopappus insecticruris Phegopteris connectilis 

Mimulus clivicola Polystichum braunii 

Oxytropis besseyi var. salmonensis Rhizomnium nudum 

Penstemon lemhiensis Streptopus streptopoides 

Phacelia minutissima Synthris platycarpa 

 Waldsteinia idahoensis 

Subalpine openings, meadows and grasslands 

Botrychium lineare Alpine 

Castilleja christii Astragalus vexilliflexus var. nubilis 

Cymopteris davisii Draba globosa 

Cymopteris douglasii Lesquerella paysonii 

Dasynotus daubenmirei Poa abbreviate ssp. marshii 

Douglasia idahoensis 

Saxifraga bryophora var. tobiasiae 

 

Cliffs, rocky outcrops and talus slopes 

Astragalus amnis-amissi 

Astragalus aquilonius 

Chrysothamnus parryi ssp. montanus 

Collomia debilis var. camporum 

Thelypodium repandum 

Thlaspi idahoense var. aileeniae 

1

TCS = threatened, candidate, sensitive 
3.7 Botanical Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

170 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

All Alternatives 

Field surveys would be conducted in all areas considered for project activities that 

contain high potential suitable habitat, and appropriate mitigation would be applied. 

There are 1,165 individual known occurrences of various threatened, candidate, and 

sensitive (TCS) species in Idaho Roadless Areas (appendix K, tables K-1 and K-2). 

Road Construction, Reconstruction, and Maintenance. Past, present and future 

construction and maintenance of roads have both adverse and positive effects on 

roadside plant populations. Road corridors associated with energy development in 

areas with or without transmission lines have been known to reduce the overall 

survival rate of the endangered Kern mallow (Cypher 2005). On the other hand, road 

maintenance may benefit those species that have a competitive edge in disturbed 

environments or depend on early seral conditions to establish new individuals and 

populations. Roads increase access to and provide an avenue for weed invasion. Roads 

can be placed on ridgetops, in riparian areas, or through scree slopes, which are often 

important habitats for a number of species. Reconstruction and maintenance of existing 

roads can directly or indirectly affect plant populations by introducing competitive 

weeds and altering availability of light, nutrients, and moisture. Maintenance of roads 

may increase traffic along these roads and thus increase potential for disturbance of 

plant populations adjacent to roads. 

Habitat fragmentation. Habitat fragmentation can affect rare plant species 

demographics (location) and genetics. Habitat fragmentation may change a plant 

species demographic by affecting their interaction with pollinators, interrupting their 

ability to move and changing their micro-climate (the local area they live in) by opening 

up the vegetation. Habitat fragmentation can affect genetics by increasing selfpollination, or changing the ability for a plant to disperse. It is important to note, 

however, that these effects have not resulted in large-scale extinctions of any rare forest 

plants (Honnay and Bossuyt 2005). 

A plant’s susceptibility to habitat fragmentation depends on life-history traits related to 

plant dispersal, establishment, or persistence (Kolb and Diekmann 2005). In the case of 

long-lived perennials, long-term persistence of small and isolated forest plant 

populations may be due to the fact they reproduce clonally and therefore persist for 

long generation times. However, the consequences of prolonged clonal reproduction 

(and suppression of sexual reproduction) has been that locally less-adapted clones 

become out competed by expanding clone members of more adapted species expanding 

their range (Hartnett and Bazzaz 1985). Almost all (90 percent) of angiosperms are 

pollinated by animals, especially insects (Wilcock and Neiland 2002), and fragmentation 

can negatively affect pollinator abundance, diversity, and visitation (Steffan–Dewenter 

and Tscharntke 1999). 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.7 Botanical Resources 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 171 

Although an increasing number of studies conclude that habitat fragmentation is 

broadly harmful to native bees, not all evidence points in that direction. There is 

evidence that fractions of native bee communities can persist in habitats that have been 

modestly altered by human activities (Marlin and LaBerge 2001), and the possible 

effects of habitat fragmentation on bees are only now beginning to be understood (Cane 

2001). Fragmentation implies increased edge effects, which may be as important as 

isolation (Turner et al. 1996). Edge effects influence plant dynamics such as 

regeneration, interspecies competition, predation, seed dispersal, and pollination 

(Murcia 1995). In addition, the changed microclimate of increased air and soil 

temperature, characterized by increased light penetration, directly affects plant 

population dynamics. Edge effects also influence bryophyte community structure in 

border habitats where abrupt differences in microclimatic conditions between the 

different forest conditions exist (Pharo and Zartman 2007). 

Spread of non-native invasive plants and animals and edge-dwelling species. Nonnative weeds directly affect plants and plant populations through competitive 

displacement above ground and in the seed bank. Indirect impacts include herbicide 

spraying and mechanical ground disturbance to control noxious weeds once they gain a 

foothold. Competition from invasive non-native species and noxious weeds can result 

in the loss of habitat, loss of pollinators, and decreased numbers of species. Roads, 

trails, and canopy reduction can provide ideal pathways for the introduction of exotic 

and non-native species. Indirectly, herbicide spraying can destroy populations of native 

pollinators by contaminating nesting materials and pollen resources (Pierson et al., 

2000), further decreasing the capability and reproductive success of TCS species. Some 

species of non-native plants will alter hydrological regimes, changing and reducing the 

habitat available to TCS plants. 

Human access. The most important direct impact on plants related to human access is 

trampling, both by hikers and via newly available routes for off-highway vehicles use 

(Liddle 1975, 1991). These types of activities particularly threaten many TCS species. 

Road building and the development of facilities used by recreationists also contribute to 

plant impacts, because these developments make more areas accessible and concentrate 

use; dispersed camping and recreation have similar impacts but these are more difficult 

to monitor. Parking areas, particularly undesignated areas, can have similar impacts on 

plants. Other recreational impacts include OHV use, which can also disturb soil and 

thus affect both habitat and potential habitat. Roads often provide easy access to plant 

hobbyists and collectors. Roads and trails can contribute to the spread of noxious weeds 

and can increase accessibility to native wildlife and livestock, which can exacerbate the 

impacts of trampling and congregation. 

Vegetation management impacts. Timber cutting, road construction, and associated 

infrastructure development may alter the hydrologic processes needed for sensitive 

plants such as Ute Ladies’-tresses orchid and rare moss species of wetland-associated 

habitat groups (aquatic, fens and fen margins, riparian, and wet coniferous forest). 

Changes to the hydrologic processes in wetlands may result in both a decrease and 
3.7 Botanical Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

172 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

increase of wetland water levels. Timber cutting can create sudden changes in seral 

stage, or an abundance of early seral stages, and also reduce the available habitats for 

those plants that require mid-to-late seral stages (such as clustered lady-slipper orchid). 

However, those species that prefer openings, early-seral conditions, or some ground 

disturbance, could benefit from moderate levels of mechanical activities. Changing 

patch dynamics across the landscape could also have beneficial or adverse effects on 

TCS plant species and their pollinators. Restoration of historical fire regimes and 

conditions for different potential vegetation groups may benefit some TCS species in 

the long term. 

Phosphate development. About 9,100 acres of phosphate deposits can be found in 

seven roadless areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid 

Peak, Stump Creek and Mount Jefferson) and are under existing lease. Some of these 

acres have been mined to date (the total amount is unknown). About 1,100 acres, 

associated with the Smoky Canyon mine expansion, are reasonably foreseeable to be 

developed within the next 15 years. The Smoky Canyon mine expansion would affect 

the Sage Creek and Meade Peak roadless areas. 

It is also reasonable to assume that the remaining phosphate deposits currently under 

lease, roughly 8,000 acres within the seven roadless areas would likely be permitted and 

developed sometime in the extended future (50 years or more). Using the Smoky 

Canyon expansion as an example of the level of activity expected, an estimated 17 miles 

of haul road construction and other surface mining disturbance would ultimately take 

place within the seven roadless areas. Prior to mining plant surveys would be 

conducted and any special protection measures would be applied. 

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

The 2001 Roadless Rule prohibits road construction/reconstruction across all Idaho 

Roadless Areas, except under seven exceptions. Timber cutting is also prohibited except 

in a few cases (such as restoration of ecosystem processes and addressing 

uncharacteristic wildfire effects). Based on the prohibitions and permissions, about 15 

miles of road are projected to be constructed over the next 15 years, and timber cutting 

is projected to occur on 1,500 acres. 

TCS plant species would benefit from the low amount of road construction/ 

reconstruction under the 2001 Roadless Rule. With the few exceptions for timber 

cutting, this alternative presents a low risk to TCS plant resources because of the lack of 

potential disturbance. 

By restricting timber cutting to activities necessary for resource stewardship, many of 

the adverse effects of timber cutting would be minimized, while maintaining a 

management tool potentially needed for ecological restoration. Mechanical vegetation 

manipulation to reduce fuel loading may be desirable in some areas where there is an 

abnormally high risk of high intensity, large-scale fires. Fuels reduction stewardship 

activities may be beneficial to some sensitive plant populations if impacts on their 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.7 Botanical Resources 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 173 

habitats are not excessive or permanent. Other types of stewardship timber cutting to 

meet objectives for watershed restoration and enhancement of riparian vegetation could 

benefit species such as Ute Ladies’ tresses orchid. 

The priorities for fuels treatments in roadless areas would likely remain in those areas 

where there is a risk to life and property. With the possible exception of some local sitespecific examples, the prohibitions on road construction/reconstruction and most 

timber cutting activities are not likely to affect the overall amount or severity of 

wildfires. As a result, the effects of wildfires on TCS plant species are likely to be similar 

with or without the prohibitions. This alternative would not measurably affect the 

current ability to manage TCS plant populations or their habitats. 

The 2001 Roadless Rule limits road construction and reconstruction to reserved or 

outstanding rights; or as provided for by statute or treaty; or for the continuation, 

extension, or renewal of a mineral lease. Because roads cannot be constructed for future 

mineral leasing, there would be no additional effects on plant species. 

No adverse environmental effects on TCS plant species or their habitats would be 

expected from the 2001 Roadless Rule, because it does not directly authorize any 

ground-disturbing activities. Ground-disturbing activities permitted under this 

alternative include limited road construction/ reconstruction and limited timber cutting 

across the entire 9.3 million acres of Idaho Roadless Areas. The Forest Service and other 

Government agencies with jurisdictional responsibilities would retain the tools 

necessary to manage these resources. 

Existing Plans 

Road construction/reconstruction is prohibited in management prescriptions similar to 

Wild Land Recreation theme (1,320,800 acres) and is generally not permitted in existing 

forest plan special areas such as research natural areas, eligible wild and scenic rivers, 

or designated wild and scenic rivers (about 345,100 acres) (appendix H, table H-9). 

Limited to no effects on plant species would occur on these lands 

Only timber cutting, to a very limited degree, is generally allowed in management 

prescriptions similar to the Primitive theme (2,131,400 acres). Limited to no effects on 

plant species would occur on these lands. 

About 4,244,500 acres are in management prescriptions similar to Backcountry, where 

road construction/reconstruction is generally allowed, as is timber cutting for certain 

purposes. Timber cutting in these prescriptions is generally designed to meet other 

resource needs. About 500 TCS plant species are known to occur in Backcountry (table 

3-30 appendix K, table K-3). About 1,262,400 acres are in prescriptions similar to GFRG, 

where road construction /reconstruction and timber cutting are allowed; about 100 TCS 

plant species are known to occur within GFRG (table 3-30 and appendix K, table K-3). 

Where road construction/reconstruction and to some degree timber cutting occurs, 

there is a potential to affect plant species through direct mortality, habitat loss, and 
3.7 Botanical Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

174 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

disturbance. About 180 miles of road are projected to be constructed over the next 15 

years for timber cutting and non-timber-cutting related activities. Timber cutting is 

projected to occur on about 42,000 acres over the next 15 years. Based on this degree of 

foreseeable activity, Existing Plans would most likely fragment some TCS populations 

and habitats, disrupt plant-pollinator interactions, and provide corridors for non-native 

species invasion. 

The Caribou Forest Plan permits leasing of the estimated 6,500 acres of known unleased 

phosphate deposits and/or other possible roadless areas that contain undiscovered 

phosphate resources. These known unleased phosphate deposits occur in six roadless 

areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, and 

Stump Creek) and would likely be developed over an extended period of time (50 years 

or more). In addition, there are 6,900 acres of unleased phosphate deposits on the 

Targhee portion of the forest within the Bald Mountain, Bear Creek and Poker Creek 

roadless areas. An environmental analysis would have to be completed to determine 

how much of the 6,900 acres could actually be leased. There is a potential risk to 

sensitive plant species habitat on these 13,400 when and if this development occurs. 

Site-specific analysis would occur prior to any future leasing and mitigations applied. 

Existing Plans may allow road construction/reconstruction for geothermal 

development in Backcountry and GFRG. It is unknown where and to what degree 

geothermal resources would be developed; however, because about half the Idaho 

Roadless Areas in these themes have high to moderate potential it is likely some 

development would eventually occur. Currently lease applications have been submitted 

for geothermal exploration within 7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area on the 

Boise National Forest and 33 acres of the West Panther Roadless Area on the Salmon 

National Forest. If fully developed, roads, transmission lines, and other facilities would 

likely be constructed (see appendix I for a description of general development of 

geothermal resources). Plant resources such as TCS would be considered during sitespecific analysis, and mitigations would be applied. 

Table 3-30. Number of occurrences of known sensitive plant populations by alternative and similar theme 

Alternative 

Wild Land 

Recreation 

Primitive 

SAHTS Backcountry GFRG 

Forest plan 

special areas 

2001 Roadless Rule 1,165 

Existing Plans 127 166 523 84 265 

Idaho Roadless Rule 141 148 601 10 265 

Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

Road construction/reconstruction would be prohibited in Wild Land Recreation, 

Primitive, and SAHTS themes (about 3,103,500 acres), and very limited timber cutting 

would be allowed in the Primitive and SAHTS themes; therefore, there would be 

limited to no effects on sensitive plant habitats. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.7 Botanical Resources 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 175 

Road construction/reconstruction and timber cutting would be permitted in limited 

situations in Backcountry (5,246,100 acres) and would be permissible in GFRG (609,500 

acres). Ten sensitive plant species are known to occur in GFRG and about 600 plant 

species occur in the Backcountry theme (table 3-30, and appendix K, table K-4). About 

60 miles of road are projected to be constructed/reconstructed over the next 15 years. 

Timber cutting is projected on 12,000 acres over the next 15 years for stewardship and 

fuel reduction purposes. This would affect about 0.1 percent of total Idaho Roadless 

Area acreage over 15 years. 

By restricting timber cutting to activities necessary to address forest health and 

hazardous fuels, many of the adverse effects of timber cutting would be minimized, 

while maintaining a management tool potentially needed for ecological restoration. 

Mechanical vegetation manipulation to reduce fuel loading may be desirable in some 

areas where there is an abnormally high risk of high intensity, large-scale fires. Fuels 

reduction activities may be beneficial to some sensitive plant populations if impacts to 

their habitats are not excessive or permanent. Other types of timber cutting to meet 

objectives for watershed restoration and enhancement of riparian vegetation could be 

designed to benefit species such as Ute Ladies’ tresses orchid. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would permit road construction/reconstruction and surface 

occupancy within the Backcountry and GFRG themes to access unleased phosphate 

deposits. There are 13,400 acres of known unleased phosphate deposits on the CaribouTarghee National Forest. About 12,100 acres (90 percent) are located within the 

Backcountry and GFRG themes. These deposits are located within nine roadless areas 

(Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, and Stump 

Creek on the Caribou portion of the forest and Bald Mountain, Bear Creek, and Poker 

Creek on the Targhee portion of the forest) and could eventually be mined over an 

extended period of time (50 years or more). There is a potential risk to sensitive plant 

species habitat on these 12,100 acres when and if this development occurs. Site-specific 

analysis would occur prior to any future leasing and mitigations applied. 

About 1,300 acres of unleased phosphate deposits are in the Primitive theme. The 

Primitive theme prohibits road construction/reconstruction or surface occupancy for 

phosphates; therefore this area would likely not be developed (see Minerals section); 

and there would be no effect to plant species found in this area. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would also allow road construction/reconstruction for 

geothermal development in the GFRG theme. About 7 percent of Idaho Roadless Areas 

are in this theme, and about 4 percent could be developed because of slope restrictions 

(see Minerals section). It is likely some of these areas would be developed over time; 

however, except for two pending lease applications there is no information about where 

or when the activity would occur. If fully developed, roads, transmission lines, and 

other facilities would likely be constructed (see appendix I for a description of general 

development of geothermal resources). Plant resources would be considered during 

site-specific analysis, and mitigations would be applied. 
3.7 Botanical Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

176 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Currently lease applications have been submitted for geothermal exploration within 

7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area on the Boise National Forest and 33 acres of 

the West Panther Roadless Area on the Salmon National Forest. Both these areas are in 

either the Primitive or Backcountry theme; therefore, they would not be developed 

because of the inability to construct roads to access the area (see Minerals section). No 

plant resources would be affected in these areas. 

No adverse environmental effects on TCS plant species or their habitats would be 

expected from the Idaho Roadless Rule, because it does not directly authorize any 

ground-disturbing activities. The Forest Service and other Government agencies with 

jurisdictional responsibilities would retain the tools necessary to manage these 

resources. The Idaho Roadless Rule would not change current TCS plant direction and 

would require site-specific analysis prior to implementing projects on the ground. 

CUMULATIVE EFFECTS

The past, present, and reasonably foreseeable programmatic actions listed in appendix 

N have and would generally benefit TCS plant species in Idaho as a whole. PACFISH 

and INFISH provide protections around riparian habitat where many plant species 

grow. Existing plans, as well as manual direction (FSM 2670) provide direction to 

mitigate potential impacts to TCS species resulting from project activities. 

The Roads Policy and National Travel Management Policy generally result in reducing 

disturbance. Although the alternatives permit road construction/reconstruction into 

roadless areas, the trend has been to construct fewer roads and decommission more 

roads (Road Construction/Reconstruction section). 

The NFP, HFI, HFRA, the Energy Implementation Plan may all encourage activities to 

occur, but none of these policies dictate where the activities would occur or how they 

would be designed. Potential foreseeable actions based on these policies, such as timber 

cutting and mineral and energy development were considered in the analysis. Existing 

plan direction that provides guidance on how to protect plant species, or conservation 

strategies for individual plant species can be applied during project design. 

Cumulatively, there would be minimal effect to any known occurrence of TCS species 

in Idaho Roadless Areas under any alternative because these species would be 

considered in project design and appropriate conservation measures applied. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.8 Aquatic Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 177 

3.8 Aquatic Species 

INTRODUCTION 

Idaho Roadless Areas function as biological strongholds for populations of threatened 

and endangered species. They provide large, relatively undeveloped landscapes that 

are important to biological diversity and the long-term survival of many at risk species. 

The analysis evaluates the environmental consequences of the prohibitions and 

permissions for timber cutting, road construction/reconstruction, and discretionary 

mineral activities by alternative on selected aquatic species (including threatened, 

endangered, sensitive (TES), and management indicator species [MIS]) and their 

habitats.44 

Species sustainability and ecosystem integrity are aquatic habitat characteristics 

considered in this analysis. Key characteristics for aquatic species include: threatened 

and endangered critical habitat, native fish priority watersheds, and native fish 

strongholds. In addition, characteristics of habitat integrity (such as water quality, 

channel processes, sediment regime, instream flows, and riparian vegetation), were 

considered in relation to the proposed alternatives. 

Potential environmental consequences to aquatic species and habitats from the 

prohibitions and permissions in the alternatives were determined by considering the 

kinds and numbers of species potentially affected; identifying the important and 

sometimes unique characteristics of roadless areas that foster biodiversity; and 

evaluating the potential effects of road construction, road reconstruction, timber cutting 

and discretionary minerals activities on those characteristics. These effects are discussed 

for aquatic species and habitats. 

CONSULTATION AND COORDINATION 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrations (NOAA), National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS) and the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) have oversight 

responsibilities for implementation of the ESA. Informal consultation and conferencing 

 

44 Other Idaho aquatic species of greatest conservation need are not specifically included in this analysis 

and encompass a variety of organisms including mollusks, insects, amphibians, and fish. The species 

included in this analysis (appendix L, table 1) serve as a surrogate for this larger group of cold-water 

species. The cold-water group requires stream environments that have clean, cold water. Salmonid 

species are considered useful surrogates for aquatic invertebrates. Lee et al. (1997) in the Interior 

Columbia Basin assessment provided several reasons for focusing on salmonid species as cold-water 

biota indicators. These include: 

• More is known about them and therefore we are more likely to discern important environmental 

relationships; 

• They are widely distributed, which allows for broad-scale comparisons; 

• They act as predators, competitors, and prey for a variety of other aquatic and terrestrial animals, 

so they are likely to influence the structure and function of aquatic ecosystems. 

• They are potentially more sensitive to disturbance than other species groups. 
3.8 Aquatic Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

178 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

on the proposed rule have begun with frequent discussions among Forest Service, FWS, 

and NMFS biologists. The Agency intends to prepare a biological assessment on the 

proposed rule and informally consult with the FWS and NMFS. 

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

The State of Idaho contains numerous rivers, streams, and lakes. Most of Idaho is 

included in the Interior Columbia River Basin with the exception of the Bear River 

Basin, in southeast Idaho. Bear River Basin is part of the Great Basin and flows into the 

Great Salt Lake. Idaho Roadless Areas support a diversity of aquatic habitats and 

communities, including habitat for 17 aquatic TES species (appendix L, table L-1) and 

numerous other native aquatic species including fish, amphibians, and invertebrates. 

The Columbia Basin fisheries in Idaho are world-renowned for their salmon, steelhead, 

and native trout populations. The Bear River Basin, including Bear Lake and its 

tributaries, support several endemic species, including Bonneville cisco, Bonneville 

whitefish, Bear Lake whitefish, and Bear Lake sculpin. In addition, the fisheries 

resources of the State are important for the Tribes in Idaho. Most of the native fish 

populations in Idaho have suffered declines. Similarly, native amphibians such as the 

Coeur d’Alene salamander, western toad, and Columbia spotted frog have also 

experienced population declines. 

Human activities since the late 1800s have altered some of the landscape across Idaho. 

Clearing of streams for passage of boats and milling of logs downstream reduced 

habitat complexity and the connection between streams and their floodplains. Dams 

and diversions resulted in dramatic changes to stream conditions and the passage of 

aquatic species upstream and downstream. Ground-disturbing activities such as 

mining, road building, and logging have resulted in higher sediment loading to streams 

and channel alterations that often times resulted in unfavorable conditions for aquatic 

species (Meehan 1991). In the Interior Columbia Basin (including most of Idaho), the 

ecological integrity of streams, lakes, and wetlands was significantly compromised by 

the late 1920s (Lee et al. 1997). Increasing human population, technological advances 

(for example, centrifugal pumps), and availability of heavy equipment after World War 

II greatly accelerated the development of new irrigation projects, timber harvest, dam 

construction, and road building (Lee et al. 1997). Individually and inn combination, 

these activities continued to fragment and compromise the remaining hydrologically 

connected and vegetated reaches of streams (Lee et al. 1997). 

Features of altered ecosystems include changes (generally reductions) in species 

diversity, changes in species distributions, and losses of habitat types or ecosystem 

status (Reeves et al. 1995). Native salmonid assemblages are simplified in watersheds 

that have been affected by various human activities (Reeves et al. 1995). Large blocks of 

unroaded areas such as Idaho Roadless Areas may support isolated aquatic populations 

because of road-related effects and other causes of habitat alteration in adjacent areas 

(USDA 2000). 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.8 Aquatic Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 179 

Aquatic Ecosystems 

Approximately 32 percent of Idaho is roadless, including congressionally mandated 

wilderness (7 percent), NFS roadless areas (18 percent), and BLM roadless (7 percent). 

The 9.3 million acres of Idaho Roadless Areas play an important role in the condition of 

aquatic ecosystems and aquatic species across the State. 

Key aquatic ecological characteristics that contribute to aquatic/riparian ecosystem 

integrity include (USDA et al. 1993 [FEMAT], Furniss et al. 1991): 

• Riparian and aquatic habitats necessary to foster the unique genetic fish stocks that 

evolved within the specific geographic region; 

• Habitat to support diversity and productivity of native and non-native plant, 

vertebrate, and invertebrate populations that contribute to the viability of aquaticand riparian-dependent communities; 

• Habitats and conditions that discourage and prevent the establishment and spread 

of invasive species; 

• Water quality, including temperature, to a degree that provides for stable and 

productive riparian and aquatic ecosystems; 

• Stream channel integrity, channel processes, and the sediment regime (including the 

elements of timing, volume, and character of sediment input and transport) under 

which riparian and aquatic ecosystems developed; 

• Instream flows to support healthy riparian and aquatic habitats, the stability and 

effective function of stream channels, and the ability to route flood discharges; 

• Natural timing and variability of the water table elevation in meadows and 

wetlands; 

• Riparian vegetation to: 

à Provide an amount and distribution of large woody debris characteristic of 

natural aquatic and riparian ecosystems; 

à Provide adequate summer and winter thermal regulation within the riparian 

and aquatic zones; and 

à Help achieve rates of surface erosion, bank erosion, and channel migration 

characteristic of those under which the communities developed. 

These characteristics are becoming more valuable in an increasingly developed 

landscape. Large undisturbed landscapes generally have high ecological characteristics 

contributing to aquatic riparian ecosystem integrity. Idaho contains more wild and 

remote public land than any State outside of Alaska (Curley et al. 2006). 

Waters in Idaho Roadless Areas have been shown to function as biological strongholds 

and refuges for many fish species (Lee et al. 1997). Smaller streams, such as many of 

those found in roadless areas, provide important habitat for resident and migratory 
3.8 Aquatic Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

180 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

aquatic species and also influence the quality of habitat in larger, downstream reaches 

(Chamberlin et al. 1991). 

Strong fish populations that include the most productive, abundant and diverse 

populations are likely to be most resilient to environmental disturbance and most likely 

to survive and recover from catastrophic disturbance (Rieman et al. 1993). Idaho 

Roadless Areas provide for aquatic species strongholds and opportunities to better 

understand aquatic and riparian ecosystems that have experienced minimal 

disturbance. Strong populations of native fish are critical for short-term persistence and 

long-term recovery. 

Biodiversity 

In the ecological literature, diversity refers to both the number of species present and 

their relative abundance. Thus, an area with many abundant species is more “diverse” 

than an area with an equal number of species, few of which are abundant and most of 

which are rare. A relative measure of Idaho’s aquatic biodiversity is shown in table 3-31. 

Table 3-31. Idaho’s biodiversity rank relative to the 50 United States and the District of Columbia (Stein 2002) 

Category Rank Number of species or percent at risk 

Amphibian diversity 48 12 species 

Amphibian risk 19 8.3 percent at risk 

Freshwater fish diversity 47 42 species 

Freshwater fish risk 10 19.0 percent at risk 

The number of native species present in a watershed is an important element of 

diversity and reflects heterogeneity in the physical environment (Lee et al. 1997). A high 

degree of species overlap might reflect strong habitat diversity. Even with a fairly 

narrow group like salmonids, each species relies on different habitats and 

environments, with variable and wide-ranging life-history patterns. The co-occurrence 

of several salmonids suggests suitable habitats exist over relatively large landscapes, 

not just those tied to the local subwatershed. High richness may also indicate critical 

common areas that serve as corridors, wintering areas, or seasonal refuges for the 

varied life histories in the assemblage. The loss of such areas could portend a loss of 

richness on both local and regional scales. 

The size of an area, kinds and intensity of management-induced and natural 

disturbances that have occurred, and the landscape context in which it is found, all 

affect the quality, distribution, and extent of these habitats. Some of these waters may 

now play a relatively much greater role in supporting aquatic species and biodiversity 

than in the past due to cumulative loss of other, potentially more biologically rich 

habitat within associated drainages. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.8 Aquatic Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 181 

ESA Threatened and Endangered Species 

Federally listed threatened and endangered aquatic species that occur in Idaho include 

steelhead, spring/summer-run Chinook salmon, fall-run Chinook salmon, bull trout, 

sockeye salmon, and white sturgeon (Kootenai River system) (table 3-32). 

Two documents guide the management of these six federally listed fish species on 

National Forest system lands: (1) Interim Strategy for Managing Anadromous Fishproducing Watersheds in Eastern Oregon and Washington, Idaho, and Portions of 

California (PACFISH) (USDA Forest Service, USDI BLM 1995); and (2) Inland Native 

Fish Strategy (INFISH) (USDA Forest Service 1995). PACFISH and INFISH standards 

and guidelines apply to all NFS lands within the analysis area. 

Table 3-32. Acres of threatened and endangered fish species range in Idaho and percent overlap with Idaho 

Roadless Areas 

Species Acres of species range in Idaho 

Percent of species range that 

overlaps Idaho Roadless Areas 

Steelhead 11,533,600 27 

Spring/summer-run Chinook 10,512,800 28 

Fall-run Chinook 790,400 5 

Bull trout 16,746,200 33 

Sockeye 1,655,700 21 

Kootenai white sturgeon 167,800 10 

The following threatened and endangered fish species information is from the Idaho 

Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy (IDFG 2005). 

Steelhead trout. Steelhead, which are the anadromous life form of rainbow/redband 

trout, were historically found along the west coast of North America from southern 

California to central Alaska. The Interior Columbia River basin steelhead ranged from 

east of the Cascades upstream in the Columbia River and tributary streams to natural 

geologic barriers such as Shoshone Falls on the Snake River (Behnke 2002). In Idaho, 

steelhead had access to most of the Clearwater, Salmon, Weiser, Payette, Boise, 

Owyhee, Bruneau, and Salmon Falls Creek drainages. Populations using the tributaries 

above Hells Canyon Dam were eliminated with the construction of the Hells Canyon 

complex in the 1950s and earlier upriver dams. Currently, wild and hatchery steelhead 

are found in the Snake River below Hells Canyon Dam, in the Clearwater, and Salmon 

River drainages. Steelhead in the Snake River drainage were listed as threatened under 

ESA in 2006 (U.S. Department of Commerce [USDC] NOAA 2006). About 100 roadless 

areas in Idaho have habitat that supports steelhead trout. 

Steelhead spawn and rear in streams and small-river habitats that are similar to habitats 

in slightly larger systems used by resident rainbow/redband trout. Spawning streams 

need clean gravels for successful egg development and fry emergence. Most steelhead 

returning to Idaho cross Lower Granite Dam during September-November and overwinter in pools before spawning the next spring. Steelhead remain in the ocean for 1–3 

years before returning to natal streams to spawn. 
3.8 Aquatic Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

182 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Snake River spring/summer-run Chinook salmon. Snake River spring/summer-run 

Chinook salmon historically were found spawning in the Snake River tributaries of the 

Clearwater, Salmon, Weiser, Payette, and Boise rivers. Populations using the rivers 

above Hells Canyon Dam were eliminated with the construction of Hells Canyon 

complex from 1955 to 1967 and earlier upriver dams. Populations in the Clearwater 

drainage were eliminated or severely depressed by the Lewiston Dam in the 1950s. The 

Idaho portion of the Snake River spring/summer-run Chinook salmon evolutionary 

significant unit (ESU) consists of all the Salmon River drainage and the Snake River 

drainage upstream to Hells Canyon Dam. The Clearwater drainage was not included 

because this population was lost in the 1950s. Although not listed in the ESU, the 

reestablished Clearwater River populations have been considered as part of the 

historical range. About 100 roadless areas in Idaho have habitat that supports 

spring/summer-run Chinook salmon. 

Spring/summer-run Chinook salmon for the Snake and Salmon River sub-basins were 

listed as threatened under ESA on April 22, 1992 (USDC NOAA 1992; see also 

correction June 3, 1992); threatened status was reaffirmed on June 28, 2005 (USDC 

NOAA 2005a). Chinook salmon are the largest of any salmon, with adults often 

exceeding 40–60 pounds after 3–5 years in the ocean. Spring/summer Chinook salmon 

use smaller, higher elevation tributary systems for spawning and juvenile rearing 

compared to fall-run Chinook salmon, which spawn in mainstem larger rivers. As with 

most salmon, adults die after spawning, providing a large nutrient source for juvenile 

fish. Juvenile spring/summer-run Chinook salmon remain in headwater streams for a 

year and out-migrate the following spring. 

Snake River fall-run Chinook salmon. Historically, Snake River fall-run Chinook 

salmon spawned in the Snake River upriver to the Hagerman Valley and in lower 

portions of the Salmon and Clearwater Rivers. Populations using the river above Hells 

Canyon Dam were eliminated with the construction of the Hells Canyon complex from 

1955 to 1967 and earlier upriver dams. The Idaho portion of the Snake River fall-run 

Chinook salmon ESU consists of the Clearwater drainage up to Lolo Creek except for 

the North Fork above Dworshak Dam; the Salmon River drainage upstream to the Little 

Salmon River; and the Snake River drainage upstream to Hells Canyon Dam. Fall-run 

Chinook salmon for the Snake and Salmon River sub-basins were listed as threatened 

under ESA on April 22, 1992 (USDC NOAA 1992; see also correction June 3, 1992); 

threatened status was reaffirmed on June 28, 2005 (USDC NOAA 2005a). The John Day, 

North Fork Slate Roadless Area on the Nez Perce National Forest; the Hells Canyon/7 

Devils Scenic, Patrick Butte Roadless Areas on the Payette National Forest; and the Big 

Canyon ID, Klopton Creek-Corral Creek ID Roadless Areas on the Wallowa-Whitman 

National Forest have habitat supporting fall Chinook salmon. 

Fall-run Chinook salmon use the mainstem of larger rivers to spawn compared to 

spring/summer-run Chinook salmon, which spawn in smaller, higher tributary 

streams. Adult fall-run Chinook salmon enter the Snake River from late August through 

November. Fry emerge in March and juvenile fall-run Chinook salmon typically differ 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.8 Aquatic Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 183 

from spring/summer-run fish in that they begin a slow downstream migration as 

subyearlings soon after emerging from the gravel, feeding on their way to the ocean. 

Most complete the journey in the first year. 

Bull trout. Bull trout occur in the northwestern portion of North America from Nevada 

to the Yukon Territory (Behnke 2002). Because of concerns about declining population 

numbers of bull trout in some areas of their range and lack of information in other 

areas, the FWS listed the species as threatened in 1998 in the Columbia River basin 

(USDI FWS 1998). Idaho contains approximately 48 percent of the stream miles and 39 

percent of the lakes and reservoirs for this species (Reighn 2007, pers, comm.). Although 

Idaho contributes to a significant portion of the occupied habitat for bull trout, the 

populations in Idaho have declined severely (46 percent) within their historical range in 

the State. About 170 roadless areas in Idaho have habitat that supports bull trout. 

In Idaho, bull trout are currently found in the Boise, Payette, and Weiser drainages, and 

all the drainages to the north in the Columbia River basin. There is a small isolated 

population remaining in the Jarbidge drainage to the south of the Snake River and the 

Little Lost River. There are no roadless areas associated with the Jarbidge drainage. 

Bull trout exhibit three life history types in Idaho—adfluvial, fluvial, and resident—all 

of which require cold water temperatures, less than 16oC (less than 60oF), during 

portions of their life cycle to persist. Bull trout generally prefer colder water 

temperatures, less than 12oC (less than 54oF), than other trout species found in Idaho. 

Sockeye salmon. In Idaho, sockeye salmon historically spawned and reared in the large 

lakes accessible to the ocean (Payette and Salmon River drainages). The Payette Lake 

population was eliminated in the early 1990s by dam construction on the Payette River. 

Currently sockeye salmon are found only in lakes in the Stanley basin of the upper 

Salmon River, primarily Redfish and Alturas Lakes. Sockeye salmon in the Snake River 

basin are an anadromous species, which have life history patterns that depend on the 

fresh water lakes and access to the ocean; they migrate to and from the ocean through 

the Salmon, Snake, and Columbia Rivers. 

Sockeye salmon spawn in gravel areas in lakes, where juveniles rear for 1 to 3 years 

prior to migrating to the ocean. Sockeye salmon in the Snake River drainage were listed 

as endangered under ESA in 1991 (USDC NOAA 1991). At the time of listing, the Snake 

River sockeye salmon ESU was limited to Redfish Lake but enhancement has increased 

distribution to Alturas and Petit Lakes. Idaho Roadless Areas that are located in the 

Redfish Lake, Alturas Lake, and Pettit Lake basins include: Hanson Lakes, Huckleberry, 

and Pettit Roadless Areas on the Sawtooth National Forest. 

Kootenai River white sturgeon. The white sturgeon occurs in large rivers in the Pacific 

Northwest from central California to southwest Alaska. The Kootenai River population 

has been geographically isolated from other populations since the last ice age. The 

population ranges from Kootenay Lake in British Columbia up to the Kootenai River 

through Idaho to Kootenai Falls in Montana. The Kootenai River population was listed 

as endangered in 1994 (USDI FWS 1994). The white sturgeon is the largest freshwater 
3.8 Aquatic Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

184 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

fish in North America. The Katka Peak, Mt. Willard, Lake Estelle, and Selkirk Roadless 

Areas on the Idaho Panhandle National Forest overlap habitat for the Kootenai River 

white sturgeon. 

Species Richness 

The total number of aquatic threatened and endangered fish species known to occur in 

each Idaho Roadless Area was used to characterize species richness within a roadless 

area. There are 170 roadless areas that are within the range for aquatic threatened and 

endangered species (appendix L, table L-3). Idaho Roadless Areas with the greatest 

overlap of threatened and endangered fish species are especially valuable for their 

species richness and contribution to biodiversity. Nine roadless areas overlap with four 

threatened and endangered species (table 3-33); 88 roadless areas overlap with three 

aquatic species; 6 roadless areas overlap with two species; and 69 roadless areas overlap 

with one species. Figure 3-14 shows Idaho Roadless Areas that provide habitat for 

multiple (1-4) threatened and endangered aquatic species. 

Table 3-33. Idaho Roadless Areas that provide habitat for multiple (four) threatened and endangered fish 

species 

Idaho Roadless Area Forest 

Hanson Lakes Boise/Challis/Sawtooth 

John Day Nez Perce 

North Fork Slate Creek Nez Perce 

Hells Canyon/7 Devils Scenic Payette 

Patrick Butte Payette 

Huckleberry Sawtooth 

Pettit Sawtooth 

Big Canyon ID Wallowa-Whitman 

Klopton Creek – Corral Creek ID Wallowa-Whitman 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.8 Aquatic Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 185 

Figure 3-14. Idaho Roadless Areas that provide habitat for multiple (1-4) threatened and endangered aquatic 

species. 
3.8 Aquatic Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

186 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Critical Habitat 

Critical habitat has been designated for all the threatened and endangered fish species. 

Snake River steelhead critical habitat was designated and mapped by NOAA Fisheries 

(USDC NOAA 2005b). 45 Sockeye critical habitat is limited to Redfish Lake and the main 

stem Snake River (USDC NOAA 2005b). Kootenai River white sturgeon critical habitat 

was designated and mapped by the FWS (USDI FWS 2006). Critical habitat has been 

designated for bull trout (USDI FWS 2005); however, none is designated on NFS lands. 

Table 3-34 displays critical habitat for Idaho threatened and endangered fish species in 

Idaho Roadless Areas. 

Table 3-34. Threatened and endangered fish critical habitat in Idaho Roadless Areas 

Species 

Acres of Idaho Roadless Area 

providing critical habitat 

Percent critical habitat in 

Idaho Roadless Areas 

Steelhead 3,433,000 28 

Chinook salmon 3,433,000 28 

Bull trout 0 0 

Sockeye 347,700 21 

Kootenai River white sturgeon 7,000 7 

Priority Watersheds 

Priority watersheds (also called “special emphasis” or “key” watersheds) are areas that 

provide for high-quality habitat and stable populations of listed fish species. Priority 

watersheds are a cornerstone of most species conservation strategies (Lee et al. 1997). 

The goal of these watersheds is to maintain the best habitats and fish populations, and 

generally watersheds are chosen that have the highest potential for rehabilitation. 

Priority watersheds have been identified for Chinook, steelhead, and bull trout. 

Of the Idaho Roadless Areas, 57 percent contain priority watersheds identified for 

conservation of threatened and endangered fish species, including steelhead, springsummer Chinook salmon, and bull trout. In Idaho, no priority watersheds are 

designated for fall-run Chinook. More than 40 percent of the acreage in designated 

priority watersheds for these aquatic species is located in roadless areas. Table 3-35 

displays percent of priority watersheds in Idaho Roadless Areas by species. 

Table 3-35. Threatened and endangered fish priority watersheds in Idaho Roadless Areas 

Fish Species 

Percent of priority watersheds 

in Idaho Roadless Areas 

Steelhead trout 28 

Chinook salmon 39 

Bull trout 44 

 

45 NOAA Fisheries (Chamberlin 2007, pers. com.) gave instructions to use the steelhead map for 

spring/summer-run and fall-run Chinook salmon critical habitat because the steelhead map also includes 

the current and historically accessible habitat for Chinook. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.8 Aquatic Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 187 

Several of the threatened and endangered fish priority watersheds contribute to species 

richness by providing habitat for several of the species. Of the roadless areas that 

contain priority watersheds, 15 provide priority watershed areas for all three species 

(steelhead trout, Chinook salmon, and bull trout) (table 3-36). About 50 roadless areas 

are priority watersheds for two species. These roadless areas provide important habitat 

for multiple species and are of very high value to aquatic biodiversity. 

Table 3-36. Idaho Roadless Areas that provide priority watershed areas for steelhead, Chinook salmon, and 

bull trout 

Idaho Roadless Area Forest 

Challis Creek Challis 

Loon Creek Challis/Sawtooth 

Dixie Summit - Nut Hill Nez Perce 

East Meadow Creek* Nez Perce 

John Day Nez Perce 

Little Slate Creek Nez Perce 

Little Slate Creek North Nez Perce 

Mallard Nez Perce 

North Fork Slate Creek Nez Perce 

Salmon Face Nez Perce 

West Meadow Creek* Nez Perce 

Rapid River Nez Perce/Payette 

Camas Creek Salmon/Challis 

Lemhi Range Salmon/Challis 

Taylor Mountain Salmon/Challis 

*Note: East Meadow Creek Roadless Area and West Meadow Creek Roadless Area function as a complex because 

they are located on either side of the Meadow Creek drainage. Both have equal influence on Meadow Creek 

aquatic resources. 

Fish Strongholds 

Fish strongholds were identified in the Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem 

Management Plan (ICBEMP) assessment (Lee et al. 1997) for seven key native 

salmonids including: steelhead, Chinook spring/summer-run, Chinook fall-run, bull 

trout, redband trout, westslope cutthroat trout, and Yellowstone cutthroat trout. 

ICBEMP salmonid strongholds are directly associated with strong populations. In 

Idaho, there are no ICBEMP strongholds identified for either spring/summer-run or 

fall-run Chinook salmon. Strongholds identified in Idaho for the five remaining 

salmonid species are used in this analysis. 

Strong populations have the following characteristics: 

1. All major life-history forms (for example, resident, fluvial, adfluvial) that 

historically occurred within the watershed are present; 

2. Numbers are stable or increasing and the local population is likely to be at half or 

more of its historical size or density; and 
3.8 Aquatic Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

188 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

3. The populations or meta-population within the watershed, or within a larger 

region of which the watershed is a part, probably contains at least 5,000 

individuals or 500 adults. 

Both fish strongholds and priority watersheds are valuable for their contribution to 

conservation and recovery of species and their habitats. Even small areas can contribute 

significant value depending on their location and contribution to interconnecting 

populations, providing for a larger meta-population, distance to a source population 

and contribution to genetic and phenotypic diversity. 

A substantial amount of Idaho Roadless Areas (23 percent) provides important habitat 

for these five key salmonids. In Idaho, 32 percent of the strong populations for these 

species are in roadless areas. Acres of Idaho Roadless Areas contributing to Idaho fish 

strongholds by species are shown in Table 3-37. 

Table 3-37. Idaho Roadless Areas contributing to fish strongholds (acres) 

Fish species 

Idaho Roadless Area acres 

contributing to fish strongholds 

Bull trout 453,500 

Redband trout 660,300 

Steelhead trout 54,000 

Yellowstone cutthroat trout 279,400 

Westslope cutthroat trout 915,000 

ICBEMP fish strongholds for bull trout, redband trout, steelhead, Yellowstone cutthroat 

trout, and westslope cutthroat trout overlap about half of the roadless areas, with 33 

roadless areas providing strongholds for multiple species (appendix L, table L-4). 

Forest Service Sensitive Species 

Forest Service aquatic sensitive species within the analysis area include both fish and 

amphibians. All the Forest Service aquatic sensitive species have some overlap with 

Idaho Roadless Areas (table 3-38). 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.8 Aquatic Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 189 

Table 3-38. Percentage of sensitive species range that overlaps with the Idaho Roadless Area 

Sensitive species (Forest Service region) 

Percent of species range that 

overlaps Idaho Roadless Areas 

Fish 

Bonneville cutthroat trout (R4) 23 

Burbot (R1) 12 

Inland redband trout (R1) 21 

Pacific lamprey (R1) 19 

Chinook salmon 

(naturalized populations) (R1) 18 

Fine-spotted Snake River cutthroat trout [Yellowstone cutthroat 

trout] (R4) 23 

Westslope cutthroat trout (R1 and R4) 28 

Wood River sculpin (R4) 25 

Amphibians 

Coeur d’Alene salamander (R1) 27 

Columbia spotted frog (R4) 20 

Western toad (R1) 90 

R1=Northern Region; R4=Intermountain Region 

Several roadless areas are within the range of several sensitive species. These areas of 

species richness are displayed in table 3-39 and appendix L, table L-5. Areas of multiple 

species overlap are important for species conservation and biodiversity. 

Table 3-39. Idaho Roadless Areas that have seven aquatic sensitive species (amphibians and fish) 

Idaho Roadless Area Forest 

Bighorn - Weitas Clearwater 

Lochsa Face Clearwater 

North Lochsa Slope Clearwater 

O’Hara - Falls Creek Nez Perce 

Rackliff - Gedney Clearwater/Nez Perce 

Silver Creek - Pilot Knob Nez Perce 

Weir - Post Office Creek Clearwater 

West Meadow Creek Nez Perce 

Management Indicator Species 

Rainbow trout is a MIS on the Idaho Panhandle National Forest only (appendix L, table 

L-2). The range of rainbow trout overlaps with 600,900 acres of the roadless areas on the 

Idaho Panhandle National Forest. This overlap equals about twenty eight percent of the 

total range for rainbow trout on the Idaho Panhandle National Forest. 
3.8 Aquatic Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

190 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 

Roads. Road construction/reconstruction, maintenance, use, and even the presence of 

roads in a watershed can have numerous adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems and the 

species they support. Recent changes in road designs and application of best 

management practices have been effective in some instances at moderating or avoiding 

many adverse effects. The discussion in this section captures the principal effects that 

have been associated with roads, but these are potential effects; furthermore, not every 

road would necessarily exhibit each or even many of these effects. Also, the effects of 

roads may vary with physical and biological conditions and the physical location of the 

road (Luce et al. 2001). The Physical Resources section provides a discussion of potential 

geomorphic and hydrologic effects of roads on watershed and stream channel 

conditions. 

Potential effects from roads on aquatic habitat include (Furniss et al. 1991, USDA Forest 

Service 2000h): 

• Increasing sediment loads in streams; 

• Modifying watershed hydrology and stream flows; 

• Altering stream channel morphology; 

• Increasing habitat fragmentation and loss of connectivity; 

• Reducing water quality, including increasing chance of chemical pollution; and 

• Altering water temperature regimes. 

These physical alterations can potentially result in a variety of adverse effects on aquatic 

species including: 

• Increased mortality of amphibians, from crushing; 

• Loss of spawning and rearing habitat, and deep pools, from excess sediment 

deposition; 

• Increased mortality of eggs and young from lower levels of oxygen in stream 

gravels; 

• Increased susceptibility to disease and predation; 

• Increased reproductive failure; 

• Shifts in macro invertebrate communities to those tolerating increased sediment or 

other types of diminished water quality; 

• Increased susceptibility to over harvest and poaching; 

• Loss of protective cover and resting habitat through changes in channel structure 

including large woody debris, overhanging banks, and deep pools; 

• Competition from nonnative species; 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.8 Aquatic Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 191 

• Loss of habitat caused by habitat reduction, barriers to passage, increased gradient, 

high temperatures, and other factors; and 

• Increased vulnerability of subpopulations to catastrophic events and loss of genetic 

fitness, related to loss of habitat connectivity. 

Timber Cutting. The effects of activities associated with timber cutting (such as tree 

felling, yarding, landings, site preparation by burning or scarification, fuels reduction, 

brush removal and whip felling, and forest regeneration) are often difficult to separate 

from the effects of roads and road construction. The road systems developed to cut 

timber are often a significant factor affecting aquatic habitats, as discussed above. 

Negative effects from timber cutting tend to increase when activities occur on 

environmentally sensitive terrain with steep slopes composed of highly erodible soils 

(Lee et al. 1997). Some of the potential effects on aquatic habitat can include the 

following (Chamberlin et al. 1991, Hicks et al. 1991, Beschta et al. 1987): 

• Increasing erosion; 

• Increasing sediment supply and storage in channels; 

• Modifying watershed hydrology and streamflow, including the timing or 

magnitude of runoff events; 

• Decreasing stream bank stability, and altering stream channel morphology; 

• Changes in water quality and quantity; 

• Decreased recruitment of large woody debris to aquatic habitats; 

• Diminishing habitat complexity; 

• Altering energy relationships involving water temperature, snowmelt, and freezing; 

and 

• Altering riparian composition and function. 

If present, these physical changes in habitat would have many of the same biological 

effects as previously listed under the effects of roads, above. With the recent increased 

emphasis on use of best management practices and other protective measures in the 

design and implementation of timber cutting activities, the effects can often be 

mitigated to some extent. Cumulatively, however, timber cutting activities within a 

watershed can have pronounced and lasting effects on aquatic habitat (Chamberlin et 

al. 1991). 

Mineral Activities. Idaho Roadless Areas contain saleable, leasable, and locatable 

mineral resources. Mining for these materials occurs as surface mining or underground 

mining. Although any mining activity may have negative effects on aquatic ecosystems, 

the largest impacts have generally been associated with surface mining (Lee et al. 1997). 

Mining activities can affect aquatic ecosystems in a number of ways: through the 

addition of large quantities of sediments, the addition of solutions contaminated with 
3.8 Aquatic Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

192 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

metal or acids, the acceleration of erosion, increased bank and streambed instability, 

changes in channel formation and stability, and removal of riparian vegetation (Lee et 

al. 1997). 

In general, surface mining causes higher stream flows and greater storm flow volumes 

than underground mining because of a greater amount of surface area disturbance with 

associated removal of vegetation and topsoil, greater amounts of spoils, and general 

compaction of the area (Southern Appalachian Man and the Biosphere 1996c). Stream 

channels can adjust to increased flows and sediment loads; however, such alterations 

can have adverse effects on the quality of aquatic habitat. 

Sediments can enter streams through erosion of mine tailings (Besser and Rabeni 1987), 

by direct discharge of mining wastes to aquatic systems, and through movement of 

groundwater (Davies-Colley et al. 1992). Coarse sediments delivered to channels are 

likely to be deposited relatively quickly, affecting nearby aquatic habitat. Finer 

materials settle out more slowly and may create turbid water conditions for long 

distances downstream, affecting primary production and biomass by reducing the 

amount of light available to algae and rooted aquatic plants (Lee et al. 1997). Increases 

in turbidity can cause direct mortality to aquatic species, reduce growth and feeding 

activity (Nelson et al. 1991), and affect the abundance and diversity of benthic 

invertebrates (Lee et al. 1997). Excessive fine sediment deposition in stream substrates 

can degrade spawning habitat for salmonids and eliminate habitat for some bottomdwelling aquatic species by filling in spaces in gravels (Nelson et al. 1991). 

Of particular concern to aquatic resources in Idaho is selenium contamination resulting 

from phosphate mining. Selenium contamination has occurred world-wide in 

association with common and economically important activities such as fossil fuel 

processing, mining, and irrigation, resulting in dozens of cases in which fish and 

wildlife populations have been affected (Van Kirk and Hill 2006). The southeast Idaho 

phosphate mining region, with includes the Caribou National Forest, is one of the most 

extensive and productive phosphate fields in the world (Jasinski et al. 2004). The 

bioaccumulative nature of selenium in aquatic systems is well-documented (Presser et 

al. 1994, Dobbs et al. 1996, Maier et al. 1998, Garcia-Hernandez et al. 2000, Hamilton 

2002). Documented individual-level effects of selenium in fish include decreased egg 

incubation period, hatch rate, pre-swim-up fry survival, post-swim-up fry survival, 

juvenile winter survival, juvenile growth, adult survival, and adult growth (Van Kirk 

and Hill 2006). Modeling results from Van Kirk and Hill (2006) concluded that 

decreased juvenile survival in cutthroat trout due to selenium toxicity could result in 

decreased population size. 

Extent and Duration of Effects. For aquatic habitats, the indirect effects of disturbances 

associated with road construction and timber cutting could extend well beyond those 

areas directly affected, given the influence that upslope areas and upstream reaches 

have on the condition of downstream habitat (Chamberlin et al. 1991). The types and 

extent of impacts on aquatic habitats would depend on road location and design, 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.8 Aquatic Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 193 

proximity to accessible habitat, mitigation measures applied, and the activities enabled. 

For fish populations, habitat alterations can adversely affect all life-stages, from egg to 

adult, and habitat essential for migration, spawning, incubation, emergence, rearing, 

feeding, and security (Furniss et al. 1991). 

The duration of effects, or recovery time, depends on a variety of factors. Site 

productivity, rainfall, and length of growing season influence the rate and success of 

vegetation regrowth. Some of the other factors influencing the duration of physical 

effects on a watershed and associated stream channels include: the type, location, 

extent, and duration of an activity; magnitude of adverse effects; dominant hydrologic 

and geomorphic processes within the watershed; overall watershed condition; and the 

effectiveness of mitigation and reclamation activities. The duration of biological effects 

can extend beyond the recovery time for the physical environment and can be 

irreversible if a species is extirpated from the watershed. 

All Alternatives 

None of the alternatives would prohibit road construction or reconstruction associated 

with developing existing mineral leases. About 1,100 acres of phosphate within existing 

lease areas (Smoky Canyon Mine) are reasonably foreseeable for development. Mine 

expansion is expected to occur within Sage Creek and Meade Peak Roadless Areas 

under each alternative. No threatened or endangered species occur within the Sage 

Creek or Meade Peak Roadless Areas; however, the Sage Creek Roadless Area is within 

the range of the sensitive Snake River fine spot cutthroat and the Meade Peak Roadless 

Area is within the range of the sensitive Snake River fine spot cutthroat and Bonneville 

cutthroat trout. Both the Sage Creek and Meade Peak Roadless Areas are considered 

strongholds for Yellowstone cutthroat trout. An additional 8,000 acres under existing 

lease, within the Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, 

Stump Creek, and Mount Jefferson Roadless Areas could also be developed sometime 

in the future (50 or more years). 

Any future phosphate development could affect aquatic ecosystems in a number of 

ways: through the addition of large quantities of sediments, the addition of solutions 

contaminated with metal or acids, the acceleration of erosion, increased bank and 

streambed instability, changes in channel formation and stability, and removal of 

riparian vegetation (Lee et al. 1997). Any future development would undergo 

environmental analysis, and environmental mitigations would be required to lessen 

effects. 

2001 Roadless Rule (No action) 

The 2001 Roadless Rule prohibits road construction/reconstruction except when done 

under seven exceptions. About 15 miles of road are projected to be 

constructed/reconstructed in Idaho Roadless Areas over the next 15 years. The 2001 

Roadless Rule allows some timber cutting for ecosystem restoration and hazardous fuel 

reduction purposes. No road construction is permitted to support timber cutting for 
3.8 Aquatic Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

194 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

these purposes. Timber cutting is projected to occur on about 1,500 acres over the next 

15 years. 

By restricting timber harvest to activities necessary for resource stewardship and 

prohibiting new road construction (in most cases), many of the adverse effects of timber 

harvest would be minimized, while maintaining a management tool potentially needed 

for ecological restoration. Fuels reduction stewardship activities within a watershed 

may be indirectly beneficial to some aquatic populations. For example, careful thinning 

to reduce fuel loading in some areas where there is an abnormally high risk of high 

intensity, large-scale fires, may lower the risk of extirpation of an isolated fish 

population from a wildfire, particularly where habitat complexity and spatial diversity 

have already been diminished, and where fish would have difficulty in repopulating 

because of lack of habitat connectivity. 

Based on foreseeable projections, most timber cutting activities are not likely to affect 

the overall amount or severity of wildfires. As a result, the effects of wildfires on 

aquatic species are likely to be similar with or without the prohibitions. Whereas the 

benefits of less ground disturbance from road construction and timber cutting are welldocumented in the literature, it is less clear whether failure to reduce fuel loading 

would constitute a substantially increased level of risk for aquatic communities. 

Aquatic habitat management activities that are not dependent on new or reconstructed 

road access could be implemented under the 2001 Roadless Rule. Overall, the need for 

additional road access to manage aquatic habitat within Idaho Roadless Area appears to 

be minimal. This alternative would not measurably affect the current ability to manage 

aquatic habitat. In general aquatic habitats and species would benefit from the 

prohibitive nature of this alternative. All Idaho Roadless Areas would be managed 

under a similar set of guidelines that are fairly restrictive in relation to road 

construction/reconstruction, timber cutting, and discretionary minerals activities. 

Summary of effects. No adverse environmental effects to aquatic animal species or 

their habitat would be expected under the 2001 Roadless Rule because it does not 

directly authorize any ground-disturbing activities. Ground-disturbing activities 

permitted include very limited road construction/reconstruction and very limited 

timber cutting across the entire 9.3 million acres of Idaho Roadless Areas. There would 

be limited to no effect on aquatic species or their habitats, species richness, critical 

habitat, priority watersheds, fish strongholds. There would be no adverse effects on 

species richness, critical habitat, priority watersheds, or fish strongholds. Overall, the 

effects on fish habitat and fish species would be beneficial because of the limited 

amount of disturbance permitted in roadless areas. 

Existing Plans 

Under Existing Plans road construction/reconstruction, timber cutting and 

discretionary mineral activities are generally not allowed on about 3.45 million acres of 

land within Idaho Roadless Areas (37 percent of the roadless areas). These areas would 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.8 Aquatic Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 195 

continue to provide excellent habitat for aquatic species because of the limited amount 

of human-induced disturbance. About 4.24 million acres are in management 

prescriptions similar to Backcountry and generally some level of road 

construction/reconstruction would be permitted, as well as timber cutting. 

Discretionary mineral activities may or may not be permitted depending on the forest 

plan direction (appendix B). About 1.26 million acres are in prescriptions similar to the 

GFRG theme. Road construction/reconstruction, timber cutting and discretionary 

mineral activities are generally permitted in these areas. 

The amount of Idaho Roadless Areas within the GFRG theme and overlapping four 

threatened and endangered species, priority watersheds for three species, or large 

strongholds is limited (table 3-40 and appendix L, table L-6). More acres of these 

indicators overlap the management prescription similar to the Backcountry theme (table 

3-40). Projected road construction and reconstruction in Idaho Roadless Areas under the 

Existing Plans is 180 miles over the next 15 years, about half of which would likely be in 

the form of temporary roads or would be reconstruction. This estimate includes both 

permanent and temporary roads for timber cutting and non-timber related activities. 

Timber cutting is projected to occur on about 42,000 acres over the next 15 years. These 

activities could reduce the quality and quantity of fish habitat in some roadless areas, 

with increased potential for adverse effects on some threatened, endangered or 

sensitive (TES) species. However, all activities would be done under the management 

direction of Existing Plans, most of which provide specific guidance (such as PACFISH 

and INFISH) to reduce adverse effects to TES species. 

Table 3-40. Acres by theme, Existing Plans and the Idaho Roadless Rule overlapping important TES habitat 

Wild Land 

Recreation Primitive Backcountry GFRG 

Forest plan 

special 

areas1 SAHTS 

Acres by allocation 

Existing plans 1,320,400 2,131,400 4,244,500 1,262,400 345,100 0 

Idaho Roadless 

Rule 

1,378,600 1,656,300 5,246,100 609,500 345,100 68,600 

Acres in Idaho Roadless Areas overlapping 4 threatened and endangered species 

Existing Plans 28,700 60,300 126,700 14,900 17,700 0 

Idaho Roadless 

Rule 

28,700 60,300 141,600 0 17,700 0 

Acres in Idaho Roadless Areas overlapping priority watersheds for 3 species 

Existing Plans 0 126,200 700,600 154,500 15,400 0 

Idaho Roadless 

Rule 

0 164,700 770,700 0 15,400 0 

Acres in Idaho Roadless Areas overlapping large strongholds or strongholds for multiple fish species 

Existing Plans 813,500 1,121,200 1,945,500 132,000 151,600 0 

Idaho Roadless 

Rule 

858,700 1,053,600 2,343,500 5,400 151,600 46,700 

1 Management direction under the Idaho Roadless Rule would not apply to forest plan special areas such as research 

natural areas, wild and scenic rivers, developed sites, etc. (appendix H, table H-9). 
3.8 Aquatic Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

196 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

There are 13,400 acres of known unleased phosphate deposits on the Caribou-Targhee 

National Forest. The Caribou Forest Plan permits leasing of the estimated 6,500 acres of 

known unleased phosphate deposits and/or other possible roadless areas that contain 

undiscovered phosphate resources. The known unleased phosphate deposits occur in 

six roadless areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid 

Peak, and Stump Creek) and would likely be developed over an extended period of 

time (50 or more years). In addition, there are 6,900 acres of unleased phosphate 

deposits on the Targhee portion of the forest within the Bald Mountain, Bear Creek, and 

Poker Creek roadless areas. An environmental analysis would have to be completed to 

determine how much of the 6,900 acres could actually be leased. 

No threatened or endangered aquatic species occur in the unleased phosphate roadless 

areas. Bonneville cutthroat trout, an R4 sensitive species, and several sensitive 

amphibians are located in some of these roadless areas. There is a potential risk to 

sensitive aquatic species and their habitats on these 13,400 acres when and if this 

development should occur. Site-specific analysis would occur prior to any future 

leasing and mitigations applied. 

Existing Plans would allow road construction/reconstruction for geothermal 

development in some locations in management prescriptions similar to Backcountry 

and GFRG. It is unknown where and to what degree geothermal resources would be 

developed; however, since about half the roadless areas have high to moderate 

potential it is likely some development would eventually occur. Currently lease 

applications have been submitted for geothermal exploration, which could affect about 

7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area on the Boise National Forest and 33 acres of 

the West Panther Roadless Area on the Salmon National Forest. If fully developed, 

roads, transmission lines, and other facilities would likely be constructed (see appendix 

I for a description of general development of geothermal resources), which could 

reduce the aquatic integrity of the roadless areas affected. Site-specific analysis would 

be completed prior to any geothermal exploration or development. 

Summary of Effects. No adverse environmental effects on aquatic species or their 

habitats would be expected under Existing Plans because they do not directly authorize 

any ground-disturbing activities. Existing Plans permit road 

construction/reconstruction, timber cutting, and discretionary mineral activities to 

some degree. Based on projections for timber cutting, less than 0.5 percent of Idaho 

Roadless Areas likely would be affected under Existing Plans; with the potential for 

phosphate mining, less than 0.7 percent would be affected. Where these activities occur, 

especially if roads are constructed, or if the activities are concentrated, there could be 

adverse effects on aquatic species and their habitat, including potential effects on 

species richness, critical habitat, priority watersheds, fish strongholds, and MIS. 

However, other forest plan direction (i.e. INFISH & PACFISH) would apply to 

minimize effects on fish species and their habitat. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.8 Aquatic Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 197 

THE IDAHO ROADLESS RULE (PROPOSED ACTION) 

Under the Idaho Roadless Rule, road construction/reconstruction, timber cutting (with 

limited exception), and discretionary mineral activities are prohibited on about 3.1 

million acres of land within the Wild Land Recreation, Primitive, and SAHTS themes 

(33 percent of the Idaho Roadless Areas). Aquatic ecological values would be 

maintained under these themes because these themes protect aquatic resources 

including TES and MIS species, threatened and endangered critical habitat, native fish 

strongholds, and priority watersheds by limiting human-induced activities. 

About 5.25 million acres are in Backcountry. Road construction/reconstruction would 

be permissible under several exceptions, including support of timber cutting for forest 

health and fuel reduction purposes. Most new roads would be temporary, unless the 

responsible official determines that a permanent road meets the road exceptions and it 

would not substantially alter any of the roadless characteristics. The Backcountry theme 

permits both surface occupancy and road construction/reconstruction to access 

unleased phosphate deposits. 

About 0.6 million acres are in the GFRG theme. Road construction/reconstruction, 

timber cutting, and discretionary mineral activities are permissible in these areas. About 

5,400 acres of Idaho Roadless Areas within the GFRG theme are located in strongholds 

for multiple species (table 3-40). There is no GFRG in roadless areas with high 

biodiversity (four threatened or endangered species) or that provide priority areas for 

multiple fish species. Portions of the Cuddy Mountain, French Creek, Mallard Larkins, 

Needles, Red Mountain, and Ten Mile/Black Warrior Roadless Areas are in the GFRG 

theme and overlap with one of the fish strongholds (appendix L, table L-7). 

About 60 miles of road construction/reconstruction are projected to occur over the next 

15 years. This estimate includes both permanent and temporary roads for timber cutting 

and non-timber related activities. Timber cutting is projected to occur on about 12,000 

acres over the next 15 years (about 0.1 percent of all the Idaho Roadless Areas). 

Activities would incorporate mitigation measures to reduce effects, especially if the 

activity may affect TES species. This level of road construction/reconstruction and 

timber cutting may reduce aquatic habitat quantity and quality in a limited portion of 

some roadless areas. 

Timber cutting, road construction/reconstruction, and discretionary mineral activities 

would be permissible within the GFRG theme. However, these activities would have to 

comply with ESA and management direction for threatened and endangered species 

included in existing plans (such as direction provided through the PACFISH and 

INFISH amendments or through subsequent forest plan revision). 

All the national forests in Idaho—except for the Clearwater, Nez Perce, Challis, and 

Wallowa-Whitman—have roadless areas in the GFRG theme. The Caribou portion of 

the Caribou-Targhee National Forest has the most acreage of any of the forests in this 
3.8 Aquatic Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

198 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

theme (251,800 acres). Most of the Caribou’s roadless areas in the GFRG theme support 

Bonneville cutthroat trout, an R4 sensitive species. 

There are 13,400 acres of known unleased phosphate deposits on the Caribou-Targhee 

National Forest. About 12,100 acres (90 percent) are located within the Backcountry and 

GFRG themes. Under these themes road construction or reconstruction would be 

permissible to develop these phosphate deposits. 

These deposits are located within nine roadless areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, 

Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, and Stump Creek on the Caribou portion of the 

forest; and Bald Mountain, Bear Creek, and Poker Creek on the Targhee portion of the 

forest) and could eventually be mined over an extended period of time (50 or more 

years). There is a potential risk to habitats for sensitive aquatic species (Bonneville 

cutthroat trout and amphibians) on these 12,100 acres when and if this development 

should occur. Site-specific analysis would occur prior to any future leasing and 

mitigations applied. No threatened or endangered aquatic species are found in these 

roadless areas. 

About 1,300 acres of unleased phosphate deposits are in the Primitive theme. The 

Primitive theme prohibits road construction/reconstruction or surface occupancy for 

phosphates; therefore, this area would likely not be developed (see the Minerals 

section) and there would be no effect on sensitive aquatic species found in this area. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would also permit road construction/reconstruction for 

geothermal development in the GFRG theme. About 7 percent of Idaho Roadless Areas 

are in this theme, and about 4 percent could be developed because of slope restrictions 

(see the Minerals section). It is likely some of these areas would be developed over time; 

however, except for two pending lease applications there is no information about where 

or when the activity would occur. If fully developed, roads, transmission lines, and 

other facilities would likely be constructed (see appendix I for a description of general 

development of geothermal resources). Site-specific analysis would occur prior to 

exploration or development of geothermal energy resources and would include 

consideration of aquatic resources. 

Currently lease applications have been submitted for geothermal exploration within 

7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area on the Boise National Forest and 33 acres of 

the West Panther Roadless Area on the Salmon National Forest. Both these areas are in 

either the Primitive or Backcountry theme; therefore, they would not be developed 

because of the inability to construct roads to access the area (see the Minerals section). 

No aquatic resources would be affected in these areas. 

Summary of effects. No adverse environmental effects on aquatic animal species or 

their habitats would be expected under the Idaho Roadless Rule because it would not 

directly authorize any ground-disturbing activities. 

Limited ground-disturbing activities are likely to occur in Wild Land Recreation, 

Primitive, and SAHTS themes because of the restricted permissions on activities related 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.8 Aquatic Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 199 

to road construction/reconstruction, timber cutting and discretionary minerals. These 

three themes should provide for natural processes, habitat integrity, and species 

diversity. Areas in the Backcountry theme have a higher potential for grounddisturbing activities (including road construction/reconstruction, timber cutting, and 

discretionary minerals activities) occurring depending on future land uses and the risk 

of wildland fire. Areas in the GFRG theme have the greatest potential for risk of adverse 

effects on aquatic species and habitat. The level of road construction/reconstruction and 

timber cutting projected may reduce aquatic habitat quantity and quality in a limited 

portion of some roadless areas, but it is unlikely to reduce the overall biodiversity, 

critical habitat, strongholds, or priority watersheds found in Idaho Roadless Areas. 
3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

200 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species 

INTRODUCTION

In general, Idaho Roadless Areas provide large, relatively undisturbed blocks of 

important habitat for terrestrial animal species and communities. Most Idaho Roadless 

Areas provide high quality habitat for cavity- and snag-dependent species as well as 

summer and winter range for big game species. Other important habitat values include: 

• Dispersal corridors; 

• Connectivity between large blocks of habitat; 

• Travel corridors; 

• “Islands” of refugia; 

• Habitat diversity and complexity; 

• Old-growth forests; 

• “Natural” levels of snag and down woody debris components within forested 

habitats across large areas; 

• “Source” habitats and “strongholds” for sensitive species; 

• Security and seclusion during incubation, hatching, or birthing and rearing of 

young; 

• Reduced big game and furbearer vulnerability during hunting and trapping seasons 

as a result of limited roaded access. 

The following analysis evaluates the potential changes to roadless area characteristics 

and their ability to provide habitat for terrestrial animal species. 

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Idaho has a diverse assemblage of wildlife that occurs on an equally diverse landscape. 

There are approximately 1,200 native and non-native species of wildlife that occur 

within the five ecoregions of Idaho (IDFG 2005). Ecoregions denote geographic areas 

characterized by similar ecosystems and environmental resources. In Idaho the five 

ecoregions of Idaho are subdivided into 14 ecological sections (appendix M, table M-2). 

Terrestrial Habitats within Idaho Roadless Areas 

Idaho Roadless Areas include a range of habitat types such as grass and shrublands, 

young forested stands, and old-growth forests. Forests cover about 33 percent, or 

approximately 21.4 million acres of Idaho. These forests vary from the very dry pinyonjuniper woodlands at lower elevations to cold alpine forest types at high elevations. 

Idaho Roadless Areas are dominated by three primary vegetation types: 40 percent 

Douglas-fir, 20 percent spruce/fir, and 8 percent lodgepole pine (see the Forest Health 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 201 

and Vegetation section). All other forest cover types make up are less than 5 percent 

each of the total Forest cover within Idaho Roadless Areas. The non-forest habitat types 

within the roadless areas are estimated to be 18 percent, including other vegetation 

types (such as grasslands, shrublands, and meadows), and barren areas (such as rock 

and ice). Appendix M, table M-3, displays the approximate forest type acreage in the 

State and within national forests of Idaho. 

Threatened and Endangered Species 

Idaho Roadless Areas provide habitat for two endangered mammals, one experimental, 

non-essential mammal and four threatened terrestrial wildlife species (table 3-41 and 

appendix M, tables M-1 and M-4). 

Table 3-41. Threatened and endangered species in Idaho and their overlap with Idaho Roadless Areas 

Species Acres of predicted overlap 

with Idaho Roadless Areas 

Known occurrence in 

Idaho Roadless Areas (national forest) 

Gary wolf (E) 

Not Available 

Blacktail Mountain (Idaho Panhandle) 

Continental Mountain (Idaho Panhandle) 

Salmo-Priest (Idaho Panhandle) 

Woodland caribou (E) 128,500 Salmo Priest (Idaho Panhandle) 

Gray wolf (10j rule) 

(experimental) 5,669,600 

Mallard (Nez Perce) 

Weir-Post Office (Clearwater) 

Sage Creek (Caribou) 

Canada lynx (T) 3,740,800 39 Idaho Roadless Areas 

Grizzly bear (T) 

276,000 

Blacktail Mountain (Idaho Panhandle) 

Continental Mountain (Idaho Panhandle) 

Little Grass Mountain (Idaho Panhandle) 

Salmo-Priest (Idaho Panhandle) 

Northern Idaho ground 

squirrel (T) 220,900 none 

Bald eagle (T)* 2,704,900 15 Idaho Roadless Areas 

*Bald eagle is currently being delisted. 

Forest Service Sensitive Species 

Eight mammals, one reptile, and 17 birds listed as Forest Service sensitive species have 

predicted distribution in Idaho Roadless Areas. Of these 26 sensitive species, 22 are 

known to occur in Idaho Roadless Areas. Sensitive species and their habitat 

requirements are listed in appendix M, table M-5. Table M-5 also displays the acreage of 

predicted distribution in both the State and in Idaho Roadless Areas as well as the 

percentage of predicted distribution in roadless areas by sensitive species. Several 

sensitive species have less than 10 percent of predicted distribution in Idaho Roadless 

Areas, including: 

• Trumpeter swan—less than 1 percent; 

• Spotted bat—1.9 percent; 

• Common loon—2.4 percent; 
3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

202 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

• Townsend’s big-eared bat—3.3 percent; 

• Fringed myotis—3.4 percent; 

• Ring-necked snake—6.4 percent; 

• Pygmy rabbit—6.9 percent; 

• Greater sage grouse—6.0 percent ; 

• Columbian sharp-tailed grouse—6.1 percent. 

Species occurrence information may be lacking on sensitive species because wildlife 

survey work may not be complete in Idaho Roadless Areas. Sensitive species with no 

known occurrences in Idaho Roadless Areas at this time are the spotted bat and the 

black swift. Species with occurrences in three or fewer Idaho Roadless Areas are the 

fringed myotis, northern bog lemming, black-backed woodpecker, trumpeter swan, 

common loon, pygmy nuthatch, and ringneck snake. 

Fringed myotis, common loon, trumpeter swan, and ringneck snake have a predicted 

distribution of less than 7 percent and three or fewer occurrences in Idaho Roadless 

Areas. 

There are 125 Idaho Roadless Areas that have known occurrences of at least one 

threatened, endangered, or sensitive terrestrial wildlife species. Table 3-42 displays the 

13 Idaho Roadless Areas by national forest with the occurrence of five or more 

threatened, endangered, and sensitive species. 

Table 3-42. Idaho Roadless Areas with the most threatened, endangered, and sensitive (TES) terrestrial 

wildlife species 

National forest Idaho Roadless Area Number of TES species 

Idaho Panhandle Salmo-Priest 7 

Idaho Panhandle Blacktail Mountain 6 

Idaho Panhandle Selkirk 6 

Idaho Panhandle Upper Priest 5 

Targhee portion of Caribou-Targhee Mt. Jefferson 7 

Targhee portion of Caribou-Targhee Garns Mountain 5 

Payette French Creek 7 

Payette Hells Canyon/7 Devils Scenic 6 

Payette Needles 5 

Payette-Nez Perce Rapid River 5 

Nez Perce Mallard 7 

Salmon-Challis West Big Hole 5 

Sawtooth Hanson Lakes 5 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 203 

Management Indicator Species (MIS) 

The 12 national forests in Idaho have designated 11 mammals and 20 birds as MIS. 

Appendix M, table M-6, displays the terrestrial wildlife species selected to serve as 

management indicators by each national forest in Idaho. 

Four of the 31 MIS are threatened or endangered species and have been discussed in the 

previous section. Fifteen of the 31 MIS are sensitive species and have been discussed 

previously. There are 12 MIS whose habitat overlaps Idaho Roadless Areas and that 

have not been previously discussed. These include the pileated woodpecker, elk, whitetailed deer, moose, pine marten, belted kingfisher, downy woodpecker, hairy 

woodpecker, northern flicker, red-napped sapsucker, red squirrel, and Williamson’s 

sapsucker (appendix M, table M-6). 

Idaho Species of Concern 

The Idaho Conservation Data Center recognizes 379 terrestrial wildlife species that 

regularly occur and breed in the State. This list includes 15 amphibians, 22 reptiles, 104 

mammals, and 238 birds (Scott et al. 2002). The number of State “species of concern” 

ranked from S1 to S346 that are not included as threatened, endangered, experimental, 

nonessential, sensitive, or management indicator species previously discussed in this 

EIS are displayed in table 3-43. 

Table 3-43. Number of Idaho species of concern not discussed elsewhere 

Taxa S1 S2 S3 Total 

Birds 16 18 34 68 

Mammals 10 7 12 29 

Reptiles 1 2 1 5 

Insects 8 2 0 10 

Migratory Birds and Idaho Priority Bird Species and Habitats 

The Idaho Partners in Flight Idaho Bird Conservation Plan (2000) identifies priority 

species and habitats and establishes objectives for bird populations and habitats in the 

State of Idaho. The northern two-thirds of Idaho are located within the Central Rocky 

Mountains Physiographic Area 64 (Partners in Flight 2007). The rest of Idaho is within 

the Columbia Plateau Physiographic Area 89 (Partners in Flight 2007). Breeding bird 

surveys are conducted annually during the peak of the nesting season across North 

America. Breeding bird survey routes are randomly located in order to sample habitats 

that are representative of the entire region (Sauer et al. 2004). There are 56 permanent 

 

46 Species of concern – species identified by the State of Idaho in need of conservation. 

S1=State Critically imperiled: at high risk because of extreme rarity, rapidly declining numbers, or other 

factors that make it particularly vulnerable extirpation in the state. 

S2=State Imperiled: at risk because of restricted range, few populations, rapidly declining numbers or 

other factors that make it vulnerable to range-wide extinction or extirpation. 

S3=State Vulnerable: at moderate risk because of restricted range, relatively few populations, recent and 

widespread declines, or other factors that make it vulnerable to range-wide extinction or extirpation 
3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

204 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

active breeding bird survey routes in Idaho. Most of these routes have had breeding 

bird surveys conducted annually since the 1960s. Seven national forests have breeding 

bird survey routes, 12 of which occur within all or portions of Idaho Roadless Areas. 

See appendix M, table M-7, for specific migratory bird information. 

Biodiversity and Species Richness 

In the ecological literature, diversity refers to both the number of species present and 

their relative abundance. Thus, an area with many abundant species is more “diverse” 

than an area with an equal number of species, few of which are abundant and most of 

which are rare. Marcot et al. (1997) examined centers of endemism (restricted to a small 

areas) and high biodiversity within the Interior Columbia Basin, much of which covers 

the state of Idaho. Two centers overlapped with Forest Service lands in Idaho—one 

located on the upper Panhandle of Idaho, characterized by mixed conifer forests; and 

another located in the southwestern edge of the State along the Salmon River and Hell’s 

Canyon. Based on the predicted distributions for the 42 TES and/or MIS species, all the 

roadless areas in Idaho overlap with at least 13 of the species (table 3-44). In general, the 

findings corroborated that reported by Marcot et al. (1997). 

Table 3-44. The number of species’ predicted distributions that overlap Idaho Roadless Areas 

Number of species Number of Idaho Roadless Areas 

13–17 24 

18–22 37 

23–25 49 

26–28 112 

29–32 51 

In general, high species richness was noted in roadless areas in the Idaho Panhandle 

and along the southwestern Idaho Forests (fig. 3-15 and table 3-45), a finding similar to 

that reported by Marcot et al. (1997). 

Table 3-45. Species richness in Idaho Roadless Areas by national forest 

National forest 13–17 18–22 23–25 26–28 29–32 

Boise 0 0 8 20 14 

Caribou portion of Caribou-Targhee 11 23 0 0 0 

Clearwater 0 1 10 5 0 

IPNF 0 1 5 27 14 

Nez Perce 0 0 0 11 7 

Payette 0 0 2 10 10 

Salmon-Challis 4 5 15 33 1 

Sawtooth 10 0 3 6 4 

Targhee portion of Caribou-Targhee 0 8 7 1 0 

Wallowa-Whitman 0 0 0 0 2 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 205 

Figure 3-15. Terrestrial species richness in Idaho Roadless Areas. 
3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

206 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Almost all roads present some level of benefit and risk. These effects can vary greatly in 

degree (USDA Forest Service 2000r) and can shift over time. Some effects are 

immediately apparent, but others may require external events, such as a large storm, to 

become visible. Still other effects may be subtle, such as increased susceptibility to 

invasion by nonnative species or pathogens noticed only when they become 

widespread in the landscape or with increased road use as recreation styles and motor 

vehicles change (USDA Forest Service 2000r). A road-related beneficial effect for one 

species, may, in fact, represent an adverse effect for another. For example, although 

forest edges, such as those created by road construction and timber cutting, may benefit 

some species, such as deer and bobwhite quail, they also provide roaded access to 

interior forest patches for opportunistic or predator species (Norse et al.,1986). 

Wildlife responses to habitat change and disturbance vary with species, individuals, 

activity, and context; nevertheless, road-related impacts have been documented in a 

number of taxonomic groups, including ungulates (Cole et al. 2004, Joly et al. 2006, 

Marshal et al. 2006, Preisler et al. 2006), carnivores (Fredrick 1991, Ream and Mattson 

1982, Gaines et al. 2005, Waller and Servheen 2005), reptiles (Shine et al. 2004, Andrews 

and Gibbons 2005), amphibians (Marsh et al. 2005), and birds (Anthony and Isaacs 1989, 

Stolen 2003). 

Wildlife Responses 

Timber cutting/Vegetation Management 

Timber cutting activities permitted in roadless areas under the three alternatives vary in 

degree from slashing in preparation for prescribed burns to commercial harvest that 

could remove large-diameter trees. 

The effects of activities associated with timber cutting (such as tree felling, yarding, 

landings, site preparation by burning or scarification, fuels reduction, brush removal 

and whip felling, and forest regeneration) are often difficult to separate from the effects 

of roads and road construction. The road systems developed to cut/harvest timber are 

often a significant factor affecting terrestrial habitats, as discussed above. Further, the 

nature of effects resulting from timber cutting (habitat loss, fragmentation, and human 

disturbance) is similar to those created by roads, albeit different with respect to scale, 

configuration, and total area directly affected. 

Habitat Availability and Effectiveness. Timber cutting can alter habitat availability, 

configuration, and effectiveness for terrestrial wildlife species. The effects of unevenaged management regimes, such as thinning, can have variable effects on animal 

communities, depending on the species. Hayes et al. (2003) found that thinning densely 

stocked conifer stands decreased detections of Hutton’s Vireos (Vireo huttoni), goldencrowned kinglets (Regulus satrapa), brown creepers (Certhia americana), blackthroated 

gray warblers (Dendroica nigrescens), and varied thrushes (Ixoreus naevius) but increased 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 207 

densities of American robins (Turdus migratorius), Townsend’s solitaires (Myadestes 

towizsendi), Hammond’s flycatchers (Empidonax hammondii), western tanagers (Piranga 

ludoviciana), evening grosbeaks (Coccothrazistes vespertinus), and hairy woodpeckers 

(Picoides villosus). Patriquin and Barclay (2003) also documented differential responses 

of bats depending on species. For example, bat species that glean prey from surfaces did 

not forage in clear-cut areas whereas aerial foragers frequented areas along the forest 

edges. 

Several studies have found that post-fire salvage logging reduces diversity and 

densities of cavity-nesting birds, such as the American three-toed (Picoides dorsalis) and 

black-backed (P. arcticus) woodpeckers (Hutto and Gallo 2006, Wesolowski et al. 2005). 

Decreases in primary cavity nesters may be due to a reduction in food availability 

(wood-boring beetle larvae) compared to nest sites where sufficient snags are retained 

to support maximum densities of birds (Hutto and Gallo 2006). 

Fragmentation. Research over the past 2 decades has shown that habitat edge is not 

benign to many species (Noss and Cooperrider 1994). In terrestrial ecosystems, the edge 

effect of timber harvest can extend substantial distances from the harvest area. Some 

timber harvest introduces new edge habitat, which influences air and soil temperature, 

wind velocity, radiation, and soil and air moisture in the adjacent forest stands (Chen et 

al. 1995). Further, creation of edge due to harvest can result in the introduction of edgedwelling species, such as parasitic cowbirds or non-native invasive plants, which can 

have detrimental effects on native, interior forest-dwelling species (Baker and Lacki 

1997, Robinson et al. 1995, Rosenberg et al. 1999). The establishment of these nonnatives can lead to habitat loss, inter-specific competition, loss of quality forage, and 

lowered reproductive success for some plant and wildlife species (Trombulak and 

Frissell 2000). 

As with roads, fragmentation from timber harvest can create travel barriers to some 

species, which may make substantial amounts of suitable habitat inaccessible. These 

travel barriers can fragment and isolate populations into smaller subpopulations 

causing demography fluctuations, inbreeding, loss of genetic variability, and local 

population extinctions. Amphibian species, because of their temporally and spatially 

dynamic populations, may be especially prone to local extinction resulting from 

human-caused fragmentation (Gibbs 1998). Many amphibian species are found in lower 

densities in some timber harvest areas when compared to mature, unmanaged forests 

(deMaynadier and Hunter Jr. 1998, Petranka et al. 1993, Ash 1997, deMaynadier and 

Hunter Jr. 1999). Factors identified as potential threats to the lynx included some types 

of timber harvest or thinning that removed essential prey habitat (USDI 1998a). 

Beneficial Effects of Timber Cutting. Beneficial effects on terrestrial species from 

timber cutting activities are often due to creating or maintaining some specific habitat 

condition. Timber cutting creates forest age-class diversity and mosaic habitats used by 

some species (Wisdom et al. 2000, USDA Forest Service 2000n, Southern Appalachian 

Man and the Biosphere 1996, USDA Forest Service 1995a, USDI Fish and Wildlife 
3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

208 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Service 1990, USDI Fish and Wildlife Service 1976). In fire-adapted ecosystems where 

fire suppression has altered composition and spatial distribution and configuration of 

openings, timber cutting can be a tool that can be used to improve the condition of these 

ecosystems. 

Some species require early seral or open-forest habitats that can be created and 

maintained by properly planned, restorative timber cutting. Timber cutting activities 

may also reduce the risk of uncharacteristic large stand-replacing insect and disease 

outbreaks and severe wildland fires. These disturbance events can present both benefits 

and risks to some species (Wisdom et al. 2000), at least at a local level. Some examples of 

potential timber cutting beneficial effects include the following: 

• The snowshoe hare, a primary lynx prey species, can benefit from properly planned 

regeneration harvests (Ruediger et al. 2000). 

• Juvenile goshawks could benefit from forest management regimes that are designed 

to support abundant prey items while maintaining forest structural conditions to 

allow juveniles to access prey within breeding areas (Wiens et al. 2006). 

• Some species of bats appear to respond favorably to thinning in forested ecosystems 

(Loeb et al. 2002). 

• Reynolds and others (1991) suggest that active management activities such as tree 

thinning may be beneficial in producing and maintaining the desired conditions for 

sustaining goshawks and their prey species. 

• Mitchell and Powell (2003) noted that forest harvest can increase food resources for 

black bears, because of an increase in soft mast that is typically more limited in 

stands with significant overstory canopy. In terms of larger implications to black 

bear populations, there are tradeoffs between the resources mature stands offer and 

the food resources harvested stands offer. Where food resources are not limiting, 

forest management will have limited impacts on populations. 

Mining 

Roadless areas within Idaho contain saleable, leasable, and locatable mineral resources. 

Generally, many of the impacts discretionary mining could have on terrestrial wildlife 

species would result from the required infrastructure, primarily road construction and 

development. The impacts related to these activities include habitat loss, fragmentation, 

and human disturbance, all of which are discussed in detail above. 

Specific Effects of Management Activities on Terrestrial Wildlife Species in Idaho 

In general, road construction/reconstruction, timber cutting and discretionary mineral 

activities would have limited effect on terrestrial species associated with open water 

systems, rocky cliffs, or mine shafts (appendix M, tables M-9, M-10, M-11). These 

include primarily avian species: waterfowl, select raptors, and the black swift. Species 

most likely to be vulnerable to activities are typically associated with forested or 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 209 

grassland ecosystems that may be affected by roads, timber cutting, or discretionary 

mining. Cavity nesters, such as several of the woodpecker species and the flammulated 

owl, ranked out as moderate-high risk because of the potential for timber cutting to 

remove important habitat components. The grizzly bear, due to the potential severity of 

impact (increased direct mortality) related to increased human-bear conflicts facilitated 

by roads also ranked out as a high risk. However, all activities occurring in grizzly bear 

habitat would likely be designed to meet recovery objectives. 

All Alternatives 

None of the alternatives would prohibit road construction or reconstruction associated 

with developing existing mineral leases on the Caribou-Targhee National Forest. About 

9,100 acres of phosphate deposits can be found in seven roadless areas (Dry Ridge, 

Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, Stump Creek, and Mount 

Jefferson) and are under existing lease. Some of these acres have been mined to date 

(the total amount is unknown). About 1,100 acres, associated with the Smoky Canyon 

mine expansion, are reasonably foreseeable to be developed within the next 15 years. 

The Smoky Canyon mine expansion would affect the Sage Creek and Meade Peak 

roadless areas. 

It is also reasonable to assume that the remaining phosphate deposits currently under 

lease, roughly 8,000 acres within the seven roadless areas, would likely be permitted 

and developed sometime in the extended future (50 or more years). Using the Smoky 

Canyon expansion as an example of the level of activity expected, an estimated 17 miles 

of haul road construction and other surface mining disturbance would ultimately take 

place within the seven roadless areas. 

Any future phosphate development could affect terrestrial habitat in a number of ways: 

through physical removal of habitat and increased disturbance to adjacent habitat, 

increased potential for road-related mortality, and the potential to ingest forage 

contaminated with selenium. Any future development would undergo environmental 

analysis, and environmental mitigations would be required to lessen effects. 

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

The 2001 Roadless Rule generally prohibits road construction/reconstruction. There are 

seven exceptions where this activity can occur. The 2001 Roadless Rule also generally 

prohibits timber cutting, except to restore threatened and endangered species habitat, or 

for other stewardship purposes. No road construction is permitted to support timber 

cutting activities. 

Under the 2001 Roadless Rule, about 15 miles of road construction or reconstruction is 

projected to occur over a 15-year period. Construction of 1 mile of road per year equates 

to a physical footprint approximately 0.5 acres in size or about 7.5 acres over 15 years. 

As discussed earlier, the indirect effects of roads extend beyond the road prism and 

have the potential to affect a much greater area. However, given the limited extent of 
3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

210 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

road construction projected (15 miles over a 15-year period), the likelihood of negative 

impacts on any terrestrial wildlife species and their habitats resulting from road 

construction and reconstruction is exceptionally low. 

Prohibitions on road construction/reconstruction in roadless areas would benefit most 

species, particularly species that have large home ranges, are sensitive to human 

disturbance, and/or that experience increased mortality due to increased human access 

facilitated by roads. Although all species listed under ESA within Idaho stand to benefit 

from prohibitions on road construction, the grizzly bear and woodland caribou would 

likely benefit most because of reduced disturbance and wildlife-human interactions that 

are facilitated by roads. 

Based on information provided by each national forest in 2000, the current need for 

road construction or reconstruction within roadless areas for recovery or protection of 

threatened, endangered, or sensitive species appears to be minimal. There was no 

reason to expect that this would change in the upcoming decades. It is unlikely that 

alternate means of access could not be found to accomplish recovery or conservation 

objectives, although costs may increase in some situations. Because all the prohibition 

alternatives provide an exception that an existing road may be realigned to prevent 

irreparable resource damage, adverse effects on TES and other species caused by 

existing roads may be mitigated. 

Roads can facilitate treatments that are designed specifically to improve habitats for 

other terrestrial wildlife, particularly game species such as mule deer, elk, wild turkey, 

upland birds, and black bear. However such treatments in roadless areas, in the absence 

of revenues generated from associated timber harvest, are difficult to implement 

financially and thus infrequently proposed within roadless areas. 

The 2001 Roadless Rule prohibits timber cutting, sale, or removal except as provided in 

four exceptions. A very low amount of timber cutting in Idaho Roadless Areas, about 

1,500 acres over 15 years, is projected under the 2001 Roadless Rule. Because of the 

exceptions and the intent to maintain roadless characteristics, the type of timber cutting 

in Idaho Roadless Areas would be restricted to removal of small-diameter materials and 

to cutting that maintains some structure and canopy. Such treatments, compared to 

even-aged management regimes, are less likely to fragment habitats. 

With the added prohibition against non-stewardship timber cutting and the limitations 

on the type and extent of change to existing vegetation, the 2001 Roadless Rule presents 

a very low risk to terrestrial wildlife resources from habitat loss and fragmentation 

resulting from timber cutting. Further, other impacts on wildlife species from timber 

cutting activities, such as disturbance, would be minimal. 

The 2001 Roadless Rule also prohibits road construction and reconstruction associated 

with new leases. About 13,400 of known phosphate deposits are currently not leased 

and would not be developed, and road access would not be provided for geothermal 

development. These areas would retain their roadless characteristics and continue to 

provide undisturbed terrestrial species habitat. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 211 

Summary of Effects. No adverse environmental effects on TES terrestrial species or 

their habitats would be expected from the 2001 Roadless Rule, because it does not 

directly authorize any ground-disturbing activities. Ground-disturbing activities 

permitted under this alternative include limited road construction/ reconstruction and 

limited timber cutting across the entire 9.3 million acres of Idaho Roadless Areas. 

Overall, the effects on biodiversity would be beneficial. 

Generally, most terrestrial wildlife species would benefit from prohibitions on road 

construction/reconstruction, and timber cutting in Idaho Roadless Areas because the 

adverse effects of these activities would be reduced. Limiting the ability to harvest 

timber for stewardship purposes except when needed for protection or recovery of TES 

species or to restore/maintain ecosystem characteristics, may reduce the capability to 

enhance habitat directly and indirectly at the stand level, but it is unlikely to have much 

impact at larger scales. The ability to use timber harvest to manage for early 

successional or other structural stages in some areas would be limited; although where 

such a need is identified, prescribed fire can be an effective tool under certain 

conditions. 

Existing Plans 

Under Existing Plans road construction/reconstruction, timber cutting, and 

discretionary mineral activities are generally prohibited on about 3.45 million acres of 

land within Idaho Roadless Areas (36 percent of the Idaho Roadless Areas). These areas 

would continue to provide excellent habitat for terrestrial species because of the limited 

amount of human induced disturbance. 

About 4.24 million acres are in management prescriptions similar to Backcountry; 

generally some level of road construction/reconstruction and timber cutting would be 

permitted. Discretionary mineral activities may or may not be permitted depending on 

the forest plan (appendix B). Timber cutting and limited road construction could occur 

under this theme, although these activities would likely be limited to those necessary to 

improve ecosystem health or to address imminent threat of catastrophic wildfire. Thus, 

there is the potential for terrestrial wildlife species to be affected, particularly in 

forested habitats, as a result of fuels reduction activities. Removal of diseased, dead, 

and down materials could have negative impacts on primary cavity nesters, although 

existing snag retention requirements already included in most forest plans would help 

mitigate some of these effects. 

About 1.26 million acres are in prescriptions similar to GFRG. Road 

construction/reconstruction, timber cutting, and discretionary mineral activities are 

generally permissible in these areas. Most road construction and timber cutting is 

anticipated to take place in areas managed as GFRG. Approximately 1,262,400 acres (15 

percent) of Idaho Roadless Areas fall into this category. All forests except the Challis 

National Forest and the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest have roadless areas that 

include management under this theme. However, most acres in GFRG fall on the 

Caribou-Targhee, Idaho-Panhandle, Nez Perce, Salmon, and Sawtooth National Forests. 
3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

212 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

The terrestrial wildlife species found on these forests that are vulnerable to effects of 

roads, timber cutting, and discretionary mining, as discussed in the General Effects 

section, could be differentially affected under this theme. 

Projected road construction and reconstruction in roadless areas under Existing Plans is 

180 miles over a 15 year period, equivalent to about 90 acres, about half of which would 

likely be in the form of temporary roads, or would be reconstruction. This estimate 

includes both permanent and temporary roads for timber cutting and non-timber 

related activities. The projected timber cutting is estimated to occur on 42,000 acres over 

15 years. 

Among federally listed species, the Canada lynx, gray wolf, grizzly bear in Northern 

Idaho, and woodland caribou could be at moderate to high risk of impact from these 

activities (appendix M, table M-9). The likelihood that individuals of these species 

would encounter these activities or their effects is relatively low given that less than 5.2 

percent of their predicted distributions overlap at all with areas that would be managed 

as GFRG (appendix M, table M-12) under Existing Plans. In addition, the Northern 

Rockies Lynx Amendment provides standards and guidelines to minimize adverse 

effects on lynx in occupied habitat that could result from roads, vegetation 

management, and mining (USDA Forest Service 2007). 

Of sensitive species that could be at moderate to high risk of impact—including blackback woodpecker, boreal owl, Columbia sharp-tailed grouse, fisher, flammulated owl, 

great gray owl, greater sage grouse, grizzly bear (Yellowstone population), pine marten, 

northern bog lemming, northern goshawk, pygmy nuthatch, three-toed woodpecker, 

Townsend’s big-eared bat, white-headed woodpecker, and wolverine—none have 

predicted distributions that overlap GFRG areas by more than 5 percent (appendix M, 

table M-12). Although some individuals could encounter activities and their impacts, 

the likelihood is relatively low. 

Of management indicator species that could be at moderate to high risk of impact—

downy woodpecker, elk, hairy woodpecker, and moose—none have predicted 

distributions that overlap GFRG areas by more than 4.6 percent (appendix M, table M12) and thus opportunities for impact are limited. 

Because roadless areas on the Idaho Panhandle National Forest overlap a large number 

of species distributions, management activities that could take place in areas managed 

as GFRG have the potential to affect more species, and thus more area of high species 

richness, than on other forests. The Salmon National Forest contains the most roadless 

area acres under GFRG (404,300 acres) under Existing Plans but also ranked out as 

relatively low on species richness. 

Table 3-46 shows the Idaho Roadless Areas with the most TES terrestrial wildlife 

species and the amount of acres by themes. About 764,700 acres in roadless areas 

overlap with areas the most TES species. About 50 percent of these roadless areas are in 

equivalent themes that pose little risk to terrestrial species. About 3 percent are in 

GFRG, and 47 percent in prescription equivalent to Backcountry. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 213 

Table 3-46. Existing Plans, acres by equivalent theme for Idaho Roadless Areas with the most TES terrestrial 

wildlife species 

Forest Roadless Area 

Wild Land 

Recreation Primitive Backcountry GFRG 

Forest plan 

special areas 

Idaho 

Panhandle 

Salmo-Priest 13,500 0 800 0 5,700 

Idaho 

Panhandle 

Blacktail Mountain 

#122 

0 0 1,300 2,900 800 

Idaho 

Panhandle 

Selkirk 25,400 30,100 36,400 0 6,100 

Idaho 

Panhandle 

Upper Priest 0 0 4,300 200 6,400 

Nez Perce Mallard 0 0 12,700 6,900 0 

Payette French Creek 0 11,500 65,100 100 12,100 

Payette Hells Canyon/7 

Devils Scenic 

0 29,200 0 0 500 

Payette Needles 90,200 7,100 31,500 0 2,500 

Payette-Nez 

Perce 

Rapid River 0 

0 

6,000 

14,000 

45,700 

2,400 

0 

300 

6,000 

4,300 

Salmon West Big Hole 0 26,000 43,900 11,600 2,900 

Sawtooth Hanson Lakes 15,000 2,500 13,800 0 8,600 

Targhee* Mt. Jefferson 0 41,000 13,200 0 6,800 

Targhee* Garns Mountain 0 0 90,800 0 4,800 

 144,100 167,400 361,900 23,800 67,500 

* Targhee portion of the Caribou-Targhee National Forest. 

The Caribou Forest Plan permits leasing of the estimated 6,500 acres of known unleased 

phosphate deposits and/or other possible roadless areas that contain undiscovered 

phosphate resources. These known unleased phosphate deposits occur in six roadless 

areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, and 

Stump Creek) and would likely be developed over an extended period of time (50 or 

more years). In addition, there are 6,900 acres of unleased phosphate deposits on the 

Targhee portion of the Caribou-Targhee National Forest within the Bald Mountain, Bear 

Creek, and Poker Creek Roadless Areas. An environmental analysis would have to be 

completed to determine how many of the 6,900 acres could actually be leased. In 

addition, environmental analysis would be completed prior to exploration and 

development of phosphate resources. 

Existing Plans may allow road construction/reconstruction for geothermal 

development in management prescriptions similar to Backcountry and GFRG. It is 

unknown where and to what degree geothermal resources would be developed; 

however, since about half the roadless areas have high to moderate potential it is likely 

some development would eventually occur. Currently lease applications have been 

submitted for geothermal exploration, which could affect about 7,000 acres of the Peace 

Rock Roadless Area on the Boise National Forest and 33 acres of the West Panther 

Roadless Area on the Salmon National Forest. If fully developed, roads, transmission 
3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

214 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

lines, and other facilities would likely be constructed (see appendix I for a description of 

general development of geothermal resources). Terrestrial species and their habitat 

would be considered during site-specific analysis and mitigations applied. 

Summary of Effects. No adverse environmental effects on terrestrial species or their 

habitats would be expected from the Existing Plans, because they do not directly 

authorize any ground-disturbing activities. With the projected trend that road 

construction/reconstruction, timber cutting, and discretionary mineral activities would 

be highest under Existing Plans, and given the numerous negative direct and indirect 

effects on terrestrial wildlife species and their habitats identified in the literature 

associated with these activities, the Existing Plans have potential for risk of adverse 

effects on terrestrial animal species and terrestrial habitats. Many of the Existing Plans 

have additional management direction that addresses TES habitat needs. 

Idaho Roadless rule (Proposed Action) 

Under the Idaho Roadless Rule, road construction/reconstruction, timber cutting, and 

discretionary mineral activities are generally prohibited on about 3.1 million acres of 

land within Idaho Roadless Areas (33 percent of the roadless areas). These themes 

protect terrestrial resources including TES and MIS species and their habitat by limiting 

human-induced activities. 

About 5.25 million acres are in Backcountry. Road construction/reconstruction would 

be permissible under seven exceptions, including support of timber cutting for 

stewardship and fuel reduction purposes. Most new roads would be temporary, unless 

the responsible official determines that a permanent road meets the road exceptions and 

it would not substantially alter any of the roadless characteristics. About 60 miles of 

road are projected to be constructed/reconstructed over a 15 year period. 

Timber cutting would be permitted for forest health or fuel reduction purposes. 

Removal of diseased, dead, and down materials could have negative impacts on 

primary cavity nesters, although existing snag retention requirements already included 

in most forest plans would help mitigate some of these effects. About 12,000 acres of 

timber cutting are projected to occur over 15 years for stewardship and fuel reduction 

purposes. 

About 0.6 million acres are in the GFRG theme. Road construction/ reconstruction, 

timber cutting, and discretionary mineral activities are permitted in these areas. All of 

the forests, except for the Challis, Clearwater, Nez Perce, and the Wallowa-Whitman 

National Forests, have acres under the GFRG theme. The Caribou portion of the 

Caribou-Targhee National Forest (251,800), the Targhee portion of the Caribou-Targhee 

National Forest (146,900), and the Sawtooth National Forest (146,900) have the most 

acres of any of the forests in the GFRG theme. Many of the lands on these in the GFRG 

theme are managed as rangelands. 

Among federally listed species, the Canada lynx, gray wolf, grizzly bear in Northern 

Idaho, and woodland caribou could be at moderate to high risk of impact from these 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 215 

activities (appendix M, tables M-9, M-10, and M-11). The likelihood that individuals of 

these species would encounter these activities or their effects is relatively low given less 

than 2.5 percent of their predicted distributions overlap at all with areas that would be 

managed as GFRG (appendix M, table M-12) under the Idaho Roadless Rule. In 

addition, the Northern Rockies Lynx Amendment provides standards and guidelines to 

minimize adverse effects on lynx in occupied habitat that could result from roads, 

vegetation management, and mining. 

Of sensitive species that could be at moderate to high risk of impact—black-back 

woodpecker, boreal owl, Columbia sharp-tailed grouse, fisher, flammulated owl, great 

gray owl, greater sage grouse, grizzly bear (Yellowstone population), pine marten, 

northern bog lemming, northern goshawk, pygmy nuthatch, three-toed woodpecker, 

Townsend’s big-eared bat, white-headed woodpecker, and wolverine—none have 

predicted distributions that overlap GFRG areas by more than 2.2 percent (appendix M, 

table M-12). Although some individuals could encounter activities and their impacts, 

the likelihood is relatively low. 

Of management indicator species that could be at moderate to high risk of impact—

downy woodpecker, elk, hairy woodpecker, and moose—none have predicted 

distributions that overlap GFRG areas by more than 1.7 percent (appendix M, table M12) and thus opportunities for impact are limited. Table 3-47 shows the Idaho Roadless 

Areas with the most threatened, endangered, and sensitive terrestrial wildlife species 

and the amount of acres in each Idaho Roadless Rule theme. 

Table 3-47. Idaho Roadless Rule acres by theme for Idaho Roadless Areas with the most TES terrestrial 

wildlife species 

Forest Roadless Area 

Wild Land 

Recreation Primitive Backcountry GFRG 

Forest plan 

special areas 

Idaho Panhandle Salmo-Priest 14,300 0 0 0 5,700 

Idaho Panhandle Blacktail Mountain 

#122 

0 0 4,200 0 800 

Idaho Panhandle Selkirk 31,300 10,700 41,200 8,700 6,100 

Idaho Panhandle Upper Priest 0 0 6,100 200 6,400 

Nez Perce Mallard 0 0 19,600 0 0 

Payette French Creek 0 11,500 65,100 100 12,100 

Payette Hells Canyon/7 Devils 

Scenic 

0 29,200 0 0 500 

Payette Needles 90,200 7,100 31,500 0 2,500 

Payette-Nez Perce Rapid River 0 51,700 

16,700 

0 0 6,000 

4,300 

Salmon West Big Hole 0 20,500 61,000 0 2,900 

Sawtooth Hanson Lakes 15,000 2,500 13,800 0 8,600 

Targhee* Mt. Jefferson 0 41,000 13,200 0 6,800 

Targhee* Garns Mountain 0 0 90,800 0 4,800 

 150,800 190,900 346,500 9,000 67,500 

* Targhee portion of the Caribou-Targhee National Forest. 
3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

216 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would allow road construction/reconstruction and surface 

occupancy for phosphate exploration and development within the Backcountry and 

GFRG themes. There are 13,400 acres of known unleased phosphate deposits on the 

Caribou-Targhee National Forest. About 12,100 acres (90 percent) are located within the 

Backcountry and GFRG themes. Under these themes road construction or 

reconstruction would be permissible to develop these phosphate deposits. 

These deposits are located within nine roadless areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, 

Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, and Stump Creek on the Caribou portion of the 

Caribou-Targhee National Forest; and Bald Mountain, Bear Creek, and Poker Creek on 

the Targhee portion of the forest) and could eventually be mined over an extended 

period of time (50 or more years). There is a potential risk to terrestrial species habitat 

on these 12,100 acres when and if this development should occur. Site-specific analysis 

would occur prior to any future leasing and mitigations applied. 

About 1,300 acres of unleased phosphate deposits are in the Primitive theme. The 

Primitive theme prohibits road construction/reconstruction or surface occupancy for 

phosphates; therefore, this area would likely not be developed (see the Minerals 

section); and there would be no effect on terrestrial species found in this area. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would also permit road construction/reconstruction for 

geothermal development in the GFRG theme. About 7 percent of Idaho Roadless Areas 

are in this theme, and about 4 percent could be developed because of slope restrictions 

(see the Minerals section). It is likely some of these areas would be developed over time; 

however, except for two pending lease applications there is no information about where 

or when the activity would occur. If fully developed, roads, transmission lines, and 

other facilities would likely be constructed (see appendix I for a description of general 

development of geothermal resources). Site-specific analysis would occur prior to 

exploration or development of geothermal energy resources and would include 

consideration of terrestrial resources. 

Currently lease applications have been submitted for geothermal exploration within 

7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area on the Boise National Forest and 33 acres of 

the West Panther Roadless Area on the Salmon National Forest. Both these areas are in 

either the Primitive or Backcountry theme; therefore, they would not be developed 

because of the inability to construct roads to access the area (see the Minerals section). 

No terrestrial resources would be affected in these areas. 

Summary of Effects. No adverse environmental effects on terrestrial species or their 

habitats would be expected from the Idaho Roadless Rule, because it does not directly 

authorize any ground-disturbing activities. Roadless areas in the Wild Land Recreation, 

Primitive, and SAHTS themes should be protected from ground-disturbing activities 

under the Idaho Roadless Rule because of the restricted permissions on activities 

related to road construction/ reconstruction, timber cutting, and discretionary minerals. 

These three themes should provide for natural processes, habitat integrity, and species 

diversity. Areas in the Backcountry theme have a higher risk of ground-disturbing 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 217 

activities (including road construction/ reconstruction, timber cutting, and 

discretionary minerals activities) occurring depending on future land uses and the risk 

of wildland fire. Areas in the GFRG theme have the greatest potential for increased risk 

of adverse effects on terrestrial animal species and habitat, although most species have 

less than 3 percent of their predicted distributions that overlap with this theme. 

CUMULATIVE EFFECTS—TERRESTRIAL AND AQUATIC SPECIES 

All Alternatives 

Non-Federal habitat. There are about 52,961,000 acres of land in Idaho, of which about 

20,464,000 acres are NFS lands. The Federal Government manages approximately 63 

percent of all Idaho lands; the remaining 37 percent is in non-Federal ownership. 

Because non-Federal lands are a smaller percentage of all lands in Idaho, they are often 

influenced by management on Federal lands. 

The role of non-Federal lands in maintaining and recovering species and their habitats 

is not well-defined. Idaho’s current population of 1.3 million people is expected to be 2 

million by 2030 and much greater by 2100 (IDFG 2005). The increased demands these 

individuals will place on the land will increase the value of roadless areas on Federal 

land to terrestrial and aquatic species. In light of projected future population trends, the 

Idaho Roadless Areas can provide some of the best terrestrial and aquatic species 

habitat in Idaho into the future. 

The Idaho Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy (IDFG 2005) provides a 

foundation for sustaining Idaho’s fish and wildlife and the habitats upon which they 

depend. The strategy provides general directions for wildlife conservation and a 

stimulus to engage partners in conservation of Idaho’s wildlife resources. In addition, 

there are several species-specific recovery plans and conservation strategies for species 

occurring in Idaho, such as the Idaho Bull Trout Plan (Batt 1996). Several of the tribal 

governments within Idaho have developed wildlife and fisheries conservation and 

restoration plans. Because of these efforts, terrestrial and aquatic habitats on nonFederal land would in general remain stable or slightly improve over the long-term. 

Some lands may experience impacts on natural resources from urbanization and 

development, resource demands (for example, minerals), and recreation. Some 

conditions resulting in lower habitat quality on non-Federal land may limit the 

potential effectiveness of habitat conservation and restoration on Federal lands. 

Non-native invasive species. Non-native invasive species are a problem throughout 

Idaho. Current State and Federal activities and authorities address some invasive 

species and their prevention and control, including the Idaho Invasive Plan (IDA 2005) 

and the National Strategy and Implementation Plan for Invasive Species Management 

(USDA Forest Service 2004a). Of particular concern is that the presence or spread of 

invasive species could potentially limit the effectiveness of habitat improvements or 

efforts to recover species. Roads often provide vectors for spread of invasive species. In 
3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

218 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

general, areas with fewer roads have a lower risk of having invasive species 

populations established. 

Impacts of existing management practices. Existing management practices within and 

outside Idaho Roadless Areas have the potential to affect terrestrial and aquatic animal 

species and habitats. Land management activities such as timber harvest, road 

construction and maintenance, dams and diversions, livestock grazing, mining, and 

recreation can result in changes to vegetation composition and structure, successional 

processes, nutrient cycling, water quality and quantity, and habitat complexity. Other 

human activities related to urbanization can have dramatic effects on terrestrial and 

aquatic species and habitats.

Effects on terrestrial and aquatic habitats from human activities tend to be chronic 

disturbances rather than episodic. Native species did not evolve with chronic 

disturbances such as continual sediment inputs to aquatic habitats from poorly 

maintained roads. Species did, however, evolve and adapt to sediment inputs from 

events such as landslides. Human-caused impacts can be masked by natural 

disturbance processes such as flooding, fires, and soil mass movements. However, 

native species evolved with natural disturbances processes and they can often recover 

from these types of events, even when they appear to be catastrophic. 

The Idaho Roadless Areas provide areas where natural process can largely occur 

without human management influences. Information gained from these areas can help 

us to better understand cumulative effects occurring elsewhere on the landscape and 

their impacts on terrestrial and aquatic species and habitats. 

Fire. For many aquatic ecosystems, fire has played an important role in creating and 

maintaining suitable habitat at varying temporal and spatial scales. Many species 

evolved under the influence of recurrent fire, including stand-replacing events, and 

their long-term persistence relies heavily on the maintenance of important habitat 

components by these kinds of disturbance events. 

At a landscape level, fires create and maintain habitat mosaics of different vegetation 

types (Mushinsky and Gibson 1991). These mosaics include a diversity of patch size, 

composition, and structure, as well as connectivity among patches. Smith (2000) 

identified the following landscape-level fire effects on terrestrial species: (1) changed 

availability of habitat patches and heterogeneity within them; (2) changed compositions 

and structures of larger areas, such as watersheds, which provide the spatial context for 

habitat patches; and (3) changed connections among patches. During the course of postfire succession, all three of these landscape features are in flux. 

Factors affecting anadromous fish. There are four anadromous fish species in Idaho: 

Snake River sockeye salmon (endangered), Snake River fall Chinook (threatened), 

Snake River spring/summer Chinook (threatened), and Snake River steelhead 

(threatened). Currently Idaho Roadless Areas provide some of the best habitat and 

strongest populations of these fish. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 219 

Human activities on Federal and non-Federal lands—including hydropower, 

hatcheries, harvest, and land management such as road building, grazing and 

recreation—have altered anadromous fish environments leading to widespread 

declines (USDA Forest Service 2000r, pg. 139). Idaho Roadless Areas are key to recovery 

of salmon and steelhead stocks in decline, providing habitat to protect species until 

longer term solutions can be developed for migration, passage, hatchery, and harvest 

problems associated with the decline of anadromous fish (USDA Forest Service 2001). 

Maintaining current populations and future recovery of anadromous species in Idaho 

depends on reducing mortality from a variety of factors. 

NOAA Fisheries, in partnership with Idaho’s Office of Species Conservation, is 

beginning to draft Idaho’s portion of the Snake River Salmon and Steelhead Recovery 

Plan, which is scheduled to be completed in 2007. 

Climate change/global warming. Climate change and global warming are affecting 

terrestrial and aquatic animal species and habitats in Idaho. Average annual 

temperature increases due to increased carbon dioxide are affecting snowpack, peak 

runoff, and base flows of stream and rivers. Spring snowpack will probably be less, and 

more precipitation will probably fall as rain than as snow. Spring peak runoff will be 

earlier. 

Changes due to climate change and global warming could be compounded 

considerably in combination with other disturbances such as fire. Larger climate-driven 

fires can be expected in Idaho in the future. 

Climate change is also affecting phenology (the biology of timing of organisms), 

involving aspects such as animal hibernation and migration. In addition, for species 

such as bull trout that require colder water temperatures to survive and reproduce, 

warmer temperatures could lead to significant decreases in available suitable habitat. 

Biodiversity. Based on current literature (Flather et al. 1999, Noss and Cooperrider 

1994, Stein et al. 2000) it is possible to conclude that with or without conservation of 

roadless areas, biodiversity is at an increased risk of adverse cumulative effects from 

increased population growth and associated land uses, land conversions, and nonnative 

species invasions. Maintenance of roadless characteristics, however, may lessen this risk 

at least in the short term (20 years). By reducing the level of potential adverse impacts 

on roadless areas, some of the last relatively undisturbed large blocks of land outside of 

designated wilderness that contribute to species biodiversity would be conserved. 

Conservation of roadless characteristics could have beneficial effects on biodiversity 

conservation at the local, regional, National Forest System, and national levels. There 

would be similar incremental beneficial effects on biodiversity conservation when any 

of the prohibitions is combined with past, present, and reasonably foreseeable land uses 

and conversions, laws, regulations, policies, and non-native species invasions. The local, 

regional, and national cumulative beneficial effects to TES species and biodiversity 

could include: 
3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

220 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

• Conserving and protecting large contiguous blocks of habitat that provide habitat 

connectivity and biological strongholds for a variety of terrestrial and aquatic plant 

and animal species including TES species; 

• Providing important local and regional components of conservation strategies for 

protection and recovery of listed TES species; 

• Providing increased assurances that biological diversity would be conserved at a 

landscape level, including increased area of ecoregions protected, improved 

elevational distribution of protected areas, decreased risk of additional timber 

harvest and road caused fragmentation, and maintenance and restoration of some 

natural disturbance processes; 

• Providing increased assurance that biodiversity would be supported within Idaho 

Roadless Areas, including the maintenance of native plant and animal communities 

where nonnative species are currently rare, uncommon, or absent. 

The value of Idaho Roadless Areas in conserving biodiversity is likely to increase as 

habitat loss elsewhere increases in scope and magnitude. With these increasing trends, 

the importance of roadless area conservation and other laws, regulations, and policies 

in the management of biodiversity is also likely to increase. 

The roadless areas when considered alone may not be as important as when considered 

in combination with other land conservation laws, policies, and strategies. For example, 

many roadless areas in combination with wilderness areas, Nature Conservancy 

preserves, some NFS land allocations, national parks, or conservation easements 

provide large contiguous habitat blocks that provide for biodiversity conservation. 

Whether the cumulative beneficial effects of the prohibitions and other past, present, 

and reasonably foreseeable actions would fully offset predicted future increases in land 

uses, land conversions, and nonnative species invasions is difficult to assess. Yet, it is 

possible to conclude that without the prohibitions, there would likely be an increased 

risk of adverse cumulative effects to biodiversity. 

At some point in the future, projected habitat loss from the direct and indirect effects of 

increasing population growth could potentially surpass the contribution of roadless 

areas to biodiversity conservation. Under this scenario, habitat loss and the loss of 

viable plant and animal populations may be of a magnitude such that the beneficial 

effects of the prohibitions and other laws, regulations, and policies relative to 

biodiversity conservation may be lost or overwhelmed. Even in these circumstances, 

roadless areas would still likely convey some beneficial effects relative to conservation 

of individual TES species locally, regionally, and nationally. 

Conclusions on cumulative effects by alternative. As population growth and 

associated land uses and land conversions place pressures on both NFS and non-NFS 

lands, the value and importance of Idaho Roadless Areas in conserving biological 

diversity will probably increase. In the future, habitat loss and loss of viable animal 

populations may be of a magnitude such that the beneficial effects of the prohibitions, 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 221 

and other laws, regulations and policies relative to the conservation of native 

biodiversity may be lost or overwhelmed. Even under this scenario, Idaho Roadless 

Areas would likely still convey some beneficial effects relative to conservation of 

terrestrial and aquatic animal species and habitat in Idaho. 

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

Overall, the 2001 Roadless Rule—when considered with the effects of land uses; land 

conversions; laws, regulations, and policies; and nonnative species invasions—would 

be beneficial to biological diversity, including species habitats, populations, and 

landscape diversity. Some of the potential beneficial effects include: 

• Large contiguous blocks of habitat protected by providing habitat connectivity for a 

variety of species that need large connected landscapes; 

• Decreased risk associated with fragmentation and isolation from timber cutting, 

road construction/reconstruction, and discretionary minerals activities; 

• Conservation and protection of biological strongholds and other important habitats 

for terrestrial and aquatic animals, including TES species; 

• Decreased risk associated with invasive species introductions and spread; 

• Maintenance of native animal communities where non-native-species are currently 

rare, uncommon, or absent; 

• Increased assurances that biological diversity would be conserved, both within the 

area and the overall landscape in which it is found; 

• Provision of important components of conservation strategies for protection and 

recovery of federally listed proposed, threatened, endangered, and NFS Regional 

Forester sensitive species; and 

• Maintenance or restoration of some level of natural disturbance processes at a local 

level and landscape levels, which are important controls for ecosystem composition, 

structure, and function. 

Existing Plans 

Because of the permissions provided in the Existing Plans—when considered with the 

effects of land uses; land conversions; laws, regulations, and policies; and nonnative 

species invasions—Existing Plans may or may not be sufficient to provide for biological 

diversity, including species habitats, populations and landscape diversity into the 

future. This assessment was based largely on the following cumulative effects: 

• The projected increasing trends in population growth, deleterious land uses, land 

conversion, and non-native species invasion are likely to contribute to increased 

risks to biodiversity. 
3.9 Terrestrial Animal Habitat and Species Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

222 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

• It is likely that Federal, State, local, and private land laws, regulations, and policies 

will become more pivotal in conserving biodiversity. 

• Climate changes may lead to less favorable habitat availability for some TES species, 

leading to more restricted ranges and some local extirpations of populations. 

Idaho roadless rule (Proposed Action) 

The Idaho Roadless Rule permissions and prohibitions—when considered with the 

effects of land uses; land conversions; laws, regulations and policies; and nonnative 

species invasions—would overall be beneficial to biological diversity, including species 

habitats, populations, and landscape diversity, for the same reasons listed above under 

the 2001 Roadless Rule. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would provide additional protections compared to the 2001 

Roadless Rule on 3.1 million acres (33 percent of Idaho Roadless Areas), because the 

rule prohibits road construction, reconstruction or surface occupancy on these lands. It 

would provide similar protections on 5.2 million acres (56 percent of Idaho Roadless 

Areas), even though it would permit limited road construction/reconstruction to 

facilitate timber cutting to address forest health concerns and to reduce hazardous fuels 

that could affect communities. It would provide lesser protections on 0.6 million acres 

(0.6 percent of Idaho Roadless Areas); however, not every acre within the 0.6 million 

acres is likely to be affected. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would permit phosphate development on 21,000 acres 

(existing and unleased lands), whereas the 2001 Roadless Rule would permit 

development on 9,100 acres. This difference is immeasurable, within the context of 

Idaho Roadless Areas as a whole. The phosphate development would potentially occur 

on the edges of nine roadless areas, leaving the core of the roadless areas intact. Prior to 

development, additional environmental study would occur and any necessary 

protection measures would be applied. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.10 Scenic Quality 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 223 

3.10 Scenic Quality 

INTRODUCTION

Scenery with natural-appearing landscapes enhances people’s lives and benefits society 

(Driver et al. 1991). It is a primary reason that people choose to recreate on the NFS 

lands, and it contributes directly to real estate values in neighboring communities and 

residential areas. Scenic quality is based on two definable elements, landscape character 

and scenic integrity. Roadless areas inherently have high scenic quality because of the 

lack of human-induced disturbance. 

The scenic quality of a forest is not static; it changes over time. To varying degrees, 

roads, timber cutting, insect infestations, and wildland fires all affect the scenic integrity 

of a landscape. Managers may influence the effects of natural events to some extent by 

managing vegetation with silvicultural and fuels treatments. The positive effects on 

scenic quality resulting from reducing the effects of these events may be offset by the 

negative effects of road construction and vegetative treatments. However, wildfire 

events, insect or disease infestations, landslides, and other natural events are considered 

a part of that landscape’s natural processes. Such events and resultant landscape 

changes (even if visually unappealing) are consistent with High or Very High levels of 

scenic integrity. 

All resource management activities in Idaho Roadless Areas strive to achieve long-term 

sustainable landscape character goals within the scenic integrity objectives identified in 

the land management planning process using the Scenery Management System (SMS) 

(USDA Forest Service 1996) or with establishment of visual quality objectives using the 

Visual Management System (USDA Forest Service 1974). These visual or scenic 

management objectives define allowable levels of change on specific land areas. 

The basis for describing scenic quality is the SMS, as described in Landscape Aesthetics47. 

This handbook defines a system for inventory and analysis of the aesthetic values of 

NFS lands and replaces the old Visual Management System. The analysis evaluates how 

the prohibitions and permissions for timber cutting, road construction/reconstruction, 

and discretionary mineral activities would affect the ability to maintain or enhance the 

supply of high scenic quality48. 

 

47 Landscape Aesthetics: A Handbook for Scenery Management (USDA Forest Service 1996) defines high scenic 

quality and provides the framework for comparing alternatives and discussing cumulative effects. This 

workbook was the result of more than 20 years of landscape management field implementation; the work 

of dozens of researchers in fields such as landscape architecture, psychology, sociology, economics, and 

ecology; and guidance by regional and national landscape architects. 

48 This analysis assesses the potential for change to scenic integrity based on potential for change reflected 

in the various management themes or prescriptions for roadless area management. The amount of 

potential change is, in actuality, further constrained by the management strategy for scenic integrity 

objectives (SIOs) or visual quality objectives (VQOs) that are in place for each forest plan. Calculations of 
3.10 Scenic Quality Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

224 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

The SMS identifies landscape character and scenic integrity as the basis for scenic 

quality. Landscape character is the overall visual impression of landscape attributes that 

provide a landscape with an identity and sense of place; it consists of the combination 

of physical, biological, and cultural attributes that make each landscape identifiable and 

distinct. Scenic integrity is a measure of the wholeness or completeness of the 

landscape, including the degree of visual deviation from the landscape character valued 

by constituents. Scenic integrity is a continuum ranging over five levels of integrity 

from Very High to Very Low. The following are definitions of the five levels (USDA 

1996): 

• Very High (Unaltered)—refers to landscapes where the valued landscape character 

is intact with only minute, if any, deviations. The existing landscape character and 

sense of place is expressed at the highest level. 

• High (Appears Unaltered)—refers to landscapes where the valued landscape 

character appears intact. 

• Moderate (Slightly Altered)—refers to landscapes where the valued landscape 

character appears slightly altered. Noticeable deviations must remain visually 

subordinate to the landscape character being viewed. 

• Low (Moderately Altered)—refers to landscapes where the valued landscape 

character appears moderately altered. Deviations begin to dominate the valued 

landscape but they borrow valued attributes from the surrounding landscape. 

• Very Low (Heavily Altered)—refers to landscapes where the valued landscape 

character appears heavily altered. Deviations may strongly dominate the valued 

landscape. 

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Idaho Roadless Areas generally do not carry evidence of management activities and 

currently have a high degree of scenic integrity. The scenic integrity of landscapes in 

these roadless areas is generally High or Very High, which indicates a low level of 

landscape modification due to a lack of high intensity management activities in the past 

(USDA Forest Service 2000). However, some Idaho Roadless Areas have had extensive 

use including cattle grazing, off-highway vehicles, timber sales, and mining; therefore, 

the scenic integrity has been modified and the resulting scenic integrity is considered 

Low. Appendix C summarizes the existing characteristics for all the Idaho Roadless 

Areas including scenic integrity. 

 

existing forest plan SIOs or VQOs by roadless area and management theme have not been calculated in 

this analysis because they are too variable and speculative for analysis at this scale and would be 

analyzed during site-specific project planning. As a result, the potential for change in scenic integrity is 

likely considerably overstated depending on the visual objectives that are in place for any given Idaho 

Roadless Area. This overstatement would likely be reflected in the themes of GFRG and Backcountry that 

show the greatest amount of potential change. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.10 Scenic Quality 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 225 

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Effects Common to All Alternatives 

The alternatives do not affect valid existing rights. Therefore, potential effects on 

scenery from these rights may occur within the limits of existing forest plans. About 

9,100 acres of phosphate deposits can be found in seven roadless areas (Dry Ridge, 

Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, Stump Creek and Mount 

Jefferson) on the Caribou-Targhee National Forest and are under existing lease. Some of 

these acres have been mined and reclaimed (the total amount is unknown); therefore, 

these areas exhibit a Moderate scenic value. About 1,100 acres, associated with the 

Smoky Canyon mine expansion, are reasonably foreseeable to be developed within the 

next 15 years. The Smoky Canyon mine expansion would affect the Sage Creek and 

Meade Peak roadless areas. 

It is also reasonable to assume that the remaining phosphate deposits currently under 

lease, roughly 8,000 acres within the seven roadless areas would likely be permitted and 

developed sometime in the extended future (50 or more years). As these areas are 

mined, their scenic value would be reduced to Low (see fig. 10, open pit); however, 

upon the completion of mining their scenic values would be upgraded to a level 

commensurate with the quality of reclamation implemented (see fig. 11, reclaimed 

phosphate pit). 

Table 3-48. Potential for change in scenic integrity under all alternatives 

Roadless area 

management - 2001 Rule 

Current acres in High 

to Very High scenic 

integrity 

Acres maintained in 

High to Very High 

scenic integrity 

Acres potentially 

reduced to Low 

scenic integrity1

 9,304,200 9,295,100 9,100

1Acres associated with existing phosphate leasing on the Caribou-Targhee National Forest. A small portion of the 

9,100 acres has already been mined, but the amount is unknown. 

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

The 2001 Roadless Rule is anticipated to maintain the current high levels of scenic 

integrity in the roadless areas. The 2001 Roadless Rule would allow road construction 

under limited situations. About 15 miles of road construction/reconstruction are 

projected to occur over the next 15 years. It is anticipated that the amount of change 

from such new road construction would have a negligible change on the current High 

and Very High scenic integrity in most roadless areas. In those few areas where roads 

are constructed, the scenic integrity could change from High to Low or Moderate. It is 

likely these changes would occur on the fringe of a roadless area. 

The 2001 Roadless Rule would allow limited cutting of small-diameter material for 

specific purposes. About 1,500 acres are anticipated to be treated over the next 15 years. 

The intensity of change associated with such activities is not expected to create a 

measurable change in scenic integrity. The magnitude or amount of area that would 

potentially be affected is also considered to be relatively minor. Vegetation 
3.10 Scenic Quality Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

226 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

management would result in short-term changes in scenic quality. However, the 

amount and types of timber cutting allowed would enhance vegetative health and 

reduce fuel loading, thereby providing protection from pests, insects, diseases, and 

large fires. Over the long term, scenic integrity could be maintained or improved with 

these activities (USDA Forest Service 2000, pg 3-229). Based on the anticipated intensity 

and magnitude of change from potential vegetation management, it is anticipated that 

the most of the current High and Very High scenic integrity within all of the Idaho 

Roadless Areas would be retained, except for the 9,100 acres associated with the 

existing phosphate leasing on the Caribou-Targhee National Forest as discussed above. 

Vegetation management is anticipated to be limited because of road construction 

limitations and limitations on small-diameter tree cutting, both elements rendering 

vegetation management to be costly and of low economic value. Such vegetation 

management is anticipated to be minimal and would retain the High scenic integrity of 

the areas. 

Existing Plans 

The potential effects on scenic quality varies according to the overall management 

prescriptions or themes assigned to a given Idaho Roadless Area. Appendix B provides 

a crosswalk of the Existing Plan prescriptions and the Idaho Roadless Rule themes. 

Table 3-49 presents potential for change in scenic integrity under the Existing Plans. 

Table 3-49. Potential for change in scenic integrity under the Existing Plans 

Theme 

Acres maintained in 

High to Very High 

scenic integrity 

Acres available for 

reduction to Moderate 

scenic integrity. 

Acres likely changed 

to Moderate or Low 

scenic integrity.1

Wild Land 

Recreation 

1,320,900 

Primitive 2,130,000 1,300 

Backcountry 0 4,243,700 800 

GFRG 0 1,251,100 11,300 

Total2 3,451,000 5,494,800 13,400 

1 Based the 13,400 acres of known phosphate deposits not yet under lease. 

2 An additional 345,100 acres in Idaho Roadless Areas are in national wild and scenic rivers or other special 

designations and would not be affected by the management direction. Scenic integrity in these areas would remain 

High to Very High. 

Management prescriptions similar to Wild Land Recreation are likely to retain their 

High to Very High scenic integrity because limited activity is permitted to occur in 

these areas. Generally natural processes dominate. Prescriptions similar to Primitive 

generally prohibit road construction and permit very limited timber cutting; therefore, 

these areas are also likely to retain their High to Very High scenic integrity (table 3-49). 

Management prescriptions similar to Backcountry generally permit road construction/ 

reconstruction for a few purposes and timber cutting generally to improve wildlife or 

other important habitat components. In GFRG areas, road construction and 

reconstruction are permissible, as is timber cutting for a variety of purposes. About 180 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.10 Scenic Quality 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 227 

miles of road are projected to be constructed/reconstructed over the next 15 years, and 

timber cutting is projected to occur on 42,000 acres. 

Scenic quality could be reduced in areas where road construction/reconstruction 

occurs, especially in the 1.2 million acres of GFRG. In areas with prescriptions similar to 

the Backcountry theme, it is likely that scenic quality would not be reduced as much 

because these prescriptions generally encourage the use of temporary roads (short-term 

impact) and retention of more trees because of wildlife considerations. There may be 

some beneficial effects on scenic quality from silvicultural and fuels treatments that 

reduce the potential magnitude of natural events such as insect infestations and 

wildland fires. Also, potential effects would be moderated because of priority treatment 

of hazardous fuels around communities and by applying SIOs and VQOs from forest 

plans. 

The Caribou Forest Plan permits leasing of the estimated 6,500 acres of known unleased 

phosphate deposits and/or other possible roadless areas that contain undiscovered 

phosphate resources. These known unleased phosphate deposits occur in six roadless 

areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, and 

Stump Creek) and would likely be developed over an extended period of time (50 

years+). 

In addition, there are 6,900 acres of unleased phosphate deposits on the Targhee portion 

of the Caribou-Targhee National Forest within the Bald Mountain, Bear Creek and 

Poker Creek roadless areas. An environmental analysis would have to be completed to 

determine how much of the 6,900 acres could actually be leased. 

As these areas are mined (over the next 50 or more years), their scenic value would be 

reduced to Low; however, upon the completion of mining their scenic values would be 

upgraded to a level commensurate with the quality of reclamation implemented. 

Existing Plans would permit road construction/reconstruction for geothermal 

development in some locations in management prescriptions similar to Backcountry 

and GFRG. It is unknown where and to what degree geothermal resources would be 

developed; however, since about half of the roadless areas in management prescriptions 

similar to Backcountry and GFRG have high to moderate potential it is likely some 

development would eventually occur. Currently lease applications have been submitted 

for geothermal exploration within 7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area on the 

Boise National Forest and 33 acres of the West Panther Roadless Area on the Salmon 

National Forest. If fully developed, roads, transmission lines, and other facilities would 

likely be constructed (see appendix I for a description of general development of 

geothermal resources), which would reduce the scenic integrity of the roadless areas 

affected. 

Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

The potential effects on scenic quality vary according to the overall management theme 

assigned to a given roadless area (appendix E). Road construction/reconstruction is 
3.10 Scenic Quality Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

228 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

prohibited in the Wild Land Recreation, Primitive, and SAHTS themes; and timber 

cutting is permitted under limited circumstances in the Primitive and SAHTS themes; 

therefore, scenic integrity would be maintained at the High to Very High levels (table 3-

50). 

Table 3-50. Potential for change in scenic integrity under the Idaho Roadless Rule 

Theme 

Acres maintained in 

High to Very High scenic 

integrity 

Acres available for 

reduction to Moderate 

scenic integrity. 

Acres likely reduced to 

Moderate or Low scenic 

integrity.1

Wild Land Recreation 1,378,600 0 0 

Primitive 1,656,300 0 0 

SAHTS 68,600 0 0 

Backcountry 0 5,245,300 800 

GFRG 0 598,200 11,300 

Total 3,123,500 2 5,843,500 12,100 

1About 1,300 acres of known unleased phosphate deposits are in Primitive and would not be developed because 

road construction/reconstruction is not allowed. About 11,300 acres of unleased phosphate areas could be 

developed over an extended period of time. 

2 An additional 345,100 acres in Idaho Roadless Areas are in national wild and scenic rivers or other special 

designations and would not be affected by the management direction. Scenic integrity in these areas would remain 

High to Very High. 

Limited timber cutting and road construction would be permissible in the Backcountry 

theme, primarily to restore ecosystems and reduce the effects of uncharacteristic and 

unwanted wildland fires. Road construction/reconstruction and timber cutting would 

be permissible in GFRG. About 60 miles of road are projected to be constructed over the 

next 15 years, and timber cutting is projected to occur on about 12,000 acres over the 

next 15 years. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule encourages any necessary new roads to be temporary in 

nature. Any roads constructed would likely reduce the scenic integrity; however, if they 

are temporary, these roads would revegetate over time and the scenic integrity would 

improve. Timber cutting in the Backcountry theme must maintain at least one or more 

of the roadless area characteristics. It is assumed that any timber cutting would be light 

on the land and focus on what is left versus what is taken. Timber cutting could modify 

scenic integrity at least in the short term, but is assumed to maintain at least a moderate 

level of scenic quality. It is likely that cutting would be spread across multiple roadless 

areas across the State, thus reducing the potential change in any one Idaho Roadless 

Area. Also, potential effects would be moderated because of priority treatment of 

hazardous fuels around communities and by applying SIOs and VQOs from forest 

plans. 

There are 13,400 acres of known unleased phosphate deposits on the Caribou-Targhee 

NF. About 12,100 acres (90 percent) are located within the Backcountry and GFRG 

themes. Under these themes road construction or reconstruction would be permissible 

to develop these phosphate deposits. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.10 Scenic Quality 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 229 

These deposits are located within nine roadless areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, 

Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, and Stump Creek on the Caribou portion of the 

forest and Bald Mountain, Bear Creek, and Poker Creek on the Targhee portion of the 

forest) and could eventually be mined over an extended period of time (50 or more 

years). As these areas are mined, their scenic values would be gradually changed to a 

level commensurate with the quality of reclamation implemented (see fig. 11, reclaimed 

mine). 

About 1,300 acres of unleased phosphate deposits are in the Primitive theme. The 

Primitive theme prohibits road construction/reconstruction or surface occupancy for 

phosphates; therefore this area would likely not be developed (see Minerals section). 

Scenic quality would not be affected on these lands. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would also permit road construction/reconstruction for 

geothermal development in the GFRG theme (609,500 acres). It is unknown where and 

to what degree geothermal resources would be developed; however, about 7 percent of 

the roadless areas are located in GFRG and 4 percent (382,900 acres) have slopes less 

than 40 percent. It is likely that some development would eventually occur on these 

lands. If fully developed, roads, transmission lines, and other facilities would likely be 

constructed (see appendix I for a descriptions of general development of geothermal 

resources). This development would reduce the scenic quality on these lands; however, 

no information is available of where or when such development would occur. Sitespecific analysis would be completed prior to authorizing exploration and 

development. 

Currently lease applications have been submitted for geothermal exploration within 

7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area on the Boise National Forest and 33 acres of 

the West Panther Roadless Area on the Salmon National Forest. However, lands in 

these roadless areas are in the Backcountry or Primitive themes; therefore, development 

would be prohibited and there would be no effect on scenic quality. 

CUMULATIVE EFFECTS

The roadless area management themes for the alternatives apply only to roadless areas 

in Idaho. Effects on scenic integrity would be confined to those roadless areas. The 

cumulative effects analysis area consists of the network of roadless areas within the 

State of Idaho consisting of 9,304,200 acres. 

Programmatic actions described in appendix N would have no effect on scenic integrity 

because these actions do not prescribe or identify site-specific actions. The NFP, HFI, 

HFRA and Energy Plan describe actions necessary to meet their objectives, but they do 

not dictate where the actions would occur. The analysis above projected activities that 

could occur in response to these policies, including timber cutting and discretionary 

mineral development. 
3.10 Scenic Quality Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

230 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

Past actions and events have shaped the current landscape. The current High to Very 

High scenic integrity is a reflection of the low level of active management in these areas. 

It is anticipated that current or planned actions and foreseeable future actions occurring 

within the roadless areas would generally retain the current High to Very High scenic 

quality designations. The potential for cumulative effects on scenic integrity is limited 

by the requirements of the 2001 Roadless Rule; as a result, the cumulative effects are the 

same as the environmental consequences described in the previous section. 

Existing Plans 

The roadless area management prescriptions for Existing Plans are a direct reflection of 

those management prescriptions for the affected Idaho Roadless Areas. Effects on scenic 

integrity would be as disclosed in those final EISs associated with those plans and in the 

analysis in the previous section. Cumulatively, scenic integrity is likely to be reduced on 

a total of 22,500 acres in nine roadless areas because of phosphate mining currently 

under lease and areas with the potential to be leased. Additional areas may also be 

affected within management prescriptions similar to the Backcountry and GFRG themes 

associated with long term development of geothermal energy. 

Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

Past actions and events have shaped the current landscape. The current High to Very 

High scenic integrity designation is a reflection of the low level of active management in 

these areas. Future actions would be guided by the management themes for this 

alternative, and by existing plan and handbook direction. Cumulatively scenic integrity 

is likely to be reduced on 21,200 acres nine roadless areas because of phosphate mining 

currently under lease and areas with the potential to be leased. Additional areas may 

also be affected within the GFRG theme associated with long term development of 

geothermal energy. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.11 Recreation 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 231 

3.11 Recreation 

INTRODUCTION

Idaho Roadless Areas often provide outstanding dispersed recreation opportunities, 

such as camping, canoeing, cross-country skiing, fishing, hiking, hunting, picnicking, 

and wildlife viewing. The recreation analysis evaluates the potential environmental 

consequences to dispersed recreation, including the ability to provide Primitive, SemiPrimitive Non-Motorized, and Semi-Primitive Motorized classes of recreation and the 

potential changes to those classes. The analysis also evaluates the potential 

consequences on developed recreation and recreation special uses. 

Many definitions of recreation exist, each emphasizing a slightly different aspect of an 

enjoyable pursuit. The basic premise behind recreation is the pleasurable and 

constructive use of one’s spare time. This sense of refreshment, relaxation, and the 

active pursuit of pleasure are realized through participation in recreational activities 

suited to individual preference. The top five activities pursued on NFS lands are 

viewing natural features, general relaxation, hiking, viewing wildlife, and driving for 

pleasure (USDA Forest Service 2004e). 

This analysis uses the recreation opportunity spectrum (ROS) as the basis for analyzing 

the effects and evaluating the possible changes to Idaho Roadless Areas available for 

dispersed recreation, developed recreation, and special uses. The disclosed 

environmental consequences are based on factors such as trends in recreation use; the 

prohibitions and permissions for timber cutting, road construction/reconstruction, and 

discretionary mineral activities; and the availability of future Idaho Roadless Areas to 

meet growing future demands. 

The ROS provides a framework for stratifying and defining classes of outdoor 

recreation environments, activities, and experience opportunities. The ROS is divided 

into six classes arranged along a continuum: Primitive, Semi-Primitive Non-Motorized, 

Semi-Primitive Motorized, Roaded Natural, Rural, and Urban (USDA Forest Service 

1986). The basic assumption underlying the ROS is that quality outdoor recreation is 

assured by providing a diverse set of opportunities. Definitions of the ROS classes are 

as follows: 

Primitive—an area that is essentially an unmodified natural environment of large size. 

Interaction between users is very low and evidence of other users is minimal. The 

area is managed to be essentially free from evidence of human-induced restrictions 

and controls. Motorized use within the area is not permitted. 

Semi-Primitive Non-Motorized (SPNM)—an area that has a predominantly natural or 

natural-appearing environment of moderate to large size. Interaction between users 

is low, but there is often evidence of other users. The area is managed in such a way 

that minimum on-site controls and restrictions may be present, but they are subtle. 

Motorized use is not permitted. 
3.11 Recreation Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

232 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Semi-Primitive Motorized (SPM)—an area that has a predominantly natural or naturalappearing environment of moderate to large size. Concentration of users is low, but 

there is often evidence of other users. The area is managed in such a way that 

minimum on-site controls and restrictions may be present but is subtle. Motorized 

use is permitted. 

Roaded Natural—an area that has predominantly natural-appearing environments with 

moderate evidences of the sights and sounds of humans. Such evidences are usually 

in harmony with the natural environment. Interaction between users may be low to 

moderate, but evidence of other users is prevalent. Resource modification and 

practices are evident but harmonize with the natural environment. Conventional 

motorized use is provided for construction standards and facilities design. 

Rural - an area with a substantially modified natural environment. Sights and sounds of 

humans are readily evident, and the interaction between users is moderate to high. 

A considerable number of facilities are designed for use by large numbers of people. 

Facilities for intensified motorized use and parking are available. 

Urban —a substantially urbanized environment, although the background may have 

natural appearing elements. Affiliation with individuals and groups is prevalent, as 

is the convenience of sites and opportunities. Large numbers of users can be 

expected, both on-site and in nearby areas. Facilities for highly intensified motor 

vehicle use and parking are available. Regimentation and controls are obvious and 

numerous. 

When compared with characteristics of Idaho Roadless Areas, ROS classes Primitive, 

SPNM, and SPM are most representative of the outdoor recreation environments, 

activities, and experience opportunities available. However, some portions of Idaho’s 

roadless areas may provide more of a Roaded Natural environment because of the 

presence of off-highway vehicle (OHV) trails and users. 

Dispersed recreation is generally associated with activities that do not require constructed 

facilities (except for trails). Non-motorized activities (such as hiking, biking, and 

backcountry skiing) and motorized activities (such as snowmobiling and OHV use) best 

represent dispersed recreation; thus, dispersed recreation is generally associated with 

Primitive, SPNM, and SPM ROS classes. 

Developed recreation is typically associated with developed or modified settings, 

generally in SPM, Roaded Natural, Rural, and Urban ROS classes; it includes camping 

in constructed campgrounds, developed opportunities for OHV use, and downhill 

skiing at a resort. 

Special use permits generally authorize a broad range of commercial recreational 

activities, both motorized and non-motorized, in dispersed and developed settings. 

Special use permits are issued for almost every type of outdoor recreational activities 

and can occur in every ROS class setting from Primitive to Urban. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.11 Recreation 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 233 

DISPERSED RECREATION: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Much of the dispersed recreational value of Idaho Roadless Areas lies in their unique 

Primitive, SPNM, and SPM recreation opportunities. They provide settings for 

dispersed recreational activities that are prohibited in designated wilderness areas and 

not readily available in developed or modified settings with system roads. For example, 

wilderness areas prohibit, with few exceptions, mechanized and motorized uses such as 

OHVs, mountain bikes, and snowmobiles. Wheelchair or handicapped access is very 

limited. In addition, Idaho Roadless Areas generally have a low level of human-induced 

change. However, some Idaho Roadless Areas have had extensive use including cattle 

grazing, OHVs, timber sales, and mining; therefore, these roadless areas provide a 

different type of dispersed recreation (see appendix C). 

Four of the top five activities pursued on NFS lands (viewing natural features, general 

relaxation, hiking, viewing wildlife, and driving for pleasure (USDA Forest Service 

2004e), are generally associated with dispersed recreation. The demand for Primitive, 

SPNM, and SPM classes and dispersed recreation opportunities is increasing (Cordell et 

al. 1999a and b). 

Idaho Roadless Areas provide some of the most productive fishing and hunting 

opportunities in the United States (Curley et al. 2004). They also provide quality and 

critical habitat for Chinook salmon, steelhead, and cutthroat trout, which are popular 

recreational fishing species. The highest success rates for both deer and elk hunters 

Statewide (Curley et al. 2004 and IDFG 2005) can be found in Idaho Roadless Areas. 

While hunting and fishing can occur in areas managed for the more developed end of 

the ROS class spectrum, they typically provide a much different setting and experiences 

and in many cases result in a lower success rates. 

Idaho Roadless Areas also provide outstanding opportunities for other dispersed 

recreation activities, such as hiking, camping, horseback riding, picnicking, wildlife 

viewing, cross-country skiing, and canoeing. 

DISPERSED RECREATION: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

All Alternatives 

Effects from road construction/reconstruction. Road construction/reconstruction may 

change dispersed recreation settings by changing the appearance and level of activity in 

an area. If the construction/reconstruction occurs in a Roaded Natural setting, then the 

level of change may be minor because the area already has moderate levels of the sights 

and sounds of humans. If the construction/reconstruction occurs in a SPM setting, then 

the effects would depend on the type and extent of disturbance. For example, if 

temporary roads were constructed, then the change in setting may be temporary in 

nature; sights and sounds would be evident during the activity but would decrease 

over time as recovery/revegetation of the road occurs. If roads were constructed or 
3.11 Recreation Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

234 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

reconstructed in SPMN, then the change in the dispersed recreation experience could be 

more long lasting and evident. 

Timber cutting. Timber cutting would not change the dispersed recreation 

opportunities within an area; however, timber cutting could change the natural 

appearance of an area until the area regenerates. The changes to the appearance of an 

area depend on the extent and intensity of the timber cutting. For example, even-aged 

management such as clearcutting 50 acres would change the natural appearing 

landscape because all trees are removed and a large opening is created. Uneven-aged 

management, such as group shelterwoods, may remove all trees within small areas (1 or 

2 acres) and thin the surrounding area, resulting in a natural-appearing environment. 

Existing mineral and energy leases. None of the alternatives would prohibit road 

construction or reconstruction associated with developing existing leases. About 9,100 

acres of phosphate deposits can be found in seven roadless areas (Dry Ridge, 

Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, Stump Creek and Mount 

Jefferson) and are under existing lease. Some of these acres have been mined to date 

(the total amount is unknown). About 1,100 acres, associated with the Smoky Canyon 

mine expansion, are reasonably foreseeable to be developed within the next 15 years. 

The Smoky Canyon mine expansion would affect the Sage Creek and Meade Peak 

roadless areas. Dispersed recreation opportunities would likely be excluded from these 

1,100 acres during the development and operation of the mine. 

It is also reasonable to assume that the remaining phosphate deposits currently under 

lease, roughly 8,000 acres within the seven roadless areas would likely be permitted and 

developed sometime in the extended future (50 or more years). As these areas are 

developed, recreational opportunities would be excluded until the sites are reclaimed. 

Dispersed OHV use. About 1,800 miles of road exist in Idaho Roadless Areas, some of 

which were created by OHV users. Dispersed OHV use is guided by Existing Plan 

direction and travel planning. Neither the 2001 Roadless Rule nor the Idaho Roadless 

Rule provides direction on where and when OHV use would be permissible in roadless 

areas; therefore, there would be no effect on current OHV use in Idaho Roadless Areas. 

2001 ROADLESS RULE (NO ACTION) 

The 2001 Roadless Rule prohibits road construction and reconstruction in Idaho 

Roadless Areas (9.3 million acres) except under very limited circumstances. The limited 

road construction and reconstruction could change the dispersed recreation 

opportunities within a given area. Although all 9.3 million acres would be available for 

development, it is unlikely all areas would be roaded because of the very limited 

exceptions for road construction and reconstruction. About 15 miles of road are 

projected to be constructed/reconstructed over the foreseeable future (next 15 years). 

Roads are most likely to be constructed/reconstructed in areas previously roaded 

(Roaded Natural) or in SPM because these areas are generally the closest to the edge of 

boundary of roadless area, and because these ROS classes allow for motorized use. This 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.11 Recreation 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 235 

level of disturbance would not measurably change the dispersed recreation 

opportunities in any given area. 

The 2001 Roadless Rule prohibits timber cutting, with a few exceptions. Generally 

timber cutting would retain roadless characteristics and would be natural-appearing, 

especially after a couple of years when the vegetation has regrown. Timber cutting is 

projected to occur on about 1,500 acres over the next 15 years. This level of activity 

would not measurably alter roadless area characteristics, especially over time. 

The 2001 Roadless Rule also prohibits road construction and reconstruction associated 

with new mineral and energy leases. About 13,400 acres of known phosphate deposits 

are currently not leased and would not be developed; road access would also not be 

provided for geothermal development. These areas would retain their roadless 

characteristics and provide dispersed recreation opportunities. 

Idaho Roadless Areas would continue to provide excellent habitat for wildlife and 

fisheries; therefore, hunting and fishing opportunities would continue. 

EXISTING PLANS

Under Existing Plans road construction/reconstruction, timber cutting, and 

discretionary mineral activities are generally not permitted on about 3.45 million acres 

of Idaho Roadless Areas. These areas include management prescriptions similar to the 

Wild Land Recreation and Primitive themes and similar to forest plan special areas. 

Some timber cutting could occur in the Primitive theme but would likely not be done to 

a degree that would change the roadless character. 

About 4.24 million acres are in management prescriptions similar to the Backcountry 

theme; generally some level of road construction/reconstruction and timber cutting is 

permitted (appendix B). About 1.2 million acres are in management prescriptions 

similar to the GFRG theme. About 180 miles are projected to be 

constructed/reconstructed over the next 15 years, and timber cutting is projected to 

occur on 42,000 acres. Most of the activity would likely occur in the GFRG areas, with 

lesser amounts in Backcountry. This level of road construction/reconstruction could 

change dispersed recreation opportunity settings in some areas from a SPM to Roaded 

Natural; however, if roads are decommissioned after use then the change would be 

more temporary in nature. About a quarter of the roads (45 miles) are projected to be 

decommissioned. 

Timber cutting on 42,000 acres over 15 years may change the natural appearance of 

some areas for a period of time until the area regenerates. The type of cutting would 

depend on the Existing Plan prescriptions and visual quality requirements (see chapter 

3, Scenery). Based on this level of cutting, less than 1 percent of the roadless areas 

would be affected over 15 years. Dispersed recreation opportunities would not change 

as a result of timber cutting, but the feeling of remoteness and solitude may change for 

a period of time. 
3.11 Recreation Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

236 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

The Caribou Forest Plan permits leasing of the estimated 6,500 acres of known unleased 

phosphate deposits and/or other possible roadless areas that contain undiscovered 

phosphate resources. These known unleased phosphate deposits occur in six roadless 

areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, and 

Stump Creek) and would likely be developed over an extended period of time (50 years 

or more). In addition, there are 6,900 acres of unleased phosphate deposits on the 

Targhee portion of the Caribou-Targhee National Forest within the Bald Mountain, Bear 

Creek and Poker Creek roadless areas. An environmental analysis would have to be 

completed to determine how much of the 6,900 acres could actually be leased. It is likely 

to take an extremely long time to develop these sites (50 or more years), but if they are 

developed then dispersed recreation opportunities would not be available on these 

areas. 

Existing Plans would permit road construction/reconstruction for geothermal 

development in some locations in management prescriptions similar to Backcountry 

and GFRG (appendix B). It is unknown where and to what degree geothermal resources 

would be developed49; however, because about half of the Idaho Roadless Areas in 

these themes have high to moderate potential for geothermal resources, it is likely that 

some development would eventually occur. Currently lease applications have been 

submitted for geothermal exploration, which could affect about 7,000 acres of the Peace 

Rock Roadless Area on the Boise National Forest and 33 acres of the West Panther 

Roadless Area on the Salmon National Forest. If fully developed, roads, transmission 

lines, and other facilities would likely be constructed (see appendix I for a description of 

general development of geothermal resources), which would change the type of 

dispersed recreation opportunities of the roadless areas affected. Site-specific analysis 

would be conducted prior to any geothermal exploration or development. 

Hunting and fishing opportunities could be affected in locations where phosphate or 

geothermal development occurs because of the level of disturbance associated with 

these activities. Hunting and fishing opportunities likely would not change in areas 

where timber cutting and associated road construction occurs because of the dispersed 

nature of these activities, recovery of vegetative conditions, and use of temporary roads. 

THE IDAHO ROADLESS RULE (PROPOSED ACTION) 

Under the Idaho Roadless Rule, timber cutting, road construction/reconstruction, and 

discretionary mineral activities would generally not be permitted on about 3.1 million 

acres of Idaho Roadless Areas. These areas include the Wild Land Recreation, SAHTS, 

and Primitive themes, as well as forest plan special areas. Some timber cutting could 

occur in the Primitive theme but would likely not be done to a degree that would 

change the roadless character. 

About 5.25 million acres are in the Backcountry theme. Road construction/ 

reconstruction and timber cutting would be permissible under limited exceptions. 

 

49 See Minerals section for further information 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.11 Recreation 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 237 

About 0.6 million acres are in the GFRG theme. About 60 miles are projected to be 

constructed/reconstructed over the next 15 years, and timber cutting is projected to 

occur on 12,000 acres. Most of the activity would likely occur in the GFRG theme, with 

lesser amounts in Backcountry. This level of road construction/reconstruction could 

change dispersed recreation opportunity settings in some areas from a SPM to Roaded 

Natural; however, if roads are decommissioned after use then the change would be 

more temporary in nature. About 75 percent of the roads (45 miles) are projected to be 

decommissioned (includes both temporary and permanent). The Idaho Roadless Rule 

would require the use of temporary roads unless there is specific reason to warrant a 

permanent road. 

Timber cutting on 12,000 acres over 15 years may change the natural appearance of 

some areas for a period of time until the area regenerates. Under the Idaho Roadless 

Rule, timber cutting would be done only for ecosystem restoration or fuels 

management, with the intent of focusing on what is left, not what is removed. Based on 

this level of cutting, less than a half of 1 percent of the roadless areas would be affected 

over 15 years. Dispersed recreation opportunities would not change as a result of timber 

cutting but the feeling of remoteness and solitude may change in some locations for a 

period of time. 

There are 13,400 acres of known unleased phosphate deposits on the Caribou-Targhee 

National Forest. About 12,100 acres (90 percent) are located within the Backcountry and 

GFRG themes. Under these themes road construction or reconstruction would be 

permissible to develop these phosphate deposits. 

These deposits are located within nine roadless areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, 

Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, and Stump Creek on the Caribou portion of the 

forest and Bald Mountain, Bear Creek, and Poker Creek on the Targhee portion of the 

forest) and could eventually be mined over an extended period of time (50 years or 

more years). When and if these sites are developed then dispersed recreation 

opportunities would not be available on these areas. 

About 1,300 acres of unleased phosphate deposits are in the Primitive theme. The 

Primitive theme prohibits road construction/reconstruction or surface occupancy for 

phosphates; therefore this area would likely not be developed (see Minerals section); 

and there would be no effect to dispersed recreation opportunities found in this area. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would also permit road construction/reconstruction for 

geothermal development in the GFRG theme. About 7 percent of Idaho Roadless Areas 

are in this theme, and about 4 percent could be developed because of slope restrictions 

(see Minerals section). It is likely some of these areas would be developed over time; 

however, except for two pending lease applications there is no information about where 

or when the activity would occur. Development could only occur within the GFRG 

theme, which is designated only on the Boise, Caribou, Idaho Panhandle, Payette, 

Salmon, Sawtooth and Targhee National Forests. If fully developed, roads, transmission 

lines, and other facilities would likely be constructed (see appendix I for a description of 
3.11 Recreation Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

238 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

general development of geothermal resources), which would reduce dispersed 

recreation opportunities of the roadless areas affected. Site-specific analysis would be 

conducted prior to any geothermal exploration or development. About 93 to 96 percent 

of the roadless areas would not see any exploration or development. 

Currently lease applications have been submitted for geothermal exploration within 

7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area on the Boise National Forest and 33 acres of 

the West Panther Roadless Area on the Salmon National Forest. Both these areas are in 

the Backcountry or Primitive themes which prohibit road construction or reconstruction 

to access mineral resources; therefore, they would not be developed under the Idaho 

Roadless Rule.50 There would be no effect on dispersed recreation opportunities in these 

areas. 

Hunting and fishing opportunities could be affected in locations where phosphate or 

geothermal development occurs because of the level of disturbance associated with 

these activities. Hunting and fishing opportunities likely would not change in areas 

where timber cutting and associated road construction occurs because of the dispersed 

nature of these activities, recovery of vegetative conditions, and use of temporary roads. 

DEVELOPED RECREATION: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Of the 9.3 million acres of Idaho Roadless Areas, less than 5 percent contain authorized 

roads, recreation sites, and other facilities. These areas reflect a more developed end of 

the ROS. 

Idaho projects population growth of 52 percent from 2001 to 2030. Idaho will continue 

to be one of the Nation’s fastest growing States, and a major contributor to that growth 

will be people over the age of 64 (Idaho Commerce and Labor 2005). This general 

increase in total population and in individuals over 64 years will place a greater 

demand on developed recreation. The largest age group of forest recreationists 

nationwide is 40–49 years (USDA Forest Service 2004e). 

Camping and picnicking at developed sites, driving for pleasure, and visiting 

interpretive sites and visitor centers are examples of activities associated with the 

developed end of the ROS. The more developed ROS classes often involve a greater 

social interaction with other people, higher levels of managerial control, and more 

evidence of human activity. Traditionally, expansion of these developed recreation 

opportunities occurred by increasing the standard of existing facilities or expanding 

into roadless areas, ultimately shifting the ROS classes from Primitive, SPNM, and SPM 

to Roaded Natural or Rural. This shift reduces the amount of Primitive and SPNM 

settings and increases the value of the remaining, more remote, primitive settings 

generally associated with roadless areas. 

 

50 The Backcountry theme allows for surface occupancy, but development is unlikely to occur because of 

economic limitations and the availability of geothermal resources in other areas (see Minerals section). 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.11 Recreation 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 239 

DEVELOPED RECREATION: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Most developed recreation use on NFS lands depends on permanent roads for access to 

developed sites. Increased recreation use of all types will increase demand for more 

roads and more developed sites. For example, a popular dispersed recreation area near 

a road may become a developed site to minimize environmental damage and manage 

the number of people; popular backcountry destination areas may require new 

trailheads; or as the NFS road system stabilizes, increased use may require 

reconstruction to a higher level of design. As Idaho’s population growth continues to 

increase, demands for opportunities at the more developed end of the ROS, additional 

pressure would occur in existing areas available for development or road-based 

recreation opportunities. 

Historically, developed recreation followed roads built for timber, fire, mining, or other 

resource management activities. As use became heavy and demand for amenities 

increased, some areas became suitable for developed sites, resulting in a wide 

dispersion of small- to medium-sized developed sites. 

In the foreseeable future, recreation budgets are projected to remain low. As a 

consequence, the Forest Service is developing facility master plans that analyze the 

benefit and costs of managing each facility. The plans’ recommendations are trending 

toward elimination of low-use camping sites and a focus on improvement and 

maintenance of existing, popular developed sites. Most of these sites are in the 

developed portions of national forests, near lakes and streams and accessed by roads. 

Any developed portions of Idaho Roadless Areas would most likely have the roads 

obliterated or gated and would not lead to additional developed recreation. 

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

The 2001 Roadless Rule prohibits road construction/reconstruction to access existing or 

new developed recreation sites, unless they are associated with a special use permit 

issued prior to the rule. The 2001 Roadless Rule limits opportunities for new developed 

recreation within Idaho Roadless Areas; however, there are no reasonably foreseeable 

developed recreation actions that would be affected at this time. 

Existing Plans 

Under Existing Plans, road construction/reconstruction are generally not permitted on 

about 3.45 million acres of Idaho Roadless Areas. These areas include management 

prescriptions similar to the Wild Land Recreation themes, and similar to some forest 

plan special areas. Some road construction/reconstruction to provide roaded access to 

developed recreation may be permitted in Primitive themes in certain situations. 

Existing Plans generally permit road construction/reconstruction in management 

prescriptions similar to the Backcountry and GFRG themes. Existing Plans would 

permit roaded access for developed recreation in Idaho Roadless Areas; however, there 

are no foreseeable proposals for developed recreation sites at this time. In addition, with 
3.11 Recreation Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

240 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

agency budgets for facilities being reduced, it is unlikely that roads would be 

constructed or reconstructed to access these sites. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

Under the Idaho Roadless Rule, road construction/reconstruction would not be 

permitted to provide roaded access for developed recreation on about 8.5 million acres 

of Idaho Roadless Areas, unless the sites are associated with an existing special use 

permit. No roads could be constructed/reconstructed in the Wild Land Recreation, 

Primitive, SAHTS, and Backcountry themes for recreation development. 

Road construction and reconstruction are permitted in the GFRG theme (0.6 million 

acres), including to provide roaded access to developed recreation. However, no GFRG 

is located on the Challis, Clearwater, Nez Perce or Wallowa-Whitman National Forests; 

therefore, opportunities would be limited on these units. However, there are no 

reasonably foreseeable developed recreation actions that would be affected at this time. 

RECREATION SPECIAL USES: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Outfitters and Guides. Visitors to national forests frequently turn to others to facilitate 

their recreation experience, which may come in the form of lodging, rental equipment, 

or guiding services. Recreation special use permits are used by Forest Service managers 

to authorize others to provide these desired services. Permits form a legally binding 

relationship between the Forest Service and other entities, primarily from the private 

sector. 

Currently there are 430 outfitter and guide special use authorizations in Idaho (USDA 

Forest Service 2006f) and it is reasonable to assume that as Idaho’s population grows 

and ages, the demand for these guided experiences will also continue to increase. Many 

people are capable of total self-sufficiency in conducting their activity. Others often 

want or need assistance to experience the outdoors either for their convenience or to 

help ensure their safety. Furthermore, people with disabilities, first-time visitors, and 

visitors from out-of-State often choose outfitters and guides to gain access to 

opportunities, experiences, and settings that would otherwise be unavailable to them. 

Idaho outfitters and guides provide activities such as sightseeing, hunting, fishing, and 

rafting. Many of these activities or recreation opportunities are authorized by special 

use permits and occur in roadless areas. Rivers within Idaho Roadless Areas provide 

high quality whitewater rafting. Outfitters and guides help visitors enjoy high quality 

experiences as an extension of the Forest Service’s mission. Even though they provide a 

small percentage of the total recreation visitor days that occur on national forests, they 

provide a great benefit to the State’s economy and especially to the economy of 

communities where outfitters and guides are based. 

Outfitting and guiding activities in Idaho Roadless Areas usually provide recreation 

opportunities for an unconfined type of outdoor recreation experience, free of common 

urban distractions. In areas managed as Primitive and SPNM, opportunities such as 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.11 Recreation 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 241 

hiking, boating, caving, mountaineering, hunting, horseback riding, fishing, crosscountry skiing, and mountain biking are offered. Areas managed as SPM offer 

additional opportunities such as motorized boating; snowmobiling; OHV driving 

(motorcycle, ATV, or 4-by-4); and aircraft transport to remote areas. 

The need for a particular type of special use authorization is determined in the forest 

plan or by user demand. For many communities adjacent to public lands, recreation 

opportunities provide the potential to increase and diversify their economies. Chambers 

of commerce, visitor bureaus, and businesses advertise these areas for the diverse 

opportunities they provide for recreation enjoyment. The growth and use of the Internet 

provides current information to everyone about these once remote recreation areas and 

the opportunities they provide. 

Ski Resorts. The primary developed recreational use requiring an authorization on NFS 

lands is ski resorts. There are 134 resorts operating on NFS lands nationally that receive 

an estimated 30 million skier visitors per year (National Ski Area Association 2004). 

There are 18 ski resorts in Idaho, of which Idaho national forests play host to nine 

resorts. These nine resorts receive an estimated 1.3 million ski visits (4 percent). 

Ski areas undoubtedly provide an important developed recreation experience on NFS 

lands. During the 2005/06 season, national skier/snowboarder visits hit an all-time 

record of 58.8 million visits, up 3.3 percent from the previous season and up 2 percent 

from the previous record set in 2002/03 (RRC Associates 2006). With the population 

growth in many of the key western ski States, as well as overall income growth, the 

rising ski area visitor trend is projected to continue into the foreseeable future. The 

settings, experience, and activities usually associated with ski areas are more in line 

with the developed end of the ROS. Much of the NFS land adjacent to ski areas in Idaho 

is roadless and falls into the SPNM or SPM ROS classes. Expansion of ski areas could 

directly affect the adjacent NFS lands’ roadless characteristics and move these areas’ 

ROS classes to the more developed end of the spectrum. Ski area expansions can also 

provide positive economic effects on the surrounding area, while at the same time 

changing the area’s recreational experiences. Summer use in and around ski resorts is 

also growing, which could push the ROS classes to the more developed end of the 

spectrum. 

RECREATION SPECIAL USES: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

All Alternatives 

All decisions regarding existing and future special use permits would be project-specific 

and require compliance with all environmental regulations. Activities undertaken 

pursuant to existing permits would be unaffected by this programmatic action. 

Recreational special use permits occur in every ROS class and setting found in NFS 

land. Processing and administering special use permits would be governed by forest 

plans. 
3.11 Recreation Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

242 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Proposed recreation developments such as expansion of ski areas or recreation resorts 

into Idaho Roadless Areas would be allowed to continue under existing Forest Service 

procedures if special use permits are in existence prior to the adoption of any direction 

and the proposed activities or expansion occur within the boundaries established by the 

special use authorization. 

Minerals development associated with the existing Smokey Canyon phosphate mine on 

the Caribou portion of the Caribou-Targhee National Forest has the potential to remove 

1,100 acres of SPM ROS class from all recreational opportunities until reclaimed; 

however, there are no anticipated effects on any special use activities associated with 

recreation providers. An additional 8,000 acres of existing phosphate lease areas within 

six roadless areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry, Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, and 

Stump Creek) could be developed over an extended period of time (50 or more years). 

All recreational opportunities would be foregone as these areas are developed. 

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

The 2001 Roadless Rule prohibits road construction/reconstruction and timber cutting, 

with a few exceptions. Most roadless areas would retain their roadless characteristics 

and any foreseeable activity would have minimal effect on outfitter and guide services 

in roadless areas. Outfitting and guiding related to hunting and fishing would not be 

affected because there is no anticipated change to big game or fisheries. 

In addition, the 2001 Roadless Rule prohibits road construction/reconstruction in a 

roadless area to provide roaded access to a ski area; therefore, there is no potential to 

develop or expand ski areas that require roaded access in Idaho Roadless Areas. 

However, at this time, there are no foreseeable expansions or new developments that 

would be affected. 

Existing Plans 

Under Existing Plans road construction/reconstruction are generally not permitted on 

about 3.45 million acres of Idaho Roadless Areas. These areas include management 

prescriptions similar to the Wild Land Recreation and Primitive themes, and similar to 

forest plan special areas. These areas would retain their roadless characteristics and 

there would be little to no effect on existing outfitting and guiding services. 

About 4.24 million acres are in management prescriptions similar to the Backcountry 

theme. Road construction/reconstruction and timber cutting are permissible in many 

situations (appendix B). About 1.2 million acres are in management prescriptions 

similar to the GFRG theme. Road construction/reconstruction and timber cutting are 

permissible in these areas. About 180 miles are projected to be 

constructed/reconstructed over the next 15 years, and timber cutting is projected to 

occur on 42,000 acres. These activities could change recreational experiences but should 

not affect outfitting and guiding services or opportunities because of the dispersed 

nature of these activities, recovery of vegetative conditions, and use of temporary roads. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.11 Recreation 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 243 

Management prescriptions similar to Backcountry generally would permit road 

construction/reconstruction to provide roaded access for new ski area development or 

expansion. Road construction/reconstruction is permissible to provide roaded access 

for new ski area development or expansion in management prescriptions similar to the 

GFRG theme (1.2 million acres). However, at this time there are no foreseeable ski area 

expansions or developments in Idaho Roadless Areas. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

Under the Idaho Roadless Rule, road construction/reconstruction are generally not 

permissible on about 3.45 million acres of Idaho Roadless Areas. These areas include the 

Wild Land Recreation, Primitive, and SAHTS themes, as well as forest plan special 

areas. These areas would retain their roadless characteristics and there would be little to 

no effect on existing outfitting and guiding services. 

About 5.25 million acres are in the Backcountry theme, where road 

construction/reconstruction and timber cutting would be permissible in limited 

situations. About 0.6 million acres are in the GFRG theme, where road 

construction/reconstruction and timber cutting would be permissible. About 60 miles 

are projected to be constructed/reconstructed over the next 15 years, and timber cutting 

is projected to occur on 12,000 acres. These activities could change recreational 

experiences but should not affect outfitting and guiding services and opportunities 

because of the dispersed nature of the activities, recovery of vegetation, and the 

emphasis on the use of temporary roads. 

Road construction/reconstruction would be prohibited in the Backcountry theme for 

development or expansion of existing special use permits outside permit boundaries; 

therefore, this could limit ski areas expansion and development. However, there are no 

foreseeable expansions or developments at this time. 

Road construction/reconstruction would be permissible in the GFRG theme (609,500 

acres). Ski area expansion and development could occur in these areas, although none 

has been identified as reasonably foreseeable at this time. Under the Idaho Roadless 

Rule, no GFRG was designated on the Challis, Clearwater, Nez Perce, or WallowaWhitman National Forests; therefore, new ski area opportunities that need roaded 

access would be precluded on these forests (if within a roadless area). 

CUMULATIVE EFFECTS

There are approximately 53 million acres of land in Idaho; about 60 percent are in 

federal ownership. A variety of recreational opportunities are provided on these lands. 

Conserving Idaho Roadless Areas would have mixed effects on recreation activities. 

Idaho Roadless Areas have traditionally been viewed as places where future developed 

recreation, such as resort development, may potentially expand. A prohibition on road 

construction and reconstruction in Idaho Roadless Areas would maintain the current 

recreation land availability, while preventing road-based recreational developments. 
3.11 Recreation Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

244 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

The effects on dispersed recreation opportunities are especially mixed. Currently, 

roadless areas are seen as important places where dispersed motorized and mechanized 

uses may sometimes occur. However, as motorized recreation expands into roadless 

areas, there are direct conflicts with other users who may be seeking quiet and solitude. 

Motorized and mechanized uses can also conflict with other resources including soil 

and water protection and plant and animal habitat quality. Maintaining a balance 

between competing uses in roadless areas has been increasingly difficult, as large areas 

available for dispersed recreation decline due to development. 

Decisions made through travel planning could affect the amount of area available for 

motorized and non-motorized travel and indirectly affect dispersed recreation 

opportunities. If roads cannot be constructed in Idaho Roadless Areas to facilitate 

recreation opportunities then additional pressures could be placed outside roadless 

areas. However, as noted earlier, recreation budgets are declining and the Agency is 

beginning to review the recreation facility master planning which would focus 

resources on the most appropriate recreation opportunities to meet changing public 

desires and demands. 

Actions by other land management agencies can be important factors in affecting 

demand for recreation opportunities on Idaho Roadless Areas. The National Park 

Service continues to develop management direction for snowmobiles in Yellowstone 

National Park. If the amount of snowmobile use (generally associated with SPM ROS 

class) is reduced from its current level, additional pressure may be placed on the Forest 

Service to accommodate this displaced use on NFS lands. Other programmatic 

decisions as described in Appendix N are likely to have little to no additional 

cumulative effect on recreation resources. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.12 Wilderness 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 245 

3.12 Wilderness 

INTRODUCTION

In 1964, Congress established a National Wilderness Preservation System, composed of 

federally owned areas designated by Congress as “wilderness areas” (16 U.S.C. 1131–

1136, 78 Stat 890). A wilderness is recognized as an area “where the earth and its 

community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does 

not remain.” Wilderness areas generally appear to be affected by the forces of nature; 

have opportunities for primitive and unconfined recreation; are of sufficient size 

(typically greater than 5,000 acres) to be managed as wilderness; and contain other 

ecological, geological, scientific, educational, scenic or historical values. Wilderness 

areas are managed to protect natural conditions and primeval character; motorized 

equipment and transport, developments, and commercial enterprise are prohibited. 

As part of the forest planning process, potential wilderness areas are identified (FSH 

1909.12, Chapter 70) using a three-step process: (1) identifying lands that satisfy the 

definition of wilderness found in section 2c of the 1964 Wilderness Act; (2) evaluating 

lands as to their wilderness potential; and (3) review and approval of wilderness 

recommendations. Generally, inventoried roadless areas served as the pool for potential 

wilderness areas. 

This analysis evaluates the effects from the prohibitions and permissions on designated 

wilderness, recommended wilderness, and wilderness characteristics. 

WILDERNESS—AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

The National Wilderness Preservation System was established in 1964 to preserve and 

protect a portion of the undeveloped Federal lands in their natural condition. Across the 

United States there are more than 107 million acres designated as wilderness within 702 

areas. There are a total of five designated wilderness areas in Idaho comprising 

3,962,000 acres (table 3-51). Congress has the sole authority to designate wilderness. 

Wilderness character is often used to describe a wilderness area. Wilderness character is 

defined as untrammeled, natural, undeveloped, and having opportunities for solitude 

or a primitive and unconfined recreation. (Landres et al. 2005) 

As defined in Landres et al. 2005, untrammeled means wilderness is essentially 

unhindered and free from modern human control or manipulation. Natural means 

wilderness ecological systems are substantially free from the effects of modern 

civilization. Undeveloped means wilderness is essentially without permanent 

improvements or modern human occupation. Outstanding opportunities for solitude or a 

primitive and unconfined type of recreation means wilderness provides outstanding 

opportunities for people to experience solitude or primitive and unconfined recreation, 

including the values of inspiration and physical and mental challenge. These attributes 
3.12 Wilderness Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

246 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

are used to measure the potential consequences of the prohibitions and permissions of 

each alternative on the wilderness resource51. 

Table 3-51. Existing wilderness areas in Idaho 

Wilderness area Acres Description 

Frank Church-River of 

No Return 

2,366,000 Largest wilderness in the lower 48 States; consists of canyons 

and uplands surrounding the Middle Fork and Main Salmon 

Rivers in Central Idaho 

Gospel Hump 206,000 Glaciated mountain complex around Buffalo Hump south of 

Grangeville Idaho 

Hells Canyon 84,000 Portions of the deepest canyon in North America. located within 

the Hells Canyon National Recreation Area 

Sawtooth 217,000 Steep, majestic mountain tops in the Sawtooth Range, located 

within the Sawtooth National Recreation Area 

Selway-Bitterroot 1,089,000 Rugged headwaters of the Lochsa and Selway rivers along the 

Idaho- Montana border 

Total 3,962,000 

The Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness was the first wilderness area designated in Idaho. It 

was included in the Wilderness Act in 1964. Portions of the Selway-Bitterroot 

Wilderness are located in Montana, as well as Idaho. This wilderness area is the third 

largest wilderness area in the lower 48 States and is managed by the Forest Service. 

In the 1970s three new wilderness areas were designated in Idaho: the Sawtooth 

Wilderness (P.L. 92-400 the Sawtooth Wilderness and Recreation Area); the Hells 

Canyon Wilderness (P.L. 94-199); and the Gospel-Hump Wilderness (P.L. 95-237 

Endangered American Wilderness Act). 

In 1980, Congress designated the Frank Church-River of No Return Wilderness (P.L. 96-

312 Central Idaho Wilderness Act). The Frank Church-River of No Return Wilderness is 

bordered by Selway Bitterroot Wilderness on the north and the Gospel-Hump 

Wilderness to the northwest and is the second largest wilderness area in the lower 48 

States. 

In 2005, Representative Simpson introduced new legislation that would designate 

portions of the Boulder-White Clouds Roadless Area as wilderness (H.R. 222, Central 

Idaho Economic Development and Recreation Act (CIEDRA, 2007). Should legislation 

not be acted upon in the 110th Congress, it is anticipated similar language will be 

introduced in the 111th Congress. 

 

51 The Wilderness Act does not constrain projects proposed adjacent to wilderness boundaries because of 

the mere presence of wilderness. The effects from projects adjacent to wilderness areas should not be the 

sole reason for deferring or declining a project proposal. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.12 Wilderness 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 247 

WILDERNESS—ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

All Alternatives 

Effects on designated wilderness areas depend on the prohibitions and permissions for 

timber cutting, road construction/reconstruction, and discretionary mineral materials 

that could affect one of the wilderness attributes: untrammeled, natural, undeveloped, 

and opportunities for solitude or primitive and unconfined recreation. None of the 

alternatives would directly affect existing wilderness because the management direction 

would not apply to designated wilderness areas; therefore, there would be no effects on 

the untrammeled, natural, undeveloped, or unconfined recreation opportunities within 

a wilderness area. However, activities permitted in Idaho Roadless Areas contiguous or 

adjacent to designated wilderness could affect opportunities for solitude and the 

scenery from a wilderness area. The degree of effect would depend on the frequency, 

duration, extent, and type of activity that occurs. 

For all alternatives, roads constructed along or near a wilderness boundary could have 

an effect on the feeling of solitude because of the sounds made during construction and 

the potentially during the use of the road. Timber cutting could affect the natural 

appearance of an adjacent area. 

All alternatives permit road construction/reconstruction to access valid existing rights, 

such as hard rock mining and mineral leases. About 9,100 acres of phosphate deposits 

can be found in seven roadless areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, Sage 

Creek, Schmid Peak, Stump Creek, and Mount Jefferson) and are under existing lease. 

Some of these acres have been mined to date (the total amount is unknown). About 

1,100 acres associated with the Smoky Canyon Mine expansion are reasonably 

foreseeable to be developed within the next 15 years. The Smoky Canyon Mine 

expansion would affect the Sage Creek and Meade Peak Roadless Areas. None of these 

roadless areas are near or adjacent to wilderness; therefore, there would be no effect on 

wilderness areas from phosphate mining. 

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

Under the 2001 Roadless Rule, the prohibitions and exemptions on road construction 

and timber cutting apply uniformly to all Idaho Roadless Areas. Where road 

construction or timber cutting is permitted under an exception near or adjacent to 

existing wilderness, there maybe effects on wilderness depending on the viewshed, 

distance from wilderness boundary, and natural drainage. 

About 1.7 million acres (20 percent) of Idaho Roadless Area lands lie adjacent to existing 

wilderness (table 3-52). Based on foreseeable projections, about 15 miles of road 

construction/reconstruction and 1,500 acres of timber harvest are anticipated to occur 

over the next 15 years. If these activities are located within the 1.7 million acres adjacent 

to wilderness, there may be short term effects (during the duration of the activity) on 

the feeling of solitude, especially near the edge of a wilderness boundary. However, it is 
3.12 Wilderness Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

248 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

likely very few projects would occur adjacent to wilderness because most projects, 

especially timber cutting, are more likely to occur closer to mills, closer to communities 

(to reduce uncharacteristic wildland fire effects), and in areas with better accessibility. 

The 2001 Roadless Rule does not permit road construction/reconstruction for new 

mineral leases so it is unlikely that oil and gas, geothermal resources, or additional 

known phosphate deposits would be developed (see the Minerals section); therefore, 

there would be no associated effects. 

Table 3-52. Acres of management theme adjacent to existing wilderness 

Theme equivalent 

Wild Land 

Recreation Primitive Backcountry GFRG 

Forest plan 

special areas SAHTS

2001 Roadless Rule 1,726,000 

Existing Plans 140,000 515,000 842,000 158,000 71,000 0

Idaho Roadless Rule 139,000 553,000 954,000 9,000 71,000 0

Existing Plans 

Existing Plans prohibit road construction/reconstruction and to a large degree timber 

cutting in areas recommended as wilderness and in Primitive areas (about 3.45 million 

acres). Only very limited effects on solitude in designated wilderness areas are likely 

because very limited timber cutting would be permissible. 

Generally road construction/reconstruction, timber cutting, and to some degree 

discretionary mineral activities is permissible in management prescriptions similar to 

the Backcountry and GFRG themes. About 842,000 acres of management prescriptions 

similar to the Backcountry theme (about 4 percent of total Backcountry) are adjacent to 

existing wilderness and 158,000 acres of GFRG (about 12 percent of total GFRG) (table 

3-52). Based on foreseeable projections, about 180 miles of road are anticipated to be 

constructed or reconstructed over the next 15 years, and 42,000 acres of timber 

harvested. These activities are likely to be located in the Backcountry and GFRG 

themes; however, only a limited amount of these themes are adjacent to existing 

wilderness. Some of these activities could affect solitude within a wilderness area by the 

initial construction or harvesting activities or the long-term use of the roads, especially 

in those areas near a wilderness boundary. 

Existing Plans may allow road construction/reconstruction for geothermal 

development in some locations in management prescriptions similar to Backcountry 

and GFRG. It is unknown where and to what degree geothermal resources would be 

developed; however, since about half the Idaho Roadless Areas have high to moderate 

potential, it is likely some development would eventually occur. 

Currently lease applications have been submitted for geothermal exploration, which 

could affect about 7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area on the Boise National 

Forest and 33 acres of the West Panther Roadless Area on the Salmon National Forest. 

The Peace Rock Roadless Area is not adjacent to a designated wilderness area; 

therefore, there would be no affect from this development. The 32,700-acre West 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.12 Wilderness 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 249 

Panther Roadless Area is adjacent to the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness. Only 33 acres of 

the West Panther Roadless Area are being considered for exploration and development 

and it is unlikely (given the size of the roadless area) that geothermal development 

would affect the solitude of the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness. 

If other roadless areas should be explored and developed, roads, transmission lines, and 

other facilities would likely be constructed (see appendix I for a description of general 

development of geothermal resources), which would could affect the solitude within a 

designated wilderness area. Project-specific analysis would be completed prior to 

approval. 

Oil and gas are found only on the Caribou-Targhee National Forest, and no designated 

wilderness areas are located on this forest. There would be no effect from road 

construction/reconstruction to access oil and gas resources. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

The Idaho Roadless Rule prohibits road construction/reconstruction and to a large 

degree timber cutting in the Wild Land Recreation, Primitive, and SAHTS, about 3.1 

million acres. Within these themes there would be minimal to no indirect effect on 

designated wilderness, because of the limited activity. 

In Backcountry, road construction/reconstruction, timber cutting, and discretionary 

mineral activities are permissible to a limited degree; about 954,000 acres of 

Backcountry (about 18 percent of all Backcountry) are located adjacent to existing 

Wilderness. In GFRG these activities are not prohibited; about 9,000 acres (1 percent of 

all GFRG), in two roadless areas (Meadow Creek and Ten Mile/Black Warrior on the 

Boise National Forest), are located adjacent to designated wilderness. 

Based on foreseeable projections, about 60 miles of road are anticipated to be 

constructed or reconstructed over the next 15 years, and timber cutting could occur on 

12,000 acres. These activities are likely to be located in the Backcountry and GFRG 

themes; however, only a limited amount of these themes are adjacent to existing 

wilderness. Depending on the location of the project, some of these activities could 

affect the solitude within wilderness areas area by the initial construction or harvesting 

activities or the long-term use of the roads. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule permits road construction/reconstruction for new mineral 

leases in GFRG. Known unleased phosphate deposits and oil and gas resources are 

found in Idaho only on the Caribou-Targhee National Forest. None of the resources are 

located adjacent to designated wilderness areas; therefore, there would be no effect 

from road construction/reconstruction to access oil and gas or unleased phosphate 

deposits. 

Most of the GFRG lands have high to moderate potential for geothermal resources. 

However, only two roadless areas (Meadow Creek and Ten Mile/Black Warrior on the 

Boise National Forest) have GFRG that is located adjacent to designated wilderness 
3.12 Wilderness Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

250 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

areas. If the geothermal resource were explored and developed in these roadless areas, 

then it could potentially affect the solitude found in Sawtooth and Frank Church-River 

of No Return Wilderness Areas. The degree of effect would depend on the location and 

level of development; however, there are no current development proposals for these 

areas. 

Currently lease applications have been submitted for geothermal exploration including 

7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area on the Boise National Forest and 33 acres of 

the West Panther Roadless Area on the Salmon National Forest. These roadless areas 

are located in Backcountry; therefore, no road construction/reconstruction could occur 

to provide road access to this resource. In addition, the Peace Rock Roadless Area is not 

adjacent to a designated wilderness area. The 32,500-acre West Panther Roadless Area is 

adjacent to the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness; however, only 33 acres are being 

considered in the lease application. 

RECOMMENDED WILDERNESS—AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Recommended wilderness areas are lands identified as having undeveloped character 

and wilderness potential through forest planning. During forest planning the current 

undeveloped lands within a forest are assessed using the three-step process discussed 

in the introduction to this section to determine if they should be recommended to 

Congress for the inclusion in the National Wilderness Preservation System. 

Currently, there are 28 areas (1,320,900 acres) identified in existing plans as 

recommended for wilderness designation within Idaho. These areas are shown in table 

3- 53. Other Idaho Roadless Areas were not recommended for wilderness because they 

fall short of the Agency’s recommended wilderness evaluation criteria, (FSH 1909.12, 

Chapter 70). Effects on roadless characteristics in light of the prohibitions and 

permissions on these other Idaho Roadless Areas are evaluated in the other sections of 

the EIS. 

Recommended wilderness areas are managed to maintain wilderness character and 

values until such time as Congress acts upon the Agency recommendation or a different 

Agency recommendation is made. Roadless areas that are recommended for wilderness 

have management prescriptions that protect the wilderness character of the area, but 

these areas are not managed as wilderness. 

There is only one wilderness study area in Idaho, Grandmother Mountain on the Idaho 

Panhandle National Forest. Portions of this wilderness study area were recently 

acquired through a land exchange. 

RECOMMENDED WILDERNESS—ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

This section evaluates the potential effects on recommended wilderness from the 

prohibitions and permissions in the alternatives. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.12 Wilderness 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 251 

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

Under the exceptions permitted by the 2001 Roadless Rule, road 

construction/reconstruction and timber cutting could occur in areas recommended for 

wilderness through the forest planning process; however, this is unlikely to happen as 

existing plans bar these activities in recommended wilderness. The 2001 Roadless Rule 

would not affect recommended wilderness areas. 

Existing Plans 

Under the Existing Plans about 1,320,800 acres are recommended for wilderness (table 

3- 53). Areas recommended for wilderness would be managed to protect and preserve 

existing wilderness character. Hence, they generally do not allow road 

construction/reconstruction, timber cutting, or discretionary mineral activities 

(appendix B). A very limited amount of timber cutting is permissible in some 

recommended wilderness areas, incidental to other uses such as trail construction. 

Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

The State of Idaho applied the Wild Land Recreation theme to most areas recommended 

for wilderness in Existing Plans; however, for the Idaho Panhandle and Clearwater 

National Forests the State incorporated recommendations from the proposed revised 

plans (table 3-53). This change on the Idaho Panhandle and Clearwater National Forests 

reflects the collaborative process being used during revision. The portion of the 

Grandmother Mountain roadless area, that is designated a wilderness study area, 

would be managed as Wild Land Recreation under the Idaho Roadless Rule. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would designate 1,378,600 acres as Wild Land Recreation. 

Road construction/reconstruction and timber cutting would be prohibited. Timber 

cutting for administrative use (trail construction) or personal use (firewood) would be 

permissible. In addition, the Idaho Roadless Rule would prohibit the sale of saleable 

mineral materials, as well as surface occupancy for new mineral leases. These 

prohibitions add additional protections until Congress has an opportunity to address 

wilderness. The Idaho Roadless Rule provides additional protections to 57,800 acres 

over the Existing Plans. 

As noted in table 3-53, the Idaho Roadless Rule does not apply the Wild Land 

Recreation theme to all lands recommended for wilderness in Existing Plans. The 

wilderness recommendations made during forest planning would not change; however, 

these lands would be managed pursuant to the Idaho Roadless Rule. The following 

discusses the implications of those differences. 

Portions of the Boulder-White Clouds roadless area (those portions not included in the 

proposed Wilderness legislation), and all of the Winegar Hole roadless area would be 

managed under the Primitive theme. Limited timber cutting could occur from existing 

roads or using aerial systems in these two roadless areas. Timber cutting, if it were to 

occur in these areas, could change the wilderness character to a limited degree. Timber 
3.12 Wilderness Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

252 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

cutting would likely occur on the edges of these roadless areas because of the lack of 

road access. The interior of roadless areas would retain their inherent character; 

however along the edges timber cutting could affect the feeling of untrammeled and 

being natural. Over time as the vegetation regrows this effect would lessen. 

The 6,900 acres in the Mallard Larkins roadless area are in the Backcountry theme. 

Timber cutting and road construction/reconstruction are permissible in this area. These 

activities could affect the wilderness character on these lands, especially if road 

construction/reconstruction occurs. 

Table 3-53. Areas1 recommended for wilderness in Existing Plans; acres of Wild Land Recreation in the Idaho 

Roadless Rule; discussion of the difference 

Forest Area name 

Existing Plans 

recommended 

wilderness (acres) 

Idaho Roadless 

Rule Wild Land 

Recreation (acres) Discussion 

Boise 

Region 4 

Sawtooth Additions 

(Hanson Lake) 

13,600 13,600 No difference 

Payette Crest (Needles) 3,300 3,300 No difference 

Red Mountain 85,900 85,900 No difference 

Sawtooth Additions (Ten 

Mile/Black Warrior) 

76,500 76,500 No difference 

 Total 179,300 179,300 

Caribou2

Region 4 

Caribou City 28,900 28,900 No difference 

Mount Naomi 13,200 13,200 No difference 

Total 42,100 42,100 

Challis 

Region 4 

Borah Peak 108,500 109,200 700-acre addition around 

fringe areas 

Boulder-White Clouds 35,200 115,800 80,700 acres of the 

Boulder-White Clouds 

roadless area are included 

in H.R. 222; this 

recommendation was 

incorporated 

Pioneer Mountains 49,600 49,600 No difference 

Total 193,300 274,600 

Clearwater 

Region 1 

Hoodoo 111,300 152,300 Added 39,400 acres of the 

Great Burn, except 

changed area adjacent to 

Fish Lake Trail to 

Backcountry based on 

county recommendation 

Mallard Larkins 65,800 59,400 6,400 acres placed in the 

Backcountry theme based 

on Commissioners 

recommendation 

North Fork Spruce-White 

Sand 

9,500 9,500 No difference 

Sneakfoot Meadows 9,600 9,600 No difference 

Total 196,200 230,800 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.12 Wilderness 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 253 

Forest Area name 

Existing Plans 

recommended 

wilderness (acres) 

Idaho Roadless 

Rule Wild Land 

Recreation (acres) Discussion 

Idaho 

Panhandle 

Region 1 

Grandmother Mountain 0 6,800 6,800 acres; acquired land 

and part of a wilderness 

study area 

 Mallard Larkins 76,100 49,500 22,100 acres placed into 

SAHTS; public input during 

revision 

Salmo Priest 13,500 14,300 800 acres added based on 

proposed plan 

Scotchman Peaks 9,400 10,800 1,400 acres added based 

on proposed plan 

Selkirk 25,400 31,300 Realignment and 5,900 

acres added based on 

proposed plan 

Total 124,400 112,700 

Payette 

Region 4 

Secesh 110,300 110,300 No difference 

Payette Crest (Needles) 90,200 90,200 No difference 

 Total 200,500 200,500 

Sawtooth 

Region 4 

Boulder-White Clouds 158,900 115,500 47,900 acres of the 

Boulder-White Clouds 

roadless area was not 

included in H.R.3603; 

therefore, these lands were 

placed in the Primitive 

theme 

Pioneer Mountains 58,400 58,400 No difference 

Sawtooth Additions 

(Hanson Lakes roadless 

area) 

15,100 15,100 No difference 

Total 232,400 189,000 

Targhee3

Region 4 

Italian Peaks 48,700 48,700 No difference 

Lionhead 11,200 11,200 No difference 

Winegar (Weinegger) 

Hole 

2,700 0 Placed in the Primitive 

theme due to Country 

recommendation 

Diamond Peak 29,500 29,500 No difference 

Palisades 60,200 60,200 No difference 

Total 152,300 149,600 

Statewide Grand Total1 1,320,900 1,378,600 

1 Forest plan special areas such as wild and scenic rivers and research natural areas are not included in the totals. 

2 Caribou portion of the Caribou-Targhee National Forest. 

3 Targhee portion of the Caribou-Targhee National Forest. 
3.12 Wilderness Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

254 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

WILDERNESS CHARACTERISTICS—AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Idaho Roadless Areas are the “reservoir” of undeveloped lands from which future 

wilderness designations are considered. Each roadless area is evaluated during the 

forest planning process to determine if it provides wilderness characteristics and 

whether or not it should be recommended for wilderness. Areas not recommended for 

wilderness could still be considered for wilderness by Congress. Impacts on the area’s 

inherent wilderness character, its undeveloped nature, its naturalness, the opportunity 

to provide primitive and unconfined recreation, and its natural ecosystem forces would 

detract from future consideration of the area as wilderness. 

WILDERNESS CHARACTERISTICS—ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

The 2001 Roadless Rule limits the suite of road construction/reconstruction and timber 

cutting allowed across all Idaho Roadless Areas. About 1,500 acres of timber cutting 

and 15 miles of road construction are projected to occur over the next 15 years. These 

limitations would enable the vast majority of roadless areas to retain their existing 

character long into the future. 

Existing Forest Plans 

Some forest plan management prescriptions provide better protection for preserving the 

wilderness character (such as recommended wilderness and Primitive); others permit 

activities that could change the existing character (such as prescriptions similar to 

Backcountry and GFRG). About 180 miles of road construction/reconstruction are 

projected to occur over the next 15 years, and timber cutting is projected to occur on 

42,000 acres over the next 15 years. Any areas developed could adversely affect their 

wilderness potential. In the foreseeable future it is difficult to determine which roadless 

areas would be affected, because the locations of future activities are unknown, with the 

exception of phosphate leasing. Any mineral development would change the existing 

character of the lands affected. 

Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

Lands in the Wild Land Recreation theme would retain their existing character. Lands 

in the Primitive and SAHTS themes are likely to retain most of their inherent character, 

except when timber cutting occurs. Timber cutting may be done only from existing 

roads or through aerial systems; because of this limitation timber cutting is likely to 

only occur on the edge of a roadless area. The existing character may be modified on the 

edges of a roadless area, with the interior kept intact. Timber cutting in these themes is 

projected to be rare and done only to reduce hazardous fuels. 

Lands in the Backcountry theme often would retain their existing character, because 

timber cutting and road construction are anticipated to be infrequent. Where these 

activities occur their inherent characteristics would change. If roads are constructed it 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.12 Wilderness 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 255 

may take longer for the area to return to a “natural” state than if timber cutting alone 

were to take place. 

Lands in the GFRG theme often display relatively more evidence of human use, 

including roads, facilities, evidence of vegetative manipulation, and mineral 

exploration/extraction. Depending on the degree of previous activity, additional 

activities may or may not change the existing character. Where disturbance has 

occurred in the past, the change would not be as great as in areas with little past 

disturbance. Areas without past disturbance would likely lose their inherent wilderness 

character, especially if roads are constructed or mineral resources are developed. 

About 60 miles of road construction/reconstruction are projected to occur over the next 

15 years, and timber cutting is projected to occur on 12,000 acres over the next 15 years. 

Any areas developed could adversely affect their wilderness potential. In the 

foreseeable future it is difficult to determine which roadless areas would be affected, 

because the locations of future activities are unknown, with the exception of phosphate 

leasing. 

CUMULATIVE EFFECTS

Idaho Roadless Areas are managed under a variety of management prescriptions in 

Existing Plans. Implementation of the 2001 Roadless Rule or the Idaho Roadless Rule 

would help establish a uniform approach to managing these areas. Because many Idaho 

Roadless Areas are adjacent to wilderness areas, large tracts of land would remain 

essentially unroaded and undeveloped. In the past, roadless areas were managed as a 

bank for future resource development or special designation. If these areas were 

managed for their own inherent values, there could be less pressure to designate these 

lands as wilderness or other special designation to shield the land from development. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule may reduce controversy and result in more stability by 

recognizing those lands with important wilderness character and those individual 

portions of roadless areas where some development could occur. 

Other programmatic actions listed in appendix N would not affect the amount or 

availability of roadless areas, with the potential exception of the Roads Policy. The 

Roads Policy directs the Agency to determine which roads are needed and which roads 

are unneeded. As described in the Road Construction/Reconstruction section, more 

than 30 miles of road have been decommissioned over the past 6 years for every mile of 

new road constructed. Indirectly, decommissioning roads could result in expanding a 

roadless area boundary. 
3.13 Cultural Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

256 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

3.13 Cultural Resources 

INTRODUCTION

Cultural resources include areas, sites, buildings, art, architecture, memorials, and 

objects that have scientific, historical, or cultural value. These resources link people to 

their cultural history, provide insight into how people lived in the past, and reveal past 

and ongoing relationships between people and the natural world. 

Heritage tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors of the tourism industry, and it is 

ranked among the top two or three reasons that people take vacations (USDA Forest 

Service 1999). In 1994 and 1995, an estimated 123.3 million people visited an historic or 

prehistoric site in the United States (Cordell et al. 1999). It is estimated that up to 90 

percent of the Nation’s prehistoric sites were destroyed by development by the 1960s 

(USDA Forest Service 1999). National Forest System (NFS) lands contain many of the 

best preserved sites that remain in the United States, in some of the least disturbed 

natural settings. These sites provide opportunities for Americans to learn about their 

cultural heritage (USDA Forest Service 1999). 

Idaho Roadless Areas are likely to contain a significant proportion of the least damaged 

cultural resources that occur on NFS lands because of the lack of human-caused 

disturbance. Given the widespread destruction of cultural resources located on private 

lands to date and the rapidly growing interest in heritage tourism nationwide, cultural 

sites on NFS lands can be expected to become increasingly valuable resources that more 

people wish to visit in the future. 

Under Executive Order 11593, Protection and Enhancement of the Cultural 

Environment, and Section 110 of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA), 

Federal agencies are charged with the task of inventorying the historic and prehistoric 

sites located on the lands they manage. In addition, the NHPA and NEPA require that 

Federal agencies take into account the effects of any development or management 

actions on historic and cultural properties and seek ways to avoid, minimize, and 

mitigate any adverse effects. 

To comply with these laws, agencies conduct cultural resource inventory in areas where 

projects are proposed. If a site is identified, it is evaluated to determine whether it is 

significant52 and eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places. If a site is 

significant and the site would be affected by actions proposed in the preferred 

alternative, the preferred alternative may not proceed until steps are taken to minimize 

impacts and mitigate adverse effects. 

 

52 Significant cultural resources are defined in 36 CFR 60. Historic properties are considered significant if 

they qualify for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.13 Cultural Resources 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 257 

Mitigation measures, or alternative plans, may also be required if proposed projects or 

development activities are undertaken in areas having cultural sites that are considered 

significant to local Native American Tribes and other ethnic groups. 

The Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979 protects archaeological resources 

and sites on public and Native American lands to prevent their loss and destruction. 

The act requires criminal prosecution or civil remedies for the unauthorized disturbance 

of archaeological resources. It also establishes a permit process for archeological 

investigations on Federal lands. The permitting process requires consultation with 

affected tribal governments when a permitted activity would affect resources of interest 

to the Tribes. 

The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990 requires timely 

consultation with culturally affiliated Tribes when human remains are inadvertently 

discovered in the course of implementing projects on Federal lands. 

Executive Order 13007 states that agencies must consider sacred sites on Federal lands 

in determining how areas that contain them should be used and managed. The Forest 

Service consults with at least 11 Native American Tribes in the course of managing the 

resources on NFS lands in Idaho. The analysis evaluates the potential risk to cultural 

resources found in Idaho Roadless Areas. 

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Approximately 2.2 million acres (about 10 percent of NFS lands) in Idaho have been 

inventoried and more than 14,500 cultural resources have been identified. Since most 

inventories are project driven, the percentage of inventory is lower in roadless areas. It 

is estimated that NFS lands in Idaho may contain more than 200,000 cultural sites. 

The average site density on NFS lands in Idaho is about one site in every 150 acres53. 

This site density is an estimate based primarily on inventory work done in advance of 

timber sales, mining operations, and rangeland management actions. Therefore, it is not 

a statistically valid estimate that can be reliably applied to Idaho Roadless Areas. It is 

however, a reasonable estimate that can be applied to compare the alternatives’ 

potential effects. 

Of the more than 14,500 cultural resources identified on NFS lands in Idaho, more than 

3,700 (approximately 25 percent) are considered significant and eligible for inclusion on 

the National Register of Historic Places. Most of the other 10,800 sites have not yet been 

evaluated for significance. Of the cultural sites that have been recorded on NFS lands, 

fewer than 1 percent have been stabilized or restored, most have not been studied or 

evaluated, and only 66 have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places. 

Most cultural resource inventories have been conducted on lands where development 

or management projects have been proposed because of the legal requirement to 

 

53 Based on all previous inventory information as reported to Congress. 
3.13 Cultural Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

258 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

disclose the impacts of such projects on cultural resources. Many undocumented 

cultural resources exist in roadless areas, where development has been relatively 

minimal. If the estimated site density for all forest lands were applied to the roadless 

areas, then about 62,000 sites would be expected. Of these, an estimated 15,500 would 

be significant cultural resources eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic 

Places. 

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Building roads and implementing management actions such as timber harvest may, at 

times, adversely affect cultural resources. In the past, roads were often built in 

culturally sensitive locations along rivers and creeks, or through open areas. Although 

best management practices now discourage road development in riparian areas and 

floodplains, some buried or surface remains of archaeological sites may inadvertently 

be damaged by various ground-disturbing activities. Whenever roads are constructed 

there may be a variety of associated impacts to consider—roads and the disturbance 

associated with construction, construction camps, borrow pits, and staging areas may 

cause adverse effects on the integrity of historic or cultural sites. Enhanced road access 

may increase secondary impacts associated with visitor use for recreation activities. 

Surveys conducted in advance of road construction and reconstruction, timber harvest, 

or other activities, may result in the identification of unknown and unrecorded cultural 

resources. Such discoveries might eventually lead to the protection, restoration, and 

potential development of some sites for interpretive and educational purposes. 

All Alternatives 

All alternatives require compliance with existing laws and regulations; therefore, before 

any management actions could take place a cultural resource inventory would be 

conducted and appropriate mitigation applied. 

About 9,100 acres of phosphate deposits can be found in seven roadless areas (Dry 

Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, Stump Creek, and 

Mount Jefferson) and are under existing lease. Some of these acres have been mined to 

date (the total amount is unknown). About 1,100 acres associated with the Smoky 

Canyon Mine expansion are reasonably foreseeable to be developed within the next 15 

years. The Smoky Canyon Mine expansion would affect the Sage Creek and Meade 

Peak Roadless Areas. 

It is also reasonable to assume that the remaining phosphate deposits currently under 

lease, roughly 8,000 acres within the seven roadless areas, would likely be permitted 

and developed sometime in the extended future (50 or more years). Using the Smoky 

Canyon expansion as an example of the level of activity expected, an estimated 17 miles 

of haul road construction and other surface mining disturbance would ultimately take 

place within the seven roadless areas. Prior to mining, cultural resource surveys would 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.13 Cultural Resources 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 259 

be conducted; if cultural resources are found, the appropriate mitigation would be 

applied. 

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

The 2001 Roadless Rule prohibits road construction/reconstruction (including road 

access to new mineral leasing areas) across all 9.3 million acres, except in seven 

situations. About 15 miles of road construction/reconstruction are projected over the 

next 15 years. This limited amount of road construction/reconstruction would limit the 

risk to retaining the current integrity and character of cultural resources. There would 

be low potential for disturbance, vandalism, and looting. 

Existing Plans 

Under Existing Plans no road construction/reconstruction is generally permitted in 

areas with management prescriptions similar to the Wild Land Recreation or Primitive 

themes (about 3.45 million acres). On these lands there would be little risk to cultural 

resources because there would be no disturbance. Road construction/reconstruction is 

allowed on about 1,262,400 acres in areas with management prescriptions similar to 

GFRG theme, and is also allowed to a limited degree on 4,244,500 acres in areas with 

management prescriptions similar to Backcountry. About 180 miles of road are 

projected to be constructed/reconstructed over the next 15 years across all Idaho 

Roadless Areas. This level of activity would have a low to moderate risk to cultural 

resources depending on where they occur. Generally, newly constructed roads are not 

open to public travel; therefore, there would still be a low risk of vandalism and looting. 

The Caribou Forest Plan permits leasing of the estimated 6,500 acres of known unleased 

phosphate deposits and/or other possible roadless areas that contain undiscovered 

phosphate resources. These known unleased phosphate deposits occur in six roadless 

areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, and 

Stump Creek) and would likely be developed over an extended period of time (50 or 

more years). In addition, there are 6,900 acres of unleased phosphate deposits on the 

Targhee portion of the Caribou-Targhee National Forest within the Bald Mountain, Bear 

Creek, and Poker Creek Roadless Areas. An environmental analysis would have to be 

completed to determine how much of the 6,900 acres could actually be leased. There is a 

potential risk to cultural resources on these 13,400 acres on the Caribou-Targhee 

National Forest when and if this development occurs. Site-specific analysis would occur 

prior to any future leasing and mitigations applied. 

Existing Plans would permit road construction/reconstruction for geothermal 

development in some locations in management prescriptions similar to Backcountry 

and GFRG. It is unknown where and to what degree geothermal resources would be 

developed; however, since about half of Idaho Roadless Areas have high to moderate 

potential it is likely that some development would eventually occur. Currently lease 

applications have been submitted for geothermal exploration, which could affect about 

7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area on the Boise National Forest and 33 acres of 
3.13 Cultural Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

260 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

the West Panther Roadless Area on the Salmon National Forest. If fully developed, 

roads, transmission lines, and other facilities would likely be constructed (see appendix 

I for a description of general development of geothermal resources). Site-specific 

analysis would be completed, including consideration of cultural resources, prior to 

approval of any exploration or development of geothermal resources. 

It should be noted that activities can result in positive outcomes. Generally surveys are 

not conducted unless there is a project action, so projects provide the opportunity to 

document the resources in the designated areas. Finding cultural resources can also 

provide more opportunity to provide tourism, educational, and interpretive 

opportunities to the public regarding their heritage on NFS lands. 

Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

Road construction/reconstruction would be prohibited in Wild Land Recreation, 

Primitive, or SAHTS themes (about 3.1 million acres). On these lands there would be 

little risk to cultural resources because there would be no disturbance. Road 

construction/ reconstruction would be permitted on 609,500 acres of GFRG, and to a 

limited degree on 5,246,100 acres within the Backcountry theme. About 60 miles of road 

are projected to be constructed/reconstructed over the next 15 years. This level of 

activity would have a low risk to cultural resources, and surveys would be conducted 

during the analysis for these site-specific actions. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule provides special management direction for about 68,600 acres 

of areas of historical and tribal significance. Three areas have been identified: Pilot Knob 

on the Nez Perce National Forest, Nimiipuu and Lewis and Clark National Historic 

Trails on the Clearwater National Forest, and the Mallard Larkins Pioneer Area on the 

Idaho Panhandle National Forest. The following descriptions are derived from Lewis 

and Clark on the Lolo Trail (USDA Forest Service, 2004f): 

Pilot Knob is located in the Silver Creek-Pilot Knob roadless area. A key visual 

attraction in this area is Pilot Rock, a massive, bare rock formation almost in the 

center of the area. Pilot Rock is reported to be an ancient “vision quest” site for the 

Nez Perce Indian Tribe. 

The Nimiipuu (or Nee-Me-Poo) and Lewis and Clark trails are part of the Lolo Trail, 

which is a registered National Historic Landmark and National Historic Trail. This 

trail was a major travel route between the Columbia Basin and the Montana country 

prehistorically. Lewis and Clark traveled over sections of the trail in their journeys 

of 1805–06. The area has the unique distinction of possessing the longest remaining 

undisturbed section of the Lewis and Clark Trail in the country. 

For the Nimiipuu (the Nez Perce), the Lolo Trail was the “Road to Buffalo Country,” 

a route families traveled each summer to hunt buffalo and trade with Plains tribes to 

the east. For the Salish, it was the “Trail to the Nimiipuu,” a route to salmon fishing 

and trading with Plateau and Coastal tribes. The Nimiipuu hunted and gathered 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.13 Cultural Resources 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 261 

food across their Plateau homeland, from the Bitterroots to the Blue Mountains in 

present-day Oregon. 

In the early 1700s horses spread north from Spanish colonies in New Mexico, 

eventually reaching the Nimiipuu homeland, becoming part of the Nimiipuu way of 

life and providing a means to travel the Lolo Trail and beyond faster and farther 

than ever before. Nearly 2 centuries later, in 1877, five bands of Nimiipuu followed 

the Lolo Trail in their attempt to elude General O. O. Howard and the U.S. Army 

attempting to move them onto a reservation. The journey across the 1,170- mile 

route lasted nearly 4 months. It began near Wallowa, Oregon (the homeland of Chief 

Joseph’s band), and ended at the Bear Paw Mountains near Chinook, Montana. The 

route was designated the Nez Perce (Nee-Me-Poo) National Historic Trail in 1986 

(taken from Lewis and Clark on the Lolo Trail, USDA Forest Service) 

The Mallard Larkins Pioneer Area encompasses the Mallard Larkins and Black 

Mountain-Nub Peak group of lakes and peaks, which was set aside for its 

outstanding scenic, roadless, and primitive recreational qualities. 

Management direction under the proposed Idaho Roadless Rule would increase the 

potential for retaining the current integrity and character of cultural resources; limit the 

potential for conflict between interest groups over the use and management of these 

special cultural areas; and limit the risk of destruction of resources by prohibiting road 

construction/ reconstruction and surface occupancy for leasable minerals. Some limited 

timber cutting could occur if done off existing roads or via helicopter but is unlikely to 

modify the current integrity because helicopter logging systems would be used. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would also permit road construction/reconstruction for 

geothermal development in the GFRG theme. About 7 percent of Idaho Roadless Areas 

are in this theme, and about 4 percent could be developed because of slope restrictions 

(see the Minerals section). It is likely some of these areas would be developed over time; 

however, except for two pending lease applications there is no information about where 

or when the activity would occur. If fully developed, roads, transmission lines, and 

other facilities would likely be constructed (see appendix I for a description of general 

development of geothermal resources). Cultural resources would be considered during 

site-specific analysis and mitigations applied. 

Currently lease applications have been submitted for geothermal exploration within 

7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area on the Boise National Forest and 33 acres of 

the West Panther Roadless Area on the Salmon National Forest. Both these areas are in 

either the Primitive or Backcountry theme; therefore, they would not be developed 

because of the inability to construct roads to access the area (see the Minerals section). 

No cultural resources would be affected in these areas. 

There are 13,400 acres of known unleased phosphate deposits on the Caribou-Targhee 

National Forest. About 12,100 acres (90 percent) are located within the Backcountry and 

GFRG themes. Under these themes road construction or reconstruction would be 

permissible to develop these phosphate deposits. 
3.13 Cultural Resources Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

262 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

These deposits are located within nine roadless areas (Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, 

Meade Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, and Stump Creek on the Caribou portion of the 

forest; and Bald Mountain, Bear Creek, and Poker Creek on the Targhee portion of the 

forest) and could eventually be mined over an extended period of time (50 or more 

years). There is a potential risk to cultural resources on these 12,100 acres when and if 

this development occurs. Site-specific analysis would occur prior to any future leasing 

and mitigations applied. 

About 1,300 acres of unleased phosphate deposits are in the Primitive theme. The 

Primitive theme prohibits road construction/reconstruction or surface occupancy for 

phosphates; therefore, this area would likely not be developed (see the Minerals 

section), and there would be no effect on cultural resources found in this area. 

CUMULATIVE EFFECTS

NFS lands contain a substantial share of the Nation’s cultural resources and a 

significant portion of the least damaged cultural resources occur in roadless areas. 

Given the widespread destruction of cultural resources located on private land to date, 

and the rapidly growing interest in heritage tourism, cultural sites on NFS lands can be 

expected to become increasingly unique and valuable resources that more people wish 

to visit in the future. These trends will pose a dilemma for their management with 

regard to providing a balance of protection and visitation opportunities. The 

cumulative effects of these trends and of the alternatives would be an emphasis on 

cultural resource and site conservation in Idaho Roadless Areas due to reduced 

disturbance and visitation; and a focus on inventory, restoration, interpretation, and 

tourism opportunities on lands that are developed and that would allow future road 

construction. 

Other programmatic policy and management decisions do not directly affect cultural 

resources, because none of them prescribe site-specific actions. The NFP, HFI, HFRA 

and Energy Policy all that encourage actions be implemented to meet their objectives. 

This analysis considered what activities (timber cutting and mineral development) 

would be projected to occur to meet these policies in the foreseeable future. Therefore, 

the analysis considered the potential cumulative effect of these policies on cultural 

resources. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.14 Idaho and Affected Indian Tribes 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 263 

3.14 Idaho and Affected Indian Tribes 

INTRODUCTION

There are numerous Native American Tribes with interests in Idaho along with five 

reservations and other forms of tribal lands that are not reservations within the State. 

The reservations share common boundaries with NFS lands. The larger Tribes include 

the Kootenai Tribe of Idaho, Nez Perce Tribe, Coeur d’Alene Tribe, Shoshone-Paiute 

Tribes, and the Shoshone-Bannock Tribes. Each Tribe maintains interests and reserved 

rights through treaties with the United States within the State of Idaho. Other Tribes 

residing in other States also maintain tribal interests, including aboriginal, ceded, and 

treaty territories within the State. Many of their tribal lands and interests are adjacent to 

or within NFS lands. 

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

The United States has a unique relationship with Native American Tribes as provided 

in the Constitution of the United States, treaties, and Federal statutes. These 

relationships extend to the Federal Government’s management of public lands, and the 

Forest Service strives to ensure that the rights and interest that Native American Tribes 

may have within Idaho’s roadless areas are protected. 

On September 23, 2004, President George W. Bush issued Executive Memorandum 

Government-to-Government Relationship with Tribal Governments, recommitting the 

Federal Government to work with federally recognized Native American Tribal 

Governments on a Government-to-Government basis and strongly supporting and 

respecting tribal sovereignty and self-determination. President Bush also reaffirmed an 

earlier Executive Order (13175), Consultation and Coordination with Indian Tribal 

Governments, which requires agencies to consult with tribal officials early in the 

process of developing [proposed regulations]. 

Management of roadless areas has been topic of interest and importance to tribal 

Governments. During the promulgation of the 2001 Roadless Rule, Forest Service line 

officers in the field were asked to make contact with Tribes to ensure awareness of the 

initiative and rulemaking process. Outreach to Tribes was conducted at the national 

forest and grassland level, which is the appropriate Forest Service leadership level for 

initially conducting government-to-government dialog with Tribal leaders on this Draft 

EIS. Tribal representatives remained engaged concerning these issues during the 

subsequent litigation and rulemaking efforts. 

The State’s Petition identifies that a vital part of its public process in developing its 

Petition were the recommendations and comments received from Native American 

Tribes. The Governor’s Office was keenly aware of the spiritual and cultural 

significance some of these areas hold for the Tribes. The State of Idaho solicited input 

from the Coeur D’Alene, Kootenai, Nez Perce, Shoshone-Bannock, and Shoshone-Piaute 
3.14 Idaho and Affected Indian Tribes Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

264 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Tribes. The State and the Forest Service have endeavored to reflect those interests and 

concerns in the proposed Idaho Roadless Rule. Based on that input, the State and the 

Forest Service developed a special theme to recognize and address certain roadless 

areas with special areas of historical or tribal significance, including Pilot Knob, the 

Niimiipuu, and Lewis and Clark National Historic Trails. 

The protection, use, and access to sacred sites are analyzed in this EIS. Moreover, 

protection of traditional cultural places and archaeological and natural resources are 

also being considered in other sections of the EIS, insofar as they affect tribal interests. 

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

All Alternatives 

Impacts on tribal Governments and tribal practices from resource management 

activities are not expected because of consultation requirements and other agreements 

with individual Tribes. Historic and prehistoric cultural resource and traditional 

properties would be protected by law as described in the Cultural section of this 

document. 

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

The 2001 Roadless Rule prohibits road construction/reconstruction, and timber cutting 

in Idaho Roadless Areas with some exceptions. Based on trend information, about 15 

miles of road construction/reconstruction and 1,500 acres of timber cutting are 

projected over the next 15 years. Because of the minimal amount of disturbance allowed 

and projected, there would likely be less conflict between interest groups and Tribes 

over the use and management of areas that may contain sacred sites. If privacy were 

necessary for sacred sites, maintaining roadless characteristics would help maintain the 

privacy. A roadless condition might improve the habitat of plants that the Tribes use 

during gathering activities. Without future roaded access to Idaho Roadless Areas, it 

would be difficult for some tribal members (such as elders) to access cultural sites, 

hunting grounds, fishing grounds, and gathering grounds located there. 

Existing Plans 

Existing Plans prohibit road construction/reconstruction in management prescriptions 

similar to the Wild Land Recreation and Primitive themes (about 3.5 million acres). In 

these areas there would be no effect on Tribes over the use and management of areas 

that may contain sacred sites. About 4,244,500 acres are in management prescriptions 

similar to the Backcountry theme, and 1,262,400 million acres are in prescriptions 

similar to GFRG. About 180 miles of road and 42,000 acres of timber cutting are 

projected to occur over a 15-year period within Idaho Roadless Areas under Existing 

Plans. 

Impacts on tribal Governments and tribal practices from resource management 

activities would be minimal because of consultation requirements. However, there is 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.14 Idaho and Affected Indian Tribes 

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 265 

still some risk to sacred sites where American Indians conduct ceremonies that require 

privacy. If a road were built to or near such a site, the associated increase in visitation 

could make it impossible to conduct ceremonies there, undermining the important 

cultural practice. Roads, timber cutting, and mining may also alter the character of 

places that have historical or cultural value, thereby diminishing their value. 

Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

The Idaho Roadless Rule prohibits road construction/reconstruction in the Wild Land 

Recreation, Primitive, and SAHTS themes (about 3.1 million acres). In these areas there 

would be little conflict between interest groups and Tribes over the use and 

management of areas that may contain sacred sites. About 5,246,100 acres are in the 

Backcountry theme and 609,500 acres are in the GFRG theme. Road 

construction/reconstruction and timber harvest are permissible in GFRG, and 

permitted in specific situations in Backcountry. About 60 miles of road 

construction/reconstruction and 12,000 acres of timber cutting are projected to occur 

over 15 years within Idaho Roadless Areas. 

Impacts on tribal Governments and tribal practices from resource management 

activities would be minimal because of consultation requirements. However, there is 

still some risk to sacred sites where American Indians conduct ceremonies that require 

privacy. Roads, timber harvest, and mining may also alter the character of places that 

have historical or cultural value, thereby diminishing their value. 

CUMULATIVE EFFECTS

There would be limited cumulative effects to tribal interests because of consultation 

requirements. The effects of other programmatic management and policy decisions 

would also be limited because they do not approve site-specific actions. Management 

decisions such as PACFISH, INFISH, the Northern Rockies Lynx Management 

Direction, and the management direction for grizzly bears in the Greater Yellowstone 

ecosystem all enhance wildlife and fisheries habitat, which would indirectly improve 

habitat conditions. These decisions in combination with the management direction 

(permissions and prohibitions) would further improve wildlife and fisheries habitat. 

Other policy decisions such as the NFP, HFI, HFRA, and Energy Policy Act were 

considered in the analysis. The projections for timber cutting and minerals development 

were based, in part, on implementing the objectives of these policies. 
3.15 Social and Economics Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

266 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

3.15 Social and Economics 

INTRODUCTION

People value, enjoy, and use national forests, including Idaho Roadless Areas. The 

social and economic components of this analysis address what may be regarded as 

some of the fundamental aspects affecting people’s lives in relation to the management 

and use of national forests and roadless areas. Social and economic components 

consider the lifestyles, collaborative environment, and beliefs and values of people—

which include the local economies, amenity uses, commodity uses, recreation uses, and 

value preferences. 

The social analysis reviewed public comment to the notice of intent and derived three 

key variables: (1) public values and beliefs about natural resources and roadless areas; 

(2) the collaborative environment and citizen-government relationships; and (3) 

lifestyles. Values and beliefs are important components of public evaluations of the 

proposed Idaho Roadless Rule, and these values and beliefs are also likely to influence 

the actions of groups and individuals in response to each alternative. The collaborative 

environment directly influences the willingness and ability of citizens to work with one 

another and with land management agencies to implement management of roadless 

areas. Lifestyles express the patterns of activity connecting people to public lands and 

particularly roadless areas. 

To describe the diverse economic activity in Idaho adequately, functional economic 

areas were delineated. Bureau of Economic Analysis economic areas (EA) were used as 

the functional economies in Idaho (Johnson and Kort 2004). The economic areas are 

derived based on factors such as labor flows, purchases of goods and services, and 

newspaper subscriptions. There are five economic areas that cover Idaho (fig. 3-16 and 

table 3-54). Teton, Oneida, and Franklin counties in Idaho were part of economic areas 

in Wyoming and Utah. For this analysis, these counties were removed from the 

economic areas in those States and placed into the Southeast Idaho economic area 

(Pocatello / Idaho Falls) for completeness. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.15 Social and Economics

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 267 

Figure 3-16. Economic areas in the State of Idaho and surrounding areas 
3.15 Social and Economics Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

268 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Table 3-54. Counties by Bureau of Economic Analysis economic area 

North Idaho Central Idaho Southeast Idaho South Central Boise 

Benewah Asotin, WA Bannock Blaine Ada 

Bonner Clearwater Bear Lake Camas Adams 

Boundary Garfield, WA Bingham Cassia Boise 

Ferry, WA Idaho Bonneville Gooding Canyon 

Kootenai Lewis Butte Jerome Elmore 

Latah Nez Perce Caribou Lincoln Gem 

Lincoln, WA Clark Minidoka Malheur, OR 

Pend Oreille, WA Custer Twin Falls Owyhee 

Shoshone Franklin Payette 

Spokane, WA Fremont Valley 

Stevens, WA Jefferson Washington 

Whitman, WA Lemhi 

 Madison 

 Oneida 

 Power 

 Teton 

SOCIAL CONTEXT—AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

Values and Beliefs 

Since its inception, the Forest Service has managed NFS lands according to the principle 

of multiple use. This principle allows the agency to manage land for a variety of uses, 

including amenity, commodity, noncommodity, and recreation. The Multiple-Use 

Sustained-Yield Act (Public Law 104-333) formalized this management philosophy, 

stating that the Forest Service is to manage resources to best meet the needs of the 

American public, with flexibility to provide for “periodic adjustments in use to conform 

to changing needs and conditions” (Section 4(a) of the Act [16U.S.C. 531]). Recent social 

assessments and surveys indicate continued support for the principle of multiple use, 

including outdoor recreation, timber, watershed protection, range health and 

protection, minerals, wilderness characteristics, and fish and wildlife security. Beliefs 

and values about the multiple-use principle are noteworthy and influence the 

interpretation of management and planning activities. For example, some people 

perceive multiple use as not allowing for all uses in all places, but as allowing for mixes 

of diverse uses, perhaps in designated areas. Concerns regarding use conflicts have 

often been expressed. In general, if a particular category of use is damaging resources or 

disrupting user experiences, then the Forest Service may have to curtail or eliminate 

that use in certain areas (Russell and Adams-Russell 2004, Lybecker et al. 2005, Parker et 

al. 2002, Rasker and Alexander 2003). 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.15 Social and Economics

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 269 

The implication of values and beliefs provides a necessity for active balancing when 

implementing the multiple use principle. Designating certain areas for selected types of 

management requires careful consideration not only of the resources but also of 

people’s beliefs and values, needs and wants, and individual and community 

connections to forest resources. Since Americans show diverse orientations to these 

resources, the use, management, and designation of National Forest System lands is 

often inherently controversial. This controversy is also apparent in special designations 

managed by the Forest Service, such as wild and scenic rivers, and wilderness. 

A central issue in the controversy about Idaho Roadless Areas is debate over the 

balance of commodity and non-commodity uses. Whereas people once valued national 

forests primarily as a source of commodities, in recent years values regarding these 

lands have shifted towards recreation, environmental qualities, aesthetics, and 

amenities. Another central issue for Idaho Roadless Area management is access, 

particularly the designation of motorized and nonmotorized areas and how they can be 

balanced. This topic was strongly raised in comments responding to the notice of intent 

for this rulemaking. Because of its complexity and site specificity, this topic will be 

addressed in independent travel management planning at the forest level. 

Controversy and conflict over forest management is often founded on the differing 

values people may hold towards nature and thus its management. There are two 

commonly described orientations to the ways Americans tend to view nature (Russell 

and Adams-Russell 2004, pg. 94). The first is the “utilitarian” view: nature exists for 

humans to use. People with this view tend to consider active management as positive, 

asserting that it can shape and enhance the natural world. This orientation also tends to 

view human intervention as essential for the health of natural systems. The second view 

is the “naturalist” view: nature exists for its aesthetic and existence values. People 

holding this view tend to consider active management as non-effective manipulation of 

nature, often resulting in negative effects. 

Although these two views are commonly noted in the published literature (e.g., 

Kempton et al. 1995), social science assessment work in Idaho (Russell and AdamsRussell 2004) and in northwestern Montana (Impact Assessment, Inc. 1995, Russell and 

Adams-Russell 2003) indicates that a “stewardship” perspective coexists with the 

utilitarian and naturalist orientations to nature. This stewardship perspective 

“emphasizes the coexistence of humans with natural resources, the responsibility of 

humans to maintain natural resources, and a respect for the integrity and health of 

ecological systems. Coexistence implies human activity can be compatible with the 

health and integrity of ecological systems” (Russell and Adams-Russell 2004, pg. 94). 

Stewardship values thus appear to share attributes of both the naturalist and utilitarian 

perspectives with an emphasis on the capacity of humans to coexist with, and to use, 

natural resources while also maintaining and promoting ecological health. The 

stewardship orientation appears to emphasize a set of contingencies about the 

relationship of humans with nature that evaluate actions in terms of the “balance” of 

ecosystem health, human intervention, and the future existence of a resource. 
3.15 Social and Economics Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

270 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Other social variables may also influence how people perceive management direction, 

including: (1) lifestyles; (2) perceptions about the purpose of NFS lands and resources; 

and (3) perceptions about the role of governing agencies in managing and designating 

public resources (USDA Forest Service 2007m). 

Research also indicates some specific values that people may hold towards forests, 

rangelands, and grasslands, and that these values may “play a critical role in identifying 

ecosystem management goals, setting the context for decision making, and guiding our 

choices” (Bengston and Xu 1995, pg. 1. Among the values identified for forest lands are 

those included in table 3-55 (as indicated by Brown and Reed 2000, pg. 243). 

Table 3-55. Forest (and rangeland and grassland) values that people may hold

Aesthetic value Value the forest because of the scenery, sights, sounds, smells, etc. 

Biological diversity 

value 

Value the forest because it provides a variety of fish, wildlife, plant life, etc. 

Cultural value Value the forest because it is a place for me to continue and pass down the wisdom and 

knowledge, traditions, and way of life of my ancestors 

Economic value Value the forest because it provides timber, fisheries, minerals, or tourism opportunities 

such as outfitting and guiding 

Future value Value the forest because it allows future generations to know and experience the forest as it 

is now 

Historic value Value the forest because it has places and things of natural and human history that matter 

to me, others, or the nation 

Intrinsic value Value the forest in and of itself for its existence, no matter what others think about the forest 

Learning value Value the forest because one can learn about the environment through scientific 

observation or experimentation 

Life sustaining value Value the forest because it helps produce, preserve, clean, and renew air, soil, and water 

Recreation value Value the forest because it provides a place for favorite outdoor recreation activities 

Spiritual value Value the forest because it is a sacred, religious, or spiritually special place or because one 

can feel reverence and respect for nature there 

Subsistence value Value the forest because it provides necessary food and supplies to sustain my life 

Therapeutic value Value the forest because it makes me feel better, physically and/or mentally 

Any individual value or combination of these values in table 3-55 may apply to 

National Forest System lands in general and Idaho Roadless Areas in particular. 

Similarly, different interest groups or geographic communities may hold different 

combinations of these values. The potential for compatibility or conflict among these 

values characterizes the relationship of interest groups and communities with National 

Forest System lands and roadless areas. 

Collaborative Environment: Citizen-Governmental Relationships 

“Local vs. national” voices and their relative “weight” in planning and decision making 

constitute an ongoing issue in the management of national forests. This issue influences 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.15 Social and Economics

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 271 

the relationship of citizens with the Forest Service that can affect compliance, 

collaboration, and trust of Agency decision making and planning. 

The issuance of the 2001 Roadless Rule resulted in a response spectrum from support to 

criticism and ultimately several lawsuits and injunctions. One of the primary criticisms 

of the 2001 Roadless Rule is the perception that it had little recognition of local issues 

and needs. Concerns were raised about how the national prohibitions would affect local 

involvement in decision-making. Public comments on the notice of intent and those 

received during the public comment period for the draft EIS show that some people 

believe that by prescribing national prohibitions on activities, the action alternatives 

would reduce local involvement. This fear would then undermine the collaborative 

land management planning process and the existing trust between Agency officials and 

local citizens. People commented that this contributed to the feeling that regardless of 

their input, decisions would ultimately be made by officials in Washington, D.C.—

further undermining trust. People also commented that local involvement and decisionmaking is necessary for developing successful management approaches that are 

sensitive to the unique social and ecological conditions of individual forests, noting that 

a national policy lacks this sensitivity. Many commented that local managers are in the 

appropriate position to solve local management concerns. Some people commented that 

they oppose this rule and its national prohibitions not because of the nature of the 

prohibitions themselves, but because they prefer all issues to be addressed and resolved 

locally. 

In contrast, others commented that it is appropriate for the Forest Service to make 

decisions regarding roadless area protection at the national level because these issues 

have not been resolved in an expedient fashion at the local level, and because they 

believe that local officials are subject to the influence of local interest groups to the 

neglect of other interest groups and/or the majority of American opinion. Some 

commented that national forests are indeed “national” and thus should be considered at 

broader levels than just the local level. 

The State of Idaho announced in June 2005 that it would submit a petition requesting 

specific regulatory protections and certain management flexibility for the 9.3 million 

acres of Idaho Roadless Areas. To ensure there was opportunity for local involvement, 

the State invited affected county commissioners to develop specific recommendations 

for the Idaho Roadless Areas in their respective counties. Many counties sponsored 

public meetings; more than 50 public meetings were held. In addition, the general 

public was encouraged to send comments directly to the Governor’s Office for 

consideration. Criticism about the inclusiveness or representativeness of such meetings 

is not uncommon in public responses assessing the credibility of these activities. Some 

comments regarding the notice of intent and in response to the county meetings 

indicate these types of criticisms, highlighting the potential for impacts on the 

relationship of communities with the Forest Service. 
3.15 Social and Economics Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

272 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Lifestyle 

Lifestyle can be defined by the activities and patterns of behavior based on beliefs and 

values within a particular context. Lifestyle is expressed in customs, styles, or patterns 

of working, recreating, socializing, and other activities. Here, the lifestyle discussion 

indicates patterns of activity that can be affected by forest management and roadless 

area management decisions (Russell and Adams-Russell 2004, pg. 93). 

A relevant distinction is the differentiation of “urban” and “rural” lifestyles. Thirty-five 

of Idaho’s 44 counties are considered rural (no city with more than 20,000 residents). In 

2003, rural areas accounted for about 88 percent of the State in terms of area and 36 

percent of Idaho’s population. The remaining population is located in urban areas, 

particularly Ada, Canyon, and Kootenai Counties. The social fabric is stronger in rural 

areas, which have significantly fewer problems of crime, divorce, and teen pregnancy 

and greater community cohesiveness and spirit (Idaho Department of Commerce, 2005, 

pg. 3). 

Lifestyles in rural areas tend to have a more diverse and direct relationship with natural 

resources and public lands than most lifestyles in urban areas. There are about 

53,487,000 acres of land in Idaho, of which about 20,464,000 acres are NFS lands. The 

Federal Government manages approximately 63 percent of all Idaho lands. Idahoans do 

care about management of NFS lands, if for no other reason than it is difficult for them 

not to be affected by indirect and/or direct impacts. National Forest System lands are 

noteworthy components of the lifestyles in Idaho communities. For example, in a social 

assessment for the Clearwater and Nez Perce National Forests, Russell and AdamsRussell (2004) provide a succinct description of lifestyles for the northern part of Idaho, 

which has relevance for the entire State. 

“Lifestyles are customs and patterns of behavior. These are among the most 

straightforward aspects of community and social life that can be affected by forest 

management decisions. The characteristics of lifestyle identified by this work as 

noteworthy are occupation; recreation and outdoor activity; and, the integration of 

family, place, work, and recreation. To some extent these characteristics exist across 

the diverse lifestyles in the project area. Most lifestyles are associated with 

occupations connected to natural resource development such as ranching, farming, 

logging, mill work, and mining. Others are associated with the place of work such as 

rural towns and rural cities, where there is a more complex mix of people’s lives. 

Occupation is a common organizing characteristic of lifestyles, but it is by no means 

the only relevant attribute. For this discussion, the relevant point is the association of 

lifestyles with occupation and especially those occupations in the natural resource 

extraction industries. These lifestyles have emerged from the traditions of frontier 

settlement and they have now moved into what might be termed a “settled frontier” 

pattern in which there is a high value placed on the continued use of natural 

resources for community development and as a source of jobs to support and raise a 

family. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.15 Social and Economics

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 273 

A second noteworthy lifestyle characteristic is outdoor recreation and activity. These 

communities place a high value on the recreational amenities offered by the project 

area’s extraordinary landscape. The rivers, lakes, mountains, trails, wildlife, and 

wilderness areas are important resources because they enable the resident’s 

recreational lifestyles.... 

Hunting, fishing, hiking, trail riding, rafting, wildlife viewing, berry picking, bird 

watching, and a variety of other outdoor recreational activities are the past-times of 

people when they are not working. These activities are sometimes the occasion for 

family gatherings or otherwise reinforcing social bonds. 

The third noteworthy characteristic of lifestyles in these communities is the linkage 

of family, work, place, and recreation. This point is a logical conclusion from the first 

two lifestyle characteristics, but it is distinguished here to call attention to the value 

placed on living in a scenic rural environment offering ample recreation 

opportunities and the capability to work and support a family. 

Family work, place, and recreation are interdependent. The ability to raise a family 

in close proximity to scenic amenities coupled with ample recreation opportunities 

motivates a strong interest in any management action or plan affecting any one of 

these linked elements. These linkages... [Are] vulnerable to change.... (2004, pg. 99–

100).” 

This description suggests a tight linkage of activity patterns, values, and beliefs, with 

National Forest System lands. Combined with the ratio of public to private lands and 

the overall rural character of Idaho communities, this suggests the potential for impact 

on lifestyles from any management decision about Idaho Roadless Areas. 

SOCIAL—ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 

Analysis of the comments received in response to the notice of intent was conducted to 

prepare this EIS. As expected, most of the comments expressed were either “for” or 

“against” the Idaho Roadless Rule. As discussed earlier in this section, social 

assessments show strong support for a variety of uses occurring in certain areas. People 

who hold stronger convictions with respect to particular uses tend to be more vocal 

regarding their views; therefore, viewpoints that come forward, such as those expressed 

in public meetings and in letters, are often from people who strongly support an action, 

policy, or rule and those who strongly don’t. This causes a persistent debate between 

those two groups, and the debate tends to not engage others who are “somewhere in 

the middle.” This debate is driven in large measure by competing sets of values and 

viewpoints that include fundamental differences in a respondent’s: (1) background and 

way of life, (2) perception of the role of the forest, and (3) attitude about the role of 

government. 

Values, beliefs and lifestyles. A content analysis of the comments on the notice of 

intent indicates that there are strong proponents and strong opponents of the proposed 

rule. This analysis also indicates a strong expression of the “utilitarian” and “naturalist” 
3.15 Social and Economics Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

274 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

orientations to nature. These orientations appear to structure beliefs about what is 

acceptable or what is not in the management of Idaho Roadless Areas. 

Supporters of the proposed rule often identify themselves as persons who engage in 

motorized recreation on public lands or who, because of age or disability, are 

dependent on motorized access. Those who oppose the proposed rule are not as easily 

categorized. Although they generally do not identify themselves in terms of 

background and lifestyles, it is clear that the life experience of many opponents is 

rooted in a certain kind of relationship to forest lands, a relationship that clearly 

motivates a certain way of looking at the land. 

Thus, if road building were to occur in the Backcountry and the GFRG themes, those 

people in support of the proposed rule would likely be generally okay with that 

decision. Those who oppose the rule would not. 

Proponents of the proposed rule tend to see NFS lands in terms of the resources they 

offer for human use. Proponents see the forest as an ecosystem that, under proper 

management, is capable of providing a host of goods for human well-being, including 

numerous recreational opportunities. For these people, protection usually consists of 

managing these lands to ensure access, healthy forests, and sustained economic 

benefits. Hence, roads are viewed as necessary for some management activities 

including those that promote forest health, responsible and sustainable resource 

extraction, and emergency access; and that contribute to meeting increasing recreational 

demands. The failure to actively manage NFS lands, argue these people, would subject 

these lands to uncharacteristic insect infestations and catastrophic fire. They tend to see 

true protection as depending on active and prudent care of these lands. If timber cutting 

or mineral development were allowed in the Backcountry or in the GFRG themes, these 

people would likely evaluate the alternatives based on how they enhance economies or 

resource-dependent lifestyles and would generally be okay with that decision. They 

would support limited road construction/reconstruction in the Backcountry theme to 

facilitate timber cutting to improve forest health and reduce hazardous fuels. 

On the other hand, those opposing the proposed rule, favoring greater protection of 

Idaho Roadless Areas, tend to see forest lands as whole ecosystems that are disrupted 

by human activity. For those respondents, protection usually consists of leaving Idaho 

Roadless Areas alone to evolve naturally through their own dynamic processes. Persons 

holding this view place a high priority on environmental protection. They believe Idaho 

Roadless Areas should be protected for their own intrinsic value as undisturbed (by 

humans) wildland, for the benefit of wildlife, and for the benefits that these areas offer 

humans. These places are seen as important sources of clean drinking water and clean 

air, as a curb on climate changes, and as places of solitude and spiritual renewal. 

Opponents tend to hold an inclusive view of all living things; however, they are not 

entirely insensitive to the competing concerns of those whose sources of enjoyment 

and/or livelihood depend on more active uses of NFS lands. But ultimately, opponents 

believe that the need for roadless protection outweighs those other concerns, and that 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.15 Social and Economics

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 275 

those concerns can be mitigated—for example, through development of alternative 

materials and energy resources and the designation of less sensitive areas for motorized 

recreation. 

Those opposing the Idaho Roadless Rule tend to do so because they see it as less 

restrictive than the 2001 Roadless Rule, particularly in the GFRG theme. They are 

concerned the GFRG theme would not limit road construction/reconstruction, timber 

cutting, or discretionary mineral activities and that activities permitted on these lands 

would adversely affect roadless characteristics. They are also concerned about 

permitting limited road construction/reconstruction to support timber cutting in the 

Backcountry theme. They would likely evaluate alternatives in terms of the overall 

effect on intrinsic values or how they provide environmental and ecosystem service 

benefits. If road construction, timber cutting, motorized travel, or mineral development 

were allowed to occur or increase, these people generally would be dissatisfied and in 

opposition. 

Collaborative environment. Those people who support the proposed Idaho Roadless 

Rule generally favor a multiple-use management strategy that allows a wide range of 

uses. They appear to believe that the proposed rule would allow greater local 

participation and influence in management decisions regarding NFS lands within 

Idaho, and that land within Idaho are best managed by Idahoans.

Opponents of the proposed Idaho Roadless Rule generally express a preference for the 

2001 Roadless Rule, which provides management prohibitions for Idaho Roadless Areas 

and sets a national standard for the management of roadless areas within national 

forests. Opponents express concern that the proposed rule would give local 

governments and agencies too much authority over national resources and that these 

local entities too often prefer “development and exploitation over conservation.” They 

frequently note that NFS lands in Idaho are there for all Americans, not just those who 

live in Idaho. They assert that Idaho Roadless Areas are best managed at the national 

level because the lands are paid for by taxpayers throughout the country, not just those 

living in Idaho. These respondents believe that these Federal lands should not be 

managed for the economic benefit of residents from a single State. 

Proponents seem to perceive the Idaho Roadless Rule as resulting in a balance of State, 

local, and national interests. The Federal Government retains control of management 

and decision-making, but State’ rights are strengthened. Similarly, those who live 

nearby or adjacent to these lands and are likely to be most affected by their 

management have more direct input through the Governor’s Office; these same persons 

can provide locally informed input about forest conditions and management. 

Proponents argue this local input can improve overall management of Idaho Roadless 

Areas and adapt management needs to specific locations rather than a single approach 

to Idaho Roadless Area management. Proponents appear to accept the Federal role in 

roadless area management but argue for consideration of the local communities and 

economies most affected by national-level decision-making. 
3.15 Social and Economics Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

276 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

The State of Idaho’s intent is to contribute to a more positive governance environment 

and also to a more collaborative environment, with opportunities to collectively come 

up with solutions. One of the oft-expressed values of collaboration is that people get to 

participate in “the process,” and that such first-hand experience and involvement often 

provides better “buy-in.” Better buy-in, in turn, can foster better support and 

willingness from people to adhere to the designations. With this in mind, the Governor 

of Idaho established a roadless Rule Implementation Commission by Executive Order 

2006-43 to foster the collaborative development of any projects under the Idaho 

Roadless Rule. 

ECONOMIC CONTEXT—AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Terminology. To understand the economic context and consequences described in this 

document, it is important to clarify the meaning of some of the basic economic 

terminology used. In particular, the word “value” can mean multiple things depending 

on the context of its use. Public land valuation has been described with various 

frameworks by various authors, often leading to confusion and inconsistent application 

of economic terminology. 

Economics is the study of value tradeoffs used to allocate scarce resources to society. In 

economics, the value of a good or service is measured by what you would be willing to 

give up to obtain that good or service. An important distinction can first be drawn 

between use and non-use values. Use is actual interaction with the resource or roadless 

area, be it consumptive (which can involve renewable and non-renewable resources) or 

non-consumptive. 

There is a spectrum of use levels that constitute the total value of roadless lands to 

people at various geographic scales. The most obvious values are direct consumptive 

use values from activities such as timber cutting and mining. Recently, there has been a 

heightened recognition of the value of many indirect consumptive uses, such as the 

provision of clean air and clean water by natural systems such as roadless areas. There 

are also many non-consumptive use activities such as recreation and wildlife and 

scenery viewing. Less obvious indirect use values also exist, such as reading about and 

watching television programs based on the wildlife and ecosystems located in Idaho 

Roadless Areas. 

Finally, non-use values are the values that people derive from goods or services 

(including natural resources and public lands) that are independent of any use they 

may make of the good or service. These non-use values, which apply to Idaho Roadless 

Areas and the flora and fauna that live there, include existence, option, and bequest 

values (described in a later section). Although these values are often small on a personal 

basis, they extend over large geographic areas and, therefore, can be surprisingly large 

in total. The techniques used to estimate these values have improved in the past few 

decades, but relative comparisons are more readily accepted than total value estimates. 

Total economic value is the technically correct measurement to report existing economic 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.15 Social and Economics

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 277 

value. Marginal economic value (the change in economic value associated with an 

incremental or unit change in production or consumption), on the other hand, is the 

reporting measure most useful when exploring value tradeoffs stemming from 

proposed management options. 

Calculation of all of these types of values involves some combination of consumer 

expenditures and consumer surplus. Although expenditures related to timber cutting, 

mineral extraction and recreation in Idaho Roadless Areas can be impressive; they 

convey only the price multiplied by quantity information and cannot be used to 

describe total economic value. Expenditures are the market clearing price multiplied by 

the equilibrium quantity of any good or service. Expenditures and revenues are 

components of costs and benefits, respectively. However, these are only the financial 

components of total costs and benefits. Consumer surplus is the amount of willingness 

to pay above the price in a market transaction (referred to as the net economic value or 

benefits minus costs). For example, the value of timber (cut to support hazardous fuel 

reduction) upwind of communities at risk is not simply the cost to cut and transport 

logs to a processing facility; the stumpage value also includes additional value not 

captured by the cost to obtain the resource alone. 

In many cases, true markets are not available to help economists’ measure land 

management values. For example, expenditures associated with recreational use in 

roadless areas may be the amount of money spent to access and participate in an 

activity. Methods such as the travel cost method have been applied to calculate the 

money spent to obtain specific recreation experiences. Although, through the use of 

standard microeconomic theory, both the demand for and value of these experiences 

can be calculated, obtaining the data to perform this analysis is often prohibitively 

expensive. In this example, the travel cost method relies on expenditure information, 

but expenditures should not be confused with total economic value, which is the sum of 

both consumer expenditures and consumer surplus. 

While expenditure data alone do not convey total valuation information, they do 

illuminate an important idea, analyst perspective (Boardman et al. 1996, pg. 12). 

Expenditures represent costs to consumers but at the same time they represent revenues 

to various industries. This distinction helps explain why estimates of changes to jobs 

and income, called regional economic impacts, that accrue to an economic area as a 

result of changes to consumer demand cannot be summed with the total economic 

values of people willing to pay for goods and services from Idaho Roadless Areas. 

Accidentally summing these figures would result in double counting values that 

represent both costs and benefits accruing to the two distinct groups, with two different 

analytic perspectives. That is not to say that economic impacts are not important, which 

they are, but it explains why they are detailed and ascribed to the five Idaho economic 

areas and are summarized below. 
3.15 Social and Economics Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

278 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Economic Non-commodity Values 

Non-commodity Values. NFS lands provide a variety of non-commodity benefits to 

society. Examples include clean air, clean water, recreation opportunities, aesthetics, 

and biodiversity protection. Recreation values are associated with developed and 

primitive, motorized and non-motorized uses of the national forests and grasslands. 

Table 3-56 shows that, according to the National Visitor Use Monitoring (NVUM) 

surveys conducted between 2000 and 2004 (USDA Forest Service, 2004e), the top seven 

primary recreation activities on the 10 Idaho national forests were hunting, viewing 

natural features, downhill skiing, snowmobiling, relaxing, fishing, and developed 

camping. Other activities that constitute the top three on any given national forest 

include hiking, walking, and sightseeing. Unfortunately, the data collection protocols 

used for the NVUM do not currently have sampling techniques capable of sorting out 

activities specific to Idaho Roadless Areas. 

The rough terrain in many roadless areas restricts road-based development, and this 

has limited human access and by default maintained the wild and scenic characteristics 

in these areas that support many of the primary activities listed above. These wild and 

scenic qualities attract adventurous recreational visitors for both consumptive and nonconsumptive visitation. While wilderness areas are often noted as hotspots for 

outfitting, guiding, hunting, and fishing, many of these designated areas start at a 

ridgeline, making the area only slightly visible from scenic highways. Idaho Roadless 

Areas, in contrast, often surround these designated areas; they provide an area between 

actively and passively managed NFS lands and provide opportunities for scenic 

viewing of lands with a very natural appearance. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.15 Social and Economics

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 279 

Table 3-56. Primary recreation activities on Idaho national forests based on national visitor use monitoring 

surveys 

All Idaho 

forests Boise Clearwater 

CaribouTarghee Idaho 

Panhandle 

Nez 

Perce Payette 

SalmonChallis Sawtooth 

Number of national 

forest visits* 7,906,315 1,422,516 726,073 2,449,099 787,975 731,535 619,094 348,741 821,292 

Lower bound 

80% CI** 7,553,816 1,281,759 606,511 2,188,984 721,627 614,182 583,893 322,865 772,192 

Upper bound 

80% CI 8,258,814 1,563,273 845,635 2,709,194 854,323 848,888 654,295 374,617 870,392 

Percent primary activity participation*** 

Developed 

camping 6.2 11.2 5.8 6.2 2.8 6.5 2.5 3.2 5.8 

Primitive camping 2.8 0.2 5.7 3.6 0.9 6.8 2.2 1.4 1.0 

Backpacking 0.9 0.4 0.6 1.3 0.5 1.1 0.5 0.6 1.0 

Resort use 0.8 2.3 0.0 0.1 1.3 1.9 0.3 0.2 0.6 

Picnicking 2.1 1.7 1.2 1.4 2.3 36.0 1.0 0.9 5.1 

Viewing natural 

features 12.0 17.3 9.5 13.0 11.7 12.4 6.8 5.5 8.3 

Visiting historic 

sites 0.5 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.7 0.9 1.2 3.2 0.1 

Nature center 

activities 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.1 

Nature study 0.1 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.1 

Relaxing 11.2 6.0 23.5 2.6 9.0 17.0 9.4 8.0 23.6 

Fishing 7.9 8.3 10.2 8.0 6.3 8.1 8.4 16.4 2.1 

Hunting 15.4 18.6 7.8 21.2 16.9 14.2 13.2 16.0 2.9 

OHV use 4.2 0.1 3.6 8.4 6.0 3.0 2.5 2.6 1.3 

Driving for pleasure 3.6 0.7 3.0 4.3 6.9 3.1 5.5 8.1 1.0 

Snowmobiling 11.2 10.0 6.4 25.8 1.0 4.7 4.8 0.1 1.1 

Motorized water 

activities 1.0 2.6 0.0 0.4 0.5 2.4 0.9 0.0 0.9 

Other motorized 

activity 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 

Hiking/walking 4.6 1.4 5.3 1.2 11.4 5.0 4.6 12.1 8.9 

Horseback riding 0.3 0.0 0.1 0.2 1.0 0.2 0.3 1.0 0.5 

Bicycling 1.7 0.3 0.9 2.1 4.6 0.0 1.8 0.0 2.9 

Non-motorized 

Water 1.3 3.3 0.3 0.1 0.9 3.9 1.2 1.4 0.5 

Downhill skiing 11.3 20.1 2.3 5.6 2.8 0.1 14.9 0.0 40.4 

Cross-country 

skiing 3.3 6.2 7.7 1.6 0.3 6.4 0.7 0.0 2.1 

Other nonmotorized 1.4 3.4 0.3 0.4 1.8 1.6 2.1 2.1 0.8 

Gathering forest 

products 1.4 0.3 1.7 0.0 8.8 1.5 4.6 0.7 0.0 

Viewing wildlife 3.5 1.2 6.3 1.9 4.2 

Sightseeing 2.8 1.0 3.2 13.4 0.5 

No activity reported 5.6 2.7 8.7 0.1 10.5 9.6 18.3 14.4 3.2 

* National forest visits are annual figures compiled from a single year of sampling that occurred between 2000 and 2004. 

** CI = confidence interval. The sampling design allows estimation of upper and lower estimates around the mean at the 0.8 confidence level; these 

form the limits of the confidence interval. *** Survey respondents were asked to select just one primary activity. 
3.15 Social and Economics Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

280 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Amenities and Environmental Functions, Many people who hold ecological values 

(described in the social section as “naturalists”) view NFS lands as valuable because of 

the life-supporting environmental functions and services (for example, provision of 

clear air and clean water) they provide. Recent attempts have been made to quantify 

some of these ecological values as both amenity values and ecosystem services values. 

When prices are not charged for Idaho Roadless Areas goods or services, such that 

expenditures are not required to experience benefits from a roadless area, the total 

economic value can be described simply by revealing the consumer surplus. 

In the past economists focused solely on market or observable portions of valuation. 

Amenity values from land management resources, on the other hand, do not have 

traditional markets to convey value information. Webster’s dictionary (1984, pg. 100) 

defines an amenity as the quality of being pleasant or attractive, a feature that increases 

attractiveness or value, especially a piece of property and also as something that 

increases physical or material comfort. These amenities represent a combination of 

direct and indirect use and have been estimated recently with hedonic54 pricing models 

typically applied to real estate markets. For example, Garrod and Willis (1992) found 

that distance to woodland and water both raised house prices in Great Britain; Powe et 

al. (1997) investigated the amenity benefits gained by local residents from access to 

recreation sites; and Kim and Johnson (2002) added consideration of forest management 

near houses, noting that visible recent clearcuts reduced house values in Oregon. This is 

important in the analyses because the various alternatives contain different mixes of 

land management emphases that make subtle adjustments to the level of amenities 

supplied to the American public. 

These amenities also attract new residents and help retain long-time residents who 

collectively help support the quality of life and economic vitality. As Idaho transitions 

to a new century, there is a heightened awareness of the value of the national forests as 

a source of national ecosystem health, unique habitats and wildlife setting, and magnets 

for new residents. Several authors have published both theoretical and empirical 

articles describing how high-amenity physical settings are attracting both tourism and 

new business to the Western United States (Johnson and Rasker 1995, Beale and 

Johnson 1998). Public lands and opportunities for adventure and solitude associated 

with the Idaho Roadless Areas clearly fall within the class of public lands believed by 

these authors to be directly affecting settlement patterns. Other evidence supports the 

relationship between high population growth and areas with high recreation use 

(Johnson and Beale 1994). Ashton and Pickens (1995) found that recreation counties 

tend to be diversifying more rapidly than non-recreation counties, attributing this to 

Forest Service multiple-use policy that provides an environment that attracts both 

tourists and permanent residents to the area. Rasker (1994) and Power (1998, pg. 1-56) 

have emphasized the role of a high-quality natural environment, scenic beauty, and 

recreation opportunities in influencing population growth and shaping local economies. 

 

54 Models where value is a function of quality. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.15 Social and Economics

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 281 

Air purification, hydrologic system function, maintenance of biodiversity, pollination, 

waste filtration, carbon sequestration, and other ecosystem services occur daily on all 

NFS lands including Idaho Roadless Areas. Their value as biological strongholds for 

terrestrial and aquatic plants and wildlife and as sources of clean water have become 

increasingly important as habitat loss, nonnative species invasions, and development 

continues to occur on other NFS lands and other lands nationally. For example, dams, 

water diversions, stream-channel control projects, and development have affected more 

than three million miles, or about 98 percent, of the streams in the United States. In 

every State in this country, the Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA 1998) has 

found stream and lake sediments polluted by contaminants from surrounding 

watersheds, and EPA estimates that about 10 percent of the stream and lake sediments 

in the United States contain contaminate levels sufficiently high to pose risks to fishconsuming wildlife and humans. In the mid-1980s, the U.S. Geological Survey 

estimated that the number of wetland habitat acres in the contiguous United States has 

diminished more than 50 percent since European colonization in the early 1600s; the 

estimated change has been from 221 million acres to 103 million acres (USDI Geological 

Survey 1996). With the exception of Alaska, few large, relatively undisturbed areas 

remain in this country outside of designated wilderness areas—which increases the 

relative value of the waters, wetlands, and other habitats that roadless areas support, 

and the biological diversity that they foster. While attempts to quantify the total 

economic value of these ecosystem services are underway across the world, debate 

persists regarding the magnitude of these values. 

Non-use values from Idaho Roadless Areas. Non-use values can be another important 

consideration in management decisions. Non-use values are often difficult to measure 

because they are not consumptive values and in most cases they involve no purchase or 

direct use by those who benefit from them. Through both studies and contributions to 

conservation organizations, many Americans have demonstrated a willingness to 

protect wildlife and habitat in the remaining wild areas of North America, even though 

they will never interact with or use these resources. Krutilla (1967) and Krutilla and 

Fischer (1975) were responsible for publishing the first discussion of existence values, 

which is now seen by many as a real part of the willingness to pay for wildlife 

conservation and open space preservation. 

The aquatic and terrestrial wildlife section of this statement describes the current status 

of many wildlife species whose existence is extremely valuable to many Americans. 

With many of these species showing general declines in population and adverse 

reactions to resource development, the significance and value of Idaho Roadless Areas 

as wildlife refuge areas is clear. In general these roadless areas are relatively free of nonnative weeds infestation, habitat fragmentation, and human-caused disturbances that 

threaten many wildlife species and are harmful to watershed health, making them 

strong contributors to existence values. 

A similar non-use value associated with Idaho Roadless Areas is option value, a term 

coined in Weisbrod’s (1964) first discussion on the topic. Like other options in financial 
3.15 Social and Economics Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

282 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

markets, this value is what people are willing to pay to have the option to use or enjoy 

use and existence values in the future. This option value is a distinct value, in addition 

to the existence value mentioned above. The next category of value in the non-use realm 

is bequest value. Like option value, the willingness to pay for this value derives from 

future persistence, but in this case it relates to the ability to pass use, existence, and 

option values to future generations. 

Arrow and Fisher (1974) added the term quasi-option value to the non-use value 

literature, defining it as the willingness to pay to delay an irreversible decision. The 

reason authors gave for the value of delaying irreversible decisions was to prevent the 

potential value loss of wildlife-related benefits to humans. These benefits may come in 

the form of yet undeveloped health-related products such as plant extracts useful for 

manufacturing or through the future recognition of wildlife social structures useful for 

business organization. For these reasons, quasi-option value is offered as an additional 

reason to preserve remaining intact ecosystems. 

The non-use values described above can extend well beyond the jurisdictional 

boundaries circumscribing lands affected by management changes. That is to say, many 

people across the country obtain value from the land, flora, and fauna in the Idaho 

Roadless Areas. Simply accounting for the values of people of Idaho would likely 

neglect a large portion of the non-use values held for these areas. For example, after 

studying four natural resource public goods in the United States, Loomis (2000) made a 

general statement about how State and economic value jurisdictions compare for nonuse value. He stated that “the results indicate commonly used state and political 

jurisdictions reflect an average of 13 percent of total benefits in the economic 

jurisdiction.” 

The understanding of the impact of management emphasis changes on non-use values 

attached to Idaho Roadless Areas is further complicated by the recent recognition that 

healthy forests systems are dynamic and require disturbance. When most of the non-use 

values emerged in the literature, the forestry community’s understanding of ecosystem 

dynamics was far less mature; therefore, the ideas of preserving a static condition were 

more credible in terms of maintaining ecosystem health and the associated non-use 

values. 

Economic Commodity Values 

Commodities (such as wood products, wildlife-related recreation, minerals, range).

Commodities produced from NFS lands provide benefits to society in a variety of 

products. These include timber and non-timber forest products (sawlogs, roundwood, 

herbs, mushrooms, decorative boughs, and other greens); metals; minerals; crude oil; 

natural gas; and meat. Many people appreciate both the commodity and noncommodity values of NFS lands. They view humans as trying to make use of natural 

resources on a sustained yield basis to meet their needs (Grumbine 1999) and see a role 

of NFS lands as providing goods and services for people. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.15 Social and Economics

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 283 

Moving along the spectrum of non-commodity toward commodity uses, hunting and 

fishing is an important activity on Idaho National forests. The roadless areas in Idaho 

provide core habitat supporting abundant game species that provide pursuit and 

dietary subsistence opportunities; as well as wide-ranging carnivore species that now 

persist only in limited areas of the Nation. The aquatic and terrestrial wildlife sections 

of this statement disclose how important many of Idaho’s Roadless Areas are in 

supporting habitat for many species facing rapid population declines. 

Several studies have been done in Idaho to estimate the value of some of the popular 

wildlife-related recreation activities in Idaho. The relative magnitude of expenditures 

compared to consumer surplus varies based on many factors. For example, several 

decades ago Sorg and Loomis (1985) estimated that the gross value of a cold-water 

fishing trip in Idaho was $80 (which was worth roughly $125 in 2004 dollars when 

adjusted for inflation with the gross domestic product (GDP) deflator). This represented 

roughly $37 per trip in expenditures (for example, transportation, food, lodging, tackle), 

plus $43 per trip in consumer surplus (that is, the amount the typical angler would be 

willing to pay over and above actual expenditures). Similarly, Sorg and Nelson (1986) 

also estimated that net willingness to pay in addition to actual expenditures for elk 

hunting in Idaho ranged from $52 to $100 ($87 to $167 in 2004 dollars) per trip in 1982 

and 1983. These are just two examples of how values accrue to people through social 

and personal benefits. 

Phosphate production from NFS lands has increased since the mid-1980s, both in total 

quantity and as a proportion of domestic production. Western production will remain 

important for providing raw material for fertilizer in the western region and for 

production of elemental phosphorous (Jasinski 1999). Most western NFS production 

occurs on the Caribou portion of the Caribou-Targhee National Forest, accounting for 

about 15 percent of domestic production in 2001 (USDA Forest Service 2003). Oil and 

gas mining, on the other hand, is not occurring in Idaho Roadless Areas; there are no 

existing oil and gas leases in these areas. Saleable minerals in Idaho Roadless Areas are 

also negligible across the State. 

The full extent of Idaho’s geothermal resource has yet to be discovered. The Geothermal 

Task Force of the Western Governor’s Association estimated that Idaho has 855 megawatts (MW) of near-term economic potential reserves (by 2015) and 1,670 MW of longterm potential (by 2025). Apart from this specific site resource estimate, there is no 

overall estimate of geothermal resource capacity in Idaho Roadless Areas. 

There has been some timber cutting in Idaho Roadless Areas between 2001 and 2004, 

with sales operating in the Idaho Panhandle, Nez Perce, and Sawtooth National Forests, 

totaling about 950 acres (roughly 1.5 square miles) and producing approximately 8.5 

million board feet (MMBF) of timber. As forest plans have been revised in recent years, 

there has been a substantial decrease in the allowable timber sale quantity and areas 

designated as suitable for timber cutting. This decrease in timber cutting reflects the 

increased recognition that roadless areas are important for ecological and human-
3.15 Social and Economics Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

284 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

centered reasons. It also shifted the environmental effects of U.S. wood fiber 

consumption to Canada and the southern United States (MacCleery and LeMaster 

1999). Overall, NFS lands supply approximately 2 percent of the Nation’s wood 

products. Idaho Roadless Areas provide up to 7 percent of the Forest Service’s total 

timber cutting, or about one-third of 1 percent of the national supply. While this 7 

percent is small in comparison to the national program, it can be important to the 

economies of certain local communities. 

Timber Revenue and Costs. The Forest Service spends money to prepare timber sales, 

do environmental analyses, and conduct other administrative and planning activities 

associated with timber sales. However, the Forest Service does not necessarily recover 

its costs from timber sales; therefore, costs may exceed revenues (Table 3-57). Timber 

sales on national forests are conducted for a number of reasons other than for 

commodity purposes. Many sales are conducted to meet other resource management 

objectives that require the manipulation of vegetation, such as improved wildlife 

habitat, hazardous fuels reduction, and forest health. 

Table 3-57 provides information on the costs and revenues associated with timber sales 

in Idaho’s national forests. Revenue data were compiled from Sold and Harvest Reports 

compiled by the Northern and Intermountain Regions. The average revenue figures 

below were calculated using a 3-year average (fiscal years 2004–2006) of timber volumes 

and values (adjusted for inflation to 2006 dollars) for forest products sold on the 

national forests.55 

 

55 Recent information on timber management costs were not readily available because of changes in how 

these items are tracked in the agency’s accounting system. Therefore, information obtained from the 

Forest Service Washington Office on timber management outlays for fiscal years 2000 to 2002 was used to 

provide estimates of timber management costs for Idaho’s national forests, and these costs were adjusted 

to reflect 2006 costs. Costs used in this analysis included silvicultural exams, sale preparation, harvest 

administration, and appeals and litigation. The sum of costs for the 3 years (after adjusting to 2006 

dollars) was divided by the sum of timber volumes sold during the period 2004 to 2006 to arrive at the 

average cost figures shown in the table. For most Idaho national forests, average net revenue per million 

board feet was negative, ranging from a negative $6/MBF for the Nez Perce National Forest to a negative 

$90/MBF for the Salmon-Challis. Average net revenue was positive for two forests, the Idaho Panhandle 

and the Clearwater. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.15 Social and Economics

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 285 

Table 3-57. Average annual revenues and costs and average net revenue for Idaho National Forest timber 

sale programs (2004–2006) 

Average revenue 

per MBF* 

Average cost 

per MBF 

Average net revenue 

per MBF 

Forest ---------- dollars ---------- 

Region 1 

Idaho Panhandle 148 141 7 

Clearwater 156 120 36 

Nez Perce 71 77 -6 

Region 4 

Boise 51 101 -50 

Payette 117 238 -121 

Salmon-Challis 35 125 -90 

Sawtooth 48 100 -52 

Caribou-Targhee 96 125 -29 

* MBF=thousand board feet 

Revenue Sharing. In the mid-1800s, as Federal lands began to be reserved from 

disposal, local governments became concerned about lost property tax revenues 

because these Federal lands were not subject to property taxation. Therefore, starting in 

the early 20th century, the Forest Service was directed to share 25 percent of its revenues 

with local governments for the benefit of public schools or roads. This was followed 

over the years by other revenue-sharing legislation (such as the Taylor Grazing Act and 

Refuge Revenue Sharing Act), but the controversy over revenue-sharing continued 

because of two main issues. First, revenue sharing was tied to the value and amount of 

the products sold, both of which fluctuate from year to year, so revenue-sharing was an 

undependable source of income for local governments. Second, many felt that the 

amount of the payments was too low compared to the taxes these lands would have 

generated if privately held. 

To alleviate some of these problems, in 1976 Payment in Lieu of Taxes (PILT) legislation 

was passed to provide an additional, and more stable, source of Federal land payments. 

However, over the years revenue-sharing payments began to falter, as harvests from 

Federal timber lands declined and Congress continued to fail to appropriate the funds 

necessary to fully fund the PILT program. In 2000, the Secure Rural School and 

Community Self-Determination Act (SRSA) was enacted to provide transitional 

payments to rural counties affected by declining revenue-sharing payments. Counties 

receiving 25 percent fund payments were given the option of continuing these 

payments or switching to the SRSA, which provides payments based on a county’s prorata share of each State’s average high-three payments from the old system (1986–1999) 

(Gebert et al. 2005, 2004). This legislation ran through fiscal year 2006. However, in 

May, 2007, Congress extended the act for an additional year and legislation has been 

proposed to extend it through 2013. 

As long as the SRSA remains in effect, these payments would remain the same (except 

for adjustments for inflation) regardless of alternative. However, should this legislation 
3.15 Social and Economics Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

286 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

lapse, payments would once again be based upon the resources extracted and the prices 

those resources command on the market. In recent history, such payments have been 

substantially less than those received under the SRSA. Additionally, if the SRSA is not 

extended, the payments received by counties would differ depending on alternative 

because of the various amounts of timber harvested. 

State-level economic profile. The Idaho economy is a diverse economy with a blend of 

industries such as agriculture, manufacturing, services, and government accounting for 

a large proportion of economic activity. Based on industry output, manufacturing is by 

far the largest contributor to the Idaho economy with approximately 23 percent of the 

total output (appendix J, table J-2). 

Wood products manufacturing contributes nearly 4 percent of total output and 1.5 to 

2.5 percent of employment, value added, and labor income. Mining makes up a very 

small part of the Idaho economy, accounting for less than 1 percent of output, 

employment, labor income, and value added. Road construction also accounts for less 

than 1 percent of Idaho’s total output, employment, labor income, and value-added. 

BEA Economic Areas 

Economic Profile. Tables J3–J7 in appendix J display economic information for each of 

the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) areas using 2004 Impact Analysis for Planning 

(IMPLAN) data (Minnesota IMPLAN 2006). The tables provide a snap shot of each BEA 

economic area from an industry-by-industry perspective measured by employment, 

labor income (payments to employees and proprietors), industry output (sales), and 

value added to inputs. 

North Idaho 

North Idaho is a diverse economy dominated by manufacturing, government, and 

service-related industries. Based on industry output, manufacturing and government 

are the largest contributors to the North Idaho economy, each accounting for 

approximately 15.8 percent of total output. Services, especially health and social 

services, is also a relatively large contributor from the standpoint of industry output, as 

is retail trade and construction. Based on employment (18.1 percent of the total), labor 

income (23.9 percent of the total), and value added (25.1 percent), the government 

sector contributes the largest relative share to the North Idaho economy. Retail trade, 

health and social services, manufacturing, and construction also have relatively large 

shares of employment, labor income, and value added (appendix J, table J-3). 

Central Idaho 

Based on industry output, the largest sector in the Central Idaho economy is the wood 

products industry, which contributes approximately 23.1 percent of Central Idaho’s 

total output. However, based on employment (18.5 percent of the total), labor income 

(23.6 percent of the total), and value added (24.4 percent), the government sector 

contributes the largest relative share to the Central Idaho economy. Retail trade, health 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.15 Social and Economics

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 287 

and social services, and wood products also have relatively large shares of employment, 

labor income, and value added. Mining and road construction make up a very small 

part of the Central Idaho economy, each accounting for less than 1 percent of output, 

employment, labor income, and value added (appendix J, table J-4). 

South Central Idaho 

The South Central Idaho economy is dominated by agriculture, manufacturing, and 

services. Based on industry output, manufacturing is the largest contributor to the 

South Central Idaho economy, with approximately 24.0 percent of the total output. 

Manufacturing is followed closely, in terms of output, by the agriculture, forestry, 

hunting and fishing sector, which contributes 21.3 percent of total output. Government 

is also a relatively large contributor from the standpoint of industry output. Based on 

employment, labor income, and value-added, government and agriculture contribute 

the largest relative shares to the South Central Idaho economy. Agriculture comes in 

first with respect to employment, contributing 15.1 percent of South Central Idaho’s 

total employment. In terms of labor income and value-added, government contributes 

the largest share ,with 15.6 percent of labor income and 17.6 percent of value-added, 

with agriculture a close second, and manufacturing coming in third. 

Wood products manufacturing contributes around 1 percent of total output, labor 

income, and value added, and less than 1 percent of employment. Mining also makes 

up a very small part of the South Central Idaho economy, accounting for less than 0.5 

percent of output, employment, labor income, and value added. Road construction is 

slightly higher, contributing about 1 percent of labor income and less than 1 percent of 

total output, employment, and value-added (appendix J, table J-5). 

Boise Idaho 

The Boise economy is a diverse economy, with the largest sectors being manufacturing, 

government, and service-related industries. Based on industry output, manufacturing is 

the largest contributor to the Boise economy, with approximately 27.2 percent of the 

total output. Government, construction, and services are also relatively large 

contributors from the standpoint of industry output. Based on employment (13.1 

percent of the total), labor income (18.9 percent of the total), and value added (20.3 

percent), the government sector contributes the largest relative share to the Boise 

economy. Retail trade, health and social services, and construction also have relatively 

large shares of employment, labor income, and value added. 

Wood products manufacturing contributes 1.6 percent of total output in the Boise area. 

Wood products manufacturing also accounts for about 1 percent of the total Boise 

economy as measured by employment, labor income, and value-added. Road 

construction accounts for slightly less than 1 percent of the Boise economy, regardless of 

the measure used, while mining makes up less than 0.5 percent (appendix J, table J-6). 
3.15 Social and Economics Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

288 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Southeast Idaho 

The Southeast Idaho economy is dominated by manufacturing, government, and 

service-related industries. Based on industry output, manufacturing is the largest 

contributor to the Southeast Idaho economy, accounting for approximately 22.1 percent 

of total output. Services, especially professional scientific and technical services, and 

government are also relatively large contributors from the standpoint of industry 

output at about 12 percent each. Based on employment (15.9 percent of the total), labor 

income (19.6 percent of the total), and value added (21.2 percent), the government 

sector contributes the largest relative share to the Southeast Idaho economy. Based on 

employment, retail trade is the next largest contributor to the economy at 11 percent. 

However, based upon labor income and value-added, professional scientific and 

technical services surpasses retail trade, accounting for 18.4 percent of labor income and 

13.1 percent of value-added. Wood products manufacturing, mining, and road 

construction each contributes less than 1 percent of total output, employment, labor 

income, and value added in Southeast Idaho (appendix J, table J-7). 

Economic dependency, The National Forest-Dependent Rural Communities Economic 

Diversification Act of 1990 was passed to provide assistance to rural communities that 

are located in or near national forests and are economically dependent on forest 

resources or are likely to be economically disadvantaged by Federal or private sector 

natural resource or land management practices. The act specifies several eligibility 

criteria for program assistance for counties, including proximity to national forests 

(within 100 miles), exclusion from any metropolitan statistical area (as defined by the 

U.S. Office of Management and Budget), and total labor income (equal to or greater 

than 15 percent from forestry resources). Distribution of labor income attributable to 

forest- or wildland-related industries, including primary and secondary labor income 

effects, was recently estimated to assess changes in eligibility status; distributions are 

estimated using 2000 data (Gebert and Odell 2007). 

A list of natural resource dependent counties was developed for this analysis (table 3-

58). Appendix J describes how this list was developed. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.15 Social and Economics

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 289 

Table 3-58. Natural-resource-dependent counties in Idaho economic areas potentially affected by the Idaho 

Roadless Rule 

Counties where potential opportunities decrease under the 

Idaho Roadless Rule a

Bureau of Economic 

Analysis economic area Wood products b

 Mining-dependent counties c

North Boundary, Bonner, Kootenai, Benewah, 

Shoshone, (ID), Ferry (WA), Latah, 

Pend Oreille (WA) 

Stevens (WA) 

None 

Central Clearwater (ID), Lewis, Nez Perce, Asotin 

(WA) 

None 

Southeast Bear Lake Caribou, Oneida, Power, and 

Bannock 

South Central None None 

Boise None d None 

a

 Counties not listed would see no change or potential increases in opportunities under the Idaho Roadless Rule. b

 No counties were identified where wood products opportunities would decrease under the Idaho Roadless Rule 

relative to the 2001 Roadless Rule. 

C

 Mining-dependent counties (likely to see increases in opportunities under the Idaho Roadless Rule compared to the 

2001 Roadless Rule). d

 Fewer than 200 acres, scattered across three counties within the Boise BEA were found where opportunities would 

decrease. 

COMMODITY VALUES—ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

2001 Roadless Rule prohibits road construction/reconstruction actions, except those 

associated with seven exceptions, and prohibits timber cutting, sale, or removal, with 

some exceptions. Table 3-59 displays the foreseeable outputs in Idaho Roadless Areas, 

by economic area, based on the 2001 Roadless Rule. Some timber cutting would be 

permitted for ecosystem restoration and hazardous fuel reduction purposes. No road 

construction is permitted to support timber cutting for these purposes. Timber cutting is 

projected to occur on about 1,500 acres over the next 15 years, primarily within the 

North Idaho area. 

Road construction/reconstruction associated with existing mineral leases would 

continue; therefore, phosphate mining on existing leases on the Caribou-Targhee 

National Forest would continue. About 2,000,000 tons of phosphate deposits are 

projected to be removed over the foreseeable future (15 years) in the Southeast Idaho 

economic area. 

About 15 miles of road would likely be constructed associated with roaded access to 

existing leases or areas associated with valid existing rights over the next 15 years. 

Fifteen miles of road decommissioning are projected to occur under the 2001 Roadless 

Rule. 
3.15 Social and Economics Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

290 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Phosphate mining on 13,400 acres in known unleased phosphate areas on the CaribouTarghee National Forest would not occur under the 2001 Roadless Rule. This mining is 

not anticipated to occur within the foreseeable future (next 15 years); however, under 

the 2001 Roadless Rule these areas would never be developed, foregoing any future 

economic contributions from this activity. 

Table 3-59. Annual forest level outputs, 2001 Roadless Rule, summarized by BEA EA1

Bureau of Economic Analysis 

economic area 

Harvest 

(MBF)

Phosphate 

(tons)

Road 

decommissioning 

(miles)

Roads 

(miles)

North 483 0 1 0.85

Central 20 0 0 0.04

Southeast 59 2,000,000 0 0.10

South central 3 0 0 0.01

Boise 2 0 0 0.00

Total 567 2,000,000 1 1.00

MBF=thousand board feet 

1 Forest-specific data may be found in the socioeconomic specialist report in the project record.

Employment and Labor Income. Table 3-60 displays the average annual estimated 

employment and labor income resulting from the IMPLAN input-output modeling for 

each economic impact area based on the forest-level outputs projected from the 2001 

Roadless Rule (table 3-59). 

In North Idaho activities allowed under the 2001 Roadless Rule would annually 

contribute roughly 12 part- and full-time jobs to the 409,975 existing jobs and 

approximately $350,000 in labor income to the more than $15 billion in existing labor 

income (appendix J, table J-8). The most notable sectors affected would be agriculture 

and manufacturing and to a lesser degree healthcare and retail trade (appendix J, table 

J-8). Overall, contributions to North Idaho’s diverse economy would be less than 1 

percent. 

In Central Idaho, the 2001 Roadless Rule would annually contribute no part- and fulltime jobs to the existing 47,000 jobs and approximately $10,000 in labor income to the 

existing $1.6 billion in labor income (appendix J, table J-9). No sectors would be 

affected. Overall, contributions to the existing economy (the largest sector being the 

wood products industry) would be less than 1 percent. 

In South Central Idaho, the 2001 Roadless Rule would annually contribute no part- and 

full-time jobs to the existing 107,000 jobs and approximately $3,000 in labor income to 

the existing $3.4 billion in labor income (appendix J, table J-10). No sectors would be 

affected. Overall, contributions to South Central Idaho’s diverse economy would be 

minimal. 

In Boise Idaho, the 2001 Roadless Rule would annually contribute no part- and full-time 

jobs to the existing 404,000 jobs and approximately $4,000 in labor income to the $15 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.15 Social and Economics

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 291 

billion in annual labor income (appendix J, table J-11). No sectors would be affected. 

Overall, contributions to Boise Idaho’s diverse economy would be minimal. 

In Southeast Idaho, the 2001 Roadless Rule would annually contribute 585 part- and 

full-time jobs to the existing 185,000 jobs and approximately $23.6 million in labor 

income to the existing $6.5 billion in labor income (appendix J, table J-12). The jobs and 

labor income are associated with continuation of phosphate mining under existing 

leases. Mining and agricultural sectors would be affected most in this economic sector, 

as well as accommodations, food services, retail, transportation, wholesale, and other 

service sectors. Overall, contributions to the Southeast Idaho’s existing economy (the 

largest sector being the mining industry) would be less than 1 percent. 

Table 3-60. Part- and full-time jobs contributed annually and labor income (in thousands of dollars) by Forest 

Service resource programs under the 2001 Roadless Rule 

North ID Central ID South Central ID Boise Southeast 

Resource 

program 

Jobs 

(#) 

Labor 

income 

(thousand $) 

Jobs 

(#) 

Labor 

income 

(thousand $) 

Jobs 

(#) 

Labor 

income 

(thousand $) 

Jobs 

(#) 

Labor 

income 

(thousand 

$) 

Jobs 

(#) 

Labor 

income 

(thousand $) 

Recreation 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 

Wildlife & fish 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 

Grazing 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 

Timber 11 297.8 0 10.4 0 0.9 0 4.0 2 30.2 

Minerals 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 582 23,543.1 

Roads 1 51.8 0 0.0 0 1.7 0 0.0 1 43.3 

Payments to 

States/countie

s 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 

FS 

expenditures 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 

Total forest 

mgmt 12 349.6 0 10.4 0 2.6 0 4.0 585 23,616.6 

Existing Plans 

About 3,452,000 acres within Idaho Roadless Areas have Existing Plan prescriptions 

that limit activities, especially those prescriptions that recommend the area for 

wilderness or manage the area for its primitive character. About 4,224,500 acres within 

Idaho Roadless Areas have prescriptions that permit road construction/reconstruction, 

timber cutting, and discretionary mineral activity to some degree. Similarly, about 

1,262,400 acres are in a management prescription similar to GFRG. Road 

construction/reconstruction, timber cutting, and discretionary mineral activity would 

be permitted. 

Potential timber harvest under Existing Plans over the next 15 years is projected to 

occur on about 42,000 acres, with around 46 percent coming from the North Idaho 

economic area and 38 percent from the Central Idaho economic area (Table 3-61). About 

165 miles of road construction/reconstruction are projected to facilitate timber cutting. 

In addition, 15 miles of road are projected to be constructed/reconstructed to facilitate 
3.15 Social and Economics Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

292 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

mineral access and roaded access in response to valid existing rights. In addition, about 

60 miles of road decommissioning are projected to be accomplished over the next 15 

years. 

The Caribou Forest Plan allows for development of phosphate in existing lease areas 

(9,100 acres) as well as in those known phosphate areas that are not leased (13,400 

acres). About 2,000,000 tons of phosphates are projected to be removed on 1,100 acres 

over the foreseeable future (15 years) in the Sage Creek and Meade Peak Roadless Areas 

in the Southeast Idaho economic area (table 3-61) associated with the expansion of the 

Smoky Canyon Mine. 

Phosphate mining on 6,500 acres in known unleased phosphate deposits on the Caribou 

portion of the Caribou-Targhee National Forest could occur under Existing Plans. This 

mining is not anticipated to occur within the foreseeable future (next 15 years); 

however, it is likely to occur sometime in the extended future (50 or more years) and 

would provide jobs and income if it is developed. Phosphate mining on the 6,900 acres 

of known unleased phosphate deposits on the Targhee portion of the forest would have 

to undergo environmental analysis to determine whether or not mineral leasing is 

permitted. 

Existing Plans would allow road construction/reconstruction for geothermal 

development in some locations in management prescriptions similar to Backcountry 

and GFRG. It is unknown where and to what degree geothermal resources would be 

developed; however, since about half of Idaho Roadless Areas have high to moderate 

potential it is likely some development would eventually occur. 

Currently lease applications have been submitted for geothermal exploration, which 

could affect about 7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area on the Boise National 

Forest and 33 acres of the West Panther Roadless Area on the Salmon National Forest. If 

fully developed, roads, transmission lines, and other facilities would likely be 

constructed (see appendix I for a description of general development of geothermal 

resources). 

Table 3-61. Annual forest level outputs under Existing Plans1, summarized by BEA EA 

Bureau of Economic Analysis 

economic area 

Harvest 

(MBF)

Phosphate 

(tons)

Road 

decommissioning 

(miles)

Roads 

(miles)

North 6,290 0 4 8.57

Central 5,140 0 0 0.86

Southeast 2,020 2,000,000 0 2.34

South central 2 0 0 0.05

Boise 6 0 0 0.20

TOTAL 13,458 2,000,000 4 12.02

1 Forest-specific data may be found in the socioeconomic specialist report in the project record.
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.15 Social and Economics

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 293 

Employment and Labor Income. Table 3-62 displays the average annual estimated 

employment and labor income resulting from the IMPLAN input-output modeling for 

each economic impact area based on the forest level outputs projected from the Existing 

Plans (table 3-61). 

In North Idaho activities allowed under Existing Plans would annually contribute 

roughly 149 part- and full-time jobs to the 422,700 existing jobs and approximately $4.2 

million in labor income to the more than $15 billion in existing labor income (appendix 

J, table J-8). The most notable sectors affected would be agriculture and manufacturing 

and to a lesser degree healthcare and retail trade (appendix J, table J-8). Although 

Existing Plans could contribute more than the other alternatives, the contributions to 

North Idaho’s diverse economy would still be less than 1 percent. 

In Central Idaho, the Existing Plans would annually contribute 106 part- and full-time 

jobs to the existing 47,000 jobs and approximately $2.8 million in labor income to the 

existing $1.6 billion in labor income (appendix J, table J-9). Primarily the agriculture and 

manufacturing sectors could see additional jobs and labor income and to a lesser extent 

retail trade, health care, accommodations, and other services. Although Existing Plans 

could contribute more than the other alternatives, the contributions to Central Idaho’s 

economy would still be less than 1 percent. 

In South Central Idaho, Existing Plans would annually contribute no part- and full-time 

jobs to the existing 107,000 jobs and approximately $3,000 in labor income to the 

existing $3.4 billion in labor income (appendix J, table J-10). No sectors would be 

affected. Overall, contributions to South Central Idaho’s diverse economy would be 

minimal. 

In Boise Idaho, the Existing Plans would annually contribute no part- and full-time jobs 

to the existing 404,000 jobs and approximately $12,000 in labor income to the $15 billion 

in annual labor income (appendix J, table J-11). No sectors would be affected. Overall, 

contributions to Boise Idaho’s diverse economy would be minimal. 

In Southeast Idaho, the Existing Plans would annually contribute 641 part- and full-time 

jobs to the existing 185,000 jobs and approximately $24.6 million in labor income to the 

existing $6.5 billion in labor income (appendix J, table J-12). The jobs and labor income 

are associated with continuation of phosphate mining under existing leases, as well as 

timber harvest projected under Existing Plans. Mining and agricultural sectors would 

be affected most in this economic sector, as well as accommodations, food services, 

retail, transportation, wholesale, and other service sectors. Overall, contributions to the 

Southeast Idaho’s existing economy (the largest sector being the mining industry) 

would be less than 1 percent. 
3.15 Social and Economics Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

294 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Table 3-62. Part- and full-time jobs contributed annually and labor income (in thousands of dollars) by Forest 

Service resource programs under Existing Plans 

 North ID Central ID South Central ID Boise South Eastern ID 

Resource 

program 

Jobs 

(#) 

Labor 

income 

(thousand $) 

Jobs 

(#) 

Labor 

income 

(thousand $) 

Jobs 

(#) 

Labor 

income 

(thousand $) 

Jobs 

(#) 

Labor 

income 

(thousand $) 

Jobs 

(#) 

Labor 

income 

(thousand $) 

Recreation 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 

Wildlife & fish 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 

Grazing 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 

Timber 141 3,876.0 106 2,725.4 0 0.9 0 4.0 57 1,049.8 

Minerals 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 582 23,543.1 

Roads 9 350.5 10 29.4 0 1.7 0 7.7 2 77.4 

Payments to 

States/counties 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 

FS 

expenditures 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 

Total forest 

mgmt 149 4,226.5 106 2,754.8 0 2.6 0 12.0 641 24,670.3 

Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

About 3,103,500 acres are in the Wild Land Recreation, Primitive, and SAHTS themes, 

where limited to no road construction/reconstruction, timber harvest, or discretionary 

mineral activities would occur. About 5,246,100 acres are in Backcountry, which would 

allow for some road construction/reconstruction, timber cutting and discretionary 

mineral activities to occur. About 609,500 acres are in the GFRG theme, which does not 

limit road construction/reconstruction, timber cutting, and discretionary mineral 

activities. Based on foreseeable projections, over the next 15 years, about 60 miles of 

road are likely to be constructed or reconstructed. Timber harvest is projected to occur 

on 12,000 acres with around 48 percent coming from the North Idaho economic area 

and 46 percent from the Central Idaho economic area (table 3-63). About 45 miles of 

road decommissioning are also anticipated. 

There are 13,400 acres of known unleased phosphate deposits on the Caribou-Targhee 

National Forest. About 12,100 acres (90 percent) are located within Backcountry and 

GFRG themes. Under these themes road construction or reconstruction would be 

permissible to develop phosphate deposits. About 1,300 acres of unleased phosphate 

deposits are in the Primitive theme. The Primitive theme prohibits road 

construction/reconstruction or surface occupancy for phosphates; therefore, this area 

would likely not be developed (see the Minerals section). 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would also permit road construction/reconstruction for 

geothermal development in the GFRG theme. About 7 percent of Idaho Roadless Areas 

are in this theme, and about 4 percent could be developed because of slope restrictions 

(see the Minerals section). It is likely some of these areas would be developed over time; 

however, except for two pending lease applications there is no information about where 

or when the activity would occur. If fully developed, roads, transmission lines, and 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.15 Social and Economics

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 295 

other facilities would likely be constructed (see appendix I for a description of general 

development of geothermal resources). Site-specific analysis would occur prior to 

exploration or development of geothermal energy. 

Currently lease applications have been submitted for geothermal exploration within 

7,000 acres of the Peace Rock Roadless Area on the Boise National Forest and 33 acres of 

the West Panther Roadless Area on the Salmon National Forest. Both these areas are in 

either the Primitive or Backcountry theme; therefore, they would not be developed 

because of the inability to construct roads to access the area (see the Minerals section). 

Table 3-63. Annual forest level outputs under the Idaho Roadless Rule1, summarized by BEA EA 

Bureau of Economic Analysis 

economic area 

Harvest 

(MBF)

Phosphate 

(tons)

Road decommissioning 

(miles) Roads (miles)

North 1742 0 3 1.77

Central 220 0 0 0.00

Southeast 1650 2,000,000 0 2.34

South Central 2 0 0 0.05

Boise 6 0 0 0.20

TOTAL 3,620 2,000,000 3 4.35 

1 Forest-specific data may be found in the socioeconomic specialist report in the project record.

Employment and Labor Income. Table 3-64 displays the average annual estimated 

employment and labor income resulting from the IMPLAN input-output modeling for 

each economic impact area based on the forest level outputs projected from the Idaho 

Roadless Rule (table 3-63). 

In North Idaho activities allowed under the Idaho Roadless Rule would annually 

contribute roughly 41 part- and full-time jobs to the 409,975 existing jobs and 

approximately $1.2 million in labor income to the more than $15 billion in existing labor 

income (appendix J, table J-8). The most notable sectors affected would be agriculture 

and manufacturing and to a lesser degree healthcare and retail trade (appendix J, table 

J-8). Overall, the contributions to North Idaho’s diverse economy would be less than 1 

percent. 

In Central Idaho, the Idaho Roadless Rule would annually contribute 5 part- and fulltime jobs to the existing 47,000 jobs and approximately $116,000 in labor income to the 

existing $1.6 billion in labor income (appendix J, table J-9). Primarily the agriculture, 

manufacturing sectors could see additional jobs and labor income. Overall, the 

contributions to Central Idaho’s economy would be less than 1 percent. 

In South Central Idaho, the Idaho Roadless Rule would annually contribute no partand full-time jobs to the existing 107,000 jobs and approximately $3,000 in labor income 

to the existing $3.4 billion in labor income (appendix J, table J-10). No sectors would be 

affected. Overall, contributions to South Central Idaho’s diverse economy would be 

minimal. 
3.15 Social and Economics Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

296 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

In Boise Idaho, the Idaho Roadless Rule would annually contribute no part- and fulltime jobs to the existing 404,000 jobs and approximately $12,000 in labor income to the 

$15 billion in annual labor income (appendix J, table J-11). No sectors would be affected. 

Overall, contributions to Boise Idaho’s diverse economy would be minimal. 

In Southeast Idaho, the Idaho Roadless Rule would annually contribute 631 part- and 

full-time jobs to the existing 185,000 jobs and approximately $24.5 million in labor 

income to the existing $6.5 billion in labor income (appendix J, table J-12). The jobs and 

labor income are associated with continuation of phosphate mining under existing 

leases, as well as timber harvest projected under the Idaho Roadless Rule. Mining and 

agricultural sectors would be affected most in this economic sector, as well as 

accommodations, food services, retail, transportation, wholesale, and other service 

sectors. Overall, contributions to the Southeast Idaho’s existing economy (the largest 

sector being the mining industry) would be less than 1 percent. 

Table 3-64. Part- and full-time jobs contributed annually and labor income (in thousands of dollars) by Forest 

Service resource programs under the Idaho Roadless Rule 

North ID Central ID South Central ID Boise South Eastern ID 

Resource 

program 

Jobs 

(#) 

Labor income 

(thousand $) 

Jobs 

(#) 

Labor income 

(thousand $) 

Jobs 

(#) 

Labor 

income 

(thousand $) 

Jobs 

(#) 

Labor income 

(thousand $) 

Jobs 

(#) 

Labor income 

(thousand $) 

Recreation 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 

Wildlife & fish 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 

Grazing 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 

Timber 39 1,073.3 5 116.4 0 0.9 0 4.0 47 857.4 

Minerals 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 582 23,543.1 

Roads 2 83.8 0 0.0 0 1.7 0 7.6 2 80.4 

Payments to 

States/counties 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 

FS 

expenditures 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 

Total forest 

mgmt 41 1,157.1 5 116.4 0 2.6 0 11.6 631 24,480.9 

Summary 

The economic impact analysis, which estimates the changes in jobs and labor income for 

each of the five economic areas of Idaho, reveals that the magnitude of average annual 

job and labor income impacts associated with all alternatives would be small, not 

exceeding 1 percent change in any economic area. While expected contributions are 

small, they would not be distributed equally geographically across the State. Most 

impacts are projected to occur in Southeast Idaho, associated with phosphate mining, 

and North Idaho, associated with timber cutting and related road construction and 

decommissioning. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.15 Social and Economics

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 297 

NON-COMMODITY VALUES—ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 

Effects Common to All Alternatives 

None of the alternatives would apply management direction to activities occurring 

under existing leases or where there are valid existing rights. Phosphate mining under 

existing lease would continue in the Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, Sage 

Creek, Schmid Peak, Stump Creek, and Mount Jefferson Roadless Areas. Roadless 

characteristics—including but not limited to recreation opportunities, scenic quality, 

habitat for fish and wildlife, and water quality—would continue to be modified on 

about 9,100 acres within these roadless areas. Phosphate mining would reduce the noncommodity values, amenities, environmental functions, and non-use values in a portion 

of these seven roadless areas. 

2001 Roadless Rule (No Action) 

Limited road construction/reconstruction and timber cutting would occur in Idaho 

Roadless Areas under the 2001 Roadless Rule. Natural processes would dominate. 

Roadless characteristics would remain intact overall. Idaho Roadless Areas would 

continue to provide high quality soil, water, and air; sources of public drinking water; 

diversity of plant and animal communities; habitat for threatened, endangered, 

proposed, candidate, and sensitive species; reference landscapes; Primitive, SemiPrimitive Non-Motorized, and Semi-Primitive Motorized classes of recreation; naturalappearing landscapes with high scenic quality; and protection of traditional cultural 

and scared sites. Although existence, option, and bequest values may decline as wildlife 

populations decline in many areas of the country, Idaho Roadless Areas would continue 

to support these values. 

Existing Plans 

Lands recommended for wilderness and managed for primitive recreation (3.45 million 

acres) would retain high non-commodity values, amenities, environmental function 

(such as ability to provide clean air, clean water), and non-use values. About 4.24 

million acres are managed similar to the Backcountry theme; some road 

construction/reconstruction and timber cutting are allowed on these lands. About 1.26 

million acres are managed similar to GFRG, and there are generally no prohibitions for 

road construction/reconstruction and timber cutting on these lands. About 180 miles of 

road construction/reconstruction may occur over a 15 year period and 42,000 acres of 

timber harvest which would affect less than 1 percent of the Idaho Roadless Areas. 

The Caribou Forest Plan allows for phosphate mining on an additional 6,500 acres of 

known unleased phosphate deposits within the Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, Meade 

Peak, Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, and Stump Creek Roadless Areas. An additional 6,900 

acres of unleased phosphate deposits on the Targhee portion of the Caribou-Targhee 

National Forest are within the Bald Mountain, Bear Creek, and Poker Creek Roadless 
3.15 Social and Economics Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

298 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Areas. An environmental analysis would have to be completed to determine how much 

of the 6,900 acres could actually be leased. 

As mines expand into these areas, non-commodity values would be further reduced. 

Over an extended period of time, non-commodity values and amenities could be 

reduced on a total of 22,500 acres (acres under existing lease, plus future leasing of 

known phosphate deposits, assuming all the deposits on the Targhee portion of the 

forest are leased). 

Geothermal resources could be developed in some areas under Existing Plans. 

However, there is no reliable information for which to base projections; therefore, it is 

uncertain as to where and to what degree geothermal development would occur. It is 

assumed that development would begin in areas with existing roads, outside Idaho 

Roadless Areas, because these are generally cheaper to develop; however, given that 

about half the high-to-moderate geothermal development overlaps Idaho Roadless 

Areas, it is likely some development would occur, primarily in the themes similar to 

Backcountry and GFRG. 

Those roadless areas where activities occur could see some changes in non-commodity 

values, amenities, environmental functions, and non-use values. The wildlife and 

physical resource section of this statement reveal that Existing Plans represent some risk 

to soil, water, air, and wildlife resources. Activities associated with Existing Plans 

including roads, power lines and facilities could reduce the non-commodity values and 

amenities of the Idaho Roadless Areas affected. In general, because of the existing laws 

and regulations most environmental functions (such as the ability to provide clean air 

and clean water) should be retained; however, there could be some reductions in a few 

localized areas negatively affecting recreation use and non-use values. For example, 

there could be a change in the type of recreation experiences and scenic quality for 

visitors and nearby residents as well as impacts on populations of some rare wildlife 

that would affect people across the country. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule (Proposed Action) 

Lands in the Wild Land Recreation, Primitive, and SAHTS themes (3.1 million acres) 

would retain high non-commodity values, amenities, environmental function (such as 

the ability to provide clean air and clean water), and non-use values. About 5.25 million 

acres are in the Backcountry theme; some road construction/reconstruction and timber 

cutting are permitted on these lands. About 609,500 acres are in GFRG, and there are no 

prohibitions for road construction/reconstruction and timber cutting on these lands. 

About 60 miles of road construction/reconstruction may occur over a 15-year period, 

along with 12,000 acres of timber harvest, which would affect less than two-tenths of 1 

percent of the Idaho Roadless Areas. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule permits phosphate mining on an additional 12,100 acres of 

unleased phosphate deposits within the Dry Ridge, Huckleberry Basin, Meade Peak, 

Sage Creek, Schmid Peak, Stump Creek, Mount Jefferson, Bear Creek, and Poker Creek 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.15 Social and Economics

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 299 

roadless areas. As mines expand into these areas, non-commodity values and amenities 

within the affected roadless areas would be reduced. Mining in these areas would not 

occur in all the roadless areas at one time but would be done over an extensive period 

of time (50 or more years). 

Road construction/reconstruction for geothermal development is also permitted in the 

609,500 acres of GFRG. Activities associated with this development—including roads, 

power lines, and facilities—would reduce the non-commodity values and amenities of 

the roadless areas affected. However, there is no reliable information for which to base 

projections; therefore, it is uncertain as to where and to what degree geothermal 

development would occur. It is assumed development would begin in areas with 

existing roads, outside Idaho Roadless Areas, because these are generally cheaper to 

develop; however, it is likely some development would occur over time. 

Those roadless areas where activities occur could see some changes in non-commodity 

values, amenities, environmental functions, and non-use values. The Wildlife and 

Physical Resources sections of this statement reveal that this alternative does represent 

some risk to soil, water, air, and wildlife resources. Activities associated with the Idaho 

Roadless Rule—including roads, power lines, and facilities—could reduce the noncommodity values and amenities of the Idaho Roadless Areas affected. In general, 

because of existing laws and regulations most environmental functions (such as the 

ability to provide clean air, clean water) should be retained; however, there could be 

some reductions in a few localized areas negatively affecting recreation use and non-use 

values, especially from areas that experience mineral or energy development. For 

example, there could be a change in the type of recreation experiences and scenic 

quality for visitors and nearby residents as well as impacts on populations of some rare 

wildlife, which would affect people across the country. 

CUMULATIVE EFFECTS

Overall, NFS lands satisfy approximately 2 percent of the Nation’s timber harvest. 

Idaho Roadless Areas are anticipated to provide up to 7 percent of the Agency’s total 

timber harvest or about one-third of 1 percent of the national demand. While this 7 

percent is small in comparison to the national program, it can be critical to the 

economies of certain local communities. Nationally, any decrease in timber harvest 

from roadless areas would likely be compensated with offerings from private lands or 

imports. 

Mineral and energy resources from Idaho Roadless Areas can be of substantial value, 

and lack of road access for exploration and development could have effects on future 

development of these resources. On a national scale, mineral and energy contributions 

from roadless areas are small; however, like the timber resource, these contributions can 

have critical economic impacts on local communities. Other Federal, State, and private 

lands, or imports, would probably continue to offset any decrease in mineral and 

energy supply from roadless areas. 
3.15 Social and Economics Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

300 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

Greatest pressures for forest conversion nationally would still be the eastern half of the 

48 contiguous States and the west coast (Stein et al. 2005, Stein et al. 2007). This 

conversion would happen mainly on privately owned lands converted to housing 

developments. 

As population growth and land conversion due to urbanization and development in the 

United States increase, the value of the ecological and social characteristics of all public 

lands, of which Idaho Roadless Areas are a part, will continue to increase relative to the 

economic values of the commodity resources, such as timber and minerals, contained in 

these areas. In the western, northeastern, and north central States, and in southeast 

Alaska, rural communities that are highly dependent on timber harvest or mineral 

extraction from NFS lands view inventoried roadless areas as important economic 

resources. During the past 18 years, many of these communities experienced the 

economic effects of a reduction in national forest timber harvesting levels, which have 

dropped from more than 12 billion board feet (BBF) in 1987 to less than 3 BBF in 2006. 

Most of this harvest has always come from the portions of NFS lands already containing 

roads. Further economic loss from a reduced timber program, or additional loss from a 

reduction in the minerals program, without corresponding new local employment 

opportunities at the same wage scale, could add to the social and economic problems 

faced by rural communities unable to diversify. Reductions in resource production may 

require some residents to relocate to obtain comparable employment. 

Idaho Roadless Areas will continue to provide non-commodity values, amenities, and 

environmental functions. Other programmatic policies and decisions, described in 

appendix N, further protect or encourage the consideration of these values. 

Management direction associated with INFISH, PACFISH, forest plan amendments for 

the Greater Yellowstone area, the Northern Rockies Lynx Management direction, and 

the Idaho Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy, all provide sideboards on 

activities to protect and enhance fish and wildlife habitat. Other programmatic policy 

actions such as the Roads Policy and Travel Management Policy encourage the 

consideration of resource needs and effects during the planning process. 

The NFP, HFI, HFRA, and the Energy Policy were considered in each resource section. 

The reasonably foreseeable projections were based on implementing these policies; 

therefore, they have been considered from a cumulative effects standpoint. 
Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 3.16 Other Required Disclosures

Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 301 

3.16 Other Required Disclosures 

SHORT-TERM USES AND LONG-TERM PRODUCTIVITY

NEPA requires consideration of “the relationship between short-term uses of man’s 

environment and the maintenance and enhancement of long-term productivity” (40 

CFR §1502.16. The Multiple-Use Sustained Yield Act (Public Law 104-333) defines 

productivity as part of multiple use-management. Specifically, “multiple use means that 

some land will be used for less than all of the resources; and harmonious and 

coordinated management of the various resources, each with the other, without 

impairment of the productivity of the land, with consideration being given to the 

relative values of the various resources, and not necessarily the combination of uses that 

will give the greatest dollar return or the greatest unit output.” 

In this context, implementation of any of the alternatives does not require an on-theground action to occur; therefore, they do not compel short-term uses. 

If implemented the Idaho Roadless Rule prohibitions on road construction and 

reconstruction and surface occupancy in Idaho Roadless Areas within the Wild Land 

Recreation, Primitive, and SAHTS themes would maintain long-term productivity by 

reducing loss caused by road construction to watersheds, soils, critical habitat, and 

dispersed recreation activities when compared to Existing Plans. The Idaho Roadless 

Rule would further protect these areas over the 2001 Roadless Rule by limiting surface 

occupancy associated with mineral leases. 

For the Backcountry theme the Idaho Roadless Rule would provide additional 

protections over Existing Plans by limiting road construction and reconstruction and 

timber cutting to certain limited situations. Long-term productivity may be affected as 

the Idaho Roadless Rule would permit roads to be constructed or reconstructed to 

facilitate timber cutting on more lands than the 2001 Roadless Rule. However, if roads 

are needed the use of temporary roads are encouraged. 

The Idaho Roadless Rule would provide additional protections over Existing Plans on 

about 0.6 million acres of GFRG, but the protections would be less than the 2001 

Roadless Rule on about 0.6 million acres. Long-term productivity may be affected in 

those areas where phosphate production is permissible and occurs. 

UNAVOIDABLE ADVERSE EFFECTS

Selection of Existing Plans (alternative 2) would continue any unavoidable adverse 

effects of road construction, timber harvesting, and discretionary mineral development 

in Idaho Roadless Areas. Final implementation of the 2001 Roadless Rule (alternative 1) 

would also cause some unavoidable adverse effects such as a reduction in the number 

of acres available for forest health and fuels management treatments (see Vegetation 

and Forest Health, and Fuel Management sections). Final implementation of the Idaho 

Roadless Rule (alternative 3) would also cause some unavoidable adverse effects, more 
3.16 Other Required Disclosures Roadless Area Conservation; National Forest System Lands in Idaho DEIS 

302 Chapter 3. Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences 

likely in the 0.6 million acres of GFRG and to some degree where road construction or 

reconstruction is done in the Backcountry theme. 

IRREVERSIBLE AND IRRETRIEVABLE COMMITMENTS OF RESOURCES

Irreversible commitments of resources are those that cannot be regained, such as the 

extinction of a species or the removal of mined ore. Irretrievable commitments are those 

that are lost for a period of time such as the temporary loss of timber productivity in 

forested areas that are kept clear for use as a power line rights-of-way or road. 

Implementation of the prohibition on road construction or reconstruction and surface 

occupancy in the Wild Land Recreation, Primitive, and SAHTS themes under the Idaho 

Roadless Rule would not cause irreversible or irretrievable commitment of resources 

because a prohibition of activities would prevent any on-the-ground action. If 

implemented, these prohibitions would reduce road-caused and surface-occupancycaused irreversible and irretrievable commitments to watersheds, soils, critical habitat, 

and dispersed recreation activities in Idaho Roadless Areas as compared to Existing 

Plans or the 2001 Roadless Rule. 

Implementation of the limited permissions in the Backcountry theme under the Idaho 

Roadless Rule could result in an irretrievable change in roadless characteristics, 

especially where roads are constructed or phosphate mining occurs, but to a lesser 

degree than Existing Plans. Implementation of the permissions in GFRG theme (0.6 

million acres) under the Idaho Roadless Rule could result in an irretrievable change in 

roadless characteristics. Under Existing Plans, 1.2 million acres could be affected. Under 

the 2001 Roadless Rule, irretrievable changes to roadless characteristics are unlikely to 

occur except under the few allowances of road construction. 

OTHER REQUIRED DISCLOSURES

NEPA at 40 CFR 1502.25(a) directs “to the fullest extent possible, agencies shall prepare 

draft environmental impact statements” concurrently with and integrated with...other 

environmental review laws and executive orders.” None of the alternatives are an 

action that requires consultation under the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act because 

they do not require water to be impounded or diverted, or with the National Historic 

Preservation Act because there would be no ground-disturbing actions. Informal 

consultation, in accordance with the ESA implementing regulations, is ongoing with the 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration. 

Requirements for USDA rulemaking procedures under regulatory laws and executive 

orders, such as the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act, Executive Order 12988, and the 

Civil Justice Reform, were discussed in the preamble for the proposed rule. There are no 

anticipated effects on any State or county laws because of the permissions for existing 

rights. Effects on other Federal lands or non-Federal lands are disclosed under each 

resource section if an effect is anticipated.