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NIST NCSTAR 2: Vol. I

Report of the Technical Investigation

of The Station Nightclub Fire

William Grosshandler

Nelson Bryner

Daniel Madrzykowski

Kenneth Kuntz

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National Institute of Standards and Technology • Technology Administration • U.S. Department of Commerce

NIST NCSTAR 2: Vol. I

Report of the Technical Investigation

of The Station Nightciub Fire

William Grosshandler

Nelson Bryner

Daniel Madrzykowski

Fire Research Division

Building and Fire Research Laboratory

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Kenneth Kuntz

Federal Emergency Management Agency

U.S. Department of Homeland Security

June 2005

U.S. Department of Commerce

Carlos M. Gutierrez, Secretary

Technology Administration

Michelle O’Neill, Acting Under Secretary for Technology

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Hratch Semerjian, Acting Director
Disclaimer

Certain commercial entities, equipment, products, or materials are identified in this document in order to describe a procedure or concept adequately or to trace the history of the procedures and practices used. Such identification is not intended to imply recommendation, endorsement, or implication that the entities, products, materials, or equipment are necessarily the best available for the purpose.

Disclaimer

The policy of NIST is to use the International System of Units (metric units) in all publications. In this document,

however, units are presented in metric units or the inch-pound system, whichever is prevalent to the discipline.

Conversion tables are provided in this report.

Disclaimer

The NIST-led investigation of The Station Nightclub fire was conducted during the same time period as civil and

criminal legal actions involving the same incident, which limited the Team's access to physical evidence and limited

the ability to interview many witnesses.

Use in Legal Proceedings

No part of any report resulting from a NIST investigation can be used in any suit or action for damages arising out of

any matter mentioned in such report (15 USC 281a; as amended by P.L. 107-231 ).

National Institute of Standards and Technology NCST Act Report (NCSTAR) 2: volume I Natl. Inst, of Std. NCST Act Rept. 2: v. I, 246 pages (June 2005)

CODEN: NSPUE2

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON; 2005

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Internet: bookstore.gpo.gov — Phone: (202) 512-1800 — Fax: (202) 512-2250

Mail; Stop SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-0001
Abstract

A fire occurred on the night of Feb. 20, 2003, in The Station nightclub at 21 1 Cowesett Avenue, West

Warwick, Rhode Island. A band that was on the platform that night, during its perforaiance, used

pyrotechnics that ignited polyurethane foam insulation lining the walls and ceiling of the platfomi. The

fire spread quickly along the walls and ceiling area over the dance floor. Smoke was visible in the exit

doorways in a little more than one minute, and flames were observed breaking through a portion of the

roof in less than five minutes. Egress from the nightclub, which was not equipped with sprinklers, was

hampered by crowding at the main entrance to the building. One hundred people lost their lives in the

fire. On Feb. 27, 2003, under the authority of the National Construction Safety Team (NCST) Act, the

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) established a National Construction Safety Team

to determine the likely technical cause or causes of the building failure that led to the high number of

casualties in that fire. This report documents the procedures, findings, and issues that were raised by the

investigation. Volume I contains the main report and Volume II contains appendix material.

The investigation concluded that strict adherence to 2003 model codes available at the time of the fire

would go a long way to preventing similar tragedies in the future. Changes to the codes subsequent to the

fire made them stronger. By making some additional changes - and state and local agencies adopting and

enforcing them - we can strengthen occupant safety even further.

Ten recommendations to improve model building and fire codes, standards and practices (as they existed

in February 2003) resulted from the investigation, including (i) urging state and local jurisdictions to (a)

adopt and update building and fire codes covering nightclubs based on one of the model codes and (b)

enforce those codes aggressively; (ii) strengthening the requirements for the installation of automatic fire

sprinklers; (iii) increasing the factor of safety on the time for occupants to egress; (iv) tightening the

restriction on the use of flexible polyurethane foam — and other materials that ignite as easily and

propagate flames as rapidly as non-fire retarded foam — as an interior finish product; (v) further limiting

the use of pyrotechnics; and (vi) conducting research in specific areas to underpin the recommended

changes.

Keywords: fire investigation, NCST, nightclub fire, sprinklers, egress, fire spread, polyurethane foam, fire

modeling, pyrotechnics
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Table of Contents (Vol. I)

Page

Abstract iii

List of Acronyms, Abbreviations, Units, and Conversion Factors ix

Preface xiiii Acknowledgment xv

Executive Summary xvii

Chapter 1 Background

1.1 Introduction 1-1

1.2 Description of the Building and Site 1-2

1 .3 History of the Building 1-2

1 .4 Previous Incidents at The Station 1-8

1.5 Jurisprudence 1-10

1.6 References for Chapter 1 1-10

Chapter 2 Description and Timeline of the Incident

2.1 Introduction 2-1

2.2 Overview Narrative 2-1

2.3 Overall Incident Timeline 2-2

2.4 Evacuation Timeline 2-8

2.5 References for Chapter 2 2-14

Chapters The Emergency Incident Response

3.1 Introduction 3-1

3.2 The West Warwick Fire Department 3-2

3.3 The Fire and Emergency Medical Services Response 3-3

3 .4 Mutual Aid 3-9

3 . 5 Observations 3-14

3.6 References for Chapter 3 3-14

Chapter 4 Materials Testing and Supporting Experiments

4.1 Introduction 4-1

4.2 Material Properties for Fire Models 4-3
4.3 Polyurethane Foam 4-4

4.4 Cone Calorimeter Measurements of Finish Materials 4-10

4.5 Pyrotechnic Device Test Series 4-15

4.6 Fire Growth Measurements in Real-scale Platform Area Mockup 4-26

4.7 References for Chapter 4 4-47

Chapter 5 Computer Simulation of Fire and Smoke Spread

5.1 NIST Fire Dynamics Simulator 5-1

5.2 FDS Simulations of the Full-scale Mock-up 5-3

5.3 FDS Incident Simulation 5-28

5.4 Summary 5-60

5.5 References for Chapter 5 5-61

Chapters Analysis of Building Egress

6.1 Introduction 6-1

6.2 Analysis of Evidence 6-1

6.3 Estimates of Occupant Load 6-10

6.4 Life Safety Features 6-12

6.5 Egress Pathways and the Location of Victims Recovered from the Scene 6-23

6.6 Alternative Simulations of Nightclub Evacuation Scenarios 6-24

6.7 References for Chapter 6 6-29

Chapter? Model Codes, Standards and Practices

7.1 Introduction 7-1

7.2 Code History 7-1

7.3 Model Code Analysis 7-3

7.4 References for Chapter 7 7-18

Chapters Summary, Findings and Recommendations

8.1 Summary of Investigation 8-1

8.2 Findings 8-2

8.3 Recommendations for Improving Model Standards, Codes, and Practices 8-9

8.4 Actions Already Taken 8-13

8.5 Research Recommendations and Other Appropriate Actions 8- 1

8.6 References for Chapter 8 8-20

vi
Table of Contents (Vol. II)

Appendix A Large Format Evacuation Timeline Stills

Appendix B Large Format Device Stills

Appendix C Previous Egress Incident Accounts

Appendix D Small Scale Laboratory Tests

Appendix E Foam Covered Wall Panel Tests

Appendix F Pyrotechnic Device Test Series

Appendix G Real-scale Platform Area Mockup Experiments

Appendix H Polyurethane Foam - Chemistry

Appendix I Pyrolysis of Polyurethane Foam

Appendix J Hydrogen Cyanide Analysis

Appendix K Code Comparison Tables

Appendix L Computer Simulation Input Files

vii

List of Acronyms, Abbreviations, Units, and Conversion

Factors

AC

AG

AHJ

AlA

ALS

ANSI

ASCE

ASME

ASTM

ATE

BBC

BCMC

BFPC

BLS

BOCA

BST

CFD

CF

CT

DC

DHS

DSC

EMS

EMT

EMT-C

EST

EDS

FEMA

alternating current

Attorney General

Authority Having Jurisdiction

American Insurance Association

Advanced Life Support

American National Standards Institute

American Society of Civil Engineers

American Society of Mechanical Engineers

American Society for Testing and Materials

Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms

Basic Building Code

Board for the Coordination of Model Codes

Basic Fire Prevention Code

Basic Life Support

Building Officials and Code Administrators (previously Building Officials Conference of

America)

barium strontium titanate

computational fluid dynamics, and Coventry Fire Department

carpet flooring

ceiling tile

direct current

Department of Homeland Security

Differential Scanning Calorimetry

Emergency Medical Services

Emergency Medical Technician

Emergency Medical Technician - Cardiac

Eastern Standard Time

Fire Dynamics Simulator

Federal Emergency Management Agency

IX
FIT Flash Ignition Temperature

FPC Fire Prevention Code

FR fire retarded

HRR heat release rate IBC International Building Code

IC Incident Command

ICC International Code Council

lEBC International Existing Building Code

IFC International Eire Code

IR infrared

ISO International Organization for Standardization

LCLo lethal concentration, low

LSF life safety feature

MCI Mass casualty incident

NCST National Construction Safety Team

NBC National Building Code

NFC National Fire Code

NFPA National Fire Protection Association

NFR non-fire retarded

NIOSH National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology

OOP Office of Domestic Preparedness

OSHA U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration

PUF polyurethane foam

RI Rhode Island

RTI response time index

SBC Standard Building Code

SIT Spontaneous Ignition Temperature

SNEFEAP Southern New England Fire Emergency Assistance Plan

t time

TC thermocouple

TGA Thermal Gravimetric Analysis

X
TIA Tentative Interim Amendment

UFC Uniforai Fire Code

UL Underwriters Laboratories

use United States Code

USFA United States Fire Administration

WFD Warwick Fire Department

WP wood paneling

WPD Warwick Police Department

WWFD West Warwick Fire Department

WWPD West Warwick Police Department

Units

°C degrees Centigrade

op degrees Fahrenheit

ft feet

gpm gallons/minute

in inch

kg kilogram

kPa kilopascal

kW kilowatt

L liter

m meter

mm millimeter

min minute

MW megawatt

psi pounds/in“

s second

W Watt

pm micrometer

XI
Conversion Factors

°F= 1.8x°C + 32

1 m = 3.281 ft

1 mm = 0.03937 in

1 L = 0.2642 gal

1 kg = 2.204 lb (mass)

1 kg/m^ = 0.06243 Ib/ff^

1 kPa = 0.1450 psi

1 kJ = 0.9479 Btu

1 kJ/kg = 0.4301 Btu/lb

1 kJ/kg-T = 0.2389 Btu/lb-°F

1 kW = 3413 Btu/hr

1 kW/m' = 317.1 Btu/hr/ft1 kW/m--°C = 176.1 Btu/hr-fr-°F

1 W/m-°C = 0.5778 Btu/hr-ft-°F

1 kg= 1000 g

1 m = 1 000 mm

1 pm = 0.001 mm

1 MW= 1,000,000 W
Preface

On Feb. 27, 2003, under the authority of the National Construction Safety Team (NCST) Act, the

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) established a Team to determine the likely

technical cause or causes of the building failure that led to a high number of casualties in The Station

nightclub fire in West Warwick, Rhode Island on the night of Feb. 20, 2003. The investigation consisted

of the following tasks:

• identification of technical issues and hypotheses requiring investigation through consultations

with experts in fire protection engineering, and emergency evacuation, and members of other

teams investigating The Station fire;

• data collection from local authorities, contractors and suppliers, building and fire protection

design documents, records, plans, and specifications, video and photographic data, telephone and

radio transmissions, field data, a limited number of interviews and other oral and written accounts

from building occupants and emergency responders, and other witnesses as reported by the news

media;

• analysis and comparison of model building and fire codes and practices, as well as review and

analysis of practices used in operation of the building;

• simulation and analysis of phenomena (with associated uncertainties), including fire spread,

smoke movement, tenability, occupant behavior and response, evacuation issues, and operation of

active and passive fire protection systems;

• testing to provide additional data and support computer predictions; and

• preparation of the final report, following established NIST Editorial Review Board procedures,

augmented by the NCST Advisory Committee.

As required by the NCST Act and its implementing regulations, priority in the investigation was ceded to

the local criminal investigation. No physical evidence was obtained from the scene and access to witnesses and local authorities was limited due to the criminal investigations and civil litigation.

It is important to note that state and local building regulations -- rather than model codes -- govern

building design, construction and operation. Comparisons of the building design and operation to

provisions within model codes were done to assess possible improvements in public safety through

revision of model codes, standards and practices. Many of the recommendations are directed toward the

current national model codes maintained by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and the

International Code Council (ICC), the standards within those codes and elsewhere (e.g., ASTM

International, and Underwriters Laboratories (UL)), and the practices associated with their adoption and

implementation. Other recommendations are aimed at nightclub owners and managers, occupants, and

state and local regulatory authorities and first responders.

The NCST Act requires that at least one member of the Team be an employee of NIST, and that experts

who are not employees of NIST shall also be appointed to the Team by the NIST Director. The members

of the Team included the following:

• William Grosshandler (Lead Investigator), NIST Building and Fire Research Laboratory

xiii
• Nelson Bryner, NIST Building and Fire Research Laboratory

• Daniel Madrzykowski, NIST Building and Fire Research Laboratory

• Kenneth Kuntz, DFIS/FEMA, US Fire Administration

Koffel Associates, Inc., provided a review of model building and fire codes; Ove Arup & Partners

Massachusetts, Inc., assisted with the analysis of the evacuation process. Portions of both contractor

reports have been integrated into this final report.

xiv
Acknowledgment

The number of people from NIST assisting the investigation extended beyond the official team members.

Of particular note is Stephen Kerber, who devoted a tremendous amount of time and energy to running

the fire simulations. The assistance provided by William Walton and Kevin McGrattan in this effort is also acknowledged. Erica Kuligowski was responsible for the egress simulations and was consulted

regarding the behavior of humans in fire. The foam panel and full-scale mock-up experiments were ably

supported by David Stroup, Laurean DeLauter, Roy McLane, Jay McElroy, Jack Lee, Alex Maranghides,

Ed Hnetkovsky, Caron Nyquist, Tim Strunk, Joseph Schuh, Daniel Schuh, and Mike Schaefer.

Outside of NIST, the cooperation of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (Christopher Porreca

in particular), and the assistance of the Army Research Laboratory (Steven Eloke) are acknowledged.

Within the Department of Homeland Security, the Office of Domestic Preparedness coordinated its own

investigation with NIST's work. The cooperation of the State of Rhode Island is acknowledged, in

particular the Office of the State Fire Marshal and the Warwick field office of the Attorney General.

WPRI-TV supplied the Team with the complete video taken on the night of the fire, and the Providence

Journal provided NIST with information from their interviews with survivors of the incident. Both made

invaluable contributions to the investigation. William Koffel and Eric Mayl of Koffel Associates, Inc. and Jeffrey Tubbs of Ove Amp & Partners Massachusetts provided outstanding contractor support in

reviewing model building and fire codes and analysis of the evacuation process, respectively.

XV
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Executive Summary

Under the authority of the National Construction Safety Team Act, an investigation team was deployed by

the NIST Director on Feb. 27, 2003 to investigate the failure seven days earlier of The Station nightclub

in West Warwick, Rhode Island. The objectives of the investigation were:

• to establish the likely technical cause or causes of the building failure;

• to evaluate the technical aspects of evacuation and emergency response procedures;

• to recommend, as necessary, specific improvements to building standards, codes, and practices

based on the findings made pursuant to the duties listed above; and

• to recommend any research and other appropriate actions needed to improve the structural safety

of buildings, and improve evacuation and emergency response procedures, based upon the

findings of the investigation.

The NIST team met these objectives primarily by reviewing and analyzing model building and fire codes,

public documents, photographic and video data, telephone and radio transmissions, published accounts,

and discussions with local authorities and several witnesses, by simulating and analyzing the fire spread,

smoke movement, tenability, occupant behavior and response, and the impact of fire sprinklers, and by

testing representative materials (not obtained from the fire scene) to provide additional data and support

the simulation predictions. The simulations and supporting fire tests were particularly important given

that NIST was not able to obtain any physical evidence from the incident scene due to the ongoing

criminal investigation and civil litigation. While the access to physical materials was denied to NIST, the

Institute's investigators were provided extensive video tape footage taken before, during and after the fire.

This report describes the methodology used to conduct the investigation, details what occurred on the

night of Feb. 20, 2003, reviews the history of the building and the model codes and standards that would

have applied to a building of this type, presents the results of testing and simulations, and includes

recommendations to improve building safety, evacuation and emergency response procedures. It is important to note that state and local building regulations -- rather than model codes -- governed

The Station nightclub. NIST's comparison of the nightclub with model codes has been done strictly to assess possible improvements in public safety through revision of model codes, standards and practices.

The recommendations are directed toward the current model codes maintained by the National Fire

Protection Association (NFPA) and the International Code Council (ICC), the standards within those

codes and elsewhere (e.g., ASTM International, and Underwriters Laboratories (UL)), and the practices

associated with their adoption and implementation. Other recommendations are aimed at nightclub

owners and managers, occupants, and state and local regulatory authorities and first responders.

FINDINGS

The Station nightclub was a single-story wood frame building with a footprint of about 412 m*" (4484 ft").

A floor plan of the building is shown in the figure below. The main entrance on the north side, with

double doors, led to a short hallway with a single interior door. In addition to the main entrance, there

were doors leading directly to the outside adjacent to the platform (commonly, but less precisely, referred

to as the stage) on the west end of the building, and at the side of the main bar at the east end of the

building. The kitchen also had an exit door. There were windows along the north side of the building on

xvii
Floor plan of The Station nightclub

both sides of the main entrance. The fire began when pyrotechnics used during the performance of a band

ignited polyurethane foam lining portions of the walls and ceiling of the platform, and spread quickly

along the ceiling area over the dance floor. Smoke was visible in the exit doorways in a little more than

one minute and flames were observed breaking through a portion of the roof in less than five minutes.

Escape from the nightclub was hampered by the crowding at the main entrance to the building. One

hundred people lost their lives in the fire.

The direct contributors to this large loss of life were found to be (1) the hazardous mix of building

contents, (2) the inadequate capability to suppress the fire during its early stage of growth, and (3) the

inability of the exits to handle all of the occupants in the short time available for such a fast growing fire.

Both of the 2003 editions of the major model building and fire codes (2003 International Building Code

and NFPA 5000, Building Construction and Safety^ Code) have provisions that address these problems.

Materials

The hazard associated with the building contents was created by the close proximity of a high temperature

source (a pyrotechnic device) and a substantial amount of material with a relatively low ignition energy

and high flame spread rate (polyurethane foam). As could be seen in the WPRl video, flames spread

rapidly over the foam, generating smoke and enough heat to ignite the wood paneling underneath and

adjacent to the foam. The wood structure and paneling in the nightclub was estimated to contain over 95

percent of the fuel load, so that once most of the foam was consumed, the fire transitioned to a wood

frame building fire.

xviii
A non-fire retarded foam sample purchased by NIST ignited

in less than 15 seconds when exposed to a pyrotechnic device

in an arrangement shown in the adjacent photo, which was

similar to the set up on the platform of the nightclub. When a

fire retarded polyurethane foam purchased by NIST was

exposed to a pyrotechnic source in the same manner, no

ignition of the foam occurred, nor did the wood paneling

ignite with no foam present.

In addition to the flexible polyurethane foam that was

attached to the walls, a foam plastic thermal insulation, that

had been installed in the stud space with no fire resistant

barrier on the interior side of the walls of the drummer's

alcove, contributed to the smoke and heat release from the

fire. (Note that no foam samples from the walls nor the stud

space in The Station were obtained by NIST for testing.)

The platform area of the nightclub, including NISTpurchased flexible polyurethane foam on the walls, was

reconstructed in the large fire laboratory at NIST to examine,

in a controlled environment, how the fire may have spread in

the full-scale nightclub, and to measure the temperature, heat flux, and gaseous products. In less than 90

seconds after ignition of foam at the comer of the reconstructed dmmmer's alcove, conditions in the

middle of the room (5.5 m, or 18 ft, away) at head height (1.5 m, or 5 ft, above the floor) were found to be

lethal.

Fire Protection Systems

The capability to suppress this fire during its early stage of growth was insufficient primarily because

automatic fire sprinklers were not installed in The Station. (Note that while the 2003 editions of the

model codes would have required sprinklers to be installed for new constmction, sprinklers would not

have been required for an existing structure like The Station.) The building was equipped with hand-held

fire extinguishers, although they were not located convenient to where the fire started; NIST found no

indication that the employees of The Station were trained to use the hand-held extinguishers, and it is unclear if the extinguishers would have been effective in controlling this fire.

Experiments conducted at NIST in a reconstmction of the platform area fire demonstrated that a water

sprinkler system installed in the test room in accordance with NFPA 13 {Standard for the Installation of

Sprinkler Systems) was able to control the fire initiated in non-fire retarded polyurethane foam panels and

to maintain survivable conditions at head height in the test room for the duration (over five minutes) of

the experiment. A computer simulation of the full nightclub with and without sprinklers led to a similar

positive result for the sprinklered scenario.

A heat detection/fire alarm system was installed in The Station Nightclub, which activated (sound and

light strobe) 41 seconds after ignition of the polyurethane foam, by which time the crowd had already

begun to move towards the exits.

Pyrotechnic device impinging on

non-fire retarded poiyurethane

foam panel

XIX
Remains of the platform area after the fire (left) and an image from the simulation of The

Station fire had sprinklers been installed (right)

Occupant Load and Egress

The inability of the exits to handle all of the occupants in the short time available for this fast growing fire

contributed directly to the large loss of life. The number of building occupants at the time of the fire was

reported by the news media to range from 440 to 458; the occupant limit for a building similar to The

Station nightclub would be around 420 persons according to the 2003 model codes. Three emergency

exits were available: the front main entrance on the north (limited by the single door into the vestibule),

the single door on the west near the perfomiance platform, and the single door on the east side of the main

bar. A fourth door in the kitchen was not considered accessible to the patrons. The first patrons

recognized the fire danger about 24 seconds after ignition of the foam; the bulk of the crowd began to

evacuate shortly after that, around the time the band stopped playing (30 seconds). The rate of egress

from the main entrance at the front of the building was limited initially by the single doorway inside the

vestibule, not the double doors visible from

the outside. From 56 percent to 66 percent

of the occupants appear to have attempted to

leave through the single main entrance in the

front of the building; many were

unsuccessful. The windows in the main bar

room and the sunroom became the

secondary routes of escape once the main

entrance became impassable, and, according

to reports, they accounted for over 1/3 of the

successful evacuations.

Prior to 1-1/2 minutes into the fire, a crowdcrush occurred in the front vestibule which

almost entirely disrupted the flow through

the main exit. Many people became stuck in

the prone position in the exterior double

doors.

Number of Occupants Out of the Club

buildingEXODUS Results

X Scenario 1 Scenario 2 — — Scenario 2' o Scenarios

Simulation of egress for different scenarios

xx
Nisr Slice temp

C

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0.00

Temperatures 1.5 m (5 ft) above floor 90

seconds after ignition, calculated from

computer simulation of full-scale nightclub fire.

The precise event which led to the crowdcrush likely was related to the arrangement of

the single interior door with merging streams

of traffic and the pressure to escape the

rapidly deteriorating conditions in the main

area of the nightclub. Measurements of

temperature, heat flux and gas species in a reconstruction of the platform area fire at NIST and computer models of the NIST

experiment and the full nightclub suggest that

the conditions around the platform, dance

floor, sunroom, and dart room would have led

to severe incapacitation or death within about

1-1/2 minutes after ignition of the foam for

anyone remaining standing, and for not much

longer even for those occupants close to the

floor.

Emergency Response

The first 91 1 call reporting a fire was before 1 1:09 p.m., less than 40 seconds after ignition of the foam;

West Warwick police officers on the scene reported the fire about one minute after ignition of the foam,

leading to the dispatch of four engine companies, a tower-ladder truck, a rescue unit, and a battalion chief.

The first fire engine, staffed with one firefighter and a fire officer, was confirmed on-scene less than five

minutes after the first 911 call was received.

Given the hazardous mix of materials in The Station and the lack of installed sprinklers, nothing that the

fire department could have done that night would have saved the building from the fast growing fire. To

deal with the large number of victims, a mass casualty plan was implemented within about 10 minutes of

arrival of the first engine on the scene. All occupants needing medical attention had been evacuated from

the scene and transported to medical facilities within two hours of the start of the fire.

Summary Finding

The investigation concluded that strict adherence to 2003 model codes available at the time of the fire

would go a long way to preventing similar tragedies in the future. Changes to the codes subsequent to the

fire made them stronger. By making some additional changes - and state and local agencies adopting and

enforcing them - we can strengthen occupant safety even further.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The findings presented above, and others that are documented in this report, raised a number of issues

concerning model building codes and standards, and the practices surrounding their adoption, application,

and enforcement. The specific sections of the current NFPA and ICC model codes that relate to these

issues are identified in the report, as well as significant actions already taken by the state of Rhode Island

and model code organizations in response to this tragedy.

NIST has made ten recommendations, listed in the following Table, that (a) support actions already taken

by the state and by the model code development organizations, (b) extend or further improve the model

XXI
Table of Recommendations

1. Model Code Adoption and Enforcement: NIST recommends that all state and local jurisdictions

a) adopt a building and fire code covering nightclubs based on one of the model codes (as a minimum

requirement) and update local codes as the model codes are revised;

b) implement aggressive and effective fire inspection and enforcement programs that address: (i) all aspects of those codes; (ii) documentation of building permits and alterations; (iii) means of egress

inspection and record keeping; (iv) frequency and rigor of fire inspections, including follow-up and

auditing procedures; and (v) guidelines on recourse available to the inspector for identified deviations

from code provisions; and

c) ensure that enough fire inspectors and building plan examiners are on staff to do the job and that

they are professionally qualified to a national standard such as NFPA 1031 {Professional

Qualifications for Fire Inspector and Plan Examiner).

2. Sprinklers: NIST recommends that model codes require sprinkler systems according to NFPA 13

{Standardfor the Installation ofSprinkler Systems), and that state and local authorities adopt and

aggressively enforce this provision,

a) for all new nightclubs regardless of size, and

b) for existing nightclubs with an occupancy limit greater than 100 people.

3. Finish Materials and Building Contents: NIST recommends

a) that state and local authorities adopt and aggressively enforce the existing provisions of the model

codes;

b) that non-fire retarded flexible polyurethane foam, and other materials that ignite as easily and

propagate flames as rapidly as non-fire retarded flexible polyurethane foam, (i) be clearly

identifiable to building owners, operators, contractors, and authorities having jurisdiction

(regulatory agencies); and (ii) be specifically forbidden, with no exceptions, as finish materials

from all new and existing nightclubs;

c) that NFPA 286 {Standard Methods offire Tests for Evaluating Contribution of Wall and Ceiling

Interior Finish to Room Fire Growth) be modified to provide more explicit guidance to building

owners, operators, contractors, and authorities having jurisdiction for when large-scale tests that are covered in NFPA 286 are required to demonstrate that materials (other than those already

forbidden in b above) do not pose an undue hazard for the use intended; and

d) that ASTM E-84 {Standard Test Methodfor Surface Burning Characteristics ofBuilding

Materials), NFPA 255 {Standard Method of Test ofSurface Burning Characteristics ofBuilding

Materials), and NFPA 286 be modified to ensure that product classification and the pass/fail

criteria for flame spread tests and large-scale tests are established using the best measurement and

prediction practices available.

xxii
Table of Recommendations

4. Indoor Use of Pyrotechnics: NIST recommends that NFPA 1 126 {Use ofPyrotechnics before a

Proximate Audience) be strengthened as described below, and that state and local authorities adopt and

aggressively enforce the revised standard:

a) Pyrotechnic devices should be banned from indoor use in new and existing nightclubs not equipped

with an NFPA 13 compliant automatic sprinkler system.

b) NFPA 1126 should be modified to include a minimum occupancy and/or area for a nightclub

below which pyrotechnic devices should be banned from indoor use, irrespective of the installation

of an automatic sprinkler system.

c) Plans for the use of indoor pyrotechnics in new and existing nightclubs should be posted on site;

and in addition to the items listed in para. 4.3.2 of NFPA 1 126, should describe the measures that

have been established to provide crowd management, security, fire protection, and other

emergency services.

d) Section 6.6.2 of NFPA 1126 should be modified to require the minimum clearance between (i) the

nearest fixed or moveable contents, and (ii) any part or product (igniter, spark, projectile, or debris)

of a pyrotechnic device permitted for indoor use in new and existing places of assembly, to be

twice the designed projection of the device, until such time that studies show that a smaller

minimum clearance can guarantee safe operation in spite of the possibility that building

decorations or temporary features that greatly exceed flame spread or fire load provisions of the

fire code may occur.

5. Occupancy Limits and Emergency Egress: NIST recommends that the factor of safety for

determining occupancy limits of all new and existing nightclubs be increased in the model codes in the

following manner, and that state and local authorities adopt and aggressively enforce these provisions:

a) Within the model codes, establish the threshold building area and occupant limits for egress

provisions using best practices for estimating tenability and evacuation time; and, unless further

studies indicate another value is more appropriate, use 1-1/2 minutes as the maximum permitted

evacuation time for nightclubs similar to or smaller than The Station.

b) Compute the number of required exits and the permitted occupant loads assuming at least one exit

(including the main entrance) will be inaccessible in an emergency evacuation.

c) For nightclubs with one clearly identifiable main entrance, increase the minimum capacity of the

main entrance to accommodate 2/3 of the maximum permitted occupant level (based upon standing

space or festival seating, if applicable) during an emergency.

d) Eliminate trade-offs between sprinkler installation and factors that impact the time to evacuate

buildings.

e) Require staff training and evacuation plans for nightclubs that cannot be evacuated in less than 1 -

1/2 minutes.

f) Provide improved means for occupants to locate emergency routes — such as explicit evacuation

directions prior to the start of any public event, exit signs near the floor, and floor lighting — for

when standard exit signs become obscured by smoke.

xxiii
Table of Recommendations

6. Portable Fire Extinguishers: NIST recommends that a study be performed to determine the minimum

number and appropriate placement (based upon the time required for access and application in a fully

occupied building) of portable fire extinguishers for use in new and existing nightclubs, and the level of

staff training required to ensure their proper use.

7. Emergency Response: To ensure an effective response to a rapidly developing mass casualty event,

NIST recommends that state and local authorities adopt and adhere to existing model standards on

communications, mutual aid, command structure and staffing, such as

a) NFPA 1221, Standard for the Installation, Maintenance, and Use ofEmergency SeiMces

Communications Systems

b) NFPA 1561, Standard on Emergency Sendees Incident Management Systems

c) NFPA 1710, Standardfor the Organization and Deployment ofFire Suppression Operations,

Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Career Fire Departments

d) NFPA 1720, Standard for the Organization and Deployment ofFire Suppression Operations,

Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Volunteer Fire Departments

8. Research on Human Behavior: NIST recommends that research be conducted to better understand

human behavior in emergency situations, and to predict the impact of building design on safe egress in

fires and other emergencies (real or perceived), including the following;

a) the impact of fire products (gases, heat, and obscuration) on occupant decisions and egress speeds;

b) exit number, placement, size and signage;

c) conditions leading to and mitigating crowd-crush;

d) the role of crowd managers and group interactions;

e) theoretical models of group behavior suitable for coupling to fire and smoke movement

simulations; and

f) the level of safety that model codes afford occupants of buildings.

9. Research on Fire Spread and Suppression: NIST recommends that research be conducted to understand fire spread and suppression better in order to provide the tools needed by the design profession

to address recommendations 2, 3, and 5, above. The following specific capabilities require research;

a) prediction of flame spread over actual wall, ceiling and floor lining materials, and room

furnishings;

b) quantification of smoke and toxic gas production in realistic room fires; and

c) development of generalized models for fire suppression with fixed sprinklers and for firefighter

hose streams.

xxiv
Table of Recommendations

10. Research on Computer-aided Decision Tools: NIST recommends that research be conducted to:

a) refine computer-aided decision tools for determining the costs and benefits of alternative code

changes and fire safety technologies, and

b) develop computer models to assist communities in allocating resources (money and staff) to ensure

that their response to an emergency with a large number of casualties is effective.

codes, standards, and practices, and (c) identify research necessary to underpin and provide additional

technical justification for these actions.

The first recommendation, to adopt and enforce a building and fire code for nightclubs based upon one of

the model codes, is a prerequisite for the subsequent recommendations, and is strongly supported by the

finding that provisions in the 2003 model codes, if they are adopted and enforced, will significantly

improve the safety of structures and occupants, and may well eliminate tragedies such as this in the

future. Recommendation 2, to increase the requirements for the installation of sprinklers, is equivalent to

the Tentative Interim Amendment (TIA) already adopted by NFPA. The laboratory testing and

simulations performed by NIST as part of this investigation provide additional reinforcement of the

appropriateness of NFPA's action.

Recommendation 3 recognizes the critical role that the non-fire retarded polyurethane foam played in the

ignition and rapid flame spread process. While the use of foam plastics as exposed finish products is already inconsistent with current model codes, the standards development organizations such as ASTM

and NFPA need to be enlisted to improve the technical basis for materials testing to ensure that the

methods used to rate the flammability of finish materials and building products correlate with the actual

fire hazard posed, even anticipating possible situations that may not be consistent with the building code.

In addition, markings that are easily distinguishable by the contractor, building manager, and regulating

authorities would decrease the possibility for the inappropriate use of these materials and products. To

reduce the chance that a pyrotechnic device could be present in the event that unapproved materials are brought into a nightclub (which already is inconsistent with the provisions of NFPA 1 126),

recommendation 4 would make unequivocal those situations in which pyrotechnic devices are simply not

permitted.

Model codes need to be robust and more redundant to minimize the chances of loss of life caused by the

failure of a building that is out compliance, with codes. Adequate performance of the structure should be

ensured even when one of the protective systems is compromised by uncertain behaviors of the building

owner or occupants, including the installation of building decorations or temporary features that greatly

exceed flame spread or fire load provisions (as discussed in the previous paragraph), as well as exposing

the building to strong ignition sources; exceeding the posted occupancy limits; temporarily blocking an

exit; and disabling sprinklers or other life safety systems for maintenance.

Adequate exits literally provide the lifelines for a building's occupants in the event of a fire. For this reason the safety factor for the number, size and location of exit paths must be large enough to account for

the uncertainties in the structure caused by the conditions listed above and for the uncertainty in our

XXV
ability to predict the time for complete egress during an emergency. Recommendation 5, on occupancy

limits and emergency egress, acknowledges that uncertainty.

Portable fire extinguishers, if readily available to someone properly trained, can be effective early in a fire

and delay fire spread in the event the sprinkler system is not functioning. However, the type of training

required, the importance of timing, and the limitations on the size of fire that can be safely attacked

require additional study. Recommendation 6 is for such a study.

Even though the first fire engine arrived expeditiously, the speed at which the fire engulfed The Station

rendered it impossible for the fire department to save the structure or the lives of many victims. However,

the importance of the role of fire prevention activities in avoiding a future tragedy was highlighted by this

incident. As in all mass causality events, especially those where the window of opportunity for rescue is extremely limited, effective and efficient communication within and among the various responding

agencies is imperative. Developing effective interoperable communications requires addressing

numerous factors, including frequent test use of interoperable communications equipment and procedures,

fornial governance and collaboration, formal standard operating procedures, appropriate technology, and

multi-agency training and exercises. Recommendation 7 identifies existing standards that address these

issues. Tools and best practice models addressing many of these success factors, including a statewide

communications interoperability planning methodology are available through the Department of

Homeland Security’s SAFECOM Program.

Based upon the findings of this investigation and the resultant recommendations presented above,

additional research is recommended in three general areas: human behavior and people movement,

material behavior and fire spread, and decision aids. Recommendation 8 addresses the first of these.

There clearly is a need to understand better the behavior of people and crowds in emergency situations to pinpoint the factors that lead to crowd crush. This would enable sensible changes in building design to

minimize the possibility of crowd crush, and improved ways to communicate to the crowd in emergency

situations that go beyond the code, in direct support of recommendation 5.

The time available for safe egress is influenced by the building geometry and ventilation system, the

materials of construction and furnishings, and actions to suppress the fire. Predicting sprinkler activation

and suppression and the influence of fire fighting activities on the spread of the fire is another aspect of

the problem that can be done today only at the grossest level of precision. Implementation of

recommendation 9 would move us to the level of precision needed in support of recommendations 2 and

3, as well as recommendation 5. Recommendation 10 recognizes the need for research into computer-aided decision tools specifically

designed to deal with the costs and benefits of revisions to building and fire codes and standards, and to

assist decision makers at the community level responsible for allocation of resources for public safety.

xxvi
Chapter 1 Background

1.1 INTRODUCTION

A fire occurred on the night of Feb. 20, 2003, in The Station nightclub at 21 1 Cowesett Avenue, West

Warwick, Rhode Island. A band that was performing that night, during its performance, used

pyrotechnics that ignited foam insulation lining the walls and ceiling of the platfomi being used as a

stage. The fire spread quickly along the walls and ceiling area over the dance floor. Smoke was visible in

the exit doorways in a little more than one minute, and flames were observed breaking through a portion

of the roof in less than five minutes. Egress from the nightclub was hampered by crowding at the main

entrance to the building. One hundred people lost their lives in the fire.

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), under the authority of the National

Construction Safety Team (NCST) Act [1], established a National Construction Safety Team (Team) on

Feb. 27, 2003, to determine the likely technical causes of the building failure that led to the high number

of casualties in that fire. The investigation included the following tasks:

• identification of technical issues and major hypotheses requiring investigation through

consultations with experts in fire protection engineering, and emergency evacuation, and

members of other teams investigating The Station fire;

• data collection from local authorities, contractors and suppliers, building and fire protection

design documents, records, plans, specifications, video and photographic data, telephone and

radio transmissions, field data, and a limited number of interviews and other oral and written

accounts from building occupants and emergency responders, and other witnesses as reported

by the news media;

• analysis and comparison of building and fire codes and practices, and review and analysis of

practices used in operation of the building;

• simulation and analysis of phenomena (with associated uncertainties), including fire spread,

smoke movement, tenability, occupant behavior and response, evacuation issues, and

operation of active and passive fire protection systems; and

• testing to provide additional data and support simulation predictions.

This document constitutes the draft report of the NIST investigation into The Station fire. The building

and surroundings as they were prior to the fire are described in the following section of this chapter. The

general history of the building is reviewed here as well. Chapter 2 provides a timeline of the incident,

including the ignition and spread of the fire, the evacuation process, and firefighting activities. The fire

and emergency response and procedures are detailed in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 describes the testing and

supporting experiments, and Chapter 5 provides background and results of the computer simulation of the

fire and smoke movement. An analysis of the evacuation process is provided in Chapter 6. Chapter 7

reviews the model building and fire codes that are relevant to a structure like The Station. The report

concludes with a summary of findings and recommendations in Chapter 8. There are a number of

appendices that provide more detail, or information that is peripheral to the main objectives. NIST video

recordings and animations are included in the DVD that accompanies this report.

1-1
1.2 DESCRfPTiON OF THE BUILDING AND SITE

The Station nightclub was located at 21 1 Cowesett Avenue, West Warwick, Rhode Island. It was a single-story wood frame building with a footprint of about 412 m" (4484 ft") and a small basement under

the main bar room. Figure 1-1 is a photograph of the building on its lot. The north-facing front door of

the nightclub was set back about 42 m ( 140 ft) from Cowesett Avenue, a three-lane, two way street that runs east-to-west. Kulas Road is two lanes wide and runs along the east side of the building, about 10 m

(33 ft) east of the side bar exit. There was no direct street access to the building from either the west or south sides. Parking for over 100 cars was provided in the front and to the west side of the building.

A distant aerial view of the area. Figure 1-2, shows the nightclub in relation to the community. Note the

location of Fire Station #4 at 110 Cowesett Avenue about 500 m (1650 ft) to the west of The Station.

Figure 1-3 is a sketch showing the north side of the building approximately as it looked on February 20,

2003. Note the windows on the left which are in the main bar area, the windows on the right in the

sunroom/poolroom, the ramp and stairs leading from the main entrance in front, and the stairways leading

from side exits on the west and east of the building. Inside the double doors of the main entrance is a vestibule with a single doorway. Figures l-4a and l-4b are photographs of the north side and north west

comer of the building as they looked within a year or two of the February 20, 2003 fire. The external

walls were primarily covered with painted wood shingles or panels above a concrete foundation. The

roof was flat with a wood shingle fa9ade along the front and sides, as seen in the photographs.

Figure 1-5 shows a plan view of the nightclub floor, a composite from multiple sources of information

obtained during the investigation. Entering from the front through the double doors would have brought

one into a short entrance hall with a single door at the far end that led to the ticket-taker area. To the right

of the ticket taker was an assembly area containing the dance floor, sunroom (or poolroom), elevated

dining area, and a platform (imprecisely referred to as a stage) with the dmmmer's alcove. A dressing

room was situated in the northwest comer and an exit to the outside was located between the platform and

dressing room. Except for the front of the sunroom, which was composed of darkened glass windows,

there were no other windows in the right half of the nightclub.

Turning left at the ticket-taker area would have brought one into the main (or horseshoe) bar room. An

exit to the outside was located on the far left wall. There were no windows on that wall but windows

lined most of the front of the main bar room.

The kitchen separated the main bar room from a smaller assembly area (or dart room) and back bar.

There was one door to the outside from within the kitchen. A storage area, office, and restrooms were

located in the back of the nightclub. There were no additional exits leading directly to the outside from

these rooms; any windows or exits that had been installed were covered with bars or paneling.

Figures l-6a and l-6b show different views inside the nightclub, highlighting the exit doors next to the

platfonn and the exit from the main bar area.

1.3 HISTORY OF THE BUILDING’

The Station nightclub was a single-story wood frame building, with a small basement. Over the years the

building was sold multiple times and changed function, as shown in Table 1-1.

* This section is taken from the contract report prepared by Koffel Associates, Inc. [11]

1-2
Figure 1-2, Aerial photograph of the community around The Station nightclub [2]

Figure 1-1. General orientation of building and site [2]

1-3
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Figure 1-4a. Front view of The Station nightclub showing the main entrance [3]

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Figure 1-4b. View of the northwest corner showing the sunroom windows [3]

1-5
23.5 m

Figure 1-5. Plan view of The Station showing different rooms and exits.

1-6
Figure 1-6a. View of inside of nightclub showing exit sign above door near platform [13]

Figure 1-6b. View of inside of nightclub showing exit sign above door in main bar area

[4]

1-7
On the night of the fire, The Station nightclub looked different from when it was built in 1946 [5]. While

the club was still a single-story wood building with a small partial basement, it was modified numerous

times over its 57 years [6, 7]. Although the original plans of the building were not located, several sources reported that the building was modified over the years. The modifications included small

additions, multiple reconfigurations of the interior, rebuilding after a fire, and rebuilding after a car rammed the front of the building [5].

The original date of construction has been variously reported to be 1946 or 1950. The 1946 date is based

on a Providence Journal article dated July 13, 2003 [5]. The article reports the land was purchased in

1945; the nightclub (originally named Casey's Inn) was constructed in 1946 and changed hands in 1947.

The Town of West Warwick tax records, dated May 30, 2001, indicate that the building was constructed

in 1950 [8]. West Warwick land records indicate the property changed hands in November 1945 and

1 947, suggesting the construction took place in 1946 as reported by the Providence Journal (W. Warwick

Land Use Record undated, [5,9]). For the purposes of this report, the date of construction will be 1946.

In an effort to document the original building construction date, construction pemiits were reviewed at the

Town of West Warwick for 21 1 Cowesett Avenue. The permits document dates of construction and

provide brief narratives of work to be completed. However, the details of the construction are not

included in the permits. It is not possible to determine from the permits the extent of work completed, or

if the work was completed in compliance with model codes of the time.

The building was damaged by fire in March 1972. The July 2003 Providence Journal article reported the

firefighters cut holes in the roof [5]. The contents of the building sustained fire and smoke damage, but

the building structure remained. The first building permit issued after the fire was in November 1974.

The permit makes no mention of roof fire damage repair. It simply states that the work included interior

paneling and partitions. Workmen reported that smoke-stained and charred structural framing remained

in the building continuously up until the February 2003 fire.

In June 2001, a car ran through the front of the building. A building pemiit was issued on June 19, 2001

to repair the damage [10]. The extent of the damage is not detailed; however, the pemiit indicates that a window and a portion of the exterior wall adjacent to the window were replaced.

The Town of West Warwick tax records indicate the building consisted of a small basement, 165 111“

(1794 ft") in area, and a main level of 412 m" (4484 ft") [5]. The tax record depicts the general outline of

the building with dimensions, not including windows or doors.

1.4 PREVIOUS INCIDENTS AT THE STATION^

At the time of the 1 972 fire mentioned above, the building housed a nightclub named Julio’s [5]. The

ensuing fire alarm alerted responders; firefighters arrived to find the building engulfed in flames. They

contained the fire, but much of the interior of the club had been significantly damaged. Investigators

detennined that the fire started in the rear center of the building and worked up through the ceiling and

into the attic. No occupants were in the club at the time of the fire. No other significant fire incidents or egress difficulties were reported to have occurred in this building

prior to Febmary 20, 2003.

2 This section taken from the contract report prepared by Ove Arup & Partners Massachusetts [1 2],

1-8
Table 1-1. Time Line of Construction and Changes of Use

Date Modification Extent of Construction

Spring 1946 Original construction as a night club New construction

June 1964 Change of ownership

Converted to meeting house (same

Use Group as restaurant)

Unknown if any

May 1967 Change of ownership and name

Converted to night club

See permit July 27, 1967

July 27, 1967 (building

permit 6748)

Commercial alterations

Paneling inside

Rebuild two porches in front

New sign outside

1968 Name change Unknown

June 1969 Nightclub closed

April 1970 Change of ownership and name See permit May 18, 1970 Converted to restaurant and removed the bar

May 18, 1970 (building

permit 8018)

Alterations to Business

Roofing, paneling etc.

Fall 1970 Renamed Unspecified remodeling

June 1971 Bank forecloses

Reopens as night club

October 18, 1971 Alterations and remodeling

March 1972 Fire

Club may have remained closed

until 1974

June 1974 Change of ownership

November 15, 1974 Convert to restaurant Commercial alterations

Interior paneling and partitions

April 29, 1975 (building

permit 10558)

Commercial exterior alterations and

renovations

July 1, 1975 (building

permit 10641)

Addition Addition 30.6 m" (330 fr)

February 1985 Change of ownership

Change of name

Converted to “pub”

February 20, 1985

(building permit 14930)

Remodeling and renovations to existing restaurant Late 1980’s Pub closed

1991 Reopened as nightclub

January 1993 Change of ownership renamed

January 1995 Change of ownership

December 1999 Non-permitted work

March 2000 Change of ownership renamed

June 19, 2001 (building

permit BOl-1098)

Repair damage from car ramming

building

Remove damaged window and replace size

for size, replace damaged sill plate and

reframe damaged exterior wall and interior

wall and exterior siding

1-9
1.5 JURISPRUDENCE

Subsequent to the events of Febmary 20, 2003, a large number of public and private legal actions have

begun. While they are outside the scope of this investigation, NIST notes that a Grand Jury has returned

indictments and a trial is pending; private suits have been filed seeking damages; disputes have arisen

involving Workers Compensation; and OSHA has issued a citation which is presently being contested.

NIST expresses no views on the merits of any of these proceedings.

In addition, these ongoing legal actions limited NIST's access to some physical evidence and limited the

ability to interview some witnesses.

1 .6 REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 1

[1] National Construction Safety Team Act, Public Law 107-231 -- Oct. 1, 2002, Congress of the

United States of America.

[2] purchased from GlobeXplorer 2004

[3] photograph by Anthony Baldino III (undated)

[4] Butler, Brian, Video by WPRl, Channel 12, February 20, 2003.

[5] Providence Journal, Zachary R. Mider July 13, 2003.

[6] West Warwick Application for Building Permit Number 6748. July 27, 1967.

[7] West Warwick Application for Building Permit Number 8018. May 18, 1970.

[8] West Warwick, Rhode Island Commercial /Industrial Property Record Card May 30, 2001

[9] West Warwick, Rhode Island Land Use Record. Undated.

[10] W. Warwick Application for Building Permit Number BOl-1098, June 19, 2001.

[11] "Code Analysis of the Station Nightclub Warwick Rhode Island," Koffel Associates, Inc., Ellicott

City, MD, NIST contract report # KA. 03732-004, June 23, 2004.

[12] "Evaluation of Limitations to Egress through Doorways in Emergency Situations," Ove Amp &

Partners Massachusetts Inc., NIST contract report #32979, Febmary 18, 2004.

[13] photograph courtesy of K. Corbin

1-10
Chapter 2 Description and Timeline of the Incident

2.1 introduction

A basic element of any fire investigation is the development of the timeline of events. Most of the deaths

in The Station fire occurred during the evacuation process; hence, a focus of the NIST investigation was

on documenting the egress event. Overlaying the progress of the fire, the movement of occupants, and

the collapse of the building was the response to the emergency by the fire and police departments and

EMS teams in West Warwick and surrounding regions. The intent of this review is to help understand the

incident so that the details and occurrences that resulted in the large loss of life can be identified.

The timelines generated in this chapter integrate infomiation from a range of sources to identify the

specific events that occurred starting just after 1 1:07 pm. Eastern Standard Time (EST), Feb. 20, 2003 as well as the order in which they transpired. The timeline is presented as a collection of overviews and

snapshots. Overviews describe a series of significant events that occur on the time scale of hours, and

serve to place the events in a broader framework. Snapshots focus on a shorter time period, and provide

details resolved down to a few seconds.

2.2 OVERVIEW NARRATIVE

About 1 1:07 pm, the lights were dimmed just prior to the band stepping onto the performance platform.

Once the band was on the platform, a set of multi-colored lights were activated and four pyrotechnic

devices (gerbs) were ignited to begin the show. The hot particulates which were part of the stream of

white sparklers discharged by the gerbs struck both sides and the top of the opening to the alcove where

the band’s drummer was situated. In a matter of seconds the hot particulates ignited the polyurethane

foam on both sides of the platform.

Eleven seconds after ignition, the band noticed the flames and the crowd soon began to realize that the

fire was not an intentional part of the show. Within 25 seconds, the flames reached the ceiling on both

sides of the platform. The fire spread very quickly across the polyurethane foam. The band stopped

playing 30 seconds after the fire had started, and the bulk of the crowd began to evacuate. At

approximately 41 seconds, the fire alarm sounded and the emergency strobe lights began to flash.

In less than 60 seconds, the Rhode Island Emergency 91 1 Center began receiving calls from cell phones

reporting a fire, and at about the same time, a West Warwick Police officer who was at the nightclub

reported to the police dispatcher that there was a fire inside The Station on Cowesett Avenue. This

information was immediately relayed to the West Warwick Fire Department (WWFD). The fire

department assigned and dispatched Engine 4, Engine 1, Engine 2, Engine 3, Ladder 1, Rescue 1, and

Battalion Chief 1 to the fire scene.

Inside the nightclub, the fire continued to develop and in about 90 seconds, the thick black smoke layer

appeared to have dropped to within 0.3 m (1 ft) of the main floor of the nightclub. Less than 100 seconds

after ignition, the main front doorway became clogged with occupants trying to exit the main floor. Club

patrons and staff were breaking windows on the front of the nightclub from the area of the main bar and

sunroom and were exiting through the windows. Patrons who had escaped were attempting to extricate

people who had been wedged in the front doorway. Shortly after 11:13 pm (5 minutes after ignition),

flames were observed extending out of the windows and front doorway.

2-1
A few seconds later, Engine 4 arrived at the nightclub and began to pull a hose line to near the front door.

Water from the booster tank on Engine 4 was initiated at approximately 1 1:14 pm (about 6 min into the

fire). Additional fire fighters arrived on Ladder 1, Engine 2 and Engine 3. Battalion 1 activated the

Warwick Task Force which invoked a mutual aid agreement and dispatched seven additional

engine/ladder companies from surrounding communities. Battalion 1 also requested 12 rescues (ambulance units). At approximately 1 1 :22 pm, the West Warwick Fire Chief indicated that he was

responding to the fire scene. As the chief was responding, he asked the fire dispatcher to contact Metro

Fire Control and implement the Mass Casualty Plan. The Engine 3 officer had set up a triage area in the

parking lot of and inside the Cowesett Inn. Engine 4 was applying water on the fire by about 1 1 :24 pm,

and at least three hose lines were being used to apply water to the area around the front door by 1 1 :28 pm.

Shortly after 11:32 pm, the fire chief asked the fire dispatcher to contact the State Fire Marshal’s Office

and request a state fire marshal be sent to the scene. The fire dispatcher advised Triage that Kent County

Hospital was overwhelmed with injured victims and that additional victims should be directed to Rhode

Island Trauma Center, and Triage responded that the rescue units were using their own discretion as to

which hospital the victims were being transported.

At about 1 1 :57 pm, a portion of the nightclub roof appeared to collapse. The fire chief ordered a roll call

to account for all fire fighters on the fire ground. Around midnight the Warwick ladder unit raised its ladder, and began applying a master stream to the fire. Approximately ten minutes after the collapse of

the main roof section, a portion of the roof around the sunroom collapsed. Sometime between 12:15 am

and 1:00 am, February 21,the State Fire Marshal arrived on the fire scene, the incident commander asked

the fire dispatcher to cancel additional rescue units, and Triage reported that all patients had been

transported.

An overview timeline is shown in Figures 2- la and 2- lb. Detailed events are summarized in Table 2-1.

2.3 OVERALL INCIDENT TIMELINE

The overall incident timeline was assembled from the video footage inside and outside The Station filmed

by WPRl-TV [1], published interviews with occupants by the Providence Journal, a video taken by an amateur using a handheld camcorder [2], audio tapes, and fire department records. A high-quality digital

version of the TV video was provided to NIST by WPRl. The amateur video [2] was retained as evidence

by the Office of the Attorney General for Rhode Island. The Attorney General's staff permitted the NIST

investigators to review the tape in the West Warwick Fire Investigation field office. Audio tapes from

two sources were also retained by the Attorney General. The first audio set contained digital recordings

of cellular phone calls to the Rhode Island Emergency (911) Center. The second audio set included

cassette tapes of radio communications from the WWFD. The Attorney General's staff allowed

investigation team members to listen to both the 91 1 and fire department recordings at the field office.

In order to integrate the events on the two videos with the audio recordings, it was necessary to establish a common time reference. Each of the two videos was time-stamped by the camera/camcorder, but the two

clocks were not synchronized. The 911 audio recordings were time-stamped, but it appeared that the 91

1

clock did not match either of the two video clocks. The fire department radio transmissions were not

continuously time-stamped, but the central dispatch (fire alami) periodically inserted a clock time either

before or after a transmission. The fire department communication system did not record continuously,

but instead recorded only when a radio transmission occurred. The result is that the dispatcher may have

inserted a clock time twice in 5 minutes, but then not provided another clock time for 30 minutes.

2-2
0:30

min

Band

stops

playing

6

rnin

Water

on

Fire

-

Booster

Water

on

Fire

-

Master

Evacuation

begins

Hand

Line

-

Engine

4

Stream

-

Warwick

Ladder

Figure 2-1 a. Overview Timeline of The Station Nightclub Fire

2-3

Cell

Phone

Callers

[_

Activate

Warwick

0:36

min

Report

Fire

to

911

Fire

Task

Force
Kent

Cty.

Hosp.

Filled

Send

Injured

to

Other

Hosp.

Figure 2-1 b. Overview Timeline of The Station Nightclub Fire (cont.)

2-4
Table 2-1. Summary of Incident Timeline. (Uncertainty is less than +/- 5 seconds for

times showing seconds, and +/- 30 s for times without seconds.)

EST Fire Time Description

1 1:08 pm 0:00:00 First flames on upper wall, left of platform

0:00:25 Flames touching ceiling on both sides of platform

0:00:30 Band stops playing, crowd begins to evacuate

11:09 0:00:36 Three Cell phone caller reports fire to 91

0:00:41 Fire alarm sounds and strobes begin to flash

11:09 0:00:59 Report received of fire at Station Nightclub- Police on Scene,

11:09 0:01:13 Fire alarm recorded at WWFD

0:01:30

Thick black smoke from pool room windows. Smoke appears to

be at floor level inside.

0:01:42 People piled up in doorway. Smoke pouring out above people.

11:10 0:02:00 E-4, E-1, E-2, E-3, L-1, B-1 assigned/dispatched

0:04:38

Smoke approximately 0.3 m above floor inside. Flames near door

0:05:12 First observation of flames out front of building

11:13 0:05:21

Engine 4 on scene. Fire department confirmed on scene, front

of building

0:05:34

Fire Department commences running first hose line (1 Yf’).

Flames (2.5 m to 3 m) extending from front exit

0:05:43 Flames extend from front windows

11:14 0:06 Engine 4 on scene reporting heavy fire

Water from 1 Va’’ hose line directed to the main entrance

Battalion 1 - activate Warwick Task Force ( seven additional

engines/ladders) Mutual Aid

Battalion 1 to Fire Alarm - request 12 rescue units

0:11

Engine 2 - monitor; knock it down. Master Stream from E-2 on

fire at club entrance

11:22 0:14 ; Fire Chief responding

; Fire Chief 1 to Fire Alarm- Metro Fire Control; Implement Mass

Casualty Plan

11:24 0:16 Master Stream off Engine 4 operational - water on center of fire

any available rescue units, request 1 5 more

2-5
U0E0:.::X Description

11:28 0:20

Three hose streams, three hand lines streaming on front door

area

11:32 0:24 Area/Roof over Main Bar appears down

11:33 0:25 Master Stream off Engine 4 still operating

Fire Chief 1 to Fire Alarm - need State Fire Marshal asap

11:40 Rescue 2 at Kent County Hospital

Command to Triage-Triage -need 10-24 stretchers

Fire Alarm to Triage - Kent County overwhelmed; send to R1

Trauma

Engine 3 to Fire Alarm - repeat; rescues using own discretion;

Engine 3 triaging out of here

Battalion 1- accountability Roll Call - roof down?

11:57 0:49

Middle of Accountability Check- Accountability -Fire Alann to

E-1 ,E-2,E-3,E-4, Rescue 1, FC, SH

11:58 0:50 Warwick Ladder platform water operating

Fire Alarm to Command - Kent filled to max; Rescue 1 -

approaching scene with doctor from Kent Cty

12:09 am 1:01 Master stream off ladder platform still operating

12:15 1:07 Partial collapse of pool room area begins

12:16 1:08 Warble tone partial collapse; all personnel out

Accountability Check - E-1, E-2, E-3, E-4, L-1, R-1, E-5, E-7,

R-3

12:22 1:14 Master stream from ladder platform still operating

12:23 1:15 Streets appear clear and casualties gone

12:37 1:29 Narragansett Electric Power Truck visible on Cowesett

State Fire Marshal on scene; Narragansett responding

Command to Fire Alann - notify chaplain; cancel additional rescues; cancel LifeFlight helicopter

Command to Fire Alarm - Chief Rock (Fire Chief 2) and State

Fire Marshal meet in front of building

Safety - cancelled all Rescue, Triage to Fire Alarm - all patients

transported

1:06 Rescue 1 clear

1:07 j Fire Alarm - Power has been cut

2-6
After careful review of the video and audio recordings, links were discovered which allowed all the

recordings to be tied to a common clock. West Warwick Fire Department records indicated that the first

unit, Engine 4, arrived on the scene at 23:13:22. Engine 4 also notified the WWFD dispatcher over the

radio that they were on scene and the dispatcher inserted a clock time of 23: 14. While it was not clear

that the same clock was used to record the arrival and the dispatcher's time stamp of the radio

transmission, the two clock times suggested that both clock times were relatively consistent. It was also

possible that the same clock was used for both times and there was a short delay after Engine 4 arrived

and their report of being on scene. For development of this timeline, it was assumed that the earlier time,

23:13:22, was the time of arrival of Engine 4.

The arrival time of Engine 4 provided a link to the WPRI video because Engine 4 was visible in the

video. A siren could be heard in the background of the WPRI video and seconds later. Engine 4 appeared

on the video. The video did not actually show Engine 4 pulling into the parking lot of the nightclub. But

5 minutes 21 seconds after ignition. Engine 4 was shown to be in the parking lot of the nightclub. It was

possible that Engine 4 arrived slightly earlier, but was simply not visible in the field of view of the WPRI

camera. The arrival time from the fire department records, 23:13:22, was paired to the appearance of

Engine 4 in the WPRI video at 5:21 after ignition. This link allowed the fire department records, fire

department radio tapes, and the WPRI video to be tied to a common clock.

The fire department radio tapes could be linked to the 91 1 audio tapes because one of the cell phone

callers was relayed from the 91 1 center to the WWFD. Part of the communication between the cell caller

and the WWFD could be overheard on the fire department radio transmissions. Unfortunately, the

dispatcher did not insert a clock time on that specific radio transmission, but had inserted a clock time

with a preceding transmission. Again, since the radio transmissions were only recorded during actual

transmissions, it was not possible to ascertain how much time had passed between the previous clock time

insertion and the cell call being transferred to the WWFD. Since each cell call to the 91 1 center was time

stamped automatically, it was possible to link the fire department radio transmissions to the 91 1 calls.

While the WPRI video captured the first 6 minutes of the fire, the amateur video tape was longer and

recorded later in the evolution of the incident. A link between the two video times was found through

common events captured on the amateur tape and fire department transmission records. During the fire

department response and suppression operations, the WWFD conducted two roll calls of personnel on the

fire ground. The first roll call appeared to be associated with the collapse of a significant portion of the

nightclub roof. The second roll call was requested when part of the sunroom collapsed. The warble tones

used by the fire department to signal a roll call could be heard on both the amateur video tape and the fire

department radio transmissions. The fire dispatcher did insert a clock time on the radio transmission

announcing the second roll-call. Comparing the time stamp on the amateur video with the fire department

radio transmissions identified the amateur video clock to be 3:32 min behind the fire department clock.

The amateur video times were adjusted by adding 3:32 min to each time mark.

By linking the fire department radio transmissions to the WPRI video, the 91 1 cell calls, and the amateur

video, all the events were placed on a common timeline. Combining this with the fire department

incident record allowed the timeline to reference a single clock time. However, since most of the fire

department radio transmissions did not have an inserted clock-time, the timeline shown in Figure 2-1

provides the order in which all of the events occurred, but not necessarily the specific times at which they

occurred.

2-7
2.4 EVACUATION TIMELINE^

Three types of data were used to develop a reasonable and verified deseription of the evaeuation: video

footage, photographs and eyewitness statements from the Providence Journal. While many newspaper

artieles reported various details of the incident, the building, and the evacuation, no conclusions were

drawn from such sources unless they could be independently verified through review of photographs,

video footage, or eyewitness statements.

Short of personal observation, visual evidence can provide investigators with the most reliable depiction

of the events of an incident such as this. By considering visual evidence, the investigator does not rely

upon the interpretations or views of other observers. Due to inherent inaccuracies involved with

eyewitness accounts, visual evidence was given priority in developing the timeline.

The evacuation timeline presented here was assembled with the assistance of Ove Amp & Partners

Massachusetts, Inc. Their final report to NIST [3] is quoted freely in this chapter without further

reference; however, any conclusions and findings that are presented are solely those of NIST. The

timeline includes events specific to the evacuation of the building, as well as those specific to the

development of the fire. Various sources were contacted as part of this effort. However, because

litigation activities were underway, some potential sources were unable to provide us their information.

The video footage recorded inside and outside of the club before and during the fire by WPRl-TV camera

operator [1] was of great benefit to this task. This video showed various activities prior to the incident, as well as the initiation of the fire and portions of the ensuing evacuation. The television news crew’s video

was used as the primary source of data for this task. Available photographs were used to confirm various

details observed in the video, as well as to gain observations of different parts of the club, both before and

during the fire.

While eyewitness statements have some drawbacks, they can provide valuable insight, especially since

video footage and photographs were not available for all aspects of this incident, or of areas and features

of The Station nightclub. In this review, eyewitness statements, primarily as reported by the Providence

Journal and the Boston Globe, were used to draw conclusions regarding occurrences outside of the view

of the available visual evidence sources. Unless they could be disproved, eyewitness statements were

assumed accurate based on the experience of the eyewitness; conclusions drawn from these were

independently verified, where possible. NIST also provided an anonymous toll free hotline and an email

address for voluntary input from the general public to generate additional communications, none of which

contradicted the published accounts.

Photographs used in this analysis were in digital form, and thus no software was necessary in their

processing. The WPRI video was provided to NIST in digital form as well. In order to obtain still images from this video, the media editing software Pinnacle Studio SE, Version 7.15.1, was employed.

This software allowed specific individual video frames to be extracted from the video while maintaining

image quality.

The timeline that resulted from this analysis, with reference to the still frames from which events were

identified (refer to Appendix A for images), is provided in Figures 2-2a through 2-2d . The timeline

indicates times in relation to the initiation of fire on the platfonn, estimated to occur at 1 1:08:01 pm EST

(06:22 video time).

' This section taken from the contract report prepared by Ove Arup & Partners Massachusetts [3].

2-8
START

OF FIRE 1 Min 2 Min 3 Min 4 Min 5 Min 6 Min

1-1 I I I I I I

I

Timeline Part 1

00 oo 00 oCD

First flames, upper wall, left of stage. Flames on upper wall, right of stage.

Figure 2-2a. Evacuation Timeline (33 seconds before to 10 seconds after ignition). Video

stills copyright © 2003 TVL Broadcasting, Inc. All rights reserved.

2-9
START

OF FIRE 1 Min 2 Min 3 Min 4 Min 5 Min 6 Min

Timeline Part 2

Figure 2-2b. Evacuation Timeline (10 seconds to 50 seconds after ignition). Video stills

copyright © 2003 TVL Broadcasting, Inc. All rights reserved.

2-10
START

OF FIRE 1 Min 2 Min 3 Min 4 Min 5 Min 6 Min

Timeline Part 3

Camera operator reaches exit lobby. Smoke in exit lobby. Camera operator exits building.

Smoke from stage exit, flames inside Smoke out of poolroom windows. Oeeupants jammed in doorway.

Figure 2-2c. Incident Timeline (50 seconds to 2 minutes after ignition). Video stills

copyright © 2003 TVL Broadcasting, Inc. All rights reserved.

2-11
START

OF FIRE 1 Min 2 Min 3 Min 4 Min 5 Min 6 Min

I I I ^ ^

I

! ; Timeline Part 4

Camera operator returns to stage door. Flames near eave at rear of building. Flames out front of building.

Figure 2-2d. Incident Timeline, Part 4 (2 minutes after ignition to 5:43).

copyright © 2003 TVL Broadcasting, Inc. All rights reserved.

Video stills

The focus was the time period beginning when portions of the club lights were shut down in preparation

for the show, until the videographer placed the camera on the ground in the parking lot and significant

flames were seen at the front of the building. The polyurethane foam along the vertical corners of the

walls fonning the drummers alcove ignited 8 seconds after the pyrotechnic display was initiated, as seen

in Fig. 2-2a.. The videographer moved his camera aside 7 seconds later to view the growing fire along

the wall better; the band members near the back of the platfonn noticed the flames 4 seconds later. (Refer

to Fig. 2-2b.) The videographer swung his camera around and headed for the exit at the front of the

building 1 8 seconds after ignition of the foam; the first patrons could be seen on the videotape to

2-12
Table 2-2. Summary of Evacuation Timeline Developed from Video Analysis [1, 3]

(Uncertainty in time is less than +/- 2 seconds)

Video Time Fire Time Description

0:05:49 -0:00:33 Platform lights turned off for beginning of show.

0:06:08 -0:00:14 Band first shown on platform.

0:06:14 - 0:00:08 Pyrotechnic display initiated.

0:06:22 0:00:00 First flames on upper wall, left of platform.

0:06:31 0:00:09 Flames on upper wall, right of platform. Pyrotechnic display

ends.

0:06:33 0:00:11 Band members first notice flames.

0:06:38 0:00:16 Flames reach ceiling to right of platform.

0:06:40 0:00:18 Camera operator begins to evacuate.

0:06:47 0:00:25 Flames touching ceiling on both sides of platform.

0:06:52 0:00:30 Band stops playing, begins to evacuate.

0:06:54 0:00:32 Flames extend fully across ceiling above platform.

0:07:03 0:00:41 Fire alarm sounds and strobes begin to flash.

0:07:16 0:00:54 Camera operator reaches exit lobby.

0:07:28 0:01:06 Smoke in outer exit lobby.

0:07:33 0:01:11 Camera operator exits building.

0:07:48 0:01:26 Smoke coming out of platform exit. Flames visible inside at this location.

0:07:52 0:01:30 Thick black smoke from pool room windows. Smoke appears

to be at floor level inside. Occupants egressing through

windows.

0:08:04 0:01:42 Camera operator returns to main exit. People piled up in

doorway. Smoke pouring out above people.

0:10:30 0:04:08 Occupants still being assisted through main bar windows

0:11:00 0:04:38 Camera operator returns to platform exit. Smoke ~1 ft above

floor inside. Flames near door.

0:11:18 0:04:56 Flames outside building at roof level in rear.

0:11:34 0:05:12 Flames first recorded out front of building.

0:11:43 0:05:21 Fire department confirmed on scene.

~ 0:11:56 0:05:34 Fire department commences running first hose line. Flames

extending from main exit ~2.5 to 3 m.

0:12:05 0:05:43 Flames extend from front windows.

2-13
recognize the fire danger at 24 seconds. Around the time the band stopped playing (30 seconds fire time),

the bulk of the crowd had begun the evacuation process. At 41 seconds the fire alarm could be heard and

the strobe seen on the video. (See Fig. 2-2b.)

The videographer made his way to the exit lobby while continuing to capture the movement of the crowd

leaving the area around the dance floor. As seen in Fig. 2-2c, he exited the building at 1 minute 1

1

seconds (fire time) along with a steady stream of occupants. Sometime estimated to be around 1 minute

30 seconds after ignition of the foam, the front exit became blocked with people, and occupants could be

seen breaking windows and escaping from the poolroom/sunroom. The result of the crowd crush at the

front exit was captured on the video at 1 minute 42 seconds (Fig. 2-2c). The latest time recorded for an occupant escaping from inside the main bar (through a window) was at 4 minutes 8 seconds; however,

people stuck in the front entrance are seen in the video to have escaped as late as 5-1/2 minutes into the

fire, just before the fire department ran its first hose line (Fig. 2-2d). (One patron claimed to have been

pulled from the bottom of the pile by a firefighter considerably later, but this has not been confirmed by

the NIST investigation.)

Table 2-2 provides a summary of the events making up the evacuation timeline. “Video Time” refers to the absolute counter time associated with the events as captured on the television crew video, while “Fire

Time” refers to the time of events relative to the start of the fire.

2.5 REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 2

[1] Butler, Brian, Video by WPRl, Channel 12, Feb. 20, 2003.

[2] Personal communication between N. Bryner and M. Stone, Rhode Island Attorney General's

office. West Warwick, June 2, 2004.

[3] "Evaluation of Limitations to Egress through Doorways in Emergency Situations," Ove Amp &

Partners Massachusetts Inc., NIST contract report #32979, Feb. 18, 2004.

2-14
Chapter 3

The Emergency Incident Response

3.1 introduction

Beginning late Thursday evening, Feb. 20, 2003, RJiode Island’s fire/rescue, emergency medical services

and law enforcement agencies were challenged by the largest life loss fire incident in the state’s history.

In a matter of minutes The Station nightclub became engulfed in flames, producing both a major mass

fatality and mass casualty incident that drew upon the resources of virtually every fire and emergency

medical services (EMS) provider in the State, a variety of law enforcement agencies and others.

The fire and resulting structure loss was principally limited to the single story, wood framed,

unsprinklered, public occupancy, commercial building of relatively modest size [approximately 412 m“

(4484 ft“)]. Several vehicles in the vicinity of the building were also lost or damaged by the fire. As

described in Chapter 1 , the structure stood facing north, at the left rear of a roughly rectangular comer lot

at the southwest intersection of Cowesett Avenue and Kulas Road. The comer lot had been carved from a steeply graded hillside and then leveled and re-graded to provide relatively level access along the length

of the Cowesett Avenue frontage, while on the Kulas Road (east) side, the grade rose away to the rear and

southeast comer of the lot from Cowesett Avenue at a significant incline. The south or back line and the

west side property line were covered by relatively heavy bmsh comprised of various small trees, bushes

and ground cover and accumulated snow pack. The length of the rear property line was also contained

and obstmcted by a privacy style fence.

The site’s contours maximized the Cowesett Avenue access and parking (north half of the lot) and placed

the stmcture lower than adjacent perimeter grades at the rear on the east and south (back) sides. The

stmcture’s proximity to the berm-like elevated boundary on the east and along the south/back side

property line limited tactical operations at the rear and southeast comer of the building. This area also

provided no personnel access/egress points to the stmcture on either side. The building’s placement on

the lot and its irregular configuration, the higher graded perimeters, and the narrow distance between

firefighters and the southeast side and south facing rear walls of the stmcture presented a risk to fire

ground operations due to the rapidly deteriorating conditions, including the possibility the building would

collapse. The east side of the lot along Kulas Road also presented an electrocution hazard risk to fire

ground operations due to overhead electrical lines and a pole-mounted transformer at the service drop to

the stmcture.

The northeast front facing side, the full front (north facing) and west side of the stmcture each contained

slightly elevated entrance ways into the building and were accessible from the relatively level parking

areas extending from the building to the north and west.

In other respects, the stmcture presented no obvious hazards beyond those nomially associated with

comparable occupancies nor were there any other nearby at-risk structural exposures. However, vehicle

fire exposure risks filled the parking area, in the front of and extending from the stmcture to the west.

This area contained numerous vehicles of various types including a tour bus, media van, cars and tmcks,

as well as residual snow banks/piles from previous plowing. Although the tour bus was removed during

the early minutes of the fire, other vehicles parked near the northeast side (adjacent to the single door bar

area exit) in the immediate proximity of the building were exposed to sufficient radiant heat to produce

3-1
secondary ignitions, requiring extinguishment and producing additional vehicle fire losses from the

incident.

The human toll from the fire was far more devastating. Within only minutes of the pyrotechnic display

ignitions, 96 people perished, unable to egress safely ahead of the intense and fast moving fire. Most of

the fatalities occurred in the moments prior to the arrival of the first emergency services units. Three

more died within days subsequent to hospitalization, followed by an additional death 70 days after the fire

raising the final fatality count to 100.

More than 200 other victims, many seriously hurt from bums, respiratory insult and physical trauma,

were provided emergency care and triaged at the scene, then transported to hospitals in multiple states. This major mass casualty incident (MCI) effectively concluded its emergency on-scene and pre-hospital care operation (casualty collection, triage and transport) phase in less than two hours from the fire’s onset.

The operation was accomplished expeditiously through the combined efforts of dozens of agencies (some

60 EMS units and untold number of individual care providers), notwithstanding the communications

interoperability challenges experienced by many of the responding units.

Subsequent to the fire’s suppression and once the scene was cleared of casualties, the next major phase

began — the recovery and identification of the fatality remains. These activities opened the opportunity

for police, fire investigators and others to access the primary loss area to collect and document

information in support of their investigations.

The State Fire Marshal and Medical Examiner's personnel coordinated the recovery of the dead. Fire

Department personnel were utilized to collect individuals' remains and to move them to a holding area at the northwest comer of the lot while awaiting transport. The respective investigative teams documented

the fire scene and the body recoveries, attempting to identify the deceased as early on in the process as

possible. This phase of the operation continued until the recovery and removal of the last victims by late

afternoon, on Friday, Feb. 21 . The scene had been secured with temporary fencing and site control was

transferred to the law enforcement authorities conducting the follow on investigations.

Fire department on-scene operations concluded with the last ‘stand-by’ engine company returning to

quarters some 24 hours after the ignition of the pyrotechnics that came to produce the fourth deadliest

nightclub fire loss in the Nation’s history.

3.2 THE WEST WARWICK FIRE DEPARTMENT

The description of the West Warwick Fire Department (WWFD) provided in the DHS/ODP After-action

Report (Annex A, p. A-1 ) [1] forms the basis of the information summarized here. The WWFD provided

both emergency medical and fire suppression services to a community of approximately 30,000 people.

West Warwick is situated geographically at about the center of the state, and comprises a primary

response area ofjust under eight square miles. The Department operated from four stations with a combined response capability of four engine companies, one tower/ladder company, two rescue- ambulances and one special hazards unit or squad-type apparatus with a light tower.

The Department’s 66 uniformed personnel were divided into four rotating platoons typically comprised of

not less than one battalion chief and 12 other officers and firefighters per shift. An officer and firefighter

each staffed Engines 1 , 3 and 4. An officer and firefighter cross-staffed Fadder 1 and the special hazards

unit and two firefighter/EMT-C’s cross-staffed Engine 2 and Rescue 2 (ambulance), while two

firefighter/EMT-C’s staffed Rescue 1 (ambulance). (Note: cross staffing indicates the personnel

responded on either of the indicated apparatus depending on the nature of the assignment.)

3-2
At the time of the fire, the WWFD’s unit staffing (as noted above) was about half the minimum

complement of engine and truck company personnel suggested in the applicable National Fire Protection

Association (NFPA) Standards (1500 [4] and 1710 [5] respectively). The Standards advocate a minimum

crew of four members operating from each type of apparatus. Unit staffing levels directly affect the

firefighting crew’s tactical performance capabilities, the speed at and duration of which they can be relied

upon to accomplish various tasks, such as establishing water supply, advancing hand lines, or effecting

rescues, as well as the overall scope and effectiveness of the tactical intervention strategy being applied in a given situation.

The WWFD routinely relied upon substantial mutual-aid augmentation [principally from the Warwick

Fire Department (WFD) and the Coventry Fire Department (CFD)] to respond to its working structure

fires due in large part to its below standard staffing levels. In general, the additional response times of

mutual aid assets can delay the effective implementation of the Incident Command (1C) based strategies

and tactics necessary to successfully mitigate significant incidents. In this case, however, the large loss of

life was not connected to any delay in establishing the Incident Command.

3.3 THE FIRE AND EMERGENCY MEDICAL SERVICES RESPONSE

A "structure fire with person(s) trapped" type incident by its nature produces a situation where occupant

rescue and fire suppression activities are competing for immediate priority attention. The response to this

incident involved major concurrent tactical challenges (the fire suppression, the mass casualty

management, scene control and traffic management and the subsequent victim identification, community

support, and incident investigation) requiring concurrent intervention activities by fire suppression, EMS,

law enforcement personnel and others from a plethora of agencies.

The following overview is intended to provide a general description of the incident’s progression noting

key tactical challenges and how they were addressed. The overview timeline (Fig. 2- la and 2- lb, and

Table 2-1) summarize the sequence of events that are described in more detail in this chapter. Invaluable

contributions were made by literally hundreds of service providers from a host of agencies working in

common cause, even though there were problems in the response.

3.3.1 The Initial Alarm

On Feb. 20, 2003, at approximately 1 1:09 p.m., the State’s 91 1 call center began to receive calls reporting

a fire at the Station Nightclub and requesting that help be sent to the nightclub. Simultaneously, the West

Warwick Police Department dispatcher received a radio call from a paid detail officer (police) at the scene also reporting a fire at a nightclub which was located at 21 1 Cowesett Avenue. Within seconds

reports from both the 91 1 center and police officer were relayed to West Warwick’s fire dispatcher who

initiated a standard structure fire response at approximately 11:10 p.m.

The duty chief, four engine companies, the tower/ladder company and a rescue-ambulance responded to

the initial alarm. Calls continued to come in, indicating the extraordinary severity of the fire and that

numerous people were trapped and injured, which prompted the assignment of additional rescue- ambulances and other assets from both the adjoining jurisdictions and across the state.

At approximately six minutes into the fire, and within moments of his arrival, the WWFD’s on-duty chief

(acting Battalion 1) requested the activation of a task force from the nearby Warwick Fire Department for

mutual aid. Warwick Fire Department units monitoring the alarm traffic and anticipating the assignment

went "in-route" when dispatched at approximately 1 1:14 p.m. The WFD response was comprised of an augmented task force including a chief officer, 3 engines, 1 truck and 2 rescue-ambulances. The WWFD

3-3
on-duty chief then requested 12 rescue-ambulances to be dispatched in addition to those already

responding. The dispatchers received multiple alarm/mutual aid requests as the incident progressed.

3.3.2 The Incident Command

The initial Incident Command (IC) was established with the arrival of the WWFD on-duty Chief (acting

Battalion 1) who positioned his command vehicle at the west end of the alarm assignment structure on

Cowesett Avenue.

From this location the IC had a fair view of the front of the burning structure, the large number of

casualties dispersed among the crowds of other people in the parking area in front of The Station and

along both sides of the roadway to the east, the Kulas Road intersection with Cowesett Avenue, and some

of the area on the street in front of the Cowesett Inn. As one scanned from a southerly direction to the

east the following could be seen:

• directly south -

o the immediate parking area in front of the building with numerous at-risk vehicle

exposures, the at-risk structure with heavy fire showing, and the steep grade incline and

wooded area to the rear of the lot

• to the southeast -

o at a distance, the rise of Kulas Road up-grade away from Cowesett Avenue with adjacent

utility poles and overhead wires with a transfonner

o in the near ground, the approximate length and width of the parking area and vehicle

loading

• looking east -

o on the right of Cowesett Avenue, the length of the street section in front of The Station

o on the left, the area in front of and to the west side parking areas of the Cowesett Inn

The fire ground scene was chaotic. The fire was rapidly enveloping the structure with a large collection

of victims trapped at the main entrance and an unknown number still likely to be in the building. Dozens

of victims with obvious injuries were scattered across the operational area, including the parking lot and

along the street looking east toward the Inn.

The concurrent and emerging operational objectives of rescuing victims, providing mass casualty

care/transport and mounting an attack to extinguish the fire were apparent to the 1C who immediately

requested additional assistance.

The IC directed WWFD’s Engine 2 to lay-in supply lines from the hydrant in front of the Cowesett Inn

and to support the first due unit’s (Engine 4) suppression operations. During these initial activities, the

primary command focus was to establish a water supply and accomplish as many victim rescues as possible given the rapidly deteriorating fire conditions.

At 1 1:22 p.m., less than 14 minutes into the fire, WWFD’s Chief of the Department notified dispatch that

he was responding. Moments later while in route, he ordered the formal activation of the Mass Casualty

Incident (MCI) component of the mutual aid plan.

Upon his arrival, approximately six minutes later, he conducted a brief assessment of the unfolding

operations and moved the position of the IC forward of the original command location, in the parking lot

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at the front of the building. Also recognizing the magnitude of the incident’s casualties, the Chief

immediately requested any available rescue-ambulance to respond. He specifically requested 15

additional units beyond those units previously deployed and those currently responding to the initial IC’s

request for “any available unit.” Although the Chief did not formally announce his assumption of

command or the new IC location his presence became obvious to the dispatchers and the personnel

already engaged in rescue and suppression operations at the scene.

The IC (WWFD Chief) was joined in short order by the department chiefs from the Warwick FD and the

Cranston FD at the newly positioned 1C area at the front of the building. From this vantage point the

command group could better observe and direct the rescue efforts at the entranceway and the fire attack.

The chiefs from the mutual aid departments functioned as a command group to support the 1C and to

direct the assignment of their respective department assets. Upon the arrival of the Chief from the Coventry FD the 1C requested that the Coventry Chief assess and

report on the unfolding EMS activities at and near the Cowesett Inn. In this role the Coventry Chief

became the EMS liaison to the 1C for the remainder of those operations.

Although the 1C group did not adopt a traditional 1C structure or paradigm, it functioned in a fashion that

was, in effect, driven by the unprecedented magnitude of the mutual aid response and the huge

coordination challenge presented by the high volume of communications necessary for the multiple

responding units. As discussed in the DHS/ODP After-action Report (Annex A, p. A-21) [1], the

respective chiefs relayed commands to their dispatchers and arriving units on their respective radio

channels, as no common channel was available to effectively handle the volume of radio traffic emanating

from the scene.

The resulting fragmentation of vital communications posed substantial challenges to area dispatchers who

were trying to satisfy the numerous “any available unit” requests from their respective assets already at the scene. The generalized requests for “any available units” initiated to various dispatch centers by the

mutual aid companies produced confusion regarding which units had already responded and which were

still available. Since units were being self-deployed, dispatchers had to poll departments to see if they

could respond rather than relying on the call-ups driven by the mutual aid system's resource cascade. The

communications difficulties also led to Basic Life Support (BLS) patients being transported by Advanced

Life Support (ALS) units on a flrst-come-first-served basis, which is a less effective use of resources. From a command/operations perspective the incident could have been better managed. In spite of this

situation, all the critical requirements were achieved with the fire being extinguished in little over an hour

and the evacuation of the last casualty in less than two hours from the initiation of the incident.

At approximately 4 am the Command group met at the Cowesett Inn to plan the demobilization of the

incident. This effort prioritized the actions necessary to close out the on-scene operations, identified the

additional equipment and various staff resources needed to accomplish a wide range of related tasks both

at the scene and elsewhere, and insured the necessary notification and coordination with other

participating agency personnel. Principal among these activities was the effort to structure the process

and staff the victim recovery activities that would conclude the fire ground operations.

The absence of a centralized communications capability and record of the IC operations during this

incident precludes a meaningful objective review of those activities. However, the assets needed, both

personnel and apparatus, did materialize in a timely fashion. Given the time needed to collect, triage and

care for the casualties, these services were capably provided by the initial mutual aid responders.

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3.3.3 Fire Attack

The first fire apparatus, WWFD Engine 4 and Tower/Ladder 1, were located about 500 m (0.3 mile) west

of the nightclub on Cowesett Avenue and arrived on scene within three minutes of dispatch and

approximately 5 ^2 minutes into the fire. On arrival Engine 4 reported “heavy fire” conditions at the

scene, as flames were visible at multiple locations and heavy volumes of thick black smoke were

emanating from various points of the structure. Engine 4 was able to pull into the parking lot and

positioned almost directly in front (the north side) of the building, a few meters west of the main entrance,

while Tower/Ladder 1 passed the parking lot and turned south on Kulas Road to position on the upgrade,

east side of the structure. The location of WWFD Tower/Ladder 1 was tactically compromised by pole

mounted power lines extending parallel along Kulas Road between the blazing structure and the

apparatus.

Within moments of their arrival. Engine 4’s crew with assistance of Tower/Ladder 1 ’s personnel and

bystanders, had extended a 1 Y4” hand line from the unit and advanced to the main entrance of the club.

The fire conditions were deteriorating rapidly. Significant volumes of fire were enveloping the building

and heavy smoke was billowing from the main entrance, secondary exits, and knocked out windows in the

sunroom and main bar area on either side of the main entrance. At the same time, occupants were trying

to escape through that main entrance, with tiers of entrapped victims stacked on top of one another in the

doorway. As the crew approached, they utilized a 1 Tf’ hand line, served by the unit’s on board water

supply, to retard the fire at this principal egress point. This was to provide the entrapped victims a

protective water curtain while units assisted individuals. (It has not been determined how many people

may have been rescued during this phase, nor when they may have been removed from the front doorway;

however, it was reported [2], without confirmation from the fire department, that one person was pulled

from near the bottom of the pile as much as an hour after the fire department arrived on the scene.)

Upon its arrival WWFD Engine 2 laid-in, providing two 3” water supply lines from the hydrant across the

street at the comer of Cowesett Avenue and Coit Avenue adjacent to the southeast comer of the Cowesett

Inn, to support Engine 4’s operations, which had exhausted its on board water supply. Engine 2 was able

to enter the parking lot positioning a short distance behind Engine 4. The crew established a supply line

to the first arriving unit (WWFD Engine 4) enabling that unit to recharge its previously deployed hand

lines once the two supply lines from the hydrant were charged. WWFD personnel were also able to

advance additional hand lines and initiate a master stream operation at the front of the structure utilizing

Engine 4’s deck gun.

When the WWFD Special Hazards unit arrived it was positioned at the northeast comer of the property

facing south on Kulas Road directly behind WWFD Tower/Ladder 1 and raised the unit’s light mast to illuminate the scene. WWFD Engines 3 and 1 were not employed in the suppression operations but were

positioned nearby on Cowesett Avenue across the street from the Inn.

WFD Engine 1 laid-in, providing approximately 90 m (300 ft) of 4” supply line from a hydrant on the

east side of Kulas Road above the fire ground. They positioned the apparatus facing down-grade (north)

in the south bound lane of Kulas Road just above WWFD Tower/Ladder 1 and Special Hazards unit at the

east side of the lot. The crew initiated a master stream operation with their deck gun from that position to

attack the fire to the interior of the building near the main entrance area. WFD Ladder 1 was the last apparatus to be engaged in the suppression effort. It backed into the parking

lot in front of the structure just to the west of the WWFD initial assignments (Engines 4 and 2). Although

equipped with a 4” supply line. Ladder 1 did not have an on board pump capability and attempts to begin

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master stream operations were initially ineffective due to low water pressure. This operational challenge

was overcome by re-routing the supply line to one of the WWFD’s engines which then provided the

necessary water pressure to establish and maintain an effective master stream

Figure 3-1 shows the layout of the fire ground during the fire attack and suppression activities. The initial

attack was mounted by WWFD’s first unit. Engine 4, approximately 6 V2 minutes into the fire with the

advance of a 1 %” line to the main entrance of the structure and the primary victim cache, and continued

until the unit’s on board water supply was exhausted. While the two, 3” supply lines to the front of the

structure were being laid and charged, rescue efforts continued along the building’s north face, through

both the broken windows and exits. However, these efforts were pursued without the benefit of protective

hose lines and were substantially hampered by the rapid fire propagation, radiant heat and heavy volumes

of smoke discharge from the structure.

Once the two 3” supply lines to Engine 4 were established approximately 10 minutes after their arrival, an

apparatus mounted deck gun/master stream operation was initiated from WWFD’s Engine 2 and

additional hand lines deployed at the front and to the west side of the structure.

The frontal attack was almost immediately augmented with the arrival of WFD’s Engine 1, which had

laid its own supply line. Once positioned. Engine 1 began a master stream operation from its deck gun on

the east side of the structure and then extended hand lines down the grade to the east side front of the

building. These attack lines were most effectively applied to suppress the multiple vehicle fires adjacent

to the northeast comer of the stmcture.

Less than 25 minutes into the incident, the stmcture was showing fire through the roof in the area of the

main bar, which appeared to have substantially self-ventilated or partially collapsed. Shortly thereafter

WFD’s Ladder 1 was backed into the west side of the parking lot. The unit was provided a 4” supply line

from a hydrant located at 198 Narragansett Avenue by Cranston FD’s Engine 4. However, due to the

extended length of the supply line and the hydrant pressure, this source was not sufficient to produce an

effective flow. These efforts were suspended and the supply line was then repositioned to allow

WWFD’s Engine 4 to initiate pumping operations in support of WFD Ladder I’s elevated master stream

operations.

The major section of the main roof collapsed a little more than 45 minutes in to the fire, prompting the IC

to initiate an accountability check of the suppression crews. The roll call produced no indication of

missing personnel and suppression operations continued.

The sunroom area at the front of the club included a window-wall approximately 9 m (29 ft) long just to

the west of the main entrance facing the parking lot. The roofing and stmctural support for this element of

the building’s fagade collapsed a little more than an hour into the fire, which prompted the 1C to initiate

another personnel accountability check.

After this second major element of the stmcture failed, little remained of the building except sections of

the exterior walls at the front (primarily in the area of the main entrance which had been the focus of

substantial suppression effort). The west and rear walls were heavily damaged, and elements of the

nightclub’s storage area, food preparation and office areas to the southeast comer of the structure were

3-7
Parte

wig
effectively destroyed although some components of interior compartment separations still remained

standing at that end of the structure.

The fire attack continued with the master stream operations knocking down the residual pockets of major

fire in the remaining structure while hand lines were used to address areas that were difficult for the

master streams to reach. With the structure now heavily damaged (essentially a total loss) and the fire

effectively suppressed, the interior of the structure became accessible for the first time in the operation.

No interior fire suppression attack had been possible at the outset of operations due to the untenable

conditions and none was initiated until this final stage of the incident. Once able to get inside, suppression

personnel checked the area for possible survivors, extinguished the last of the residual fires and wet down

hot spots.

At this point the fire suppression and rescue efforts were essentially terminated and operations at the

building transitioned into a victim recovery and identification phase that continued until the last of the 96

fatality remains were removed from the structure and transported to the State Medical Examiner's

facilities. The final body recovery efforts were completed by late afternoon on Friday, Feb. 21.

No firefighter fatalities occurred during the extinguishment of this fire. Five firefighters were injured:

one with a fractured ankle, and four with smoke inhalation, cuts and bruises.

3.3.4 The Water Supply

The incident area had immediate access to a municipal hydrant system to support fire ground operations.

Although positioned short distances away (see Figure 3-1), the incident site had expedient access to three

hydrants, all of which were utilized.

The first hydrant was located a few dozen meters northeast of the incident site on Cowesett Avenue near

the comer of Coit Avenue and in front of the east side of the Cowesett Inn. That hydrant supported two,

3" supply lines to WWFD’s Engine 4 while that team attacked the fire from the front of the building in

the parking lot a few meters west of the structure’s main entrance.

The two other hydrants both provided 4" supply lines to the units they supported respectively. One, at the southeast comer of the site on the opposite side of the Kulas Road incline at about the crest of the

grade, provided WFD Engine 1 supply for its master stream and hand line operations. The other was on

the east side of Narragansett Avenue to the north and upgrade of the intersection with Cowesett Avenue

some distance from the northwest comer of the site. That hydrant supported the master stream operations

of WFD Ladder 1 positioned to the west of the two WWFD engines in the parking lot.

The hydrants' proximity to the incident site’s northwest, northeast and southeast comers allowed

apparatus to lay-in to the fire ground from all three directions. When supported by the pumping

operations of the various engine assignments, the water system’s pressure and flow was sufficient to

sustain the multiple master streams and the numerous hand lines utilized to extinguish the structure and

the various vehicle fires.

3.4 MUTUAL AID

Most emergency services providers, and fire departments in particular, develop and operate with the

assistance of mutual aid compacts or agreements with neighboring departments to augment their

capability to respond to incidents when their assets are committed or otherwise unable to satisfy the

community’s emergency response requirements. Such compacts are typically designed to rapidly

3-9
augment the department’s staffing or equipment during an emergency when needs exceed their

capabilities.

Mutual aid agreements vary widely in scope and content. Some agreements are designed to provide

assets as specifically requested while others provide for the routine deployment of another department’s

specialized assets such as hazardous materials units, advanced life support (ALS), bomb disposal units,

water supply, aerial apparatus or other specialty units when an alarm is initially transmitted. In the latter

situation, the mutual aid assets are in effect shared by signatories to the agreements, and are utilized

independent of actual jurisdictional or organizational ownership. All agreements benefit the member

agencies by providing emergency surge capabilities (staffing, equipment, etc.) from other agencies that

would be prohibitively expensive to operate and maintain in each jurisdiction.

While mutual aid arrangements have an obvious practical value, they also have limiting characteristics.

Assets which are infrequently used by a department requesting the mutual aid from another may be in use by the department possessing the asset on a regular basis, and therefore unavailable when needed by

others. In a wide scope event, there may be more departments in need of specific assets than are available

within the member compact. Jurisdictional differences in equipment, tactics and communications systems

may also present interoperability challenges to the effective use of mutual aid assets, as was the situation

at this incident. Some agreements are relatively small in scope, limited for example, to nearby

departments. Others may apply to all the departments in a county — or as in the case with RJiode Island, cover a multi-state region.

Most agreements center on strategic principles that assure that the specific mutual aid requested will

nonnally come from the nearest jurisdiction with the assets available. Depending on the amount of aid

needed (the number, magnitude and/or the diversity of the assets required) the aid is typically moved

toward the incident in a fashion that first thins the assets of the area departments nearest the incident and

then progressively back-fills or covers those departments providing the initial aid with units from

departments further away, providing for successive concentric waves of resource augmentation.

Mutual aid was provided to the West Warwick FD and the other fire departments throughout the state in

conjunction with the Southern New England Fire Emergency Assistance Plan (SNEFEAP). The plan was

designed to augment each department’s staffing and equipment capabilities through an anticipated

incident severity progression of up to seven alarms beyond the initial assignments. This is designed to be

achieved by providing both assets to the scene and back-fill /coverage for the departments providing

emergency fire-EMS assistance to others.

The mutual aid support provided to the respective major operational activities at The Station nightclub

fire is summarized briefly in the following sections. These sections provide a general overview of the

incident’s magnitude and complexity and are not intended to identify or chronicle all of the individual

contributions that were made.

3.4.1 The Fire Suppression Operations

The Station nightclub fire required only a relatively modest augmentation of the West Warwick Fire

Department’s available suppression equipment resources to contain and extinguish. Beyond the

WWFD’s response, this fire required only two additional apparatus from the Warwick Fire Department to augment the direct fire suppression operations at the scene (WFD Engine 1 and Ladder truck 1). The

additional units from WFD that were utilized (one engine and one ladder truck) did not exceed WWFD’s

equipment complement capabilities; WWFD’s own similar assets were deployed to the scene but were not

utilized in the suppression effort.

3-10
The initial WFD task force group dispatched had been supplemented with an additional engine company,

rescue-ambulance and special hazards unit at the election of the responding department. Beyond WFD’s

substantial response of equipment and personnel, Cranston FD and Coventry FD also provided numerous

units and substantial staffing (including approximately 100 firefighters and command officers) to support on-scene operations and to cover WWFD’s stations and service area during the incident.

During this stage of operations significant numbers of the officers and staff on the mutual aid units were

also deployed to the scene but not involved in direct suppression support. These personnel were primarily

employed to provide the critical on-site cadre necessary to effectively initiate and maintain the

coordinated casualty collection, triage, pre-hospital victim care and survivor support operations.

3.4.2 The Mass Casualty Incident Operations

In stark contrast to the suppression operation’s minimal equipment resource demand on the mutual aid

system, the magnitude of the resulting EMS-fire casualty management operation drew upon substantial

personnel and equipment resources from throughout in the state. The incident management also benefited

from the mutual aid plan’s everyday use of fill-in/coverage assignments and direct incident support by

and for the EMS units of various departments. This is done in essentially the same fashion as the

deployment of the suppression units and other specialized assets.

Initially, the incident site was strewn with numerous victims: many with obvious injuries were sitting on

and in the surrounding cars, and some were on guard rails and snow banks, while others stood and milled

about or lay on the ground. The immediate availability of shelter from the winter cold was afforded by

the proximity of the Cowesett Inn just a few dozen meters across and down the street. Many of the

uninjured survivors and walking-wounded migrated there spontaneously to flee the scene and seek/secure

assistance. Given its on duty support staff, size, diverse facilities, configuration and cross-street location,

the Inn readily became the primary triage and survivor assistance center at the scene. As this incident’s high casualty count became increasingly apparent, the mass casualty incident (MCI)

operation began to unfold with dispatchers receiving multiple requests from the scene for “any available

rescue” to respond. The casualty collection and care began with the first arriving rescue-ambulance units

being besieged by those in need of care or requesting medical assistance for others. A number of these

first-in units initially effectively served as field triage and care stations, transferring casualties to other

units in and beyond the immediate fire ground congestion on Cowesett Avenue between The Station and

the Cowesett Inn.

Initial command of the EMS operations evolved quickly as personnel and equipment became available.

As EMS units and company officers arrived they began organizing the chaotic scene. The triage and care

efforts that were initially attended by the first arriving EMS providers wherever the units were positioned on-scene began to center on the Inn and its immediate area. For much of the incident’s duration, at least

three distinct triage areas were operating simultaneously: one near The Station on Cowesett initiated by

an officer and crew from Hopkins Hill FD from Coventry, one on the outside of the Inn at the front door

established by a Cranston FD officer and crew, and another inside the Inn under the direction of a WFD

officer.

As additional chief officers and crews from Warwick, Cranston and Coventry fire departments began to

arrive, the management of the EMS operations evolved significantly. The needs and activities of the

respective triage sections were afforded greater command cognizance through the use of an EMS liaison

to the IC, a role filled by the Coventry FD Chief

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A Cranston FD deputy chief assumed the role of transportation coordinator and began staging units away

from the immediate area of the Inn at a parking lot of a nearby restaurant. This action was initiated to reduce the congestion at the site and to better coordinate the loading and transfer of victims to regional

hospitals. The effective coordination of both incoming unit staging and on-scene activities was

significantly compromised due to non-interoperable radio equipment between command elements and

responding units, as mentioned earlier [

1 ]. The communications challenges also materially hampered

direct coordination with regional hospitals. As a result, the transportation officer was, more often than

not, unable to communicate directly with the hospitals to ascertain their status and capabilities — and

therefore unable to direct units to the most appropriate medical facilities.

Less than two hours after the initial alann, the MCI management effort had effectively organized multiple

field triage and care locations as well as the in-door operations at the Cowesett Inn and the last of the

casualties were transported. The wide scale ground transportation EMS evacuation of 186 casualties had

been accomplished using nearly 40 fire department-based emergency medical services units, 20 private

sector ambulances from a variety of commercial providers, and buses used to shelter and transport those

with only minor injuries. More than 200 people may have been injured in the incident, most of whom

were transported to medical facilities throughout the state by EMS providers and private vehicles.

3.4.3 The Law Enforcement Scene Security & Traffic Management Operations

Beyond their immediate response and assistance at the scene, the West Warwick Police Department

(WWPD), the Warwick Police Department, the Coventry Police Department and other local agencies

including the PEode Island State Police personnel played key roles in managing and supporting the

incident security, access and traffic management efforts necessary to effectively access, stage, deploy and

permit egress by the significant numbers of rescue/ambulances (about 60 units) and all the other fire

apparatus and emergency services units that responded. Their collective efforts assured the volume of

EMS units had effective access to the scene and its adjacent staging areas. They also assured that the

traffic management effort provided for the safe exit of emergency vehicles once they were loaded with

victims and enroute to area hospitals.

3.4.4 The Mass Fatality Recovery and Victim identification Operations

The impact and consequence of such a significant number of fire casualties (both injured and killed)

extended beyond the fire service organizations involved to also challenge the area’s local law

enforcement agencies, the State Police, the State Fire Marshal’s Office, the State Medical Examiner’s

Office and other regulatory authorities. There were extraordinary informational, tactical and technical

challenges requiring the coordination and contribution of virtually every agency involved. These

included identifying uninjured survivors, those who had been EMS triaged and transported and to where,

those who might still be missing, and those who were among the dead

These operations generally required two concurrent efforts; one to physically recover and identify the

remains on site, and the other — accomplished off-site at facilities conducive to conducting confidential

interviews — was to collect victim identification profiles from friends and relatives of those still unaccounted for.

The victim profiles included physical descriptions of the person such as sex, height, weight, hair and eye

color etc., and any available information about what they had been wearing when last seen (such as clothing items and jewelry). This information was used to assist with subsequent identification efforts,

including forensic examinations by the State Medical Examiner.

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Both of these activities were accomplished with a regard for the privacy and dignity of the victims and

their survivors. During the recovery of the physical remains, efforts were made to avoid additional trauma

to the deceased and to collect personal effects that might aid in the victim’s identification. These actions

were accomplished while shielding the area from the view of bystanders. The collection of victim

identification profiles was also handled discreetly, to the extent possible given the circumstances.

Interviews were conducted in private and the information collected was treated as confidential.

The victim identification processes, both investigatory and forensic, continued through the weekend and

until the last fatality was positively identified on Tuesday evening, Feb. 25, 2003. Completion of the

victim recovery and identification operation effectively brought a close to the response efforts, with the

exception of the on-going fire investigation.

3.4.5 Post-fire Investigation Operations

Major fires, especially those producing a significant number of injuries and/or fatalities, often involve

concurrent investigations by various local and state law enforcement agencies and other regulatory

authorities, as occurred in this case. By law, in most jurisdictions, fire losses in general -- and particularly

those resulting in serious injuries and/or deaths -- are investigated to determine at the very least, the

location of the origin of each fire and its cause (natural, accidental, criminal, etc.). Depending on a variety of other factors, they also may be the subject of other inquiries, reviews, or hearings by a range of

regulatory/technical authorities. The sooner that relevant information regarding witnesses/persons

involved and specific facts can be collected, the more effective the initial incident information

management effort and subsequent investigations are likely to be. Law enforcement agencies typically

play the key role in this aspect of overall incident management security and in supporting the public’s

information needs.

The R1 State Fire Marshal was on the scene of this multiple fatality fire within an hour of the IC’s request

for his assistance. Even though the origin and cause of this fire was known (actually captured on videotape) the State Fire Marshal’s Office conducted an investigation to document the loss, and to determine

the parties responsible for the catastrophic loss of life and injury. These efforts were conducted in

conjunction with local authorities, primarily WWPD and WPD although other authorities (including the

R1 State Police) participated substantially.

Owing to the magnitude of the incident, the State Attorney General’s Office oversaw and directed various

aspects of the inquiry. The Warwick PD also played a key role by establishing and staffing an office

dedicated to assembling investigative reports and related information.

Post-incident investigation is part of the emergency response function. The subsequent investigative

efforts are normally necessary to determine the origin and cause of the fire and to ascertain if the

circumstances of the incident warrant the filing of criminal charges, the issuance of notice of regulatory

violations, and legal actions (such as condemnation orders) to protect the public safety and to enforce

laws and regulations. This typically involves local and state agencies working in collaboration with each

other, as was the case in the investigation of The Station nightclub fire.

A number of Federal agencies responded after the fact to The Station nightclub fire. At the request of the

State's Attorney General, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) provided direct technical

assistance to the AG's investigation. The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration conducted

its own investigation due to its jurisdiction over worker safety and health [3]. The Office of Domestic

Preparedness in the Department of Homeland Security was interested in how the community responded to

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this mass casualty event [1]. The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health was not involved

because there were no firefighter deaths.

3.5 OBSERVATIONS

The use of standard Incident Command structures and practices facilitated the concurrent fire suppression

and mass casualty incident management operations. The early involvement of the EMS teams within the

overall 1C effort allowed the chief officers directing the EMS operation to focus on their casualty care and

management challenges and to enable the fire suppression command forces to direct victim rescue and

extinguishment efforts.

As is common in wide-area mutual aid responses, various responding ageneies/units were unable to

establish or maintain effective voice communieations with 1C. The Incident Commander’s ability to effectively apply the available resources is critically dependent upon wireless voice communications with

the responding units. The need for effective communication systems and equipment (e.g., interoperable

with multiple common channels and the ability to handle a large amount of traffic) at large-scale events

cannot be overstated.

The arrival time of WWFD's first due units (Engine 4 & Ladder 1) of the initial response assignment was

within the four minute objective specified in NFPA Standard 1710 [5]. The model standard further

suggests that the remainder of the first full alarm assignment should arrive within eight minutes. The

achievement of the latter objeetive could not be eonfirmed from the information available to this

investigation.

WWFD's fire apparatus staffing of the first full alarm assignment was half of the firefighter staffing

recommended by NFPA Standard 1710, which suggests a minimum of four personnel on both engine and

truck companies. Had WWFD apparatus staffing been consistent with the model standard at least ten

additional firefighters would have been available to more expeditiously establish water supply to the

suppression units, establish master stream operations from the first arriving ladder/truck company, and

support victim rescue and casualty care operations.

3.6 REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 3

[1] "Rhode Island — The Station Club Fire After-Action Report," Office of Domestic Preparedness,

Department of Homeland Security, October 2004.

[2] Crowley, C.F., The Station Nightclub Disaster - A survivor's story: Saved by a pileup;

Providence .Journal. Providence, R.I.: Mar 10, 2003. pg. A.01

[3] Occupational Safety and Health Administration Citation and Notification of Penalty, dated

August 19, 2003 based on inspection # 304991086.

[4] NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational Safety and Health Program, National

Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2002.

[5] NFPA 1710, Standard for the Organization and Deployment ofFire Suppression Operations,

Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Career Fire

Departments, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2001.

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Chapter 4 Materials Testing and Supporting Experiments

4.1 introduction

Combustible interior finishes, scenery, or decorations have played an unfortunate but significant role in

fires that have occurred in places of assembly over the last 100 years. Often resulting in hundreds of

fatalities, examples of these fires include the Iroquois Theatre (602 died, Chicago, IL, 1903), the Rhythm

Club (207 fatalities, Natchez MS, 1940), and the Cocoanut Grove (492 died, Boston, MA, 1942) [1]. In

each of these incidents, fire-related material properties, including ignitability, heat release rate, and rapid

flame spread contributed significantly to fire growth that resulted in a tragic loss of life. In an effort to minimize the repetition of this type of fire, standard test methods for assessing the rate of flame spread,

heat release rate, and ignitibility have been developed.

Standard tests can generate critical fire-related material property data that can be a valuable resource for

fire protection engineers, code officials, and code enforcement personnel. In the U.S., flammability and

fire spread properties of materials are often evaluated using UL 94 -Standard for Tests for Flammability

ofPlastic Materials for Parts in Devices and Appliances [2] and ASTM E-84 - Standard Test Methodfor

Surface Burning Characteristics ofBuilding Materials [3]. The heat release rate properties of materials can be assessed using ASTM E- 1354 - Standard Test Methodfor Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates

for Materials and Products Using an Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter [4]. Both the spontaneous

ignition temperature (SIT) and flash ignition temperature (FIT) for plastics can be determined using

ASTM D 1929 - Standard Test Methodfor Determining Ignition Temperatures ofPlastics [5].

Standard tests have a limited ability to predict performance in real fire scenarios and no single standard

tests should be used as the sole criterion to assess the total fire hazard. Under carefully controlled

laboratory conditions, standard tests do allow comparisons such as. Will material “A” ignite more quickly

than material “B”? or. Will material “A” contribute to more rapid flame spread than material “B”?

Standard tests do allow the performance of different materials to be rated or compared, but the

relationship between standard test performance and actual fire performance can be much more

complicated. For example, while a standard test may provide a comparative measure of flame spread, it is difficult for the same standard test to predict the overall fire hazard because the standard test does not

incorporate or measure important fire behavior properties including melting, ease of ignition, heat release

rate, and products of combustion. Additional properties need to be included for a complete fire-hazard or

fire-risk assessment of the materials or assemblies under fire actual conditions.

4.1.1 Standard Tests for Flammability and Fire Spread - UL 94 and E-84

UL 94 includes six different tests to compare the relative burning characteristics of different materials, or assessing any change in the burning characteristics prior to, or during, use. These tests include (1)

Horizontal Burning Test-HB, (2) 20 mm Vertical Burning Test- V-0, V-1, or V-2, (3) 125 mm Vertical

Burning Test - 5VA or 5VB, (4) Radiant Panel Flames Spread Test, (5) Thin Material Vertical Burning

Test - VTM-0, VTM-1, or VTM-2, and (6) Horizontal Burning Foamed Material Test - HBF, HF-1, or HF-2. These test methods typically involve exposing small samples (less than 500 mm x 150 mm) to a flame or radiant panel for a specified period of time, then removing the heat source, and observing

whether the sample continues to flame or glow. A burning rate with units of mm/min can be calculated

4-1
from the time required by the flame to bum a specific distance. Each test method includes criteria for

classifying or rating the perfomiance of each material.

For example, an HF-1 rating could be achieved by a 150 mm x 40 mm sample of polyurethane foam if

after exposure to a small flame source for 60 s (a) no more than four of five samples continued to flame

for more than 2 s after the flame was removed and no more than one sample continued to flame for more

than 10 s, (b) the foam did not continue to glow for more than 30 s after the flame was removed, and (c)

the cotton indicator that was positioned below the test sample was not ignited by flaming particles or

drops.

While UL 94 does utilize both horizontal and vertical sample orientations, the impact of comer geometry,

ventilation effects, and prolonged exposure to high thermal flux are not included in the test conditions.

Ignition temperature, mass loss rate, and heat release rate data are also not recorded.

The E-84 test method was developed with the anticipation that a large test would provide a more realistic

environment for surface burning behavior of building materials. E-84 involves a much larger test specimen than UL 94, up to 0.610 m x 7.3 m, which is mounted on the ceiling of a 0.45 m wide x 0.32 m

high X 7.6 m long “tunnel” apparatus. A natural gas fired burner, 88 kW, is positioned at one end of the

test sample and the flames from the burner impinge on an approximately 3.25 m*" area of the sample. The

specimen is exposed to the flames and hot gases of the burner for a 10 minute test period. The hot gases

and combustion products flow along the unbumed portion of the sample and are exhausted at the other

end of the apparatus. The extension of the visible flames is recorded as a function of time and is used to

determine a flame spread index, which is based upon the extent of burning that occurs with a red oak

plank. Red oak is assigned a value of 100, and the flame spread index of other materials are nonnalized

accordingly. For example, Douglas fir plywood, fire retardant treated Douglas fire plywood, and type X

gypsum board are 91, 17, and 9, respectively.

Loose-fill insulation, plastics, and wall coverings can be tested by using different sample mountings and

support screens. The large specimen does allow for the development of physical and structural failure

modes, such as cracking and buckling, which may not occur on smaller specimens. The openness of the

tunnel design does allow for testing of composite assemblies, panels, and boards. Although plastics can be tested in the apparatus, thermoplastic materials can drip or fall to the floor of the apparatus and result

in low values for flame spread index that do not relate to their true fire hazard potential. The test configuration is limited to a horizontal ceiling orientation. Vertical or corner configurations, different

flame exposure periods, and different heat fluxes are not included in the test method.

4.1.2 Standard Tests for Heat Release Rate Properties of Materials - E-1354

The E-1354 test method utilizes a cone calorimeter to collect data on heat release rate, mass loss rate,

optical density of smoke, and gas concentrations in combustion products. The cone calorimeter exposes

relatively small samples (10 cm x 10 cm) to a uniform thermal flux. The thermal flux can be varied from

5 kW/m^ to 100 kW/m“ in either a horizontal or vertical sample orientation. An electric spark is used to

ignite the combustible gases near the surface of the sample. The sample is positioned on a load cell to

track mass loss rate throughout the bum. Additional instmments allow the optical density of the smoke

and gas concentrations to be monitored continuously. While the cone calorimeter can provide heat

release rate as a function of thermal flux, the impact of ventilation, corner geometries, and composite

assemblies are difficult to characterize.

4-2
4.1.3 Standard Test for Determining Ignition Temperature of Plastics - D 1929

The D-1929 test method utilizes a hot air furnace to determine the ignition temperatures for small samples

of plastic materials. A specimen of a material, in pellet, powder, sheet, or foam forni, and up to 3 g in

mass or 20 mm x 20 mm x 50 mm in size is inserted into a pre-heated tube furnace. Air flows from the

bottom up and out through the top of the vertically oriented tube at a velocity of 25 mm/s. After

insertion, the sample remains inside the furnace for up to 10 minutes. At the end of 10 minutes,

depending on whether ignition has or has not occurred, the temperature of the furnace is lowered or raised

and repeated at the new temperature with a new specimen. The lowest air temperature at which ignition

occurred is recorded as the ignition temperature. The Flash Ignition Temperature determination uses a

pilot flame at the top of the furnace while the Spontaneous Ignition Temperature determination does not

utilize a pilot flame. This test method is limited to a temperature of 400 °C, which is much lower than

typical gas temperatures in the upper layer of a room fire (600 °C). The exposure time is limited to 10

minutes and the air flow is limited to a single velocity.

4.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES FOR FIRE MODELS

Computational fire models incorporate specific material properties in order to calculate fire development

and growth for a given fire incident. These material properties, such as thermal conductivity, heat

capacity, density, and heat of combustion are utilized by the model to predict if and when a component

will ignite and how much energy or heat will be released as the component bums. The ignition and

subsequent release of energy causes the fire to grow and spread throughout a stmcture.

For common building materials including gypsum or pine paneling, these materials can be found in

various handbooks [6,7,8] or in the combustion/fire literature [9,10,1 1] (Table 4-1). For less common

building materials, such as flexible polyurethane foam, one can estimate a set of thermal properties from

similar materials or one can characterize the properties by conducting tests on representative samples of

the material. Since the quality of the model predictions is directly related to how accurately the material

properties have been characterized, testing representative material samples provides more accurate

properties. The properties in Table 4-1 were either measured in this investigation or taken from the

literature.

The type and composition of the materials that were identified as being present inside the nightclub were

characterized generically as flexible polyurethane foam, ceiling tiles, wood paneling, carpet, and an

industrial pyrotechnic device. This materials testing conducted by NIST and described in this chapter did

not include any materials actually recovered from the nightclub. NIST was not able to determine whether

the foam in the nightclub was (a) fire retardant, (b) non-fire retardant, or (c) a combination of fire

retardant and non-fire retardant foams.

Four test series were conducted and are described in this chapter or the appendices:

1) properties of polyurethane foam;

2) cone calorimeter heat release measurements of several polyurethane foams, plywood, carpet,

and ceiling tile;

3) heat flux and temperature measurements of pyrotechnic devices impinging on surfaces; and

4) fire growth measurements in real-scale mockups of the platfomi, main floor, and alcove.

Data from each of these test series provided insight into the material properties, fire spread, heat flux, and

fire growth of the different materials. The properties of the polyurethane foam that were measured

4-3
included the density, ignition temperature, and heat of vaporization, all of which are required to

accurately simulate fire spread. The cone calorimeter measurements established an appropriate range of

heat release rates for those materials tested. (Note that both fire retardant and non-fire retardant foams

ignited and burned when exposed to an external thennal flux in the cone calorimeter.) The experiments

that involved discharging pyrotechnic devices against a foam-covered wall verified that non-fire retarded

polyurethane foam could be ignited by a shower of sparks. (The fire retardant foam did not ignite in a similar test.) The real-scale mockups of the platform, main floor, and alcove provided data to evaluate the

perfomiance of the computer fire model. The information from ail four test series led to an improved set of input data for the combustion model used in predicting the behavior of the fire (presented in Chapter

5), and allowed a better understanding of the parameters that affected the perfonnance of the computer

simulation of the entire nightclub.

Table 4.1 Material Properties of Common Building Materials and Selected Plastics

[4.5,6]

Material

Thennal

conductivity

W/m-°C

Density

kg/m^

Heat

capacity

kJ/kg-°C

Heat of

combustion

MJ/kg

Piloted

ignition heat

flux limit,

kW/m“

Ignition

temperature

°C

Heat of

vaporization

kJ/kg

Flame

spread

index‘d

Douglas Fir 0.11 420 2.72 70-100

Fiber

Insulating

Board

0.048 240

Fiber Board

Medium

Density

749 7 - 12

12- 13

167

Gypsum 0.48 1440 0.84 3 10-15

Hardboard 27 <200

Pine

white

yellow

0.112

0.147

430

640 2.8

72-215

130-195

Plywood

Panelling

29 <200

Polystyrene

Foam

32.9 17-21

36-41

Polyurethane

Foam'^

0.034 22*^ 1.4 21 -28^ 370*^ 1000-

1600^’

" based upon ASTM E84 [3]

data from NIST investigation

4.3 POLYURETHANE FOAM

4.3.1 Background

Polyurethane refers to a large category of materials including surface coatings, elastomers, and foams,

rigid or flexible, and thennoplastic or thermosetting [12,13]. While large quantities of polyurethanes are used to manufacture adhesives and protective coatings, the foam type of polyurethane is widely used in

4-4
the production of upholstered furniture, bedding, sponges, toys, wearing apparel, and medical dressings.

Rigid urethane foams are used for insulation in building constructions. Flexible polyurethane foams are used in packaging materials and acoustical insulation panels.

The urethane linkage, which all polyurethanes have in common, involves the reaction of an isocyanate

group with a hydroxyl-containing group. Common hydroxyl-bearing groups include polyether alcohols,

polyester alcohols, carboxylic acids, and amines. If the hydroxyl-bearing group incorporates multiple

ether groups, then the resulting polyurethane will have a number of ether linkages and is typically referred

to as a polyether polyurethane. If the hydroxyl-bearing group incorporates multiple ester groups, then the

resulting polyurethane will have a number of ester linkages and is termed as a polyester polyurethane

foam. A more detailed description of urethane formation chemistry is in Appendix H.

Both polyether and polyester formulations of polyurethane can be used as packaging materials. The

polyurethane foam which is offered for packaging typically does not include any fire retardant additives or incorporate any fire retardant compounds into the urethane structure. As a packaging material, the

polyurethane foam (ether and ester) is commercially available in a range of sizes including 1.22 m (4 ft) x

2.44 m (8 ft) sheets. The gray colored foam can be obtained in several geometries including solid blocks,

uniform thickness sheets, and convoluted or “egg-crate” sheets.

4.3.2 Locations in Nightclub

In The Station nightclub, polyurethane foam had been installed on the rear wall, platform wall, and in the

alcove as a sound attenuation material (Figure 4.1). The foam was installed on the vertical surface of the

platform wall from the raised floor of the platform to the raised ceiling. The ceiling over the dance floor,

raised platform, and area between the dance floor and the sun room had been raised to 3.8 m (above the

dance floor). The raised ceiling was fabricated out of gypsum board and a light rack had been suspended

approximately 12 cm below the gypsum board. The vertical surface on the east side (side nearest

kitchen) was also faced with gypsum board. The vertical surface on the north side (side nearest the sun room) was covered with wood paneling. The rear wall featured a vertical section and a sloped section.

The vertical wall formed the rear wall of the nightclub and was vertical for approximately the first 2.5 m

above the dance floor. At 2.5 m above the dance floor, the “ceiling” sloped and followed the angle of the

roof. The sloped ceiling extended from the rear wall over the raised dining area to the raised gypsum

ceiling. Wood paneling covered the lower portion, 0.8 m high, of the rear wall. The upper portion of the

vertical wall and the sloped ceiling were covered with foam.

A roll of gray convoluted foam was recovered by other investigators from the basement of the burned out

nightclub one day after the fire and turned over to the West Warwick Police Department as evidence.

That foam did not appear to have been painted or to have been mounted on any surface. Samples from

this recovered foam were tested, upon the request of the state of Rhode Island, by the Bureau of Alcohol,

Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) in a cone calorimeter at the ATF Fire Laboratory in Maryland [24]. NIST

had no access to the material examined by the ATF Fire Laboratory, and was not able to conduct a chemical analysis to determine if the foam contained fire retardants. (Note; The ignition behavior of the

NIST non-fire retardant foam, described in Section 4.5.2, was consistent with the behavior exhibited by

the foam on the walls of the nightclub as documented by the WPRI-TV video.)

Photographs of the nightclub interior do not clearly demonstrate whether staples, nails, organic adhesive,

or some combination of all three were used to mount the foam on the wall. The foam appeared to have

been mounted over the top of the previous wall material, which, depending on the location was either

wood paneling or gypsum board. In some areas, portions of the alcove in particular, the foam was

4-5
installed over rigid polystyrene foam thermal insulation laid between the wood studs. The foam was

installed in either full 1.22 m x 2.44 m sheets or was trimmed to fit the geometry.

The photographs of the nightclub interior do clearly show gaps where two sheets of foam meet. Gaps

between the foam and the wall can also be observed at various locations, typically at external comers of

the alcove. While the gray color of the foam can be observed in some photos of various bands that had

performed at The Station, later photos show a darker color, indicating that the foam may have been

sprayed with a black paint. The surface of the foam also had a glittery appearance that may have been a

result of the wet paint being dusted with glitter or sparkle dust. Some of the glitter would have become

partially embedded in the wet paint and would have provided the more sparkling appearance that was

observed in some of the video of the nightclub interior.

FRONT

Figure 4-1. Portion of Nightclub with Polyurethane Foam Mounted on Wall (shaded red

section).

4.3.3 NIST Foam Samples

After experiencing some difficulty, NIST was able to locate a source of non-fire retardant polyether

polyurethane foam. Recent consolidations within the polyurethane foam manufacturing industry appear

to have reduced the range of polyurethane foam products available to the public. The non-fire retardant

polyurethane foam (ether) was purchased in two lots from a single distributor. Unfortunately, the

distributor was not able to identify the manufacturer of the foam. Foam distributors typically purchase

foam from a number of different sources based on price and availability. Foam arrives at distributor’s

4-6
warehouse in tractor-trailer sized lots. While bulk shipment may contain source information, stock is broken down into smaller units and source information is typically not maintained on each individual

piece of foam. When foam arrives at a warehouse, new stock is intermingled with old stock.

The foam was purchased in two lots as 1 .22 m x 2.44 m sheets (flat or in rolls). The rear surface of each

sheet was flat. The front side was convoluted, with a series of peaks and depressions that resembled the

surface of a continuous egg crate. Lot A was nominally 40 mm thick measured from the back to the peak;

lot B was nominally 30 mm thick. Peak-to-peak spacing, and valley to sheet back dimensions are described in Appendix D.

NIST also purchased a number of 1.22 m (4 ft) x 2.44 m (8 ft) sheets of fire retardant polyester

polyurethane foam from a commercial supplier in single lot. It is possible that the distributor had

intermingled foam from different sources within a single purchase. Unfortunately, as with the purchase

of the non-retardant polyether foam, the distributor was not able to identify the manufacturer of the foam

for the same reasons. The fire retardant foam was measured at 0.03 m (1.5 in) and 0.010 m (0.4 in) at its thickest and thinnest dimensions, respectively (See Appendix D).

4.3.4 Heat of Vaporization and Ignition Temperature of Non-flame retarded

Polyurethane Foam

Polyurethane foams can be produced in numerous ways with different properties, and because the

behavior of the polyurethane foam in the fire was critical to the incident, measurements were made on the

NIST-purchased materials to confirm literature values, fill gaps in the data, or narrow uncertainties.

The heat of vaporization is a measure of the amount of energy that is necessary to convert a material from

a condensed to a vapor phase. Differential scanning calorimeter(DSC) and thermal gravimetric analysis

(TGA) techniques were used by NIST to calculate the heat of vaporization for samples of non-fire

retarded, flexible polyether polyurethane foam (lot B). These instruments yielded a range of heats of

vaporization between 1000 and 1600 kJ/kg.

The ignition temperature was determined by Southwest Research Institute using ASTM D 1929. As

described in Appendix D, the piloted ignition temperature of non-fire retarded flexible polyurethane foam

(lot B) was found to be 370 °C +/- 5 °C.

4.3.5 Heat Release Rate of Polyurethane Foams

The cone calorimeter was used to determine the heat release rate of the NIST-purchased polyurethane

foams. The test protocol detailed in ASTM E 1354 [14] was used for these experiments. Samples which

measured 0.1 m x 0.1 m were cut from the larger sheets. These samples were then stored in a controlled

humidity (50 % relative humidity) and temperature (23 °C) room for at least two weeks. Then each

sample was wrapped in an aluminum foil, except for the exposed side, and positioned in the cone

calorimeter. A test plus two replicates of each sample (total of three tests) were conducted with an

external heat flux from 20 kW/m“ to 70 kW/m“. In all tests, the convoluted side was exposed to the

thermal flux.

Data from these tests (23 in all) are tabulated in Table 4-2. (Additional data and plots of the heat release

rate for each sample versus time are in Appendix D. ) Focusing on the last column of the table, one can

see that the non-flame retarded NIST samples have a peak heat release rate of around 600 kW/m" when

exposed to an incident radiant flux of 35 kW/m“. This compares to a peak heat release rate of 453 kW/m“

for the flame retarded NIST sample at the same external flux, and less than 300 kW/m” for the sample

4-7
tested by ATF. A plot of the peak heat release rate as a function of incident radiation is shown in Fig. 4-

2a, comparing the results to the ATF measurements. As expected, the peak heat release rate increases about linearly with imposed heat flux.

The time (to sustained ignition is another measure of the fire hazard posed by a material. The times to

ignition are shown in the third column in Table 4.2. Both lots A and B of the NIST non-fire retarded

polyurethane foam needed 6 to 7 seconds for sustained ignition when exposed to 35 kW/m" of radiant

heat. The fire retarded NIST sample resisted ignition for 13 seconds, and the ATF sample ignited in 3

seconds at a slightly higher irradiance level (40 kW/m“). Figure 4-2b is a plot of the time to ignition

(expressed as 1/t '“) as a function of incident flux, comparing the NIST non-fire retarded polyurethane (lot

B) to the cone calorimeter measurements made by ATF on their foam [24].

Table 4.2 Peak HRR, time to sustained Ignition, and time to Peak HRR

polyurethane foam

sample ID

External Radiant

Flux, kW/m“

Time to Sustained

Ignition, Average,*

seconds

Time to Peak

Heat Release,

Average,*

seconds

Peak Heat

Release Rate,

Average,*

kW/m“

NIST

PUF-FR 35 13 36 453

PUF-NFR-A 35 7 30 605

PUF-NFR-B

20 14 45 450

35 6 30 586

40 4 29 820

60 3 24 1154

70 3 21 970

ATF [24]

Polyether PUF 20 9 37 260

Polyether PUF 40 3 31 297

Polyether PUF 60 1 26 415

* Average values include all individual test runs at each specific external thermal flux. Data from

individual test runs are provided in Appendix A.

The time to ignition in the cone calorimeter is governed by the ignition temperature, the imposed radiant

flux, and the effective thermal inertia, kpc, of the material, where k is the thermal conductivity, p

is the

density, and c is the specific heat averaged over the heating period. As explained in Appendix E, the time

to ignition is inversely related to the square of the imposed radiant flux and directly related to the

effective thennal inertia. From the measured ignition temperature and ignition delay at 35 kW/m“, kpc is estimated to be about 0.075 (kW/im-®C)"-s for the NIST (lot B) non-fire retarded polyurethane foam.

^ Measured here using ASTM D 1929. The ignition temperature can also be inferred from the limiting heat flux necessary for piloted ignition in the cone calorimeter.

4-8
Linear Fit y=199 + 13x R= 0.90

Linear Fit y=169 + 3.9x R= 0.96

Figure 4-2a. Peak heat release rate versus external heat flux for different polyurethane

foams tested at NIST and ATF.

Linear Fit y = 0.192 + 0.0059x R= 0.91

Linear Fit y = 0.062 + 0.0135x R= 0.99

Figure 4-2b. Time to sustained ignition versus external heat flux for different

polyurethane foams tested at NIST and ATF.

4-9
The precise reasons why the polyether foam tested by ATF differed from the behavior of the foams tested

by NIST are not clear. (NIST did not have access to the foam from the fire scene tested by ATF.)

However, the shorter time necessary for ignition of the ATF foam suggests that the effective value of kpc

was less. It is possible that the behaviors were influenced by the different molecular structure, additives, or manufacturing processes. It is also not clear under what conditions the foam had been stored in the

basement of the nightclub or whether it had always been stored in the basement, nor what impact aging or water from fire fighting operations may have had on the foam. Using the properties of either foam, the

fire is predicted to spread rapidly, with the foam acting as an ignition source for the wood layer

underneath. The contribution from the foam to the total heat release in the fire was much less than from

the wood, once the wood was ignited by the burning foam.

4.4 CONE CALORIMETER MEASUREMENTS OF FINISH MATERIALS

Cone calorimeter experiments were conducted on four other common finish materials similar to those in

the nightclub. Two external heat fluxes were examined to account for the changing conditions

experienced by the materials in the actual fire. All of the cone calorimeter tests conducted on the

materials representative of those in the nightclub (polyurethane foams, wood paneling, carpet flooring,

and ceiling tiles) and the external fluxes that were imposed on the samples are summarized in Table 4.3.

The complete data set (time to ignition, peak heat release rate, time to peak heat release rate, total heat

release rate, specimen total mass loss, average mass loss rate, average effective heat of combustion,

average smoke extinction area, average carbon dioxide yield, and average carbon monoxide yield) can be

found in Appendix D for each of the 38 tests.

Table 4.3 Cone Calorimeter Tests

Material

External Flux

kW/m"

Sample

Number Test ID Manufacturer

Poly(ether) Polyurethane Foam, gray,

convoluted, non-fire retardant 35 3 PUF-NFR-A A

Poly(ether) Polyurethane Foam, gray,

convoluted, non-fire retardant

20, 35, 40,

60, and 70 20 PUF-NFR-B B

Poly(ester) Polyurethane Foam, gray,

convoluted, fire retardant 35 3 PUF-FR C

Wood Paneling, 5 mm thick,

plywood substrate, birch finish 35 and 70 6 WP D

Carpet Flooring, 6.2 mm thick,

polyester short nap, 100% filament

olefin, ave. tufted face wt 39 oz, twist tough bind 14.00, beige color

35 and 70 6 CF E

Ceiling Tile type 942B

6 1 0 mm X 1 2 1 9 mm x 1 6 mm

(24 in X 48 in X 0.62 in)

35 and 70 6 CT F

4-10
4.4.1 Acoustical Ceiling Tiles

A suspended or dropped eeiling had been installed in the nightclub except for in the sunroom, the

platform area, and the dance floor areas (Figure 4-3). Each 0.61 m (2 ft) x 1.22 m (4 ft) x .016 m (0.625

in) panel had been installed or dropped into a metal grid support system. Photographs of the nightclub

interior clearly demonstrate that the ceiling tiles had been painted black. It was not clear from the

photographs whether the paint had been applied by brush, roller, or spray can. The surface of the tiles

also had a glittery appearance that may have been a result of the wet paint being dusted with glitter.

FRONT

Figure 4-3. Portion of Nightclub with Acoustical Tile Ceiling (shaded blue section).

Labeling found on a surviving acoustical tile indicated that that the tile was a mineral fiber type of

material, a 942 (residential coding) or 755 (commercial coding). Samples of 942B acoustical tiles were

purchased from a local supplier for these cone calorimeter tests. The front side of each panel (see

Appendix D) exhibited a factory-applied coat of white vinyl-latex paint while the rear side of each panel

was unpainted. Samples that measured 0.1 m x 0.1 m were cut from the larger panels. These samples

were then stored in a controlled humidity (50 % relative humidity) and temperature (23 C) room for at

least two weeks. Then each sample was wrapped in an aluminum foil, except for the exposed side, and

positioned in the cone calorimeter. In all tests, the painted side was exposed to the thermal flux.

When exposed to 35 kW/m“ of external heat flux, the ceiling tiles did not ignite. Ignition and peak heat

release rate values (average) are tabulated in Table 4.4. Each test was temiinated after 3 minutes of

exposure when none of the three samples ignited. As the thermal flux was increased to 70 kW/m*",

4-11
ignition did occur and the samples reached their peak heat release rate in approximately 20 seconds. The

ceiling tiles demonstrated an average peak heat release rate of 57 kW/m“. Individual test data and plots of

the heat release rate for each sample versus time are in Appendix D.

Table 4.4 Cone Calorimeter Results for Ceiling Tile, Wood Panels, & Carpet Flooring

Sample ID

External Thermal

Flux, kW/m“

Time to Sustained

Ignition, seconds

Time to Peak

Heat Release

Rate, seconds

Peak Heat

Release Rate

kW/m“

Ceiling Tile

(CT)

35 Did not ignite

70 8 20 57

Wood Paneling

(WP)

35 41 129 437

70 15 85 526

Carpet Flooring

(CF)

35 54 192 627

70 20 78 1371

4.4.2 Wood Paneling

Wood paneling had been installed in the nightclub around the platfonn area, around the sunroom, back

bar area, and entry way (Figure 4-4). Interior photographs of the nightclub did not provide sufficient

information to identify the specific brand or type of paneling.

A veneer type paneling which utilizes a plywood substrate was selected as being representative of the

fuel load contributed by the paneling. The wood paneling was purchased from a local retailer in 1 .22 m

(4 ft) X 2.44 m (8 ft) sheets. The 0.0003 m (0.0125 in) birch veneer was laminated to a 0.006 m (0.25 in)

thick three-ply Luan mahogany backer layer. The front side of each panel (Appendix D) had a glossy

coat of finish while the rear side of each panel was unfinished plywood. Samples that measured 0.1 m x

0. 1 m were cut from the larger panels. These samples were then stored in a controlled humidity (50 %

relative humidity) and temperature (23 C) room for at least two weeks. Then, each sample was wrapped

in an aluminum foil, except for the exposed side, and positioned in the cone calorimeter. In all tests, the veneer side was exposed to the thermal flux.

When irradiated with 35 kW/m^ of external heat, the wood paneling reached its average peak heat release

rate, 440 kW/m“ , in approximately 130 seconds. At the lower thermal flux, each sample required about

40 seconds to achieve sustained ignition. At the higher flux, 70 kW/m^, the wood panel samples required

much less time to sustain ignition, resulted in a higher average peak heat release rate of 530 kW/m", and

required substantially less time, 85 seconds, to achieve the peak value. Individual test data and plots of

the heat release rate for each sample versus time are in Appendix D.

The heat release curves exhibited a two peak shape, with the second peak much greater than the first peak.

Each wood panel sample charred significantly as it burned, and the char represented a greater fraction of

the total available fuel than that which was burned early in the test. In the higher thermal flux exposure,

the additional flux caused more of the fuel to be burned early in the test, so the two peaks were closer in

value.

4-12
FRONT

Figure 4- 4. Portion of Nightclub with Wood Paneling (brown shaded sections).

4.4.3 Carpet Flooring

Carpet flooring had been installed in the nightclub on the elevated section along the rear wall and around

the platform area. (Figure 4-5). Interior photographs of the nightclub did not provide sufficient

information to identify the specific brand or type of carpeting.

A closed-loop olefin carpet with a binding layer was selected as representing the fuel load contributed by

the carpeting. The carpet was purchased from a local supplier in a 3.2 m (12 ft) wide x 15.7 m (50 ft)

long continuous roll. The 0.006 m (0.25 in) nylon pile was embedded in a 0.002 m (0.1 in) thick binding

layer. Samples that measured 0.1 m x 0. 1 m were cut from the roll. These samples were then stored in a controlled humidity (50 % relative humidity) and temperature (23 °C) room for at least two weeks. Then

each sample was wrapped in an aluminum foil, except for the exposed side, and positioned in the cone

calorimeter. In all tests, the olefin pile side was exposed to the thermal flux.

When exposed to 35 kW/m" of external heat flux, the average peak heat release rate for the three carpet

samples was 627 kW/m“. The carpet required about 54 seconds, on average, to achieve sustained ignition,

and approximately 190 seconds to reach its peak heat release rate (Table 4.4). hen exposed to the higher

external heat flux of 70 kW/m“, the carpeting reached its peak heat release rate in about half the time.

Peak heat release rates for all three carpet samples averaged 1370 kW/m~. Individual test data and plots

of the heat release rate for each sample versus time are in Appendix D.

4-13
FRONT

Figure 4-5. Portion of Nightclub with Carpeting.

For the lower flux exposure, the heat release curve exhibited a relatively brief step at around 200 kW/m“

and then increased gradually to a single broad peak. As the carpet initially began to bum, some of the

energy released was conducted into the olefin pile, but instead of producing a char, the polymer melted

and fomied a more uniform density fuel. As the burning continued, it increased at a relatively steady rate,

reached its peak and decreased at a more rapid rate. At the higher flux exposure, the additional energy

from the internal heating caused the melting to occur more rapidly, so the initial step seen at the lower

flux was not observed.

4.4.4 Fuel Load Properties - Ignitability, Mass, and Location

The contribution of assorted fuels to fire spread and total heat release rate can be very different. The

cone calorimeter test data demonstrated that the polyurethane foam, both the fire retardant and non-fire

retardant formulations, could ignite in less than 1 5 seconds of exposure to 20 kW/m“ of external heat flux.

Once Ignited, the polyurethane foam reached peak heat release rates ranging from 450 kW/m“ to 1 150

kW/m- in less than 60 seconds. Both the wood paneling and carpet flooring required from 80 seconds to

200 seconds to reach peak heat release values which ranged from 440 kW/m“ to 1370 kW/m‘.

The polyurethane foam was a low density material and was quick to ignite, but the mass of the foam was

consumed in a relatively short period of time. The foam would have contributed to a quick initial fire

growth, but typically would not have had sufficient mass to carry the fire past the initial stages. Wood

and the carpet flooring had greater mass and were a larger source of energy than the foam, although the

wood and carpet required longer times to ignite. Once ignited, both the wood and carpet would provide a

\

I

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4-14
substantial amount of the energy released during a fire. The ceiling tiles would have released relatively

little energy compared to the other fuel components.

The contribution of a specific fuel is dependent on the relative amounts of the fuel and how quickly the

fuel becomes involved in the fire. Wood is often found in flooring, wall paneling, and structural members

such as studs, joists and rafters. Carpeting is typically used only as a floor covering. In a wood frame

structure, the wood component of the fuel load may provide the bulk of the energy released. The location

of the fuel can also impact when and how rapidly a specific fuel becomes a contributor to the heat release

rate. For instance, wood paneling near the ceiling ordinarily would become involved more quickly than

wood flooring.

4.5 PYROTECHNIC DEVICE TEST SERIES

A series of full scale experiments was conducted to document the themial characteristics of a discharging

pyrotechnic device like those that were ignited in the nightclub on Feb. 20, 2003. At the beginning of the

show, four separate pyrotechnic devices, or gerbs, were discharged on the platform in front of the alcove.

Two gerbs, which had been positioned on the floor of the platform, discharged vertically along the

centerline of the alcove opening (Figure 4-10). Two additional pyrotechnic gerbs, which were located near the other two gerbs on the platform floor, sprayed white "sparks" at a 45 degree angle to both the left and right sides of the alcove. The WPRI-TV video of the nightclub interior showed that glowing particles or “sparks” ignited the foam on both sides of the alcove in approximately 10 seconds.

The throw, or distance the hot particles traveled, the period of "spark" discharge, and the white

appearance of hot particles, were consistent with a pyrotechnic device called a Silver 15x15 Stage Gerb.

Forty silver 15x15 gerbs were purchased from a commercial manufacturer of stage pyrotechnics.

Appendix F provides a detailed description of the gerbs.

For the NIST tests, each gerb or pair of gerbs was discharged either along or against a gypsum board wall

or a foam covered gypsum board wall. The wall was painted black to enhance the contrast with the white

sparks, and a grid of 0.3 m (1 ft) squares was painted on it. Gerbs were also discharged against the wall

in a plane perpendicular to the wall (Figure 4-11). Heat flux gauges and thermocouples were embedded

in the gypsum wall. The instrumentation was positioned so that the spark discharge was centered over the

flux gauges and thermocouples. Examples of typical data, heat flux and gas temperature, are plotted versus time in Appendix F, and each discharge was video taped using a standard mini-DV digital video

camera and an infrared camera.

4.5.1 Gypsum Wall Board

The gerbs were ignited electrically. Each discharge was recorded using a standard video camera and an

infrared camera. The infrared camera utilized a barium-strontium-titanate (BST) solid state detector with

a spectral response of 8 pm to 14 pm. The IR camera was included in these experiments to provide a

qualitative image of the hot gas plume as well as the spray of the white sparks.

The visible images show that each gerb discharged a spray of white sparks for at least 14.5 seconds, but

no more than 16 seconds. While most of the sparks were thrown less than 2.74 m (9 ft), a limited number

of sparks traveled in excess of 4.6 m (15 ft) from the tip of the gerb. For the gerbs that were positioned at 45 , the infrared images show a central core of hot gases, a plume of warm gases that does not travel as

far as the hot metallic particles. The buoyant hot gases developed a vertical trajectory within 1.2 m (4 ft)

of the gerb tip. For the gerbs that were positioned vertically, the infrared images again

4-15
Rear

Exterior

3.35 m

Figure 4-10. Pyrotechnics (15x15 gerbs) positioned on nightclub platform.

Video image copyright © 2003 TVL Broadcasting, Inc. All rights reserved.

4-16
Figure 4-1 1 . Single Gerb at 45 degrees and in a Plane Perpendicular to Wall.

demonstrate a central core of hot gases; in this vertical configuration, the plume of combustion gases is aligned with the trajectory of the hot sparks. The measured heat fluxes from the gerbs impinging on the

wall were less than 2.5 W/m‘. Each total heat flux gauge monitored the heat flux over a fixed volume that

was defined by the view angle of the gauge. The heat flux monitored by a gauge might result from

multiple glowing particles, hot gases propelling the sparks, and/or the air entrained by the gerb discharge.

4.5.2 Foam Covered Wall

The video recorded in the nightclub demonstrates that there were four gerbs positioned in front of the

alcove. The two vertical gerbs were spaced about 0.1 m (4 in) apart and the two 45 degree gerbs were

each positioned about 0.25 m (10 in) outside the vertical gerbs. This arrangement placed the tip of the 45

degree gerbs approximately 1.21 m (4 ft) from each of the side walls of the alcove. The spray of hot

sparks would have impinged on a foam covered wall from about that distance.

In order to simulate this arrangement, a single gerb which was angled at 45 degrees was discharged

against (and in a plane perpendicular to) the wall from a distance of 1.22 m (4 ft). A single 1.22 m (4 ft)

by 2.44 m (8 ft) sheet of non-fire retardant polyurethane foam (PUF-NFR-B) was stapled to the gypsum

board wall. A single gerb was positioned at a 45 degree angle so that the tip of the gerb was 1.22 m (4 ft)

from the wall surface. The tip of the gerb was located 0.3 m ( 1ft) above the floor. While temperature

data were collected during the gerb discharge, the heat flux gauges were removed to prevent damage from

dripping and burning plastic.

4-17
3,05 m

(10

ft)

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Heat Flux Gauge

Side View

SIDE VIEW

Figure 4-12. Instrumentation Diagram for a Single Gerb at 45 degrees and in a Plane

Perpendicular to Wall.

4-18
Still images were captured from the video recorded by the standard video and IR camera. For gerbs that

were positioned at 45 degrees in a plane parallel to the wall, pairs of visible and infrared images are shown for times from 0 seconds to 30 seconds in Figure 4- 13a through 4-13h. The visible images

demonstrate that the gerb discharged a spray of white sparks for 15 seconds. The spray of hot sparks

impacted the wall between 0.91 m (3 ft) and 1.5 m (5 ft) above the floor. Within 2 seconds after ignition, a thermal pattern (white area in IR image) developed on the wall. This area of increased temperature was

oval in shape with a horizontal width of 0.3 m ( 1 ft) and a vertical dimension of 0.61 m (2ft). A similarly

sized and positioned thermal pattern was also seen at 5 seconds into the discharge. The edges of the

thermal pattern appeared fuzzy or diffuse. At 10 seconds after ignition, this thermal pattern had sharper

edges and a black “haloing” appeared around the pattern. This haloing or shadowing has been observed

under laboratory conditions in the presence of a significant thermal gradient. BST detectors measure

relative levels of infrared radiation and are AC-coupled. The AC-coupling can cause a "black halo" or shadowing effect that increases as the relative radiation difference between an object and its surroundings

increases unless a DC restoration process is included in the signal output circuitry. This would be

consistent with the foam burning before t = 10 seconds. Although not clearly seen in the standard video

camera, flames were observed on the right hand side of the hot spark pattern at 9 seconds. By 15 seconds

a well defined and hot thermal plume was observed in the IR image. Gas temperatures are plotted versus time in Appendix F, Figs. F-16a and F-16b.

The alcove in the nightclub was 2.0 m (6.5 ft) tall and the gerbs were positioned vertically at the center of

the alcove opening. In the NIST tests, similar gerbs easily reached that height, as did the plume of hot

gases. It can be seen from the WPRI video, however, that the pair of vertically-directed gerbs on the

platform of the nightclub did not ignite the foam at the top of the alcove.

The width of the alcove in the nightclub was 3.0 m (10 ft) and the end of each gerbs was offset from the

center of the opening by about one foot. The NIST tests demonstrated that a 15 x 15 gerb which was

angled at 45 degrees and discharged against (and in a plane perpendicular to) a wall from a distance of

1.22 m (4 ft) could ignite a sheet of polyurethane foam in approximately 10 seconds. This is similar to

the ignition sequence observed in the WPRI video.

4-19
Figure 4-1 3a. Standard and Infrared Video Images of Non-fire Retarded Polyurethane

Foam on Gypsum Board Wall just before ignition at t = 0 seconds.

Figure 4-1 3b. Standard and Infrared Video images of Gerb Discharge onto a Non-fire

Retarded Polyurethane Foam Sheet on Gypsum Board Wall at t = 0.5 seconds.

4-20
Figure 4-1 3c. Standard and Infrared Video Images of Gerb Discharge onto a Non-fire

Retarded Polyurethane Foam Sheet on Gypsum Board Wall at t = 1 second.

Flgure4-13d. Standard and Infrared Video Images of Gerb Discharge onto a Non-fire

Retarded Polyurethane Foam Sheet on Gypsum Board Wall at t = 2 seconds.

4-21
Figure 4-1 3e. Standard and Infrared Video Images of Gerb Discharge onto a Non-fire

Retarded Polyurethane Foam Sheet on Gypsum Board Wall at t = 5 seconds.

Figure 4-1 3f. Standard and Infrared Video Images of Gerb Discharge onto a Non-fire

Retarded Polyurethane Foam Sheet on Gypsum Board Wall at t = lOseconds.

4-22
Figure 4-1 3g. Standard and Infrared Video Images of Gerb Discharge onto a Non-fire

Retarded Polyurethane Foam Sheet on Gypsum Board Wall at t = 15 seconds.

Figure 4-1 3h. Standard and Infrared Video Images of Gerb Discharge onto a Non-fire

Retarded Polyurethane Foam Sheet on Gypsum Board Wall at t = 30 seconds.

4-23
1

4.5.3 Impingement of Gerbs on Wood Paneling

A test using an arrangement similar to the one above was conducted using a bare wood panel to determine

if the wood could be ignited by a 15 x 15 gerb. A 1.22 m (4 ft) x 2.44 m (8 ft) panel of 6.4 mm (1/4 in)

plywood with a birch veneer was mounted vertically 1.22 m (4 ft) from a gerb angled at 45 degrees from

the floor. The plywood panel had been cut in two with the exposed surface of the upper portion offset

about 1 - 2 mm back from the front surface of the lower portion, forming a small lip 1 .22 m from the

floor. The purpose of the lip was to capture hot sparks in an attempt to increase the likelihood that the

gerb could cause ignition of the wood.

Figure 4- 14a shows the sparks from the gerb impinging on the wood panel about half way through the

test. No ignition was observed. The hot sparks did create small black marks and craters in the finish of

the panel, as can be seen in Figure 4- 14b.

Figure 4-14a. Gerb impinging on wood panel.

Figure 4-1 4b. Damage to wood panel

following impingement by sparks from

gerb. Lip on panel surface can be seen

as line below mounting screws.

4.5.4 Impingement of Gerbs on Fire Retarded Polyurethane Foam

A test using the arrangement similar to the one above was conducted with a piece of the fire retardant

polyurethane (PUF-FR) attached to the wood panel to determine if the foam could be ignited by a 15 x 15

gerb. A 1 .22 m (4 ft) x 2.44 m (8 ft) panel of 4.6 mm (0.18 in) thick plywood with a birch veneer was

mounted vertically with a 0.71 m (28 in) high x 0.97 m (38 in) wide piece of foam centered on the panel

as shown in Figure 4- 15a. The foam was positioned 1.22 m (4 ft) from the gerb discharge tip. The gerb

was angled 45 degrees above horizontal as in the previous experiments. The foam had been cut in two

4-24
with the exposed surface of the upper portion offset from the front surface of the lower portion, forming a small gap and lip along the horizontal centerline of the foam. The purpose of the gap was to capture hot

sparks in an attempt to increase the likelihood that the gerb could cause ignition of the foam.

Figure 4- 15a shows the sparks from the gerb impinging on the foam. No ignition was observed. The hot

sparks did cause “pitting” in the foam. The pits are area where the sparks melted or burned away small

amounts of foam, but the process did not propagate. Examples of the pitting can be seen in Figure 4- 15b.

The experiment was repeated with a new piece of foam. The lower piece of foam overlapped the upper

piece of foam, creating a small ledge as shown in Figure 4- 15c. The positioning of the gerb was the same. The results were similar to the previous experiment; i.e., no ignition, just minor scorching and

small holes in the foam from some of the sparks (see Figures 4- 15c and 4-15d). The temperatures in the

plume as a function of time are plotted in Appendix F, Figs. F-24 and F-25.

Figure 4-15. Gerb impinging fire retardant polyurethane foam (a); evidence of pitting (b);

horizontal ledge at mid-plane to catch sparks, and evidence of scorching in second

sample (c); and close-up of scorched area (d).

4-25
4.6 FIRE GROWTH MEASUREMENTS IN REAL-SCALE PLATFORM AREA

MOCKUP

Real-scale platfonn area mockup experiments were conducted to characterize the fire growth and spread

in the early stage of the fire. Approximately 20 % of the nightclub was reconstructed in real scale with

polyurethane foam covered walls, a drummer’s alcove, a raised platform, carpeting, and wood paneling.

Figure 4-16 shows the dimensions of the mock-up floor plan and compares the test compartment to a

floor plan of the nightclub. Data collected on fire spread (gas temperatures, heat fluxes, and gas

concentrations) allow the performance of the computer fire model to be assessed. The degree to which

the computer fire model is able to mimic the fire growth for this real-scale mockup is indicative of the

quality of the simulation of the fire in The Station presented in Chapter 5, within the limitations of

uncertain materials and imprecise dimensions for the actual nightclub.

Two real-scale tests were conducted: one without automatic sprinklers, and one with automatic sprinklers.

By designing the real-scale mockup experiments carefully, in terms of controlling factors such as fuel and

ventilation, the mockup tests provided a means to determine the benefit of automatic sprinklers in a fire

similar to what occurred in The Station, and to gain insight as to conditions in the nightclub during the

early fire growth and spread, in particular the levels of CO and HCN since these cannot be predicted by

the computer fire model.

4.6.1 Test Configuration

The physical mock-up was recreated in the NIST Large Fire Laboratory. The overall floor dimensions of

the test room were 10.8 m by 7.0 m, and the ceiling height was 3.8 m. A single opening, 0.91 m wide and

2.0 m high was located in the wall opposite the alcove. An isometric view of the test compartment is shown in Figure 4-17. In order to allow the combustion gases to be exhausted into an instrumented hood,

the full-scale mock-up experiments were conducted with the platform section oriented to the east of the

dance floor. In the actual nightclub, the platform section was west of the dance floor. In order to be

eonsistent, the mock-up data will be presented using the orientation of the actual nightclub.

The test area was constructed with a structural steel frame, lined with two layers of 12 mm thick calcium

silicate board, and covered with 1 2 miri thick gypsum board. The walls of the alcove and the raised floor area had 5.2 mm thiek plywood paneling installed over the gypsum board. The paneling had a flame

spread index of 200 or less per ASTM E-84 [15], according to the manufacturer. The plywood paneling

extended 3.6 m from the raised floor along the rear wall of the test area.. The rear wall was adjacent to the

platforai on the right as one stands on the platfonn facing the audience (stage-right). A non-fire retarded,

ether-based, polyurethane foam (PUF-NFR-B) was glued over the paneling in the alcove and along the

walls on both sides of the alcove opening and to the rear wall, as shown in Figure 4-18. The polyether

polyurethane foam was from the second lot of PUF-NFR-B foam tested and described earlier in this

chapter. The flat side of the foam was mounted next to the plywood and the convoluted side was left exposed. The foam was installed from the top of the wall down to 1.35 m above the floor. It was also

applied to the ceiling of the alcove and extended for 2.4 m from the raised floor along the rear wall.

4.6.2 Instrumentation

The test room was equipped with thennocouples, video cameras, heat flux gauges, bi-directional probes,

and gas extraction probes to measure carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2 ), oxygen (O2 ), and

hydrogen cyanide (HCN). In addition, fixed temperature and rate-of-rise heat detectors were installed, as

4-26
10.78 m

*

8.38 m -2.4 m5.94 m 4.84 m

T“

2.7 m

3.1 m

4_

1.2 mI

Figure 4-16. Real-Scale Mockup Floor Plan versus Station Nightclub Floor Plan.

4-27
DOOR OPENING

0.91 m wide x 2 m high

Figure 4-17. Isometric view of the test compartment.

POLYURETHANE

FO/WI NYLON

\ / /

REMAINING FLOOR, WALLS, & CEILING

LINED WITH GYPSUM BOARD

Figure 4-18. Floor plan showing the test area and the fuel locations.

4-28
2.85 m 3.66 m

1.83 m

Rear Wall

Figure 4-19. Schematic floor plan with instrumentation positions.

were sprinklers. In the unsprinklered experiment, standard response pendent sprinklers were installed

without a water supply. The sprinklers were attached to a 150 mm (6 in) length of 19 mm (0.75 in) pipe

that was filled with water and pressurized with air. In the sprinklered experiments, all sprinklers were

connected to a single water supply. The sprinkler was monitored for time to activation with a pressure sensor that was attached to the short length of pipe. The only difference between the sprinklers installed

in the unsprinklered experiment and the sprinklered experiment was the thermal element. In the

sprinklered experiment, quick response sprinklers were used. Figure 4-19 is a schematic floor plan of the

instrumentation positions.

4.6.3 Experimental Procedure

Prior to ignition, each of the analyzers was zeroed and calibrated and the data acquisition system and

videos were started to collect background data. Data for 194 channels were recorded at 1 second

intervals. Ignition of the foam was initiated simultaneously with electric matches at two locations on the

outer comers of the alcove, 1.66 m above the raised floor area. The fire gases that emerged from the open

door on the south end of the test room were captured in the hood of the oxygen depletion calorimeter.

The data were reduced and plotted versus time for each of the channels.

The succession of video frames on the left of Fig. 4-20 show how rapidly the fire spreads during the first

50 seconds, compared to how quickly the fire is controlled with sprinklers in the frames along the right.

The first sprinkler activates on the right of the platform 24 seconds after ignition. By 30 seconds the

sprinkler above the platform on the left and the sprinkler in the alcove have activated.

4-29
Figure 4-20. Still frames taken from video of full-scale mock-up experiments. Time after

ignition is indicated in lower left of each frame. Left column: unsprinklered; right

column: sprinklered (first head activates at 24 seconds)

4-30
7.1 m ® THERMOCOUPLE

Figure 4-21. Schematic floor plan with thermocouple positions.

4.6.4 Temperature

The temperatures were measured with 0.51 mm nominal diameter bare bead, type K thermocouples,

distributed as shown in Fig. 4-21. The standard uncertainty in temperature of the wire itself is + 2.2 °C at 277 °C and increases to ± 9.5 °C at 871 °C as determined by the wire manufacturer [16]. The

uncertainty of the temperature in the environment surrounding the thermocouple is known to be much

greater than that of the wire[17][18]. Temperatures were not corrected for radiation since the radiant

environment was dynamic and the local velocity needed for such a correction was not measured.

Radiation tends to increase thermocouple temperatures in cooler regions of the fire room and to decrease

thermocouple temperatures in hotter regions.

The thermocouple array over the platform floor area had a thermocouple located at 0.025 m, 0.30 m, 0.61

m, 0.91 m, 1.22 m, 1.52 m, 1.83 m, 2.13 m, 2.44 m, 2.74 m, 3.05 m, 3.35 m, 3.66 m below the ceiling.

For the platform floor thermocouple array, the thermocouple that was located 3.66 m below the ceiling,

was positioned on the platform floor. The two thermocouple arrays on the main floor also had a thermocouple located at 3.66 m below the ceiling, but in each case, the thermocouple was positioned 0.15

m above the main floor. Vertical thermocouple arrays were installed in the center of each wall of the

alcove. Each array had a thermocouple located at 0.30 m, 0.61 m, 0.91 m, 1.22 m, 1.52 m, and 1.83 m

below the ceiling of the alcove. A horizontal thermocouple array was installed 0.30 m below the ceiling.

The array began at the centerline of the alcove opening and continued north along the rear wall, and then

followed the platform wall west for 6.1 m. The thermocouples were spaced approximately 0.30 m apart.

In addition, thermocouples were located adjacent to the sprinklers.

Selected temperatures versus time are plotted in Fig. 4-22 through Fig. 4-24 for the unsprinklered

experiment. Results for the sprinklered experiment, at the same locations in the test room, are provided in

Fig. 4-25 through Fig. 4-27. Additional temperature plots are presented in Appendix G.

4-31
1000

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800

600

400

200

o Ceiling 0.3 m below ceiling

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I 2 'll E'cldvv

' rn reilnc A 2.4 m below ceiling 3.0 m below ceiling * 3.6 m below ceiling

200

Time (s)

Figure 4-22. Temperatures versus Time for Unsprinklered Mockup Test.

Thermocouples positioned on Platform (Location B) from ceiling to platform floor.

Figure 4-23. Temperatures versus Time for Unsprinklered Mockup Test.

Thermocouples positioned on Main Floor (Location C) from ceiling to floor.

4-32
Figure 4-24. Temperatures versus Time for Unsprinklered Mockup Test.

Thermocouples positioned on Main Floor (Location D) from ceiling to floor.

For the unsprinklered ease, the temperature at the ceiling measured at location B (Fig. 4-22) began to

increase within 10 seconds of ignition and continued to increase to over 800 °C in approximately 50

seconds. In less than 60 seconds, the temperature exceeded 50 C at 1.4 m (4.5 ft) above the floor (2.4 m

below the ceiling). The hot gases began to form an upper layer and the layer began to descend; in just over 110 seconds, the temperature at the floor of the platform had increased to over 600 C.

The thermocouple array at location C was installed 6.7 m from the foam covered platform wall, 3 m

further away from the platform wall than the thermocouples at location B. The temperatures required

about 15 seconds longer to begin increasing than those measured at location B, and required

approximately 70 seconds to reach peak temperatures of 800 °C. From Fig, 4-23 one can see that the

temperatures at 3.6 m below the ceiling did not begin to increase until 60 seconds after ignition and then

the temperatures reached peak values of approximately 100 C in 90 s. The temperatures at location C

exceeded 50 C at the 1.4 m (4.5 ft) above the floor (2.4 m below the ceiling) elevation in less than 70

seconds.

The thermocouple array at location D was installed 8.5 m from the foam covered platform wall, an

additional 1.8 m further away from the platform wall than the thermocouples at location C. The

temperatures began to rise in about 20 seconds (see Fig. 4-24), and required approximately 80 seconds to reach peak temperatures of 700 The temperatures at 3.6 m below the ceiling did not begin to increase

until 70 seconds after ignition and reached peak values of approximately 100 C in 90 s. The

temperatures near the floor at location D were about the same as the values recorded at the floor on the

platform. Location C.

4-33
oO

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ra

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500

400

300

200

100

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50 100

Time (s)

150 200

Figure 4-25. Temperatures versus Time for Sprinkfered Mockup Test.

Thermocouples positioned on Platform (Location B) from ceiling to platform floor.

0)

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500

O 400

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300

200

100

o Ceiling 0.3 m below ceiling

0 6 m bt'lovv ceiling

1 2 m below ceihny

1 8 m below ceiling A 2.4 m below ceiling 3.0 m below ceiling * 3.6 m below ceiling

200

Figure 4- 26. Temperatures versus Time for Sprinklered Mockup Test. Thermocouples

positioned on Main Floor (Location C) from ceiling to floor.

4-34
Figure 4-27. Temperatures versus Time for Sprinklered Mockup Test. Thermocouples

positioned on Main Floor (Location D) from ceiling to floor.

For the sprinklered test bum, the eeiling thermocouple at location B (on the platform) recorded a peak

temperature of 380 C about 20 seconds after ignition, as can be seen in Fig. 4-25. When the sprinkler

activated, the ceiling temperature quickly decreased, dropping to about 20 C within 40 seconds of

ignition. The activation of the sprinklers caused the other thermocouples at lower elevations to record near ambient temperatures throughout the test bum.

At location C (Fig. 4-26), the ceiling temperatures reached a peak temperature of 170 °C in about 20

seconds and declined to near ambient temperatures within 60 seconds. For location D (Fig. 4-27), the

ceiling temperatures reached a peak temperature of 130 C in about 20 seconds and declined to near ambient temperatures within 60 seconds. Thermocouples at lower elevations for both locations appeared

to remain at near ambient temperatures throughout the test. The comparison between the temperatures at the ceiling and 1 .4 m above the floor for the sprinklered and

unsprinklered experimental data is striking, as demonstrated in Fig. 4-2 8a for location C and Fig. 4-28b

for location D. At 25 seconds, the temperatures at the ceiling were about 175 °C at location C and 125 X

at location D for both experiments, indicative of the fire being properly replicated up to the point when

the sprinkler activated. During the next 25 seconds the temperatures throughout the compartment

returned to close to ambient conditions in the sprinklered compartment. This compared to a continuing

rapid rise in temperatures for the unsprinklered compartment, which reached ceiling temperatures in excess of 300 °C at 50 seconds, and peaks of 700 °C plus in the following 25 seconds. Peak temperatures

of 400 °C to 500 °C were reached 1 .4 m above the floor for the unsprinklered test; temperatures did not

rise at all for the sprinklered compartment at this location.

4-35
800

Figure 4-28a. Temperatures versus Time for Unsprinklered and Sprinklered Mockup

Test. Thermocouples positioned on Main Floor (Location C) at ceiling and 1.4 m (4.5 ft)

above floor.

Time (s)

Figure 4-28b. Temperatures versus Time for Unsprinklered and Sprinklered Mockup

Test. Thermocouples positioned on Main Floor (Location D) at ceiling and 1.4 m (4.5 ft)

above floor.

4-36
4.26 m

t

2.74 m

T

Main Floor Raised

Platform

Location Location Alcove

D C

© ©

'

.

' 1

'

1

'

1

' 1

1

' 1

' 1

1

' 1

1

1

> 1

-^2.35 m

© GAS SAMPLING

4.25 m < 6.53 m

Figure 4-29. Schematic floor plan with gas sampling locations.

4.6.5 Oxygen Depletion and Gas Volume Fractions

For fires burning in the open under the laboratory hood, the chemical power measured by the oxygen

depletion calorimeter is equal to the heat release rate from the fire as a function of time. However, for a

fire within a room, the effluent from the enclosure is a mixed average of the upper layer gases, and does

not represent the instantaneous heat release rate of the fire. With this limitation in mind, oxygen

depletion rate was measured using the NIST 10 MW hood. The measurement system was calibrated with

a gas burner placed directly under the hood (not in the enclosure) with heat release rates as high as 5 MW

and an expanded uncertainty (95 % confidence level) of 1 1 % for fires larger than 400 kW. Bryant et al. [19] provide details on the operation and uncertainty in measurements associated with the oxygen

depletion calorimeter.

There was a significant time delay between ignition of the foam in the full-scale mock-up and the first

indication in the oxygen depletion calorimeter that heat was being released by the fire. The fire gases

generated inside the test room did not exit the door way and enter the calorimeter until about 70 seconds

later, and by the time they were detected, the combustion products had mixed with fresh air in the room.

The result was that the measured heat release represented an average over time. The measured peak for

the unsprinklered test was 4.3 MW. A steady heat release rate of about 3.4 MW was reached after about

150 seconds. The sprinklered experiments yielded no heat release rate measurements since the sprinklers

quickly suppressed the fire after 25 seconds, a time shorter than the time lag discussed above.

Gas sample extraction probes 1.4 m above the floor were used to measure CO, CO2 , O2 and HCN at the

two locations shown in Fig, 4-29. The gases were pulled through 9.4 mm ID tubing to chemical analyzers

4-37
Figure 4- 30. Oxygen Volume Fraction vs Time for Unsprinklered and Sprinklered

Mockup Test. Gas Sampling probe positioned on Main Floor (Location C) at 1.4 m (4.5 ft)

above floor.

Figure 4-31. Oxygen Volume Fraction vs Time for Unsprinklered Mockup Test. Gas

Sampling probe positioned on Main Floor (Location D) at 1.4 m (4.5 ft) above floor.

4-38
0) E

3

O

0> "O

X

o

c

o

c

o

v_

re o

Figure 4-32. Carbon Monoxide Volume Fraction vs Time for Unsprinklered and

Sprinklered Mockup Test. Gas Sampling probe positioned on Main Floor (Location C) at

1.4 m (4.5 ft) above floor.

0

E

3

O

0D

X

O

c

o

c

o

L_

re O

Time (s)

Figure 4-33. Carbon Monoxide Volume Fraction vs Time for Unsprinklered and

Sprinklered Mockup Test. Gas Sampling probe positioned on Main Floor (Location D) at

1.4 m (4.5 ft) above floor.

4-39
<DE

_3

O

o

jD

‘E

(U

o

c

0)

O)

o

D

Figure 4-34. Hydrogen Cyanide Volume Fraction vs Time for Unsprinklered and

Sprinklered Mockup Test. Gas Sampling probe positioned on Main Floor (Location C) at

1.4 m (4.5 ft) above floor.

0

E

O

0

;d

'E

>» o

c

0

O)

O

O

Figure 4-35. Hydrogen Cyanide Volume Fraction vs Time for Unsprinklered and

Sprinklered Mockup Test. Gas Sampling probe positioned on Main Floor (Location D) at

1.4 m (4.5 ft) above floor.

4-40
after passing through moisture and particulate filters. Carbon monoxide and CO2 volume fractions were

monitored using non-dispersive infrared gas analyzers while the oxygen volume fractions were measured

using paramagnetic analyzers. Hydrogen cyanide concentrations were monitored using impingers and

real-time gas analyzers with cyanide combination electrodes. Each impinger utilized 0.1 M KOH as the

trapping solution and samples were analyzed according to NIOSH Method 7904 [20].

During the sampling process, the gas sample for the oxygen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide

analysis was drawn through a cold trap which removed the water vapor. The oxygen, carbon monoxide,

and carbon dioxide concentrations were recorded by each analyzer on a dry basis, and later corrected for

the water removed by assuming that for every mole of carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide generated, one

mole of water was also generated. By adding the water vapor back into the gas sample, the

concentrations of oxygen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide decreased. The hydrogen cyanide

sample gas utilized a different sampling train and did not pass through a cold trap.

Gas volume fractions versus time are plotted for the unsprinklered and sprinklered tests in Figures 4-30

through 4-35 for O2 , CO and HCN. (Additional gas volume fractions measurements are discussed in

Appendix G.) At both locations C and D, oxygen volume fractions did not begin to drop at the 1.4 m

elevation until 70 seconds to 80 seconds after ignition for the unsprinklered mock-up experiments. At

both locations, the oxygen volume fractions descended to less than 4 % in less than 100 seconds, then

fluctuated between 1 % and 4 % . During the sprinklered test bums, the oxygen mole fraction at location

D did not appear to drop much below ambient oxygen levels. (A malfunctioning oxygen analyzer

prevented the oxygen concentrations from being monitored at location D during the sprinklered bums.)

At both locations C and D, volume fractions of carbon monoxide at the 1 .4 m elevation did not begin to

increase until 70 seconds to 80 seconds after ignition for the unsprinklered mock-up experiments, but then

increased to 3 % in the next 20 seconds to 30 seconds and reached 4.5 % by 200 seconds after ignition.

During the sprinklered test bums, the carbon monoxide concentration at neither location C nor location D

appeared to increase much above ambient levels.

The volume fractions of hydrogen cyanide at the 1.4 m elevation began to increase 60 seconds after

ignition for the unsprinklered mockup experiments. At location C, the HCN reached its peak value of

0.13 % in 120 seconds. The HCN increased slightly faster at location D, where it reached a peak volume

fraction of 0.17 % in about 90 s. During the sprinklered test bums, the hydrogen cyanide concentration

at locations C and D were barely above the measurable limit.

4.6.6 Heat Flux and Heat Detectors

Three elliptical radiometers were installed in the ceiling of the test cell viewing downward at location B,

C, and D (Fig. 4-36). In addition to the radiometer at location B, a total heat flux gauge with an upward

view was installed flush with the platfomi floor. At locations C and D, two additional total heat flux

gauges were installed 1.5 m above the floor. One total heat flux gauge was position to have an upward

view, while the other gauge had a view of the alcove. The heat flux sensors were water cooled SchmidtBoelter type transducers.

For the unsprinklered compartment test, the output of the themial radiation and total heat fluxes for the

radiometer and heat flux gauges at locations C and D are shown in Fig. 4-37 and Fig 4-38. At location C,

peak fluxes in excess of 50 kW/m“ were reached about 70 seconds after ignition. Peak fluxes at location

D were about 20 % lower than location C. At 100 seconds after ignition, radiation and heat flux at

4-41
Figure 4-36. Schematic floor plan with heat flux and heat detector locations.

j location C and the heat flux at location D decreased significantly to 20 kW/m" and appeared to remain

relatively constant at both locations. The radiometer in the ceiling at location D dropped to 10 kW/m'"

before becoming relatively steady. (Additional plots of heat flux are shown and discussed in App. G.)

In the sprinklered test at locations C and D, neither radiation nor total heat flux reached levels much

above the background. Only on the platform at location B was there a slight increase in radiation and

total heat flux, starting around 20 seconds after ignition.

Two types of heat detectors were also installed: fixed temperature models with an activation temperature

of 93 °C, and a rate of rise/fixed temperature model which activated when the rate of temperature increase

exceeded about 7 °C /min or when the temperature reached 93 °C. One pair of detectors was installed on

the ceiling, adjacent to the thermocouple array on the raised floor, and the second pair of heat detectors

was installed on the ceiling in the north-east comer of the alcove.

The responses of rate of rise heat detectors and fixed temperature detectors are plotted in Fig. 4-39 and

Fig. 4-40, respectively. For both unsprinklered and sprinklered test bums, each of the rate of rise

detectors activated in less than 20 seconds. Only in the unsprinklered experiments did the fixed

temperature detectors activate. The fixed temperature detector in the alcove activated in about 20

seconds while the fixed temperature detector above the platform required almost 40 seconds to respond.

4.6.7 Sprinkler Activation

Five sprinkler heads were installed on a nominal 3.66 m spacing. One sprinkler was installed centered in

the alcove, two were installed over the platform, and two over the main floor area. (See Figure 4-41 .) The

4-42
CM

X

3

(U0

60

50

40

30

20

Station C (Facing Alcove)

(1.44 m above floor)

50 100

Time (s)

150 200

Figure 4- 37. Heat Fluxes versus time for unsprinklered mockup test. Radiometer

positioned flush with ceiling (3.8 m above floor); heat flux gauges facing up (1.44 m

above floor), and facing alcove (1.44 m above floor) at sampling location C.

Figure 4- 38. Heat fluxes versus time for unsprinklered mockup test. Radiometer

positioned flush with ceiling (3.8 m above floor); heat flux gauges facing up (1.44 m

above floor), and facing alcove (1.44 m above floor) at sampling location D.

4-43
o

i/i c

o

Q.

(/) O

u.O->u

(D

<D Q

(0

0) X

Alcove - Sprinklered

Raised Platform (B) - Sprinklered

Alcove - Unsprinklered

Rate of

--

Rise hleaf C

1 1

1 1

1 1 1 )etectors1 1 1

11

1

•

-

-

....

.._J

3 -

III. , , ,

. 1 1 1 1 1 0 20 40 60 80 100

Time, s

Figure 4- 39. Response of Rate of Rise Heat Detectors versus Time for Unsprinklered

and Sprinklered Mockup. Detectors located in Alcove and at Location B.

Alcove Sprinklered

Raised Platform (B) Sprinklered

Alcove - Unsprinklered

Raised Platform (B) - Unsprinklered

0)

(/) C

o

Q.

U)O

L_o

o

o*-> 0) Q

+-> ro03 X

0 20 40 60 80 100

Time, s

Figure 4- 40. Response of Fixed Temperature Heat Detectors versus Time for

Unsprinklered and Sprinklered Mockup. Detectors located in Alcove and at Location B.

1 , ^

1

1

<

1

1 1 1

1

1 1 :

. Fixed Temperature Heat Detectors -

i

_ ^

1

1

. . . 1

.

11

11

-

-

:

.

-

^ ^ ^ 1 ^ ^

4-44
I

1.67 m

T

3.66 m

Main Floor

n®

Main Floor

(Stage Right)

4

1.67m

I

B®

Main Floor

(Stage Left)

Raised

Platform

U®

^

stage

(Stage Right) ^

Alcove

2©

2®

Stage

(Stage Left)

T

2.74 m

i

1.83 m

^ z.oD m — — J5.00 m

2 WATER SPRINKLER

© THERMOCOUPLE

Figure 4- 41. Schematic Diagram of Sprinkler and Sprinkler Thermocouple Locations.

t I I I I t I I t I I I _L __L _1 I I I 1 I I 1 I I ! I I ! 1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Time (s)

Figure 4- 42. Temperature versus Time for Sprinkler Thermocouples.

4-45
Table 4.5 Time to Reach Untenability Criteria, or maximum deviation obtained

Temperature

> 120 °C

Heat Flux

> 2.5 kW/mOxygen

< 12%

Hydrogen

Cyanide

> 0.02 %

Carbon

Monoxide

> 0.5 %

Sprinklered

Location B <28 °C not measured not measured not measured not measured

Location C <24 "C < 0.32 kW/m- not measured < 0.004 % < 0.002 %

Location D <24 °C <0.21 kW/m- > 20.6 % < 0.0006 % < 0.04 %

Unsprinklered

Location B 71 seconds not measured not measured not measured not measured

Location C 76 seconds 61 seconds 87 seconds 71 seconds 82 seconds

Location D 71 seconds 61 seconds 85 seconds 75 seconds 92 seconds

sprinkler installation and water supply were based on a light hazard classification in accordance with

NFPA 13 [21],

For the sprinklered experiments, each of the five installed sprinklers was supplied via a common water

source capable of providing approximately 4. 1 mm/min water spray density if all heads were activated.

The sprinklers used were commercially available pendent-type with a nominal 15 mm standard orifice.

The listed activation temperature for all of the sprinklers used was 74 °C and were of the quick response

type. The temperatures monitored by a thermocouple that was positioned next to the sprinkler head are plotted versus time in Fig. 4-42. The first sprinkler, above the platform at stage-left, activated in 23

seconds. The sprinkler above the platfomi on stage-right was the next to activate at 26 seconds. One

second later the sprinkler in the alcove activated. No other sprinkler was triggered.

In the unsprinklered experiment, standard response pendent sprinklers were installed without a water

supply. The sprinklers were attached to a 150 mm (6 in) length of 19 mm (0.75 in) pipe that was filled

with water and pressurized with air. The sprinkler was monitored for time to activation with a pressure sensor that was attached to the short length of pipe. The only difference between the sprinklers installed

in the unsprinklered experiment and the sprinklered experiment was the thermal element. In the

unsprinklered experiment, at 33 s after ignition, the sprinkler above the platform at stage left was the first

standard response sprinkler to activate.

4.6.8 Tenability

According to Purser [22] a room becomes untenable for people when any of the following occur: the

temperature exceeds 120 C (250 F), a heat flux exceeds 2.5 kW/m“, or the oxygen volume fraction drops

below 12 %. These levels provide guidelines generally accepted by the fire protection engineering

profession as leading to quick incapacitation, but may be tolerated for a short (unspecified) time.

Hydrogen cyanide and carbon monoxide also represent significant hazards to humans. The lowest

concentration of a material in air that has been reported to have caused death in humans is termed Lethal

4-46
Concentration Low (LCLo). The LCLo (inhalation) for hydrogen cyanide is reported as 0.02 % for 5

minutes [23]. For carbon monoxide the LCLo (inhalation) is listed at 0.5 % for 5 minutes [23].

The upper portion of Table 4-5 summarizes the temperatures, heat fluxes, oxygen volume fractions, CO

volume fractions, and HCN volume fractions measured at locations B, C, and D at an elevation 1.4 m

above the floor( approximately head-height) for the sprinklered test. Also listed are the tenability criteria

and LCLo levels. In the sprinklered test, conditions did not exceed any of the tenability criteria

(temperature, heat flux, or oxygen volume fraction), or the LCLo volume fractions for either hydrogen

cyanide or carbon monoxide during the entire duration of the test (> 200 seconds). The maximum values

for temperature, heat flux, hydrogen cyanide and carbon monoxide as well as the minimum value for

oxygen that were recorded during the sprinklered test are shown in the table.

In the test with the unsprinklered mock-up, the temperature criterion can be seen in Table 4-5 to have

been exceeded in less than 76 seconds at all three locations. The thermal flux exceeded 2.5 kW/m" in

about 60 seconds. At sampling location C and D, the oxygen concentration dropped below 12 % in less

than 87 seconds. The hydrogen cyanide concentrations exceeded the LCLo in less than 75 seconds and

the carbon monoxide concentrations reached its LCLo in less than 92 seconds.

Exceeding the tenability limit does not imply that any or all occupants who are present in that

environment will succumb due to a particular limit exceeded. The length of time exposed, the rate of

change of the environmental conditions, possible antagonistic effects, and the susceptibility of the

individual all play a role. With this limited set of data from a single mockup experiment, it is not possible

to determine whether an occupant of The Station nightclub would have first fallen victim to the high heat

flux, to the high temperature, to the lack of oxygen, or to the hydrogen cyanide, carbon monoxide or smoke levels, or even to the crush of the crowd. (Note that NIST was unable to get access to the Rhode

Island Medical Examiner's report due the ongoing criminal investigation, and was therefore unable to

relate findings regarding the conditions in the nightclub to possible causes of death.) Given the rapid

spread of the fire and combustion products, it is likely that the victims succumbed to multiple conditions.

If conditions developed in The Station in the same manner as during this mock-up, most occupants likely

would have had less than 90 seconds to escape under tenable conditions.

4.7 REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 4

[1] Duval, R., “Fires in Places of Assembly”, presented at NFPA Fall Education Conference, Miami, FL,

November 14- 17, 2004, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA.

[2] UL 94- Test for Flammability of Plastic Materials for Parts in Devices and Appliances, Fifth Edition,

October 29, 1996, Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., Northbrook, IL, p. 34.

[3] ASTM E84-04 - Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials,

ASTM Fire Standards, Sixth Edition, American Society for Testing and Materials, West

Conshohocken, PA, pp 1000- 1018.

[4] ASTM E 1354-04a, Standard Test Methodfor Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials

and Products Using an Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter, ASTM International, West Conshohocken,

PA, 2004.

[5] ASTM D 1929 - Standard Test Methodfor Determining Ignition Temperatures ofPlastics, ASTM

International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2004.

4-47
[6] Society ofFire Proteetion Engineers ’ Handbook ofFire Protection Engineering, Third Edition, P.J. DiNenno, Editor-in-Chief, Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Bethesda, MD, pp. A-32 - A-42,

2002 .

[7] Fire Protection Handbook, Nineteenth Edition, A.E. Cote, Editor-in-Chief, National Fire Protection

Association, Quincy, MA, pp. 8-38 - 8-39, 2003.

[8] Troitzsch, J., “The Burning of Plastics”, Chapter 4 in International Plastics Flammability Handbook,

Second Edition, Hanser Publishers, New York, NY, 1983, pp 16 - 30.

[9] Ma, S., Venart, J.E.S., and Sousa, A.C.M., “Cone Calorimeter Measurements of Ignition and Fire

Properties of Several Building Materials,” International Conference on Fire Seience and

Engineering, Hong Kong, March 15 - 16, 1995, pp. 629 -634.

[10] ISO 1716, “Reaction to fire tests for building products-Determination of the heat of combustion,”

ISO, Annex B, 2002.

[1 1] Marchal, A., Yoshida, M., and Hasemi, Y., “Asia-Oceania ISO 5660 Cone Calorimeter Inter- Laboratory Trials,” in Thirteenth Meeting ofthe UJNR Panel on Fire Research and Safety, March 13 - 20, 1996, NISTIR 6030, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1997,

pp. 173-214.

[12] “Polyurethanes,” in Fire Retardant Materials, Edited by A.R. Horrocks and D. Price, Woodhead

Publishing Limited, Cambridge England, 2001, pp. 243-245.

[13] Fire Proteetion Handbook, Seventeenth Edition, A.E. Cote, Editor-in-Chief, National Fire Protection

Association, Quincy, MA, p. 3-111, 2001.

[14] ASTM E 1354-04a, Standard Test Methodfor Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials

and Products Using an Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter, ASTM International, West

Conshohocken, PA, 2004.

[15] ASTME84: Standard Test Methodfor Surface Burning Charaeteristics ofBuilding Materials,

ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2002.

[16] Omega Engineering Inc., (2000) The Temperature Handbook, Vol. MM, pages Z-39-40, Stamford,

CT.

[17] Blevins, L.G., "Behavior of Bare and Aspirated Thennocouples in Compartment Fires", National

Heat Transfer Conference, 33"^ Proceedings. HTD99-280. August 15-17, 1999, Albuquerque, NM,

1999.

[18] Pitts, W.M., E. Braun, R.D. Peacock, H.E. Mitler, E. L. Johnsson, P.A. Reneke, and L.G. Blevins,

"Temperature Uncertainties for Bare-Bead and Aspirated Thermocouple Measurements in Fire

Environments," Thermal Measurements: The Foundation ofFire Standards. American Societyfor

Testing and Materials (ASTM). Proceedings. ASTM STP 1427. December 3, 2001, Dallas, TX.

[19] Bryant, R.A., Ohlemiller, T.J., Johnsson, E.L., Hamins, A.H., Grove, B.S., Guthrie, W.F.,

Maranghides, A., and Mulholland, G. W., The NIST 3 MW Quantitative Heat Release Rate Faeility,

NIST Special Publication 1007, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

2003.

4-48
[20] "Cyanides, Aersol and Gas, Method 7904," NIOSH Manual ofAnalytical Methods, Fourth Edition,

8/15/94.

[21] NFPA 13 (2002), Standardfor the Installation ofSprinkler Systems, National Fire Protection

Association, Quincy MA.

[22] Purser, D.A., ‘Toxicity Assessment of Combustion Products,” in Society of Fire Protection

Engineers’ Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Third Edition, DiNenno,P.J., Editor-in-Chief,

Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Bethesda, MD, 2002.

[23] Lewis, R.J., Sax’s Dangerous Properties ofIndustrial Materials, Ninth Edition, Van Nostrand

Reinhold, New York, NY, 1995.

[24] Zicherman, J.B., The Fire Incident at “The Station”, Report FCA NO 04-5667, Fire Cause Analysis,

213 W. Cutting Blvd., Richmond, CA 94804, November 10, 2003.

4-49

Chapter 5

Computer Simulation of fire and smoke spread

The WPRl-TV video tape provided information to the investigation of the start and spread of the fire that

was almost unprecedented in fire forensics. Supplemented with first person interviews and examination

of the scene after the fact, a clear overall picture of the event emerged rather quickly. However, a number

of important details could not be gleaned from the evidence, nor was it possible to examine the impact of

the fire on the occupants. Both would have helped to understand the fire's effect on the evacuation

process and to determine the relative importance of different contributors to the building failure.

Computer simulation has been demonstrated to be credible, when properly applied, as a tool to help fill in

critical details of a fire incident and to demonstrate the value of alternative building designs and fire

safety measures[l-14]. This chapter presents the results of numerical simulations and analyses of fire

spread, smoke movement, tenability, and operation of fire protection systems that relate to the conditions

in The Station on the night of Feb. 20, 2003.

The numerical models used in this investigation were the NIST Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) [15] and

Smokeview [16]. The essential fire properties of the materials needed as input to FDS were generated

from the small scale and real scale measurements described in Chapter 4. The following sections provide an overview of the models, describe how the testing was used to add credence to the simulations, and

present the results of the full nightclub simulations.

5.1 NIST FIRE DYNAMICS SIMULATOR

The NIST Fire Dynamics Simulator is a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model of fire-driven fluid

flow. It solves numerically a form of the Navier-Stokes equations appropriate for low-speed, thermally

driven flow with an emphasis on smoke and heat transport from fires [17]. Version 1 was publicly

released in February 2000. The predictions performed here were made with the public pre-release version

4 of the model. Version 4 includes several new features, including multi-blocking, which were critical in

performing the full nightclub simulations.

A CFD model requires that the room or building of interest be divided into small three-dimensional

rectangular control volumes or computational cells. The CFD model computes the density, velocity,

temperature, pressure and species concentration of the gas in each cell as it steps through time. Based on

the laws of conservation of mass, momentum, species, and energy, the model tracks the generation and

movement of fire gases. Radiative heat transfer is included in the model via the solution of the radiation

transport equation for a non-scattering gray gas. All solid surfaces are assigned thermal boundary

conditions, plus information about their burning behavior. Heat and mass transfer to and from solid

surfaces is usually handled with empirical correlations. FDS utilizes material properties of the

furnishings, walls, floors, and ceilings to compute fire growth and spread. A complete description of the

FDS model as well as the technical references which support the model are given in references [15,17].

Inputs required by FDS include the geometry of the structure, the computational cell size, the location of

the ignition source, the energy release rate of the ignition source, themial properties of walls, ceilings,

floors, furnishings, and the size, location, and timing of door and window openings to the outside which

critically influence fire growth and spread.

5-1
5.1.1 Geometry

FDS approximates the governing equations on a rectilinear grid. This three-dimensional grid represents

the volume modeled by FDS. The grid is isolated from the surroundings, that is, all the smoke and heat

generated by the fire stays within the grid and the air does not enter the grid. The user may, however,

prescribe vents that allow smoke and heat to leave and air to enter the grid area. The user prescribes

rectangular obstructions that are forced to conform to the underlying grid. Multi-blocking is a term used

to describe the use of more than one rectangular grid or mesh in a calculation.

FDS predictions are sensitive to grid size; using a larger number of smaller cells will generally capture

more features of the flow; however, the computation time increases more than linearly with the increase

in number of grid cells. Computation times of one day on a fast computer are not uncommon but may

increase to several months with a large number of grid cells. Therefore, it is important to use the smallest

number of grid cells that still capture the important features of the fire. One way to reduce the number of

grid cells is the use of multi-blocking. With multi-blocking, smaller grid cells that capture more detail are used near the fire and larger grid cells with less detail are used remote from the fire.

Building items such as walls, floors, windows, doors and furniture are described in FDS as rectilinear

blocks. These blocks must have sides that are either horizontal or vertical and no sloped or curved

surfaces are allowed. The blocks may be colored for identification and may be assigned material

properties. The blocks may be entered into the simulation with exact measurements from the building.

However FDS can only work with items that fall exactly on grid cell boundaries. FDS takes the input

blocks and adjusts them to match the grid cell boundaries. As a result, items may either grow or shrink to match the grid. In most cases this does not have a major impact on the calculations, although it can result

in walls with no thickness or walls with gaps at intersections. Usually these issues are resolved by

adjusting the size of the blocks slightly to produce the desired geometry that matches the grid size.

5.1.2 Materials

When a wall, ceiling, floor, piece of furniture, or any other material is defined for use in the FDS model,

it is given a set of physical and thermal properties that are used by the model. Some of these properties

such as thermal diffusivity, thermal conductivity, density and thickness impact the heat transfer in the

material. For materials that bum, additional parameters such as ignition temperature, heat of combustion,

heat of vaporization and maximum burning rate are specified. The properties for the materials, to the

extent they were available, were taken from standard references or fire experiments.

The combustion process is handled in two ways within FDS. In one version, the fuel gasification rate is related to the radiant heat flux imposed from the fire onto the material. The mass burning rates of these

same materials are measured in a cone calorimeter (or similar) apparatus; hence, the importance of

collecting these data as described in Chapter 4. An alternative way to handle the gasification of fuel in

FDS is to base the fuel generation rate on a measured heat of vaporization and ignition temperature. Both

versions utilize a mixture fraction combustion model, in which burning occurs in regions where the fuel

and air are in stoichiometric proportion. The second approach was used in FDS to model both the mockup experiments and the full nightclub fire.

The accuracy of either of these combustion models is related to the complexity of the fuel and the

resolution of the numerical grid used during the simulation. A maximum burning rate is imposed to limit

the amount of pyrolysis that can occur regardless of the amount of heat flux impinging on the surface of

the fuel. To the extent that the heat release rates measured for the polyurethane foams by NIST and ATF

differed, this had no effect on the calculations presented in this chapter since the same ignition

5-2
temperature, heat of vaporization, and maximum burning rate were used for simulations of the

experimental moek-up and the full nightelub fires.

5.1.3 Vents

Vents in FDS are openings from the model to ambient conditions outside the computational domain.

Vents allow smoke and heat to leave the grid area and air to enter. Vents may be either simple openings

that allow natural flow to occur based on the buoyancy of the hot gases, or vents may use a specified or forced flow rate such as the flow from a fan. Vents can also be used to introduce heat into the modeling

domain. In both the mock-up and the incident simulations, vents are used to represent the areas of the

foam which were initially ignited.

5.1.4 Openings Within the Grid

The placement of blocks within the grid forms the structure of the building and its contents. The

hydrodynamic calculations perfomied by FDS allow air, hot gases, smoke and flames to flow through the

simulated building. Thermal radiation travels by line-of-sight and may be intercepted by obstacles within

the grid.

Normal buildings may appear tightly constructed, but there are many small openings or leaks within a building that allow for the flow of air or combustion products. Since objects can only exist at grid

boundaries, small leaks may be created by either using a very small grid size, or by representing many

small leaks by fewer large leaks.

During the course of a fire, some items within the building may be consumed by the fire or otherwise

change position. FDS does not have the capability to calculate bum-through or collapse but the user can remove items during the course of the calculations. Items that are removed can represent objects that fall or are destroyed by fire, or objects that are changed by people such as doors or windows that are opened.

5.1.5 Smokeview

Smokeview is a scientific visualization program that was developed to display the results of an FDS

model computation [16]. Smokeview allows the viewing of FDS results in three-dimensional snapshots

or animations. Smokeview can display contours of temperature, velocity and gas concentration in planar

slices. It can also display properties with iso-surfaces that are three-dimensional versions of a constant

value of the property. Iso-surfaces are most commonly used to provide a three-dimensional

approximation of the flame surface where fuel and oxygen are present such that flames may exist.

5.2 FDS SIMULATIONS OF THE FULL-SCALE MOCK-UP

The major objective of the mock-up experiments was to observe the primary mode of flame spread and

smoke movement under fire conditions that were similar to what likely existed early in The Station fire on

Feb. 20, 2003. Results from the experiment, which included video records, measurements of heat release

rate, temperature, heat flux, oxygen volume fraction, and gas velocity, were used to compare with FDS

results for this complex fire environment. The secondary objective was to examine the impact of

automatic fire sprinklers under experimental conditions, again to provide a basis of comparison with FDS.

In addition to using data from bench-scale experiments, input values to FDS were developed, as described

in this section, based on comparisons with the full-scale mock-up experiments. The complete FDS input

files are provided in Appendix L.

5-3
5.2.1 Computational Domain, Grid Size, Initial Conditions, and Boundary Conditions

Selecting the appropriate grid size required balancing the need to resolve critical dimensions and physical

phenomena, and the need to budget enough time to perform the hundreds of computer runs necessary to assess the importance of different variables on the outcome. FDS was run on a Linux cluster with eight

3.2 MHz processors. To complete the estimated 100 simulations needed of 300 seconds actual time for

the full nightclub fire in a six month window necessitated runs with a tum-around time of less than two

days. Based upon the software needs and the hardware capabilities, this translated to a limit of about 2

million grid cells. The computational domain used to simulate the full nightclub measured about 22 m by

33 m by 4 m high, which led to a minimum computational grid size of about 145 mm.

Grid size sensitivity has been examined in several studies as noted by McGrattan [17], For full-scale

experiments involving a small compartment, 2.4 m (8 ft) by 3.6 m (12 ft) by 2.4 m (8 ft) high, with fires

ranging from 55 kW to 1 10 kW, 100 mm computational grids were found to provide temperatures within

15 percent of the measured values. Based upon that work and the imposed time constraints, 100 mm was

selected as the baseline computational grid size, with computational time savings sought through multiblocking and the physical evidence provided by the WPRJ video and the full-scale mock-up experiments

described in Chapter 4.

The choice of computational grid size influenced the selection of the appropriate values for the initial

conditions, boundary conditions and material properties, including the size and energy of the ignition

source, heat transfer at the boundaries, and burning properties of the fuel. With all other inputs kept

constant, doubling the grid size did not lead to the fast growing fires seen in the video or mock-up

experiments; halving the grid size led to a fire growth rate that was faster than the evidence (and a single

run-time of 10 days). Hence the simulations could not be shown to be grid size independent. This

confirmed that if the mock-up experiments and mock-up simulations were to be used to develop input

parameters for the full nightclub computer simulation, then the computational grid size needed to be

consistent between the two simulation cases. With the grid size selected at 100 mm, the mock-up

simulation computational domain required 319,000 grid cells. Approximately 17 hours were required to generate a 200 second simulation of a mock-up experiment. The FDS input parameters could be adjusted

to the 1 00 mm grid by comparing the simulation results with the measured results from the full-scale

mock-up experiments. The FDS inputs, described later in this section, were then applied to the full

nightclub simulation, with the WPRl video serving as a source of comparison.

For the full-scale mock-up, the platform area and the dance floor area to the west of the platform were

located in a compartment that was 10.8 m east to west and 7.0 m north to south. The ceiling height over

the dance floor was 3.8 m. The drummer’s alcove, located to the west of the platform, was 3.1 m wide,

2.4 m deep, and 1 .96 m high. The height of the drummer’s alcove floor and ceiling relative to the dance

floor were 0.74 m and 2.7 m respectively. The platform was 7.0 m wide and 2.4 m deep and 0.4 m high.

Figures 5-1 shows the resulting FDS model in Smokeview based upon a 100 mm grid size. Refer to Fig.

4-16 through Fig. 4-18 for additional details on the mock-up design.

The exposed interior finish materials used in the experiment consisted of convoluted polyurethane foam,

plywood paneling, gypsum board, and carpeting. In Fig. 5- la, the foam is shown as a dark gray surface,

the paneling is depicted as the brown surface and the carpet is shown as a light blue surface. The

remaining light gray surfaces are gypsum board. Foam, spruce, gypsum board and carpet material

properties were used in conjunction with tabulated [15] and experimentally derived properties of

polyurethane. The bottom of the domain was considered to be an inert, adiabatic solid.

5-4
Nisr

Figure 5-1 a. FDS model of mock-up in Smokeview

The principal fuels in the mock-up were the convoluted polyurethane foam and plywood paneling. In the area of the platform and the drummer’s alcove, the foam was installed over the plywood paneling. The

complexity of this arrangement limited the extent to which the burning composite fuel could be modeled

a priori. Therefore, several simplifications and assumptions were made in order to generate model results

that were representative of the experimental data. The thickness of the convoluted polyurethane foam

varied significantly as shown in Figure 5- lb. Typical thickness variations ranged from 6 mm (0.24 in)

valleys up to 30 mm (1.2 in) peaks in the “egg crate” configuration. Given that the thickness of two

nested sheets was consistent at 36 mm (1.4 in), the foam was approximated as a uniform flat solid with an

average thickness of 18 mm (0.7 in).

The other material properties used to describe the foam are given in Table 5-1. All of the foam material

properties were derived directly from the experiments that were documented in Chapter 4, with the

exception of the maximum burning rate. Given the complex nature of the foam over plywood composite,

it was difficult to determine when only the foam was pyrolyzing, when only the plywood was pyrolyzing

and when they were pyrolyzing at the same time. Therefore a series of simulations was conducted to

determine a representative maximum burning rate. The value of the maximum burning rate was varied

from 0.004 kg/m -s to 0.028 kg/m“-s. The maximum burning rate which yielded the heat release rate

closest to the experimental results for the unsprinklered mock-up experiment was 0.008 kg/m"-s.

The plywood paneling is based on the thermal properties of spruce [18] and is modeled as a charring

material as described in [15]. The only modeled difference between the spruce material in the FDS

5-5
Figure 5-1 b. Photograph of the edge of two sheets of convoluted polyurethane foam.

Table 5-1. Polyurethane foam material properties used as FDS input.

Property Value

Thermal Conductivity 0.034 W/m T

Specific Heat 1.4 kJ/kg °C

Thickness 1 8 mm

Density 22 kg/m^

Ignition Temperature 370 ‘’C

Heat of Vaporization 1350 kJ/kg

Maximum Burning Rate 0.008 kg/m“-s

database and the paneling is in the thickness of the material; 5 mm (0.2 in ) was used to represent the

paneling. The material properties of gypsum board and carpet were taken directly from the FDS 4

database with no changes [15].

Four heat producing vents were used to simulate the initial fire areas on both sides of the alcove. Two

1 00 mm (4 in) wide by 200 mm (8 in) tall vents, were located on the west side of the platform wall, at the

north and south edge of the drummer’s alcove. Two more heat vents, 100 mm (4 in) square were located

5-6
on the north and south walls of the drummer’s alcove adjacent to the vents of the platform wall. The

lower edge of the vents was located 1 .50 m (5 ft) above the platform floor. The vents had a defined heat

release rate per unit area of 1500 kW/m“. These vents produced heat for the duration of the simulations.

The size and location of the vents were based on the locations where the foam was ignited in the full-scale

mock-up experiments and the approximate of area involved in fire within a few seconds after ignition.

The heat release rate was determined after conducting a series of simulations to match the heat release

rate per unit area needed to provide enough energy per unit volume (grid cell volume) to provide

reasonable agreement with the results of the full-scale experiment

The only opening within the grid of the model itself was the doorway in the east wall of the compartment,

as shown in Figure 5- la. The doorway was 0.9 m (3.0 ft) wide and 2 m (6.6 ft) high. The computational

grid extended outside the door 1.2 m to allow unrestricted flow into and out of the doorway.

Two simulations of the mock-up experiment are presented in the next section. The first simulation was

unsprinklered. The second simulation examined the conditions resulting from the use of automatic fire

sprinklers. The capability to model the sprinkler activation and the effects of suppression can not be done

a priori. Several simulations were conducted by varying both the parameters that impacted the activation

of the sprinklers and the parameters that impacted the suppression physics. The values that are presented

in Table 5-2 provided the best fit to the data.

Three parameters of the sprinkler are used in a lumped-mass model for the thennal element in the

sprinkler: response time index (RTl), activation temperature, and conduction factor [19]. This lumped

mass sub-model is used to calculate the time of sprinkler activation. However, the lumped mass model

Table 5-2. Sprinkler Properties Used as FDS Input

Property Value

Sprinkler Type Pendant

Operating Pressure 174 kPa (25 psi)

K-factor 8.0 L/min/kPa''^“ (5.6 gpm/psi'^^)

Response Time Index 16 m s (32.6 It s )

C-Factor 0

Activation Temperature 74 °C(165 T)

Offset Distance 100 mm (3.9 in)

Size Distribution Global Average

Median Volumetric Diameter 675 pm (0.03 in)

Minimum Spray Angle 75°

Maximum Spray Angle 105°

Speed 15 m/s (49 ft/s)

5-7
does not account for radiative heat transfer, only conductive and convective heat transfer. In this incident

given the location of the fire and the rapid flame spread, radiative heat transfer played a role. The

activation temperature used was the listed temperature of the sprinkler from the experiment. No

conductive losses were considered in order to eliminate another variable and simplify the determination of

the “effective” RTl. The RTl was chosen based on matching the response time of the first sprinkler

activated in the experiment. The other sprinklers were given the same RTl.

The remaining sprinkler parameters describe how much water would be discharged, what the water

droplet size distribution would be and the direction of the droplets discharge. The water flow rate is determined by the operating pressure and the discharge factor (or K-factor). As modeled, the water flow

from each sprinkler was 94.6 L/min (28.0 gpm). This flow rate was determined from a series of

simulations to develop suppression results that were representative of the full-scale mock-up experiment

with sprinklers. The resulting flow rate and spray angle inputs are what was required to simulate the

suppression in FDS. They are not a measure of the actual flow rate or spray angles from the experiment.

In addition, the computational droplet tracking parameters; age, droplets per second, maximum number of

droplets and drop vertical velocity were determined empirically from numerous computations.

The water droplet size distribution is based on a median droplet diameter to which a size distribution is applied. A median droplet diameter of 675 pm (0.03 in) was used with the FDS default parameters of the

Rosin-Rammler/log-normal distribution (y= 2.4). [20, 15]

The droplets were distributed uniformly in the conical spray pattern emanating from the sprinkler

deflector. The spray pattern is defined by the minimum and maximum spray angles. Relative to a sphere

that is centered on the sprinkler, with a radius equal to the offset distance, the spray pattern ranged from

75° north of the south pole to 15° above the equator. Further discussion of the sprinkler properties is provided in section 5.2.3.

5.2.2 FDS Full-scale Mock-up Simulation, Non-Sprinklered Results

The results of the non-sprinklered simulation are compared with the video record of the experiment, and

the measurements of temperature, oxygen volume fraction, heat flux, heat release rate and gas velocity.

Visual comparisons of the experiment and simulation are shown in Figures 5-2 through 5-11.

Quantitative comparisons between the experimental data and the model predictions are given in Figures

5-12 through 5-18.

Figure 5-2. Ignition at the corners of the drummer’s alcove, t = 0 second.

5-8
Figure 5-3. Flames spreading toward ceiling, t = 10 seconds after ignition.

(i) Visual Comparisons

Figures 5-2 through 5-1 1 are composed of pairs of images. The still frames, captured from video tape,

appear on the left. The images on the right are rendered from Smokeview. Both images represent the

same time after ignition. The pairs of images begin at ignition, or t = 0 seconds, and continue at 1

0

seconds intervals until 90 seconds after ignition, when most of the visibility from the video is lost.

Figure 5-2 shows the experiment and the simulation at the time of ignition. The video frame on the left shows the foam covered walls, the wood paneling, and the carpeted platform. Gypsum board covered the

ceiling, floor and the remaining wall areas that were not covered with wood paneling or foam. Some of

the instrumentation can be seen in the foreground of the video frame. In the image from the simulation,

on the right, the comparable interior finishes can be seen. The instrumentation in the right figures is represented by colored dots. The themiocouples appear as yellow dots in evenly spaced arrays. The light

gray blocks represent the locations of the heat flux sensors and the gas sampling locations, which were

installed at approximately 1.5 m (5 ft) above the floor.

Figure 5-3 compares the fire development at 10 seconds after ignition. A flame is shown on both comers

where the platform wall intersects with the dmmmer’s alcove. In the case of FDS, the area that appears to

be involved with flames is based on the stoichiometric mixture fraction, where there is the ideal mixture

of fuel and oxygen for a robust flame to exist. The heat release rate per unit volume represented by the

simulated flames is 285.5 kW/m . The flames in the simulation appear wider due to the grid resolution,

which is 100 mm (4 in) throughout the room.

The video frame to the left in Figure 5-4 shows flames 20 seconds after ignition growing vertically and

impinging on the ceiling. The simulated flames on the right, however, have not yet reached the ceiling.

As noted above, the simulated flame is constrained to grow in 100 mm (4 in) increments, both vertically

and laterally. This may account for the wider flame and the accompanying redistribution of energy that

would reduce the propensity for rapid vertical flame spread. Light smoke can be seen in both images

along the ceiling of the alcove, with light wisps of smoke along the ceiling above the platform.

5-9
Figure 5-4. Flames impinging on ceiling, t = 20 seconds after ignition.

Figure 5-5. Visible smoke spreading across ceiling, t = 30 seconds after ignition.

Figure 5-5 shows an increased amount of smoke flow across the ceiling at 30 seconds after ignition. The

actual fire continues to grow at a faster rate than the simulated flames. In the video frame on the left the

flames have formed twin V-pattems on each side of the alcove and the flames are spreading across the

alcove ceiling. Notice the light smoke that is coming up from the carpeting below the two fire plumes.

This is the result of foam melting and the burning foam droplets falling to the floor. This mode of flame

spread is not accounted for within the FDS model. At 40 seconds after ignition, the video frame in Figure

5-6 shows areas of the foam on the platform wall have burned out (note the dark area directly above the

point of ignition on the left side of the alcove). The actual flame fronts have continued to spread and into

the alcove, where fire is visible on portions of the side walls and the ceiling of the alcove. The flames

simulated with FDS have also grown, although at a slower rate. Both of the simulated flames have

impinged on the ceiling.

5-10
Time: 40.0 Figure 5-6. Flames continue to spread into alcove, t = 40 seconds after ignition.

Time: 50.0 I Figure 5-7. Ceiling of alcove fully involved in fire, t = 50 seconds after ignition.

Figure 5-7, has images eaptured at 50 seconds after ignition. In the experiment, it appears that the entire

ceiling of the alcove is burning, as well as the area of the platform wall above the opening to the alcove.

There is also more smoke from drop-down of the burning foam onto the carpet, both in the alcove and on

the platform. In the simulation, the flames have moved into the alcove and are spreading across the

ceiling. In both images, the smoke or hot gas layer has developed across the ceiling of the enclosure.

In Figure 5-8, the ceiling and the walls of the alcove have become fully involved with fire in both of the

images. At 60 seconds after ignition, flashover has aheady occurred in the experiment and flashover is about to occur in the simulation. In both cases, flames are extending out of the alcove across the ceiling

and the smoke layer has become thicker and darker.

5-11
Figure 5-8. Flashover has occurred in alcove area, t = 60 seconds after ignition.

Figure 5-9. Smoke layer has dropped to 1.5 m above floor, t = 70 seconds after ignition.

The images in Figure 5-9 show a significant increase in the amount of the smoke in the enclosure. The

smoke layer has descended to within 1 .5 m (5 ft) of the floor. The flames have spread along the wall

behind the platform and can be seen at the lower edge of the smoke layer in both the video frame and the

image from the simulation. The smoke in the experiment appears lighter in color than it actually is due to

light that is being reflected from floor level halogen lights that were used to improve the visibility for the

video cameras. The fire continues to grow in both the experiment and the simulation as shown in Figure 5-10. The

smoke layer has continued to descend. The interface height of the smoke layer is approximately 0.75 m

(2.5 ft) above the floor at 80 seconds after ignition for both the experiment and the simulation. Both

images also show the flame extension on the left wall of the enclosure. The upper portion of the left wall near the platform had foam installed over the paneling.

5-12
Figure 5-10. Fire continues to spread, t = 80 seconds after ignition.

Figure 5-11. Visibility lost, t = 90 seconds after ignition.

The last set of images, Figure 5-1 1 demonstrate that most of the visibility in the enclosure has been lost

due to smoke filling. A small layer of clear area can be seen near the floor in both the experiment and the

simulation. This is due to fresh air being drawn into the fire enclosure through the open doorway.

The image pairs show that the simulation is not exact with respect to time, in reproducing the

development and growth of the fire, especially during the initial growth stages of the fire. Based on the

images during the first 40 seconds of the fire FDS appears to lag behind in fire growth by approximately

10 to 20 seconds. As the fire reaches the transition point of flashover, the simulation has reduced the time

lag significantly. Post-flashover, the appearance of the fire progression and the smoke development for

both the experiment and the simulation are more closely synchronized with each other.

5-13
(ii) Numerical Comparison

In this section, measurements of power generated, temperature, heat flux, oxygen volume fraction, and

gas velocity from the full-scale mock-up experiments described in Chapter 4 are compared with the

values generated by the FDS simulation.

The heat release rate of the fire is the source for the energy transfer that occurs throughout the fire

environment. Heat release rate is critical in fire protection engineering for assessing the development of a hazard due to a fire within a building. In addition, the heat release rate is a function of oxygen depletion.

Therefore, differences in the heat release rate comparison also impact the comparison of the temperature,

heat flux, oxygen, and gas velocity measurements.

Figure 5-12 compares the measured heat release rate leaving the door of the experiment (based upon

oxygen consumption) to the heat release rate from the fire within the compartment as predicted by FDS.

For fires burning in the open under the laboratory hood, the thennal power measured by the oxygen

depletion calorimeter is equal to the heat release rate from the fire. However, for a fire within an

enclosure, the effluent from the room is a mixed average of the upper layer gases, and does not represent

the instantaneous heat release rate of the fire. Smoke did not exit the compartment doorway until

approximately 60 seconds after ignition. This means that a direct comparison between the experimental

measurements and the numerical predictions cannot be made because the oxygen depletion calorimeter

does not respond to a fire within an enclosure until the combustion products have had time to exit the

door and become entrained into the hood. The heat release rate predicted by FDS in Fig. 5-12 represents

the instantaneous heat release throughout the room. The heat release rate reaches a peak of

0^

Time (s)

Figure 5-12. Power generated in experiment as measured outside of doorway, compared

to FDS simulation of heat release rate from fire within compartment.

5-14
oo

Figure 5-13. Temperature comparison between the un-sprinklered fire experiment and the

FDS simulation at Station C.

approximately 6 MW about 70 seconds into the simulation, 20 seconds prior to the peak in thermal power

measured in the oxygen depletion calorimeter. Both curves approach 3000 kW ± 300 kW approximately

150 seconds into the fire, again consistent with a ventilation-limited condition. The heat release rates

diverge at longer times as the model consumes the remaining interior finish fuels while the physical fire

continues to bum at a reduced rate into the wood supporting the platform and walls. When the areas under the heat release rate curves were integrated, the resulting energies were found to agree within 10 %.

Figure 5-13 is a comparison of the temperatures predicted and measured 25 mm below the ceiling and 1.4

m above the floor at the thermocouple array located at Station C (4.25 m west of the door opening or 1.7

m from the platform). The FDS output has been smoothed by applying a Stineman function (a geometric

weight applied to the current point ±10 % of the data range). The temperature data show reasonable

agreement with the predictions, including an overshoot followed by a leveling off as the fire reaches a ventilation limit. The temperatures near the ceiling increase faster in the test; conversely, the lower level

temperatures increase at a slower rate in the test.

Note that, unlike the heat release rate, the temperature measurements respond to the local environment

within a second; hence, the experimental temperatures and FDS predictions can be compared directly.

Initially, the experimental measurements near the ceiling increase more rapidly than predicted. This is probably due to the strong transverse temperature gradients associated with the ceiling jets created early

in the fire (see Fig. 5-5), where small differences in position between the experiment and simulation can have a large change in temperature. The simulated thermocouple temperatures are temperatures averaged

over the grid cell volume(s) that they are associated with, which results in differences in positions

between the experimental point measurement and the FDS output. The peak temperatures for the

experiment and the simulation occur within 5 seconds of each other.

5-15
Figure 5-14 is a comparison of the temperatures predicted and measured 25 mm below the ceiling and

1 .4 m above the floor at the thermocouple array located at Station D (2.35 m west of the door opening).

Similar to the previous figure, the temperature data show reasonable agreement with the predictions. The

trends are also similar and both of the measured temperatures and the predictions exhibit a reduction in

peak temperatures relative to the values from Station C that is located approximately 2 m closer to the

platfomi.

Figures 5-15 and 5-16 present the heat flux measurements taken at Stations C and D respectively. There

were three total heat flux sensors at each position: one installed at ceiling level with the sensor aimed at the floor; and two sensors installed at approximately 1.5 m (5 ft) above the floor with one aimed at the

ceiling and the other aimed toward the platform end of the enclosure. In both cases, the predictions

follow the trends of the measured heat flux. Better agreement in terms of magnitude occurs at the ceiling

level. The predicted heat fluxes 1.5 m above the floor are low by almost 50 % when compared with three

out of four measurements.

Figures 5-17 and 5-18 represent the oxygen volume fraction comparisons between the measurements at Stations C and D and the predicted values from FDS. The measurements and the predictions were

positioned at 1 .5 m (5 ft) above the floor. The oxygen levels predicted by FDS dropped sooner but

slightly less rapidly than the experimental measurements; both reached the same low value of about two

percent, confinning that the fire was close to ventilation-limited at this point.

O

o

E

G)

Figure 5-14. Temperature comparison between the un-sprinklered fire experiment and

the FDS simulation at Station D.

5-16
60

50

40

30

20

10

100 150 200

o Experiment - Ceiling

Experiment - Facing up o Experiment - Facing Alcove

FDS - Ceiling

- - FDS - Facing Up

FDS - Facing Alcove

Time (s)

Figure 5-15. Heat flux comparison between the un-sprinklered fire experiment and the

FDS simulation at Station C

CME

5

X

LL

(0

0)

50

o Experiment - Ceiling

Experiment - Facing up o Experiment - Facing Alcove

FDS - Ceiling

FDS - Facing up

FDS - Facing Alcove

100 150 200

Time (s)

Figure 5-16. Heat flux comparison between the un-sprinklered fire experiment and the

FDS simulation at Station D.

5-17
o

E

_3

O

>

c

Q)

Ui

>

X

O

Figure 5-17. Oxygen volume fraction comparison between the un-sprinklered fire

experiment and the FDS model at approximately 1.5 m above the floor at Station C.

Time (s)

Figure 5-18. Oxygen volume fraction comparison between the un-sprinklered fire

experiment and the FDS model at approximately 1.5 m above the floor at Station D.

5-18
(iii) Tenability

Tenability limits based upon the work of Purser [21] were discussed in section 4.6.8. The time predicted

by FDS to reach the limits of temperature, heat flux, and oxygen are summarized in the top portion of

Table 5.3. The agreement between the simulation and experimental measurements at Location C is within eight percent, with both methods indicating the heat flux criteria is exceeded first, around one

minute into the fire.

Table 5.3 Time to reach untenability criteria at Location C, or maximum deviation

obtained, in sprinklered and unsprinklered simulations, compared to experimental

measurements

Temperature

> 120 "C

Heat Flux

>2.5 kW/m'

Oxygen

< 12%

Unsprinklered

Experiment 76 seconds 61 seconds 87 seconds

FDS 72 seconds 57 seconds 80 seconds

Sprinklered

Experiment <24 "C < 0.32 kW/m- > 20.6 %

FDS <22 'C <0.15 kW/m“ > 18.8%

5.2.3 FDS Full-scale mock-up Simulation, Sprinklered Results

The results of the sprinklered simulation are compared with the video record of the experiment, and the

measurements of temperature and oxygen volume fraction. Visual comparisons of the experiment and

simulation are shown in Figures 5-19 through 5-27. Quantitative comparisons between the experimental

data and the model predictions are given in Figures 5-28 through 5-32. Given the limited growth of the

fire during the experiment, the oxygen depletion calorimeter did not register a significant rate of heat

release.

The comparison of the sprinkler activation times from the sprinklered mock-up experiment and the FDS

simulation of that experiment are given in Table 5-4. In FDS, the activation time of the first sprinkler was

the result of adjusting the RTI in the simulation until the times were similar. The RTl that provided the

best match, 16 m “ s ^ (32.6 ft s "), was used as the RTI for the remaining sprinklers in both the mockup and the full nightclub simulation. The order of sprinkler activation, and the number of sprinklers

activated, were the same in the simulation and the experiment. The times to activation differed by no

more than 6 seconds.

(i) Visual Comparisons

Figures 5-19 and 5-27 are composed of pairs of images. The still frames, captured from the video tape of

the experiment, appear on the left. The images on the right are rendered from Smokeview. Both images

represent the same time after ignition. The pairs of images begin at ignition or t = 0 seconds and continue

at 10 second intervals until 60 seconds after ignition, when most of the fire in the experiment had been

suppressed. Additional sets of images are included at 25 seconds after ignition to show the initial

sprinkler Just after activation and at 90 seconds to demonstrate the lack of significant fire spread after

5-19
Table 5-4. Comparison of sprinkler activation times.

Sprinkler Location

Sprinkler Activation Times (seconds)

Experimental Fire Dynamic Simulator

Northwest 24 23

Southwest 29 35

Alcove 30 36

Northeast Did Not Activate Did Not Activate

Southeast Did Not Activate Did Not Activate

Figure 5-19. Ignition at the corners of the alcove, t = 0 seconds.

Figure 5-20. Flames spreading toward ceiling, t = 10 seconds after ignition.

5-20
Figure 5-21. Flames impinging on ceiling, t = 20 seconds after ignition.

Figure 5-22. Initial sprinkler operating, t = 25 seconds after ignition.

Figure 5-23. Third sprinkler operating in experiment, t = 30 seconds after ignition.

5-21
Time: 40.0 Figure 5-24. Suppression with three sprinklers operating in each case, t = 40 seconds

after ignition.

Figure 5-26. Fire controlled in both cases, t = 60 seconds after ignition.

Time: 50.0 ^ I Figure 5-25. Fire suppression continues in both the experiment and the simulation, t = seconds after ignition.

50

Time: 60 0

5-22
Figure 5-27. Fire controlled in both cases, t = 90 seconds after ignition.

sprinkler activation. Figures 5-19 through 5-21 show a very similar progression in fire growth as the

unsprinklered case for both the experiment and the FDS simulation between ignition and 20 seconds after

ignition. Figure 5-22 was captured at 25 seconds after ignition, approximately 1 second after the first

sprinkler activated in both the experiment and the simulation. With the experiment, the impact of the

sprinkler can be seen as the fire on the right side of the platform wall is suppressed. In FDS the flame

height on the right side of the alcove can be seen to be reduced.

By 30 seconds (see Fig. 5-23) the effect of both of the sprinklers above the platform operating as well as the sprinkler in the alcove is apparent. Burning continues at the intersection of the platform wall and the

ceiling. This area is above where the water spray is hitting the wall. Also notice the flames on the ceiling

of the alcove. This area is shielded from the water spray of the two sprinklers. The smoke being pushed

out of the alcove is due to the activation of the sprinkler on the ceiling of the alcove. In the simulation,

only one sprinkler is operating at this time. The fire growth on the right side of the alcove has been

limited by the single sprinkler.

By 40 seconds after ignition, three sprinklers in the experiment and in the simulation have activated. The

video frame in Figure 5-24 shows that the fire in the alcove has been suppressed and that the burning

above the water line on the platform wall continues. With three sprinklers operating in FDS, the water

spray is significantly reducing the visible flames. The flames on the platform wall have been suppressed.

However, there are still flames visible at the intersections of the alcove ceiling and the alcove walls on

both sides of the alcove. These areas are shielded from the water spray of the sprinklers over the platform

and they are above the water impact line from the sprinkler in the alcove.

Figures 5-25 through 5-27 show continued fire suppression for both the experiment and the simulation.

In both cases some flames exist in the ceiling area of the alcove. But clearly the rate of fire growth and

the resulting hazard development has been reduced significantly when compared with the unsprinklered

case.

Both the experiment and the computer model demonstrate that the sprinklers would prevent flashover and

considerably mitigate the hazard from the fire. However, the degree to which the fire is controlled is different between the experiment and the model, since the simulation has more flame spread along the

edges of the alcove ceiling after activation of the sprinklers.

5-23
(ii) Numerical Comparison

In this section, measurements of heat release rate, temperature, heat flux, and oxygen volume fraction

from the full-scale mock-up sprinklered experiments conducted in Chapter 4 are compared with values

generated by the FDS simulation.

Figure 5-28 shows the FDS predicted heat release rate for the sprinklered enclosure. The experiment

failed to produce enough combustion gases for the oxygen depletion calorimeter to measure a heat release

rate. This was due to the rapid sprinkler activation, the effective fire suppression and the large volume of

the enclosure. This graph demonstrates that in the simulation the fire grew after the activation of the third

sprinkler (all were operating by 36 seconds). The decrease in FIRR at approximately 140 seconds is when

the shielded (dry) foam on the alcove ceiling bums itself out. In the experiment, foam above the line of

water impact on the walls and the ceiling continued to bum after sprinkler activation as was shown in

Figures 5-24 through 5-26.

The comparison of the temperatures at Stations C and D are shown in Figures 5-29 and 5-30. In both

cases FDS under predicts the temperatures near the ceiling. The FDS predictions in these two graphs

have not been smoothed in order to show that the peak values near the ceiling are very close to the

sprinkler activation temperature of 74 ®C. Typically the temperature of the fire gases surrounding a

sprinkler at the time of activation is approximately twice the listed temperature.

Due to the continued burning of foam on the ceiling of the alcove prior to complete extinguishment, the

temperature in the simulated enclosure increases over the experimental temperatures. However, at the 1.4

m level above the floor the temperature never exceeds 35 ‘’C (95 °F). This is well within the temperature

tenability range.

Figure 5-28. FDS predicted heat release rate for the sprinklered case.

5-24
o

o

Figure 5-29. Temperature comparison between the sprinklered fire experiment and the

FDS simulation at Station C.

0 50 100 150 200

Time (s)

Figure 5-30. Temperature comparison between the sprinklered fire experiment and the

FDS simulation at Station D.

5-25
CNE

§

X

3

(Q0

Figure 5-31. Heat flux comparison between the sprinklered fire experiment and the FDS

simulation at Station C.

The comparison of the measured heat flux with the calculated heat flux is shown in Figures 5-31 and

5-32. Due to the limited fire growth and significant cooling by the water all of the heat flux values are

less than 1 kW/m". One notable difference between the experiment and the simulation is after the

sprinklers activate in the experiment, the measured heat flux goes to zero, while in the simulation small

values heat flux energy continue to be shown.

Figure 5-33 exhibits the comparison of the measured and predicted oxygen concentrations at Station C.

The measured oxygen concentration shows only a slight decrease during the 200 seconds, while the

simulation shows a decrease of approximately 2 percent. This may be due to the continued burning of the

foam along the ceiling of the alcove that is taking place in the simulation of the experiment.

(iii) Full-scale mock-up comparison - Summary

The visual and numerical comparisons demonstrate that the effects of an automatic fire sprinkler system

on a fire can be successfully modeled by FDS and visualized with Smokeview. Both the experiment and

simulation demonstrate that the sprinklers would prevent flashover and considerably mitigate the hazard

from the fire in the test enclosure. However, the degree to which the fire is controlled is different

between the experiment and the model, since the simulation has more flame spread along the edges of the

alcove ceiling after activation of the sprinklers.

The temperature, heat flux, and the oxygen volume fraction comparisons show reasonable agreement

between the experiments and the model in ternis of both trends and range. Again some differences were

caused by the increased burning after the start of suppression in the shielded areas, but that phenomenon

has been documented in other experiments as well [22]. Tenability limits were predicted never to be

exceeded using FDS, consistent with what was observed in the full-scale mock-up experiments. The

lower portion of Table 5.3 compares the extreme values of heat flux, temperature, and oxygen volume

fraction predicted in the simulation to the measured values.

5-26
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0

- o Experiment - Ceiling

- Experiment - Facing Up

.. . . o Experiment - Facing Alcove

FDS - Facing Alcove

o

o

oO

0 50 100 150 200

Time (s)

Figure 5-32. Heat flux comparison between the sprinklered fire experiment and the FDS

simulation at Station D.

c

0) U)>

X

O

0 50 100 150 200

Time (s)

Figure 33. Oxygen volume fraction comparison between the sprinklered fire experiment

and the FDS simulation at approximately 1.5 m above the floor at Station C.

5-27
5.3 FDS iNCIDENT SIMULATION

5.3.1 Computational Domain and Materials

The computational domain used for the incident simulation consisted of eight adjoining rectangular

meshes. Figure 5-34 shows an isometric view and Figures 5-35 and 5-36 show two different external

views of the building. Each mesh was 4.1 m (13.5 ft) wide and the lengths varied from 10.8 m (35.4 ft) to

21.6 m (70.9 ft) based on the size of the structure and vent location. Each computational (or grid) cell

was 100 mm (3.9 in) on a side. The input geometry for the Station nightclub including all wall, door and

window sizes and locations was modeled based on the documentation provided in Chapter 2. Figure 5-37

is a plan view, Figures 5-38 shows the grid spacing used for the foam on the platform, and Figure 5-39 is a view looking toward the horseshoe bar and side exit from the center of the nightclub.

The interior finishes of the structure were simplified and modeled as five different materials: foam, wood,

ceiling tile, gypsum board and carpet. The foam was prescribed with a wood backing due to the fact that

the foam bums away leaving the wood paneling behind. Typically, FDS accounts for the burning of a single material; thus, the model was modified to allow the wood behind the foam to bum once the foam

had burned away. The actual structure was lined with multiple types of wood such as paneling, wafer

boards and bead board. In the simulation, all of these woods were prescribed with a single set of material

properties. The ceiling tile, gypsum board and nylon carpet properties were based upon a combination of

the cone calorimeter tests described in Chapter 4 and the FDS materials database. The view of the

platform area seen in Figure 5-40 contains foam (grey), wood (brown and black), gypsum board (tan) and

ceiling tile (tan).

Table 5-5 lists the material properties used in the simulation of the full-scale nightclub. The only

difference in the properties used in the full nightclub versus the mock-up simulation was the thickness of

the foam and the paneling. Based on materials observed in the field, the foam recovered from the

nightclub was thicker than the foam used in the mock-up; a value of 30 mm ( 1 .2 in) was chosen. The

paneling that remained in the nightclub was installed in two layers. Therefore the thickness of the

paneling for the incident simulation was doubled relative to the mock-up. The ceiling tile, gypsum board,

and carpet used the same values as the FDS database, which were the same values used in the mock-up

simulation. The complete FDS input files are provided in Appendix L.

Table 5-5. Simulation Material Pro parties

Material Thickness

(m)

Ignition

Temperature

CC)

Heat of

Vaporization

(kJ/kg)

Themial

Conductivity

(W/m K)

Density

(kg/m^)

Foam 0.03 370 1350 0.034 22.0

Paneling 0.01 360 500 0.13-0.29 450

Ceiling Tile 0.016 NA NA 0.0611 NA

Gypsum Board 0.013 400 NA 0.48 NA

Carpet NA 280 3000 NA NA

5-28
Figure 5-34. FDS computational domain of full nightclub

Figure 5-35. External view of nightclub from northeast corner

Figure 5-36. External view of nightclub from northwest corner

5-29
Figure 5-37. View from above with structure sliced 2.5 m above floor

Figure 5-38. Numerical grid used for foam covered walls on platform. Red squares

represent the points of ignition

5-30
Figure 5-39. View from center of nightclub toward horseshoe bar, with side exit and front

windows in background

Figure 5-40. View of platform and dance floor showing different materials

5-31
5.3.2 Vents and Openings

All four sides and the top of the computational domain were modeled as open to the environment outside

of the domain to allow air to enter and combustion products to exit. The outside temperature was

assumed to be the same as the initial temperature inside, and the wind was assumed to be calm'. The

bottom of the domain was considered to be an inert, adiabatic solid. Four heat producing vents were

modeled: two 200 mm (7.8 in) square vents on the front comer of the alcove, and two 100 mm (3.9 in)

square vents located 100 mm (3.9 in) back from the comer, into the alcove. All of the heat producing

vents were 1 .24 m (4 ft) above the floor of the alcove. The vents have an energy flux of 1500 kW/m“ and

emit energy for 35 seconds beginning at t = 0 seconds.

The structure's doors and windows were opened during the simulation based on estimations from the

WPRl video. The first door to open was the door adjacent to the platform. This door was observed

opening in the video 29 seconds after ignition. The front double door was assumed to open shortly after

the stage door at 30 seconds. This time was selected due to the crowd beginning to notice the fire and to

move toward the front door. The side door near the main bar was opened at 45 seconds and the side door

in the kitchen was opened at 60 seconds. These times were estimated by the crowd movement seen in the

video and the remoteness of the doorways from the stage area.

At 78 seconds, the lower portion of one of the bay windows was removed. This appeared to occur as the

cameraman passes by on his way to the rear of the structure. Portions of the windows located on the front

of the stmcture, left of the main entrance were removed at 80 seconds. This included the lower half of

each of the matching windows next to the large window in the center, the entire large window in the

center, all of the thin window to its left and the lower half of the thin window to its right. Finally, more

sections of the bay window, surrounding the portion that was removed at 78 seconds, were removed

between 100 and 130 seconds. The side bay window facing the main entrance was seen open in the

WPRl video and the three other windows between the side window and the lower portion of the window

were removed at 78 seconds based on the sounds heard in the video. Vent opening times are summarized

in Table 5-6 and visualized in Figure 5-41

.

Table 5-6. Time of Openings for FDS Simulation

Location of Opening Time of Opening (s)

Stage Door 29

Front Double Door 30

Side Door (near main bar) 45

Side Door (kitchen) 60

Front Bay Window (lower portion) 78

Front Windows 80

Left Side Bay Window 100

Three Bay Windows 110, 120, 130

' The temperatures recorded at T.F. Green Airport that night were in the high 20s (®F) and the winds were light.

5-32
80s 29 s

Figure 5-41. Visualization of Opening Times

5.3.3 FDS Simulation Results

The focus of this simulation was the examination of the conditions that may have been present in The

Station nightclub during the early stages of the fire. Results from the bench-scale experiments and

existing data were used to develop the input properties for the interior finish materials. The full-scale

mockup results were used to compare against the FDS simulations to validate the implementation of the

data in the model, and to determine the model’s capabilities for this fire incident. Further, the sprinklered

mock-up results were used to develop a means to model the sprinkler in the full nightclub simulation.

Images from the WPRI video were utilized to develop model input to establish the location of the

different interior finishes within The Station nightclub as well as being used as a general resource for

confirming the physical arrangement of the nightclub. The simulation was run for 300 seconds to examine the time period from ignition to the approximate time of application of water by the fire

department. The computation included simulated fire and smoke spread, potential temperatures, oxygen

concentrations and visibility that may have existed in the actual incident. Each of these was compared to

published tenability criteria.

In order to gauge the accuracy of the full nightclub simulation results, they were compared with the WPRI

video record of the incident. In addition, analysis of the simulation considered published tenability

criteria and the location of the victims within the nightclub.

(i) Heat Release Rate

The total heat released in the fire is plotted in Figure 5-42. The graph shows that after the alcove became

fully involved with fire, at approximately 50 to 60 seconds, the heat release rate increased from

approximately 2 MW to 54 MW in less than 50 seconds. Hence the rate of increase was more than 1 MW

per second. As the fire spread throughout the structure and the fire became oxygen limited the heat

release rate became steady at approximately 45 MW for approximately 150 seconds. After that time, the

simulation began to deplete the fuel contained in the interior finish materials. The fire in the actual

nightclub had spread into the structure and burned in and through areas of the roof and walls by this time.

The simulation only provided fuel based on the interior finish and did not account for fuel being provided

by stmctural elements and materials in building outer envelope.

5-33
§

s

0) (D

0

(/) O

o

(U0X

Q

I 1 I ^ I I I I I I I I I I I I i I

I I ”o 50 100 150 200 250

Time (s)

Figure 5-42. Total Heat Released in Building Fire Simulation as a Function of Time

(ii) Fire Growth and Smoke Spread

Images were selected from the WPPU video to compare with the FDS simulation results. Iso-surfaces of

the heat release rate per unit volume and three-dimensional smoke density parameters are displayed in the

Figures 5-43 through 5-53. It should be noted that the orange color in Smokeview tracked the location of

stoichiometric fuel and air mixture. If the temperature were high, then the orange surface could be

thought of as a flame; if the temperature were below a threshold value, then no flame was actually

present, just a non-burning mixture of fuel and air. Qualitative agreement can be seen between the pairs

of images from the video and the simulation for both the initial growth prior to the videographer leaving

the structure, and the outside view as the videographer walked around the structure. This similarity

helped the investigation draw conclusions as to the conditions inside the structure even though the video

was no longer recording inside.

Time “0” refers to the instant of ignition of the foam by the gerbs as documented in the WPRI video. All

of the times that accompany the figures below are times after ignition. The times were chosen based on

the image availability from the WPRI video. The images were chosen based on the visibility of the fire or

the smoke from the fire. The last image set does not reflect the same time. The simulation stops at 300

seconds while the image from the video showing flames from the front of the nightclub was not recorded

until 337 seconds after ignition. At this point in the fire, conditions were not changing as rapidly as during the fire development, so the comparison between the two images is reasonable.

The images from the video in Figures 5-43 and 5-44 capture the initial state of the fires on each side of

the platfonn shortly after the gerb discharge had stopped. At 10 seconds after ignition, the fire can be

seen burning on two surfaces at each of the comers; this is also considered in the simulation with the

placement of the ignition vents on both sides of the comer. In both the simulation and the actual incident

the flames impinge on the ceiling within 20 seconds after ignition.

5-34
ti

Time: 10.0 Figure 5-43. Initial growth of fire on foam at corner of the alcove (10 seconds)

Copyright ©,2003 TVL Broadcasting,

Inc. All rights reserved

Figure 5-44. Flames impinging on ceiling (19 seconds)

At 23 seconds after ignition, Figure 5-45, the videographer has begun to move toward the exit as have

many in the crowd. Notice that many people are still facing the platform. The fire continued to grow and

smoke has collected in the raised ceiling area over the dance floor. The smoke filling can be seen in the

image from the simulation. (Note the black rectangular image on the floor is representative of the speaker

cabinet, whereas the boundaries of the smoke layer are irregular.) At 53 seconds after ignition, the flames

have grown and spread along the platform wall and into the alcove as shown in video image in Figure 5-

46. In addition, the smoke is spreading across the lower level ceiling area toward the main exit. The

flames have spread in the simulation as well and smoke is beginning to spill over from the dance floor area towards the exits and the main bar room, although it takes a few more seconds into the simulation for

this to occur. Again the black rectangular objects on the floor are representative of speaker cabinets (near

the platform) and the sound and lighting board (left side).

The videographer had exited the nightclub at approximately 70 seconds and headed toward the stage door.

He then returns toward the main entrance and attempts to pass between the nightclub and the bus when he

encounters a plume of black smoke pushing out of one of the window vents in the sunroom. The image

from the simulation also shows a similar view. At approximately 110 seconds after ignition, smoke is flowing from the main entrance; the image from the simulation is given in Figure 5-48. The model did

not account for people blocking the air flow into the doorway.

5-35
Copyright © 2003 TVL Broadcasting,

Inc. All rights reserved Time: 23.0 Figure 5-45. Videographer backing away from platform (23 seconds)

Figure 5-46. Smoke beginning to roll across ceiling (video 53 seconds, simulation 60

seconds)

Copyright © 2003 TVL Broadcasting,

Inc. All rights reserved

Time: 100.0 ] Figure 5-47. Smoke billowing outside from broken sunroom window (100 seconds)

5-36
Figure 5-48. Light smoke emanating from front door of nightclub (110 seconds)

The Smokeview image in Figure 5-49 shows the smoke flow from the front door at 160 seconds after

ignition in the simulation. In Figure 5-50, the simulated smoke flow from the main bar room windows is shown. More smoke is coming from the center window than the two side windows because the upper and

lower portions of the center window have been removed while only the lower portion of the side windows

are open in the simulation.

The videographer moves around to the stage door again. The view inside the open door at approximately

289 seconds after ignition is shown in Figure 5-5 1 The image from the simulation agrees with the video

image on the level of combustion products in the doorway. However without a comparison to the

temperature in the doorway, the mixture fraction alone would indicate that more flames are in the area of

the stage doorway than can be seen in the video image. The videographer continues around to the

backside of the nightclub, at 300 seconds after ignition flames are coming through a small portion of the

back wall (south wall) of the dance floor area and smoke is leaking from the bathroom hallway wall. The

videographer moved toward the front of the nightclub again, at 309 seconds flames can be seen in the area of the front door. It takes another 25 seconds before he is in a position to record the images of the flames

coming from the sunroom windows and the main door. The simulation stops at 300 seconds after

ignition, short of the time that the entire nightclub reaches flashover conditions.

Time: 160.0 Figure 5-49. Heavy smoke leaving front door and open main bar window (160 seconds)

5-37
Nisr

i

Time: 176.0 Figure 5-50. View of smoke plumes from front windows of horseshoe bar area (176

seconds)

Figure 5-51. Looking into stage door exit (289 seconds)

NIST

Time: 300.0 Figure 5-52. Flames breaking through front door and sunroom windows (337 seconds

video, 300 seconds simulation)

5-38
Smokeview images were rendered at certain time intervals from the view looking through the far side of

the main bar to the platform area. (See Figures 5-53a,b.) This allowed for the conditions to be observed at several key locations: the platform area, the entrance to the main exit way and the main bar area. Many of

the occupants traveled this path as either they were able to exit or were overcome by the conditions prior

to being able to do so. The fire developed quickly in the platform area as the foam burned and resulted in

the alcove becoming fully developed with fire. Once that occurred the flames involved the entire rear wall and spread toward the main entrance, generating large amounts of smoke. At 70 seconds after

ignition, the smoke can be seen in the area of the main entrance to the nightclub. This is consistent with

the WPRl video. As the videographer leaves the nightclub, at approximately 70 seconds after ignition,

smoke is flowing over the heads of people in the main entry foyer. However, even 80 seconds after

ignition visibility remained high in the main bar room. This changed suddenly as the smoke and hot

gases that were spilling out of the now-filled raised ceiling above the dance floor quickly spread to the

main bar room. Based on the FDS simulation, within another 20 seconds, 100 seconds after ignition

visibility was impaired, and remained so throughout the rest of the 300 seconds simulation. Flames can

be seen in the last three images of Figure 5-53b as the surfaces in the main bar area began to bum.

Time: 0.0 Time; 20.0 BE

ignition (0 seconds) 20 seconds

40 seconds 60 seconds

Figure 5-53a. View of fire from beyond horseshoe bar, looking at platform (0 - 60

seconds)

5-39
200 seconds 250 seconds

Figure 5-53b. View of fire from beyond horseshoe bar, looking at platform (85 - 250

seconds)

5-40
(iii) Temperature

Temperature slices were examined to assess the tenability conditions that existed during the evolution of

the fire. Horizontal slices were taken at both the 1.5 m (5 ft) and 0.6 m (2 ft) levels above the floor with

the ceiling rendered transparent to examine the temperature distribution throughout structure as a whole.

Vertical slices were used to analyze certain locations where groups of victims were located (See Figure 5-

54). These locations included the main entrance as seen through the front door, the area leading into the

exit area from the dance floor, and the left side of the sunroom and the open area adjacent to the side bar

and kitchen. This analysis utilized 120 °C (248 °F) as the temperature tenability threshold [6]

wuimpcDerTitaw»> ^34,

Figure 5-54. West Warwick Police Department Victim location diagram

Temperatures increase dramatically shortly after the alcove area reaches flashover conditions at approximately 65 seconds and then the platform area becomes fully involved in flames. The first two

images in Figure 5-55 show the temperatures at 1.5 m (5 ft) above the floor at 80 and 85 seconds. Within

that 5 second time interval the simulation predicts that dance floor area of the nightclub would have

become untenable due to temperature. By 100 seconds after ignition, the simulation shows a large portion

of the structure had become untenable due to temperature at the 1.5 m (5 ft) level. Figure 5-55 continues

with the presentation of simulation temperature results from 160 seconds to 250 seconds after ignition.

During this time interval temperatures continue to remain in the untenable range throughout the simulated

nightclub, with the exception of areas that are considered closed off from the hot gas flow such as the

5-41
bathrooms, office and storage areas. These areas were assumed to be separated from the rest of the

nightclub by closed doors, so they were modeled without a path for the gases to enter the spaces, hence

they appear to remain in the tenable range. The kitchen area has an open door from the dart room and a open door that exits to the outside. The hot gas flow goes directly from the dart room to the exit doorway.

This leaves the kitchen at a cooler temperature than the surrounding rooms.

NIST Slice NIST Slice

Time: 160.0 Time: 250.0

Figure 5-55. Temperatures at 1.5 m (5 ft) above the floor, 80 seconds to 250 seconds

5-42
At the 0.6 m (2 ft) height above the floor conditions remain tenable for a longer period of time than at the

higher elevation. Figure 5-56 contains images captured at the same time intervals as in the previous

figure. One can see that the dance floor and adjacent areas reach untenable temperatures in the simulation

within 90 seconds after ignition. The sunroom and dart room areas are predicted to reach untenable

temperatures within another 10 seconds.

NIST Slice NIST

temp

C

1000 900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0.00

Slice temp ^ I 1000 900

I 800 , 700

600

500

400

300

200

100 J 0.00 I

Time; 160.0 Time; 250.0 E Figure 5-56. Temperatures at 0.6 m (2 ft) above the floor, 80 seconds to 250 seconds

5-43
The significant differences in temperature between the 1 .5 m (5 ft) elevation and 0.6 m (2 ft) occur in the

main bar room and the main entrance. This area remains tenable at the lower level due to the inflow of

fresh air through the open windows and open doorways. The cooler temperatures toward the floor at both the front door and main bar area explain why occupants were seen in the WPRI video escaping from

the windows and doorway later into incident. The temperatures in later images do not change

significantly regarding areas that have untenable conditions versus areas that remain tenable based on

temperature only.

Figure 5-57 shows the temperature predictions for the plane of data that is centered along the axis of the

entry foyer. Temperatures just inside the front door, near the floor remain below the tenable limit because

of the fresh air being drawn in through the doorway. This region of tenability decreases in a triangular

orientation as the entranceway goes into the structure and gets smaller as the simulation continues. This

simulation does not account for the occupants that accumulated in the doorway. Thirty-one victims were

located in this area.

The area in the end of the sunroom adjacent to the entranceway was also a location that many victims

were found. A vertical temperature slice through this area, shown Figures 5-58a and 5-58b, suggests that

these victims did not have much time before the heat overcame them. Temperatures exceeded the 120 °C

(248 T) tenable threshold within 90 seconds after ignition. The simulation indicates that this change was

rapid and extreme with temperatures in the upper portion of the space increasing from ambient conditions

to flame temperatures on the order of 1000 °C (1830 °F) within 10 seconds. After the initial energy

release due to the burning polyurethane foam (90 seconds), the predicted temperature decreased, but

remained in the untenable range throughout the remainder of the simulation. Figure 5-58b shows that the

temperatures increased again to 900 “C (1650 °F) at 250 seconds after ignition. The opening of portions

of the bay windows between 78 seconds and 120 seconds after ignition had a minimal impact on reducing

the temperatures in this part of the building. Eighteen victims were located in this area.

Figure 5-59 depicts the temperatures in the approaches to the main entry foyer. The vertical temperature

slices cover the area at the end of the entrance foyer and next to the ticket booth. The view is from the

dance floor area looking toward the main entrance (front door). What appears to be a pillar in between

the intersection of the two vertical slices is a portion of the wall that separates the sunroom from the main

entry foyer. The images demonstrate that temperatures were untenable outside of the entranceway and

that if the occupants were not able to make it into the area of cool air coming in from the front doorway,

they did not have a chance of survival. Temperatures near the floor exceeded 400 ‘’C (750 °F) within 100

seconds of ignition. Nine victims were located in this area.

The area of the nightclub with the side bar and the dart room is shown in the simulated images with

vertical temperature slices bounding the area to the north (toward the main entrance) and to the east

(toward the storage/office area entrance). Figure 5-60 shows the rapid change in thennal conditions

between 80 seconds and 90 seconds after ignition. As in other parts of the nightclub simulation this

significant increase in temperature was due to the burning of the polyurethane foam. Temperatures near

the floor ranged from 200 °C (390 °F) to 600 (1 1 10 °F) at 100 seconds. The figure indicates that the

temperatures remained in the untenable range throughout the rest of the simulation. In the incident, nine

victims were found in this area.

5-44
Time: 160.0 Time: 250.0

Figure 5-57. Temperature profile through the center of the entry foyer, 80 seconds to 250

seconds

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NIST

Time: 80.0

NIST

5-45
Figure 5-58. Temperature profile through the center of the sunroom, 80 seconds to 250

seconds

5-46
Figure 5-59. Temperature profiles approaching main entry foyer, 80 seconds to 250

seconds

5-47
Figure 5-60. Temperature profiles in the dart room, 80 seconds to 250 seconds

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200

100

0.00

Time: 80.0

5-48
(iv) Oxygen

Oxygen volume fraction concentrations were also examined in the simulation to assess the tenability

conditions that existed during the evolution of the fire. Horizontal slices were taken at both the 1.5 m (5

ft) and 0.6 m (2 ft) levels with the roof removed to examine the structure as a whole. This analysis will

utilize a volume fraction of 12 % as the oxygen tenability threshold [6]. Based on that oxygen limit the

following figures show that occupants would have had less than 100 seconds of tenable conditions.

Just as the temperature levels rose rapidly after the platform area became fully involved in flames, the

oxygen levels drop proportionally. As shown by the three dimensional smoke output in the previous

section, the smoke spreads quickly through the structure. The first four images in Figure 5-61 range from

80 seconds after ignition to 1 00 seconds after ignition. This sequence has the most dramatic changes in

oxygen concentration. Beyond 100 seconds the entire structure is untenable at the 1.5 m (5 ft) height.

Tenability exists for the longest duration in the main bar area. Most of the building, including the

platform and dance floor areas, the dart room, the main entry foyer and the main bar room, is shown by

the simulation to be significantly depleted of oxygen to less than two percent.

Figure 5-62 shows the predicted oxygen volume fraction 0.6 m (2 ft) above the floor, beginning at 80

seconds after ignition through 250 seconds after ignition. At this lower level it is apparent that tenability

is also not likely in any area other that the main bar area and the entranceway right inside the front door.

The opening of the windows at the front of the main bar room creates a more tenable atmosphere,

probably saving the lives of occupants as they can be seen being pulled from the windows in the WPRl

video. Occupants that stayed low in the main bar area had a better chance of survival.

The images in later in Figure 5-62, once again, show a rapid decrease in tenable conditions due to oxygen

depletion throughout most of the simulated nightclub with the exception of the main bar room and the

main entry foyer. Due to the open doors and windows in these areas, the simulation indicates that

sufficient fresh air was drawn in to maintain a level of tenability with respect to oxygen in the areas adjacent to the open windows and the main entry way. This trend is shown to continue through the end of

the simulation. In the WPRJ video, the last person recorded being assisted through a window from the

main bar room occurs at 250 seconds after ignition. This is consistent with the predicted oxygen

concentrations near the windows.

5-49
I Nisr Slice X_02

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0.21 0.19

0.17 0.14

0.12

0.10

0.08

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0.02

0.00

fi

Time: 160 0 Time: 250.0

Figure 5-61. Oxygen volume fractions at 1.5 m (5 ft) above the floor, 80 seconds to 250

seconds

5-50
Nisr Slice Nisr

X 02

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o.a, 0.19

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Time: 160.0 Time: 250.0

Figure 5-62. Oxygen volume fractions at 0.6 m (2 ft) above the floor, 80 seconds to 250

seconds

5-51
5.3.4 Simulation of full nightclub equipped with sprinklers

Another simulation of the full nightclub was completed in order to examine the effects that sprinklers may

have had on the fire and the environment. The input from the FDS incident simulation was combined

with the input from the FDS sprinklered full-scale mock-up simulation. Five sprinklers were placed in

the simulation. One was located in the center of the alcove and the other four were placed using 3.6 m

(12 ft) spacing. The west sprinklers were 1.8 m (6 ft) north and 1 .8 m (6 ft) south of the alcove sprinkler

and 1 .8 m (6 ft) east of the platform wall. The east sprinklers were also 1.8 m (6 ft) north and 1.8 m (6 ft)

south of the alcove sprinkler and 12 ft east of the west sprinklers. While the maximum allowable

sprinkler spacing would have been 4. .6 m (15 ft) throughout the main portion of the nightclub, the alcove

would have required an individual sprinkler regardless of the sprinkler spacing used elsewhere in the

nightclub. In the un-sprinklered cases, flashover of the alcove increased the rate of hazard development

significantly. The single sprinkler in the alcove (which was full-scale) was shown to prevent flashover in

both the sprinklered experiments and the simulations, significantly mitigating the hazard.

The sprinkler activation times from the sprinklered FDS simulation are given in Table 5-7. The sprinklers

used in the FDS simulation are identical to those used in the full-scale mock-up FDS simulation. The

properties of each sprinkler can be found in Table 5-2.

Table 5-7. FDS Predicted Sprinkler Activation Times

Sprinkler Location FDS Sprinkler Activation Times (seconds)

Southwest 20

Northwest 16

Alcove 29

Southeast Did Not Activate

Northeast Did Not Activate

(i) Visualization

Figures 5-63a and 5-63b are rendered from Smokeview to examine the flame and smoke spread and the

effect of the sprinklers. The images begin at ignition or t = 0 seconds and continue until 100 seconds after

ignition. The first image in Figure 5-63a shows the two sprinklers over the platform area and the two

sprinklers over the dance floor as small red dots along the ceiling. The larger red areas on the platfonn

walls represent the location of the ignition burners. The sprinkler located on the ceiling of the alcove is hidden from view. The second image rendered at 20 seconds shows smoke being pushed away at the first sprinkler, which activated at 16 seconds after ignition. By 30 seconds after ignition, three of the sprinklers

had been activated. This caused some of the smoke to be pushed down to the floor. The two sprinklers over the dance floor area did not activate during the simulation. Figure 5-63b has images from 70

seconds to 1 50 seconds after ignition. During this period the fire was significantly suppressed. The series

of images show the smoke dispersing. The fire was extinguished fully at approximately 1 14 seconds.

The smoke continued to spread and is diluted by fresh air entering the area.

5-52
Figure 5-63a. Simulation of nightclub with sprinklers, 0 seconds to 60 seconds

5-53
5-54
Figure 5-64 provides another means of looking at the simulation. This image, rendered at 2 seconds after

the first sprinkler activated, includes the visualization of the sprinkler droplets but does not include the

visualization of the smoke. Notice that the activated sprinkler has changed color from red to green.

Time: 18.0 H

Figure 5-64. Simulation of northwest sprinkler activation 18 seconds after ignition,

showing water flow with smoke "turned off."

5-55
(ei) Numerical Output

In this section, predictions of heat release rate, temperature, and oxygen volume fraction from the FDS

sprinklered incident simulation are presented and compared to the non-sprinklered simulation and

tenability criteria.

Figure 5-65 shows the FDS predicted heat release rate for the sprinklered simulation. The heat release

rate reached its maximum of approximately 220 kW at 20 seconds. This heat release rate quickly

declined as the three sprinklers activated and suppressed the fire.

Isothermal plots are shown in Figures 5 -66a and 5 -66b to assess the tenability conditions based on

temperatures that were predicted during the simulation of the fire. The figures show horizontal isothermal

images 1 .5 m (5 ft) above the floor from the time of ignition (t = 0) to 100 seconds at 10 second intervals,

and an image at 1 50 seconds. Due to the rapid activation of the sprinklers (three sprinklers were

operating by 30 seconds after ignition), the temperatures at the 1.5 m (5 ft) level remain well below the

temperature tenability threshold of 120 °C (248 °F) [6].

0 50 100 150 200

Time (s)

Figure 5-65. FDS predicted heat release rate for the sprinklered case.

The comparison between the temperatures 1.5 m (5 ft) above the floor in the non-sprinklered simulation

(Figure 5-55) and in the sprinklered configuration (Figs. 5-66a and 5-66b) show dramatically different

thermal conditions. (Note the large difference in color scales.) During the non-sprinklered simulation

temperatures exceeded 1000 °C (1830 °F) in the platform and dance floor areas, and in the main bar room

they exceeded 500 °C (930 ®F) within 100 seconds. In the sprinklered simulation, the temperature

exceeds 25 °C at head height only near the platfomi; following sprinkler activation around 20 seconds, the

thermal environment remains close to ambient up until the time the fire is fully extinguished at 1 20

seconds.

Given the limited fire spread and the resulting tenable gas temperatures, the heat flux tenability criteria was

never exceeded in the sprinklered case.

5-56
NIST Slice temp

C

25.0

24.5

24.0

23.5

23.0

22.5

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25.0 24.5

24.0

23.5

23.0

22.5 22.0

21.5

21.0

20.5

20.0

Time: 40.0 Time: 50.0

Figure 5-66a. Temperatures at 1.5 m (5 ft) above the floor, 0 seconds to 50 seconds

5-57
Nisr Slice l\JISr Slice

Figure 5-66b. Temperatures at 1.5 m (5 ft) above the floor, 60 seconds and 100 seconds

(iii) Oxygen

Oxygen volume fractions were also examined in the sprinklered simulation to assess the tenability

conditions that existed during the evolution of the fire. Horizontal slices were taken at the 1.5 m (5 ft)

level with the roof removed to examine the structure as a whole. The analysis utilized a volume fraction

of 0.12 as the oxygen tenability threshold [6]. Based on that oxygen limit. Figures 5-67a and 5-67b

demonstrate that the atmosphere remained tenable during the entire duration of the simulation. In

contrast, the non-sprinklered simulation predicted oxygen levels below 0.12 at the 1.5 m (5 ft) elevation

throughout the building at 100 seconds after ignition and then continuing at untenable concentrations

during the remainder of the simulation.

Figure 5.67a. Oxygen volume fractions at 1.5 m (5 ft) above the floor, 0 seconds and 10

seconds

5-58
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Time: 60.0 Time: 100.0

Figure 5-67b. Oxygen volume fractions at 1.5 m (5 ft) above the floor, 20 to 100 seconds

5-59
5.4 SUMMARY

Images from the WPRl video were utilized to develop model input to establish the location of the

different interior finishes within The Station nightclub as well as used as a general resource for

confinning the physical arrangement of the nightclub. The simulation was run for 300 seconds to

examine the time period from ignition to the approximate time of flames throughout most of the nightclub

as recorded by WPRI. The computation included simulated fire and smoke spread and potential

temperatures, heat flux and oxygen concentrations that may have existed in the actual incident. Each of

these parameters were compared to published tenability criteria.

Results from some of the bench-scale experiments described in Chapter 4 and existing data were used to

develop the input properties for the interior finish materials. The key parameters were the combustion

properties of the foam/plywood wall; i.e., ignition temperature, heat of vaporization, and maximum

burning rate. The results from the cone calorimeter tests of the polyurethane foam were not used directly

in the simulation because of the composite nature of the foam-plus-plywood fuel on the wall of the

nightclub. (As a consequence, the differences in heat release rate of the polyurethane foam measured by

NIST and ATE had no impact on the simulation results.)

The visual and numerical comparisons between the experiments and the EDS simulations of the

experiments demonstrated reasonable agreement. The visual comparisons indicated a lag in fire

development in the simulation relative to the experiments, but once the simulated fire grew large enough

the growth rate and smoke development were consistent with the experiments. The temperature, heat

flux, and the oxygen concentration comparisons show reasonable agreement between the experiments and

the model in ternis of both trends and range.

To gauge the accuracy of the full nightclub simulation results, they were compared with the WPRI video

record of the incident and the map of victim locations. The EDS simulation predicted rapid fire growth

due to the burning of the convoluted polyurethane foam. The simulation is consistent with the video

record during the early stages of fire development. The conditions in the actual nightclub transitioned

from a fire within a compartment to a fully involved wood structure fire burning in void spaces, the attic area, structural elements, and roofing materials. In the computer simulation, such regions and materials

were not included, which led to a diminishing of the fire after 250 seconds as the fuel was consumed.

According to the computer predictions, many of the occupants had less than 90 seconds after ignition to

exit the structure. The quickly spreading fire and rapid production of smoke led to high temperatures and

low oxygen levels throughout most of the simulated nightclub. The exceptions were a few areas near the

open windows of the main bar room and the open doorway to the main entry foyer. In these areas air

from outside the structure was being drawn in providing a more tenable environment and more time for

escape.

The effects of an automatic sprinkler system on a fire were modeled to a useful degree by EDS and

visualized with Smokeview. Both the experiment and the EDS simulation demonstrate that the sprinklers

would prevent flashover and considerably mitigate the hazard from the fire in the test enclosure.

However, the degree to which the fire is controlled is different between the experiment and the model.

The simulation has more flame spread along the edges of the alcove ceiling after activation of the

sprinklers. While the ability of EDS to predict fire suppression is simplified and cannot capture all of the

physics involved in the process, EDS is able to predict the trends in reasonable agreement with the

measured temperatures, heat fluxes and oxygen volume fractions.

5-60
In the simulation of the full nightclub equipped with sprinklers, examination of the predicted temperature

and the oxygen volume fractions shows tenable conditions would have existed over the duration of the

simulation (300 seconds), as the fire was fully extinguished approximately 1 14 seconds after ignition.

5.5 REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 5

[1] Nelson, H.E., “An Engineering Analysis of he Early Stages of Fire Development- The Fire at the

Dupont Plaza Hotel and Casino- December 31, 1986”, NBS1R97-3560, National Institute of

Standards and Technology (formerly the National Bureau of Standards), Gaithersburg, MD, April

1987.

[2] Nelson, H.E., “An Engineering View of the Fire of May 4, 1988 in the First Interstate Bank Building,

Los Angeles, California”, NISTIR 89-4061, National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, March 1989.

[3] Bukowski, R.W., and Spetzler, R.C., “Analysis of the Happyland Social Club Fire with HAZARD I”,

Journal ofFire Protection Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 4, ppl 17-131, 1992.

[4 ] Nelson, H.E., “Fire Growth Analysis of the Fire of March 20, 1990, Pulaski Building, 20

Massachusetts Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC”, NISTIR 4489, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, June 1994.

[5] Bukowski, R.W., “Modeling a Backdraft: The Fire at 62 Watts Street.”, NFPA Journal, Vol. 89, No.

6, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, pp85-89, November/December 1995.

[6] McGrattan, K.B., Hamins, A., and Evans, D.D., “Sprinklers, Vent and Draft Curtain Interaction -

Modeling and Experiment”, Fire Suppression and Detection Research Application Symposium,

Research and Practice: Bridging the Gap, February 25-27, 1998, Orlando, FL Proceedings. National

Fire Protection Research Foundation, Quincy, MA, 1998.

[7] McGrattan, K.B., and Forney, G.P., “Numerical Simulation of Sprinkler Performance”, Fire

Suppression and Detection Research Application Symposium, Research and Practice: Bridging the

Gap, February 24-26, 1999, Orlando, FL. Proceedings. National Fire Protection Research

Foundation, Quincy, MA, pp. 79-85, 1999.

[8] Madrzykowski, D., and Vettori, R.L., “Simulation of the Dynamics of the Fire at 3146 Cherry Road

NE, Washington D.C., May 30, 1999.”, NISTIR 6510, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, April 2000.

[9] Madrzykowski, D., Forney, G.P., and Walton, W.D., “Simulation of the Dynamics of a Fire in a TwoStory Duplex-Iowa, December 22, 1999.”, NISTIR 6854, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, January 2002.

[10] Sutula, J., “Applications of Fire Dynamics Simulator in Fire Protection Engineering Consulting”,

Fire Protection Engineering, No. 14, Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Bethesda, MD, Spring

2002 .

[11] Rehm, R.G., Pitts, W.M., Baum, H.R., Evans, D.D., Prasad, K., McGrattan, K.B., and Forney, G.P.,

“Initial Model for Fires in the World Trade Center Towers”, NISTIR 6879, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, May, 2002.

5-61
[12] Sutula, J., “Practical Applications of Fire Dynamics Simulator in Fire Protection Engineering

Consulting”, Fire Protection Engineering, No. 15, Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Bethesda,

MD, Summer 2002.

[13] McGrattan, K.B., and Hamins, A., “Numerical Simulation of the Eloward Street Tunnel Fire,

Baltimore, Maryland, July 2001., NISTIR 6902, National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, August 2002.

[14] Vettori, R.E., Madrzykowski, D., and Walton, W.D., “Simulation of the Dynamics of a Fire in a One-Story Restaurant - Texas, February 14, 2000.”, NISTIR 6923, National Institute of Standards

and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, October 2002.

[15] McGrattan, Kevin; Forney, Glenn; "Fire Dynamics Simulator (Version 4) - User’s Guide," National

Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, NIST SP 1019, September 2004.

[16] Forney, G. P. and McGrattan, K.B., "User's Guide for Smokeview Version 4 - A Tool for

Visualizing Fire Dynamics Simulation Data," NIST SP 1017, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, August 2004.

[17] McGrattan, K., ed., "Fire Dynamics Simulator (Version 4), Technical Reference Guide," NIST SP

1018, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, September 2004.

[18] Hietaniemi, J., Flostikka, S., and Vaari, J. “FDS Simulation of Fire Spread - Comparison of Model

Results with Experimental Data”, Technieal Report VTT Working Paper 4, VTT Building and

Transport, Espoo, Finland, 2004.

[19] Heskestad, G. and Bill, R.G., “Quantification of Thermal Responsiveness of Automatic Sprinklers

Including Conduction Effects”. Fire Safety Journal, 14:1 13-125, 1988.

[20] Putorti, A.D., Belsinger, T.D., and Twilley, W.H., Determination of Water Spray Drop Size and

Speed from a Standard Orifice, Pendant Spray Sprinkler, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD., Report of Test FR4003, May 1999.

[21] Purser, D.A., "Toxicity Assessment of Combustion Products." SFPE Handbook ofFire Protection

Engineering, 3"^ ed. DiNenno, P.J., et. al. (eds). NFPA Quincy, MA, 2002.

[22] Madrzykowski, D., and Vettori, R.L., "A Sprinkler Fire Suppression Algorithm," Journal ofFire

Protection Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 4, 1992, pp 151-164.

5-62
Chapter 6

Analysis of Building Egress

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 6 documents, to the extent possible, life safety egress features present in the building at the time

of the fire on Feb. 20, 2003. A summary of previous incidents in which a significant number of lives

have been lost is provided in Appendix C, as well as emergency evacuations that can be classified as successful.

A contract was let to Ove Amp & Partners Massachusetts, Inc. to help document the egress process and

life safety features in the building. This chapter is based upon portions of their final report [1], although

any conclusions and findings that are presented are solely those of NIST.

The analysis and observations presented depend primarily on the following sources:

• Providence Journal - all pertinent published documents;

• Boston Globe - all pertinent published documents;

• Town of West Warwick, Rl, Building Department - public information on file at the Office of the

Town Clerk;

• Town of West Warwick, RI, Fire Department - public information on file at the Office of the

Town Clerk;

• National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) - published fire investigations, and historical Life

Safety Codes, code handbooks and commentaries;

• International Code Council (ICC) - historical building codes and code commentaries; and

• Rhode Island Attorney General’s Office - public information available regarding the indictments.

Additional information was provided by individuals directly to NIST via email, mail, and telephone calls

in response to an appeal to the public.

6.2 ANALYSIS OF EVIDENCE

Chapter 2 of this report provides a timeline for the evacuation based upon the WPRI-TV video. Times

taken from the video are accurate to within a few seconds, although some events being described had less

specific starting or ending points. Additional photographic records, documents, and witness statements

have been analyzed to gain a more complete picture of the egress process and associated activities.

6.2.1 Lighting

While the camera operator was evacuating, the fluorescent “black lights” mounted on the ceiling of the

club remain on, as do various other lights that are visible on the video. Thus, main power within the club

was still on when the camera reached the exterior. The video did not provide evidence as to when the

lights inside the club went out. This information would have aided in coordinating some of the

eyewitness statements provided later in Chapter 6.

6-1
Lights mounted on the eaves outside of the building were seen to be illuminated throughout the duration

of the video up until 0:12:36 video time (0:06: 14 fire time). The video did not depict these as illuminated

after 0: 12:36 video time (0:06: 14 fire time). It is not clear if the circuit powering these lights turned off, or if individual fixtures turned off as a direct result of the fire in their vicinity.

6.2.2 Occupant Tracking

A great deal of analysis was carried out to attempt to track occupants as they evacuated the building. The

goal was to determine if specific portions of the crowd were able to escape more readily than others and

to gain insight as to the pile-up at the front door. The main sources for locating occupants within the

building for this analysis were the WPRl video footage panning across the crowd facing the platform,

video footage taken while the camera operator evacuated the facility, and video of occupants escaping

through windows.

Efforts were made to track individuals from their location in the club when the fire ignited until they had

evacuated. One male occupant, shown facing the camera in Figure 6-1, was tracked through evacuation.

The time of this still frame is 0:06:51 video time (0:00:29 fire time). The occupant’s face has been

blurred in the figures below in order to preserve his anonymity; his facial features were not critical for the

identification analysis.

After the ignition of the fire, the camera operator began reacting before most other occupants did. The

camera captured the occupant shown in Figure 6-1 29 seconds after the ignition of the fire turning and

beginning to move toward the door. At this point, the camera was approximately two rows of people

behind this man (between him and the main exit). This occupant can be seen reaching and crossing the

main exit at 0:07:31 video time (0:01:09 fire time), 39 seconds later, in Figure 6-2.

It appears that whether an occupant choosing to exit through the main exit was able to escape or not

depended on a combination of two factors: (1 ) when the occupant decided to begin to evacuate, and (2)

where the occupant was located when he/she decided to evacuate. Based on analysis of the video, it appears that the camera operator was located approximately three to six rows back from the platform,

chose to evacuate 18 seconds after the ignition of the fire, and was able to exit safely 53 seconds later. The male occupant discussed above was farther away from the platform 29 seconds after the ignition.

Because he was closer to the main exit at this point, he was able to complete his egress safely 39 seconds

later. Clearly, the time to commence evacuation and the initial location at the beginning of one's

evacuation effort both contribute to the outcome.

A number of people were seen early in the video within the club and, after the ignition of the fire, at the

exterior. However, based upon the limited video footage of the crowd facing the platform at the start of

the concert and during the evacuation, attempting to track other occupants initially located further inside

the club was unsuccessful. This is mainly due to the fact that many of the occupants exiting through the

vestibule were not originally located in the view of the camera.

6.2.3 Interruption of Flow Through Front Door

Although Figure 6-3 is of poor quality because the camera was in motion at the time, this video frame

depicts a series of occupants evacuating through the main exit (note that the white surface at the lower

right comer of the frame is one of the open exterior doors). The video time of this still frame is 0:07:33

6-2
Figure 6-1. Occupant at Start of Evacuation [2]

(Copyright © 2003 TVL Broadcasi

Inc. All rights reserved ^

Figure 6-2. Occupant Exiting the Building [2]

Figure 6-3. Evacuating Occupants [2]

6-3
(0:01 : 1 1 fire time). A male and a female are visible near the center of the frame; however, occupants

cannot be seen immediately behind them. It would be expected that the occupant density ahead of these

individuals would be similar to the occupant density behind them, given that much of the crowd in the

video frames leading up to this frame is noted to be moving towards this door. The lack of occupants

visible behind these individuals suggests that some event may have occurred to slow or stop further

egress. The camera angle shifts away from this door after 0:07:33 (0:01 : 1 1 fire time) and does not return

to the front door until 0:08:04 (0:01 :42 fire time). When the camera returns at 0:08:04 (0:01:42 fire time)

a pile-up of occupants is visible. Details regarding how the pile-up occurred are not available from the

WPRl-TV video; however, the interruption in flow of evacuating occupants apparent in Figure 6-3

supports the contention that the disruption may have initiated early during the 3 1 second period when the

camera was pointed elsewhere.

6.2.4 Occupants Within Crowd-Crush

Attempts were made to relate individuals observed in the build-up at the main exit door to their locations

at the start of the evacuation for the purpose of gaining additional information regarding how and when

the pile-up occurred. Due to the limited views afforded by the WPRI video, most individuals could not

be tracked. However, the male occupant shown in Figure 6-4 (attempting to evacuate) was also seen in

the video near the bottom of the pile-up of occupants shortly later. This occupant was identified by the

color of his clothing, gold chain and hairstyle. It appears that this occupant waited at the sidelight of the

interior vestibule door (see Figure 6-4), so it is unclear when he was able to join the stream of evacuating

occupants. There appears to be one person below him in the pileup of people, implying that he was

directly behind or close to the first occupants who tripped or otherwise fell to the ground. According to an

interview conducted with the Providence Journal [23], the person who appeared to be this occupant

"got into entry hall, it was chaotic with people coming from two directions into foyer, like a funnel.

The smoke came in. [The occupant] started pushing and shoving his way to front; 'I could feel myself

walking over' people; he could feel the heat on his back. Front doors were open. He was almost out

when he tripped over someone who had fallen, and was laying perpendicular to front door. [The

occupant] caught himself but as he was halfway up, people behind him fell on top of him. 30-35

people on him. Half his body was out of the door. His waist was where the door was. [He] felt himself

being yanked back in. Grabbed bottom metal bar [outside the main entrance]... Finally, [on the] third or fourth puli, [the occupant's] other shoe popped off and he came sliding out."

Forty-one seconds elapsed between Figure 6-4 (0:01 :02 fire time) and when the occupant was first seen near the bottom of the pile. Because the camera operator moved to the side of the building immediately

upon exiting through the main exit, it is not known when the individual shown in these figures reached

the door and fell to that position.

A second survivor of the crowd-crush gave the following account, as reported by the Providence Journal

[41];

"As the mass followed the most direct route to the doors, [the survivor] detoured around a freestanding wall, and rejoined the river of people on the other side. The force of the crowd behind him

was growing. He almost made it to the exit. He tried to stay upright by putting his hands on the

person in front of him, but the pressure from behind overwhelmed him. He fell to the floor, two feet

from the door. He rolled over to his side and curled up into the fetal position. 'People were piling up

on top of me and 1 could feel the press of people,' he said.... He could breathe in cool, fresh air. He

wasn't even hot. But he couldn't move. 'It felt like a football pileup,' he said... 'I didn't want to move

6-4
Figure 6-4 Occupant Attempting to Evacuate [2]

because I didn't want the pile to topple on me,' he said. 'I had air and I didn't feel any heat. 1 wasn't

crushed or feeling crushed. I was in a relaxed state. 1 just felt calm and focused... I knew it was bad

because we were stuck there, but I didn't know how bad,' he said. Finally, he felt the load above him

lighten as firefighters searched for survivors. He saw a firefighter's boot and reached for it. The

firefighter gripped him and wouldn't let go.. . It took a couple of tugs and [he] was freed."

6.2.5 Eyewitness Statements

Statements from approximately 30 individuals were reviewed for this analysis; those that are relevant to

this project are summarized in the following sections. The accounts presented here are quoted from those

compiled and published by the Providence Journal, Boston Globe, Associated Press, and various other

sources. In addition, NIST provided an anonymous toll free hotline and an email address for voluntary

input from the general public, which generated another 25 communications, none of which contradicted

the published accounts.

(i) General accounts of the fire

The statements in this Section refer to the development of the fire and any occupant actions in response to the fire, other than evacuation.

Paul Vanner - Club Employee [3]

After the fire started on the sides of the stage, Vanner moved to the sound control booth towards

the back of the concert space and picked up a fire extinguisher that was stored there: ‘T hit the

pin, hit the trigger just to make sure I got something coming out of it. Then Tm heading for the

stage. . . .a fire extinguisher has no chance against this. We’ve got to get out of here right now.”

Vanner then exited via the kitchen exit, bringing several occupants along with him.

6-5
(Note: The Providence Journal reported that Kimberly Phillips, a club patron, recalls being hit on

the leg by a fire extinguisher as a club employee carried it past her. It is not known if the

employee was Vanner, but this confirms that at least one employee obtained a fire extinguisher

and advanced towards the stage with it.) Mario Giamei, Jr. - Former Club Employee [4|

Giamei described the actions of the club’s manager in attempting to re-enter the building to help

occupants: “He tried to run back in but he couldn’t; he got knocked back with smoke.”

Robert Riffe - Club Patron [5|

Riffe was attending the concert with a friend on the night of the fire: “I believe I heard someone

screaming fire, and I recall someone in the band throw a cup of water on the flames, which of

course did nothing.”

Riffe also described the development of the fire that he observed as he evacuated: “Within about

5 seconds of us heading to the door, the flames were already about half way through the first

room, and the black smoke had filled the entire club.” It is expected that the “first room” Riffe

refers to is the main event space where the stage is located.

(ii) General accounts of the evacuation

This section provides general eyewitness statements of the evacuation of The Station subsequent to the

fire. The statements in this section do not refer to any specific portion of the building or its exit

components.

Christopher Travis - Club Patron [b]

Travis was somewhere in the middle of the crowd when the fire started: “Nobody wanted to give

up their spot. People felt like it would just be put out.” Travis did not start to evacuate until after

the lights in the club had gone out. Andrea Stewart - Club Patron |7]

Stewart was in the crowd about ten rows back from the stage when the fire started: “It happened

so fast. 1 saw the top of the stage catch on fire. . . People started to run. All of a sudden, bam!

People were pushing me so hard.” Stewart was knocked down and landed in the middle of a pile

of people just before the lights in the club went out. Mark Knott - West Warwick, Rl, Police Officer [8|

Officer Knott was located near the club’s main entrance door when people began to evacuate. He

was pushed out of the door by the evacuating occupants, and subsequently radioed to the police

dispatcher: “Stampede.”

(iii) Accounts of evacuation via the main exit

Many of the occupants of The Station exited (or attempted to exit) through the main exit door at the front

of the building. This Section provides several statements describing the evacuation at this location. The

Providence Journal reported that 90 occupants exited through the main exit [9].

Robert Riffe - Club Patron [5|

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Riffe was attending the concert with a friend on the night of the fire. Upon noticing the growing

fire, he and his friend began to evacuate: “We both turned and headed for the main door,

which. . . was the only door we knew of.”

They made their way to the main door: “Just as we reached the point where the two hallways

came to one, the thick black smoke just completely filled the room. I couldn’t see, 1 couldn’t

breathe. . . As 1 got within inches from the front door way, I just came to a complete stop.”

Once out of the building, Riffe attempted to assist others in evacuating: “1 tried pulling on one

man and could not get him to even budge the tiniest bit. I grabbed onto a woman who was

trapped at the bottom, and could not get her to budge either.”

He eventually left the area of the main entrance and observed the scene from the parking lot:

“. . .we could see people coming out of the windows. . .”

Raul Michael Vargas - Club Patron [lO]

After deciding to evacuate the club, Vargas states that he encountered numerous people who were

not moving and were still watching the stage: “I just picked people up as I went so I wouldn’t trip over them.”

It is unclear if by “picked people up” Vargas means that he got people to evacuate along with him,

or if he encountered people who had fallen and lifted them from the floor.

(iv) Accounts of the evacuation via the exit by the main bar

An exit was provided in the main bar area of the club. Numerous eyewitness statements are available

describing evacuation efforts in this area, as provided below. The Providence Journal reported that 46

occupants exited through the exit by the main bar [9].

Deborah Lemay - Club Patron [11]

Lemay had been in the club several times prior to the night of the fire, and knew of the exit door

by the main bar. When the fire broke out, she decided to exit via this door. However, she claims

to have experienced difficulty in opening this door. “There was no push bar and I’m looking for a handle and I remember there not being anything to open the door.”

This is contrary to the statements of Robin Petrarca and the video taken inside the club before the

fire.

Robin Petrarca - Club Patron [12]

Petrarca, who was a frequent patron of The Station, was located in the main bar area of the club

when the fire started. She and a number of her friends escaped through the exit door near the

main bar: “Only because we know where the door is. . .”

Petrarca did not imply that her friend had any trouble in opening this door. Petrarca was pushed

out of the door and fell down some stairs: “So many people were just pushing that bodies started

coming down the stairs on top of me."

Rick Sanetti - Club Patron [11]

Sanetti was among the occupants who chose to exit through the door near the main bar area: “It was totally pitch black and you had about 20 of us pushing, and you’re in a state of panic pushing

6-7
at that door, and it wouldn’t open. The door was functional, but whoever it was [trying to open it] was having a problem getting it open. The door was jammed with people. Had it opened, I assure you, had it opened easily, another 30 or 40 people would have gotten out that door.”

Jason Williams - Band Member of Opening Band Trip |13|

Upon noticing the fire, Williams, who had been near the main bar, moved towards the exit door in

the main bar area. There, he encountered a crowd, and he attempted to calm people down: “1 said

something about Chicago, people getting trampled. People seemed to kind of relax for a second.

Then, a flood of people came over the bar, flying toward me. . . the smoke came right behind them,

just really fast.”

In the above quote, Williams is referring to a February 18, 2003 incident in a Chicago nightclub in

which 21 people were killed and 55 were injured attempting to evacuate through a single door.

Just after the lights in the club went out, Williams decided to back away from the door where

people were bunching up, and covered his mouth until he saw an opening to the outside: “As

soon as I saw a little glimmer of light, I ran for the door and made it through.”

(v) Accounts of evacuation via the platform exit

A third exit door was located next to the performance platfomi in the club. The statements below

describe evacuation efforts using this exit. The Providence Journal reported that 20 occupants exited

through the platform exit [9].

Paul Vanner - Club Employee |3|

Vanner had warned band personnel against placing objects in the path to the door by the stage:

“. . .you’ve got to move this stuff. That’s a fire exit.”

Walter Castle - Club Patron |11|

Castle attempted to use the door by the stage early in the fire’s development. His statement

indicates that he was told by a club employee that the exit was for band members only: “Come to

find out it was a band exit.... I ended up throwing him out of the way.”

(vi) Accounts of evacuation via the kitchen exit

While technically not an exit per code, a door to the exterior was available in the kitchen area of the club,

and several occupants (mostly employees) utilized this door during the evacuation. The statement below

describes this door. The Providence Journal reported that 1 2 occupants exited through the kitchen exit

[9].

Mario Giamei, Jr. - Former Club Employee [111

Giamei described the exit located near the club’s kitchen: “It had an exit sign, but unless you’re

back in that area, you wouldn’t know it. The way the club was shaped, it was out of the way.”

(vii) Accounts of evacuation through windows

Numerous eyewitness statements suggest that a significant number of occupants escaped through the

club’s windows. The Providence Journal reported that 79 occupants exited through windows [9].

6-8
Anthony Bettencourt - West Warwick, Rl, Police Officer [8]

Officer Bettencourt was pushed out of the main exit of the club by the initial rush of people. Once

outside, he apparently heard people kicking at windows, and proceeded to break some of these

windows with his baton. He and other officers helped numerous people, both conscious and

unconscious, exit through the windows.

Eventually, the officers could no longer reach people immediately inside the windows, and began

to call for occupants: “Come to the window.”

According to Bettencourt, one occupant ran through one of the windows: “He opened up a nice

hole.”

Robert Riffe - Club Patron [5]

After being stopped at the main entrance by the build-up of people, he was able to struggle free

from the pile and to get out of the building. He observed the scene from the parking lot.

“. . . we could see people coming out of the windows, and people scattered throughout the parking

lot. Some. . .were all bloodied from jumping out of the windows and onto the pavement.”

Paul Vanner - Club Employee [3]

After deciding against attempting to fight the fire with a fire extinguisher, Vanner evacuated

through the kitchen door. He then moved around towards the front of the building.

"All of a sudden, I heard smash-smash-smash, people kicking out the windows. It was like black

oozing smoke when they started kicking those windows out."

(viii) Accounts of when the lights failed

Several accounts suggest that the lighting failed after the pile-up occurred.

Andrea Stewart - Club Patron [7]

Stewart was in the crowd about ten rows back from the stage when the fire started.

Stewart was knocked down and landed in the middle of a pile of people just before the lights in

the club went out.

Deborah Lemay - Club Patron [11]

Lemay had been in the club several times prior to the night of the fire, and knew of the exit door

by the main bar. When the fire broke out, she decided to exit via this door.

"When the lights went off. I was almost at the door. I remember turning around and seeing the

black smoke rolling in. Then 1 became engulfed in smoke.”

6.2.6 Summary of Additional Evacuation Analysis Observations

The analyses of the WPRI video and the available eyewitness statements have generated numerous

observations in addition to the fire and evacuation timeline presented above. These are summarized

below.

• It is apparent that many people did not immediately move upon first noticing the flames. This

may have occurred because people initially believed that it was “part of the show” or wished to

maintain their locations within the crowd for the rest of the show. This may also have occurred

6-9
because the occupants were apparently not instructed by the club’s staff to begin evacuation.

People appear to have initially felt that the fire would be controlled. These factors caused a delay

in the evacuation of many occupants which, for an ordinary fire, would not be considered

excessive.

• Some of the occupants knew of the existence of the side exit door near the main bar. The

Providence Journal identified survivors of the February 20, 2003 fire at The Station [14].

According to this article, approximately 46 occupants used this exit. However, difficulty in

opening this door, for unknown reasons, was reported by several survivors (but not all survivors

that exited through this door reported difficulty). In the WPRl video, this door appears to have

panic hardware and to swing in the direction of egress. Eyewitness statements confirm that

occupants were able to evacuate through this door.

• Some occupants who used the side exit near the main bar reported falling down a series of stairs

immediately after passing through the door. Video footage or photographs of the evacuation

efforts at this location are not available; however, this door exits onto a landing with steps to

grade.

• A small number of occupants (approximately 20 - mainly those associated with the band or the

club, as reported by the Providence Journal [14] used the exit near the platform early in the fire.

It is apparent from the WPRl video that this exit rapidly became impassable; the camera observed

significant flames in the area of this door when the camera operator first made his way to the side

of the building at 1 minute 25 seconds after the start of the fire. Thus, it is likely that smoke and

flames blocked this exit within 1 minute 25 seconds of the start of the fire. At 4 minutes 30

seconds after the start of the fire, dense smoke and flames could be seen down to the floor level

just inside of the platform exit.

• Multiple survivors described the evacuation as “panicked” or likened it to a “stampede,” [6-8];

however, no evidence of panic was captured on the video.

• Many survivors indicated that they were not aware of any exit doors other than the main front

door.

• Seventy-nine occupants exited the building through its windows. Many were assisted by

individuals, including police officers, on the outside of the building.

• Some attempts were made at initiating manual extinguishment of the fire. One band member

attempted to douse the flames with a bottle of water, while another ran for a fire extinguisher (but never actuated it). Based upon eyewitness statements and observations from the WPRI-TV video

regarding the fire growth, manual extinguishment efforts when initiated were ineffective against

the fire.

6.3 ESTIMATES OF OCCUPANT LOAD

Based upon the 2003 editions of the IBC and NFPA 5000 model building codes, the estimated permitted

occupant load for a building similar to The Station in area and use varies (See Section 7.3.1 1), but is equal to 420 people when limited by egress from properly functioning doors at the main entrance,

platform, and bar exits. (Refer to Figures 7-3 through 7-5 for the floor areas and to Table 7-6 for the door

widths used to arrive at this estimated occupancy limit.)

6-10
Several public documents from the Town of West Warw ick were found that referred to occupant loads in

The Station or its previous incarnations. One, dated Nov. 21, 1981 [16], was an Application for Variation

under the Fire Safety Code to omit completely enclosing the boiler room, which identified an occupant

load of 225 for the building as it was being used at the time. The West Warwick Fire Department, in a memorandum dated Dec. 30, 1999 [17], identified the occupant load as 253 occupants; however, an allowance was given to increase the occupancy to 3 1 7 by removing tables and chairs from three lounge

areas and providing standing room only in those areas. No other distribution for the memorandum is indicated on the document. A third document was an unsigned memorandum on blank bond without

letterhead from the West Warwick Fire Department, dated Mar. 2, 2000 [18], addressed to Chief Peter

Brousseau. Again, no other distribution is shown. The memorandum identified the occupant load as 258

when tables and chairs were set up in the four designated seating areas; however, an allowance was given

to increase the occupancy to 404 by removing all tables and chairs. The memorandum also stated that a uniformed firefighter should be on the premises if this higher occupancy were to be applied. No

explanation has been obtained for why the memorandum was written, nor does NIST know if either of the

memoranda was made available to the owners of the building.

Published articles were reviewed in an attempt to develop estimates of the number of occupants at The

Station during the incident. The Providence Journal identified the names of 100 people who died as well

as the names of the survivors of the Feb. 20, 2003 fire at The Station [14]. Survivors are listed by source of identification. According to the Providence Journal, 208 survivors were interviewed; of those

interviewed, 59 were identified by other survivors, 46 were identified by lawyers, 10 were identified by

relatives, 5 were identified by hospital staff and two photographers were taking pictures in the club. The

Providence Journal lists ages, town of residence, and state of residence for 274 of these people, list a total

430 occupants in October 2003 [14], 432 in December 2003 [9], and 440 in Feb. 2004 [40]. The

Associated Press reported [42] that the Rhode Island Office of the Attorney General claimed that 458

people were inside the nightclub that evening.

To the degree possible, the WPRl-TV video taken in The Station on the night of the incident [2] was used

to provide an alternative estimate of the actual number of occupants within the club; however, several

factors limited the accuracy and comprehensiveness of the count:

• A camera has a limited view, or “cone of vision.” As the operator moved around, he was only

able to capture occupants within the camera’s view; and thus, in many cases additional occupants

at the periphery of the camera’s view were not recorded.

• A single sequence in which the camera pans in a full circle and thus shows the entirety of the club

at a given time was not available. Thus, at any given time, the camera is only showing the

occupants of one portion of the club, and the occupant load conditions in the rest of the club are unknown.

• The first part off the video was recorded over an unknown amount of time, and includes several

“cuts” or stop points when the camera was turned off for an unknown portion of time. During

such cuts, occupants were likely to have moved around the club, and new occupants likely

entered.

• The dark conditions of the club through most of the evening created shadows in areas distant

from the light of the camera. Occupants located in these shadows were generally not visible.

With the above limitations in mind, a series of still frames that provide a panning view of the club’s

performance assembly area were obtained from the WPRI-TV video. These frames are shown in

6-11
sequence in Figures 6-5 through 6-8 as the camera pans from right to left. The occupants shown in these

still frames were counted in an effort to derive an approximate occupant load for the area shown. Orange

dots have been used to represent counted occupants. The yellow lines in these Figures represent the

boundaries where the frames overlap. A total of 144 occupants can be seen in these four figures. It is not

clear at what time in relation to the start of the concert this video sequence was recorded. If it was

recorded well before the main musical act, then it is likely that many occupants were located outside of

the main platform viewing area at this time (i.e., many occupants may have been near one of the bars, in

the pool room, or in the restrooms). Conversely, if this sequence was recorded immediately prior to the

start of the primary musical act, then it is likely that the majority of the club’s occupants would have

moved towards the platform and into the performance assembly area. For these reasons it is not possible

to extrapolate to a total building occupant load from this analysis. However, these figures can be helpful

in estimating possible ranges of the number of occupants that may have been within the main platform

viewing area.

6.4 LIFE SAFETY FEATURES

Multiple data sources were reviewed to assist in determining the life safety features present at The Station

at the time of the fire on Feb. 20, 2003. The following section documents the results of this effort. The

information is divided into three categories:

• Public Documentation Evidence: This includes data from Fire Department Inspections, Fire

Alarm Company Sketches and Reports, and other publicly available documentation.

• Photographic Evidence: This includes information obtained from a review of the digital

photographs and scanned images received from NIST.

• Video Evidence: This includes information extracted from the WPRl video footage of the

incident.

6.4.1 Floor Surfaces

It has been claimed that floor surfaces in The Station were uneven [22]. NIST has no independent

infonnation to confirm or contradict this claim.

6.4.2 Exit Doors

Egress through the main entrance to the building was limited by a single interior door (LSF 6 in Figure 6-

10) not the double doors that could be seen from outside the building.

The West Warwick Fire Department Inspection Report dated Nov. 10, 2001, commented that the exit

door near the platform cannot swing inward [24]. The building owner was instructed to call when ready

for re-inspection. Note that these comments were checked and deemed “OK”; however, the re-inspection

signature is blank.

In a West Warwick Fire Department Inspection Report dated Nov. 20, 2002 [25], the following comments

were made:

• Platfonn exit door swings in the wrong direction;

• Panic hardware on platform door is broken.

The building owner was instructed to call when ready for re-inspection. These comments were checked

and deemed “OK”; however, the re-inspection signature is blank.

6-12
Figure 6-5. Occupant Load Count, Parti - 45 Occupants

Figure 6-6. Occupant Load Count, Part 2-42 Occupants

6-13
Figure 6-7. Occupant Load Count, Part 3-37 Occupants

Figure 6-8. Occupant Load Count, Part 4-20 Occupants

6-14
6.4.3 Exit Signs

Numerous West Warwick Fire Department reports were issued to previous businesses on this site

regarding the exit signs. In reports dated Sept. 25, 1993 [26], Nov. 17, 1994 [27], Oct. 2, 1995 [28], Sept.

25, 1996 [29], and Nov. 22, 1998 [30], the condition, arrangement, and operation of the exits signs were

noted as “OK”. These reports did not require re-inspection.

The West Warwick Fire Department Inspection Report dated Nov. 10, 2001 [24], commented that the exit

sign near main entrance needs bulbs. The building owner was instructed to call when the building was

ready for re-inspection. Note that this issue was checked and deemed “OK”, although re-inspection

signature on the report is blank.

The West Warwick Fire Department Inspection Report dated Nov. 20, 2002 commented that the exit

signs were not working [25]. The building owner was again instructed to call when the building was

ready for re-inspection. Note that these issues were checked and deemed “OK”, although the re- inspection signature is blank on this report as well.

6.4.4 Emergency Lighting

The West Warwick Fire Department inspected the emergency lighting within the building under previous

ownership on numerous occasions. In Inspection Reports dated Sept. 25, 1993 [26], Oct. 2, 1995 [28],

Sept. 25, 1996 [29], and Nov. 22, 1998 [30], the condition and operation of the emergency lighting within

the building were noted as “OK” and re-inspection was not called for.

In a West Warwick Fire Department Inspection Report dated Nov. 17, 1994, the kitchen emergency

lighting was noted as not working. The owner was instructed to notify the Fire Department when the

repairs were completed; note that the re-inspection signature is blank [27].

The West Warwick Fire Department Inspection Report dated Nov. 10, 2001, commented that the

emergency lighting units at main entrance and at platform were not working [24]. The building owner

was instructed to call when the building was ready for re-inspection. These issues were rechecked and

deemed “OK”, although the re-inspection signature on the report is blank.

6.4.5 Suppression

The West Warwick Fire Department carried out numerous inspections of the manual suppression

equipment in businesses at this site. The Fire Department issued reports on Sept. 25, 1993 [26], Nov. 17,

1994 [27], Oct. 2, 1995 [28], Sept. 25, 1996 [29], and Nov. 22, 1998 [30], deeming the condition and

location of the existing fire extinguishers “OK”, and re-inspection was not required.

The West Warwick Fire Department Inspection Report dated Nov. 10, 2001, commented that the fire

extinguishers must be hung [24]. The building owner was instructed to call when the fire extinguishers

were ready for re-inspection. This issue was rechecked and deemed “OK”, although the re-inspection

signature on the report is blank.

6.4.6 Fire Alarm and Detection

(i) Fire alarm company information

An inspection report from Rl-CONN Fire Systems, Inc. [31] verifies the testing of the following system

components:

• four heat detectors in the kitchen and basement;

6-15
• two manual stations - one at the kitchen exit and one at the bar;

• the kitchen hood suppression system was also tested.

Fire alarm sketches prepared by New England Custom Alarms [32], indicate existing system devices and

various device additions to upgrade the fire alarm system at The Station. This work was permitted on

Mar. 8, 2000; it appears that this work was completed.

The existing drawings located the following life safety devices;

• two heat detectors in the space between the Kitchen and the Employee Restroom Area;

• one heat detector in the Employee Restroom;

• an Ansul system in the kitchen (presumably protecting cooking appliances);

• one alann horn near the kitchen door adjacent to the large bar;

• one alann horn in the greenhouse near the pool tables;

• one alann horn adjacent to the platform exit door;

• two heat detectors in the basement.

The upgrades included on the Mar. 6, 2000, drawings resulted in the following:

• a new Fire Alarm Control Panel inside the main entrance doors.

• one existing heat detector in the space between the kitchen and the employee restroom/prep area (one of the heat detectors was to be removed);

• one heat detector in the prep area (moved from the employee restroom);

• an existing Ansul system in the kitchen (presumably protecting cooking appliances);

• one new heat detector below the platform;

• one new heat detector above the platform;

• one new heat detector backstage;

• one existing alarm horn near the kitchen door adjacent to the large bar;

• one existing alarm horn in the greenhouse near the pool tables;

• one existing alann horn adjacent to the platform exit door;

• one new alarm horn in the hallway to the restrooms.

• four new manual pull stations (inside front door, at platform door, at left side bar area door, and at light/sound control area);

• two existing heat detectors in the basement.

An NFPA 72 Inspection and Testing form [33] lists the following fire alarm system components:

• three manual stations;

• six heat detectors;

• one Ansul tie-in;

• four horns;

6-16
• five strobes;

• one speaker.

The device testing section of the same form [33] confirms that the following initiating and supervisory

devices were inspected and tested:

• one heat detector in the Kitchen;

• one heat detector in the Prep Area;

• one heat detector in the Dining Area;

• one heat detector in the Employee Restroom;

• two heat detectors in the Basement;

• two pull stations (location is not specified);

• Ansul system was visually inspection and its operation was simulated.

6.4.7 Interior Finish

In letters dated May 22, 2003 [34] and May 23, 2003 [35], the West Warwick Fire Chief and the West

Warwick Building Official, respectively, responded to the West Warwick Town Clerk regarding requests

for permits or inspections from The Station for the use of decorative or acoustic materials. No

information was found by either individual with regard to a request from The Station for permitting or inspection of decorative or acoustic material usage.

6.4.8 Identification of In-place Life Safety Features

Table 6-1 summarizes all identified life safety features within The Station prior to the fire. Refer to

Figure 6-9 for the locations of these features within the building. Specific devices and features are shown

in Figures 6-10 and 6-11, taken from video stills or photographs taken at the site on Feb. 22, 2003.

(Large format copies of the photos are included in Appendix B.) Additional details, such as manufacturer

names, model numbers, or other descriptions of the devices were not available.

Several additional observations were made regarding the main exit vestibule area and the exit door near

the platform. Figure 6-12 provides an approximate representation of the orientation and layout of the

main exit vestibule area. It also shows the video evidence that was used to formulate this representation.

The notes provided with this Figure give some additional observations related to this exit. Figure 6-13

shows the exit door located in the vicinity of the platform. Based upon this video still and other frames

from this portion of the WPRl video, it appears that this exit included two doors:

• an exterior door, which swung outward, or with the direction of egress travel, and

• an interior door, which swung inward, or against the direction of egress travel.

The presence of the interior door is evident from the inward-swinging hinges seen on the doorframe. The

edge of this door is visible as well. As can be seen in Figure 6-14 the exterior door was equipped with

panic hardware. The hardware installed on the interior door is unclear. Additional examination of this

figure reveals what appears to be adhesive on the inside of the exterior door.

6-17
Table 6-1. Summary of identified Life Safety Devices

Image ID ,

, Description ‘

^ r ^

LSF 1. Main double doors with ramp and stairs. (Note that egress was limited by the single

interior door (LSF 6), not the main double doors.)

LSF2. Exterior stairs from the left-side main bar area indicating location of exit door.

LSF 3. Exterior stairs from the kitchen area indicating location of exit door.

LSF 4. Exterior stairs from the platforai area indicating the location of exit door.

LSF 5. Site view indicating the location of the doorway from the main bar area to the ticket area. LSF 6. Door leading from the interior ticket area towards the outer vestibule.

LSF 7. Exit door from the left side of the main bar area to the exterior concrete stairs. Panic

hardware was provided on this door.

LSF 8.

Exit door adjacent to the platform to the exterior concrete stairs. Panic hardware was

provided on this door. Note that it appears there was foam attached to this door and that

there was an additional interior door that swung against the egress direction.

LSF 9. Exit sign located near the rear bar; it appears to be pointing toward the kitchen exit door.

LSF 10. Exit sign above the door that leads from the ticket area to the front vestibule.

LSF 11. Exit sign above the platfomi door. Note that in this image the sign is clearly illuminated.

LSF 12.

Exit sign above the platfonn door on February 20, 2003. Note that in this image the sign

does not appear to be illuminated. NOTE: This is a duplicate of LSF 12, but was included

to show that the exit sign may not have always been illuminated.

LSF 13. Two exit signs. One located in the main floor area with an arrow towards the ticket area and another above the ticket area doors leading to the front vestibule.

LSF 14. Exit sign over the left side main bar area exit door.

LSF 15. Exit sign located in the front vestibule above the main double exit doors. This location is based upon similar wall and ceiling features observed in the WPRl video.

LSF 16. Emergency light located near the rear bar.

LSF 17. Emergency light above and to the right of the platform exit door.

LSF 18. Emergency light on the wall adjacent to the kitchen by the main bar facing into the main

floor area. LSF 19. Emergency light above and to the right of the left side exit door from the main bar area. LSF 20. Fire extinguisher located behind the rear bar.

LSF 21. Detector (heat) located above the lighting grid on the ceiling near the platfomi.

LSF 22. Fire alarm strobe adjacent to the exit sign above the platform exit door.

LSF 23. Fire alarm strobe on the ceiling to the left and in front of the platform.

LSF 24.

Fire alarm strobe on the wall adjacent to the exit sign in the main floor area pointing

toward the ticket area.

6-18
Figure

6-9.

Locations

of

life

safety

features

listed

in

Table

6-1.
NOT TO SCALE

LSF 3 - Extenor stairs / exit door

location for the kitchen exit door LSF 7.14,19 Left side exit door

with panic hardware, exit sign and LSF 5 - The location of the doorway from the main bar area

to the ticket area is appoximated

from this site vtew

LSF 13.24 - An exit sign in the main floor area with an adjacent

Fire alarm strobe Another exit sign IS in the ticket area

See Figure 6-11 for information <^n the shadeql^area!

\ ^

I / / ! 1 ,

i

t

LSF 2 - Exterior stairs / exit door

location for the left side main bar LSF 6.10 - Door leading from the

intenor ticket area to the front vestibule with and exit sign above

LSF 1 - Main entrance double leaf doors located below banner

Stairs and a ramp serve the entrance/exit landing

LSF 1 5 - An exit sign Ihat is believed to be above the double

leaf exit doors in teh front vestibule

Arrow indiicates direclion/location of photograph

Figure 6-10. Summary of Life Safety Features - Part 1 a - photo by NIST; b - Copyright © 2003 TVL Broadcasting, Inc. All rights reserved.

c - photo with permission of A. Baldino, III; d - photo with permission of K. Corbin

6-20
NOT TO SCALE

LSF 9,16 - Exit sign and emergency light near rear bar It appears that the exit sign points

to the kitchen exit door

N

LSF 18 - Emergency light on the

kitchen wall facing toward the

stac

LSF 20 - Fire extinguisher located behind the rear bar

See Figure 6-11 or information on INe shaded area

LSF 23 - Fire alarm strobe on the

ceiling to the left and m front of the stage.

LSF 21 - Detector (heat) above

the lighting gnd in the vicinity of the stage.

LSF 12,17.22 - Exit sign, emergency light and fire alarm

strobe above the stage exit door.

LSF 8 • Exit door adjacent to the stage to the exterior concrete

stairs Panic hardware v;as provided on this door

Arrow indiicates direction/location of photograph

Figure 6-1 1 . Summary of Life Safety Features - Part 2

b - Copyright © 2003 TVL Broadcasting, Inc. All rights reserved;

d - photo with permission of K. Corbin

6-21
Figure 6-12. Detail of Main Exit Vestibule Area (Video frames copyright © 2003 TVL

Broadcasting, Inc. All rights reserved)

Note A: The exact location of this exit sign above the secondary vestibule doorway was estimated from a

reflection in the mirror behind the main bar observed in the WPRI video.

Note B: The exact location and size of the secondary vestibule doorway was approximated based upon the

video evidence available.

Note C: The dimensions of the ticket counter were approximated based upon the video evidence available.

Note D: The dimensions of the associated sidelights are not known, although the orientation shown here is accurate based upon video evidence. Note that the single inner door provides the limit to egress, not the

exterior double doors.

Note E: The diagram in Figure 6-12 is an approximation based upon the video available, and reflects

approximate locations from where video was taken both before and during the fire. The video images in this

Figure 6-12 were captured both before and during the fire. The uncertainty in the transverse position of the camera is estimated to be +/-

1

ft; it is not possible to estimate the uncertainty in position of the camera along the direction of the arrow since the zoom setting is unknown.

O = Camera Location = Camera Orientation IHD = Exit Sign Location

NOT TO SCALE

Video stills copyright © 2003 TVL

Broadcasting, Inc. All rights reserved.

6-22
Figure 6-13. Exit Door Near Platform [2]

6.5 EGRESS PATHWAYS AND THE LOCATION OF VICTIMS RECOVERED

FROM THE SCENE

The Providence Journal, during interviews with some of the survivors and acquaintances of the

occupants, was able to identify the exit path for 248 of the approximately 350 people who escaped from

the building. Of the 1 69 occupants who indicated that they had escaped through a door (main, barroom,

kitchen, and platform), 91 left through the main entrance in the front of the building. The windows in

the main bar room and the sunroom appear to have become the secondary routes of escape once the main

entrance became impassible, with 25 survivors escaping through the sunroom windows and 54 leaving

through the windows in the main bar, accounting for 32 % of the successful evacuations documented.

The RTode Island Attorney General's office released a diagram of the approximate location where the rescuers recovered the 96 people who died at the scene of the fire [36] (See Figure 6-14.); 58 of these

were located in the main entryway, at the entrance to the main entryway, or trapped in the sunroom.

Taken together with the 91 who escaped through the front door, this translates to 56 % of the occupants

apparently selecting the main entrance as a route to safety. Including the people who chose the windows

only after the main exit became impassable, one could argue that as many as 2/3 of the occupants

attempted (at least initially) to leave through the main entrance in the front of the building. Only about

40% of those who successfully evacuated escaped through the main entrance.

6-23
Figure 6-14. Location of Recovered People Who Died at Scene [36]

The small number of victims shown in Figure 6-14 who were found in the main bar room suggests that

the main bar room exit door and windows provided open routes to escape for a time period about as long

as it took to reach untenable conditions in that area of the building. By contrast, the high number of

victims found in the sunroom relatively close to the windows suggests that the environment there became

untenable quickly, eliminating the option of a secondary route through the sunroom windows once the

platform door and main entrance became unusable. Both of these conclusions are consistent with the

environmental conditions predicted in the FDS simulations discussed in Chapter 5.

Twenty-three victims were found in the dart room, storage area, and office, suggesting either that they

were unfamiliar with the building and hoped to find a safe exit in that region, or that they became

disoriented while heading for the side exit of the main bar room (or possibly the kitchen exit). It is unclear whether the seven people identified in Figure 6-14 as being recovered from the front of the

building outside of the sunroom died as they escaped or were pulled from the sunroom by rescuers.

6.6 ALTERNATIVE SIMULATIONS OF NIGHTCLUB EVACUATION

SCENARIOS

The following questions were posed by the investigation team regarding the evacuation from the

nightclub:

6-24
1 . How long would it take to evacuate a building similar to The Station with no fire present

assuming exit numbers, exit widths, and occupancy limits were consistent with current national

model building codes (see chapter 7 for details)?

2. How long would it have taken to evacuate The Station assuming the platform door became

impassable in 30 seconds and the main entrance in front became blocked in 90 seconds?

3. How long would it take to evacuate a building similar to The Station assuming that the doorway

near the ticket-taker was the same width as the double doors leading to the outside and that it did

not become blocked, but that the platform door became impassable in 30 seconds?

The first question is important to answer since it yields the minimum time that could be expected. The

second question is a challenge to our ability to predict reality when it comes to an emergency evacuation.

The third question provides insight into the effectiveness of a possible change in model code

requirements.

The Station had four exit paths: through the main entrance, the main barroom, the kitchen, and the

platform area. Based upon current model codes, the kitchen door was not accessible to the patrons. As

mentioned in Chapter 6.3 and discussed in more detail in Chapter 7.3, the occupancy limit based upon

current model code provisions for safe egress from the building as it was used on Feb. 20, 2003, was

calculated to be roughly 420. With these data as input, and the floor plan from Chapter 1, the evacuation

time was estimated using two commercial software packages, Simulex [36, 37] and buildingEXODUS

[38].

To run these models it was necessary to distribute the 420 occupants throughout the building. It was

assumed that the dance floor and area around the platform were at the maximum density permitted by the

current national model codes described in chapter 7, 2.17 persons/m*" (5 fT/person), that the sunroom and

7 7 raised area around the dance floor had a density of 1.56 persons/m“ (7 fT/person), that the main barroom

and back room were populated at 0.72 persons/m“ (15 ft7person), and that the 36 remaining occupants

were scattered about the kitchen, behind the bar, restrooms, storage area, dressing room, and corridor.

Simulex and buildingEXODUS also needed to have a pre-movement time assigned as well as an

algorithm for selecting exits. In a more conventional fire situation for a building of this type, premovement times can range from less than a minute to several minutes. For all cases examined here, for

simplicity, the pre-movement time was assumed to be zero since the primary intent was only to examine

the changes in egress time associated with different evacuation scenarios; as a result, the times calculated

are non-conservative and shorter than what one would expect under even a non-emergency evacuation.

The occupants were instructed to always select the closest exit. While there are other algorithms that

could have been chosen, it was felt that this simple approach was sufficient to assess the differences in the

evacuation scenarios. Building EXODUS is designed to handle open and closing of exits during the

simulation; Simulex is not. For the scenarios that called for the platform area door to be closed 30 seconds

into the simulation, we first calculated the number of occupants who would potentially leave through the

platform door before 30 seconds, which totaled 39, and then instructed only these 39 simulated occupants

that the platform door was a viable exit; this door was unavailable to the rest of the crowd.

Table 6-2 summarizes the results of the simulations. (Refer to Appendix L for a complete listing of input

data for both models and all scenarios examined.) The scenario number in column one corresponds to the

questions posed above. The total times to evacuate and the number of people through each of the

available doors are listed in the other columns, corresponding to the scenarios and the simulation model

used in column 1. For a building meeting current national model code requirements at maximum

6-25
Table 6"2. Summary of calculated evacuation times* (seconds) and total occupants out

each exit

Scenario

Total

Evacuation

Time

Occupants

to Front

Door

Occupants

to Platform

Door

Occupants

to Kitchen

Door

Occupants

to Main

Bar Door

Total

Remaining

at 90 s

1 (Simulex)188 s 213 184 3 20 166

1 (EXODUS)

202 s 214 180 4 22 208

2

(EXODUS)

330 s 91 32 3 273 271

3

(Simulex)

198 s 358 39 3 20 173

3

(EXODUS)

194 s 363 33 4 20 201

2*

(Simulex)

308 s 356 39 3 22 256

2*

(EXODUS)

341 s 364 32 4 20 274

* Note that evacuation times are based upon instantaneous reaction of the occupants to the fire; an appropriate premovement time must be included in a proper design calculation.

occupant load (scenario 1), the time needed to evacuate with no fire or smoke present was calculated to be

1 95 seconds ± 7 seconds for the two simulations. The flow through the various exits was about the same

for both calculation methods, with just over 50 % of the occupants evacuating through the front door.

Only buildingEXODUS was used to evaluate the scenario in question 2, in which the platform door

became impassable in 30 seconds and the front entrance became blocked at 90 seconds. (The technique

described above for "closing" a door while using Simulex would not have worked for the front entrance

because it was also necessary to trap the occupants in the vestibule once the front door was closed.)

Scenario 2 was the closest to the condition that occurred on Feb. 20, recognizing that the simulations did

not account for any impairment of movement associated with high temperatures, smoke and toxic gas

levels that were produced in the actual fire. The time for total evacuation increased to 330 seconds, with

the bulk of the people forced to evacuate through the only (known) exit in the main barroom. (No

provision was made to allow escape through broken windows). In this case, only 91 people used the front

entrance and 35 used either the platform door or the kitchen door, numbers that were consistent with those

reported by the Providence Journal. The total number of people evacuated in this scenario was only 399

since it was assumed that the 2 1 occupants who were in the entrance corridor when it became blocked at 90 seconds were trapped.

Scenario 3 investigated the impact of doubling the width ofthe most restrictive element at the front

entrance. Figure 6-15 is one frame grabbed from the Simulex computer simulation indicating the initial

population and distribution of patrons and employees. (This was typical of the initial conditions for all of

the simulations.) The purpose was to see how this affected the evacuation time in the event that one of the

other exits became blocked (e.g., due to construction, negligence or a criminal act). Simulex and

6-26
Qsiinulex - Case Study 2 DD.spj - [Main Floor - Station Scena...DXI^: ^ Project Building DistMap Routes People Simulate Window Help

0 10 2) 30

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Fiqure 6-15. Initial distribution of 420 simulated nightclub natrons and emolovees

buildingEXODUS calculated a total egress exit time of 196 seconds ± 2 seconds, almost identical to the

baseline case in scenario 1 . The main difference in the outcome for scenario 3 was the larger number of

occupants using the front entrance to escape, about 87 % of the total. Assuming that doubling the width

of the restrictive front entrance would also have reduced the possibility for a crowd crush to develop, this

change would bring the level of safety equivalent to what was implied by the current model codes.

The last row in Table 6-2 applies to a modified form of scenario 2 (Scenario 2*), in which it was assumed

that the main door did not become blocked by the crush ofthe crowd (in spite ofthe single door width at

the entrance to the ticket taker area), and that the platform door became impassable after 30 seconds.

(Because the front door did not close and trap the occupants, Simulex, as well as buildingEXODUS were

capable of simulating Scenario 2*.) It is interesting to see that while the distribution of occupants through

the different doorways is essentially the same as was calculated for scenario 3, the total evacuation time

increased to between 308 seconds and 341 seconds. This results from the decision algorithm that required

occupants to choose the closest exit, even if the queue was long. One could argue that many of the people

waiting to go out the front door would have ehosen the barroom door (which remained clear for most of

the evacuation period) as a logical alternative, even though it may have been a bit more distant. The

counter argument is that the barroom exit sign could have been obscured by smoke, making that door a reasonable alternative only for those familiar with the nightclub.

6-27
Figures 6-16 and 6-17 compare the cumulative population that was evacuated as a function of time for the

scenarios described above, based upon the results of buildingEXODUS [39] and Simulex [37, 38]

respectively. If one draws a vertical line up from the time scale at 90 seconds, the total number of people

who remained in the nightclub at that time can be determined.

Ninety seconds had significance on Feb. 20 because that was about the time the front entrance became

blocked and, according to the fire dynamics simulations, was a point where the conditions were becoming

untenable throughout the building. The last column in Table 6-2 lists the population remaining for both

the buildingEXODUS and Simulex simulations. Note that buildingEXODUS, when compared to

Simulex, consistently provided a more conservative (i.e., a slower) rate of egress, which is consistent with

the conservative flow rates chosen for the exit doors in buildingEXODUS.

Somewhere between 1 66 and 208 people were calculated to remain in the building 90 seconds after the

fire began for the scenario in which the building met current national model code requirements. This

number jumped to 271 for scenario 2, with the platform door blocked (recall that the front door remained

open during the first 90 seconds). Doubling the entrance door width in scenario 3 brought the number of

people remaining in the building 90 seconds into the fire back down to the range calculated for scenario 1. Finally, since the crowd-crush had not occurred prior to 90 seconds, the calculation for the 2* scenario is essentially the same as for scenario 2.

Number of Occupants Out of the Club - buildingEXODUS Results

Evacuation time (s)

X Scenario 1 — —Scenario 2*

Scenario 3

Figure 6-16. Cumulative plot of evacuation from building for different scenarios

calculated from buildingEXODUS [39]. (Note that a non-zero pre-movement time would

shift the curves to right.)

6-28
Number of Occupants Out of the Club - Simulex Results

X Scenario 1 — —Scenario 2*

Scenario 3

Figure 6-17. Cumulative plot of evacuation from building for different scenarios

calculated from Simulex [37, 38]. (Note that a non-zero pre-movement time would shift

the curves to right.)

6.7 REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 6

[1] "Evaluation of Limitations to Egress through Doorways in Emergency Situations," vol. 1, Ove

Amp & Partners Massachusetts Inc., Job number 32979, Westborough MA, Feb. 18, 2004.

[2] Butler, Brian, Video by WPRI-TV, Channel 12, Feb. 20, 2003.

[3] Parker, P.E. and Anderson, E. “Stage manager: Pyrotechnics not unusual at club.” Providence

Journal, Feb. 26, 2003.

[4] Parker, P.E., Levitz, J., and Anderson, E. “Witness describes placement of fireworks just before

blaze.” Providence Journal, Feb. 27, 2003.

[5] Riffe, R. “A first-person account from a survivor.” Providence Journal, Feb. 24, 2003.

[6] Patinkin, M. “You just make plans for the end.” Providence Journal, Feb. 23,2003.

[7] Carbone, G. “Survivor reflects on life: Tell those you love, I love you.” Providence Journal, Mar.

4, 2003.

[8] Mooney, T. “Saving lives at the open gates of hell.” Providence Journal, Apr. 13, 2003.

[9] Corkery, M. and Parker, P.E. “Forged by Fire, Day 7: Life and Death.” Providence Journal,

Dec. 21,2003.

6-29
[10] Crowley, C. “A survivor's story: Saved by a pileup.” Providence Journal, Mar. 10, 2003.

[11] Levitz, J. and Breton, T. “No easy way to escape.” Providence Journal, May 5, 2003.

[12] Bramson, K. “Friends lost during frantic escape.” Providence Journal, Feb. 23, 2003.

[13] Anderson, E. “Opening band: A 'little button' set off sparks that started fire.” Providence

Journal, Feb. 28, 2003.

[14] Providence Journal, “In the Fire.” Oct. 5, 2003.

[15] "Analysis if Model Building and Fire Codes and Practices," Koffel Associates, Inc., Ellicott City,

MD, 2004.

[16] Application for Variation under the Fire Safety Code, submitted to the State of Rhode Island by

D. S. Kelly, Triton Industries, Inc. Nov. 21, 1981.

[17] Larocque, D., letter to Chief P. Brousseau of West Warwick Police Department, dated Jan. 30,

1999, signed by D. Larocque, West Warwick Fire Marshal.

[18] Letter from West Warwick Fire Department to Chief P. Brousseau of West Warwick Police

Department, dated Mar. 2, 2000.

[22] Morgan, Daniel J., Ralph J. Monaco, John J. Nazzaro & Robert 1. Reardon, Jr. United States

District Court District of Connecticut, Civil Action Indictment. June 5, 2003.

[23] database compiled by Providence Journal, provided to NIST, Jan. 23, 2004.

[24] West Warwick Fire Department Inspection Report, dated Nov. 10, 2001, signed by D. Laroque.

[25] West Warwick Fire Department Inspection Report, dated Nov. 20, 2002, signed by D. Laroque.

[26] West Warwick Fire Department Inspection Report, dated Sept. 25, 1993, signed by R. Ouellette.

[27] West Warwick Fire Department Inspection Report, dated Nov. 17, 1994, signed by Capt R.

Ouellette.

[28] West Warwick Fire Department Inspection Report, dated Oct. 2, 1995, signed by BC R. Ouellette.

[29] West Warwick Fire Department Inspection Report, dated Sept. 25, 1996, signed by R. Ouellette.

[30] West Warwick Fire Department Inspection Report, dated Nov. 22, 1998.

[31] RI-CONN Fire Systems, Inc. Inspection Report, dated Apr. 3, 1991 by inspector #9776.

[32] New England Custom Alarms, Fire Alarm Sketches, dated Mar. 6, 2000.

[33] New England Custom Alarms NFPA 72 Inspection and Testing Form, dated Mar. 3, 2000,

completed by J LaFontaine (License #BF 09863).

[34] West Warwick Fire Chief, letter regarding requests for permits or inspections for the use of

decorations or acoustic materials, dated May 22, 2003.

[35] West Warwick Building Official, letter regarding requests for permits or inspections for the use of

decorations or acoustic materials, dated May 23, 2003.

[36] Rhode Island Attorney General's Office, Aug. 2004.

[37] lES, "Simulex User Manual, Evacuation modeling software," Integrated Environmental Solutions,

Inc., Glasgow, UK, Mar. 2001.

6-30
[38] lES, "Simulex Technical Reference, Evacuation modeling software," Integrated Environmental

Solutions, Inc., Glasgow, UK, Nov. 2000.

[39] Galea, E.R., Gwynne, S., Lawrence, P.J., Filippidis, L., Blackshields, D., and Cooney, D.,

"buildingEXODUS V4.0 User Guide and Technical Manual," Fire Safety Engineering Group,

University of Greenwich, London, UK, 2004.

[40] Providence Journal, ‘Tn the Fire,” p. B4, Feb. 20, 2004.

[41] Crowley, C.F., The Station Nightclub Disaster - A survivor's story; Saved by a pileup;

Providence Journal. Providence, R.I.: Mar 10, 2003. pg. A.01

[42] Associated Press, March 28, 2005.

6-31
? ^iV.

)
Chapter 7 Model Codes, Standards and Practices

7.1 INTRODUCTION

A contract was issued to Koffel Associates, Inc. of Ellicott City, Maryland, to identify the current model

building and fire codes that were available for application to a structure such as The Station nightclub, as well as to identify the model building codes in place at the time modifications were made to the structure.

This chapter reproduces information supplied NIST by the contractor [1], much of it verbatim and without

further attribution, although any conclusions and findings that are presented are solely those of NIST.

7.2 CODE HISTORY

Since the 1946 original construction of the building at 21 1 Cowesett Avenue in West Warwick, RI,

numerous model codes have come and gone. Prior to 2000, most model codes were limited to regional

adoption. Tables 7-1 and 7-2 summarize the model fire and building eodes that were relevant to the

structure over its history.

From the 1940’s through the 1960’s, the prevalent regional model building code in Rhode Island was the

National Board of Fire Underwriters, later the American Insurance Association (AIA) National Building

Code (NBC), last published in 1976. AIA also published the Fire Prevention Code (FPC), which was the

prevalent model fire code in the region.

From the 1970’s through the end of the century, the Building Officials and Code Administrators (BOCA)

building code was the leading model code in the region. The BOCA fire code dominated during this

period. The BOCA codes were originally named the Basic Building Code (BBC) and Basic Fire

Prevention Code (BFPC). In the 1980’s, BOCA purchased the rights to the AIA codes. BOCA renamed

their codes the National Building Code (NBC) and the National Fire Code (NFC). While the names were

that of the AIA codes, the content was that of the BOCA documents.

In 2000, the International Code Council (ICC) published the first International Building Code (IBC) and

first International Fire Code (IFC), both now published in 2003 editions [2,3]. The ICC was formed by

the merger of the three regional code writing organizations. As such the IBC replaced the NBC and the

IFC replaced the NFC. From 2000 until the appearance of the NFPA building eode, the IBC was the only

model building code that was being developed and maintained in the United States.

The Life Safety Code, published by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) as NFPA 1 01 [7[,

deals with the aspects of life safety from fire as would a model building code. This code, with its predecessor document dating back to 1913, addresses requirements for both new and existing

construction. NFPA 1 01, unless amended when adopted, does not permit existing conditions that pose a serious safety risks to remain unabated. Typically, building codes only regulate conditions that came into

existence after the code was adopted. NFPA 1 01 mandates a minimum level or standard of care for all buildings. In many cases, NFPA 101 will require improvements to existing buildings.

NFPA has published a fire code since 1971 and began publishing a building code in 2003. The NFPA

fire code, originally named the Fire Prevention Code, was renamed the Uniform Fire Code for the 2003

edition [4]. The NFPA building code. Building Construction and Safety Code, is a second model code

7-1
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developed and maintained in the United States. As such, it is included in the code analysis. The Building

Construction and Safety Code is commonly known as NFPA 5000 [5].

The older editions of the BOCA building code treated restaurants and nightclubs differently. To many, a restaurant and a night club may seem to pose similar risks; however, prior to 2000, the codes viewed

restaurants and night clubs differently. Even though the codes classified nightclubs and restaurants in

different occupancies, it is not always easy to distinguish between restaurants and nightclubs. Below are BOCA definitions of class A-1 and class A-2 structures [6];

303.3 Use Group A-2 structures: This use group includes all buildings and places of public

assembly, without theatrical stage accessories, designed for occupancy as dance halls, nightclubs

and for similar purposes, including all rooms, lobbies and other spaces connected thereto with a common means ofegress and entrance.

303.4 Use Group A-3 structures; This use group includes all buildings with or without an

auditorium in which persons assemble for amusement, entertaininent or recreation purposes as well as incidental motion picture, dramatic or theatrical presentations, lectures or other similar

purposes without theatrical stage other than a raised platform', and which are principally occupied

without permanent seating facilities, including art galleries, exhibition halls, museums, lecture

halls, libraries, restaurants other than nightclubs, and recreation centers; and buildings designed

for similar assembly purposes, including passenger terminals.

Facilities that have seating at tables and chairs for all patrons and serve food are typically considered as

restaurants. Facilities that may have some seating and food service, but offer standing and gathering

space are typically considered to be nightclubs. Either occupancy may have entertainment and a dance

floor. As a tool to assist in determining if an establishment is a nightclub or restaurant, historically, local

jurisdictions have compared amounts of food and alcohol served. The ratio of food to alcohol to be

classified as one or the other varies between localities.

Converting from one to the other would trigger the change of occupancy provisions of the codes.

Historically, the change of occupancy provisions of the BOCA codes required that the building meet the

intent of the code for the new occupancy and not pose a greater hazard.

The 1955 National Building Code made no distinction between restaurants and nightclubs. The Code

stated the following: "The provisions of this code based on occupancy also apply to conversions of

existing buildings and structures or portions thereof from one occupancy classification to another, which

would not apply to change from restaurant to nightclub."

It is clear that the proper classification of The Station at the time of the fire was as a nightclub. However,

as of the writing of this document, the Town of West Warwick has not made either the historical, or most

current, use and occupancy permit for the bar available. It is not possible to determine how the facility

was being regulated. Also, it is not possible to determine how the facility was classified when changes

occurred to the building. Without accurate knowledge of how the building was classified, assumptions

regarding occupancy classification could lead to incorrect conclusions.

7.3 MODEL CODE ANALYSIS

The model code analysis was based upon the International Building Code (IBC) 2003 [2] edition and

Building Construction and Safety Code (NFPA 5000) 2003 edition [5]. A comparison of the relevant

7-3
sections of these codes is included as Table K-] in Appendix K. In areas were the codes had dissimilar

requirements the impact of both requirements were evaluated.

The Life Safety Code (NFPA 101) 2003 edition [7] is^a code, ’hat addresses life safety issues primarily

through regulation of egress and fire safety systems.<'The.Dn visions of new construction in NFPA 101

aligned with the requirements of NFPA 5000 - (Note thatth?. analysis did not include a comparison to

NFPA 101 for existing buildings) The International Fire Code (IFC) [3] and the Uniform Fire Code

(NFPA 1) [4] are compared section by section in Appendix K, Table K-2.

Details on the changes to NFPA IOC the Uniform Building Code, the Standard Building Code, and the

BCMC over the life of The Station and its previous incarnations were also tabulated in the final report

from Amp Fire [8].

NIST's technical investigation did notfocus on compliance or non-compliance with the specific state or local regulations in effect at the time ofthe fire, nor did it seek to findfault. Rather, the focus was

on model codes and standards and how the design and operation of The Station compared with the

guidance provided within them. Thefindings and recommendationsfrom the NIST investigation are expected to be useful across the nation.

Relevant aspects of the national model building codes are discussed in this section, followed by

comments (in italics) on the conditions in The Station that were documented during the analysis. It should be noted that the building code evaluation utilizes current building code requirements, which

generally are not applied to existing buildings.

7.3.1 Administration

IBC §105.1 mandates permits for enlarging, altering, repairing, or changing of the occupancy of any

building. NFPA 5000 §1.7. 6. 1.1.1 maintains similar requirements.

Comment: Over the life ofthis building, it was rehabilitated numerous times. A number ofthe

projects were permitted. Typically, descriptions ofwork included on building permits included

Roofing Paneling f9]. Alterations and remodeling flO], Addition SO. 6 nf (330ft') fll]

Both IBC §109.1 and NFPA 5000 §1.7. 6. 6. 1.3 demand any work that is required to have a permit issued

to be inspected.

Comment: Limited inspection records for the building were available for review. The inspection

records are offire department inspections, not inspection records for the building department.

The reports appear to be from inspections related to renewal ofthe bar’s liquor license.

NFPA 5000 §L7.6.6.4 requires the records be maintained for each inspection. IBC §104.7 also mandates

that reports of inspections be maintained for the period of time required for public records by the local

authority.

7.3.2 Occupancy Classification

IBC §303.1 classifies the occupancy as a Group A-2. NFPA 5000 §3.3.371.1 classifies the space as an Assembly Occupancy.

Comment: The use of The Station is consistent with the IBC and NFPA 5000 occupancy

classifications ofGroup A-2 and Assembly, respectively.

7-4
7.3.3 Construction Type

IBC §602.5 classifies the building as Type VB construction. NFPA 5000 §7.2.6 classifies the building

construetion as Type V (000).

Comment: The construction ofthe building was unprotected woodframe.

The requirements, IBC Table 602 and NFPA 5000 Table 7.3.2. 1, for fire resistance rating of exterior

walls are consistent in both codes. In instances were the building is more than 3.05 m ( 10 ft) from the

property line, exterior walls are not required to have a fire resistance rating. For a separation distance

between the building and the property line of less than 3.05 m (10 ft), the codes require the exterior wall

to have a 1-hour fire resistance rating.

Comment: The building was more than 3 m (10 ft) from the property^ line.

7.3.4 General Building Heights and Area

Both codes regulate the height and area of buildings based on occupancy of the building and construction

type. IBC Table 503 limits the area of the Group A-2 Type VB buildings to 557 m" (6000 ft") and one

story. NFPA 5000 Table 7.4.1 limits Assembly occupancies with occupant loads greater than 300 and

less than 1000 persons of Type V (000 ) construction to 51 1 m“ (5500 ft") and one story.

Comment: West Warwick tax records indicate the main floor ofthe building was 416 nf (4484

fr) and the basement was 78 m' (840ft") [12]

Both codes allow an increase in the area based on open perimeter. The IBC also allows an increase in the

height of the building based upon sprinkler protection. NFPA 5000 does not allow the increase in height

for sprinklers in this instance.

Comment: The building was not sprinkler protected.

7.3.5 Interior Finish

Both model codes regulate interior finish materials based upon flame spread, smoke production, location

in the building, and type of use or occupancy of the space. The IBC, Chapter 8 contains interior finish

provisions; in NFPA 5000, they are contained in Chapter 10. ASTM E-84 [13] (or NFPA 255 [14]) is the

principal test method used by both codes to characterize flame spread and smoke development. Both

codes also allow for large seale testing of interior finishes in lieu of E-84. Tests such as NFPA 286 [15]

meet the requirement for large scale testing.

IBC Table 803.6 and NFPA 5000 §16.3.3.3 require interior finishes such as wood paneling, wood

sheathing boards, and bead board to have a flame spread rating equal to or less than 75 and a smoke

development index equal to or less than 450. In sprinkler protected buildings, both codes allow the flame

spread index to go up to 200.

In the IBC, plastics used as interior finish are regulated by IBC §2604. In NFPA 5000, cellular or foamed

plastics used as interior finish are regulated by §10.4.3. The IBC requires foam plastics used as interior

finish to be labeled, to have a flame spread index not to exceed 75, to have a smoke development index

not to exceed 450, and to pass full scale testing. The large scale testing shall be related to the actual use

configuration.

NFPA 5000 §10.4.3.1 requires large scale fire tests for foam plastic insulation. The tests must be

representative of actual use conditions.

7-5
In 1949, no combustible wall or ceiling finish was permitted in public buildings and places of assembly

and exits there from that would “spread flame over its surface more rapidly than over one-inch (nominal)

wood boards covered with ordinary paint or varnish.” This rather loose standard was replaced in the 1955

NBC by the E-84 test discussed above.

The interior finish requirements have changed little since the 1955 edition. The most significant change in

1 967 tightened a previous exception for business occupancies by reducing the allowable flame spread in

*> 9 rooms or spaces less than 139 nr (1500 ft"). In 1976, the allowable flame spread of exits in assembly

occupancies was reduced, and dwellings were regulated for the first time. A separate section was added

on floor coverings based upon a “flame propagation index”. Neither smoke production nor toxicity has

been regulated.

Comment: As would be expeeted, the interior finish materials ofthe building varied greatly. The

interior finish material was mapped and is shown in Figures 7-1 and 7-2. The interior wall

finishes included woodpaneling, bead board, painted gy^psum, wafer board, and ceramie tile. Interior finishes were identifiedfrom photographic and video records. The finishes identified

were estimates based on a video andphotographs taken in the building. The finishes referred to as painted gypsum may be either gypsum wall board or plaster. Neither samples ofproducts nor

model and manufacture information were available. Accordingly, conclusions regarding fame

spread ratings are based upon broadproduct categories. The ceramic tile and gypsum do not

pose potential interior finish fame spread issues.

It appears that there were multiple types ofwoodpaneling installed in the building. Portions of

the wood paneling and bead board were painted. Wood paneling is manufactured with different

fame spread ratings rangingfrom Class A to Class C. Many woodpanelings are plywoods.

Flame spread indexes for plywood rangefrom 70 to 160 [16, 1 7]. Without knowledge ofthe

specific paneling installed, it is not possible to determine the interior finish classification ofthe

woodpaneling at its time of installation. The natural aging and surface treatments applied after

installation can dramatically affect the fame spread index ofproducts. The head board is subject to the same variations in fame spread index due to aging and surface treatments.

Without samples to test the class ofthe interior finish, the fame spread index cannot be

definitively stated for either the head board or paneling. Untreated red oak fooring has a Class

C interior finish rating (100 fame spread index).

The walls surrounding the platform and the wall to the left ofthe platform were covered in

expandedJ'oam plastic insulation. Additionally, a portion ofthe ceiling over the platform and the

ceiling in jkont ofthe platform were covered with expanded foam plastic insulation. The model

codes allowyfoam plastic installation as an interior finish only after large scale testing has been

conducted and successfully completed.

7.3.6 Plastics

IBC regulates plastics in Chapter 26. Chapter 26 has provisions that complement the interior finish

provisions in Chapter 8. NFPA 5000 Chapter 48 regulates all plastic materials used in or on buildings.

Comment: The tie between Chapters 48 and 10 is not as concise as with IBC. The provisions of

IBC and NFPA 5000 are the same. The organization ofthese codes differ; however, the

requirements are the same.

7-6
* Refer to Appendix _ for details

** Blank Indicates No Wall Exists

*** UTD - Unable To Determine

Legend

^ Bibliography of Photos

0 Indicates Ceiling Type*

Legend of Ceiling Types

1 Acoustical Ceiling Tile

2 Foam

3 Wood Lattice

4 2x4 Rafters

Figure 7-1. Station Night Club Ceiling Interior Finish

7-7
CM

CO

LO

CD

h-

* Refer to Appendix _ for details

** Blank Indicates No Wall Exists

*** UTD - Unable To Determine

Legend

Top portion © Bibliography of Photos

of wall**

Bottom portion g> Indicates Wall Type*

of wall**

Legend of Wall Types

1 Foam

Paneling

Gypsum

Waffer Boards

Ceramic Tile

Stucco

Bead Board

Figure 7-2. Station Night Club Wall Interior Finish

7-8
Foam plastic used as an interior finish shall be the tested in accordance with NFPA 286. During the

NFPA 286 test, the room may not flashover nor may flames exit the enclosure. Additionally, total smoke

production (a measure of the total surface area of the smoke particles per kg of fuel consumed) shall not

exceed 1000 m". In the IBC, the requirements for foam plastic to be used as an interior finish are found in

§2604.1. §2604.1 requires testing in compliance with §2603.8. §2603.8 requires large scale testing and

compliance with Chapter 8 flame spread provisions. NFPA 5000 §48.4.4 contains the same provisions as IBC §2603.8.

Comment: The model codes prohibit the use offoam plastic insulation as an interiorfinish that

does not pass a large scale test replicating end-use conditions. There is no indication that the

foam used on the walls of The Station was tested.

7.3.7 Automatic Sprinkler System

For new construction, IBC §903.2.1.2 requires Group A-2 uses to be protected by automatic sprinklers if

any of the following are exceeded:

• fire area > 1 1 14 m“ (12,000 ff)

• occupant load >300 persons

• fire area located on other than the floor of exit discharge

NFPA 5000 §16.3.5.1.1 mandates automatic sprinkler protection for assembly occupancy serving more

than 300 persons. Several exceptions are allowed. None of the exceptions are relevant to The Station.

Comment: The model codes trigger sprinkler protection for buildings based on a combination of

factors including occupancy, building area, construction type, building height, location relative

to exit discharge, and occupant load. For new construction ofthis ty>pe of building, the model

codes require sprinklers for an occupant load, in excess of300 persons. The building was not

equipped with an automatic sprinkler system.

The BOCA National Building Code would have required sprinkler protection (for new

construction) based on the area and construction type of the building. The largest Type 5B Use

Group A-2 building the BOCA National Building Code would have allowed is 390 nf (4200ft),

which is less than the area of The Station.

7.3.8 Fire Alarm

IBC §907.2.1 requires manual fire alarm systems in Group A occupancies with occupant loads exceeding

300 persons. IBC §907.2.1.1 requires voice notification for Group A occupancies with occupant loads

greater than 1000 persons.

NFPA 5000 §16.3.4 requires manual fire alarms in Assembly occupancies with occupant loads exceeding

300 persons. The fire alarm shall be activated by manual pull station, smoke detectors, the sprinkler

system, and heat detectors in hazardous locations.

Comment: The building was equipped with a manualfire alarm. Manual pull stations were

located adjacent to Door 3 and behind the main bar. Heat detectors were located in the area behind the kitchen. Heat detectors were present above and below the platform area. Fire alarm

horns were located behind the main bar and in the front room near the pool tables.

7-9
7.3.9 Festival Seating

NFPA 5000 §3.3.474.1 defines "Festival Seating" as a fonn of audience/spectator accommodation in

which no seating, other than a floor or ground surface, is provided for the audience/spectators gathered to

observe a performance. NFPA 5000 §16.2.4.1 allows festival seating for assembly occupancies with less

than 1000 occupants. IBC uses the term "standing room" rather than'Testival seating."

Comment: At the time ofthefire, the nightclub was arranged forfestival seating, permitting

more occupants than had the building been arrangedfor fixed seating.

7.3.10 Exits

There were four exit routes from the building, as numbered in Figure 7-5; (1) the front main exit, (2) the

main bar exit on the side, (3) the kitchen exit, and (4) the platform exit. The model codes govern their

number, size, placement, and other details of design, as discussed in this section

(i) Doors

Doors shall provide a clear opening of at least 0.81 m (32 in), IBC §1008.1.1 and NFPA 5000 §1 1.2. 1.2. 4.

Doors shall swing in the direction of egress travel when serving spaces with more than 50 persons, IBC

§1008. 1 .2 and NFPA 5000 § 1 1 .2. 1 .4.2.

Comments: All doors exceeded the 0.81 m (82 in) minimum, and all door leaves swung in the

direction ofegress travel with the exception ofthe interior leafat exit 4. (See Fig. 7-5.)

(ii) Panic Hardware

IBC §1008.1.9 and NFPA 5000 §16.2.2.2.3 mandate panic hardware on doors that have locks or latches

in the means of egress for assembly occupancies with an occupant load greater than or equal to 100

persons.

Comments: When viewedfrom the exterior, the right leaf ofthefront doors was not equipped

with panic hardware. There was no visible hardware on either door. As ofthis writing, the type

ofhardware on the swinging door immediately inside the double exterior doors is undetermined.

(See Fig. 7-5.)

The door to exit 2 was equipped with panic hardware. As ofthis writing the type ofhardware

with which the door at exit 3 was equipped has not been determined. The inward swinging leafof

the door at exit 4 was fitted with standard knob style hardware. The outward swinging door was

equipped with panic hardware.

(iii) Floor Level and Landings

IBC §1008.1.4 and NFPA 5000 §1 1.2. 1.3 mandate that the floor level on both sides of a door shall be at the same level. IBC §1008.1.5 and NFPA 5000 §1 1.2. 2. 3. 2 also requires that the landing be at least as wide as the stair or door being served and the door when fully open may not reduce the required width of

the landing by more than 0.18 m (7 in).

Comments: Based on photographic evidence and review ofthe video, the fioor was level on both

sides of the main door at exit 1. It could not be determined if the fioor was level on both sides ofthe

doors at exits 2 and 3. Thefioor was not level on both sides ofdoor at exit 4. The first riser was in

line with the plane ofthe closed door.

7-10
There was not a landing at the exterior ofexit 4. The photos ofexit 2 indicate a landing outside

the door, however, it cannot be determined ifa step existed at the door. The photos indicate a stair

at Door 3, but it could not be determined if a landing or risers were present at the door.

(iv) Exit Signs

Exit signs are required at exits other than obvious main exits, and at other locations where exit access is not obvious, per IBC §1011.1 and NFPA 5000 §11.10.1.4.

Comments: The nightclub was ecpiipped with exit signs over each ofthefour dooixvays.

(v) Travel Distance

Both IBC §1018.1 and NFPA 5000 §16.2.6 require the travel distance to exits (the maximum distance

from any place in the building to an exit) not exceed 61m (200 ft). In the 1955 NBC travel distance in

assembly occupancies was increased to 45.7 m (150 ft), up from 30.5 m (100 ft). In 1967 it was changed

back to 30.5 m (100 ft). Comment: The travel distance in this building was less than 61m (200 ft).

(vl) Common Path of Travel

IBC §1013.3 states the common path of travel shall not exceed 22.8 m (75 ft). NFPA 5000 §16.2.5.1.2

limits the common path of travel to 6.1 m (20 ft) or less. Common path of travel is the portion of the

means of egress that must be traversed until such a point that at least two independent means of egress to

at least two exits are available.

Comment: Ifall doors to the exterior were considered exits, all areas complied with the model

codes' common path oftravel provisions.

If exit 4 is not considered an exit, over 50% ofthe sun room and dancefloor area have a

common path oftravel greater than 6.1 m (20ft).

Not considering exit 3 as an exit does not create additional common path oftravel issues.

(vii) Exit Separation

NFPA 5000 §1 1.5. 1.4 and IBC §1014.2.1 requires the exits to be separated by at least one half the length

of the maximum overall diagonal dimension of the building area served.

Comments: The diagonal ofthe area served was 25.3 m (83 ft). The model codes require a

separation of 12.6 m (41.5ft). Ifall doors to the exterior were considered exits, the separation

ofexists in The Station would have been consistent with the model code provisions. Only Door 1 and Door 2 were consistent with the model code definition ofan exit, and they were separated by

10.4 m (34 ft)t. Accordingly, when considering Doors 1 and 2 as the only exits the separation of

exits was less than required in the model codes.

(viii) Dead Ends

IBC §1016.3 states that dead ends in relation to corridors shall not exceed 6.1 m (20 ft). NFPA 5000

§16.2.5.1.3 has the same limit.

7-11
While the passage way to the restrooms created a dead end 7.6 m {25 ft) long and the access aisle

to the raised seating area was a dead end 7.3 m (24 ft) in length, neither were associated with

corridors. No other dead ends existed.

7.3.11 Occupant Load Limits

The model codes compute the occupant load limits in two ways: based upon area, and based upon egress

capacity. If the occupant load calculated via area exceeds the capacity of the egress system, the codes

require the egress system to be expanded. The egress capacity must always exceed the occupant load.

(i) Area Basis

Occupant load factors are expressed in terms of square meters (feet) per person. Dividing the area of the

space by the occupant load factor yields the allowable occupant load. The model codes use occupant load

factors to determine the allowable number of persons given an area. The relevant occupant load factors

from IBC Table 1004.1.2 and NFPA 5000 Table 1 1.3. 1.2 are detailed in the following table.

Table 7-3. Occupant Load Factors, m^/person (ft^/person)

Occupancy/Use IBC Table 1004.1.2

Occupant load factor

NFPA Table 11.3.1.2

Occupant load factor

Assembly,

Concentrated (chairs only not fixed)

0.65 (7) net 0.65 (7) net

Assembly,

Stand space

0.46 (5) net 0.65 (7) net

Assembly,

Unconcentrated (tables and chairs)

1.39 (15) net 1.39 (15) net

Business area 9.28 (100) gross 9.28 (100) gross

Kitchens commercial 18.6 (200) gross 9.28 (100) gross

Stages and Platforms 1.39 (15) net 1.39 (15) net

Warehouse 46.4 (500 ) gross based upon maximum

probable number of

occupants present

IBC §1004.2 allows the occupant load to be increased above the calculated number provided the other

egress provisions are met and the occupant load does not exceed 0.46 m"/person (5 ff/person). NFPA

5000 §1 1.3. 1.3 and 16.1 .6 contains similar provisions.

Both model codes allow the occupant load to be based on capacity of the means of egress provided each

person has 0.46 m^ (5 ft") of floor space. NFPA 5000 §16. 1 .6 limits the increased occupant density to

0.46 mVperson (5 ftVperson) net floor space for buildings up to 930 m" (10,000 ft") and to 0.65 mVperson

(7 ft"/person) net floor space for buildings that are larger.Note that net space excludes restrooms,

passageways, and space assigned for other uses such as the space behind the bars and the kitchens.

Comment: Refer to Figure 7-3 and Figure 7-4 for the use ofspaces within the Station as defined

by the model codes. Based upon those uses, the maximum load for each space is computed in

Table 7-4. The total maximum occupancy ofa building similar to The Station, according to IBC,

7-12
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7-3.

Station

Nightclub

(NFPA

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Use

Area

Designations
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QQ

Figure

7-4.

Station

Night

Club

Fire

(IBC)

Occupancy

Area

Designations
II

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Figure

7-5.

Station

Nightclub

Egress

Capacity

(*Note

that

model

codes

exclude

exiting

through

a

kitchen

when

calculating

occupancy

limit.)
Table 7-4. Compyted Occupant Loads Based Upon Model Codes and Areas Shown in

Figures 7-3 and 7-4

Use Area, (ft^) IBC capacity* NFPA 5000

capacity*

Assembly Standing 251 (2709) 542 387

Business 25 (270) 3 3

Platfomi 35 (373) 25 25

Kitchen 16 (171) 1 1

Storage 64 (690) 3 3

Assembly T/C 15 (161) 11 11

Total 406 (4374) 585 430

* Note that conversion between metric and common units can lead to a variation of about 1 % in capacity

would have been 585 persons; a similar calculation based upon the NFPA 5000 occupant load

factors yields a total maximum population of430 persons. The significant differences arise from

NFPA 5000 allowing the use of 0.65 nf/person (7ff/person) for concentrated assembly

occupancy. IBC uses 0.46 m~/person (5 ft/person) for standing assembly space. NFPA 5000

does have a provision that allows the occupant load to be increased to match the available egress

capacity. Typically, the table value of 0.65 nr/person (7ff/person) is used. Both codes would

allow these occupant loads, if the exit capacity were available.

(ii) Egress Basis

Egress capacity factors are related to the minimum clear width required for exit pathways in order to ensure timely egress, and are expressed in temis of mm/person (in/person). The egress capacity factors

for level egress components and ramps are smaller than factors for stairways. The smaller this factor, the

more occupants the egress component is given credit to manage. IBC Table 1005.1 and NFPA 5000

Table 1 1.3.3. 1 contain the capacity factors for egress elements. Clear widths are divided by egress

capacity factors to yield the maximum capacity for that particular egress element. The IBC reduces the

required width when a building is fully sprinkler protected, as shown in Table 7-5. IBC and NFPA 5000

Table 7-5. Egress Capacity Factors

Occupancy Without Sprinkler System,

mm/person (in/person)

With Sprinkler System,

mm/person (in/person)

IBC Table

1005.1

NFPA 5000

Table 11.3.3.1

IBC Table

1005.1

NFPA 5000

Table 11.3.3.1

Level Components

and Ramps

5.1 (0.2) 5.1 (0.2) 3.8(0.15) 5.1 (0.2)

Stairways 7.6 (0.3) 7.6 (0.3) 5.1 (0.2) 7.6 (0.3)

^ Dimensions estimated from photographs to the nearest 1/2 in (12 mm)

Model eodes exclude exiting through a kitchen when computing occupancy limit

Small increases within the uncertainty of our estimates of the sizes of the clear width of the stairs and doors could

increase the total capacity to 426.

7-16
require the number of occupants to be less than the capacity of the available egress width, and both codes

require two means of egress for buildings with a total occupant load of less than 501 persons. IBC

§1008.1.2 and NFPA 5000 §11 .2. 1.4. 2 contain requirements that doors swing in the direction of egress

travel in the path of egress from assembly occupancies serving occupant loads of greater than 50 persons.

Comments: The building was not sprinkler protected.

See Table 7-6 and Figure 7-5 for capacities ofeach exit. As required by both model codes, the

element with the smallest capacity in each path ofegress was considered to be the limiting

element. The limiting element dictated the capacity ofeach egress path. For the main entrance,

exit 1, the interior 914 mm (36 in) door was the limiting element, resulting in a capacity of 180

persons for the main entrance exit. For exit 2, the side door out ofthe main bar area, the exterior

stairs leadingfrom the door were the limiting element, resulting in a capacity of 120 persons.

Exit 3, from the kitchen, was also limited by an exterior stair; however, both codes prohibit

egress by patrons through the kitchen (IBC §1013.2 and NFPA 5000 §11.5.2.1) Exit 4 adjacent

to the platform had two doors installed on the samejam, one swinging in the direction ofegress

travel and one swinging opposing the direction oftravel. Excluding the kitchen exit and including

the exit adjacent to the platform, the occupancy limit based upon egress capacity would have

been 420 according to both model codes. (See Table 7-6.)

Table 7-6. Egress-limited Occupant Load Calculations (IBC and NFPA 5000)

Element

Width,"

mm (in)

Clear Width,"

mm (in)

Capacity Fac.,

mm/person

(in/person)

Capacity‘S,

persons

Limiting

Element

Exit 1 - main

Front Door 1829 (72) 1727 (68) 5.1 (0.2) 340 no

Interior Door 914(36) 914(36) 5.1 (0.2) 180 yes

Stairs (4 risers) 2540 (100) 2438 (96) 7.6 (0.3) 320 no

Ramp 2540(100) 2438 (96) 5.1 (0.2) 480 no

Exit 2 - bar

Side Door 914(36) 914(36) 5.1 (0.2) 180 no

Stairs (4 risers) 1016(40) 914(36) 7.6 (0.3) 120 yes

Exit 3 - kitchen’^

Side Door 914 (36) 914 (36) 5.1 (0.2) 180 no

Stairs (4 risers) 1016(40) 914 (36) 7.6 (0.3) 120^ yes

Exit 4 - platform

Side Door 914(36) 914(36) 5.1 (0.2) 180 no

Stairs (4 risers) 965 (38) 914(36) 7.6 (0.3) 120 yes

total egress limit 420'

7-17
7.4 REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 7

[1] "Code Analysis of the Station Nightelub," KA 03732-004, Koffel Assoeiates, Inc., Ellicott City,

MD, June, 2004.

[2] 2003 International Building Code, International Code Council, Inc., Falls Church, VA.

[3] 2003 International Fire Code, International Code Council, Inc., Falls Church, VA.

[4] NFPA 1, Uniform Fire Code, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2003.

[5] NFPA 5000, Building Construetion and Safety Code, National Fire Protection Association,

Quincy, MA, 2003.

[6] The BOCA National Building Code/1993, Twelfth Ed., Building Officials and Code

Administrators, Inc., Homewood, IF.

[7] NFPA 101, Life Safety Code, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2003.

[8] "Evaluation of Fimitations to Egress through Doorways in Emergency Situations," vol. 2, Ove

Amp & Partners Massachusetts Inc., Job number 32979, Westborough MA, Feb. 18, 2004.

[9] West Warwick, Rhode Island, Building Pennit May 18, 1970.

[10] Building Perniit October 18, 1971.

[11] Building Permit July, 1, 1975.

[12] West Warwick, Rhode Island Commercial /Industrial Property Record Card May 30, 2001.

[13] ASTM E84-00a, Standard Test Methodfor Surface Burning Characteristics ofBuilding

Materials, American Society for Testing & Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, 2001.

[14] NFPA 255, Standard Method of Test ofSurface Burning Characteristics ofBuilding Materials,

National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2002.

[15] NFPA 286, Standard Methods offire Tests for Evaluating Contribution of Wall and Ceiling

Interior Finish to Room Fire Growth, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2002.

[16] American Wood Council. Design for Code Acceptance, awc.org/publications/dca/dcal/dcal.pdf

[17] Canadian Wood Council. Cwc.ca/design/tech_topics/fire/spread_ratings.html

7-18
Chapter 8

Summary, Findings and Recommendations

8.1 summary of investigation

Under the authority of the National Construction Safety Team Act, a team was formed by the NIST

Director on Feb. 27, 2003 to investigate the failure seven days earlier of The Station nightclub in West

Warwick, Rhode Island. The objectives of the investigation were the following:

• to establish the likely technical cause or causes of the building failure;

• to evaluate the technical aspects of evacuation and emergency response procedures;

• to recommend, as necessary, specific improvements to building standards, codes, and

practices based on the findings made pursuant to the duties listed above; and

• to recommend any research and other appropriate actions needed to improve the structural

safety of buildings, and improve evacuation and emergency response procedures, based upon

the findings of the investigation.

The following activities were undertaken by the team to reach the first two objectives and to establish the

basis for the remaining two:

• identification of technical issues and hypotheses requiring investigation through consultations

with experts in fire protection engineering, emergency evacuation, and members of other

teams investigating The Station fire;

• data collection from local authorities, contractors and suppliers, building and fire protection

design documents, records, plans, and specifications, video and photographic data, telephone

and radio transmissions, field data, a limited number of interviews and other oral and written

accounts from building occupants and emergency responders, and other witnesses as reported

by the news media;

• analysis and comparison of national model building and fire codes and practices, as well as review and analysis of practices used in operation of the building;

• simulation and analysis of phenomena (with associated uncertainties), including fire spread,

smoke movement, tenability, occupant behavior and response, evacuation issues, and

operation of active and passive fire protection systems; and

• testing to provide additional data and validate computer simulation predictions.

The previous seven chapters of this final report describe the methodology used to conduct the

investigation, detail what occurred on the night of Feb. 20, 2003, review the history of the building and

the model codes and standards that would have applied to a building of this type, and present the results

of testing and simulations. The key findings from the investigation are summarized in the following

section. Recommendations for improving model building and fire standards, as well as codes, and

practices are listed in Section 8.3; Section 8.4 describes actions already taken by local authorities and

code making organizations. Research recommendations and other appropriate actions are provided in

Section 8.5.

8-1
8.2 FINDINGS

During the course of the investigation NIST examined relevant model building and fire codes; previous

incidents with some similar aspects that occurred in places of assembly; the life safety systems that were

part of the building design; the materials used as part of the structure, as finish products and as building

contents; the egress process; and the response of the fire department to the incident. NIST developed new

information or confirmed published reports as to the initiating event, the reasons for the very rapid spread

of fire and smoke, the difficulties encountered by the occupants during egress, and the mass casualty

situation confronted by the fire department. Many of the findings summarized in this section had a direct

bearing on the tragic outcome of this specific event (these are highlighted below in bold); others had a more peripheral role but are important to capture because of the potential to positively influence the

outcome of future events.

8.2.1 Model Codes and Standards

Appendix C recounts dozens of other tragedies in nightclubs and places of assembly where adherence to U.S. model building and fire codes could have prevented the failure of the building. Of most relevance

to the current incident are the Happy Land Social Club fire [17], the Gothenburg Dance Hall fire [18], the

Cafe de Hemel fire [19], and the E2 Nightclub crowd crush incident [20]. These events killed between 14

and 87 people each, with the root causes related to limitations on exits, overcrowding, an unanticipated

initiating event, and (except for E2) building contents and materials — all conditions that are inconsistent

with the 2003 model building and fire codes.

The following is the primary finding of the investigation regarding model codes and standards;

• The investigation concluded that strict adherence to 2003 model codes available at the

time of the fire would go a long way to preventing similar tragedies in the future.

Changes to the codes subsequent to the fire made them stronger. By making some

additional changes - and state and local agencies adopting and enforcing them - we can

strengthen occupant safety even further.

8.2.2 Materials

The hazardous mix of materials present in The Station were key contributors to the failure of the building.

Specific findings regarding the foam on and in the walls and the pyrotechnics used in the performance are

listed below:

• A non-fire retarded foam sample purchased by NIST ignited within 10 seconds when

exposed to a pyrotechnic device (15x15 gerb) in an arrangement similar to the set up on

the platform of the nightclub. When a plywood panel with fire retarded polyurethane

foam was exposed in a similar manner to a 15 x 15 gerb, no ignition of the panel

occurred, nor did the plywood ignite with no foam present.

• As could be seen in the WPRI video, flames spread rapidly over the foam in the

nightclub, generating smoke and enough heat (estimated to be almost 60 MW at its peak) to ignite the wood paneling underneath and adjacent to the foam. The wood

paneling in the nightclub was estimated to contain over 95 % of the fuel load, so that

once most of the foam was consumed (estimated to be around two minutes after ignition

of the foam), the fire transitioned to a wood frame building fire, with a steady heat

release rate estimated to be around 45 MW.

8-2
• There was no fire resistant barrier between the interior of the nightclub and foam

thermal insulation which had been installed in the stud space on the interior side of

external walls of the drummer’s alcove.

• In the reconstruction of the platform area fire conducted at NIST, within 90 seconds after

ignition of the non-fire retarded polyurethane foam conditions near the middle of the

dance floor at head height (1.5 m, or 5 ft, above the floor) were lethal. (Temperature

exceeded 460 "C (860 "F), carbon monoxide volume fractions reached 1 percent,

hydrogen cyanide levels exceeded 0.07 percent, oxygen volume fraction fell to 9 percent,

and radiant heat flux exceeded 40 kW/m^.)

• N IST could not obtain samples of the foam that actually had been applied to the

nightclub walls to conduct a chemical analysis to determine if the polyurethane material

contained fire retardants; however, the ignition behavior of the foam exhibited on the

WPRI video was consistent with the behavior observed in the NIST testing with a nonfire retardant foam.

• Model codes require that foamed plastic material used as an interior finish pass large-scale fire tests that substantiate the combustibility characteristics of the material related to the actual

end use.

• Model codes permit the use of pyrotechnic devices in nightclubs if certain precautions are taken and with the approval of the authority having jurisdiction.

• The average heat flux from the gerbs purchased by NIST impinging on a surface was

determined to be much less than the average heat flux from the fire to the foam surface, once

ignition of the foam had occurred.

• The heat release rate from foam samples found at the site and representative materials

purchased by NIST ranged between about 250 kW/m" and 1 100 kW/m" when exposed to

7 7 radiant fluxes between 20 kW/m” and 70 kW/m" in a cone calorimeter.

• The carpet and furnishings contributed a relatively small amount to the fire, and the ceiling

tiles a negligible amount.

8.2.3 Fire Protection Systems

An inadequate capability to suppress the fire during its early stage of growth was another direct

contributor to the large loss of life. The following was found regarding the installation and operation of

fire suppression and other safety systems applicable to the building:

• Experiments conducted at NIST in a reconstruction of the platform area fire

demonstrated that a water sprinkler system installed in the test room in accordance

with NFPA 13 [1] was able to control the fire initiated in non fire retarded polyurethane

foam panels and maintain tenable (survivable) conditions at head height in the test

room for the duration (over five minutes) of the experiment. This was in contrast to the

reconstruction of the platform area fire with no sprinklers present, w hich led to likely

fatal conditions at head height in the test room in about 1-1/2 minutes. A computer

simulation of the full nightclub with and without sprinklers led to a similar positive

result for the sprinklered scenario.

8-3
• Automatic fire sprinklers were not installed in The Station nightclub, nor were they

required for such existing structures under the 2003 editions of the model codes.

• A heat detection/fire alarm system was installed in The Station nightclub, which

activated (sound and light strobe) 41 seconds after ignition of the polyurethane foam, by

which time the crowd had already begun to move toward the exits.

• Several hand-held fire extinguishers were located on the premises, at least one of which was

used in an attempt to extinguish the fire on the platfonn.

• Standard exit signs were located above each exit.

• The building was equipped with emergency egress lighting.

• The kitchen was equipped with a dry powder fire suppression system above the stove.

8.2.4 Occupant Load and Egress

The inability of the exits to handle all of the occupants in the short time available for such a fast growing

fire was the third major contributor to the substantial loss of life in The Station. Specific findings

regarding the occupant load and egress process are presented here.

• The first patrons recognized the fire danger about 24 seconds after ignition of the foam;

the bulk of the crowd began to evacuate shortly after that, around the time the band

stopped playing (30 seconds).

• The rate of egress from the main entrance at the front of the building was limited by the

single doorway inside the vestibule, not the double doors visible from the outside.

• Between 56 percent and 66 percent of the occupants appear to have attempted to leave

through the single main entrance in the front of the building; many were unsuccessful.

• Prior to 1-1/2 minutes into the fire, a crowd-crush occurred in the front vestibule which

almost entirely disrupted the flow through the front exit. The precise event which led to

the crowd-crush likely was related to the arrangement of the single interior door with

merging streams of traffic and the pressure to escape the rapidly deteriorating

conditions in the main area of the nightclub.

• Measurements of temperature, heat flux and gas species in a reconstruction of the

platform area fire at NIST and computer models of the NIST experiment and the full

nightclub suggest that the conditions around the platform, dance floor, sunroom, and

dart room would have led to severe incapacitation or death within about 1-1/2 minutes

after ignition of the foam for anyone remaining standing, and for not much longer even

close to the floor.

• The number of building occupants at the time of the fire was reported by the Providence

Journal to be 440 \ 2 \; as reported by the Associated Press [42J, the prosecutor’s office

claimed that 458 occupants were present.

• The Station had three doors suitable for exit by occupants.

• The main area of the nightclub around the platform was open with very few chairs, stools or

tables, consistent with a festival seating arrangement. Based upon the arrangement, number

8-4
and , geometry of the exits, the occupant limit for a similar building would be 420 persons

according to both NFPA 5000 [3] and the International Building Code [4].

• For more than a minute into the fire, the crowd moved in an orderly fashion at an egress rate

estimated to be a bit faster than 1 person/second through the main entrance of the building.

• It was reported by the Providence Journal that a little over half of all people who successfully

escaped via the doors (main entrance, main bar, kitchen and platform doors) exited via the

main entrance.

• The windows in the main bar room and the sunroom became the secondary routes of escape

once the main entrance became impassible, and, according to reports, they accounted for over

1/3 of the successful evacuations.

• The high number of victims found relatively close to the windows in the sunroom suggests

that the environment became untenable more quickly than the victims were able to find a secondary route (e.g., through the sunroom windows) once the platform door and main

entrance became unusable.

• The small number of victims found in the main bar room suggests that the main bar room exit

door and windows provided open routes of escape up to the point where conditions in that area of the building became untenable.

• A computer model of The Station nightclub fire suggests that the conditions in the main bar

area near the floor may have been survivable for more than three minutes after ignition,

which is consistent with the WPRI video that showed people being assisted through the main

bar windows up to 4 minutes after the start of the fire.

• A significant number of victims were found in the dart room, storage area, and office near the

back of the building, suggesting that they ( 1 ) were unfamiliar with the building and hoped to find a safe exit in that region, (2) did not realize that an exit existed inside the kitchen, or (3)

became disoriented while heading for the side exit of the main bar room.

• An interior door which opened inward was located at the platform exit, but the orientation of

the door did not play a role in delaying the evacuation process since the rapid fire growth in

that vicinity discouraged patrons from attempting to escape via the platform door exit.

• A preexisting exit adjacent to the lavatories at the back of the structure had been eliminated

during some previous construction.

• The Team found no evidence of a written emergency action plan, a written fire prevention

plan, or employee training to assist safe and orderly evacuation.

• No evidence was found that a uniformed firefighter was on the premises at the start of the fire;

however, two off-duty West Warwick police officers were known to be present, including

one who called in the fire from within the building.

8.2.5 Emergency Response

Given the hazardous mix of materials in The Station and the lack of installed sprinklers, nothing that the

fire department could have done that night would have saved the building from the fast growing fire. Based upon the findings below, however, there are still things to learn from the incident regarding

emergency response procedures:

8-5
• The first 911 call reporting a fire was before 1 1 :09 pm, less than 40 seconds after ignition of

the foam.

• West Warwick police officers on the scene reported the fire about one minute after

ignition of the foam, leading to the dispatch of four engines with six fire fighters and

three fire officers, a tower-ladder truck with two fire fighters, a rescue unit with two

attendants, and a battalion chief.

• The first fire engine, staffed with one firefighter and a fire officer, was confirmed onscene less than five minutes after the first 911 call was received, which was well within

the limits of the NFPA standard [5] that states the fire department should be able to

respond to a call within six minutes at least 90 percent of the time.

• NFPA standards [5] recommend a minimum staffing level of four firefighters on both engine

and truck companies, which was not achieved. Additional firefighters on scene at the crucial

initial phase of the response would have benefited the rescue and firefighting efforts,

although NIST is unable to say how the outcome might have been altered.

• Rhode Island’s fire/rescue, emergency medical services and law enforcement agencies were

confronted with the largest life loss fire incident in the State’s history.

• Mutual aid agreements with neighboring jurisdictions were effective in bringing the necessary

resources (equipment and emergency responders) to the scene of the incident.

• A mass casualty plan was implemented capably within about 1 0 minutes of arrival of the first engine on the scene, such that within two hours of the start of the fire, all occupants needing

medical attention had been evacuated from the scene and transported to medical facilities.

• Because of the ongoing criminal investigation, the medical examiner's reports that may have

revealed the likely causes of death of the 100 victims of the fire were not available to NIST.

• Communications challenges resulting from limited radio equipment capabilities and the high

volume of traffic substantially hampered the Incident Command's effective coordination of

fire ground and triage operations, as well as the routing of responding EMS units to area

hospitals.

8.2.6 Public Building Record-keeping Practices

Inspections and record-keeping practices are an integral part of a community fire safety program.

Findings related to this area that are relevant to The Station fire include the following;

• Records were not found of the initial building design. Records of modifications — when

located — lacked sufficient detail to track the changes to the structure.

• Neither the historical nor most current use and occupancy permit for the building was located;

however, the use of The Station was consistent with the IBC and NFPA 5000 occupancy

classifications of "Group A-2" and "Assembly," respectively.

• The main deficiencies of the building identified during the history of inspections by the Town

of West Warwick related to the location of the fire extinguishers, non-functioning exit signs

and emergency lights, broken panic hardware on an exit door, and the direction of swing of

an exit door.

8-6
• On numerous reports, deficiencies identified by the inspectors were later annotated as "OK,"

but with no official re-inspection signature.

• No Town of West Warwick or State of Rhode Island documents prior to Feb. 20, 2003, were

located that mentioned foam materials on the walls of the nightclub, nor the use of

pyrotechnics similar to those used on Feb. 20, 2003.

8.2.7 Referenced Codes and Standards

Tables 8-1, 8-2, and 8-3 list, respectively, the model codes and standards in the areas of materials, fire

protection systems, and occupant load and egress that relate to the findings of the NIST investigation

team. Table 8-4 summarizes the issues surrounding applications of the code, and building and fire safety

practices. References are to the appropriate sections/paragraphs in the current International Building

Code [4], the Life Safety Code [7], NFPA 5000 [3], and the standards contained therein. (The relevant

sections in the International Fire Code and the Uniform Fire Code can be linked to the corresponding

sections in the international Building Code and NFPA 5000 through the Tables provided in Appendix K.)

The last column indicates the relevance of the issue to the outcome on Feb. 20, 2003. Based upon the

computer simulations and other findings from the investigation, an "H" was assigned to issues that,

properly addressed, were highly relevant and would almost certainly have reduced substantially the loss

of life (these are also highlighted in bold); an "L" implies a low likelihood that addressing the issue would

have reduced the loss of life for this particular incident; and "M" implies moderate relevance to the

specifics of this particular incident. Consideration by the model code organizations and the building and

fire safety professions for those actions marked as "L," while not linked tightly to the outcome of The

Station fire, is still warranted. In some cases, actions may be called for that are not even addressed in the

model codes as currently written; the code sections identified in Tables 8-1 through 8-4 are not meant to

be inclusive.

Table 8-1 Findings Concerning Materials Relevant to Model Codes and Standards

Issue References

Relev.

H M L

Polyurethane foam used as sound

insulation on platform and walls.

Foam thermal insulation unprotected in back

platform wall.

ASTM E84 [9l X

NFPA 255 [11] X

NFPA 286 [10] X

IBC;2604 [4] X

5000:10.4.3.1 [3] X

Pyrotechnic devices were used as part of

the theatrics.

Little guidance provided to AHJ*

regarding appropriate use of pyrotechnics.

NFPA 1126 [121 X

Unknown fire rating on wood paneling. 1BC:803.6 [4] X

5000:16.3.3.3 [3] X

* Authority Having Jurisdiction

8-7
labile 8-2 Findings Concerning Fire Protection Systems Relevant to Model Codes and

Standards

Issue References

Relev.

H M L

Automatic sprinklers not required for existing

structures.

101:13.3.5.1 [7| X

5000:16.3.5.1.1 [31 X

1BC:903.2.1.2 [4] X

101.12.3.5.1 [7] X

Fire alarm system unable to alert people to hazard quickly

enough to avoid trapping occupants in building.

IBC:907.2.1 [4] X

5000:16.3.4 [3] X

Portable fire extinguishers ineffective/not used early in fire. NFPA 10 [8] X

Table 8-3 Findings Concerning Occupant Load and Egress Relevant to Model Codes and

Standards

Issue References

Relev.

H M L

Main entrance did not have capacity to handle 50% of the 1BC:1024.2 [4| X

occupants on the night of the fire, and 50yo would have 5000:16.2.3.3 [3]

been insufficient to safely evacuate all occupants in time (1- 101:12.2.3.3 [7]

1/2 minutes). 101:13.2.3.3 [7j

Festival seating overloaded the exit capacity. 5000:16.2.5.4.1 [3j X

101:12.2.5.4.1 [7] X

101:13.2.5.4.1 [7] X

5000:16.2.4.1 [3] X

Trained crowd managers not required for occupant loads 101:12.7.5 [7] X

< 1000. 101:13.7.5 [7] X

Higher occupant load factor permitted in IBC. 1BC:1004.2T[4] X

5000:11.3.1.2 1 [3] X

Lower egress capacity factor penwitted in IBC if sprinklers are IBC: 1005.1 T[4] X

installed. 5000:11.3.3.1 T [3] X

Location of alternative exits not obvious to patrons unfamiliar IBC: 16.4.7.5 [4] X

with nightclub, in spite of proper exit signs above doors. 5000:11.10.1.4 [3] X

Longer common path of travel allowed in IBC. IBC:1013.3 [4] X

5000:16.2.5.1.2 [3] X

Interior leaf of platfonn door did not swing in direction of IBC: 1008. 1.1 [4] X

egress. 5000:11.2.1.4.2 [3] X

Stairs and landings at side exits may not have been at same IBC: 1008.1.4 [4] X

level on both sides of doors. 5000:11.2.1.3 [3] X

Main entrance double doors not equipped with panic hardware. 1BC:1008.1.9 [4] X

5000:16.2.2.2.3 [3] X

8-8
Table 8-4 Findings Relevant to National Practices

Issue References

Relev.

H M L

Automatic sprinklers not required in many existing IBC:903.2.1.2 (41 X

structures. 5000:16.3.5.1.1 [3] X

Polyurethane foam used as sound insulation on platform education. X

and walls. practice

Model codes can provide a meaningful level of safety only policy, practice X

when adopted, practiced, and enforced by local

jurisdictions.

Model codes attempt to deliver reasonable safety but do not policy X

guarantee safety of occupants in all anticipated situations.

Criteria for optimum allocation of resources among routine policy, practice. X

inspections, prevention programs, and emergency response research

not established.

Inspection reports not maintained. 101:12.7.1 [7] X

101:13.7.1 [7] X

IBC: 104.7 [4] X

5000:1.7.6.6.4 [3] X

Portable fire extinguishers ineffective/not used early in fire. training, practice X

Stairs and landings at side exits may not have been at same IBC:1008.1.4 [4] X

level on both sides of doors. 5000:11.2.1.3 [3] X

Main entrance double doors not equipped with panic IBC:1008.1.9 [4] X

hardware. 5000:16.2.2.2.3 [3] X

Details of work not included in permits, or permits not IBC:105.1 [4] X

obtained. 5000:1.7.6.1.1 [3] X

No indication that building was inspected following 1BC:109.1 [4] X

completion of work. 5000:1.7.6.6.1.3 [3] X

8.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING MODEL STANDARDS, CODES,

AND PRACTICES

The general public expects that the model code upon which their community depends will protect them in

public buildings from severe hazards (that can be anticipated). The investigation concluded that strict

adherence to 2003 model codes available at the time of the fire would go a long way to preventing similar

tragedies in the future. Changes to the codes subsequent to the fire made them stronger. By making some

additional changes - and state and local agencies adopting and enforcing them - we can strengthen

occupant safety even further. It is important to note that neither of the 2003 model codes were required to

be followed at the time of The Station fire, and that NIST did not examine the code actually in force in

West Warwick on Feb. 20, 2003, because the goal of the investigation was to understand how the incident

happened, how it progressed, and how changes could be made in standards, codes and practices to avoid

similar outcomes.

Adoption of a model code, in and of itself, is not sufficient to guarantee the safety of a building, however,

since the source of a building failure that leads to significant loss of life usually can be traced to a breakdown in one or more of the following key assumptions upon which the model codes are based:

8-9
( 1 ) that the building designer, constructor, owner, operator, staff and patrons adhere to all applicable code

provisions; (2) that the authorities having jurisdiction (AHJs) properly interpret and aggressively enforce

the code provisions; and (3) that the historical record is a reliable predictor of worst case events.

Recognizing this, model codes need to be robust and more redundant to minimize the chances of loss of

life caused by the failure of a building that is out compliance, or is operating out of compliance, with code

provisions. Adequate performance of the structure should be ensured even when one of the protective

systems is compromised by uncertain behaviors of the building owner or occupants such as the following:

a) installing building decorations or temporary features that greatly exceed flame spread or fire

load provisions;

b) exposing the building to strong ignition sources;

c) exceeding the posted occupancy limits;

d) temporarily blocking an exit; and

e) disabling sprinklers or other life safety systems for maintenance.

Recommendation 1

The findings presented above and the recommendations that follow raise a number of issues concerning

model codes and standards, and the practices surrounding their adoption, application, and enforcement.

NIST will work with the major organizations representing state and local officials - including mayors,

state legislators, and county executives, as well as building and fire officials—to encourage them to

seriously consider the recommendations of this report. As a starting point, state and local jurisdictions

need to establish a sufficient building code infrastructure.

NIST recommends that all state and localjurisdictions:

a) adopt a building andfire code covering nightclubs based on one ofthe model codes (as a

minimum requirement), and update local codes as the model codes are revised;

b) implement aggressive and effective fire inspection and enforcement programs that address: (i)

all aspects ofthose codes; (ii) documentation ofbuilding permits and alterations; (Hi) means of

egress inspection and record keeping; (iv) frequency and rigor offire inspections, includingfollowup and auditing procedures; (v) and guidelines on recourse available to the inspectorfor identified

deviations from code provisions; and

c) ensure that enough fire inspectors and building plan examiners are on staffto do the job and

that they are professionally qualified to a national standard such as NFPA 1031 [14J.

Recommendation 2

The results of the investigation clearly demonstrated the value of an NFPA 13 compliant automatic fire

sprinkler system in extending the time the nightclub remained tenable. Recommendation 2 mirrors the

action already taken by NFPA to strengthen the requirement for sprinklers in new and existing nightclubs

and festival seating venues. NIST recommends that model codes require sprinkler systems, and that state and local authorities

adopt and aggressively enforce this provision:

a) for all new nightclubs regardless ofsize, and

b) for existing nightclubs with an occupancy limit greater than 100 people.

8-10
Recommendation 3

Limitations on the flammability of materials used as finish produets in nightclubs are included in both

model codes, with specific references to NFPA 286, ASTM E-84, and/or NFPA 255. These standards

and the sections of the codes that refer to them are the focus of recommendation 3.

In relation to the fire performance offinish materials and building contents, NIST recommends:

a) that state and local authorities adopt and aggressively enforce the existing provisions of

the model codes;

b) that non-fire retardedflexible polyurethanefoam, and other materials that ignite as easily

andpropagateflames as rapidly as non-fire retardedflexible polyurethanefoam, (i) be

clearly identifiable to building owners, operators, contractors, and authorities having

jurisdiction (regulatory agencies/; and (ii) be specificallyforbidden, with no exceptions, as finish materials from all new and existing nightclubs;

c) that NFPA 286 be modified to provide more explicit guidance to building owners,

operators, contractors, and authorities havingjurisdiction for when large-scale tests that are covered in NFPA 286 are required to demonstrate that materials (other than those

already forbidden in b above) do not pose an undue hazardfor the use intended; and

d) that ASTM E-84, NFPA 255, and NFPA 286 be modified to ensure that product

classification and the pass/fail criteria forflame spread tests and large-scale tests are

established using the best measurement andprediction practices available.

Recommendation 4

Most pyrotechnic devices produce temperatures high enough to ignite certain materials, including nonfire retarded flexible polyurethane foam, if the device is in close proximity to the material. NFPA 1126,

Use ofPyrotechnics before a Proximate Audience, is a model standard that provides "requirements for the

protection of property, operators, performers, support personnel, and the viewing audiences where

pyrotechnic effects are used..." [12] The provisions in NFPA 1 126 are designed to prevent an incident

such as the one that occurred in The Station nightclub on Feb. 20, 2003. Because it is not possible for the

authority having jurisdiction to continuously monitor what materials are brought into a nightclub, and

where they may be placed relative to a pyrotechnic device, the model code should be unequivocal on

those situations in which pyrotechnic devices are simply not permitted.

NIST recommends that NFPA 1126 be strengthened as described below, and that state and local

authorities adopt and aggressively enforce the revised standard:

a) Pyrotechnic devices should be bannedfrom indoor use in new and existing nightclubs not

equipped with an NFPA IS compliant automatic sprinkler system.

b) NFPA 1126 should be modified to include a minimum occupancy and/or area for a

nightclub below which pyrotechnic devices should be bannedfrom indoor use, irrespective

ofthe installation ofan automatic sprinkler system.

c) Plansfor the use ofindoor pyrotechnics in new and existing nightclubs should be posted on

site; and in addition to the items listed in para. 4.3.2 ofNFPA 1126, should describe the

^ For example - all non-fire retarded polyurethane foam could be fonnulated with bright red or orange coloring to indicate that it

is not a fire retarded product and may ignite easily and propagate flames rapidly.

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measures that have been established to provide crowd management^ security, fire

protection, and other emergency services.

d) Section 6.6.2 ofNFPA 1126 should be modified to require a minimum clearance between

(1) the nearestfixed or moveable contents, and

(2) any part or product (igniter, spark, projectile, or debris) ofa pyrotechnic device

permittedfor indoor use in new and existing places ofassembly,

to be twice the designed projection ofthe device, until such time that studies show that a

smaller minimum clearance can guarantee safe operation in spite ofthe possibility that

building decorations or temporaryfeatures that greatly exceedflame spread orfire load

provisions ofthe fire code may occur.

Recommendation 5

The rationale for changes in egress provisions includes the realization that the impact of smoke, heat, and

gases on human behavior during evacuation is not known; that mobility challenged persons take longer to

evacuate; that other fire safety systems may be non-functional; and that threats other than fire can require

rapid evacuation. Given the uncertainty in human behavior, and uncertainties in fire hazard calculations

and egress analysis during an emergency, the code should ensure that the margin of safety on the time

required to evacuate a nightclub accounts for the maximum reasonable uncertainty in these predictions.

NIST found the conditions in The Station to be untenable in less than 1-1/2 minutes.

NIST recommends that the factor ofsafety for determining occupancy limits ofall new and

existing nightclubs be increased in the model codes in the following manner, and that state and

local authorities adopt and aggressively enforce these provisions:

a) Within the model codes, establish the threshold building area and occupant limits for

egress provisions using best practices for estimating tenability and evacuation time; and,

unless further studies indicate another value is more appropriate, use 1-1/2 minutes as the

maximum permitted evacuation time for nightclubs similar to or smaller than The Station.

b) Compute the number ofrequired exits and the permitted occupant loads assuming at least

one exit (including the main entrance) will be inaccessible in an emergency evacuation.

c) For nightclubs with one clearly identifiable main entrance, increase the minimum capacity

ofthe main entrance to accommodate 2/3 ofthe maximum permitted occupant level (based

upon standing space orfestival seating, ifapplicable) during an emergency.

d) Eliminate trade-offs between sprinkler installation andfactors that impact the time to

evacuate buildings.

e) Require staff training and evacuation plans for all nightclubs that cannot be evaeuated in

less than 1-1/2 minutes.

f) Provide improved meansfor occupants to locate emergency routes — such as explicit

evacuation directions prior to the start ofany public event, exit signs near thefloor, and

fioor lighting — for when standard exit signs become obscured by smoke.

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Recommendation 6

Portable fire extinguishers, if readily available to someone properly trained, can be effective early in a fire

and delay fire spread in the event the sprinkler system is not functioning.

NIST recommends that a study be performed to determine the minimum number and appropriate

placement (based upon the time requiredfor access and application in a fully occupied building) of

portable fire extinguishers for use in new and existing nightclubs, and the level ofstaff training

required to ensure their proper use. Recommendation 7

As in all mass causality events, especially those where the window of opportunity for rescue is extremely

limited, effective and efficient communications within and among the various responding agencies is imperative. Developing effective interoperable communications requires addressing numerous factors,

including frequent use of interoperable communications equipment and procedures, formal governance

and collaboration, fornial standard operating procedures, appropriate technology, and multi-agency

training and exercises. Tools and best practice models addressing many of these success factors,

including a statewide communications interoperability planning methodology, are available though the

Department of Homeland Security's SAFECOM Program [24], and through model standards such as those listed below.

To ensure an effective response to a rapidly developing mass casualty event, NIST recommends

that state and local authorities adopt existing model standards on communications, mutual aid,

command structure and staffing, such as:

a) NFPA 1221, Standardfor the Installation, Maintenance, and Use ofEmergency Services

Communications Systems [15J

b) NFPA 1561, Standard on Emergency Services Incident Management Systems [I6J

c) NFPA 1 710, Standardfor the Organization and Deployment ofFire Suppression

Operations, Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Career

Fire Departments [5]

d) NFPA 1 720, Standardfor the Organization and Deployment ofFire Suppression

Operations, Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Volunteer

Fire Departments [I3J

8.4 ACTIONS ALREADY TAKEN

The magnitude of the incident at West Warwick invoked a swift response by code developing

organizations as well as by the State of Rhode Island. A number of the most critical recommendations

from NIST presented above already have been enacted, either on a temporary emergency basis or as a permanent change to the codes. Some NIST recommendations have been addressed only partially, while

aspects of others have been proposed and rejected by code bodies. Table 8-5 provides a cross-walk

between the recommendations from NIST and the actions already taken that are discussed below.

(i) National Fire Protection Association

The Standards Council of NFPA held hearings to consider Tentative Interim Amendments (TIAs) to

address certain life safety issues raised by The Station fire. The TIAs dealt with sprinklers, occupancy

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levels, crowd management, and means of egress. The following TIAs, and the NFPA Code section to which they apply, were approved in July 2003:

• Sprinkler existing nightclub type facilities and festival seating venues with occupant loads

greater than 100 (TIA #739R, 101: 13.3.5.1 [7])

• Sprinkler new nightclub type facilities and festival seating venues (TIA #741 R, 101:12.3.5.1

[7], and TIA #743R, 5000: 16.3.5.1.1 [3])

• Require trained crowed managers for existing and new assembly occupancies (TIA #738,

101:12.7.5 [7] and 101:13.7.5 [7])

• Restrict festival seating in new and existing facilities if occupant load is greater than 250

unless life-safety evaluation conducted (TIA #737R, 101:12.2.5.4.1 [7] and 101:13.2.5.4.1

[7]; and TIA #740R, 5000:16.2.5.4.1 [3]).

• Require of owner means of egress inspection and record keeping (TIA #742R, 101:12.7. 1 [7]

and 101:13.7.1 [7]).

(ii) International Code Council

A number of proposals for code changes related to The Station fire incident were submitted to the ICC at

its September 2003 public hearing. One proposal, to require foam plastics covered with a textile or vinyl

facing to pass a flame spread test (proposal FS 108-03/04) [4], was approved.

Several proposals were aimed at increasing the capacity of the main entrance and the area requirement per

occupant:

• Proposal El 01 -03/04 to eliminate 300 occupant minimum before requiring 50% capacity for

main entrance, and increasing capacity requirement to 67%

• Proposals E102-03/04 and E103-03/04 to increase capacity of main entrance to 75% and 67%,

respectively.

• Proposal El 1-03/04 to increase area required per occupant from 0.47 nr (5 ft”) to 0.65 m*" (7

fr)

• Proposal El 3-03/04 to eliminate sprinkler trade-offs with egress width requirement

These proposals were disapproved, primarily due to lack of technical justification to substantiate the

change. The recommendations for research presented later in this chapter were made to address this

issue.

(iii) State of Rhode Island

The State of Rhode Island acted quickly to examine its own building and fire codes. A special legislative

commission was formed, held hearings, and delivered its report to the governor on June 5, 2003 [21].

Quoting from the letter of transmittal, five actions were identified to improve building standards, codes,

and practices:

• "Require the use across the board of up-to-date fire safety codes — this will require the

elimination of the 'grandfather clause'— and the coordinated administration of fire safety

building codes.

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Table

8-5.

Actions

taken

by

model

code

bodies

and

State

of

Rhode

Island I CO
8-16
• Prohibit the use of pyrotechnics in places of assembly such as nightclubs and strictly regulate

their use in large venues... that can accommodate them safely.

• Mandate sprinklers in nightclubs with an occupancy of 150 or greater and in all Class A and

B places of assembly, except places of worship and state and municipal buildings used for

government purposes and place other requirements on nightclubs as high risk places of

assembly.

• Provide greater enforcement powers to fire marshals to assure their ability: a) to make

inspections, b) to require immediate abatement of conditions that pose an imminent threat to

public safety or property and when necessary to order a premises vacated, and c) to inspect of

nightclubs and other places of assembly during their actual hours of operation.

• Establish comprehensive planning requirements to identify in the future the weaknesses in

Rhode Island's approach to fire safety and to recommend actions needed to improve fire

safety."

The Fire Safety Code of the State of Rhode Island was amended significantly by The Comprehensive Fire

Safety Act of 2003 [22] to address these five items and other issues discussed in the June 5 Report.

Among the most significant changes was the adoption by Rhode Island of the Uniform Fire Code (NFPA

1) [5] and the Life Safety Code (NFPA 101) [7], which now includes the provisions of TIAs #73 7R,

73 8R, 739R, 740R, 74 IR, 742R, and 743R. All new and existing places of assembly in Rhode Island

with a capacity greater than 300 will be required to be completely protected by an approved automatic

sprinkler as of July 1, 2005. For new and existing buildings similar to The Station nightclub with

occupancy less than 301 but greater than 150, the deadline for installing sprinklers is July 1, 2006.

Additional provisions in The Comprehensive Fire Safety Act of 2003 include the requirement for two 20

pound fire extinguishers in stage areas and the strengthening of inspection authority for the Fire Marshal.

8.5 RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS AND OTHER APPROPRIATE

ACTIONS

This investigation focused on The Station nightclub. Several recommendations in this report relate

directly to nightclub structures, and other recommendations apply more broadly. Model building code

organizations as well as state and local regulatory authorities should review the results of this

investigation and consider the findings regarding sprinklers, egress, and materials flammability as they

make revisions to their codes.

The acceptance by the model code and standards organizations of the recommendations being made by

NIST and the adoption of modified provisions of the national model codes into the local code depend

upon the strength of the technical evidence when weighed against the economic impact of implementing

the change. There are a number of areas where the benefits may be obvious and the costs of

implementation to the property owner and community can be computed easily. In those areas, to apply a

particular provision of the code or not becomes a local policy decision that is not necessarily hindered by

a lack of information available to the decision-maker.

There are other areas in which the basis for making the change is unsupported by data or technical rigor.

Research is often needed in order to gain new knowledge and collect the data necessary to ensure that

such changes are adopted if justified, or rejected if not. Research results also serve as the basis for setting

thresholds or pass/fail criteria.

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8.5.1 Recommendations for Research

NIST is required, under the NCST Act, to identify areas of research needed to support improvements to model building codes, standards and practices. Based upon the findings of this investigation and the

resultant recommendations presented in section 8.3, additional research is recommended in three general

areas;

• human behavior and people movement,

• material behavior and fire spread, and

• decision aids.

Recommendation 8

A basic tenet of our model codes is that public buildings should be designed and operated in a manner

that assures there is enough time for occupants to evacuate safely for an anticipated worst case fire. In addition, we need to determine the desired behavior of occupants when faced with an unanticipated

extreme event. Crowd-crush as observed in The Station fire also occurred in the E-2 [18] nightclub in

Chicago the week prior to The Station incident, killing 21 people even though there was no fire, or even a

real threat to the occupants. There is a need to understand better the behavior of people and crowds in

emergency situations to pinpoint the factors that lead to crowd crush. This would enable sensible changes

in building design to minimize the possibility of crowd crush, and improved ways to communicate to the

crowd in emergency situations that go beyond the code, in direct support of recommendation 5. NIST recommends that research be conducted to better understand human behavior in emergency

situations, and to predict the impact ofbuilding design on safe egress in fires and other

emergencies (real or perceived), including the following:

a) the impact of fire products (gases, heat, and obscuration) on occupant decisions and

egress speeds;

b) exit number, placement, size and signage;

c) conditions leading to and mitigating crowd-crush;

d) the role ofcrowd managers and group interactions;

e) theoretical models ofgroup behavior suitable for coupling to fire and smoke movement

simulations; and

f) the level ofsafety that model codes afford occupants ofbuildings.

Recommendation 9

The behavior of people in a fire emergency and the time they have to escape depend upon the speed at which the fire spreads. Significant progress has been made in our ability to model the dynamics of a fire

moving through a building, as evidenced by the simulations of The Station fire presented in this report.

However, the state of the technology is insufficient to accurately model, in general, the spread of fire over common composite structures such as foam insulation on plywood, fabric covered foam furnishings, or gypsum covered wood frames. The detailed mechanisms for the fonnation of toxic products and smoke

are extremely complex and are not amenable for inclusion in predictive fire models. Instead, it is necessary to rely on scientific experiments and real-scale fire testing of products and room geometries

that are similar to what existed in the actual event to develop the empirical data required as input to

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computer fire models. This can be an impossible task for a fire that has occurred in a very large space, or when the fire totally destroys the structure along with the key evidence necessary for a reasonable

recreation.

The time available for safe egress is influenced by the building geometry and ventilation system, the

materials of construction and furnishings, and actions to suppress the fire. Predicting sprinkler activation

and suppression and the influence of fire fighting activities on the spread of the fire is another aspect of

the problem that cannot be done today to any but the grossest level of precision.

NIST recommends that research be conducted to understandfire spread and suppression better in

order to provide the tools needed by the design profession to address recommendations 2, 3, and 5,

above. Thefollowing specific capabilities require research:

a) prediction offlame spread over actual wall, ceiling andfloor lining materials, and room

furnishings;

b) quantification ofsmoke and toxic gas production in realistic room fires; and

c) development ofgeneralized models forfire suppression with fixed sprinklers andfor

firefighter hose streams.

Recommendation 10

New knowledge, data, and predictive methods generated in the above research will lead to new

technologies and improved fire standards. The selection among alternative fire safety technologies or building design options, and the setting of threshold values in the model codes, can have significant

economic ramifications. New tools are needed that can be tailored to the individual stakeholder that

rigorously account for cost in a manner transparent to competing interests. This research would be of

particular value to implementing recommendations 1 and 7, above.

NIST recommends that research be conducted to:

a) refine computer-aided decision tools for determining the costs and benefits ofalternative

code changes andfire safety technologies, and

b) develop computer models to assist communities in allocating resources (money and staff) to

ensure that their response to an emergency with a large number ofcasualties is effective.

8.5.2 Impact of Research

Completing the research recommended will put a sound technical foundation under the changes to codes,

standards and practices that have already been made or are suggested. Specifically, a comprehensive

research program would lead to an ability to:

• evaluate the impact of changing egress capacity and occupant load factors on the minimum

time available for safe evacuation;

• quantify the value of increasing the size of the main entrance to handle a greater fraction of

the occupant load;

• determine the relationship between flame spread rating on finish materials and fire spread in

actual buildings;

8-19
• predict the smoke and toxic gas levels to a much greater level of precision, and the

ramification of these fire products on occupant movement;

• quantify the value of sprinklers in places of assembly with different occupant loads, and

compare the performance of alternative designs;

• investigate different strategies for managing crowds under various threat types and levels;

• supplement training for firefighters, fire marshals, other emergency responders, code officials,

and crowd managers; and

• educate building owners, their employees and the general public on approaches to remain safe

in places of assembly.

REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 8

NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation ofSprinkler Systems, National Fire Protection

Association, Quincy, MA, 2002.

Providence Journal, “In the Fire,” p. B4, February 20, 2004.

NFPA 5000, Building Construction and Safety Code, National Fire Protection Association,

Quincy, MA, 2002

2003 International Building Code, International Code Council, Inc., Country Club Hills, IL,

2002 . NFPA 1710, Standardfor the Organization and Deployment ofFire Suppression Operations,

Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Career Fire

Departments, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2001.

NFPA 1, Uniform Fire Code, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2003.

NFPA 101, Life Safety Code, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2003.

NFPA 10, Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers, National Fire Protection Association,

Quincy, MA, 2002

ASTM E84-00a, Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics ofBuilding

Materials, American Society for Testing & Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, 2001.

NFPA 286, Standard Methods offire Tests for Evaluating Contribution of Wall and Ceiling

Interior Finish to Room Fire Growth, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2002.

NFPA 255, Standard Method of Test ofSurface Burning Characteristics ofBuilding Materials,

National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2002.

NFPA 1126, Use ofPyrotechnics before a Proximate Audience, National Fire Protection

Association, Quincy, MA, 2002

NFPA 1 720, Standard for the Organization and Deployment ofFire Suppression Operations,

Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Volunteer Fire

Departments, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2001.

NFPA 1031 , Professional Qualifications for Fire Inspector and Plan Examiner, National Fire

Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2003.
[15] NFPA 1221, Standardfor the Installation, Maintenance, and Use ofEmergency Services

Communications Systems, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2002.

[16] NFPA 1561, Standard on Emergency SeiMces Incident Management Systems, National Fire

Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2002.

[17] NFPA Alert Bulletin, “Social Club Fire Bronx, New York”. Number 90-2, May 1990.

[18] NFPA Fire Investigation Report, Dance Hall Fire, Gothenburg, Sweden, National Fire Protection

Association, Quincy, MA, 1998.

[19] Lostetter, S.M.O., and Reijman, P.B., "Reconstruction of the Fire in 'de Hemel' in Volendam,

New Years Eve 2000/2001," Interflam 2004.

[20] Johnson, Mark, Chicago Club had been told to Close, Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, 18 Feb. 2003.

[21] "Making Rliode Island the Safest State," Report to the Rhode Island General Assembly, June 5

2003.

[22] Comprehensive Fire Safety Act of 2003, Chapter 23-28, Amendment to the General Laws,

Health and Safety, SECTION 2. Title 23.

[23] Associated Press, March 28, 2005.

[24] http ://www. safecomprogram. gov/SAFECOM/

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