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NBSIR 82-2508

An Assessment of Correlations

Between Laboratory and

Full-Scale Experiments for the

FAA Aircraft Fire Safety Program,

Part 1 : Smoke

U S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Bureau of Standards

National Engineering Laboratory

Center for Fire Research

Washington, DC 20234

July 1982

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Sponsored by:

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NBSIR 82-2508

AN ASSESSMENT OF CORRELATIONS

BETWEEN LABORATORY AND - FULL-SCALE EXPERIMENTS FOR THE

FAA AIRCRAFT FIRE SAFETY PROGRAM,

PARTI: SMOKE

James G. Quintiere

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Bureau of Standards

National Engineering Laboratory

Center for Fire Research

Washington, DC 20234

July 1982

Sponsored by:

U.S. Department of Transportation

Federal Aviation Administration

Technical Center

Atlantic City Airport, NJ 08405

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Malcolm Baldrige, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Director
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M ASSESSMENT OF CORRELATIONS BETWEEN LABORATORY

AND FULL-SCALE EXPERIMENTS FOR THE FAA AIRCRAFT

FIRE SAFETY PROGRAM, PART 1: SMOKE

by

James G. Quintiere

Abstract

An extensive review Is presented demonstrating the nature of comparison

between full-scale fire smoke data and test method results for materials

These correlations are presented In terms of consistent parameters

established through a development of the governing equations for smoke

concentration and light attenuation. Visibility data limited to

light transmission through smoke are also presented. The complex

dependence of smoke production on many parameters acting In fire growth

limits the success of simple correlation methods. Recommendations are made for further research to establish a sound basis for correlations,

and the prediction of smoke obscuration due to fire.

Key words: Correlation, full-scale, review, smoke, test methods
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION 1

Purpose 1

Background 1

DISCUSSION 2

Visibility in Smoke 2 Macroscopic Equations for Smoke and Optical Density 3

Factors Affecting Smoke Properties 8

COMPARISON BETWEEN TEST (METHOD) DATA AND LARGE SCALE FIRE EXPERIMENTS 11

Comparisons for Closed Systems 12

Comparisons with Fullscale Room Fire Growth Data 12

Comparison Between Test Methods 15

CONCLUSIONS 16

REFERENCES 19

APPENDIX

1
\

' ’ f V-;

1
LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

A-1 Data from Heselden A-3

A

Data from Watts A-4

AData from Parker A

AData from Babrauskas A

A

Data from Woolley, Raftery, Ames, Murrell A

AData from Evans A-8

k-1 Data from Tustin A-9
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1 Visibility Results Derived from Rasbash [29], Jin [5], and

Lopez [IJ. 22

2 Conservation of Mass for Smoke in a Control Volume (region

Enclosed by dashed lines) . 23

3 Mass Optical Density as a Function of Heat Flux Derived from

Brown [23]. 24

4 D Rankings at two Flixx Levels from Brown [23] for Piloted

lUmon. 25

5 D Compared for the Smoke Density Chamber and Large

cfdse^ Rooms from Lopez [1], Shores [32] and Robertson [33] . 26

6 Comparison Between Full-Scale and Test Method Results in

Terms of Maximum Specific Optical Density (D ) and Mass

Optical Density (ay). s,max

1 Smoke Production for Plywood as a Function of Temperature (a) ana Ventilation Factor (b) from Saito [24]. 28

8 Full-Scale Smoke Compared to D from the OSU Combustibility

Apparatus at Several Heat Flux Levels [21]. 29

9 Results from Room Lining Fires Compared to the Smoke Density

Chamber from Christian and Waterman [42]. 30

10 Smoke in Corridor Fire Spread Compared to Results Derived from

the Steiner Tunnel Test from Christian and Waterman [42]. 31

11 Lining Fires in Rooms and Smoke Data from the Smoke Density

Chamber and the ASTME-84 Tunnel Classification for Smoke from

Fang [43]. 32

12 Smoke from Lining Fires in a Room Compared to the Early Fire

Hazard (Australia) Test Method [44]. 33

13 Comparison of Smoke Density Chamber, OSU Combustibility Apparatus, and British Smoke Test Data [21, 33]. 34

A-1 Full-Scale Test Configurations and Test Method Apparatus Used

in Correlation. Symbols Denote Measurement Locations: D-Llght

Transmission, T-Temperature , V-Velocity, m-Mass Loss. A-2

Iv
NOMENCLATURE

A

A

o

C

s D

D

s E

H

o

I

k

a

,k k

s V

L

L

V

m

n

5

t

V

V

V

X

V

a

6

A

a

X

fuel surface area

area of room opening

mass of smoke particulate per unit gas volume

optical density, Eq. (3)

specific optical density, Eqs. (15, 16)

rate of energy release

height of room opening

light intensity

parameters

path length of light beam

visibility, Eq. (6)

mass or mass loss

unit outward normal vector

surface area of control volume

time

velocity vector

volume

volume flow rate

general abscissa variable

general ordinate variable

particle optical density Eq. (12)

sample thickness

change in (initial to final)

extinction coefficient

fraction of particulate mass to fuel mass loss

V
SUBSCRIPTS.

a - absorption

f - f inal

o - initial

s - scattering, smoke particulate

V - visibility

SUPERSCRIPTS.

(*) - per unit time

( )" - per unit area
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This study was sponsored by the Fire Safety Branch of The Federal Aviation

Administration Technical Center at Atlantic City, New Jersey. The author

gratefully appreciates the advice of Mr. R. Hill, the technical monitor,

and also the assistance of Mr. C. Sarkos of the FAA.

vli

INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE.

The purpose of this review is to present and to interpret experimental

smoke measurements. Comparisons will be made of data from laboratory

fire tests for smoke with those of full-scale fire experiments. A positive correlation of these results could be interpreted as a basis for the

relevance and credibility of the laboratory test method to measure the

production of smoke in fire. Alternatively, a positive correlation could

be interpreted as fortuitous since conditions in an uncontrolled fire

vary while laboratory test conditions are fixed. Hence some underlying

factors controlling the production of smoke must be identified to fully

appreciate, and perhaps understand, the degree to which such correlation

comparisons are sound.

An analytical review of the fire smoke literature was made primarily seeking

studies related to comparisons between full-scale fires and test methods.

It may not be totally comprehensive, but the results are believed to be

representative of the state-of-the-art. Where possible, results from

various studies were unified using the governing equations for smoke

production and light attenuation. Studies related to the factors on which smoke production and obscuration depend were also reviewed. It is

intended that the results of this study demonstrate the extent to which

a laboratory test for smoke can predict smoke in an actual fife, and the

factors which influence the results of a prediction or correlation. This

review will not include analysis of complete fire growth computer-based

models to predict smoke production (e.g. [3]).

BACKGROUND

Smoke generation is one of the characteristics of uncontrolled fires which

represents a threat to life safety. In general, smoke can be considered as the mixture of gaseous and particulate products of combustion flowing from

the fire. This "smoke” could affect life safety by reducing visibility

due to obscuration and by causing physiological dysfunction and other

toxic effects. The two effects are related when the smoke impairs vision

due to sensory irritant species produced by the fire. In fact, it has

been reported that a sensory Irritant effect on visibility occurred at a lower smoke concentration (optical density) than that affecting visibility

for protected eyes [1]. Although a methodology has been proposed for

assessing the sensory irritant effect of combustion products using an animal model [2], a clear approach to this sensory smoke hazard does not

exist. In contrast, the light transmission characteristics of smoke have

been studied extensively, and several methods exist for determining the

"smoke contribution" of a material. It is these studies of light transmission through smoke that will be reviewed. No further discussion of

the irritant and toxicological effects of smoke on vision and human

function in general will be presented.

1
DISCUSSION

VISIBILITY IN SMOKE.

The attenuation of light by smoke is examined in order to relate it to

visibility and its impact on escape from a fire. Visibility is a measure

of the electromagnetic radiation in the spectral range to which the

human eye is sensitive and the ability to perceive images based on their

emitted, reflected and transmitted light. For the most part, smoke test

methods only measure the attenuation of a parallel beam of light; they

do not consider the irritant effect of smoke on vision.

Bouguer’s law [4] applies to the attenuated intensity of radiation

I^(L) received over a path length L from a source of intensity 1^(0).

I^(L) = I^ (0) exp ( 1 )

where is the monochromatic extinction coefficient. In measurements on

smoke, is usually assumed to be uniform over the path length and independent of wavelength over the narrow band for visible radiation (or taken

at a fixed wavelength if a laser light source is used). Hence

( 2 )

aL is called the optical thickness or opacity, but in measurements of

fire smoke the term optical density (D) has more commonly been used.

Specifically

• = ... («S)

or

D = aL/2.303 (4)

A measure of D, or more precisely a, is not necessarily complete in order

to define visibility. Here "visibility" will be more narrowly defined as L , the maximum distance which allows a visual discrimination of an object. A measure of visual discrimination has normally been based on an observer's ability to see an object or read a sign. It could more

quantitatively be evaluated in terms of contrast levels and other optical

parameters. As described so well by Jin [5], the visibility depends on the light intensity of the object, the intensity of the background and

illuminating light, plus the scattering (a ) and absorption (a ) coefficients of the smoke. The total extinction" coefficient O is the sum

a a

a + o (5)

2
and thus O alone does not provide sufficient information to predict

visibility through smoke. Nevertheless, it has been shown by Jin [5]

that for a back-lighted or illuminated sign, OL is approximately a constant which depends on the intensity of the lig^t leaving the sign and

the ratio of scattering to extinction coefficient for the smoke. Experimental results by Jin and others [1, 29] are given in Figure 1 (the data

bars represent the spread of results due to different smokes) . These

data were based on observations of different objects by subjects whose

eyes were protected from direct contact with the smoke; consequently,

irritant effects have been eliminated. The scatter in the data represent

the variations of light intensity from the viewed object and of the smoke

optical properties. For fire safety design purposes the relationship oL

or (D/L) L = constant could be used by selection of an appropriate

"design constant" (k ) from Figure 1. By measuring optical density per

path length (D/L) for smoke generated by a particular material, the

maximum distance for vision is determined by

k

L = —

V (D/L) ( 6 )

MACROSCOPIC EQUATIONS FOR SMOKE AND OPTICAL DENSITY.

The optical density of smoke depends on the mass of suspended particles

and on the optical properties of the smoke aerosol, and any attempts at

correlating laboratory smoke tests of a material with its performance in

full-scale fire experiments must be couched in terms of the conservation

of mass for smoke. This equation will be derived, expressed in terms of

(D/L) , and its various forms will be considered in applications to predicting or correlating smoke concentration or light transmission.

A macroscopic mass balance equation will be derived for a fixed finite

control volume in which smoke is produced. In principle, the control

volume could be shrunk to a point, and thereby the corresponding spatial

differential equation could be derived. Figure 2 shows an arbitrary control volume bounded by walls with two openings, and within which is a fire or decomposing .material of involved surface area, A.

The conservation eqvjatlon of smoke (specifically, its particulate mass

conservation for the fixed control volume) is given as

3“ III C dV + C v.n dS = m

dt JJJ s Jj s s,net

Rate of accumulatioii Net rate of smoke Net rate of

of smoke (particulate 4- leaving the control smoke promass) in the control

volume, V

1 volume through surface

S

duced

L -J

3
where is the mass of particulates per unit gas volume

V is the velocity of the aerosol (assumes the particles move

with the bulk gas velocity)

and n is the unit, positive outward, surface normal vector.

The net rate of smoke produced is

m = m - m ^ s,net s s,lost ( 8 )

where the rate of smoke generated (m ) is expressed in terms of a fraction

of particulate mass to total mass loss (smoke fraction), y, where

dm

X

= (9a)

and m is total mass lost. For a fire fully involving a fixed area. A,

m = Y m” A.

s ^ (9b)

This case will be considered for simplicity in the following development.

The rate of smoke lost, m depends on particulate settling, adhesion

to the solid surfaces, an^ ’ v8fatliization of the particulates. Condensation of species to form more liquid particulates is also possible. These

processes will not be addressed in further detail, but bear on appraising

the accuracy of smoke correlations. Since no accounting of these losses

is taken in any of the studies on fire smoke performed, a full quantitative

accounting of its effect can not be presented. It is present in all

systems, but its effect has been ignored in analyses of smoke production.

Since light transmission is the convenient form of smoke measurement.

Equation (7) is more appropriately expressed in terms of optical density.

This is easily done since experimental results and electromagnetic theory

[6-9] give

and

a = k C /p

a ass (10a)

where

a = k C /p

s s s s (10b)

p is the density of the smoke particulate and the parameters

k and k^ depend on wavelength (A), particle size and shape

and index of refraction.

4
For smoke composed mainly of soot (an absorbing and scattering aerosol)

the scattering component is negligible in the visible range [7] and

a ^ a = k’ C /(p (11) a ass

"White" smoke or smoke generated from smoldering or non-flaming thermal

decomposition tends to be primarily a scattering medium in the visible

range [10].

Seader and Ou [11] have found a very useful result for both flaming and

non-flaming radiative decomposition at 2.5 W/cm for a number of materials

and even for combinations of materials [12]. They show that at the

completion of the decomposition process

(D/L) = a C^, (12)

2 2 where a = 1900 m /kg for non-flaming and a = 3300 m /kg for flaming

decomposition. The results are consistent with electromagnetic theory

calculations [11] and the data of others [13, 14]. But the dependence

of a on time, heat flux, and initial smoke concentration is not fully

resolved. Yet Equations (10) and (12) can provide extremely useful

results in generalizing our understanding of smoke from fire.

The parameter a in Eq. (12) has been termed the "particle optical density"

by Seader and co-workers. It could also be termed a specific extinction

coefficient (per particulate volume fraction) as suggested by Eq. (10).

Equation (12) will be used to Introduce optical density into the mass balance equation for smoke. Hence from Eqs. (7), (9b) and (12):

dt a

D

L

D

L

V. n dS

s, lost (13)

This is the basic equation that must be used to predict or correlate

light transmission data for smoke.

Assuming no losses, the mass rate of smoke particulates produced can be

calculated by the left-hand-side of Eq. (13); other than a, these parameters are typically measured in fire tests. The total (net) mass of

particulates produced over time t (assuming no losses) is

— v.n dS dt

L

(14)

Without the a factor this has usually been called "total smoke" or some similar term. A related term is the specific optical density, D , as introduced by Gross e^ [15] , but defined in a more general sense here as _

D

s D

L

v.n dS dt /A. (15)

5
The specific optical density is the optical density, D, per unit

pathlength, L, resulting from the decomposition over a material's surface

area, A, times the volume, V, of smoke produced in time t. For a closed

uniform system, such as the smoke density chamber (SDC) [15, 47],

D

s pvLA (16)

Alternatively, for a independent of time (and space) or taken as a suitable mean value,

D = can /A (17a)

s s or

D = axm" (17b)

s if X is also assumed independent of time and where m" is the material

mass lost per unit area in time, t. The product ax has been refered to as the "mass optical density" by Seader and others. It has been suggested

as a more fundamental index of smoke than T) , since D is dependent on material density and thickness while ay is not [16]. This appears to

have some advantage in evaluating a homogeneous material of varying

thickness

Separately, the parameters a and y represent "smoke or fire properties"

of a material. The a is related to fundamental parameters through electromagnetic theory and hence depends on wavelength, index of refraction

and particle size. Although not a fundamental property, it is a useful

engineering parameter in predicting light transmission in smoke. The

mass fraction of smoke, y, is more complex and relates to the mechanisms

involved in thermal decomposition and smoke (soot) formation in flames.

These parameters need to be examined more fully to be able to utilize

Eq. (13) to predict or correlate smoke transmission. Their dependence

on time and environment for a material needs to be known in order to

generalize test results to arbitrary fire conditions. With these con- siderations in mind, correlations or predictions can and have been made,

but they are undoubtedly based on Insufficient information. This will

be Illustrated in the correlation results to be presented.

Equations (15) and (17) provide the basis for scaling and correlation of

smoke measurements. It is assumed that imder the same cond'itions of

heating, environment oomposition, and veZooity, a given material decomposing uniformly (or similarly) over a fixed area and orientation will

have an invariant D at a given time. This follows from Eq. (17a),

provided smoke losses per unit area A are negligible or (m^

lost'^^^s^

invariant. This means that for any fire system described b^^ the control

volume equation ((13) or (14)), D as evaluated by Eq . (15) should be

equal for two different systems (e.g. test method and full-scale) provided

the restrictions of the assumption are met. For a control volume which

always encloses the smoke (even the smoke flowing out of the test chamber)

i.e. a closed system, it can be shown that for g and y independent of

t ime

6
_1

axm"

1 (18a)

dl)

<• dt

tn

closed

system

s,lost

Xm”A

or Integrated over time,

D^(t) . axm", - (18b)

Hence, the mass opticdl density of two systems will be equal if their

values are equal. Again, losses must be negligible or similar and the

area involved must be well defined. The application to a spreading fire

under varying heating and environmental conditions presents difficulty!

Within the limits noted above, two special cases will conveniently serve

as a basis in our discussion and development of correlations.

CLOSED SYSTEM . The first is a closed system uniformly mixed with no smoke

losses

dD

= axm' (19a)

or

where

= axm"

s LA

(19b)

V being the volume of the system.

STEADY OPEN SYSTEM . The second case is the steady flow open system with air

entering and smoke leaving, with no losses:

ax = V

m"A

(20a)

where V is the volume flow rate of smoke leaving the system, or

D^^ = uxm" = Vdt/A (20b)

From light transmission measurements in the smoke and flow measurements,

it is then possible to determine ax or D for these systems. If the

decomposed area is well-defined then D is the appropriate correlating

parameter; if mass loss is measured then ay is the appropriate parameter.

The use of either involves the assumption of time independence for a and

X, and also that negligible or similar smoke losses occur.

7
FACTORS AFFECTING SMOKE PROPERTIES: D , a, X- c)

The parameters a and x can be considered "bulk" material properties,

although D cannot; it is a dimensionless optical density. In analogy

to the healing of a solid, D is to dimensionless temperature as ay is to

the thermal parameter kpc. fet a and y not to be taken as fundamental

properties, such as the density of a pure substance; they are more like

bulk density of an aggregate. In addition a and y must depend on both

solid and gas phase phenomena, l.e. decomposition, the flame dynamics,

and its chemistry. Based on the results of many investigators, factors

affecting ay as well as D can be identified. Reported values for D

were related to the product ay through Eq . (17b) but no attempt was made

to assess a and y Independently. Thus a full characterization of the smoke

properties of a material has not been done, but a sense of the dependent

variables can be inferred from the results reported for D and ay. An

excellent review on fire smokes and a discussion of factors affecting D

and ay was reported by Seader and Elnhorn (17) . The qualitative effect

of these factors will be discussed.

TIME. The quantity D will increase with time as the material decomposes,

reach a maximum, and then tend to slowly decrease as smoke losses dominate

smoke production [15] (e.g. see Eq . (18b)). The mass optical density,

ay, as derived from Eq. (17b) is also found to have a similar behavior

in time. However, lack of data acquisition synchronization between

measurements of sample mass loss and optical density (or light transmission) as well as the effects of non-uniform smoke concentration could

have affected the time response for ay [18]. Moreover a has only been

measured at the end of decomposition (not over time) , and only at a fixed

radiant heating level, 2.5 W/cm [11-13]. It is significant to note that

the calculation of ay by Eq . (17b) assumes a and y are independent of time,

yet experimental results demonstrate otherwise; hence, a "time-averaged"

value for ay is presented. Until a and y are measured individually over

time, a clear understanding of their time behavior during decomposition

is not possible.

EXTERNAL RADIANT HEAT FLUX. Many investigators have demonstrated the

dependence of D and ay on external radiant heat flux for both flaming and

non-flaming [1, 14, 18-23]. The non-flaming mode is arrived at by not

using a pilot flame; however, at high heat fluxes auto-ignition may occur

and therefore a strictly non-flaming or "smoldering" decomposition may not

be possible (except in an inert atmosphere) . Thus at high flux levels

a non-piloted result does not necessarily mean non-flaming. Lack of clarity

or completeness of such results found in the literature leaves the data

ambiguous. Usually there appears to be an Increase of D with flux

but this is not true for all materials. The results o^ §fo^ [23] show

a dramatic increase in D between 2.5 and 5.7 W/cm for non-piloted

ignition. Wliile this coul9 §e due to auto-ignltlon, it is not explicitly

stated. For these materials the non-piloted irradiances produced higher

values for D

s .max than their piloted counterpart. In these studies a vertical

8
sample orientation was used so that melting of materials would affect

the result, and a poorly defined decomposition area affects the calculation

of D . Since mass loss is also dependent on heat flux it is not clear

from D data alone how ax depends of flux. Since ax generally is a more

useful result, an example of the dependence of ay on flux is shown in

Figure 3. These results were derived for the piloted data presented by

Brown [23]. The ax was calculated using Eq. (19b) at the peak value of or where the final data on mass loss were available. These results

clearly show that the dependence of flux on ay is significant, but even

a qualitative trend cannot be drawn. More importantly the ranking of

materials from lo^ to high D values changes significantly between

the low (2.5 W/cm ) and high^(Tf^3 W/cm^) flux levels in the piloted and

non-piloted data of Brown [23] as seen for the piloted data in Figure 4.

TEMPERATURE

Temperature of the environment could be viewed as a surrogate

for radiant heat flux. This is especially so if the heated gas is confined

in a room or test oven. Hence a similar effect would be expected.

Indeed, studies by Saito [24, 25] and Tsuchiya and Suml [26] and more

recently by Bankston, aT . [27] show a distinct but not generally

similar relationship for all materials. For example, Saito [24, 25]

finds that ay both can increase or decrease linearly with temperature

under either non-flaming or flaming conditions; similar to the results

for flux in Figure 3.

OXYGEN CONCENTRATION. The effect of environmental composition has not

been studied extensively, but limited results by Gross, et al. [15]

(non-flaming) and King [13] (flaming) tend to show a decrease in

as oxygen concentration is decreased. In contrast, Saito [24] finds

that in compartment fires ay decreases rapidly as the compartment ventilation

parameter (A /h ) is increased, then tends to level off for "large"

A /H . The "large" A /H behavior Salto finds is consistent with his temperature

dependence for ay pre9ic?ed from his test data. For compartment fires

it can be Inferred that at low A /H values the decomposition is occuring

in a low oxygen concentration environment. Thus Salto’s compartment

fire data imply that ay increases as oxygen concentration is decreased,

i.e. ayf as A /H 1 and as A /h 1. This result for ventilation

controlled compartment fires could be consistent with the observation

that D decreases as oxygen decreases [13, 15] since D = aym", Eq.

(17b). ^ Then as A/H^1 and m"'l' (for ventilation controlled fires),

as ayf provided the decrease in m" is weak. Hence, here is another

example where the need to separate effects on a, y, and m" is apparent.

SCALE

Not much work has been done to Investigate the effect of scale

on smoke production. In particular the sample size has not been varied

without varying the scale of the entire system. Two experiments using

the smoke density chamber and a large closed compartment yield inconclusive

results: the data of Lopez [1] suggest a tendency for Bg^jjj^gg to decrease as the

sample area is Increased (s x s vertical sample where s = 0.02, 0.09,

0.18, 9.27), but the results of Shores [32] show no distinct trend. It

9
is expected since D depends on mass loss per unit area, m”, that there

is bound to be an effect of scale of D . The dependence of m" on scale

will vary as flow conditions vary from laminar to turbulent and as flame

heat transfer changes with flame size and shape. However understanding

the effects of scale on the components of D : a, x» m" would be more

revealing.

ORIENTATION. Some factors that relate to scale also apply to orientation

namely, the fluid and heat transfer effects caused by the flame and

other heat sources. In addition, the melting and structural erosion of

a material due to its orientation can have a significant effect on the

smoke measurement. For example, Breden and Meisters [28] found that

D is much greater for a horizontal melting sample than a vertically

mounted sample in the smoke density chamber. Yet similar values for

D were measured in both orientations for nonmelting speciments, but

up to D was greater for the horizontal case. These results

suggest that melting results in an unspecified heated area, and differences in flame configuration affect the rate of smoke production more

than the total smoke produced.

MODE OF DECOMPOSITION. It is apparent that the intensity and manner of

thermal decomposition affects the amount and nature of the smoke particulates

generated. Foster [10] finds the smoke produced from non-flaming thermal

decomposition of wood saw-dust consists of spherical droplets of nearly

pure scattering character, while King [13] finds, under flaming decomposition,

that smoke can be composed of chainlike elements of both solid and

liquid particles. Jin [5] reports similar findings with non-flaming

thermal decomposition giving particles of less than 1 ym in diameter

(white smoke); but for flaming, (black smoke) particle size ranges up to

20 ym.

Another effect of scale, not considered earlier, relates to the destruction of smoke particles by their evaporation and oxidation as they

traverse the flame and plume. The nature of the particulates — liquid

drops, carbon soot, "chains" — at their origin would surely affect this

process. Hence "big" flames may not be similar to "small" flames in

their net production of smoke particulates which emerge from the flame

zone

THICKNESS AND DENSITY. It has been reported by several investigators

[17] that D depends nearly linearly on sample thickness up to some thickness affer^which it approaches a constant. A similar behavior is

claimed for initial sample density [17]. This effect is mainly due to

mass lost (m") in correspondence to D since that mass is dependent

on density and thickness. In contrasf’TMit is found that ay is much less

dependent on sample thickness and density [16].

10
CONCLUDING REMARKS. Although other parameters may be relevant variables

for smoke production, the above set appear to be the most significant.

Despite the identification of these parameters it is not clear what the

most fundamental set of variables describing smoke are or what other

variables they depend on. Both D and the mass optical density (oty) are composed of several parameters, each of which depend on other variables.

Heat flux is a dominant and convenient independent variable for representing

smoke "properties" but it does not constitute a fundamental variable.

Heat flux promotes decomposition which produces smoke, (but it is the

ultimate temperature of the material and its time varying state on which

the rate of decomposition depends) . Also smoke fraction, x> represents

the result of a series of processes: solid degradation, nucleation of

particulates, growth and decay in the flame, coagulation, and vaporization.

Nevertheless, it is useful to represent y as a function of heat flux for

a given material for engineering calculations. Further research needs

to establish valid limitations to such functional relationships for this

approach to be sound.

Additional information on factors controllng smoke production can be

found in an extensive review by Seader and Einhorn [17]. Also the

papers by Rasbash, et al

[29, 30] are Interesting general articles on smoke

COMPARISONS BETWEEN TEST (METHOD) DATA AND LARGE

SCALE FIRE EXPERIMENTS

The ground work has been laid for establishing a basis for correlating

results of test data and fire measurements. Also the factors affecting

these results have been discussed. A well defined test method environment (e.g. heat flux) helps to yield a specific smoke property; yet,

this result may be insufficient for application to a large scale fire.

The environment of a large-scale fire is complex, not sufficiently

predictable, and not completely measurable. For example, the heat flux

from the flame of a burning object, and additional convective and

radiative heating from a hot enclosure will not necessarily be equal to

the prescribed radiative heat flux in the test method. Moreover, test

methods subjectively intended to simulate conditions in a realistic fire

generally have no scientific basis nor have they universal application.

This dilemma has been further elaborated on by Robertson [31]

With these considerations realized, available and derived results will

be presented for comparison. An attempt was made to provide homogeneity

in the comparisons; meaning, results were presented in terms of D or ay

as established from the governing equations. ^.Ihen insufficient information

did not allow this format, appropriate "related" parameters were compared.

11
COMPARISONS FOR CLOSED SYSTEMS.

Several investigators [1, 32, 33] have examined results from the smoke

density chamber* (a closed system) with scaled-up versions of irradiated

samples burning or decomposing (non-flaming) in a large chamber. Lopez [1]

varied both the flux and sample size. Shores [32] varied the sample size

maintaining the prescribed test flux of 2.5 W/cm^, and Robertson [33] reports

results for the NBS chamber sample producing smoke in an 18 m^ room. The

results of the full-scale data are compared with the standard smoke density

chamber findings in terms of D (Figure 5) . Shores [32] also displays

comparisons continuously over llme^of comparable agreement as those discrete

data shown in Figure 5. If the smoke losses are similar or negligible in

both systems, and sample scale effects (vertical orientation) are small, then

the D results should be identical. The variations from that ideal are shown in Figure 5.

COMPARISONS WITH FULL-SCALE ROOM FIRE GROWTH DATA.

A variety of materials and fuel configurations were burned in rooms in which

the optical density of the smoke leaving the system was measured. Correspondingly,

small-scale laboratory test data were taken for the materials, and comparison

could then be made with the full-scale results. In some cases these comparisons

were explicitly reported in the literature, in other cases they were derived

from reported data. The first set of data compared are in terms of homogeneous

parameters: Dg or ay* The sources [34-41] of these data, their fullscale test configurations, the test method used for the material, and a tabulation of the results are given in the Appendix. Six sets of comparisons

are plotted in Figure 6. The range of configurations includes random arrays

[34], wall linings [35, 41], mattresses (horizontal and vertical) [36-39],

and small tables [40]. The materials include plastics, wood, cotton, rubber,

painted surfaces, and others (See Appendix). The methods for calculating the

mav or av values for the fullscale experiments are based on Equations (19)

and (20). The specific form of the equation used is indicated in Appendix B.

As it might be expected, a direct correlation does not result. Nevertheless,

there is a general trend in the proper direction implying, except for a few

out-lying data points, that uncontrolled influencing variables do not have a very strong effect. The effect of material configuration is very strong as indicated by the data (Appendix) given for polystrene, e.g. its coordinates

range as follows:

ay - (700, 180), (1000, 785), (820, 790);

D

s ,max

(3.8, 43), (63, 32).

Brief descriptions of test methods or laboratory based procedures listed

in the Appendix.

12
since no assessment of accuracy could be made in these experiments,

these differences must be regarded as solely due to fuel arrangement

and material configuration. Whether ay or D is selected as the

correlating variable has no apparent advantl^e^^n these comparisons.

The underlying complexities present in these processes can be illustrated

from a study by Saito [24]. He presents ax as a function of compartment

temperature and ventilation factor (A /H /A) in Figure 7. His laboratory

test data, derived from using a furnance to decompose materials at a fixed temperature, correlate well with small and large scale compartment

room lining fires except below compartment temperatures of 700°. This

low temperature range corresponds to small compartment openings (small

A /H ) in which reduced oxygen concentration tends to Increase ay.

Since the effect of oxygen is not measured in the test data, its influence

on the compartment data is not accounted for.

Another illustration of the limits of simple correlation procedures is

given from the work of Tustin [21]. The OSU combustibility apparatus

was used to determine D at 1.5, 2.5, 3.5 and 5.0 IJ/cm irradiances.

S 2 Full-scale results were derived from burning 2.1 m of material for two

simulation conditions under varied external radiation of up to 8.9

W/cm in a ventilated Boeing 707 aircraft section. The results shown

in Figure 8 leaves to question the selection of an unambiguous test

heat flux.

Now a series of comparisons will be presented in which "noiihomogeneous"

smoke parameters were used. In most cases the parameters are related

to ay or D , in other cases the relationship must be regarded as empirical.

Christian and Waterman [42] conducted a series of full-scale room and

corridor fires in which lining materials were ignited by gas burner

exposure fires. The full-scale results were expressed as

(D/L) - (D/L) burner fire dt

(in which the exposure fire smoke was considered). Y is proportional to

a D since their gases were exhausted at a constant volume flow rate.

They compared these results to a variety of test apparatus measurements

including the ASTM E84 Steiner tunnel test method, but with its smoke

results given as

/*t X - (D/L) dt

j o

instead of its standard classification form. They concluded that the

smoke density chamber test in a non-piloted mode gives best results for

fully Involved lining fires in a room as seen in Figure 9. However the

tunnel test appeared best for spreading fires in a corridor as illustrated

in Figure 10. These illustrations show only a portion of their available

13
data t‘^2], but were selected as Illustrations most consistent with their

conclusions. Fang's result [43] tend to support the tendency of the

smoke density chamber non-flaming data to correlate the results for

lining fires in a room (Figure 11). The tunnel classification correlation,

in which the (upper) abscissa

X (l-I/l )dt/

o (l-I/I )dt, red oak

o

appears to yield results of similar character. The tunnel correlation

is entirely empirical, but the comparison with the smoke density chamber

could have been in terms of D if the ordinate in Figure 11 was divided

by the area burned in each case. This information was not reported.

Although the results of Babrauskas [37-39] are shown in Figure 6, these

were derived from his data not computed by him. He advocates [39] the

use of ax» but instead he presented a correlation which attempts to

incorporate a fire growth effect for the mattress fire scenario studied

[38]. In that study the full-scale parameter

Y = amax

is plotted against the laboratory test parameter X = (ax)E v/here E is

the rate of energy release averaged over three minutes as derived from

the NBS II calorimeter or the OSU combustibility apparatus. This

empirical correlation gives results generally similar to those plotted

in Figure 6 for the same experiments.

Finally results were replotted from Moulen, ejt al

[44] on linear

coordinates rather than logarithmic coordinates as used by them. They

burned lining materials in a room's corner subject to a wood crib fire

or by radiant exposure using the heat source provided in the laboratory

Early Fire Hazard (EFH) test used in Australia. These variables compared

were

Y J

At

i

t^+At

(D/L)dt

and

X

_1_

At

t +At

P (D/L)dt

t P where At = 1 minute, t^ is the time flames touched

room, and t is the time when D reached a maximum,

shown in Figure 12.

the ceiling of the

These results are

14
Individual judgement is undoubtedly used in deciding the merits of

these various correlations. Although empirical results may seem to be

positive at times, it is nearly impossible to generalize these results

with confidence. The overwhelming effect of these comparisons raises

more questions than gives answers.

COMPARISONS BETOEEN TEST METHODS.

Since various test methods and modifications thereof have been used to

measure the smoke production of a material, it is useful to compare

parameters measured in test methods. Under controlled conditions, a smoke property for a material should be independent of the apparatus

that was used to measure it. It should only depend on the factors

listed previously (i.e. heat flux, scale, etc.)

It was reported by Gross, et al. [15] that the ASTM E-84 Tunnel classification and the smoke density chamber (SDC) in a non-flaming mode did

tend to correlate, but the correlation was poor for the flaming mode.

This unexplainable result is consistent with those data presented in

Figures 9 and 11. It might be speculated that the tunnel test fire is

like a fully-developed, ventilation-limited, fire which has an excess

of unburned fuel and particulates as would be the case in non-flaming

radiative decomposition. Only a thorough study of these phenomena

could unravel the mechanisms producing these results.

In Figure 13, results are compared from the OSU apparatus with the SDC

at 2.5 and 5.0 W/cm in a flaming mode [21]. Also both flaming and^

non-flaming SDC results are compared with smoke collected in a 18 m

closed room as a result of the British fire propagation test [33]. The

comparison between SDC and OSU should be Identical unless measurement

uncertainties are present. The comparison with the British smoke test

agrees best for the non-flaming SDC data. Again, the British fire

propagation test very likely is ventilation limited, and perhaps produces

"unburned" smoke as in non-flaming decomposition. Finally, recent

studies by Hllado, et al. [45] compare data for wood and plastic materials

using the SDC and the Arapahoe smoke test. The Arapahoe device exposes

a small sample to a (propane) flame for 30 seconds collecting the

particulates on a filter over that 30s period and for an additional 30s

while the burner flame is off. Thus, the heat flux and local environment

are not clearly defined and flaming or non-flaming decomposition occurs

over some portion of the material. The SDC tests were conducted at the

standard conditions but they presented average results from tests using

two different pilot burners. A correlation is perceived by the authors

[45] but not explained and seems dubious at low "Arapahoe values". The

correlating parameters are D (SDC) and m /m (Arapahoe) where m^

is the initial sample mass. ^l?^conditions were similar in the two

tests, then for the same sample thickness and material it follows from

Eq. (17) that

D = a m /A = a(p6) (m /m ) s,max s so

15
where p Is the initial sample density and 6 is its thickness. Thus if

a is a constant for all materials (which appears so in flaming or non- flaming decomposition) , the D as determined by the SDC should

correlate with (m /m ) but onf;^TMi^ the same conditions of heat flux and

pilot exposure prevail. SO This is not the case in the Arapahoe system,

and hence the correlation is only justified in principle, but not

necessarily by ^heir [45] data. Ou and Seader [46], using a modified

SDC at 2.5 W/cm with mass monitoring and an Arapahoe Chemical Company

Smoke Chamber with a modified downward burner flame exposure of 45 s, did demonstrate a reasonable correlation. It was couched in terms of

^L^SDC Arapahoe ^V^SDC

which follows from Eq . (17b). Differences in heat flux conditions must

still be considered and must bear on these results as well.

CONCLUSIONS

This review has attempted to demonstrate how smoke measurements have

been used to evaluate a material's contribution to fire. These measurements primarily pertain to the light transmission characteristic of

smoke and have a direct bearing on visibility. It was shown (Figure 1)

that visibility in smoke (L ) is directly related to the optical density

per unit path length (D/L) , but further depends on lighting conditions

and more specific smoke properties than are currently being measured.

The design for visibility through smoke can be approximately carried out

using existing data from current test methods, but more attention needs

to be given this problem.

The governing equation for smoke (Eq. (13)) clearly shows the need to

evaluate the parameters: a ("particle optical density") and y (smoke

particulate fraction) in order to predict the extinction (D/L) of light

in smoke or smoke concentration. Currently the parameters most often

used to characterize smoke have been (maximum) specific optical density

D and so-called "mass optical density", ay- Although these two

pafameters may be convenient and fitting for most practical applications

they are not necessarily sufficient or consistent with the requirements

for calculating smoke concentration and extinction. D is an extensive

parameter representing the accumulation of smoke over time, not its

instantaneous production. The "lumped-parameter" ay is determined by

operations which presume a or y or both are time averaged values. Since

significant changes occur over time, suitable time-averaged results

consistent with the process of decomposition should be established. ^or

example, smoke produced in the fully-developed fire state must be

discriminated from smoke produced in the fire decay or charring state.

16
D or ax may still be useful representations for smoke, but their basis

must be examined more closely relative to the decomposition process and

the imposed environment. Research is required to develop apparatus and

Instrumentation to directly measure a and x along with sample mass loss

over the duration of decomposition. Provision should be made to examine

the effect of environmental heat flux and oxygen concentration since

these appear to have the greatest influence on smoke production. A

"steady" flow-through device would be better than a closed system

apparatus for measuring these smoke properties. This would allow wall

losses to be minimized and smoke properties to be measured at the flame

source. It could be argued, however, that "aged" smoke might be more

appropriate to measure for fire considerations. The development of an accurate coagulation and wall loss model to predict the nature and

concentration of smoke as it collects and flows away from a fire would

eliminate this argument. Ideally both "early" and "long-time" smoke

measurements should be pursued.

An important variable on which smoke production depends is the heat

flux received by the material. In a test method this is usually only

characterized by the applied external flux. In fact, it is composed of

the flame heat flux and the external flux. In full-scale fires, the

scale and orientation of the material establishes the flame heat flux,

and the structural aspects of the environment control the additional

"feedback" heat flux. Predictive techniques have not yet been developed

to determine these various heat fluxes from basic principles, particularly

when radiative components are present. Until the predictions are possible, well conceived full-scale experiments designed to measure

these heat fluxes could be conducted. The availability of material

data for smoke in terms of parameters like a, x» TM their dependence

on applied (or total) incident heat flux would establish a basis for a prediction. A demonstration of this correlation procedure, more general

than the "scaling" results of Figure 5, is needed as a step in establishing

the credibility or deflciences of this process. The alternatives are

to rely on short-cut correlations, such as D at 2.5 W/cm versus ^ S rn Pi y

D derived in full-scale; or to use empirical procedures and test

methods, such as the Steiner tunnel which looks like a "big" fire and

rates materials relative to red oak.

Although practical applications may have to be simply executed, they

can not be soundly arrived at through incomplete information. Test

apparatuses should not be regarded as unique sources of information; it

is the smoke property measured for the material that should be established

as unique. As can be seen by the data presented in this review, correlations

between test methods and full-scale fire data depart as the full-scale

fire becomes more complex. Fire spread and ventilation limited con- ditions, usually found after full- involvement of the fuel in an enclosure,

have a direct bearing on the smoke production. The conclusion from

17
these data reflects the futility of seeking correlations without a full

understanding of the processes. The ability to make fine discriminations for material decomposition and exposure conditions in real fires

does not exist. But the best use of available test methods could be

utilized for the present. To be more relevant they may have to be

tailored to more accurately match the fire scenario being considered.

For example, in the post crash aircraft fire scenario in which the

threat is a large fuel spill fire and safe egress is only viable before

cabin flashover, the pre-flashover exposure heat flux and environmental

conditions could be used to establish test method levels. These heat

fluxes are high and both non-flaming (nonpiloted) and flaming smoke

measurements need to be considered. Also fire spread and gas movement

would have to be known or predicted for a complete analysis. Similar

approaches have been already attempted and limited success has been

achieved [21, 22]. More general modeling techniques are also possible

but their ability to correctly predict fire spread is essential (e.g.

[3]). If the test method data is available in a complete and consistent

form for mathematical analysis it could be utilized in relationship to

well-developed fire scenario test measurements and/or predictive models

for that scenario. Then relevant correlations or predictions could be

achieved.

18
REFERENCES

1. Lopez, E.L. : J. Fire Flammability, 6, 405 (1975).

2. Alarie, Y. , Kane, L. and Barrow, C. : Sensory Irritation: The Use

of an Animal Model to Establish Acceptable Exposure to Airborne

Chemical Irritants in Toxicology: Principles and Practice , 1 , ed

A.L. Reeves, John Wiley (1980).

3. MacArthur, C.D. and Meyers, J.F.: Dayton Aircraft Cabin Fire Model , Fed. Aviation Admin. Report, FAA-RD-76-120, I, II, and III (1978).

4. Howell, J.R. and Siegel, R. : Thermal Radiation , III, Nat. Aero,

and Space Admin., NASA SP-164, 13 (1969).

5. Jin, T; Visibility through Fire Smoke (Part 2) , Report of the

Fire Research Institute of Japan, No. 33, 31 (1971).

6. Hottel, H.C. and Sarofim, A.F. : Radiative Heat Transfer , McGraw - Hill, N.Y. (1967).

7. Howell and Siegel, op. cit. , III, 333-8.

8. Kerker, M. : The Scattering of Light and Other Electromagnetic

Radiation , Academic Press, N.Y., (1969).

9. Bromberg, K. and Quintiere, J.G. : Radiative Heat Transfer from

Products of Combustion in Building Corridor Fires , Nat. Bur. Stand.,

NBSIR 74-596, (1975).

10. Foster, W.W. : British J. Appl. Phys., 10, 416 (1959).

11. Seader, J.D. and Ou, S.S.: Fire Research, 1, 3, (1977).

12. Ou, S.S. and Seader, J.D.: J. Fire Flammability, 9, 30 (1978).

13. King, T.Y. : Smoke and Carbon Monoxide Formation from Materials Tested

in the Smoke Density Chamber , Nat. Bur. Stand. NBSIR 75-901, (1975).

14. Chien, VJ.P. and Seader, J.D. : Fire Technol., 10, 187, (1974).

15. Gross, D. , Loftus, J.J. and Robertson, A.F.: Methods of Measuring

Smoke from Burning Materials , Amer. Soc. Testing and Materials, ASTM

STP 422, 166 (1967).

16. Seader, J.D. and Chien, W.P. : J. Fire Flammability, 3, 131, (1974).

17. Seader, J.D. and Einhorn, I.N.: Some Physical, Chemical, Toxicological , and Physiological Aspects of Fire Smokes , 16th Symp. (Int.) on Combustion,

The Combustion Institute, 1423, (1977).

19
18. Seader, J.D. and Chlen, W.P.: Factors Affecting Smoke Development

and Measurement , Unlv. of Utah Report, FRC/UU 17a, UTEC-MSE 74-031

(Mar. 1974).

19. Gaskill, J.R., Taylor, R.D. , Ford Jr., H.W. and Miller, H.H.

J. Fire Flammability, 8, 160, (1977).

20. Bankston, C.P., Cassanova, R.A. , Powell, E.A. and Zinn, B.T. : J. Fire Flammability, 7, 165, (1976).

21. Tustin, E.A. : Development of Fire Test Methods for Airplane Interior

Materials , Boeing Commercial Airplane Co. , NASA Contract No. NAS9-15168

Final Rept. NASA CR-14568, (1978).

22. Spieth, H.H., Camrae, J.C. Luoto, R. E. and Klinck, D.M. : Investigate

A Combined Hazard Index Methodology for Ranking an Aircraft Cabin

Interior Material for Combustion Hazards, Part 1 - Final Rept. Draft,

McDonnell Douglas Corp. , DOT, Fed. Aviation Admin. (1981).

23. Brown, Jr. L.J.: Smoke Emissions from Aircraft Interior Materials

at Elevated Heat Flux Levels using Modified NBS Smoke Chamber , Fed.

Aviation Admin. Rept. No. FAA-RD-79-26 , (1979).

24. Saito, F. : Smoke Generation from Building Materials , 15th Symp.

(Int.) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, 269, (1974).

25. Saito, F. : Smoke Generation from Organic Materials , Main Reports on Production Movement and Control of Smoke in Buildings, Occasional

Report of Japanese Assoc. Fire Science and Engineering No. 1, (1974).

26. Tsuchiya, Y. and Sumi, K. : J. Fire Flammability, 5, 64 (1974).

27. Powell, E.A. , Bankson, C.P., Cassanova, R.A. : Fire and Materials, 15

(1979).

28. Breden, L.H. and Meisters, M. : J. Fire Flammability, (1976).

29. Rasbash, D.J.: Trans. J. Plastics Inst., 55 (Jan. 1967).

30. Rasbash, D.J. and Pratt, B.T.: Fire Safety J. 2, 23, (1979/80).

31. Robertson, A.F.: Standardization News, 3, 18 (1975).

32. Shores, N.H.: Some Predictive Aspects of NBS Smoke Chamber Examination of Combustible Materials , Armstrong Cork Co. Tech. Res. Rept., (Dec. 1975).

33. Robertson, A.F.: Fire Technol. 10, 282, (1974).

34. Heselden, A.J.M. : Fire Problems of Pedestrian Precincts Part 1 : The Smoke Production of Various Materials , Fire Research Station, U.K.

Fire Res. Note No. 856, (1971).

35. Watts, P.R.: The Assessment of Smoke Production by Building Materials

in Fires, Part 4. Large Scale Tests with Wall Lining Materials , Fire

Research Station, U.K. , Fire Res. Note No. 1013, (1976).

20
36. Parker, W.J. : Comparison of the Fire Performance of Neoprene and

Flame Retardant Polyurethane Mattresses , Nat. Bur. Stand., NBSIR 73-177,

(1973).

37. Babrauskas, V.: Combustion of Mattresses Exposed to Flaming Ignition

Sources Part I. ; Full-Scale Tests and Hazard Analysis , Nat. Bur. Stand.,

NBSIR 77-1290, (1977).

38. Babrauskas, V.: Combustion of Mattresses Exposed to Flaming Ignition

Sources Part II. Bench-Scale Tests and Recommended Standard Test , Nat. Bur. Stand., NBSIR 80-2186, (1980).

39. Babrauskas, V.: J. Fire Flammability, 12, 51, (1981).

40. Evans, D.D.: Analysis of Data from Room Fire Test of Parsons Tables

and Comparison with Laboratory Test Methods for Ignition, Flame Spread , and Smoke Generation , Nat. Bur. Stand., NBSIR (in review).

41. Woolley, W.D. , Raffery, M.M. , Ames, S.A. and Murrell, J.V. : Fire Safety

J. , 2, 61 (1979/80).

42. Christian, W.J. and Waterman, T.E.: Fire Technology, 8, 332 (1971).

43. Fang, J.B.: Fire Buildings in A Room and the Role of Interior Finish

Materials , Nat. Bur. Stand., NBS Tech. Note 879, (1975).

44. Moulen, A. VI., Grublts, S.J. Martin, K.C. and Dowling, V.P.: Fire and

Materials, 4, 165, (1980).

45. Hilado, C. J. , Machado, A.M. and Murphy R.M. : J. Fire Flammability, 9, 459,

(1978).

46. Ou, S.S. and Seader, J.D. : Fire Research, 1, 135; (1977/78).

4 7 . Standard Test Method for Specific Optical Density of Smoke Generated

by Solid Material , American Society of Testing and Materials, ASTM

E-662-79, Standards 1980.

48. Proposed Test Method for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for

Materials , American Society for Testing and Materials, Book of

Standards 1980, pp. 1382-1400.

4 9 . Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building

Materials , American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM E 84-80,

Book of Standards 1980.

50. Kracklauer, J.J., Sparkes, C.J. and Legg, R.E.: Plastics Technology,

22, 46 (1976).

51. Fire Propagation Test for Material s, British Standard BS 476 part

6 (1968).

52. Methods for Fire Tests and Building Materials and Structures (AS 1530),

Part 3, Test for Early Fire Hazard Properties of Materials , Standards

Association of Australia, Sydney (1976).

21
lO

CN

CM

o> Pi

•H

•H>

I

D

5-1 3

00

'H

|IU) AiniSISIA

D/L,

OPTICAL

DENSITY

PER

PATH

LENGTH

OF

SMOKE

(m

')
\

23

Figure

2.

Conservation

of

Mass

for

Smoke

in

a

Control

Volume

(region

enclosed

by

dashed

lines).
800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

Mas

PILOTED IGNITION

O PANEL No. 233 • VINYL FLOORING No. 230

POLYSULFONE SHEET No. 220

V POLYURETHANE FOAM No. 215

A FABRIC No. 204

10 12

EXTERNAL RADIANT FLUX (W/cm^

)

Optical Density as a Function of Heat Flux Derived from Brown [23].

24
RANKING

AT

11.3W/cm

Os,max RANKING AT 2.5W/cm2

Figure 4. D Rankings at two Flux Levels from Brown [23] for Piloted Ignition.

25
900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

5 -

T

LOPEZ

A SHORES

V ROBERTSON

OPEN SYMBOL-FLAMING ^CLOSED CHAMBER

SOLID SYMBOL-NONFLAMING

o> t^HEAT

£ F

oo • JtFLUX

A i

A

A

A

A V

A

V

^

A A V

V

J E.

EH100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Dj TEST METHOD

D Compared for the Smoke Density Chamber and Large Closed Rooms

from Lopez [1], Shores [32] and Robertson [33]

26
(/)

bfl

<N|E

^3

00

uo (Sji/zUi) x» 3iv3s-iinj

27

Figure

6

Comparison

Between

Full-Scale

and

Test

Method

Results

in

Terms

of

Maximum

Specific

Optical

Density

(D

)

and

Mass

Optical

Density

(ay).

s,max
Figure 7

O SMALL-SCALE COMPARTMENT DATA

TEMPERATURE (°C)

- Smoke Production for Plywood as a Function of Temperature (a) and

Ventilation Factor (b) from Saito [24].
OSU

HEAT

FLUX

W/ctn’

3iv3s-nnj -

29

Figure

8.

Full-Scale

Smoke

Compared

toP

from

the

OSU

Combustibility

Apparatus

at

Several

Heat

Flux

Levels

[21].

^
16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

-2

2 9

o O

A A

A A

• O

A

1

QL A

100 200

EXPOSURE

FIRE (kWj

SMOKE

CHAM

DENSITY

3ER DATA

FLAMING NDNFLAMING

2900 O •

2200 A A

300 400 SOO 600 700

Ds.max - SMOKE DENSITY CHAMBER

Results from Room Lining Fires Compared to the Smoke Density

Chamber from Christian and Waterman [42].

30
o

m

r83Ndna

<

<

o o

o <

CO C«J

o

(l/a|-(l/a)] QV38dS 3UIJ 80QI8800

UIUIQI

»-< (Uc

'H0) U

0I

B

o

T)

(U>

•H0) O

w

iH3

W • 0) r—

Pi CN o U_l

4J c

T3 nJ

dJ B

V-i 5-1 m OJ a 4-J B CO ou

T3

T3 0

cO cO

01 C

a CO CO •H

4-1 (U cn

^-1 •H

•H 5j Pn -Cu

o e

T3 o

•H 5-1 5-1 4-1

5-1 O 4-1 U tfi QJ C H

•H

t“l 05 QJ0

o 0

B 0

CO H

o

QJD

•H

ti-i

31
TUNNEL TEST CLASSIFICATION A

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

gure

0 100 200 300

1 A —1 O •-

_ o

_ o A •

—

O A • ~ o'Va

AO*

^

1 L

•

1

O FLAMING

• NONFLAMING

1 1 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

D$ max DENSITY CHAMBER

11 Lining Fires in Rooms and Smoke Data from the Smoke Density Chambe

and the ASTM E-84 Tunnel Classification for Smoke from Fang f43].
Ii-ui| 1/Q ‘anads 3)iiJ iivm woou

33

Figure

12.

Smoke

from

Lining

Fires

in

a

Room

Compared

to

the

Early

Fire

Hazard

(Australia)

Test

Method

[44].
900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

o

• o

A

• O BRITISH FIRE PROPAGATION

TEST IN 18m3 ROOM

OSU APPARATUS @ 2.5 W/cm^

A OSU AND NBS (g) 5.0 W/cm2

OPEN SYMBOL-FLAMING

SOLID SYMBOL-NONFLAMING [SDC]

A

O

O

2A

c9

^ A

O

100 200 300 400 500 600

Dg- SMOKE DENSITY CHAMBER (SDC)

700

13 - Comparison of Smoke Density Chamber, OSU Combustibility Apparatus

and British Smoke Test Data 121, 33].

34
APPENDIX

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF LABORATORY TEST METHODS

FOR SMOKE DATA

SMOKE DENSITY CHAMBER . [47] 2

A vertical sample is decomposed under 2.5 W/cm irradiance with or without an igniting pilot flame in a closed chamber. The optical

density is measured over a vertical path length in the chamber.

OHIO STATE COMBUSTIBILITY APPARATUS . [48]

A steady-flow system is used in which the optical density is measured

in the exhaust system. Typically a vertical sample is decomposed

under a prescribed irradiance level.

STEINER TUNNEL TEST . [49]

A relatively large sample is mounted on the ceiling of a rectangular

horizontal duct in which a diffusion flame initiates flame spread and

burning of the material. The light transmission is recorded for the

exhaust gases, and the integral of [1-I(L)/I(0) ] over time is normalized

with that found for red oak as a classification index.

ARAPAHOE SMOKE . [50]

A small sample inclined at 10° is subjected to a propane butner flame for

for 30 s and smoke is collected in the effluent stream by a filter for a total of 60 s.

BRITISH FIRE PROPAGATION /SMOKE TEST . [51]

A vertical sample forming a wall of a small vented box is subjected to an Impinging flame for 20 minutes and additional radiant heat 2.75

minutes. The smoke from the box is circulated in a room 18 m ) and

the optical density is measured.

AUSTRALIAN EARLY FIRE HAZARD TEST . [52]

The sample is exposed to a 800° radiant panel at decreasing distances

until ignition occurs after which the maximum optical density is measured

over a one minute period by light path through the stack over the apparatus.

SUMMARY OF D AND aY DATA FROM LARGE SCALE

s , max

AND TEST METHOD-BASED EXPERIMENTS

Tables A-1 through A-6 list the computed values for D or ay. The

corresponding test apparatuses and full-scale fire test configurations

are displayed in Figure Al. The formulae used in these computations are listed and are consistent with Eqns. (15) and (17) and the configurations

in Figure A-1.

A-1
REFERENCE FULL-SCALE TEST METHOD

HESELOEN [34]

WAHS [3S]

PARKER [38]

BABRAUSKAS [37.38,39]

( n

Cy

EVANS [40]

. ®®®

®®® ini ®®®

WOOLLEVETAL[41] 2 4m

MOOIFCD SMOKE DENSIH CHAMBER

(SAME AS ABOVEI

SMOKE DENSITY CHAMBER

SAITO [24] ®®®

~r

TEST APPARATUS

BOEING 707 TEST SECTION

igure A-1 - Full-Scale Test Configurations and Test Method Apparatus Used in

Correlation. Symbols Denote Measurement Locations: D-Light

Transmission, T-Temperature , V-Velocity, m-Mass Loss.

A-2
TABLE A-1. DATA FROM HESELDEN [34]

Test

Number

1

2

3

Material Full-Scale Test Method

ax

Wood

Polyurethane Foam

Polystyrene

(D/L)Vdt

Am,

m

kg

100

^

2 100

600-800^

ax

(D

max

/L)v m

o

2 m

kg

50

190

180

wood crib

I cushions

pieces in a pile

ATable A-2. DATA FROM WATTS [35J

Test

Number Material Full-Scale

t

Test Method

D

s

\ (D/L)Vdt

*^o ^(burned)

(D /L)V

max

D = -r ^ (burned)

1 Expanded Polystyrene 3.8 43

2 Plasterborad , painted 1.0 63

3 Decorative laminate 4.8 68

4 Wood fibre board, painted 34 101 270

5 Glass reinforced

polyester

(a) polyester based

intumescent coating 220

(1975 (1972

' data) data

775

6 (b) water based

intumescent coating 415 960

7 (c) no coating 620 920

A-4
TABLE A

DATA FROM PARKER [36]

Test Number Material Full-Scale Test Method

(D /L)VAt

max

2 m

D A

s,max i - A« kg m

o

S2* Polyurethane no. 2 257 47

U3 Polyurethane no. 1 129 490

T3 Neoprene 319 337

S3 Polyurethane no. 2 63 311

U4 Polyurethane no. 1 337 444

T4 Neoprene 186 535

S4 Polyurethane no. 2 60 394

* 2, 3, A denote different tickings

2 - horizontal 3,4 - vertical
TABLE A-4. DATA FROM BABRAUSKAS [37-39]

Test

Nximber Material Full-Scale Test Method

ax ^out (D/L)

(PooTco/Tg) 1^1

m^/kg m^/kg

2-12 Fiberglass with Bedding 82. - 2-3 MOl - Polyurethane 221. 328.

2-2 M02 - Polyurethane 145. 362.

2-1 M03 - Cotton 115. 166.

2-14 M04 - Latex 436. 653.

2-13 M05 - Polyurethane 87. 76.

2-11 M06 - Cotton, nylon, polyester 157. 132.

2-10 MO7 - Cotton 0. 17.

2-8 M08 - Neoprene 203. 401.

2-6 M09 - Polyurethane 284. 338.

2-5 MIO - Neoprene 215. 467.

* evaluated at time when m is maximum, also ax from control test (bedding) is

subtracted for each material
Table A-5. DATA FROM WOOLLEY, RAFTERY, AMES, MURRELL [41]

Test

Number Material Full-Scale

D

s

•f D

* *

Test Method

D

s ,max

Angled Horizontal

Jets Jets

1 Chipboard 365 390 334

2 Fire Insulation Board 33 77 58

3 Polystyrene 63 222 32

4 Plasterboard 'VO . 88 52

5 Glass reinforced polyester 183 651 616

6 Hardboard 86 79 77

*wood crib smoke subtracted
TABLE A-6. DATA FROM EVANS [4]

Full-Scale Test Method

Test

Number Material Full-Scale Test Method

ax =

^f -S(out)

\ \ (D/L)v

Jo Jo

dSdt 2

m (I’/Dv _ Am^ kg

7 Polystyrene 1000. 785.

8 Polystyrene 800. 785.

11 Polypropylene 670. 400.

16 Polystyrene foam 820. 790.

17 Polystyrene foam 800. 790.

18 ABS 540. 520.

* questionable, may be too high
Test

Number

Material

Full-Scale

NBS

Smoke

Chamber

OSU

Combustibility

Apparatus >c <

II

0)

Q

Bo

:s

LOCO

CM

Bom

CM

CM

•Kwo

IIco

CO I—

3E

•H

a:w

CO uwo

pd CN CN

d CD o d

d

rH 00 vD cr« ?—

a^ in o^

ro cn

rH

d 00 o CD

m un o

00 c^ 00 CN p^

CN CN o

rH

CN CT^ 00m o vOd

tHm cn !—

r-- P^ NP

CN CN in • • • • CN CO o O o CN vO rH o CN rH d in o in CD d d d

IT) o 1—

1-Hm rH nP nP

cn rH CN cn .“H 'X) rH

CN CN e B o o • • • • . • • • o m o cn o O m o o r*^ 00 P^ rH rH CN

cn <T cn rH • • 00o O

4H 4-4 Xd

rH 1—

4-4 C4-I„

;5 15 O O

00 <ys cn P^ VD CN rH rH t « • • • • • • 4H C4-i r>- CO r—i ON in un cn m cn CN vO CN cn U Pi •H •H

n3 CO C C

•H •H

Oi E oo bC cn

II 4-1 00

rH • o C in O • • *H c

4J o • • •H c

1-H

U o 3 CO •H rH 40

•r<

d CO CO E T—

•r^ 3

cu c/2 E u •H

•iH CO

CIh COCO 4.J

!-i

mm cn r>.

X cn cn cnU oo o o rH 00 o o rH rH •iH IZ <r <r NT •H 'Z, <r NP NP 4.1 rH rH — cn 4-1 CN CN CN vD H-l CN CN CN o c O o rH rH C O O rH rH C-, M

Nr NT

M 3 NT NP NP -X +

A- 
NBS-114A (REV. 2-80

U.s. DEPT. OF COMM.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET (See instruction s)

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

1. PUBLICATION OR

REPORT NO. NBSIR 82-2508

2. Performing Organ. Report No. 3.

DOT/FAA/CT-82/100

Publication Date

July 82

An Assessment of Correlations Between Laboratory and Full-Scale

Experiments for the FAA Aircraft Fire Safety Program, Part 1: Smoke

5. AUTHOR(S)

James G. Qulntiere

6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION (If joint or other than NBS. see in struction s) 7. Contract/Grant No. national bureau of STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 8. Type of Report & Period Covered

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

9. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS (Street. City, State. ZIP)

Federal Aviation Administration

Technical Center

Atlantic City, N.J. 08405

10. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Document describes a computer program; SF-185, FIPS Software Summary, is attached.

11. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most significant information. I f document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here) extensive review Is presented demonstrating the

nature of comparison between full-scale fire smoke data and test method results for

materials. These correlations are presented in terms of consistent parameters

established through a development of the ^ governing equations for smoke concentration

and light attenuation. Visibility data pertaining to light transmission through

smoke is presented but no general results exist on the sensory irritant effect of

smoke on vision. Analysis shows the complex dependence of smoke production on many

parameters acting in fire growth and shows the futility and nature of simple correlation attempts. Recommendations are made for further research to establish a sounder basis for correlations, and a practicle strategy is suggested for proceeding

in the present.

12. KEY WORDS (Six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only proper names; and separate key words by semicolon s) Correlation; full-scale; fire tests; smoke; smoke density chamber; optical density;

test methods; visibility.

13. AVAILABILITY 14. NO. OF

PRINTED PAGES

Unl i mi ted

I 1 For Official Distribution. Do Not Release to NTIS 53

1 1 Order From Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 15. Price

Order From National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, VA, 22161 $9.00

USCOMM-DC 6043-P80

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