COMMERCIAL

STANDARDS

BUREAU OF STANOAMONTHLY

MAR i 1931

library A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

ISSUED BY THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D.C., U.S.A.

Vol. 7, No. 8 FEBRUARY, 1931

For sale by the SuperintenJcnt ot Documents, Washington, D. C See page 3 of cover for prices
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. Lamont, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

George K. Burgess, Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

S. F. Tillman, Editor

DIVISIONS OF THE COMMERCIAL STANDARDIZATION GROUP

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE, Edwin W. Ely.

The division of simplified practice was formed in November,

1921, to provide a clearing house or centralizing agency through

which the manufacturer, distributor, and consumer groups

could meet to discuss their common problems and decide upon

eliminations which would prove of mutual benefit to all concerned. The activities of the division are purely cooperative

in character. It orders nothing; it dictates nothing; the ini- tiative must come from business itself. It has no regulatory nor police powers to enforce adherence to the simplified-practice

recommendations that industry develops under the auspices

of the United States Department of Commerce. Its chief function is to serve as a neutral meeting ground for the purpose

of bringing together producers, distributors, and consumers, whose aims are sometimes divergent and possibly antagonistic,

and who would be unwilling to cooperate, except through some

unbiased central agency. Following the approval of the tentative simplified-practice recommendation by a general conference

of all interested elements thereof, the project is then presented

to the entire industry by letter referendum for its approval and

written acceptance, the publication and indorsement of the recommendation on the part of the Department of Commerce

being dependent upon acceptance of the program by at least 80 per cent, by volume, of the manufacturers, distributors, and

users concerned.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION, J. S. Taylor.

The division of building and housing cooperates with business, technical, and professional groups in practically all its undertakings on building and housing. Its work to modernize

building codes and to encourage improved standards for the

quality of building construction promotes the practical application of the latest development in design and use of build- ing materials. This division was also formed in 1921. In furthering home ownership, an effort is made to develop an enlarged, steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating

demand for soundly built dwellings, the largest single class of buildings which the construction industries provide. The

division also cooperates with many business and professional groups in efforts to distribute building activity more evenly

throughout the year, and to secure less fluctuation from year

to year. The work on city planning and zoning has in mind

the broad objective of buildings made more useful because

well located with respect to other buildings, a well-coordinated

street system, and appropriate public works. Good city

planning and zoning likewise encourages stability in land

values and property uses, and thereby contributes to the demand for durable structures.

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS, A. S. McAllister.

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote and

facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so

it carries on activities involving cooperation with technical

societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and municipal

Government specifications making and using agencies; producers, distributors, and consumers; and testing and research

laboratories. The cooperation with technical societies and

trade associations includes ascertaining the standardization

a,nd specification promoting activities of these organizations,

and bringing to their attention the work being done by the commercial standardization group. The cooperation with

governmental agencies and other consumers includes the bringing of Federal specifications and commercial standards to the

attention of the maximum number of producers and the maximum number of users of commodities complying with these

specifications and standards, thereby assisting in broadening

the field of supply. The cooperation with producers involves the compilation and distribution of lists of manufacturers who

have expressed their willingness to certify to purchasers, upon

request, that material supplied by them on contracts based on

certain Federal specifications or commercial standards comply

with the requirements thereof. The cooperation with distributors involves bringing to their attention the benefits to be

derived by them as both buyers and sellers from handling

nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The

division prepares the directories of governmental and nongovernmental testing laboratories; the Directory of Specifications;

and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the first volume of which, Standards and Specifications in the WoodUsing Industries, has been issued. It also aids in preparing

the Standards Yearbook.

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS, I. J. Fairchild.

The commercial standards unit, now known as division of trade standards, was created on October 1, 1927, for the purpose

of aiding those industrial and commercial groups desiring to

establish standards of grades, quality, or measurements for their products or their purchases on a purely voluntary basis. The division functions only at the direct request of the in- dustry concerned. Its procedure is similar to that of the divi- sion of simplified practice, except that at least 65 per cent of the industry, by volume of annual production, must accept

the commercial standard in writing before it is published by

the Department of Commerce. A certification plan is applied on request as a means of increasing the effectiveness of such

standards. Provision is made for regular revision of the standard

through the appointment of a standing committee to consider

periodically any necessity for revision of the standard, in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with progress in the

industry.

Except where otherwise indicated, for further information address

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

WASHINGTON, D. C.
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 7 WASHINGTON, D. C., FEBRUARY, 1931 Number 8

CONTENTS

FEATURE ARTICLES

Antifreeze solutions for the protection of motor-car

cooling systems

Breeding guinea pigs as “standards” for use in research. _ Economic aspects of fundamental research Measurement of thermal conductivity

New testing instrument for cloth

Simplification of containers as an aid to distribution Standard preservatives for fish nets Uniform standard log rule for timber

What the National Bureau of Standards has done in research for the printing industries SIMPLIFIED-PRACTICE NEWS

Simplification briefs Simplified schedule for can sizes approved

Simplified schedule proposed for dental lathe grinding wheels

Page

246

233 242

237

254

249

241 255

238

260

262

254

TRADE-STANDARDS NEWS

Propose standard for cotton goods for rubber and pyroxylin coating , ^ 261

Seats for water-closet bowls 262

BUILDING AND HOUSING NEWS

How to judge a house 256

Publications on building and housing 262

FOREIGN NEWS

Page

British association announces new standards 255

British standard for bronze wire revised 234

British standards for cranes to insure safety 241 New British standard for lighting fixtures 245

Standardization movement progress in France 253

STANDARDIZATION NEWS

Activities of the American Standards Association 235

A. S. T. M. announces two new volumes of standards 251 Current news from American Society for Testing Materials 244

Fire warning by odors in metal mines 245

Gold medal awarded National Bureau of Standards 236

Hazards of electricity 252

Increasing safety of milk through preventive measures. . 237

Industrial elimination-of-waste campaign planned 240

New specifications for gasoline adopted 254

Oil company buyers approve standard form 241

Optical equipment improved 256

Revision of Federal specifications 247

Standardization briefs 258

Standards for canned foods discussed 236

Standard Year Book for 1931 245

Transmission of standardized waves of radio is improved. 248

Unfair competition of substandard goods 257

Value of standardization in the mining industry 232

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

An interesting fact in the growth of the bureau is the steady increase in the number of visitors. From all over the world experts come to see the work in progress in many specialties. Not alone the

experts but in growing numbers many of our people visit the bureau from a public-spirited desire to acquaint themselves with its research work. All visitors—from the newspaper men, who have called the

bureau a “ house of wonders,” to the specialists, who use its services—are welcome, for it is their bureau

in a very real sense. They are the owners of the business and its beneficiaries. The annual per capita

cost of 2 cents which the average citizen pays toward the operation of the bureau yields returns sometimes a hundredfold or a thousandfold. How science turns wastes into profits, increases the useful life of materials, adds new efficiencies to industry, advances new arts, such as aviation and radio, by research

and discovery—these are to be seen first-hand in the scientific and technical laboratories of the bureau.

A cordial invitation is extended to all citizens interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories

of the Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at 2.15 p. m.

daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may be arranged at other times by writing to the

bureau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s Manual may be had for the asking. This lists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of typical discoveries and inventions which have been notable, basic contributions to radio, aviation, and other modern

arts and industries.

George K. Burgess, Director.

37205—31 1 231
Value of Standardization

in Mining Industry

. . . and . . . Development of Standards

in Mining Industry

D

EVELOPMENT of standards of equipment and practice in metal

mines is reviewed 1 by Lucien Eaton, mining engineer, in which he

states that national standards are possible, and with a minimum of

change may be applied to mining throughout the world.

Probably the highest degree of standardization in the mining industry,

he said, is in the equipment and practice on the surface and underground in the Tri-State zinc district in Missouri, Oklahoma, and

Kansas, which has resulted in low costs. The standardization campaign

inaugurated and carried on by the American Mining Congress is an endeavor to coordinate the work done in the different districts, so that

each may have the benefit of the others’ experience, and that the benefits

of uniformity and simplicity in design of equipment and in its use,

in so far as local conditions will permit, may be enjoyed by all. The development of standards for the coal industry is likewise

reviewed 1 by J. M. Hadley, secretary of the standardization division

of the American Mining Congress, who said that standardization is dynamic, not static. A standard of practice or of equipment represents

the best thought of an industry and furnishes the best means to elimi- nate wastefulness and to promote efficiency.

The coal industry, he pointed out, has national standards covering

among other subjects, safety rules for installing and using electrical equipment, mine drainage, and ventilation, miscellaneous coal handling

equipment, and the use of explosives in bituminous mines. Many

projects remain to be completed, and many more have been proposed

for consideration. The fulfillment of the program for coal lies in the

general use of the standards by every coal company and their assistance

in formulating new standards as needed.

1 December, 1930, issue Mining Congress Journal.

232
jOuBRUARY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 233

BREEDING GUINEA PIGS AS “ STANDARDS ” FOR USE IN RESEARCH

Economic Value of Edible and Draft Animals to be Aided by Research with Stabilized Inbred Stock

By H. O. McPhee, in Charge, Genetics Investigations, Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture

Standardization has in recent years become a dominant note of American business activities. Likewise, in the livestock industry, it has long been

considered feasible to attain increased progress in

breeding operations with commercial animals, including cattle, swine, sheep, poultry, and horses, if we

could “ standardize ” or eliminate variation in the

many factors affecting their economic value.

Take, for example, search for the factors responsible for quality in meats. Some of these factors

defy present standards of measurement and call for new ones. Many are interrelated. How can one know whether the flavor of a piece of beef is due to the animal’s age, its ration, its disposition, its sex,

its breeding, or to a combination of several or all of these factors ? It is quite evident that an animal’s characteristics can be due only to three things—breeding, feeding,

and environment. There are no other factors that enter into the picture. Livestock investigators, too,

have long agreed that it is essential to have all conditions identical in the several lots of an experiment

except the variable which is being studied.

It has been a relatively simple proposition to see to

it that the different lots in an experiment were furnished the same feeds. Likewise it has been alto- gether possible to eliminate variables in environment.

But when we have come to the factor of breeding, control over our investigational work has weakened

Here we have encountered difficulty. It is becoming increasingly apparent that in much

of our livestock research it is not sufficient merely to compare two animals of the same breed. We must

compare animals of known blood lines within the

breed—animals which are homozygous (implying uniform hereditary factors) to the extent that if we find a peculiar muscle structure, or cell formation, or ar- rangement of connective tissue, or marbling of fat in one animal, we may count on these same characteristics

having been present in the second animal before the

differences in feed or environment, whichever we are studying, began to make themselves felt. Only in such

a way will entirely dependable results be obtained.

But how can this be attained? The problem is far

from simple. However, results being secured in a study of the effects of inbreeding on guinea pigs,

which has been carried on continuously since 1906

by the Bureau of Animal Industry, of the Department of Agriculture, lend considerable weight to a belief that it can eventually be attained with our commercial animals.

Twenty-three strains or families of guinea pigs were started in 1906 by brother-sister matings of care- fully selected stock. At the same time a portion of

this stock was kept as a control, within which the

mating even of second cousins has been avoided.

The same close degree of inbreeding has been con- tinued to the present time. Altogether nearly 40,000

individuals have been recorded. Differences in ability

to stand such close inbreeding were very early shown

by several of the original families. After nine years

of inbreeding, five families became exhausted because

of such serious decline in vigor as to greatly reduce

their ability to raise young and to the decreased fertility of the few that were raised. For similar reasons

three more families became extinct in 1917. Five families are still in existence. Of them one is now in its thirtieth generation, another is in its twentyninth, and all have passed their twentieth. Each

family has come to have its own peculiar combination

of traits, good, bad, or indifferent. They have be- come standardized for certain well-defined characteristics. For example, with respect to weight, while each

family has become differentiated from the others in

average, within rather close limits, its weight holds

fairly constant. The same is true for rate of gain.

The quality of color transmitted by each family has

become fixed, but not the quantity. Litter size has

been the most constant factor and the least affected by

inbreeding.

Let us consider some of the characteristics that have

become fixed in these families: Family 2 is characterized by small size at birth, at weaning age, and at maturity. On the other hand, it shows low mortality

of young, is early maturing, and produces the least number of abnormalities. In addition, it is the most

regular breeder of the five and second in resistance to tuberculosis.

Family 13 produces the largest size at birth, at weaning age, and at maturity, but is the slowest

maturing of all five families. It produces the largest

litter size and comes third in resistance to tuberculosis,

but has a rather high mortality of young and produces

the largest proportion of abnormalities.

Medium size at birth and weaning age, but small

size at maturity characterizes individuals of family

32. They mature rapidly, but not so rapidly as pigs

from family 2, show low resistance to tuberculosis and

high mortality at all ages. Members of this family

are infrequent breeders, and produce small litters.

Four generations of family 35 The young pair at the right is descended from 19 generations of

m'atings of brother with sister. Their parents, grandparents, and

great-grandparents were ail found to bo alive and are shown in the

picture. There is little if any genetic variation left in this stock. The variation in pattern, which persists, seems to bo due to nontransmissible irregularities in development.

The outstanding characteristic of family 35 is its very marked resistance to tuberculosis, leading the

other families in this respect. Members of this family,

however, are very susceptible to pneumonia and show
234 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1931

rather high mortality. They rank second in size at

birth, weaning age, and at maturity, but show rather

slow maturity.

Family 39 is the most rapidly maturing, and produces large litters, but is most infrequent in breeding

of the five. In size it is small at birth, weaning, and

maturity. It is characterized by low resistance to tuberculosis and shows high mortality at all ages. It is significant to note that while these families

have become fairly well standardized for such characteristics as I have mentioned above, this standardization has in no way resulted in the development of any

one superfamily. Quite as many undesirable characteristics have become fixed as those that are desirable,

tending to keep all of the families on about the same

level of excellence. A close study of the data has

shown that there is, in general, no correlation between

the ranking of a family in one respect and in another,

indicating that the differentiation was not merely in

general vigor, but represented the fixation of some

chance combinations of characteristics in each family.

Until such time as we are able in our breeding work to

fix only desirable characteristics and eliminate undesirable ones; our problem will lack complete solution.

Whether this is possible of attainment remains to be

seen. There is no ignoring the fact that such close inbreeding as has been practiced in this study has resulted in a decrease in vigor in all respects. On the other hand, an extensive series of crosses between inbred families

has resulted in marked improvement in every element

of vigor, in some cases surpassing the control stock,

indicating that nothing had been permanently lost by

long-continued inbreeding.

To my mind the most significant result that has

been secured in this research is that we have suc- ceeded in reducing variations among the individuals

of these five guinea pig families to rather definite limits, so that in their use in experimental work we feel reasonably sure that variations occurring in the characters we are studying are due to some cause other

than heredity.

As a consequence, in our experimental work involving the use of guinea pigs it is now possible for us

to practically duplicate hereditary variation with

individuals from the same inbred strains or families.

Genetically, we can depend upon individuals of these

families being homozygous for certain basic characteristics, which offers us a firm foundation upon which

to build other investigational work in the problems

of the livestock industry. Such animals are already

being used in special nutrition and histological re- search, research for which animals of known breeding

and minimum variation are required.

From the standardization of known blood lines in

guinea pigs to similar standardization in the breeding

of cattle, or hogs, or sheep may seem a far cry, but

there can be little doubt that the results thus far

secured with these laboratory animals offer real en- couragement along this line. We know that heredity

acts much the same in the larger animals. Certain

important physiological conditions supposedly hold

equally true for all animals.

Although it will undoubtedly take a long time and

much effort to reach the desired goal, it now seems

altogether possible eventually to develop strains of

farm animals homozygous in their blood lines for

the factors affecting their economic value.

BRITISH STANDARD FOR BRONZE WIRE REVISED

Some Slight Changes Have Been Made in Specification for Bronze Wire and Cadmium Copper Wire

A slight revision of the specification for bronze wire

and cadmium copper wire has recently been issued by

the British Engineering Standards Association, it has

been learned. The revised portion of the specification

mainly affects the resistance per mile of bronze wire.

This revision has been found necessary in view of the

fact that since the issue of the original specification

the resistance per mile of bronze wire manufactured

to the specification has been found to be considerably

lower in some instances than the resistance of wire

manufactured heretofore. This is probably due to the

addition of a certain amount of cadmium to the bronze

billets. Bronze wire having these characteristics is unsuitable from the point of view of the British General

Post Office, since trouble would inevitably occur when

balancing A and B lines for resistance in the eventuality of coils of wire from different manufacturers

being used on the same work. As a safeguard against

this state of affairs, a minimum value for the resist- ance per mile for this class of wire has been inserted in

the specification in addition to a maximum value.

As regards the cadmium copper wire referred to in

the same specification, the same need for a minimum

resistance does not arise, since the variation in resist- ance from the standard value is, in practice, not very

large. Another modification to the specification re- lates to the weight of coils of the 40-pound wire. The

revised weight allows a wider latitude to the manufacturer in making up his coils, thus largely reducing the

waste, which has, in the past, been found to be a some- what serious matter in the case of this particular size of wire.

The specification in question (B. S. Specification

No. 175) is one of a series of specifications for over- head line wire material for telegraph and telephone

purposes, this series being published in a single volume

by the British Engineering Standards Association as

specifications Nos. 174-181.
FEBRUARY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 235

ACTIVITIES OF THE AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

A. S. A. Announces New Officers for Safety Code; National Standard Specifications for Vegetable-Tanned

Leather Belting to be Prepared

The following current information relating to developments in certain standardization projects

under the auspices and procedure of the American

Standards Association has been furnished by (hat

association

New officers of A. S. A. Safety Code.

Dr. L. W. Hatch, of the New York State Department of Labor, has been selected as chairman of

the A. S. A. Safety Code Correlating Committee for

the year 1931, W. S. Paine, of the iEtna Life Insur- ance Co., and Col. J. P. Jackson, of the New York

Edison Co. becoming vice chairmen. The executive

committee of the correlating committee will include

these officers and, in addition, L. F. Adams, of the

General Electric, W. D. Keefer of the National Safety

Council, and M. G. Lloyd, of the National Bureau of

Standards. The secretary of the committee is P .G. Agnew, secretary of the American Standards

Association.

Rotating electrical machinery.

Two A. S. A. standardization projects, one on synchronous converters and the other on rotating electri- cal machinery, have been combined under the title “ Rotating Electrical Machinery ” ; both will hereafter

be in the hands of the same technical committee. The

American Institute of Electrical Engineers and the

National Electrical Manufacturers’ Association are

jointly responsible for the technical direction of this

committee. This action is in line with the aim to produce a large number of standards for rotating electri- cal machinery under one technical committee to assure agreement among the standards approved in all essential respects.

The project on rotating electrical machinery was

formed from four separate projects covering directcurrent, alternating-current, induction rotating machinery, and fractional-horsepower motors.

The technical committee on rotating machinery has

progressed rapidly on that part of its work which

covers efficiency and losses, and in anticipation of the

addition of synchronous converters to its work, in- cluded this subject with the others covered by the

report on efficiency and losses. Line insulators for voltages.

A consolidation of the work on line insulators for

voltages not exceeding 750 and power-line insulators

for voltages exceeding 750 in the hands of a single

committee has been approved by the American Standards Association. Both of these projects are under

the technical leadership of the American Institute of

Electrical Engineers and the National Electrical

Manufacturers’ Association.

The future course of the work of standardization of

insulators will be to add the following topics to the

work remaining before the committee on power-line

insulators

1. One-piece porcelain insulators.

2. Strain insulators and spools.

3.

Threads for pins and insulators, including gages,

tolerances, etc. The last-mentioned topic is also to in- clude a coordination between the threads commonly

used on porcelain insulators with those used on glass

insulators.

Standard zinc coating.

The American Tentative Standard Zinc Coatings on

Structural Steel Shapes, Plates, and Bars and their

Products (G8c-1930) has been approved by the standards council.

The standard was submitted for A. S. A. approval

under the proprietary sponsorship method by the

American Society for Testing Materials. It includes

designations of specific grades of structural steel,

grades of galvanizing spelter bath, maximum amount

of impurities allowed in the molten zinc bath, a specification limiting embrittlement of the steel, requirements governing weight of zinc coating, and a test for

uniformity of the coating.

Track bolts and nuts. The new American Standard for Track Bolts and

Nuts has just been published and may be purchased

from the American Standards Association, 29 West

Thirty-ninth Street, New York, N. Y.

Government Printing Office member body.

American Standards Association announces the

affiliation as one of its member bodies of the United

States Government Printing Office. The Government

Printing Office becomes the eighth branch of the Federal Government to be included in the association’s

membership ; the other branches being the Department

of Agriculture, Department of Commerce, Department

of the Interior, Department of Labor. Navy Department, War Department, and Panama Canal.

B. L. Wehmholf, technical director, will represent

the Government Printing Office on the standards council of the A. S. A. with A. E. Hanson, superintendent

of construction and maintenance, as alternate. Vegetable-tanned leather belting.

The organization of a technical committee to undertake the establishment of national standard specifications for vegetable-tanned leather belting has been approved by the A. S. A. standards council. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers will assume leadership for the technical work which will cover the

preparation of specifications for vegetable-tanned

leather belting including raw material, construction,

marking, and physical and chemical tests. The project

is the result of a general conference on the subject held

at the request of the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers in February, 1930. At that time a number

of existing specifications were reviewed, and the need

for a national standard unifying these specifications was pointed out.

It was stated that the quality of anj^ leather belt

depended largely upon the character of the leather

used in its construction. The selection of suitable sec-
236 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1931

tions from hides for use in belt construction depends

almost entirely upon personal experience and mature

judgment, which can not easily be translated into

terms readily understood by a novice. Several large

users of leather belting, among which are the United

States Steel Corporation, the New York Central, and

Norfolk & Western Railroads, supplement their belt- ing specifications by maintaining resident inspectors

in the plant of the manufacturer. This practice, however, was considered too costly to be followed by the

average purchaser. Attention was called to the fact

that the maintenance of a resident inspector by the

United States Navy Department had been discontinued

with the adoption of Federal Specification 37 for

Vegetable-Tanned Leather Belting. The practice of

the American Petroleum Institute of permitting the

use of the A. P. I. monogram on belting supplied by

manufacturers when guaranteed to be in accord with

A. P. I. specifications, was also mentioned. The opinion was expressed that both of these groups were

receiving satisfactory products.

Later discussions of the subject by members of a

special conference committee revealed the fact that

belting manufactured from vegetable-tanned leather

comprised approximately 90 per cent of the belting

produced, the remaining 10 per cent being made from

leather prepared by a “ mineral ” and a combination

“mineral-vegetable” tanning processes. For this reason it has been decided to undertake first the development of specifications for vegetable-tanned

leather belting, although leather prepared by the

other two tanning processes may eventually be given

consideration by the sectional committee.

STANDARDS FOR CANNED FOODS DISCUSSED

Tentative Standards Drafted by Department of Agriculture for Canned Peas, Pears, and Peaches Reviewed

at Conference

Tentative standards drafted by the Department of

Agriculture for canned peas, pears, and peaches were

discussed December 15, 1930, at a conference of more

than 60 representatives of canners’ associations and

canners held at the department in Washington. Suggestions for improvement of the standards were

presented.

W. G. Campbell, director of regulatory work for

the department, presided at the opening of the con- ference and explained that the department had proposed standards based on a system o,f exact measure- ment of the qualities of the foods. He stated that the

method of exact measurement is necessary to the en- forcement of the so-called canners’ amendment to the

food and drugs act, enacted at the last session of

Congress.

A proposal that the standards might better be based on the “ score card ” system, now in use in Wisconsin,

which is based on inspectors’ judgments of the qualities of the foods rather than on mathematical measurements, was supported by IT. R. Burr, executive secre- tary of the Wisconsin Canners Association, and by

F. M. Shook, of the Tri-State Packers Association.

Changes in the proposed method of labeling substandard products also were considered, the suggestion

being advanced that the latter part of the proposed

designation “below United States standard—legalwholesale ” might be taken to mean that the Government was guaranteeing the legality and wholesomeness of the specific product. It was suggested that

“ not illegal—not unwholesome ” might obviate this

possible inference.

Dr. W. B. White, chief of the food control office of

the department, read sections of the standards and

invited comment. Doctor White stated orally after

the conference that the promulgation of final standards will be deferred until after the National Canners’

convention. It is hoped, however, he said, to have

the standards completed so that they can be applied to the first of the 1931 pack of vegetables and fruits.

Various suggestions for improvement of the tentative standards were advanced at the conference, in- cluding the objection that the proposed standard for

pears might throw all canned Kiefer pears into the

substandard class because of their content of gritty

matter, while permitting Bartlett pears to be graded

as standard; and that the minimum size requirement

might work a hardship on canners of Michigan

peaches and other fruits, which were said to be of

high quality, but of comparatively small size.

GOLD MEDAL AWARDED NATIONAL BUREAU

OF STANDARDS

Spain Awards Diploma of Honor and Gold Medal to Bureau

for its Exhibition of Scientific Processes at Sevilla, Spain,

1929-30

The National Bureau of Standards has been

awarded a gold medal and diploma of honor by the

Upper Jury of Award of the Exposicion Ibero Americana at Sevilla, Spain, 1929-30, for its exhibition of

scientific processes and products.

Striking features of this exhibit were : The photoelectric visitor counter, actuated by interruptions of

a ray of light, designed and constructed at the National Bureau of Standards ; photographs of the

planet Mars, showing how the bureau’s expert meas- ured the temperatures, of the snowcapped poles of

Mars; a model (with miniature airplanes) showing

the principle of the radiobeacon; high-precision gages, designed and manufactured at the bureau ; rare sugars, including levulose (the sweetest of all sugars) pro- duced at the bureau by a new special process; trans- parencies illustrating the bureau’s work on fire pre- vention and fire resistance ; optical glass, including

finished optical parts ; and new by-products developed

from agricultural waste.
FEBRUARY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 237

MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

Thermal Conductivity of Electrical Insulating Materials Determined by Comparison with Standard Sample

By A. T. McPherson, National Bureau of Standards

The thermal conductivity of electrical insulating

materials is an important consideration in designing

electrical machinery and in determining the safe loads

for power cables. Heat resulting from the electrical

resistance of conductors must be dissipated at a sufficiently rapid rate to prevent their reaching a temperature which would scorch or destroy rubber, var- nished cambric, fiber, or other organic insulating

materials.

Direct measurements of thermal conductivity are

difficult and require the services of a physicist of particular training as well as special facilities and equipment. Consequently, such measurements are beyond

the scope of many electrical testing laboratories which

need or would like to obtain thermal conductivity

data on insulating materials. To meet this need, a simple method has been developed by the National

Bureau of Standards in cooperation with a committee

of the American Society for Testing Materials,

whereby the thermal conductivity of a material may

be ascertained, not directly, but by comparison with a standard sample of which the conductivity has been

previously determined in a laboratory equipped to make absolute measurements of heat transfer.

Essential features of the method.

In principle the comparative method for determining thermal conductivity is the thermal analog of the

potentiometer method of comparing electrical resist- ances. Samples of sheet material, of known or un- known conductivity, are placed one above the other

between two metal plates—one plate heated, and the

other cooled. When uniform heat flow is established,

the temperature gradients across the specimens are in- versely proportional to their respective thermal conductivities. The only measurements required are the

thickness of the samples, and the determinations of

temperature by means of thermocouples. The apparatus is simple and easily assembled and operated.

The method is practicable for use in any electrical

testing laboratory, and will yield results which are

sufficiently accurate for all ordinary purposes of elec- trical design.

Several experimental sets of standard samples have

been made and calibrated at the National Bureau of

Standards. A set of standards covers a range of conductivities so that each important electrical insulating

material may be compared with a standard of approximately the same thermal conductivity. The standard

samples are made from rubber and graphite in varying

proportions; the higher the percentage of graphite,

the greater the conductivity. These standard samples

have remained constant over the period of three or four years that the investigation has been in progress, and can probably be used over a longer period without the necessity of recalibration.

The procedure for the comparative method of

measuring thermal conductivity was described under

the title ‘‘ Tentative Method of Test for Comparing

the Thermal Conductivities of Solid Electrical Insulating Materials ” in the report of the American

Society for Testing Materials Committee D-9, June 23, 1930.

INCREASING SAFETY OF MILK THROUGH PREVENTIVE MEASURES

Sole Reliance Upon Pasteurization for Safety in Milk Not Sufficient

Sole reliance upon pasteurization may result in milk

production of substandard quality, according to the

Office of Milk Investigations of the United States Public Health Service. (The story on Standard Milk Ordinance and Code, by Dr. Leslie C. Frank, of the

Public Health Service, appeared in the December

Commercial Standards Monthly*.)

Production precautions, such as tuberculin testing,

investigations for typhoid carriers, and sterilization,

constitute factors in milk safety much as pasteurization does. Neither means is sufficient by itself to safe- guard the milk supply. Both must go hand in hand.

Although pasteurization is a very efficient means of

increasing the purity of milk, the fact that many believe it is the only essential means has resulted in the

neglect of other very important factors. A policy

which abandons production precautions and relies solely upon pasteurization is not sound. There can be no doubt that pasteurization, if properly applied, will

prevent milk-borne infections. Pasteurization in this

respect is superior to raw-milk precautions. But, on

the other hand, the pasteurization process is not al- ways properly applied. It is designed and operated

by human beings. Occasional slips in operation are

inevitable.

Suppose production precautions are abandoned entirely or largely; suppose many of the cows are not

tuberculin tested, and high percentage of tuberculosis

exists in the herd; suppose no precautions are taken

against typhoid carriers on the farm; if, then, a fail- ure in the pasteurization process does occur, the last safeguard is down and the consumer is left defenseless,

said the announcement of the Public Health Service.

Pasteurization is not expected to be a substitute for

cleanliness which prevents the entrance of dirt and

bacteria, nor of cold which prevents the rapid increase

of bacteria, but merely to supplement these measures.

Inspection of dairies is also a necessary measure.
238 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1931 WHAT THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS HAS DONE IN RESEARCH

FOR THE PRINTING INDUSTRIES

Researches Have Resulted in Improved Bookbinding, Electrotyping, Printing Plates, and Paper

By Henry D. Hubbard, National Bureau of Standards

The outstanding element of industrial progress to- day is the use of measurement in the precise control of

the details of design and process. We build desired

properties into materials almost at will and are less inclined merely to seek specific materials which, at the outset, have such properties. We mold the quality

of a material as we mold its form. The National Bureau of Standards was drawn into industrial research

as were other research institutions because of the inti- mate and growing union of science and industry.

The bureau has made researches in buckram for

binding, electrotyping, printing plates, and paper. To sum up its experience is to say that measurement is the modern method of dis- covery, record, planning,

and application. We measure the need and make to measure the things which

are to meet the need. It was this which made the

bureau a factor in some of

the researches of interest

to the printing industry.

While not in any sense a bureau for printing re- search, its expert staff, with unique facilities, met

with some success in a few

problems of particular in- terest to printers, problems submitted to the bureau by industry or by the

National Government.

In the early daj^s the bureau was one of the few

laboratories then existing in the Government service.

It became perforce a utility bureau where laboratory

work was needed.

An early research.

A very simple type of early research was the choice

of buckram as a substitute for sheep-leather binding

of Government publications. The author recalls when

an act of Congress still prescribed binding in sheep

leather. Serious complaints led the Joint Committee

on Printing to request the National Bureau of Standards to investigate the properties of certain selected

buckrams and other binding cloths, 22 in all, to develop criteria and facts for selecting the most suitable

binding cloth for Government publications.

The bureau was asked also to study how insects

attack bookbinding cloth and to find a remedy, if possible. Colonies of “ croton ” or water bugs (ectobia

germcmiece) were cultivated under bell jars with uniform strips of all the samples of buckram and other

binding cloths. With plenty of air and water but no

food, they were forced to attack any edible substance on the samples. After manj7 days’ exposure some

cloths were stripped of coating, others were unat- tacked—presumably in the order of edibility.

The experience, twice repeated, established that the

cloth coating Avas distasteful, and that choice was not

by accident, imitation, or force of habit. The weight

of the coating or its content of indigestible matter did

not affect the choice. The nature of the fabric had no

effect upon the choice, since the bugs did not eat the

fabric, but only the nutritious materials of the coating. It was thought that, perhaps, poisons might

immunize the cloths. Quinine and strychnine were

attacked as readily as samples treated with pure

Avater, without harm to the

bugs. Chrome yellow, con- taining lead and chromic

acid, both poisons, apparently was not fatal nor was

it avoided by the bugs.

The test results were so uniform that the immune

buckrams were selected as bug resistant.

The test data comprised

yarn count for warp and

weft, thickness, bone-dry

weight, changes in weight

and dimension of warp

and weft at 65 and 100 per

cent humidity, tensile

strength, stretch, folding

and wearing endurance,

and light fastness. The bureau eliminated cloths

attacked by the bugs, those shoAving fading or undue

moisture absorption (as being liable to mold), and

one showing excessive friction (unfitting it for library

use). The remaining samples showed adequate wearing endurance. The results were critically revieAved

by experts in bookbinding before a final choice was

made.

Action by Congress and the Joint Committee on

Printing enabled the Public Printer to use the new

buckram chosen as the most suitable binding material

(the famous No. 666, “ Government document buff

bug-proof buckram ”) as a substitute for split sheep

leather, which it resembled closely in color and had

to match on library sheh7es. This buckram, it was

said, cost a third, and lasts three times as long, a net economic gain of 800 per cent resulting from a relatively simple research.

Other researches.

Standardized control of electrotyping solutions was

developed for the International Association of Electrotypers, and with their cooperation, in 1914. Copper electrotyping solutions were then controlled by

rule-of-thumb. Simple methods of analysis or shop

control Avere rare or unknown.

The outstanding element of industrial progress is the use of measurement in the precise

control of design and process. Desired properties may be built into materials at will. The

National Bureau of Standards Avas drawn into

industrial research because of the growing union

of science and industry. It has successfully

solved some of the problems of the printing

industry. This article, in which the writer

deals with bureau researches in binding materials, electrotyping, printing plates (particularly chromium plating), and paper Avas read

at the First International Conference of the

Technical Experts in the Printing Industry

held in Pittsburgh.
FEBRUARY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 239

By experimental research were developed the measured controls, or conditions under which copper deposits could always be made of uniformly highest

quality. The results have been in steady nation-wide

demand ever since. In a recent new and interesting research the permissible rate of copper deposition was doubled. It was discovered that phenol (carbolic acid) permitted more rapid copper deposition and gave harder copper

deposits. Plants can now deposit the required thick- ness of copper in half the time previous^ needed.

In a similar research standardized control and operation were worked out for nickel. A very simple

electrotyping solution with only two constituents was

found to yield better results than many complex solutions then in use. The World War cut off the supply of molding wax

for electrotyping (chiefly Austrian ozokerite from

Galicia). Ozokerite deposits in Utah were not yet

exploited. The bureau found suitable admixtures for

Utah ozokerite to give it the necessary properties,

and this led to its successful use in the American

electrotyping industry.

The need of satisfactory quality graphite led to a bureau research on its properties. New test methods

were devised for determining the suitability of deliveries for electrotyping purposes. The results were

published and embodied in specifications now accepted

generally by graphite dealers, so that deliveries of

graphite became notably more uniform and satisfactory to the industry.

Registration of color plates.

The accurate registration of color plates is the

subject of another bureau research of importance to printers. In making electrotypes for color printing

where curved plates are needed, trouble arises when

they fail to register. The cause is dimensional inac- curacy, changes in the paper, or defective presswork.

To discover what factors affect plate dimensions, a method was devised to measure accurately any dimensions upon either flat or curved plates.

A special gage designed at the bureau measures the

distance between any two points on any curved plate.

Precision treatment thus possible will surely yield

methods for the accurate control of the factors which

govern perfect registration. Commercial electro- typers are now called upon to furnish plates to fit as many as 20 diameters of cylinders, and plates of three

or four different thicknesses on the same sized cylinder. It is hoped that research here may reduce

the number of sizes, simplify operations, save expense,

enhance the accuracy of registration, and thereby

improve the quality of printed work.

Intaglio plates for printing our national paper cur- rency have for 10 years past been the subject of re- search by the Bureau of Standards in cooperation with

the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. The first research developed a successful electrolytic process for

reproducing printing plates from original engraved

master plates. In the Bureau of Standards process

the negative or “ alto ” plate is made, not by intermediate impression in lead or wax, but by direct elec- tro-deposition. Upon this “ alto ” plate, the “ basso ” or finished replica of the original plate is deposited.

The process is so exact, so sensitive, that all significant

37205—31——2

lines and also even the finest perceptible scratches of

the original polish are faithfully reproduced.

The plates were cheaper than case-hardened steel plates, produced equallj' good impressions, but had

shorter life. The Bureau of Standards, therefore,

decided to use chromium plating, which proved a most

interesting and successful enterprise. To lengthen the

service life of electrolytic plates, a thin coating (about

0.0002 inch) of chromium was added to the nickel surface. Chromium—the hardest metal known, as measured by abrasion resistance—gave the new plates a much longer life, often four times that of previous

plates.

Electrolytic plates were made of alternating nickel

and copper layers to a total thickness of about 0.06 inch. This shell is soldered to a steel plate to give

the needed thickness and strength. The newer plates,

however, consist entirely of electrodeposited iron, ex- cept for thin layers of nickel and chromium on the

printing surface. This process is designed to save material cost and simplify grinding and soldering. It

is now on a semicommercial basis at the Bureau of

Engraving and Printing.

The net result is that the life of paper currency

now printed excels all previously produced and the

plates cost much less. Three-quarters of all paper

currency is now printed from chromium-plated elec- trotypes. Similar plates are being used for printing

Government securities and postage stamps.

Two interesting points may be added. First, elec- trolytic plates have deeper and more sharply defined

lines than the master plates themselves since the edges

of each engraved channel naturally take thicker deposits than the bottom of the channel. The second

point is that the chromium film when worn may be

removed from the plate electrolytically by simply re- versing the current in a suitable bath. The plates can then be recoated with chromium and the process

repeated until the steel or nickel under the chromium

wears away.

Researches in paper.

Paper making is an industry still in the making.

The properties of paper are responsive to pulp treat- ment and process details. It is the task of the paper

experts of the bureau to find out how to enhance any

desirable characteristic of paper. Desired results are now sought and found by research as deliberately

and as successful as we plan and build a house. A chief

factor in this success is the bureau’s unique facilities for research, including a complete experimental paper

mill in which every detail of the paper-making process

may be conducted under measured control.

Increased life was added to our national currency

paper by improved processing of the pulp in a research

by the Bureau of Standards in cooperating with the

Bureau of Efficiency and the Bureau of Engraving

and Printing. It is known that with the same mix,

different paper makers will produce papers of differ- ent quality. Empirical process is responsible for

such diversity. Accident, rather than intent, however,

may produce an occasional very low quality with an

equally rare run of superlative quality. Therein

experimental research and mill experience differ. In

the mill a high quality may be attained without the

possibility of its being regularly reproduced.
240 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1931

If a chance success can not be reproduced, it is lost to the world and rediscovered only by chance. The

musician’s chance harmony, “ the lost chord,” could

not be recalled. In research, however, success is re- producible, since it is recognized good practice to re- cord the measured conditions of each experiment.

These make success reproducible. Science aims to have no “ lost chords.” An unexpectedly high quality

is made permanent by reproducing it under the measured conditions which first produced it. Durability is a prized merit in national paper cur- rency. Longer life of the paper saves not only paper

stock but also the repeated labor required to protect,

handle, print, and authenticate paper money—all costly. This made the research for added durability

both attractive and promising. Folding bills for the

purse or pulling them in handling calls for foldingstrength and tensile strength, respectively. By a planned technique these two basic properties were

greatly enhanced. The specification for currency

paper calls for folding endurance of 3,000 double

folds. The bureau produced experimental paper for our currency with a folding endurance averaging more

than 5,000 double folds and some specimens having a folding endurance of 8,000 double folds. The new technique for improving currency paper was based upon expert knowledge of the effects of

beating upon the paper fibers. To brush the fibers clean—“ teasing them out,” as the paper maker puts

it—produces fibrillas at both ends and sides of the in- dividual fibers. Beating them also crinkles the fibers. The two effects combined govern the felting or weaving quality which makes the paper strong. With these

facts in mind, the beater rolls were adjusted to slow

beating, thereby loosening the fibers gently without

cutting them. A study of former currency paper dis- closed unsuitable beater action which cut the fibers too

short, making the paper brittle. The distance of the beater roll from the bedplate was varied according to a definite schedule controlled

by a time meter. The rolls were lowered slightly by

steps until the fibers were completely brushed. Various mixes were tried. The winning composition was

a 75-to-25 linen-cotton mixture, selected as best to use

for paper currency on the basis of experimental

results. An important aim in the research was to secure a printing surface soft enough yet firm enough to absorb the ink without fiber “ pick-up ” on the plates.

This was accomplished. Another point brought out

in this research is becoming better known to research

men, namely, that quality is often dependent more upon the physical structure than upon composition.

For example, the strength of a paper depends most

upon how well the fibers cling together ; hence the

importance of beating control to produce ideal crinkle

and fibrillas. Incidentally, when this basis was developed the first run in the bureau’s experimental mill was almost as good as the best produced since. In translating the bureau’s technique to the paper

mills, it was found that it would produce commercially

and uniformly the same high quality of paper, and no

other technique has been found which will duplicate

this quality. It is notable that this doubling the

durability of currency paper did not increase its cost. The ideal printing research brings together the

scientific laboratory man, the practical engineer, and

the facilities of industry for full-scale service tests. If we apply science in the research, continuous ever- accelerating progress is possible. Every ounce of material, every machine part or tool, every motion or reaction in a process is amenable to improvement by

research. Research, therefore, should leave no sector uncovered. If all branches of science are mobilized

in such a comprehensive program of research, the

printing industry may hope for results comparable in enterprise with recent achievements in radio, aviation,

motion pictures, and television.

As production passes over to the automatic powerdriven machine, brain power is increasingly beingtransmuted into more perfect planning and design of

materials, devices, processes, product. Here the chief

essential is research and the accurate specific data and

facts which research discloses.

INDUSTRIAL ELIMINATION OF WASTE

CAMPAIGN PLANNED

Special Effort to be Made by A. S. M. E. to Interest Smaller

Plants in Campaign for 1931 Plans for the 1931 campaign on the elimination of

waste have been prepared by the national committee of

the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. As

usual the particular effort will be directed toward having industrial plants throughout the country hold

elimination of waste campaign meetings during April.

This campaign will be of the same type that has

hitherto been so successful, each department of a com- pany making up its own waste-exhibit boards, and so stimulating suggestions from employees as to ways and means of eliminating waste, and decreasing production

cost. As part of this campaign, the committee will try to interest those in charge of smaller plants, and explain

how they may stage campaigns in their factories with- out too great an expenditure of time and money.

W. J. Barrett, industrial engineer of the Metropolitan

Life Insurance Co., who has been appointed to take

charge of this branch of the work, is planning a group

of effective posters which any small plant may

purchase.

The committee having been invited to hold sessions

at the Management Congress and Materials HandlingMeeting, scheduled to be held in Cleveland, Ohio, during the week of April 13, 1931, decided to hold one evening and probably one afternoon meeting. The

National Industrial Equipment Exposition will be held

at the same time.

The dictionary on disposal of waste materials, which

is being prepared by the committee, is progressing

splendidly. The nucleus of this dictionary consists of

about 130 items contributed by Thomas Owens, of the

Westing-house Electric & Manufacturing Co. To these

have been added more than 100 items received from

about 30 other companies. A special effort is being

made to get further contributions from other companies before the dictionary is published.
FEBRUARY. 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 241

STANDARD PRESERVATIVES FOR FISH NETS

Bureau of Fisheries Conducting Tests to Complete Standardization of Practices in Fish-Net Preservatives

By W. T. Conn, Technologist, Bureau of Fisheries

The factory value of new webbing for replacement or addition to that already in use in the United

States for commercial fishing is about $5,400,000 annually. In figuring the cost of nets, however, labor,

transportation, net manufacturers’ costs, and accessories must be added, which would raise the above

total considerably. Most of this “gear” is treated

with a preservative of some nature, but losses under

present conditions are still excessive. Certain standard preservatives are in use, and the problem of re- search is to establish more efficient preservative

treatments. Many types of nets are utilized in the commercial

fisheries. These are used in waters varying widely

in salinity, temperature, mobility, and in content of

animal, bacterial, and vegetable life. Webbing, of

the type employed for trap nets, is made from heavy

cotton and must resist deterioration from all causes when exposed for periods of several months. While

a preservative of light weight is desirable, it is not

essential, as is evidenced by the common practice of

tarring this class of “ gear.” In contrast, however,

gill-net webbing, which is made from light-weight

linen and cotton, is exposed for only a day or two

at a time and must be light and flexible. Therefore, any preservative for this type of “ gear ” must

be light in weight to allow the thread to flatten when

struck by a fish. From the foregoing, it is evident

that there is little possibility of one preservative

treatment being practical for all types of nets. Over a period of several years, the technologists of

the Bureau of Fisheries have conducted many hundreds of tests in typical fishing waters with the objective in view of producing superior preservatives

which will increase the resistance to deterioration from

the various destructive agencies. With increased

knowledge o,f the regional and seasonal effects upon

nets it is probable that standard preservatives may be

developed for each type of “ gear ” when it is used

under known conditions of salinity, temperature, water

currents, and presence of destructive organisms.

Standardization of net-preservative ingredients is possible at the present time. As an example, copper

cleate, which is valuable as a preservative component,

and which rarely exists as a pure chemical, has been

found to react favorably if it is free from acids and

if it has a copper content of not less than 8 per cent. Coal tar is used extensively for the preservation of

heavy nets. There is a wide variation, however, in

quality of coal tar as purchased on the market, but

work is in progress with the objective of developing

specifications which will insure high-quality material

to the discriminating buyer.

Field investigations have developed a wide range

in the types of apparatus and methods for applying

tar and similar materials to nets. Many operators are assuming a serious fire risk when tarring nets to-day,

and most of them are heating tar in a manner that

destroys a portion of its most valuable properties. In

order to overcome the objections to present practice, an apparatus has been designed which should eliminate all objections to the present methods of tarring.

While complete standardization of practices in net preservation is apparently not yet solved, facts developed from research in this field should point the

way toward a few improved methods of preservation

which should, in turn, considerably reduce present

costs of nets.

OIL COMPANY BUYERS APPROVE STANDARD

FORM

A proposed standard form to be used as a guide in

field purchases of lumber, and a similar form for use

in buying from supply houses, were tentatively approved by the Oil Company Buyers Group of the

National Association of Purchasing Agents at the

meeting held in Tulsa, Okla. Sample forms have been

distributed which are to be subjected to the test of

actual use before final ratification or revision at the

1931 convention of the National Association of Purchasing Agents which will be held in Toronto, Canada,

in June.

The object of the new form is to combine on a single

sheet, (11 by 12% inches) all information required in

asking and giving quotations on the material in question, and eliminating superfluous data sometimes in- cluded in the routine developed by individual companies. In this way it is expected that the adoption of

the new standardized method will be a distinct

advantage to both buyer and seller.

BRITISH STANDARDS FOR CRANES TO

INSURE SAFETY

The use of timber is prohibited in any stress-bearing

part of new standards for derrick cranes power-driven

and hand-operated, and for traveling jib cranes (contractors’ type), just announced b}T the British Engineering Standards Association.

The object of these specifications is to secure the

general observance of such fundamental principles as appear desirable to insure reliability and safety without hampering the freedom of the crane maker in his

selection of the most appropriate design for the purpose in view.

The derrick-crane specifications provide for the

Scotch derrick, the Guy derrick, and the tower derrick

types of cranes, now largely used in building operations. The factors of safety and allowable working

stresses specified are applicable to cranes intended for

ordinary duty. Higher factors of safety and lower

working stresses are recommended for duties of greater

severity, or where there is a liability to accidental overloads, as in dock side, quarrying, and magnet cranes.
242 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1931 ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH

Commercial Value of Fundamental Research Not Always Apparent

By H. L. Curtis, National Bureau of Standards

The economic aspects of any subject depend to a considerable extent on the point of view of the person

considering the subject.

Likewise there may be a difference of opinion con- cerning the meaning of fundamental research. Hence,

it seems desirable to define both “ economic ” and

“ fundamental research.” The term economic is defined in dictionaries, the following definition having

been taken from the Standard Dictionary:

Relating to the science that treats of the development of material resources, or of the production, preservation, and

distribution of wealth, and of the means and methods of

living well, for the State, the family, and the individual. In this article, economic will refer particularly to the latter part of the definition, namely, the means

and method of living well. The following is the

author’s conception of

fundamental research : Fundamental research is that branch of research

which attempts to determine the basic laws governing natural phenomena and to evaluate the constants of nature which

are required for a quantitative expression of the

basic laws.

The field to be covered

by the subject which has

been chosen is very nar- row, but its limits are not

clearly defined. On the one hand, there may be a great difference of opinion as to whether the results of a given experiment

have any economic value; that is, have improved our method of living. On the other hand, there is no

exact criterion for telling whether a research is fundamental. However, there are certain experiments which

admittedly have economic importance and which are fundamental. The present article will be confined to

a discussion of these researches.

Perhaps the best way of evaluating fundamental re- search is by considering some historical examples.

In the opinion of the author, the research which has

had the greatest economic value was the experiment of

Galileo in dropping balls of different weight from the

leaning tower of Pisa. To appreciate the importance

of this, one must understand the method of thought

during the Middle Ages. No man considered making

an experiment for himself. If some matters were in

question, he consulted the authorities. If Aristotle

had made any statement on the subject, the matter was

completely settled. In fact, the writings of Aristotle were given almost

as much importance by the church of the Middle Ages

as were the sacred writings. Any statement which depreciated a saying of Aristotle was heresy. Aristotle

had said that the velocity with which a body falls depends upon its weight. For nearly 2,000 years that

statement had been accepted as a fact without any at- tempt to prove it. It was Galileo who did more than

any other man to break down this dependence upon

authority, for the two balls which he dropped from

the leaning tower of Pisa, one weighing 10 pounds and

the other 1 pound, reached the earth at the same time.

So important was this experiment that from the scientific point of view the end of the Middle Ages may be

said to date from that day in 1589 when Galileo first performed his experiment.

A second example illustrating the importance of

fundamental research is Oersted’s discovery in 1820

of the magnetic effect of the electric current. Oersted’s

discovery was somewhat of an accident. He had been

lecturing to a class con- cerning magnetism, and

toward the end of his

lecture introduced some

experiments with electric currents. At the end of

the lecture a few students more curious than the

others stayed to see additional experiments.

Oersted first held a

wire, through which cur- rent was flowing in a vertical direction, near a magnet and showed that

the current had no effect on the magnet. He then

held the conductor carry- ing the current parallel to the magnet and to his sur- prise the magnet was deflected. Oersted immediately

made further experiments, and within a short time

developed the laws of the magnetic action of a current. This was a very fundamental series of experiments,

but Oersted did not make any economic application

of his discovery. It required other men with a dif- ferent point of view to make the application. One of

the men to see an important application of this fundamental work was Professor Morse, who about 12 years

after Oersted’s discovery started experiments on the

electric telegraph. In a few years Morse had per- fected his telegraph, but could not interest financiers

in the subject. It was not until 25 years after the

original experiments of Oersted that Congress ap- propriated money for opening the first telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore in 1844, over which President Tyler sent the famous message,

“ What hath God wrought.” In this instance the politicians were wiser than the financiers.

Another example of fundamental research which

has had far-reaching economic value was the discovery

of electromagnetic induction by Faraday in 1831. Faraday was much impressed by the analogies between

electricity and magnetism. It was well known that

The economic aspects of fundamental research

have been brought out by a number of historic

examples. The first example mentioned is that

of Galileo’s experiment of dropping balls of

different weight from the leaning tower of Pisa.

This so changed the method of thought that our present scientific and technical development

has been possible. Other examples cited are the

discovery of the magnetic action of the electric current by Oersted, the discovery of electro- magnetic induction by Faraday, and the more

recent work on liquification of gases, the dis- covery of radium, and the production of electro- magnetic waves. A brief application to the bureau’s work is indicated.
FEBRUARY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 243

when a magnet was brought into the neighborhood of

a piece of iron, the iron temporarily became magnetic,

so Faraday reasoned that an electric current brought

into the neighborhood of an electric circuit might

cause a current to flow in the neighboring circuit. He accordingly set up a circuit containing a galvanometer and placed near it a second circuit containing

a battery, but as batteries in those days were expensive,

he left the circuit open until he was ready to make

observations. When ready he closed the key of his

battery and was much gratified to find that his galvanometer deflected, but was greatly surprised to find

that the deflection quickly returned to zero. Faraday always recorded results of his observations

in great detail, so that as soon as his galvanometer re- turned to zero, he released his key in order to make a record of what had happened. To his great surprise,

the galvanometer then deflected in the opposite direction, again returning to zero- in a short time. In this

way, electromagnetic induction was discovered. At

the time it seemed to be of nothing more than scientific interest. It was almost half a century before it had

any extensive economic application.

Few of our electrical industries would be in exist- ence to-day if the principle of electromagnetic induction were not known.

Many men now living remember how the scientific thought of the last decade of the nineteenth century was modified by the results of fundamental researches.

There was the liquefaction of the “ permanent ” gases

the discovery of radioactive substances, particularly

radium; the discovery of X rays; and the production

of electromagnetic waves, which laid the foundation

of wireless, or radio as it is known to-day. The eco- nomic value resulting from these fundamental experiments is not that which was predicted in 1900.

For example, liquid air, which had been produced

by the researches of Dewar, Kammerlinghonnes,

Olszewski, and Wroblewski, had been made commercially available in 1900 by the work of Linde. Much

was expected of liquid air by all classes of people.

Financiers and others could readily be induced to put

money into projects which involved its uses. However, the results of more than a quarter of a century

have not justified the expectations. The uses which

have been found for liquified gases are not those

which were originally expected.

It is very difficult to evaluate the economic importance of radium, which was discovered by M. and

Mme. Curie. It has never been of great commercial

importance, yet the discovery of radium more than

any other one thing has completely changed our conception of atoms, and has indirectly contributed to much of our recent progress along all chemical lines. In 1900 the atom was considered to be a small round

marble with strings attached at certain points

whereby it was possible to tie one atom to one or more other atoms. The discovery of radium made

this conception untenable. To-day an atom is treated

as a complicated system, far more complex than our

solar system.

Since 1900 economic uses of X rays, which were dis- covered by Rontgen in 1895, have slowly advanced,

but there have been no sudden or remarkable developments. The economic importance has steadily

increased, but the development has been along these

lines which one might have predicted a quarter of a century ago. In 1900 electromagnetic waves were being experimented with in some of the university laboratories.

The story of their discovery and advancement to economic importance is one of the most interestingin the realm of science.

Between 1865 and 1870 Clerk Maxwell, an English

mathematical physicist, was interested in developing

the differential equations for the magnetic and electrostatic fields. He was surprised at the similarity of the

equations which he developed for the two types of

fields, and concluded to solve them as a pair of simultaneous equations. As a result of this solution he developed the electromagnetic theory of light. At the

time there was very little experimental evidence to show that his theory was correct. One of his important calculations was that the square of the index

of refraction of a material should equal its dielectric constant. For a few materials, this relationship held,

but for many others it did not. For many years relatively few physicists accepted

Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory of light. After 20

years of discussion, during which Maxwell died, Hertz

decided to put the theory to an experimental test. In

1888 he was able to produce electromagnetic waves, and the science of radio was born. However, more

fundamental research was needed before radio could

become of economic importance.

Edison first noticed that a hot body would not re- tain an electric charge as long as a cold body, when the

body was highly insulated in a vacuum. It remained

for Richardson and others to develop the laws of the

emission of electrons from hot bodies and thus lay

the foundation for the electron tube of to-day, without

which the commercial development of radio would

have been impossible.

The examples which have been given demonstrate

clearly the economic value of fundamental research.

However, the conclusion can not be drawn that all fundamental research will immediately be of economic

importance. Often many years must pass before mankind reaps any economic advantages as a result of an

increase in knowledge, and even then the advantages

may not be large. But it is only by increasing knowledge in every possible direction that a proper foundation can be laid on which to build an expanding

economic structure. There are many fundamental researches in progress

at the National Bureau of Standards. It is quite impossible to make any accurate estimate of their eco- nomic importance. It is, of course, the hope of every

research worker that his results may be of use to mankind. However, it is well known that the man who is engaged on fundamental research is not in any position

to know how it can best be used in a commercial way.

Very often the man who produces a result of farreaching importance does not live to see the value of

his work appreciated by mankind. Hence, many

years must elapse before the work which the bureau

is doing can be properly evaluated.
244 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1931

It is impossible to know along what lines research

is most likely to bring results of economic value. As

there are relatively few men who are deeply interested

in fundamental research, it would seem that society

might well give to such of these men as are qualified

for it an opportunity of experimenting along those

lines in which they are interested. Moreover, many

researches require the cooperation of investigators of

quite different training, so that the development of

men to become research executives is a matter of

importance.

The best methods of fostering fundamental research

should be given careful consideration by all publicminded citizens.

CURRENT NEWS FROM AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS

Reports of Various Committees Show Results Obtained in Developing Standard Specifications for Industry

The following current information relating to activities of various committees of the American Society

for Testing Materials engaged in formulating specifications has been furnished by that society.

The Committee on Steel is considering new specifications for steel castings with special compositions

and heat treatments, and is developing specifications

for sheet steel for freight cars and for steel plate of

fire-box quality. Considerable progress is expected

during 1931 on the comprehensive program covering

the preparation of specifications for all types of pipe.

Requirements for materials for steam and oil service

to withstand temperatures up to 1,000° C. are being

considered as are also specifications for high-carbon

and alloy-steel tubes. The subcommittee on steel for

welding has gone carefully into the requirements of

steel for fusion welding and has prepared a list of

present A. S. T. M. specifications covering materials

that is believed can be welded satisfactorily by the

usual fusion processes now in general use. This list, which appears in the current report of Committee

on Steel, is not considered final, and any suggested

additions thereto or comments and criticisms will be

welcomed bv the committee.

The Committee on Magnetic Analysis bas under

way an investigation on the correlation of magnetic

properties with toughness as indicated by impact tests. The experimental work is nearing completion. In addition. various members of the committee are carrying on independent researches in the field of magnetic

analysis.

The Committee on Iron-Chromium, Iron-Chromium-Nickel, and Related Alloys. Because of the importance of welding allo}7 s, falling within tbe scope of

this committee, a fact-finding subcommittee has been

appointed to survey the field. This special committee

has prepared a tabulated list of . questions which will

be submitted to the American Welding Society to determine whether work of this kind is now being undertaken, and if not, the desirability of entering upon

such studies. The subcommittee on chemical analysis

is considering the development of methods of analysis

of alloys falling within the scope of the committee.

The Committee on Metallography is making a careful review and comparison of the Standard Methods of

Metallographic Testing of Iron and Steel, and the

Standard Methods of Metallographic Testing of NonI errous Metals and Alloys, with a view to making the

methods consistent in those sections where the procedures are similar, and bringing the methods up to date. The set of standard micrographs for grain size

of grain diameters, ranging from 0.010 to 0.200 mm

prepared last year, has been incorporated in the Standard Rules Governing the Preparation of Micrographs

of Metals and Alloys. X-ray studies of the specimens

used in preparing the standard grain size micrographs

are being continued. A special subcommittee has been

appointed to consider the preparation of standard

micrographs of tool steel, showing various degrees of

spheroidization and contamination by inclusions. As

the result of a recommendation by the committee on

correlation of research, the committee is considering

undertaking a correlation of data relating to the crystalline structure of metals as compared with their

strength and ductility and other physical properties.

The Committee on Clay and Concrete Pipe is pre- paring a revision of the Standard Specifications for

Clay Sewer Pipe and also a revision of the Standard

Specifications for Cement-Concrete Sewer Pipe. The

purpose of tbe revision under consideration is to strengthen and broaden the specifications, to make

them clearer and more definite on several points, and

to make them conform more closely with the present

needs of engineers and the advancing methods of pipe

manufacture. The committee has undertaken, in con- nection with the preparation of new specifications for

reinforced-concrete pipe, a field survey and study of

existing reinforced-concrete pipe structures, involving an examination of approximately 191 such structures,

varying from 24 to 108 inches in diameter, for the

purpose of securing performance data under service

conditions.

The Committee on Gypsum has outlined a very ambitious program of activity for its subcommittees during 1931. The investigation of the uses of gypsum

and anhydrite as a retarder for Portland cement will

be continued and an effort will be made to correlate the

work by different investigators throughout the world.

A revision of the Standard Specifications for Gypsum

Plaster Board to include additional sizes of boards

other than those included in the specifications is now

under consideration. Changes in the methods of test- ing gypsum plaster board and gypsum wall board are

also being considered.

Committee on Slate. The activities of the committee are devoted to determining and accurately meas- uring the physical and chemical characteristics of

slate. This work is in charge of 10 subcommittees and

considerable progress has been made during the past

year. The studies of water absorption of slate are

still in progress at five different laboratories and additional tests are being made to determine the relation

of the effects of drying on the strength and elasticity
FEBRUARY. 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 245

of slate. The subcommittee on abrasive hardness has

perfected a machine for comparative tests of the wearing qualities of various materials. Results obtained

by this machine will be checked by determining the

actual wearing of the materials on stairways. The

subcommittee on machining and workability has in the

past been instrumental in introducing to the slate in- dustry the wire saw for cutting out blocks of slate. It is now cooperating with the manufacturer of a new

alloy (of remarkable hardness and cutting ability) to be used in slate finishing mills. The subcommittee on

utilization and performance proposes to investigate

the heat insulating qualities of a slate roof and also to determine the stresses that occur in a slate shingle

when in actual use on a roof. The subcommittee on

standardization of samples has studied the type and

number of test specimens best suited for certain types

and uses of slate and has prepared recommendations

for structural (machine) slate and for roofing slate. The Committee on Natural Building Stones has pre- pared some proposed definitions of terms relating to natural building stone which will be submitted to the

society at the next annual meeting for publication as

tentative. The subcommittee on testing procedure is considering the development of testing procedures for

making tensile, shear, and elasticity tests, and freezing

and thawing and other weathering tests of building

stone.

NEW BRITISH STANDARD FOR LIGHTING

FIXTURES

Standard Defines Common Terminology

Taking cognizance of the need for a common ter- minology for describing and comparing the characteristics of lighting fixtures, the British Engineering

Standards Association has announced a standard British Standard Classification of Symmetrical Light Distribution from Lighting Fixtures.

Light distribution is first classified by reference to the class of lighting for which a fixture is intended,

and secondly by the character of the light distribution

curve. In its present form, the method is only applicable to lighting units which give a symmetrical

light distribution.

The new standard first defines the polar curve of

light distribution, the solid of light distribution and

symmetrical and asymmetrical light distribution.

Symmetrical distributions are then classified as direct

general, semiindirect, and direct, while the further

classification, which is necessary to obtain a general

character of the light distribution, makes use of the

ratio between the width and height of a rectangle,

which just incloses the polar curve in the hemisphere

containing the major portion of the flux. Finally,

this ratio, which is known as the frame ratio, is used

to define five classes ranging from extra narrow to extra wide. The method of arriving at the frame

ratio is described in detail in an appendix.

STANDARD YEARBOOK FOR 1931

New Yearbook Shows Progress in World Standardization

The Standards Yearbook for 1931, which will be re- leased shortly, is more than a summary of interesting news. It covers broadly the developments in standardization all over the world during 1930.

Standardization is, in principle, applied science; in practice, the basis of efficiency.

Included among the special features for the 1931

Yearbook is a symposium on standardization in transport. American experts in transport have contributed a series of interesting special articles on research as an

aid to such standardization. These relate to research

and experiment in aviation, automotive and highway

development and safety, railroads, pipe lines, elevators, marine navigation, speech and power transmission, and the important activities of the Government

and other agencies engaged in promoting standardization in transport on land and water and in the air. The volume also describes standardization activities of the Federal Government; an annual bibliography on standardization prepared by the Library of

Congress; standardization activities of municipal,

county, and State purchasing agencies; standardization programs of American technical societies and

trade associations; and a summary of the work in standardization conducted by the special national

standards associations of the various countries—an important and broad-scale picture of standardization.

World-wide cooperation by international organizations in solving international standardization problems is reviewed in a special chapter.

The Standards Yearbook, in addition to its other

standardization features, includes summaries of important national and international standardization

activities and accomplishments of the Government

standardizing laboratories of England. France, and

Germany, and of the National Bureau of Standards

for the United States. The Standards Yearbook, 1931, may be purchased

from the Superintendent of Documents, Government

Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Price $1.

FIRE WARNING BY ODORS IN METAL MINES

A disagreeable odor, shot through ventilation lines at the rate of thousands of feet per minute, will be

used to warn miners of fire in all metal mines complying with the provisions of the American Standard

Code for Fire Fighting in Metal Mines. The standard has just been approved by the American Standards

Association following its submittal by the National

Fire Protection Association and the American Mining

Congress, sponsors for the joint technical committee

which has been working on the standard under American Standards Association auspices since early in 1925. Provision is made in the standard for measures to be

taken for the prevention of fires, fire-fighting equipment, fire-fighting personnel, and warnings of fires. In addition to the use of a disagreeable odor as a warning signal, the standard also provides that in

mines equipped with electric lights the engineers shall also flash all electric lights nine times in three series of

three flashes each. Since trouble may develop in the

electrical system, however, the odor signal is considered to be the more reliable warning.
246 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1931 ANTIFREEZE SOLUTIONS FOR THE PROTECTION OF MOTR-CAR COOLING

SYSTEMS

National Bureau of Standards 1 Shows Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Commonly Used

Protective Agents

The enormous increase in the number of automobiles

operating throughout the winter, brought about largely

by the almost general adoption of the closed car, is causing a great demand for antifreeze mixtures to protect cars of the water-cooled type.

During recent years a number of so-called com- pounds have been placed on the market and, since they

are not easily lost by volatilization, the}

7 have become

The bureau’s investigations of the corrosive effects of various solutions upon the metals commonly employed in radiator construction showed that practically all salt solutions (such as calcium chloride or magnesium chloride) exert appreciable corrosive ef- fect while solutions of organic materials (such as sugar, alcohol, or glycerin) cause no more corrosion

than ordinary tap water.

National Bureau of Standards laboratory apparatus simulating the cooling system of water-cooled automobile engine

Laboratory apparatus, simulating the cooling system of a water-cooled automobile engine used in making tests of anti- freeze mixtures to determine the corrosive act on of various solutions upon metals commonly used in cooling-system

construction is shown in the illustration

increasingly popular and have replaced to some extent

the use of the temporary antifreeze solutions. The

most commonly used of the “ permanent ” mixtures

are glycerin and ethylene glycol, and these have been

thoroughly investigated by the National Bureau of

Standards.

The first requirement of an antifreeze solution is that it shall not injure either engine or radiator by

freezing at the lowest temperature which may be en- countered. To be satisfactory, such a solution should

cause no damage to the cooling system through corro- sion or solvent action and should circulate freely at the

lowest operating temperature.

1 Letter circular No. 28, Anttfreezing Solutions for Automobile Radiators, will be mailed free upon request to the National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C'.

The most satisfactory antifreeze for automobile

radiator use which the bureau has tested are all alcohols. This group includes denatured alcohol,

wood alcohol, or menthanol (synthetic wood alcohol),

glycerine, and the glycols.

Denatured-alcohol solutions are the most generally

used radiator solutions. The chief objection to this

alcohol, however, is that it continually boils out of the

solution and must be replaced frequently in order to maintain adequate protection against freezing. Another disadvantage in its use is the fact that the boil- ing points of denatured-alcohol solutions are ap- preciably lower than the boiling point of water so that

average cylinder temperature tend to be lower in winter than in summer. Further criticisms of de- natured-alcohol solutions are based on the unpleasant
FEBRUARY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 247

odor of certain denaturants and the fact that nitrocellulose finishes are particularly likely to become

spotted in case alcohol is splashed or spilled on them.

Wood alcohol or methanol solutions are more volatile and have lower boiling points than the corresponding denatured alcohol solutions, thus making most of

the objections to denatured alcohol apply with even more force to wood alcohol. On the other hand, about

10 per cent less wood alcohol is required for protection

against freezing at any given temperature. Wood al- cohol, however, sometimes contains free acid which is objectionable, and for this reason should not be used

unless it is known to be free from acids. In addition

to its unpleasantness, the fumes from wood alcohol

may be harmful.

Glycerin, having a high boiling point and being

practically nonvolatile up to the boiling point of its 50 per cent aqueous solution, will last for an entire season without further addition, provided the cooling

system is free from leaks. The volume of the solution

when cold should be somewhat less than the full radiator capacity, otherwise the expansion of the liquid

when heated will cause it to overflow with consequent

waste. If desired, the glycerin solution can be drawn off at the end of the season and saved for further use. The

trade-mark “ radiator glycerins ” are diluted and contain 40 per cent of water. The colorless c. p. (commercially pure) glycerin and commercial grades of

yellow distilled glycerin are equally satisfactory for

radiator use. Crude glycerin on the contrary is undesirable, as it usually contains salts, which promote

corrosion.

The more concentrated glycerin solutions are dis- tinctly more viscous than the corresponding solutions

of denatured alcohol at low temperatures. This may

be a disadvantage with certain types of cooling sys- tems in very severe climates, but, under average conditions, distilled glycerin appears to be superior to denatured alcohol for radiator use. The addition of about half a gallon of glycerin and

a half gallon of denatured alcohol to water makes a

solution which gives slightly more initial protection

against freezing than would be obtained by adding a gallon of glycerin or a gallon of alcohol alone.

The customary use of a glycerin-alcoliol-water solu- tion has the disadvantage that both alcohol and water

will evaporate from such a solution at different rates and it becomes a difficult matter to determine how

much of each should be added to replace the evaporated loss. On the other hand, where the winter temperature seldom goes below 0° F. a 35 or 40 per cent glycerin-water solution will ordinarily give adequate

protection. In case of exceptional drop in temperature it might be economy to add some alcohol for temporary additional protection rather than to add more

glycerin.

Ethylene-glycol solutions give more protection

against freezing than either glycerin or denatured

alcohol solutions of the same strength. Like glycerin,

ethylene glycol is practically nonvolatile at operating

temperature and its solutions are noncorrosive. Unlike glycerin, ethylene-glycol solutions are only

slightly more viscous at low temperatures than denatured-alcohol solutions of equal concentrations.

Hence, solutions of ethylene glycol appear to be

superior to denatured-alcohol solutions under all cir- cumstances and, at least for very severe climates, to

offer some advantages over distilled glycerin solutions.

Ethylene-glycol solutions can be used for an entire season without further addition of glycol and also

may be drawn off at the end of the season and saved

for use again. The same precautions mentioned in

the case of glycerin should be taken in filling the

radiator, otherwise the expansion of the liquid when

heated will cause it to overflow. The specific gravity

of etlrylene glycol is not high enough to necessitate

mixing the glycol with water before it is put into the

radiator.

Trimethylene-glycol solutions, and diethylene-glycol

solutions have also been used in automobile radiators,

but neither of these glycols is as effective as ethylene

glycol in lowering the freezing point of water. Diethylene glycol resembles denatured alcohol and

wood alcohol in attacking nitrocellulose finishes. It is important in using any antifreeze that the cool- ing system be absolutely leakproof. Radiator hose,

head gaskets, etc., should be perfectly tight before in- troducing the solution. Next in importance is to use the right amount of the solution in proportion to the

capacity of the cooling system.

REVISION OF FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS

Nineteen Specifications Being Considered for Any Necessary

Revision

Nineteen Federal specifications have been submitted

for revision during the past month, according to the

Federal Specifications Board. These specifications are now before the Government departments and others

interested for comment and criticism.

The specifications submitted for revision also bear

the new designation in accordance with the system used

in the Federal Standard Stock Catalogue. Copies of

the specifications and further information relating

thereto can be obtained from the Federal Specifications Board, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.

New designation Commodity F. S. No.

N-B-121 Barley, pearl___ 636a. N-F-451 Flour, buckwheat. 642a. N-F-461 .. Flour, graham (whole wheat meal) 643a. N-H-541 Hominy, lye, canned _ 462. DD-R-51 Rags, cotton, mixed (for) wiping machinery (sterilized) 259b. EE-Y-131 . 389. FF-S-111 52a. HHH-C-571_ 161b. HHH-T-91. - 649b. LLL-T-791 Turpentine (gum-spirits of turpentine, steam-distilled 7b. wood turpentine, and sulphate wood turpentine). TT-D-651--. 20a. TT-T-271 Thinner, paint (for) semipaste paints . 16. TT-T-291 Thinner, paint, volatile mineral spirits. 17. TT-V-71 Varnish, interior 22. TT-V-121 Varnish, spar, water-resisting 18b. ZZ-H-451 Hose, fire, cotton, rubber-lined 38b. ZZ-H-481 Hose, oil-suction and discharge . _ . _ 63c. Oils, petroleum, crank case (for internal combustion en- 2d. gines other than aircraft and Diesel).
248 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1931 TRANSMISSION OF STANDARDIZED WAVES OF RADIO IS IMPROVED

National Bureau of Standards Service Designed to Ultimately Eliminate all Interchannel Interference from

“ Wobbling ”

Starting of a new standard frequency service,

designed to ultimately eliminate completely interchannel interference caused b}t the “ wobbling ” of radio

stations from tlieir assigned channels, and also to serve

as a means of control for the synchronization of

broadcasting stations, has been announced by the

National Bureau of Standards.

The first step in this 3-phase program has been

started through the transmission of these standard

frequency signals on a weekly schedule from the

bureau’s station, WWV, in Washington. They can be

heard and utilized by stations equipped for continu- ous-wave reception at distances up to about 1,000 miles

from Washington, and some of them at all points in

the United States. This improved service is a step

in the bureau’s program to provide eventually standard frequencies available at all times and at every

place in the country.

Besides the usual monthly transmissions of specific

frequencies, the bureau will add another type of trans- mission which will be much more accurate than any

previous transmissions by the bureau. This transmission will be by continuous wave radiotelegraphy on a frequency of 5,000 kilocycles, and will consist primarily of a series of very long dashes. The first five minutes of this transmission will consist of the general call (CQ cle WWV) and announcement of the

frequency. The frequency and the call letters of the

station (WWV) will be given every 10 minutes

thereafter.

Besides this service, the bureau will also continue

the transmissions once a month on scheduled specific

frequencies. These are also by continuous-wave radiotelegraphy. A complete frequency transmission in- cludes a “ general call.” “ standard frequency signal,”

and “ announcements.” The general call is given at the beginning of each 12-minute period and continues

for about two minutes. This includes a statement of

the frequency.

The standard frequency signal is a series of very

long dashes with the call letters (WWV) intervening. This signal continues for about four minutes.

The announcements follow, and contain a statement

of the frequency being transmitted and of the next

frequency to be transmitted. There is then a 4-minute

interval while the transmitting set is adjusted for the

next frequency.

Information on how to receive and utilize the signals is given in Bureau of Standards Letter Circular

No. 280, which may be obtained by applying to the

National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. Even though only a few frequencies are received (or even only a single one) persons can obtain as complete

a frequency-meter calibration as desired by the methods of generator harmonics.

The 5.000-kilocycle transmissions are from a trans- mitter of 150 watts power, which may be increased to

1 kilowatt early in the year ; they occur every Tuesday

except in those weeks in which the monthly trans- missions are given. The monthly transmissions are from a transmitter of y2 to 1 kilowatt power; they

are given on the 20th of every month (with one

exception).

5,000-kilocycle transmissions

1.30 to 3.30 and 8 to 10 p. m., E. S. T., January 6, 13, 27

February 3, 10, 24 ; March 3, 10, 24, 31 : April 7, 14, 28; May 5. 12, 26 ; and June 3, 9, 16, 30. Monthly transmissions

Eastern standard time (p. m.) Jan. 20 Feb. 20 Mar. 20 Apr. 20 May 20 June 22

10 1,600 4, 000 550 1,600 4, 000 550

10.12 1,800 4, 400 600 1,800 4,400 600

10.24 2, 000 4,800 • 700 • 2, 000 4, 800 700

10.36 2, 400 5, 200 800 2, 400 5,200 800

10.48 2, 800 5, 800 1,000 2,800 5, 800 1,000

11 3, 200 6, 400 1,200 3,200 6, 400 1,200

11.12 3, 600 7,000 1,400 3, 600 7,000 1,400

11.24 4, 000 7, 600 1,500 4,000 7, 600 1, 500

The frequencies in the 5,000-kilocycle transmission

are piezo controlled, and are accurate to a few parts

in a million. The frequencies in the monthly trans- missions are manually controlled, and are accurate to

a few parts in a hundred thousand.

In November, 1930, field intensity measurements

were made of the 5,000-kilocycle transmissions from

WWV on 150 watts between Washington and Chicago.

The daytime field intensity up to a distance of about

400 miles from Washington was about 100 microvolts

per meter, with fading in the ratio 3 to 1. From this

distance to Chicago the field intensity gradually decreased to about 10 microvolts per meter peak values,

with fading the same as above.

The evening transmissions had a field intensity of

about 200 microvolts per meter, with fading similar to that in the daytime. Around 8 p. m. the received in- tensity was sometimes too low to measure. This happened at distances of from 75 to 150 miles from

Washington.

The National Bureau of Standards would like to have detailed information on the reception of the

5,000-kiloc3r cle transmissions, and will appreciate re- ceiving reports from any observers on their reception

of these transmissions. Phenomena of particular in- terest are approximate field intensity, and fading

(whether slow or rapid, and approximate time between

peaks of signal intensity).

The bureau would also like to receive comments on

whether or not the transmissions are satisfactory

for purposes of frequency measurement or control. Reports on the reception of the transmissions should

be addressed to the National Bureau of Standards,

Washington, D. C.
FEBRUARY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 249

SIMPLIFICATION OF CONTAINERS AN AID TO DISTRIBUTION

Resume Given of Simplified Schedules Developed in Container Field Under Auspices of National Bureau of

Standards

By W. E. Braithwaite and P. H. H. Dunn, National Bureau of Standards

Id sounding the keynote of the National Distribution Conference held several years ago, President

Hoover, then Secretary of Commerce, said that “ the

outstanding problem of our distribution system can

be easily summarized in one question. Can we reduce

the margin between our manufacturers and farming

producers on one side and our consumers on the other ? I am convinced that we can.” What was true then is even more true to-day. The

reduction of manufacturing costs has been given considerable thought during the past decade, and substantial savings have been affected through various

waste-elimination efforts. It is said that our profits

during the coming decade will be based on the elimination of wastes in distribution.

The process of distribution of commodities, particularly of food products, offers a fertile field for further

studies in waste elimination. Many wastes can be overcome by voluntary cooperation between the various elements making up specific industries. This

work has been amplified by the extension of friendly

assistance b}^ various governmental agencies, notably

the Department of Agriculture and the Department

of Commerce. No studies of this kind would be complete which did not include a survey of possibilities

for the simplification of containers.

In considering such a survey it is important that

the unit package be studied first, followed by a study

of the shipping container and material handling methods, and finally the means of transportation. While

each link in the chain of physical distribution of the

commodities should be considered independently, the

next closely related aspect should be borne in mind

so as to insure proper coordination.

The food-producing and distributing industry is among the largest users of unit packages in the United

States. It is estimated that the total annual per

capita consumption of canned foods in this country is one can per week, or a total of more than 7,000,000,000 cans a year. This includes only canned fruits, vegetables, meats, fish, and milk. If spices, coffee, etc., packed in cans are included, the above figure would be

increased about 50 per cent. No figures are available on the number of unit packages made up in glass, paper, cardboard, and wood, nor are they necessary in order to appreciate the importance which the unit container and its size must

play in such a vast volume of distribution. A simplification in sizes of these containers would eliminate

wastes all along the line, from the food manufacturer

or canner to the retail distributor and ultimate

•consumer. In addition to primary containers, secondary, or shipping containers, must be manufactured in a great

variety of dimensions and shapes to meet the requirements of the multitude of sizes and types of unit packages. The shipping container is usually handled by

a great many more people than the unit package, and

for this reason deserves thorough consideration in any

effort toward waste elimination. The shipping container is dependent not only upon the size of the unit

packages which it incloses, but also upon the method

of transportation and the handling to which it is subjected.

It can be readily seen, therefore, that simplification of containers should play a significant part in the

economical distribution of food. “ Simplification ”

as here used means just what its name implies

rendering more simple the production and distribution operations, through reduction in variety of the

sizes, shapes, and types of containers. It is not a complicated operation involving minute studies into

the physical make-up and characteristics of contain-,

ers, but rather a commercial expedient which make

it possible to determine “ the size in greatest demand,”

or “ the sizes which enjoy only a small demand, and

which add. to avoidable waste.” Considerable work has already been done by the

food-packing industries and the distributors of food

products in promoting simplification programs for

containers and their is still a great opportunity and

need for further work along this line. The following simplified practice recommendations for containers, which have been developed under the cooperative

procedure of the division of simplified practice of the

National Bureau of Standards, may serve as examples

of what can be accomplished in this field. On September 18, 1928, a simplified practice recom- mendation was approved at a general conference of

representatives of the preserving and glass container

industries, held under the auspices of the National

Bureau of Standards, which resulted in a reduction

from 40 or more different sizes of preserve jars to 8 stock sizes; from 25 or more sizes of jelly glasses to 7 • and from 6 sizes of apple butter jars to 4 stock

sizes, all based on the avoirdupois weight of the food

content. It should be noted that although this simplification program is confined to sizes and capacities,

the simplification of sizes based on net contents, auto- matically eliminates a large number of unnecessary

shapes.

Another simplification program of interest to the

food-packing industries, is that for ice-cream brick

molds and machine-filled cartons. At a general con- ference held in Washington on December 4. 1929, and

attended by representatives of manufacturers of ice cream, cartons, molds, and filling machinery, a simplified set of dimensions was approved for the pint and

quart machine-filled cartons and for the 2-gallon ice cream brick mold.

The variety in sizes of molds was reduced from 30

to 1. A survey developed the information that at least 31 different sets of dimensions were being used

in manufacturing pint cartons. The same condition

prevailed for the quart carton. The following dimensions were approved for adoption as standard : No. 1
250 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1931

U. S. standard machine-filled pint, 3x\ by Sfio by 2j-J

inches; No. 2 U. S. standard machine-filled pint, 2x

7g by

2>V8 by 3f§ inches; No. 1 U. S. standard machine-filled

quart, 2f£ bjr 3y2 by 6^4 inches; and No. 2 standard

machine-filled quart, 2T

7g by 3 y8 by 7% inches.

At the joint request of the National Coffee Roasters’ Association and the Paperboard Industries Association a general conference was held in March, 1930, at which time a simplified practice recommendation was

ajoproved reducing the dimensions of the 1-pound folding box for coffee from at least 100 sizes to 2 sizes. It is confidently expected by members of the industry

that adherence to these two sizes will result in advantages alike to producers, distributors, and consumers. At a recent general conference of representatives of

the milk dealers and glass jar manufacturers, the 8, 12, and 16 ounce jars were adopted as standards for use in marketing cottage cheese and sour cream. The

variety of jars was reduced from at least 20 different

shapes and sizes to 3. One standard size of cap was

approved for the three standard jars.

On December 10, 1930, another general conference was held, at which recommendations were approved

concerning a simplified list of shapes and sizes of ice- cream cups. At a general conference held in Atlantic City on November 10, 1929, the bottlers of carbonated beverages, the manufacturers of bottles, bottling machinery,

bottle caps, bottle boxes, crates, etc., approved a simplified list of stock bottles for use in bottling carbonated beverages. The list includes definite capacities,

heights, diameters, and weight of glass. Minimum

and maximum diameters were adopted for each ca- pacity to allow for distinctive or patented shapes.

At the present time the canning industry, through

its national association, is working on a simplified list of can sizes for the packing of fruits and vegetables.

This list, if finally approved by the industry as standard practice for the trade, will reduce the large variety

in sizes now packed to the 27 set forth in the following

table, which shows the diameter and height in inches

2% by 2%.

2% by 3%.

3 by 3% by 6%.

3 by 4A.

3 A by 4. 3A by 4%.

2% by 214. 3 by 4A. 3A by 4A.

214 by 3. 3* by 2%. 4A by 2A.

214 by 3%. 3 A by 4. 4A by 2%.

214 by 4. 3A by 414. 4A by 414. 214 by 4%. 3 A by 4%. 4% by 4%.

214 by 6. 3A by 2%. 6A by 7. 3 by 3% by 3%. 3A by 3%. 6 A by 8%.

In addition to simplifying can sizes, it is the hope of

those who are sponsoring the project that a standard

system of nomenclature for these sizes of cans will be

adopted. It may not appear that, in retaining 27

sizes of cans, the industry has affected a maximum of

simplification. However, when it is realized that a study of the industry revealed 64 sizes of cans beingused in considerable volume during the year, a reduction to 27 sizes is a substantial first step. It is expected that these 27 sizes will be submitted

to the packers of various fruits and vegetables to ascertain which of the sizes would be the most desirable for the canning of their products. Of course, no one commodity will be packed in all of the proposed

27 sizes, but all the sizes used in the packing of these

particular products must be in the simplified list. For

example, tomatoes may take 5 of the sizes listed,

asparagus 4, corn 6, etc. Further, it will be possible

for the manufacturers of paperboard or wooden shipping containers, used in transporting cans, to adopt a

simplified list of over-all dimensions which will

adequately serve the needs of the majority of the canners in the country.

In addition to the above examples of simplification

programs which have already been developed by the

industries concerned, with the cooperation of the division of simplified practice of the National Bureau of

Standards, there are a number of food-packing industries now considering the development of simplified

practice recommendations for containers used in packing their products. For instance, at the request of the

mayonnaise industry, a survey was made recently by

the foodstuffs division of the Bureau of Foreign and

Domestic Commerce, which showed that mayonnaise was being packed in 22 different sizes of containers.

The study further revealed the fact that more than 85

per cent of the volume of production was being packed

in 6 of these 22 continers. The Glass Container

Committee of the Mayonnaise Products Manufacturers Association of America, submitted a report and

recommendation covering the subject of container

standardization, at the recent convention of mayonnaise

manufacturers.

Other simplification projects have been suggested

for such items as shipping boxes for canned foods, cartons and shipping boxes for dried fruits, butter

tubs, bottles for maraschino cherries, display cartons and boxes for apples, containers for fish products, and

so on. This resume of what has been done by the foodpacking industries in the interest of waste elimination, through the application of the principles of

simplified practice, will no doubt suggest to the reader

many more opportunities for simplification of containers. Great potential savings in national effort can

be made through such cooperation as has been demonstrated by well-known examples of simplification and

standardization. The consequent reduction of manufacturing, selling, and distribution costs, and the re- lease of millions of dollars, formerly tied up in slowmoving stocks, should combine to yield substantial

economies.

In recent years the food industry has been looked

upon as being more or less “ depression proof ” be- cause of the constant demand for foodstuffs. However, there are other important factors which make

for stabilization in this as well as other industries.

To maintain the standing which the food industry

has acquired during the past few years it will be in- creasingly important that more time and thought be

given to cost-reducing programs, such as simplification of containers. Such a program, however, need

not interfere with the so-called “ sales appeal ” or dis- tinctive feature of the unit package.

Interest in the package and container simplification movement is now far-reaching and the cooperative procedure of the National Bureau of Standards

provides an excellent means whereby packers of food

products, the manufacturers of containers, the dis- tributors of food products, the shippers, and carriers

may develop and promulgate voluntary simplified

practice recommendations for containers.
FEBRUARY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 251

A. S. T. M. ANNOUNCES TWO NEW VOLUMES OF STANDARDS

Book of its Standards and Tentative Standards Now Being Distributed by the Society

The American SocietjT for Testing Materials has

just issued its Book of A. S. T. M. Standards, a tri- ennial publication containing all specifications, methods of testing and definitions fully approved and

adopted, and the 1930 Book of A. S. T. M. Tentative Standards, an annual publication, containing

those specifications, methods of testing, etc., having a tentative status. The Book of A. S. T. M. Standards is published

in two parts, Part I on Metals (1,000 pages) con- taining the standards relating to metallic materials,

and Part II on Nonmetals (1,214 pages) containing

standards covering nonmetallic materials.

Of the 179 standards on metals published in Part I, 105 cover the ferrous metals, steel, cast iron, wrought

iron, alloy steel, and ferro-alloys, and 67 relate to the nonferrous metals, nickel, copper, aluminum, etc., and many alloys, while 7 are of general interest.

The standards in Part I, assembled in a sequence

determined by the specific materials or products to which they apply, cover steel rails and accessories;

wheels and tires; structural and boiler steels; steel for welding; concrete reinforcement steel; bar steels; spring steel and springs; steel castings, chain, forgings and axles; steel tubes and pipe; tool steel, steel for high-temperature service; zinc-coated wire and

wire products ; wrought-iron bars, castings, plates and

pipe; pig iron; cast iron and finished castings; malleable castings; and ferro-alloys.

The specifications in the nonferrous group cover

ingot copper, zinc, lead, nickel, aluminum and aluminum alloys, copper wire and cable, brasses and bronzes,

solder metal, white metal bearing alloys, copper and

brass plates and tubes. Methods are also included

for Brinell hardness tests, metallographic testing,

preparation of micrographs for metals and alloys and

a recommended practice for radiographic testing of

metal castings. Definitions of terms relating to wrought iron, to methods of testing to metallography

and to specific gravity are also included.

New standard specifications were adopted during

1930 for steel tie plates, iron and steel chain, gray-iron

castings for valves, seamless copper tubing, bronze

and hard-drawn copper trolley wire ; several specifications for galvanized wire and wire products and

specifications for zinc (hot galvanized) coatings on

structural steel shapes and plates.

Included in addition to these specifications are new

standard methods of sampling rolled and forged steel products for check analysis and test methods for galvanized wire and wire products and a test for change

of resistance with temperature of electrical heating

materials. Standard specifications for open-hearth

steel rails, concrete reinforcement bars, steel pipe and

boiler tubes, hot-rolled bar steels and cold-finished

shafting, malleable castings and wrought iron bars,

plates, and pipe that were revised during the year have

also been included.

Part II. The 251 standards in Part II cover the

following miscellaneous groups of nonmetallic materials and products : Cement, lime, gypsum, concrete and concrete aggregates, brick and refractories, pipe

and drain tile, hollow building tile, paints, pigments,

shellac, varnishes, petroleum products and lubricants, bituminous and nonbituminous road materials,

coal and coke, timber and timber preservatives, waterproofing and roofing materials, insulating materials

and rubber products, textile materials, and thermometers for general use. Included in this volume are new standards adopted

during 1930 comprising specifications for paving and

building brick, sand-lime brick, wall, floor, and partition hollow clay tile, Keene’s cement and gypsum

plasters, gravel for bituminous concrete, several specifications for tar cements for road application, toler- ances for cord-tire fabrics, and fabrics other than tire cord, methods of testing concrete aggregates, gypsum

and gypsum products, analysis for color of paints,

tests for sulphur in gasoline, melting point of petrolatum, test for autogenous ignition temperatures of

petroleum products, mechanical analysis of coal and

test methods for electrical porcelain. The specifications for Portland cement revised to include higher

tensile strength requirements and the methods of test- ing cement changed by the inclusion of tolerances on weights and dimensions of apparatus are also included.

Of particular interest are the revised standard specifications for structural wood, joist and planks, beams

and stringers, posts and timbers.

Book of tentative standards.

The Book of Tentative Standards (864 pages) contains 155 tentative specifications, methods of test, defi- nitions of terms, and recommended practices, 2S

relating to metals and 127 to nonmetallic materials and

products. The tentative standards are issued for one

or more years with a view to obtaining criticism.

Although in the trial stage of A. S. T. M. procedure,

they represent the latest thoughts of the committees on

the subjects covered and are, therefore, being applied

in the various industries. Many of the tentative

standards are frequently used in conjunction with the

A. S. T. M. standards.

Included in this volume are 21 new tentative standards developed during 1930. In the metals group are new specifications for austenitic manganese-steel cast- ings, open-hearth iron plates, aluminum alloy

(duralumin) sheet, aluminum-manganese alloy sheet

and magnesium-base alloy castings, aluminum-base

alloy castings and ingots, and copper-base alloys in

ingot form and a method of test for thermoelectric

power.

A specification for high-early strength Portland

cement is an important contribution to the construction

field, as are also new specifications for rcinforced-concrete pipe and reinforced-concrete culvert pipe, and

specifications for gypsum sheathing board and timber

piles, and glazier’s putty and test methods for natural

building stone, and a flexure test for concrete. Of interest in the automotive field is the test for

dilution of crank-case oil and a test for vapor pressure
252 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1931

of natural gasoline. A test method is also included for

comparing the thermal conductivities of solid electrical

insulating materials. New tentative specifications have

also been developed for several lacquer solvents and

diluents, namely, amyl acetate, amyl alcohol, butyl

propionate and ethyl lactate. Revisions were also made in 25 of the tentative standards developed in

former j^ears in order to keep them abreast of current

practice.

An index (110 pages) of all A. S. T. M. standards

and tentative standards has been prepared and is being

distributed without charge. The index is a compilation, under appropriate key-word subjects covered by

the standards, of titles of all standards, together with

volume references to the publications in which they

appear, namely Parts I and II of the 1930 Book of the

A. S. T. M. Standards and 1930 Book of A. S. T. M.

Tentative Standards, and the annual proceedings.

The index is designed to be of service to those

familiar with the society’s standards in locating specifications, methods of test, or definitions in the bound

publications in which they appear, and as well, to those interested in ascertaining whether the society

has issued any standards on a specific subject. The

index will be found of great assistance in locating

desired references.

HAZARDS OF ELECTRICITY

Committee of National Safety Council Investigates Accidents at Low Voltages

“ Kill the circuit lest the circuit kill you ” has been

suggested as a slogan for the electricians of industrial

plants by a representative committee which has been

investigating accidents which occur at ordinary volt- ages and which presented its report at the last Annual

Safety Congress.

Both the National Safety Council and the National

Electric Light Association have been collecting re- ports of fatal accidents during recent }?ears, and these

accidents have been analyzed by the committee. Only

accidents occurring at low voltages have been included

in this report. By “ low voltage ” is meant something

less than 750 volts. This, consequently, includes the

voltage of the ordinary street-car trolley circuit, the

voltage commonly used for electric lighting, and also the voltages used in industrial work, such as 220 or 440 volts. Only fatal accidents were considered by the committee which analyzed 213 such cases, of which 132

occurred at not more than 120 volts. These cases were classified as industrial or domestic, and they were also classified according to the conditions of

installation and use. Combining the two sets of records given in the re- port, the following table is found for fatal accidents

where not more than 240 volts was involved.

Classification by location Industrial locations

Portable cords and lamps : 38 Portable appliances : 14 Exposed wires 26 Exposed switch 3 Ungrounded parts 3 Working with parts alive 13 Miscellaneous 8 105 Bathtub cases 23 Other portable appliances 6 Wet basements or earth 22 Miscellaneous 17 68 Other locations 14

Total 187

Classification according to conditions

Involving defective equipment SO Equipment damaged at time of accident 11 Involving code violation 14 Exposed wires 27 Handling live parts 19

Aerials and other amateur 9 Other improper procedure 16 Not otherwise classified 11

187 The largest group of industrial fatalities are those

resulting from the use of portable lamps and extension cords. In some cases a brass-shell socket has been

used and has become alive ; in other cases the cord has

become worn until it exposes the conductor to contact. Most of these cases arise where the victim is standing

upon the ground or some wet surface; where he is working inside of a boiler, or some similar job which

affords a good connection to ground under conditions

where the victim’s hands are liable to be wet with

moisture or perspiration.

The second largest item in the industrial group is exposed wires. Many of these involve traveling

I cranes, and onty two were on lighting circuits. Repair or maintenance work carried on without

first killing the circuit is responsible for 13 deaths.

A dozen years ago the exposed switch was causing

frequent fatalities. This condition has been largely

remedied, and only three cases are recorded here. In three other cases failure to ground equipment as called for by the two national codes was responsible

for a fatality. In two of these cases wet floors were

involved, and in the third a water pipe. One was at 110 volts. These show clearly the conditions which

make grounding important—dampness, plumbing, any

voltage higher than lighting circuits. Of the domestic cases, those involving the bathtub

head the list. Most of these cases involve the use of

electric heaters, the insulation of which or of the con- necting cord is defective and which is handled with

Avet hands. In one case a curling iron provided the
FEBRUARY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 253

contact with the circuit. Portable appliances in other

locations account for six more fatalities. Two of these

occurred in bed. In one case an electric heater set fire to the bedclothes and burned a child fatally. In the

other case a man was found dead with an electric blanket wrapped around him and wet with perspiration.

Twenty-tivo other fatalities were due to contact with

live parts while in wet basements or on the ground.

All of the domestic fatalities occurred at approximately 110 volts. Conclusions.

At least one-third of the fatalities may be attributed

to defective materials, such as lamp cord not properly

maintained, and an additional 5 to 12 per cent are due

to installations not in accordance with standard practice as represented by the National Electrical Code.

Ten to fifteen per cent of the fatalities are due to handling live parts and about 8 per cent more to improper

practices, from which are excluded the ignorant handling of radio aerials and a fetv disastrous amateur

experiments.

Let us now consider how many of these accidents

could have been avoided. In the first place, a goodly

percentage would not have occurred if proper forms

of extension cord had been used and had been properly

maintained; that is to say, cords replaced when they

become worn to the point of exposing the conductors.

We can not too strongly urge that both for industrial

use and also for domestic use where Tret locations are involved, only a sturdy portable cord, such as type S,

should be used, and when used with an extension lamp

a guard should be furnished around the lamp.

AVe strongly recommend also the grounding of

portable devices of all kinds and at all voltages when

used in wet locations. Portable motor-driven appli- ances operated at more than 150 volts, as commonly

found in industrial plants, are required to have their

frames grounded by a rule of the National Electrical

Code. When used in wet places Ave consider it desirable to ground them eA^en at loAver voltages.

In industrial plants emphasis should be placed

upon the practice of killing circuits before work is done upon them, even when the voltage is low, as with

lighting circuits. Unless this practice is folloAved,

Avorkmen are likely to handle live parts in wet loca- tions or under other conditions AA

7 here the hazards are greatly increased, yet are not generally appreciated.

It is especially desirable that when work is done

directly upon the ground, as, for instance, underneath the cellarless house, so common in the South,

SAvitches should be first opened to kill any circuits

Avorked upon, and moreoA^er the extension cords used

should be of the type referred to above, which are

especially approved for such conditions. Too much

emphasis can not be placed upon the statement that

in wet places live parts much not be touched, nor, indeed, should any parts be touched that may become

alive due to defective insulation or other cause. It would seem that in Avet places the frames of all fixed

and semiportable equipment should be grounded

regardless of voltage. This is a good practice to

folloAv Avith such apparatus as washing machines used

in the household as well as the equipment used in

industrial establishments.

It is evident to members of the committee that a large majority of the low-voltage fatalities could be

avoided by proper precautions; that is, by the use of

the most suitable materials available for the purpose,

installation according to code rules, and the precaution of killing circuits before working upon them.

Unfortunately it is not generally recognized that a real hazard exists from low Amltages under those conditions which are particularly favorable to shock, such

as standing on Avet or metal surfaces and touching

conductors with wet skin. The necessity for taking

additional precautions under such conditions needs to be broadcast both in the industrial plant and in the

home.

Electrical fatalities are not large when compared

Avith those arising from motor-vehicle traffic, from the

handling of materials, in building construction, and

other specially hazardous occupations. AA

Te do not

at ant, howeA7 er, to sacrifice eATen a single life when such

sacrifice can be avoided, and Ave realize that many of

the cases here under consideration can' be avoided by

disseminating the information Avhich will lead to proper precautions being taken.

STANDARDIZATION MOVEMENT PROGRESS

IN FRANCE

Five Committees Report on Their Activities Five committees, appointed by the Machinery

Standardization Commission of France, haAr e reported

the results of their October session, according to word

received from American Trade Commissioner Thomas

Butts at Paris. Commissioner Butts states that the

next International Standards Conference will be held

in Copenhagen, Denmark. May 4 to 16, 1931. with the

folloAving commodities listed on the agenda : Iron and

steel, fittings, technical drawings, aeronautics, rivets, screws and bolts, and ball bearings.

The committee on screw threads has prepared for

final publication a specification relating to bolt- holes. Other standards in preparation by this committee in- clude threads of less than 3 mm, and bolt and screw head sizes. The committee on small tools has prepared for final publication standards for double-tooth milling machines and keyway milling machines, to correspond

Avith standards Nos. C. N. M. 62 and 63 for keyAvavs.

The committee on distinguishing markings on drills has recommended that no system showing Avhether

drills are made of carbon steel or high-speed steel be

established unless it includes marks of origin.

The committee on machine elements has defined the

dimensions of large and small chains on hoisting

equipment. It has also completed, in collaboration

with the association of manufacturers of transmission

equipment, standards for transmission keys, couplingboxes, and bearings.

The committee on technical drawings has prepared

for final publication a standard for the symbolic repre- sentation of rivets. It has also agreed upon the colors

to be employed in the standard “ canalization colors ” and standard sizes for paper used for technical drawings, which is 310 by 297 mm.
254 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1931 NEW SPECIFICATIONS FOR GASOLINE ADOPTED

New Natural Gasoline Specifications, as Adopted by the Natural Gasoline Association, to Become Effective

in 1932

New specifications for the grading of natural gasoline have been adopted by the Natural Gasoline Association of America. The new specifications will be- come effective on January 1, 1932, but are optional in use during 1931.

The new specifications were designed to enable the

refiner to buy blending stock with far greater accuracy

than in the past. Knowing the volatility characteristics of his straight-run product the refiner will be able

to order exactly the grade of natural gasoline which

will give him maximum volatility with freedom from

vapor lock with a minimum blending requirement.

Present specifications permit a wide variation in natural gasoline within a given specification.

The specifications committee of the association has

been working on the new grading for more than a year.

It has conducted a good ileal of research, and has consulted with refiners in all parts of the country as to what they would like to have in the way of specification buying guides.

SIMPLIFIED SCHEDULE PROPOSED FOR DENTAL LATHE GRINDING WHEELS

General Conference of Industry to Meet in June to Consider

Proposed Simplified Practice Recommendation

Ten sizes of dental lathe grinding wheels for regular stock production, instead of the 80 sizes produced

during past years, are provided in a tentative simplified schedule proposed by the American Dental Trade

Association. The proposal covers a range of sizes from 1 i/o inches diameter by 14 inch thickness to 3

inches diameter by y2 inch thickness, and stipulates

that wheels be square-edged and have 14-inch arbor

holes. At the request of the industry, the National Bureau

of Standards, through its division of simplified practice, made a survey to determine the extent of diversification in production of this commodity. The report

of survey by the bureau, which was submitted to the manufacturers, was used as the basis for development of the proposed simplified schedule. The simplification and standardization committee of the

American Dental Trade Association met November 20,

1930, in Chicago, 111., at which time the tentative

proposal was considered.

The committee of the industry has given no consideration at this time to abrasive grain size, and all sizes of wheels will be manufactured, as heretofore,

in grain sizes ranging from coarse to fine. The cur- rent simplified-practice recommendation for abrasive

grain sizes (S. P. R. No. 118), will afford the industry a basis for grain classification should it be found

desirable.

The association’s committee has asked the cooperative services of the National Bureau of Standards in

arranging a general conference of all interested eleThe fact that the new specifications will not become

effective until the beginning of 1932 means that for

1931 both the old and the new grading systems will

be in effect, and their use will be optional. The association’s board of directors, however, thinks the new

ones will supersede steadily the old ones as the industry becomes more familiar with them and recognizes

their superiority.

The board hopes that the old system will have

faded from the picture before the end of 1931, and

that the new specifications will have become firmly

established by the time they become official. The change from the old to the new grading system

involves primarily the specifications defining the volatility of natural gasoline. The new system makes

use of the Reid vapor pressure, the A. S. T. M. per

cent evaporated at 140° F. and the 90 per cent evaporated at 275° F. The old grading system made

use of gravity and distillation loss for this purpose.

A few minor changes were made in other specifications in the interest of standardization.

ments of the industry to consider the tentative recom- mendation. This conference will be held at White

Sulphur Springs, W. Va., next June, on the occasion

of the annual convention of the American Dental

Trade Association.

NEW TESTING INSTRUMENT FOR CLOTH

The device shown above, developed and used by the

National Bureau of Standards, is employed in determining the stiffness and resilience of samples of cloth,

these qualities being factors affecting drape. In the

tests, each sample is mounted on the ends of two inter- secting plates, one of which is movable. A calibrated

spring measures the force required to fold the sample.

This device is called a “ flexometer.”
FEBRUARY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 255

BRITISH ASSOCIATION ANNOUNCES NEW STANDARDS

Items Covered Are Attachment of Circular Metal-Cutting Saws for Cold-Working, Short Link WroughtIron Crane Chain, Wrought Light Aluminum Alloy Sheets and Strips, and Wrought Light Aluminum

Alloy Tubes

Five standard dimensions for circular saws are provided for the British industries by a new standard

covering the attachment of circular metal cutting saws

for cold-working, according to an announcement of

the British Engineering Standards Association. The

association’s announcement also includes data respecting standards for short link wrought-iron crane chain,

and wrought light aluminum alloy sheets and strips,

and wrought light aluminum alloy tubes. The specification for the saws relates to dimensions

of the center hole and arrangement of the pinholes by

which circular saws are fixed to the sawing machine,

thus securing interchangeability of saws. Saws from

10 to 60 inches in diameter have been grouped into

five standard ranges of diameter and for each the

center hole, number of pins, and the pitch circle of

the pins are given.

The standard for short-link wrought-iron crane chain provides for the supply of crane chain from yk

inch up to 1 y2 inches of two qualities, “ standard ” and “special.” The former covers normal supplies

and the latter is intended for particularly arduous

service, such as for shoveling, or in conditions where

public safety is of paramount importance, such as for use on a crane in use on building work adjacent to a public thoroughfare. Requirements are laid down

covering the quality of material, dimensions or links,

workmanship, and weight. Testing requirements are included covering the mechanical properties of the

chain, such as strength and elongation and also to ascertain the quality of the material used in the manufacture of the chain. An appendix is added to indi- cate the requirements which must be satisfied with

regard to the type of testing machine used.

The specifications for wrought light aluminum

alloy sheets and strips, and for wrought light aluminum alloy tubes, set out the chemical composition of

the alloy, and provide for the taking of samples for an analysis; the heat-treated condition in which the

sheets, strips, and tubes are to be supplied is given;

tolerances on the thicknesses of the tubes are stipulated ; while the physical properties are defined by tensile tests, the procedure for selecting and preparing

the material for test being detailed. In an appendix

to the standards are given notes on the heat treatment

of wrought light aluminum alloy.

UNIFORM STANDARD LOG RULE FOR TIMBER

On Rule Should Replace Variety Now in Use

By Allen W. Corwin, County Sealer of Weights and Measures, Wellsville, N. Y.

In the sale of “ saw logs ” it is often desirable to

sell the logs by “ board- foot ” measurement before the

logs are sawed into lumber, the board foot being the

common unit of measurement for lumber and representing a section of board 1 foot square by 1 inch thick.

For this purpose a scale or rule is used, called a log

rule. By measuring the diameter and length and

making proper allowance for defects, the number of

board feet in the log is determined, and payment is made by this measurement. This system is also used

for estimating the quantity of standing timber.

There are more than 50 different log rules in this

country showing widely different readings. Some

rules are quite accurate and fair, while others like the

“ Doyle ” are very inaccurate, as lumber is now sawed,

and especially unfair to the seller of small logs, al- though having quite a wide use. Comparison of log rules.

Log rule

Log 12

feet long,

12 inches diameter

Log 16

feet long, 8 inches diameter

Maine or Holland... .. . ....

Board

feet 78

Board

feet 44 Vermont State .. . 72 International 70 40 Wisconsin State - 60 30 Scribner . 59 25 Doyle ... ............ ... 48 16

Some of the advantages of having a uniform standard log rule are

1. The adoption of a standard log rule would no

doubt result in the selection of an accurate rule and

eliminate the unfairness now existing in sections where

inaccurate rules are in use. This would prevent losses of millions of dollars to sellers of small logs that have

been caused by the use of unfair rules.

2. Estimates of reforesting projects and other standing timber would be uniform; as it is now, some States

using log rules of very low readings on small logs and

others using quite accurate rules, the estimates of the same quantity of timber might differ by as much as 100 per cent.

3. It would prevent disagreements and litigation

caused by the use of different log rules. Often the

buyer uses one rule and the seller another, each claiming the correctness for his own favorite log rule. Views of Chapman quoted.

In his book, Forest Mensuration, H. IT. Chapman, of

the Yale School of Forestry, said, in the chapter on

Choice of a Board-Foot Log Rule for a Universal

Standard, that

Tlie Doyle rule must be rejected because of its glaring inconsistencies and the Doyle-Scribner rule, because it combines

the worst features of both rules. The use of the Maine and

the Spaulding rules is confined to single States, and the Massachusetts rule is for a special form of product ; that is, round-edged timber.
256 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1931

This leaves the Scribner, preferably in Decimal C form, as

the only logical rule now in wide use, which is applicable to the measurement of square-edged lumber. If the admitted

irregularities of the Scribner rule are deemed so serious as to justify its rejection, its successor should not be chosen from

among the other rules in common use, but should be a rule based on a formula and tested to conform to actual conditions

of sawing. Tor this purpose, the International 14 -inch rule

is probably as perfect a rule as will ever be required in commerce. This rule is especially valuable for logs below 12 inches and above 28 inches, in which classes the Scribner rule is defective. There is nothing to be gained by further efforts to construct new “ perfect ” log rules. The Federal Land Bank of Springfield, Mass., after an investigation of practically all log rules, found the

International to be, by far, the most accurate, and

adopted it for use in their work covering several

States. New York State, in an effort to correct the

unfairness and dissatisfaction caused by the use of logrules of widely different readings, has recently enacted

a law making the International 14-inch kerf log rule

the standard for use in that State. The International 14-inch kerf log rule is a comparatively new rule, developed in 1917 by Judson F. Clark from his International i/g-inch rule produced in 1900. The J^-inch rule would be open to objection for

general adoption as it would overscale the product of

most small mills. This International rule is considered by authorities to be one of the most accurate log- rules, being formed from a scientific formula which is accurate for all sizes and lengths of logs, and checks

very closely with the actual mill tallies. It does not

make the largest scale of any rule, as shown by the

tables, but is fair to both the buyer and the seller.

HOW TO JUDGE A HOUSE

“How to Judge a House” is the name of a new

84-page book intended for the prospective home buyer,

just announced by the National Committee on Wood

Utilization of the Department of Commerce. The

book is written in light, readable style, and takes the

design. The book may be secured from the Superintendent, of Documents, Government Printing Office,

Washington, D. C., at 10 cents a copy.

OPTICAL EQUIPMENT IMPROVED

New Laboratory to Permit Greater Precision HOW

TO

JUDGE

HOUSE

prospective home buyer on a tour of inspection

throughout the house—-from basement to attic. Every

important feature of construction and design is treated in pointing out in each instance how to judge

the workmanship and materials. A special feature

of the book is the fact that it sets forth short cuts

to economy without sacrificing good construction and

The production of more accurate lenses and other

optical surfaces will be made possible by the completion early in this year of a new underground laboratory

at the National Bureau of Standards.

The making of fine lenses, mirrors, prisms, flats, and

other surfaces demands the best temperature control of

the production process and the most accurate measurements. In an astronomical telescope, for example, the

surfaces (usually four in number) of the lens must

not depart from the true curves worked out for them

mathematically by more than five or six millionths of an inch.

The high degree of precision required for first-class optical surfaces can not be imparted to the glass by

machinery ; the final “ figuring,” as it is called, must be

done by hand. Comparatively few people possess the

manual skill necessary for such work, and even the

expert optician is at a great disadvantage unless provided with proper equipment and surroundings. Free- dom from vibration and from temperature changes in

the laboratory are essential. For more than 10 years the opticians at the National

Bureau of Standards have labored under a considerable handicap in producing the optical parts needed

in the bureau’s work. The optical shop has been

situated in the industrial building, a structure of fac- tory type, subject to, vibration, dust, and marked

temperature changes. For the most exacting optical

work, a room 24 feet long, 17 feet wide and 12 feet high, has now been excavated from the east end of

the South Building. This has involved some difficul- ties in cutting through heavy brick and concrete walls

with the minimum disturbance to other work going on in the building, but when completed, the new room

will provide the bureau with an excellent optical workshop and testing space.
FEBRUARY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 257

UNFAIR COMPETITION OF SUBSTANDARD GOODS

Marketing Substandard Goods, Not Identified as Such, Exerts a Demoralizing Influence

In an address delivered at the organization meeting

of the Broom Institute, Washington, D. C., January

14, 1930, A. F. Allison, president of the National

Standards Council (Inc.), called attention to the need

for a certification label, tag, or mark attached to each

article in a form to insure easy identification at the

time purchase is made by the consumer-buyer.

In order to show that standardization is not a new

or untried idea, Mr. Allison said that over 250 years

ago Sir Josiah Child, a London merchant, writing in

the year 1665, gave as one of the important reasons why the Dutch were then successfully challenging

British trade supremacy : “ Their exact making, whose

standards are so well known that merchants will buy

without opening.”

What is standardization ? The dictionary tells us

that to standardize is: “To determine the strength,

scale value, etc., by comparison with some standard.”

This definition does not make uniformity a requirement of standardization. Comparison is the important factor, and comparison is, of course, impossible

without some basis of measurement or description.

The three blind men who went to “ see ” the ele- phant. one feeling only the elephant’s trunk, another

only the elephant’s legs, and the third, the elephant's

tail, each describing the elephant later as he “ saw ”

it, were no wider of the mark than many a consumer- buyer to-day trying to arrive at a sensible basis for

selection and purchase of commodities.

Elephants need not be uniform in color, or in size,

but every elephant has certain standard characteristics. If you know the standard description of an ele- phant, you will not be fooled into buying a rabbit,

thinking you’ve got a bargain elephant.

Purpose of standardization.

There has been a good deal of misunderstanding

and misinterpretation of the meaning and practical

purpose of standardization, as applied to consumergoods, which are commodities, such as brooms, blankets, garments, etc., ready for consumer use. Standardization, as we are now applying the term,

simply is a method whereby merchandise can be

broadly graded into two classifications—standard and

substandard. It should not and does not imply that

all standard goods shall be made exactly alike. It does establish a broad specification or description

which represents a minimum standard and goods that

do not equal or exceed these minimum specifications, are substandard.

In an interview published by the New York Times

November 23, 1930, Mr. Allison said:

Taking the majority of lines of merchandise sold over the

retail counter to consumers, it is probable that in no case is the percentage of substandard goods less than 10 per cent of the total, and from this the percentage may easily run as high

as 60 per cent. * * * The sale of substandard goods, not

identified as such when offered to the consumer, not only dis- places an approximately equal volume of legitimate merchandise but also exerts a tremendously depressing influence upon

marketing conditions involving all the many varieties of unfair

competition.

Since the appearance of this interview in the New

York Times, comments heard from many manufacturers, retailers, and consumers agree with his estimates

as to the volume and marketing effect of substandard

goods. Several of Mr. Allison’s correspondents say

that, in their judgment, few industries would show a percentage of less than 35 per cent substandard goods.

Overproduction.

Overproduction, in many industries, is frequently

said to be the cause of bad business conditions. Whenever there is evidence of strong, sustained demand for

any article, manufacturers in that line increase their

production, and new factories are equipped and soon add to the available supply. As production begins to overtake the demand, competition grows keener, price

reductions are made to maintain volume, sharp practices become the rule instead of the exception, and

down goes the market into the quicksands of fake

values and fake goods.

The broom industry, like many others, to-day faces

a general condition of this kind. Yet, in ali probability, if the entire market for brooms could be sur- veyed, and if an analysis could be made showing

exactly the number of dozens of each type of broom

required to meet the present demand, the production

of brooms of standard or better than standard quality

would prove to be less than 60 per cent of the total requirements. In other words, substandard brooms

sold because falsely represented, have absorbed fully

40 per cent of the market which should be open to the

manufacturers making brooms of at least minimum

standard quality.

Destructive competition.

There can be no stabilization of market conditions

in an industry as long as it permits the substandard

producers to operate without check or hindrance.

Destructive competition is a disease that spreads

without effective resistance throughout an industry

which has failed to establish the protection of nationally recognized standards for its goods.

There are man}^ practical reasons to appreciate the

possibilities and necessity for a standardization program in the broom industry. Among other state- ments made to Mr. Allison repeatedly by a dozen or more representative broom manufacturers are the fol- lowing: (1) Your factory capacity is greater than

present demand ; (2) you have an intolerable burden

of prison competition, which represents about one- third your total production; (3) the percentage of

substandard brooms made and sold is steadily increasing, and as volume of substandard goods goes up, your earnings go down; and (4) speculative purchases

of raw materials no longer offer you good opportunities to maintain earnings to offset decline in manufacturing profit.

The problems of the broom industry are not unique.

Many other industries are facing exactly the same
258 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1931

conditions, and standardization is rapidly being ac- cepted by practically all industries as the one best way

to overcome many of their long-standing difficulties. There has been a great deal of research work, and

much progress made in the field of standardization.

This has all been constructive and valuable, but, particularly in respect to consumer goods, standardization

programs have not yet been made fully effective. For

several years, the problem of how best to make standardization reach the consumer, and thereby benefit the

competent manufacturer and distributor, has been

the subject of careful study and analysis.

“A new broom sweeps clean.”

Mr. Allison said

No broom manufacturer has ever claimed credit for in- venting the old but always good slogan, “A new broom sweeps

clean.” But they have not hesitated to use it, and very properly so, as good slogans, like all good ideas, are at their best when kept busy. In this meeting to-day you have a fine opportunity to apply your slogan to your own activity. Organize your Broom Insti- tute with its broom standards—that’s your “ new broom ” for the job you have to do in cleaning up your industry. Sweep

out the dirt and dust, and the cobwebs spun by the spiders of

suspicion and misrepresentation, and let in the sunshine of progress and prosperity.

STANDARDIZATION BRIEFS

Gas thermometer.—A gas thermometer is being built

at the National Bureau of Standards for the establishment of a scale of temperatures to —259°. At present

the International Temperature Scale extends only to liquid-air temperature ( — 190°).

Dry-cleaning solvent.—Specifications for dry-cleaning solvent and for glycerin for use in the manufacture of explosives and for industrial uses have been

submitted by the Federal Specifications Board for

adoption and promulgation.

Laundry soap.—A revision of Federal Specification

P-S-591 (original No. 32) for ordinary laundry soap

has been submitted to the Federal Specifications Board

for adoption and promulgation. This revision in- volves changes in form and in the method of sampling,

and contains a provision regarding the odor of the

material.

Inspecting farm products.—In growing and packingfarm products that are put up according to grade

standards, William B. Duryee, secretary, department

of agriculture of the State of New Jersey, suggested

the need for inspection by a disinterested agency, to

see that these products conform to the prescribed and

advertised standards.

Bronze screwed fittings.—The Manufacturers’ Standardization Society of the valve and fittings industry

has recently issued the 1930 edition of its standard

covering bronze screwed fittings for 125-pound steam

pressure. The society has also issued a new standard

covering bronze screwed fittings for 250-pound steam

pressure.

Oversize cooling coils.—Oversize cooling coils should

be used in commercial installation wherever air circulation will permit. The larger the vertical surface area on the cooling coil, the higher the temperature at which the coil may be operated, thus minimizing the

formation of frost which decreases the cooling

efficiency.

Industrial codes.—Industrial codes are formulated

in Massachusetts by the department of labor and in- dustries. One of the duties of the department is to investigate hazardous conditions affecting the health

and safety of employees, and to establish reasonable

rules and regulations for the protection of employees

against such hazards.

Platinum resistance thermometer.—The platinum

resistance thermometer, which is the basis for the In- ternational Temperature Scale for the measurement of

low temperatures and the generally used thermocouple, is a special type that is being investigated at the National Bureau of Standards in an effort to determine and extend the limits of accuracy in the

measurements of low temperatures.

Measwrimg pulsating gas flows.—On December 16. 1930, a meeting was held at the National Bureau of

Standards in cooperation with the American Gas Association to discuss the plans for taking up the problem of measuring pulsating gas flows. The study of

this problem will aid those making measurements of

gas to obtain a greater degree of certainty in their

measurements.

Optically plane surfaces.—The optical shop of the

National Bureau of Standards has recently completed three optically plane surfaces on fused silica which are 6 inches in diameter and which do not depart from a true plane by more than three 10-millionths of an inch. Such precision surfaces are nec- essary for the calibration of end gages to be used in

the production of interchangeable parts.

Stainless steel.—With the widely increasing use of

stainless steel, especially for architectural purposes,

the question of how the corrosion-resistant properties

shall be determined in the laboratory for specification

purposes becomes an important one. The National

Bureau of Standards is cooperating with the American Society for Testing Materials, through Committee A-10 in the study of a number of commercial tests intended for this use.
FEBRUARY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 259

Unifoi'm bathing rules.—To promote greater sanitation in bathing pools, the Ohio State Health Department has suggested uniform regulations governing public swimming pools for adoption by the general health districts of Ohio. Included in the proposed uniform rules is a proviso that no public swimming pool shall be constructed, or changes made in an existing pool, until the plans have been approved

by the board of health and a permit issued.

/Standard,I hose couplings.—The rubber products

committee of the Federal Specifications Board is pre- paring specifications for standard hose couplings for

use in connection with various types of rubber hose

that are required by Government departments. The

committee, in cooperation with hose and coupling

manufacturers, has formulated proposed requirements

for steam and water hose couplings, and these specifications are now being reviewed by the Government

agencies and by manufacturers.

Standard solvent.—As a result of a recent survey

among the manufacturers to determine adherence to the Commercial Standard for Stoddard Solvent,

CS3-28, a summarized report was issued on December 18, 1930, indicating that among reporting manufacturers 80.8 per cent of production conformed to the

requirements of the standard. In accordance with the

recommendation of the standing committee, the exist- ing standard was reaffirmed, without change, for an- other year beginning March 1, 1931.

Cleansing materials.—Revised specifications for 13

types of cleaning materials have been submitted to the Federal Specifications Board for adoption and

promulgation. These specifications were formulated

by a technical committee from the Government personnel, with a member of the National Bureau of

Standards staff as chairman. The original specifications were issued as Bureau of Standards Circulars

Nos. 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 130, 132, 193, 194,

195, 369, and 370.

Classification of screw-thread gages.—The classifica- tion of screw-thread gages into classes X, Y, and Z in

the 1928 Report of the National Screw Thread Commission has been the subject of criticism at various

times. As a basis for developing a new classification, a comparison of various proposals has been prepared

by the National Bureau of Standards and issued as N. S. T. C. No. 150 of the National Screw Thread

Commission, entitled “Thread Gage Classification and

Ratio of Maximum Gage Decrement to Product

Tolerance.”

Dry cells and batteries.—The new American Standard for dry cells and batteries which was approved by

the American Standards Association on September 9, 1930, has now been issued in printed form by the association. It is designated by the number C-18-30. In

the preparation of this specification by a sectional

committee, the National Bureau of Standards served

as the sponsor. The specifications are also published

in the National Bureau of Standards series of circulars.

Labeling food and diugs.—The campaign of the

Food and Drugs Administration of the United States

Department of Agriculture to persuade purchasers to read the labels carefully on the foods and drugs which

they buy, to assure themselves of obtaining the quantity and quality of product which they want, is proving highly successful. Scores of home-economics departments in colleges and schools are teaching the

idea, and tradesmen, food and drug manufacturers,

publishers, and physicians are also encouraging the

project.

Commercial standards of nonmetallics.—The Los

Angeles Chamber of Commerce recently organized a new committee to be known as the Nonmetallic Minerals Committee, the principal function of which will

be to study and develop commercial standards and

specifications of all nonmetallics produced in southern

California for the protection of both the producer and

consumer. The committee comprises prominent men

in the nonmetallic industry in southern California.

Standardization of gas cylinder valve outlet

threads.—The Valve Standardization Committee of

the Compressed Gas Manufacturers Association has

prepared a preliminary report relative to standardization of gas cylinder valve outlet threads. For the

purpose of selecting suitable standards of design and

threads the various gases have been assigned to 10

different classes. Standards are recommended therein

for seven of the classes. This report will be the basis

for discussion in the development of national standards

under the auspices of the National Screw Thread

Commission.

Standardizing colors and fixtures for Army post.

As a means of affecting economy in the administration

of the Army post at Fort Francis E. Warren, near Cheyenne, Wyo., orders called for the standardization

of colors and fixtures at the post. The standardization of post fixtures ranges from hitching posts to picket lines. The standardization of colors includes

the painting of fire equipment, name plates for

quarters, and garages at the post. It is believed that

this is the first step ever taken to standardize colors

and fixtures for Army posts.

Testing resistance to wear of carpets.—A machine

for testing the resistance to wear of carpets has been

developed at the National Bureau of Standards. Results obtained with it are shown to be reproducible

and it is hoped that service tests will show that they

will be indicative of the relative serviceability of

carpets under ordinary conditions of use. The wear

on the carpet is produced by a downward force, a horizontal stress, and a slight twisting motion. They

have definite values and may be varied. The rate of wear is evaluated by measuring the change in thick- ness of the pile of the carpet with a sensitive thickness

gage as the test proceeds.
260 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1931

Standard “ -fluidity ” for molten metal.—In all foundry work the temperature at which the molten

metal is poured into the molds is an important matter. This factor has a very decided bearing on the complete filling of the mold—a matter of very considerable

importance in the cross sections. In cooperation with

the American Foundrymen’s Association, the National

Bureau of Standards is developing a method which,

it is hoped, can be recommended and adopted as standard for this purpose, and which will be simple

enough so that it can be readily used by the foundryman for determining the “ fluidity ” of his metal.

Measurements for knit underwear.—The Associated

Knit Underwear Manufacturers of America has re- quested the cooperation of the National Bureau of

Standards to establish a commercial standard cover- ing measurements for knit underwear. These specifications cover methods of measuring, standard

measurements, tolerances, labels, box sizes, cone colors

for single cotton yarns, and suggested methods for

washing knitted underwear. A general conference,

to which are invited all interested producers, distributors, and users of this commodity will be held at 10 a. m., Thursday, February 19, 1931, in Room 414,

East Building, National Bureau of Standards,

Washington, D. C.

Inspecting cement testing laboratories.—The cement

reference laboratory of the National Bureau of Standards is now preparing for another inspection tour among interested cement testing laboratories. The

laboratory was established at the National Bureau of

Standards, under the sponsorship of the Government

and the American Society for Testing Materials, to secure improvements in the testing of cement. Part

of its program is to make inspections of laboratories

when so requested. Those laboratories which desire,

but have not already requested inspections, should

promptly address the Cement Reference Laboratory,

National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C., in order that advantageous schedules may be arranged

for the inspectors.

Standardization of the calendar.—For the past several years there has been agitation to revise the

Gregorian calendar in order to make correspondingperiods more nearly equal and comparable. Many

plans have been proposed; these, however, are re- ducible to two : (a) A 12-month equal quarters plan,

and (b) a 13-equal months plan, the United States favoring the latter. At the invitation of the League

cf Nations, a conference will be held in Geneva. Switzerland, October, 1931, for the purpose of considering

whether an improved calendar should be established,

and if so, how it should be done. The plan is for the

delegates of various governments to draw up a protocol or treaty on calendar revision to be submitted to

their respective governments for ratification, together

with measures for putting it into effect on an agreed

date.

Photo-electric signals from master clock.—In con- nection with the work on the determination of the

absolute value of gravity at Washington, it is necessary

to have light flash signals every second with a high

degree of accuracy. If these are drawn from the clock

in the usual way, involving relays in the circuit, the

various moving parts necessary will contaminate the

accurary of the signals to the extent of several thousandths of a second. The National Bureau of Standards has, therefore, arranged a plan by which a Neon

lamp is caused to flash with every beat of the pendulum of the master clock without any mechanical moving parts in the circuit. This is done by having the

pendulum send a flash of light to a photo-electric cell at every beat. The very minute electrical impulse sent out by the cell is amplified until it is sufficiently strong

to excite the Neon lamp.

'Standardization of fish nets.—The National Bureau of Standards is cooperating with the Bureau of

Fisheries in an effort to develop a standard method

for measuring the mesh size of fish nets. The mesh

size of nets that are legal for use in the waters of

any jurisdiction is regulated by the laws of that jurisdiction. These laws differ widely in requirements

and in enforcement and there is always more or less uncertainty as to what constitutes a legal net. This is especially true where the same body of water is subject to the regulations of two or more jurisdictions.

In order for this standardization project to be brought

to a successful conclusion, the following steps will be

necessary: (1) The enactment of uniform laws and

regulations, (2) the development and use of standard

measuring equipment, and (3) the adoption of standard conditions of the net at time of measurement.

SIMPLIFICATION BRIEFS

Soft fiber {jute) twine.—Simplified Practice Recommendation R110-29, Soft Fiber (Jute) Twine, has

been in effect sufficiently long to warrant a review of

the established simplified list b}r the standing committee of the industry. A survey is now being made

among the manufacturers of this product to determine

the extent to which this recommendation is being

observed.

ing industrial truck tires, is now available. Copies of

this recommendation, which has been instrumental in

establishing dimensions for widths of tires and nominal wheel diameters, can be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office,

Washington, D. C., for 5 cents each.

Packaging razor blades.—There will be no change in the method of packaging razor blades for the next

year. The standing committee of the industry has

taken steps to insure this b}r approving, without

Industrial truck tires.—The printed pamphlet on

Simplified Practice Recommendation R103-29, cover-
FEBRUARY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 261

change, Simplified Practice Recommendation No. 69,

packaging of razor blades, for another year. Reports

from eight manufacturers indicated that their adherence to the recommendation during 1929 was 95

per cent.

Surgical gauze.. —The simplified, schedule provided

for surgical gauze, Simplified Practice Recommendation No. 86, having been satisfactory, the standing

committee of the industry has reaffirmed the schedule,

without change, for another year. Reports from seven manufacturers of this commodity indicated that 98

per cent of their production during 1929 was in accord

with the provisions of the recommendation.

Hospital 'plumbing fixtures . —The division of simplified practice of the National Bureau of Standards

has just announced that the printed pamphlet on

Simplified Practice Recommendation R106-30, Hospital Plumbing Fixtures, is now available. Copies

of this recommendation, which covers types, sizes,

and varieties of fixtures, can be obtained from the

Superintendent of Documents, Government PrintingOffice, Washington, D. C., for 10 cents each.

Varieties of composition hooks. —Retaining the

approved 41 varieties of composition books in Simplified Practice Recommendation No. 84, for composition

books, the standing committee of the industry has

reaffirmed this recommendation, without change, for

another year. The schedule reduced the variety of

books from 86 to 41. Reports from seven manufacturers indicated that 98 per cent of their production

conformed to the simplified line.

Wrouglit-iron and wrought-steel pipe, etc. —Twelve

manufacturers of wrought-iron and wrought-steel

pipe, valves, and fittings have indicated to the National Bureau of Standards that their production during 1929 was 98 per cent in conformity with Simplified

Practice Recommendation No. 57, covering these commodities. This information was made public in con- nection with the action taken by the standing committee of the industry in reaffirming, without change, the

recommendation for another year.

Woven wire fencing and fence packages.—Simplified Practice Recommendation No. R9-28, Woven Wire

Fencing and Fence Packages, has been reaffirmed,

without change, for a period of one year, by the standing committee of the industry, according to an an- nouncement just made public by the division of simplified practice of the National Bureau of Standards.

Reports from 11 manufacturers, in reply to a survey

of production conducted prior to the revision meeting,

indicated that the average degree of adherence to the

recommendation by these manufacturers was approximately 98 per cent.

Sizing of aluminum oxide and silicon carbide

abrasives. —The simplified practice recommendation

recently developed by industry covering allowable

limits for the sizing of aluminum oxide and silicon

carbide abrasives for polishing uses and grindingwheels manufacture, has been approved and adopted

by the industry as an effective program. According

to prominent individuals of the industry it is expected

that the adoption of this recommendation will stimulate study of other kinds of abrasive grains and subsequent formulation of additional simplified practice

recommendations in this field.

Paper trade institute. —In its paper salesman’s

training course, the Paper Trade Institute, a division

of LaSalle Extension University, calls attention to the following simplified-practice recommendations

which have been promulgated by industry with the

cooperation of the division of simplified practice of

the National Bureau of Standards: S. P. R. No. 22,

Paper; S. P. R. No. 92, Hard Fiber Twine; and

S. P. R. No. 110, Soft Fiber Twine. Some of the practical problems issued in connection with this course and the model solutions thereof are predicated upon

a knowledge of these programs.

Radiobeacon .-—A new radiobeacon to guide ships

through the straits of Florida is soon to be established

at Fowey Rocks Lighthouse, according to the Lighthouse Service of the Department of Commerce. It will lie of the most modern type, operating for a regular portion of every hour, day, and night. To prevent

confusion with near-by stations, it will be interwoven

with their signal times; that is, each station will have

its regular exclusive sending time, adjacent stations

remaining silent temporarily. The establishment of

radiobeacons at lighthouses built on submarine sites, as is Fowey Rocks, has become possible only with the

development of apparatus capable of withstanding

the vibration often caused by heavy seas pounding

against the foundations of the lighthouse.

PROPOSE STANDARD FOR COTTON GOODS

FOR RUBBER AND PYROXYLIN COATING

The Cotton Textile Institute has requested the

cooperation of the division of trade standards,

National Bureau of Standards, in establishing a commercial standard for cotton goods for rubber and

pyroxylin coating, based on standards previously published by the Association of Cotton Textile Merchants

of New York.

The specification has been adopted by a number of

the organizations concerned in the production and

finishing of these fabrics, and has been published at length for criticism in the Textile World. It is believed that by these means the most essential functions of the general conference have been satisfactorily

performed, and accordingly it is planned to circulate

the proposed standard direct to interested organizations for written acceptance.

The specification covers quality, construction,

weight, tensile strength, permissible defects, sizing,

chemical limitations for certain elements, and test conditions of the cotton sheetings, drills, sateens, and

other fabrics covered.
262 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1931 PUBLICATIONS ON BUILDING AND HOUSING

Mimeographed List of Publications Issued by National Bureau of Standards Relating to Building Materials,

Home Building, Home Ownership, City Planning, and Zoning

A mimeographed list entitled “ Publications of the

Bureau of Standards Relating to Building Materials,

Home Building, Home Ownership, City Planning, and

Zoning,” has recently been issued.

The document, which was compiled by the division

of building and housing, lists by title all bureau publications dealing with the properties, specifications,

tests, uses, and standardization of the various materials entering into the construction of houses and other

buildings. Typical publications on materials deal

with fire resistance of concrete columns and of hollow

load-bearing wall tile, the durability and covering

power of paints and varnishes, tests of waterproofing

and rust-preventive materials, properties of various

types of roofing materials, recommended minimum

requirements for plumbing, and maintenance of inte- rior marble.

The simplified practice recommendations listed deal

with the standardization of such products as metal

lath, solid section steel windows, softwood lumber,

structural slates, concrete building units, and steel reinforcing bars. Other bureau publications listed give results of

studies on the economy, durability, and safety of different types of construction, such as the strength of

clay-brick walls and of hollow-tile walls, Portland

cement stucco construction, use of reinforced concrete,

masonry walls, thermal insulation of buildings, trans- mission of sound through wall and floor structures,

and recommended building-code requirements, including small-dwelling construction.

As the title indicates, there are also listed publications

prepared to assist in the improvement of conditions

affecting home ownership, including such problems as

site selection, and the financing, design, building,

equipment, and upkeep of homes.

This document is Letter Circular 290, and is obtainable, upon request, direct from the division of building

and housing, Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.

SEATS FOR WATER-CLOSET BOWLS

General Conference Approves Proposed Commercial Standard

A general conference of manufacturers, distributors,

organized consumers, and other interested organizations, held at the Palmer House in Chicago, 111., December 10, 1930, approved the Proposed Commercial Standard for Seats for Water-Closet Bowls, as previously adopted by the manufacturers of this com- modity on October 28 and 29. The following finish, type, and shape classifications are recommended as standards

(a) Finishes.—Seats shall be classified according to finish, as (1) varnished seats, (2) sprayed (white or colored)

seats, (3) hard-rubber seats, and (4) molded composition

seats.

( b ) Types. —Seats shall be designated according to types

as, (1) staple ring seat, with or without cover, (2) staple open front seat, with or without cover, and (3) staple open

front and back seats, with or without cover.

(c) Shapes.-—Plain rim staple ring seats, shall be designated

according to shape as, “ for staple bowls.” Shapes of open

front or open front and back seats shall be designated as, for

(1) staple round front bowl, (2) for staple extended lip bowl, and (3) for staple elongated bowls. The recommended standard requires that staple

varnished, sprayed, and sheet-covered seats shall be

made from not less than 5/4 (

1

%) inch hardwood

stock and finished to a thickness of not less than fif- teen-sixteenth inch. These will be known as l^-inch

seats. Staple hard rubber or molded composition seats

will be not less than l/y inches in finished thickness.

The proposed standard covers also the materials,

construction, dimensions, types, and weights of hinges.

It recommends that all seats bear the name or the

trade-mark of the actual manufacturer applied in such manner as to be permanent. Printed labels at least 2 inches wide are to be attached around the rear of

the seat between the hinge posts and will bear the

following wording: “This (finish specified) seat is guaranteed by the Company to conform to Commercial Standard CS-31 issued by the U. S. Department of Commerce. Caution. —This label shall be re- moved only by the ultimate consumer and shall not be

used again.” This label should soon become the guidepost to the purchaser of staple seats for water-closet

bowls by giving assurance of satisfactory service.

A standing commitee representing producers, dis- tributors, and users was appointed by the conference

to consider annually revision of the commercial standard in the event that such action is desirable and

mutually beneficial.

SIMPLIFIED SCHEDULE FOR CAN SIZES

APPROVED

A general conference of representatives of manu

facturers, distributors, and users of cans used in packing fruit and vegetables, adopted a simplified practice

recommendation on can sizes, at a meeting held

January 20, 1931, at the Hotel Stevens, Chicago,

111., under the auspices of the division of simplified

practice of the National Bureau of Standards. This

meeting was held in conjunction with the annual

convention of the National Canners Association.

The program, as approved, recommends a reduction

from the present wide variety of fruit and vegetable can sizes to 27, and, subject to the approval by all interests, will become effective July 1, 1931.

It was suggested at the conference that a survey of

the sizes of fish cans now in use be made with a view

to the establishment of a simplification program in

that field. o
SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND COMMERCIAL

PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE

national BUREAU of standards

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH

The new Journal describes the bureau’s re- search results in science and technology. The

union of science and its applications in one

journal shortens the lag between discovery

and application.

All engaged in industry and commerce should

have available for current use and permanent

reference, the Bureau of Standards Journal of

Research.

Early in its firSt year the Journal developed a

liSt of paid subscribers double the anticipated

maximum.

This Journal is full of interest to executives

and technicians controlling industries and

commercial enterprises. It enables them bet- ter to promote efficiency by determining the

scientific measured controls ofprocess through

experimental and theoretical research.

Issued monthly

Subscription price, $2.75 per year

TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN

The Bureau of Standards periodical with a WAR RECORD! Started during the dark

days of 1917 to keep the Army and Navy and

other branches of the Government informed

of progress in scientific war research at the

bureau. Upon urgent request this publication was continued and expanded to serve the

Government, science, and industry.

The TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN will

keep you informed of current progress in the

scientific and technical work of the bureau’s

laboratories, and gives each month a liSt of

the publications of the bureau. A complete

cross index is published with the December

issue.

You can not afford to be without the TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN. Every article is short and to the point. The busiest executive can afford the time to read it.

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS

MONTHLY

Issued monthly

Subscription price, 25 cents per year

STANDARDS YEARBOOK

FOR 1931

This new governmental periodical is a review

of progress in commercial simplification and

standardization. It is the only journal of its kind. It covers the national movement initiated by President Hoover for the reduction

of needless sizes and varieties of products and

the promotion of voluntary commercial

Standardization by industry.

The Secretary of Commerce in the firSt issue

of this new journal said: “Certain Standards,

such as those used for weights and measures,

* * * have been fixed by legislative enacft- ment. Mandatory Standards of this character, however, are few in number when compared with the large and steadily growing

volume of Standards developed by industry

and commerce and voluntarily maintained.

* * * The activities of the Commercial

Standardization Group of the Bureau of

Standards are concerned with Standards

adopted by voluntary agreement.”

Subscription price, $1 per year

The new Standards Yearbook for 1931 is the

fifth annual issue of a publication devoted

to the great and growing field of Standardization in its broad aspeCts. It gives a summary

of progress.

Standardization is a world-wide movement.

It covers all industries. It is part of the application of scientific methods to industry. Its achievements are of interest and concern to

business men and manufacturers as well as to

engineers. To the technician it is full of

example of methods and results of suggeStive

and Stimulating value. To business men it discloses trends which deeply concern their

interest.

NOW READY Price, $1 ORDER AT ONCE

“Standardization is becoming an aspect of all well- ordered activity rather than an incidental

activity supplemental to others.”

To obtain regularly the above-described monthly Periodicals send your order, with remittance, addressed: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Foreign prices (countries other

than the United States and its possessions, Canada, Mexico, Newfoundland, Cuba, and Republic of Panama) are: Journal, $3.50; Bulletin, $0.40; Monthly, $1.25; Yearbook, $0.90
“ * * * this department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * * its ideals are clear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field." —President Hoover, at the Laying of the corner stone of the new building

of the U. S. Department of Commerce, June 10, 1929

THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

E. P. LAMONT, Secretary of Commerce

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal air ports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, William M. Steuart, Director. Taking censuses of population, mines, and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a

census of manufactures every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments.

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products;

and publication monthly of Survey of Current Business. BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

William L. Cooper, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attaches, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, and district and cooperative offices in 65 cities. The

maintenance of commodity, technical, and regional divisions to afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, George K. Burgess, Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards, and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals. Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operation of plants producing it

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish, in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods,

improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and the protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam, Commissioner. Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director. Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic

surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, Arthur J. Tyrer, Commissioner.

Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamen.

Supervision of registering, enrolling, licensing, numbering,

etc., of vessels under the United States flag, and the annual

publication of a list of such vessels. Enforcement of the navigation and steamboat inspection laws, including imposition of fees, fines, tonnage taxes, etc. STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE, Dickerson N. Hoover, Supervising Inspector General. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certifi- cation of able seamen and lifeboat men, and the investigation of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks,

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents, and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued RADIO DIVISION, W. D. Terrell, Chief. Inspection of radio stations on ships; inspection of radio

stations on shore, including broadcasting stations; licensing radio operators; assigning station call letters; enforcing the terms of the International Radiotelegraphic Convention; and

examining and settling international radio accounts.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1931