National Bureau of Standards

Library, K.W. Bldg

MAY 1S54

^ecltnical ^lote 153

GENERAL SURVEY OF THE

EMICONDUCTOR FIELD

GEORGE WILLIAM REIMHERR

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS
THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

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NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

technical ^tete

153

AUGUST 1962

A GENERAL SURVEY OF THE

SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD

George William Reimherr

NBS Technical Notes are designed to supplement the Bureau's regular publications program. They provide a means for making available scientific data that are of transient or limited interest. Technical Notes may be

listed or referred to in the open literature.

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D.C. - Price 30 cents

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION

Page

II. SINGLE ELEMENT AND BINARY COMPOUND

SEMICONDUCTORS 3

A. The Key to Table I 3

B. Table of Single Element and Binary Compound

Semiconductors (Table I) 5

C. Additional Comments 36

III. OTHER TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS 39

A. Ferrites 39

B. Ternary Compounds 39

C Mixed Crystals and Alloys 39

D. Organics 39

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 41

LIST OF TABLES

Table I. A Listing of Various Single Element and

Binary Compound Semiconductors, Along

With Some of Their Physical Properties and

Applications 6-35

Table II. Crystal Structure Types of the Principal Single

Element and Binary Compound Semiconductors 38

in

A GENERAL SURVEY OF THE SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD

by

George William Reimherr

ABSTRACT

This survey presents a listing of some of the

properties and applications of a number of single - element and binary compound inorganic semiconductors. Brief mention is made of other types

of semiconductors (ternary compounds, mixed

crystals, alloys, ferrites, and organics). The

toxicity problem presented by many semiconductors

is noted.

SECTION I INTRODUCTION

Electronics has become a semiconductor-oriented industry. This

situation has come about logically, because semiconductors appear to

offer a large reduction in size and power, as well as a potential for

increased reliability over previous methods. Many new semiconductor

devices have come into being within the last decade.

The computer industry promises to be one of the major potential

markets for semiconductors. The drive to increase the speed,

reliability, and applications of modern digital computers has naturally

focused increased attention on semiconductor devices. Actual or

potential uses for semiconductors include such things as circuit

elements (resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors, etc.), storage

elements (tunnel diodes, delay lines, electroluminescent cell-photoconductive cell combinations, etc.), power sources (solar cells,

thermoelectric generators), various measuring devices (germanium

thermometers, Hall effect ammeters, etc.), thermoelectric cooling

devices, and others.

Present-day semiconductor devices are still dominated by the

two giants of the semiconductor field -- silicon and germanium. These

two enjoy an advantage over all other semiconductors in that their

technology is comparatively well advanced, resulting in a high degree

of crystal perfection. While silicon and germanium do possess good

physical and electrical properties, their properties are not necessarily the ultimate for a given practical application. As a result,

there is increasing competition from other semiconductors, one or
more of which may someday rival silicon and germanium in overall

importance. The present survey represents an attempt to list some

of the properties and applications of present-day semiconductors. It runs the gamut from relatively unimportant semiconductors to those

that are extremely important. The survey certainly does not exhaust

the field of possible semiconductors. Some are not important enough

as semiconductors to merit mention. Many other semiconductors are

still experimentally unconfirmed in the laboratory. The number of

usable semiconductors is further reduced by the occurrence of phase

changes or low melting points.

The survey includes the 12 single -element semiconductors

known to exist and also the most important binary compound inorganic

semiconductors. Brief mention is given to the other types -- the

ternary compounds, the mixed crystals, the alloys, the ferrites, and

the organics. Also included are a few comments concerning the

crystal structures of the semiconductors and the toxicity problem

presented by many of the inorganic compound semiconductors.
SECTION II SINGLE ELEMENT AND BINARY COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS

This section, by far the biggest part of this survey consists

mostly of the data of Table I. The Key to Table I The following items represent the various physical properties

and applications of the semiconductors listed in Table I. These items

are given in the same order as the column headings in Table I.

1. Semiconductors. This is a listing of the most important

single element and binary compound semiconductors

mentioned in the recent literature (1957 - 1961).

2. Eg. This represents the width of the energy gap of the

semiconductor in electron volts (e.v.). The superscript

r, given beside the reference number, refers to the value

at room temperature, whereas the superscript* refers to

the value extrapolated to 0°K. The absence of a. superscript indicates that the reference temperature is not

known to the aathor.

3. K This is the dielectric constant of the semiconductor.

For example, germanium has a dielectric constant of 16.

4. un, Up. These represent the quoted values for electron

mobility (un) and hole mobility (up), respectively, in units

of cm^/volt-sec. , and at room temperature.

5. Crystal Structure. This represents the ordered arrangement of the atoms in the crystal lattice. "Strukturbericht"

symbols are used (see Table II). In particular, Bl refers

to the rock salt structure, B3 to the zinc blende structure,

and B4 to the wurtzite structure.

6. Physical Appearance. This indicates how the semiconductor

might look to an observer.

7. Known Number of Research Groups. This indicates the

number of different research groups, domestic or foreign,

submitting papers recently concerning that particular semiconductor. The sampling of papers included thousands of

articles (53) and therefore serves as an indication of the

relative importance of, or interest in, that semiconductor.

For example, the sampling indicated that 82 research

groups submitted at least one research paper each on

germanium, whereas only 6 different research groups

submitted papers concerning AlSb. The absence of a
number in this column indicates that the sampling of

articles taken for that particular semiconductor was

too small to make any number meaningful in the relative

sense mentioned above.

8. Thin Film. An X in this column indicates that the material

has reportedly been prepared as a thin film.

9- Electronic Applications. This is a listing of the various

electronic applications for which the particular semiconductor has been considered. An attempt was made to

separate those applications that have resulted in commercial

devices from those applications still only under study in the

research laboratory. It is quite possible that a device listed

under lab study may since have become commercially

available.

10. Comments. This is a group of miscellaneous comments that

for one reason or another did not properly fit into one of the

other columns, but did still merit brief mention.

11. References. The references are listed in parentheses. See

Selected Bibliography at the end of the report.

OTHER ABBREVIATIONS

1. A Angstrom units

2. atm. atmosphere

3. b. c. body centered

4. cc. cubic centimeters

5. cm. centimeters

6. cr. crystalline

7. hex. hexagonal

8. monocl. monoclinic

9. orthor. ortho rhombic

10. rhomb. rhombohedral (hex.

11. sec. second system)

12. temp. temperature

13. tetr. tetragonal

14. thermoeL thermoelectric

15. /^s about, approximateiy
Table 1 „ A Listing of Various Single Element

and Binary Compound Semiconductors, Along

with Some of Their Physical Properties

and Applications
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35
Additional Comments

A few additional comments are given below concerning the data

of Table I:

1. It is quite apparent, from Table I, that different

investogators get different results for the values of the

intrinsic constants of the various semiconductors.

This follows directly from the fact that the measured

values of the intrinsic constants, expecially the mobilities,

are extremely sensitive to the quality of the material.

Probably the purest materials available are germanium

and silicon, with only InSb approaching them in purity (2).

Therefore, the range in values noted for these constants

should not be surprising, since a very high degree of

crystalline perfection is required in order to find the true

intrinsic values.

2. Interest in the field of semiconductors is so widespread

that any listing of laboratory or commercial devices

made from them must necessarily be incomplete, since

no one investigator can know what all the other investigators

in his field are doing. An example of this interest is noted

in that it is estimated that there are up to 1, 000 companies

and groups (many not in the electronics industry) active in

the field of thermoelectric devices alone (54).

3. There are 12 elements now known to show semiconducting

properties:

Germanium Boron Arsenic

Silicon Selenium Antimony

Carbon Tellurium Sulphur

Tin Phosphorus Iodine

The last five (phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, sulphur, and

iodine), while showing semiconductor properties, are not

usually considered as semiconductors. Arsenic and antimony are generally thought of as metals, while phosphorus,

sulphur, and iodine are generally thought of as insulators

(3).

4. One of the striking features of the more important compound

semiconductors is their moderate -to-high degree of

toxicity. In some cases, this may be the fault of the cation,

e. g. , in compounds of mercury or lead. However, an

examination of the semiconductors in Table I will reveal

that most of the important compound semiconductors seem

to fall into the following categories:

36
a. Antimonides e. Selenides

b. Arsenides f. Sulfides

c. Oxides g. Tellurides

d. Phosphides

The antimonides, arsenides, phosphides, selenides, and

tellurides are all more than moderately toxic (15).

Additional hazards include, among others, the high vapor

pressures of the selenides and tellurides (23), and the

tendency of the phosphides to decompose to phosphine upon

contact with moisture or acids (15). Sulfides tend to be

much less toxic, although they can be a fire hazard, and

they do tend to evolve hydrogen sulfide upon contact with

moisture or acids (15). The oxides are the safest of the

above mentioned groups, their degree of safety depending

largely on the properties of the cation. An example of a practically nontoxic semiconductor is titanium dioxide,

Ti0 2

(15).

The crystal structure types of the principle single element

and binary compound semiconductors are given in Table II. It shows that semiconductivity is confined to no one structure

type, even though certain types seem favored.

37
Table II. Crystal Structure Types of the Principal Single Element and

Binary Compound Semiconductors

SYMBOL* STRUCTURE* CRYSTAL*

TYPE SYSTEM REPRESENTATIVE SEMICONDUCTORS

1. Bl NaCl cubic CdO, GeTe, MgO, MnO, MnSe, NiO, PbS,

PbSe, PbTe, SnTe, TiC

2. B3 ZnS

(zinc

blende)

cubic AlAs, A IP, AlSb, BAs, BN, BP, CdS, CdTe,

GaAs, GaP, GaSb, Ga Se

?

, Ga,Te , HgSe, HgTe,

InAs, InP, InSb, In

2 Se , In Te , SiC, ZnS,

ZnSe, ZnTe

3. B4 ZnO

(wurtzite)

hex. A IN, CdS, CdSe, MgTe, ZnO, ZnS

4. B8 NiAs hex. MnTe

5. B29 SnS orthor. GeS, SnS, SnSe

6. B37 TISe tetr. TISe

7. CI CaF

2 cubic Mg2

Si, Mg2 Sn

8. C2 FeS

2 cubic FeS2

9. C3 Cu

z O cubic Cu

2

10. C4 Sn0

2 tetr. Ti02

11. C6 Cdl2 hex. CdL, SnS2> TiS , TiSe 2> ZrS

2

12. C13 Hgl

2 tetr. Hgl2

13. C33 Bi

2 Te

3 rhomb. Bi

2Se3

, Bi

2 Te3

, Sb

2 Te

3

14. D03 BiF

3 cubic Li

3Bi

15. D5 X Fe 2°3 rhomb. A1

2 3

, Fe

2 3

, Ti

2 3

, V2 3

16. D5

8 orthor.

(5) Sb ? S,, Sb? Se_

17. D5

9 Zn

3 P2

tetr. Cd,As ?

, Zn^As,

*Reference (18).

38
SECTION III OTHER TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS

Ferrites

Although ferrites are semiconductors, having a practical range

of resistivity between about 10 * to about 10' ohm-cm. , their possible

use in semiconductor devices appears to have but little mention in the

literature. Ferrites may eventually prove useful in particular semiconductor applications where a high value of magnetic permeability

(u) is desirable. However, it appears that ferrite semiconductors

would be rather complex compounds, with rather low mobilities (11).

A practical difficulty, as with oxide materials in general, is the preparation of good single crystals (2). Articles describing the

successful growth of single-crystal ferrites have appeared recently

in the literature (55), (56).

Ternary Compounds

Another group of semiconductors includes the ternary compounds. Several of these compounds have been the subject of recent

investigation, such as CdSnAs2 (9). As yet, however, ternary

compounds are relatively unimportant when compared to the simpler

single element and binary element semiconductors.

Mixed Crystals and Alloys

Another group of inorganic semiconductors are those in which

two or more semiconductors are combined to form alloys, solid

solutions, or mixed crystals. These are becoming increasingly

important in the field of thermoelectricity. (See, for example, the

comments for Bi2;Se3 and for GeTe. Another recently announced

thermoelectric material (23) consists of an alloy of silicon and

germanium. ) The reason for this interest is that the performance of

thermoelectric materials may be improved by using mixed crystals,

since the disorder introduced into the crystal lattice may reduce the

thermal conductivity more than it reduces the electrical conductivity

(2).

A brief but relatively thorough review of semiconductor alloys,

coupled with a large list of references, is available in the literature

(57).

No discussion of materials for the optical maser is given in this

survey. However, information concerning details of construction,

applications, and materials for the optical maser may be found in the

literature (58).

39
Organic s There is at present considerable interest in the field of organic

semiconductors. This interest arises in large part because of the

possibility of using an enormous quantity of new materials -- there are

about 900,000 separate organic materials now classified (21) -- permitting the possible tailoring of electrical properties through organic

chemistry. It is believed that between 20 and 30 laboratories in the

United States are now conducting research in the field of semiconduction phenomena in organic polymers, with a similar interest being

shown in Europe, particularly in Russia (59).

An organic semiconductor may be defined as a solid containing

an appreciable number of carbon-carbon bonds, capable of supporting

electronic conduction (60). A major goal of present-day research is

to understand the mechanism of electronic conductivity in these

materials and to relate these mechanisms to the structure of the solid.

The present state of this understanding has been compared to that of

inorganic semiconductors about 25 years ago (60).

Some success has been reported in the use of organic semiconductors in that current rectification, photovoltaic production and

photoconduction sensitivity have been demonstrated in the lab. The

conductivity of organic polymers has been found to range between 10

to 10~2 1 reciprocal ohm-cm. (59)- However, much more work must

be done with organic semiconductors before practical devices made

from them can replace those made now with inorganic semiconductors.

Possibly the biggest difficulty in examining the properties of

organic semiconductors arises from the fact that, in order to observe

the basic semiconduction of organic crystals, purification techniques

as extensive as those applied to inorganic molecules should be used

(60). At one time it was hoped that such careful processing would be

unnecessary. Values of mobility for organic materials have generally

been found to be only moderate or low; therefore, such materials

would not be useful in applications requiring a rather high value of

mobility (e.g., a Hall generator).

Devices made of organic semiconductors may eventually prove

practical. For example, anthracene is used in scintillation counters

in nuclear physics experiments. In addition, current research in the

field of organic semiconductors should add to our knowledge of

electron transfer processes in molecular solids and to our understanding of certain important biological processes, such as photosynthesis. Reference (59) is a current state-of-the-art report in the

study of organic semiconductors.

40
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

( 1) C. Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics

John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (1956) pp 351-352

(2) E. H. Putley, The Hall Effect and Related Phenomena

Butterworth & Co. , Ltd. (I960)

(3) W. C° Dunlap, Jr. , An Introduction to Semiconductors

John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (1957)

(4) The Condensed Chemical Dictionary, Sixth Edition Reinhold

Publishing Corp. , (1961)

(5) Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 39th Edition Chemical

Rubber Publishing Co. (1957)

(6) G. L. Pearson and W. H. Brattain, Proc. of the IRE,

43, 1794 (1955)

(7) S. D. Hamann, Australian J. of Chem. , 1_1, 391 (1958)

(8) J. B. Conn and R. C. Taylor, J. Electrochem. Soc. , 107 , 977 (I960)

(9) Quarterly Progress Reports, Solid State Research

(Division 8), Lincoln Laboratory, MIT

10) P. F. Taylor and C. Wood, J. Appl. Phys. 32, 1 (1961)

11) H. L. Armstrong, Electronic Industries, Vol. 18_, No. 5; 90 (1959)

12) W. Paul, J. Appl. Phys. 32, 2082 (1961)

13) Leaflet Published by a Leading Chemical Manufacturing Company

14) E. Mooser, Science 132_, 1285 (I960)

15) N. I. Sax, Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials

ReinhoIcT^Publishing Corp. (1957)

16) N. B. Hannay, Semiconductors, Reinhold Publishing Corp. , (1959)

17) P. Delavignette et al, J. Appl. Phys. 32., 1098 (1961)

18) A. J. Cornish, J. Electrochem. Soc. 106 , 685 (1959)

19) Electronic Industries, Vol.19, No. 10; 105 (I960)

41
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY (Continued)

(20

(21

(22

(23

(24

(25

(26

(27

(28

(29

(30

(31

(32

(33

A. F. Ioffe, Physics of Semiconductors, Academic

Press, IncT (I960)

Electronic Industries, Vol. 20, No. 12; 151 (1961)

Comments from Various Speakers at the 1961 Electron

Devices Meeting, Wash., D. C. , Oct. 26-28, 1961

Comments Taken from Articles from Various Issues of

Electronic News, Fairchild Publications, Inc.

Science, 133, 1821 (1961)

W. J. Turner et al, J. Appl. Phys. 32, 2241 (1961)

Control Engineering, Vol. 8, No. 9, 142 (1961)

W. E. Spicer, J. Appl. Phys. 3J.,2077 (I960)

W. H. McCarroll, J. Appl. Phys. 32, 2051 (1961)

J. N. Shive, The Properties, Physics, and Design of

Semiconductor Devices, D. Van Nostrand Co. , Inc.

7T^59]

R. D. Fenity, Electronics, Vol. 5, No. 5; 39 (1962)

R. F. Schwarz, Electrical Manufacturing, p. 107,

(Jan. 1959)

M. Cardona, J. Appl. Phys. 32_, 2151 (1961)

C. H. Gooch et al, J. Appl. Phys, 32, 2069 (1961)

(34) T. A. Longo, Northeast Electronics Research and

Engineering Meeting, 1961; NEREM Record, p. 61

(35) Control Engineering, Vol. 8, No. 9, 134 (1961)

(36) J. M. Carroll, Electronics, Vol. 34, No. 39; 94, (1961)

(37) R. H. Bube and E. L. Lind, Phys. Rev., 115, 1159(1959)

(38) Electronic Engineering, Vol. 32, No. 388, 373 (I960)

(39) W. C. Dunlap, Northeast Electronics Research and

Engineering Meeting, 1961; NEREM Record, p. 62

42
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY (Continued)

J. R. Stevenson and E. B. Hensley, J. Appl. Phys. 32 , 166 (1961)

N. V. Kolomoets and E.A. Popova, Soviet Phys. , Solid

State; Vol. 2, No. 8, 1758 (1961)

E. H. Greener and D. H. Whitmore, J. Appl. Phys. Z2_,

1320 (1961)

Y. Kanai et al, J. Appl. Phys. 32, 2146 (1961)

E. Miller et al, J. Appl. Phys. _32, 2457 (1961)

J. J. Sein and S. N. Levine Digest of Technical Papers,

1962 International Solid-State Circuits Conference; p. 82

W. C. Dash and A. G. Tweet, Scientific American, Vol. 205,

No. 4; 107 (1961)

A. W. Ewald and O. N. Tufte, J. Appl. Phys. _29, . 1007 (1958)

W. Albers et al, J. Appl. Phys. 32, 2220 (1961)

L. E. Hollander, J. Appl. Phys. 32, 996 (1961)

R. L. Eisner et al, J. Appl. Phys. 3_2, 1833 (1961)

D. C. Reynolds et al, J. Appl. Phys. _32, 2250 (1961)

J. A. Dillon, Jr., J. Appl. Phys. 33, 669 (1962)

Solid State Abstracts (formerly Semiconductor Electronics),

Cambridge Communications Corp. Issues included are

those from Jan. 1957 to those issues available as of

Feb. 1, 1962 (approx. )

Electronic Industries, Vol. 21, No. 2; 210 (1962)

F. H. Horn, J. Appl. Phys. _32, 900 (1961)

A. Ferretti, J. Appl. Phys. 32_, 905 (1961)

V. Sadagopan, Solid State Abstracts 2_, 231 (1961)

Electronic Design, Vol. 10, No. 4; 86 (1962)

H. A. Pohl, Electro -Technology, Vol. 67, No. 5; 85 (1961)

J. A. Brophy, Physics Today, Vol. 14, No. 8; 40 (1961)

43
The following references used in Table I (in parentheses) are numbers

of specific abstracts from the general reference (53), with the time

restriction of reference (53) not applying:

586 2035 3259 4254 6066 7027 10778

723 2038 3429 4280 6080 7309 10974

2039 3496 4281 6132 7397 11436

2377 3501 4284 6356 7589 11459

3502 4552 6357 8268 11513

3724 4612 6362 8422

3726 4653

4679

4921

6363

6519

6998

8457

44

4 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1962 O —653043
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Luther H. Hodges, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A. V. Astin, Director THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The scope of activities of the National Bureau of Standards at its major laboratories in Washington, D.C., and

Boulder, Colorado, is suggested in the following listing of the divisions and sections engaged in technical work.

In general, each rection carries out specialized research, development, and engineering in the field indicated by

its title. A brief description of the activities, and of the resultant publications, appears on the inside of the

front cover. WASHINGTON, D. C.

Electricity. Resistance and Reactance. Electrochemistry. Electrical Instruments. Magnetic Measurements

Dielectrics. High Voltage.

Metrology. Photometry and Colorimetry. Refractometry. Photographic Research. Length. Engineering Metrology.

Mass and Scale. Volumetry and Densimetry.

Heat. Temperature Physics. Heat Measurements. Cryogenic Physics. Equation of State. Statistical Physics.

Radiation Physics. X-ray. Radioactivity. Radiation Theory. High Energy Radiation. Radiological Equipment.

Nucleonic Instrumentation. Neutron Physics.

Analytical and Inorganic Chemistry. Pure Substances. Spectrochemistry. Solution Chemistry. Standard Refer- ence Materials. Applied Analytical Research. Crystal Chemistry.

Mechanics. Sound. Pressure and Vacuum. Fluid Mechanics. Engineering Mechanics. Rheology. Combustion

Controls. Polymers. Macromolecules: Synthesis and Structure. Polymer Chemistry. Polymer Physics. Polymer Characterization. Polymer Evaluation and Testing. Applied Polymer Standards and Research- Dental Research.

Metallurgy. Engineering Metallurgy. Microscopy and Diffraction. Metal Reactions. Metal Physics. Electrolysis and Metal Deposition.

Inorganic Solids. Engineering Ceramics. Glass. Solid State Chemistry. Crystal Growth. Physical Properties.

Crystallography.

Building Research. Structural Engineering. Fire Research. Mechanical Systems. Organic Building Materials. Codes and Safety Standards. Heat Transfer. Inorganic Building Materials. Metallic Building Materials. Applied Mathematics. Numerical Analysis. Computation. Statistical Engineering. Mathematical Physics. Operations Research. Data ftocessing Systems. Components and Techniques. Computer Technology. Measurements Automation.

Engineering Applications. Systems Analysis.

Atomic Physics. Spectroscopy. Infrared Spectroscopy. Solid State Physics. Electron Physics. Atomic Physics.

Instrumentation. Engineering Electronics. Electron Devices. Electronic Instrumentation. Mechanical Instru- ments. Basic Instrumentation. Physical Chemistry. Thermochemistry. Surface Chemistry. Organic Chemistry. Molecular Spectroscopy. Molecular Kinetics. Mass Spectrometry.

Office of Weights and Measures. BOULDER, COLO.

Cryogenic Engineering Laboratory. Cryogenic Equipment. Cryogenic Processes. Properties of Materials. Cryogenic Technical Services. CENTRAL RADIO PROPAGATION LABORATORY

Ionosphere Research and Propagation. Low Frequency and Very Low Frequency Research. Ionosphere Research. Prediction Services. Sun-Earth Relationships. Field Engineering. Radio Warning Services. Vertical Soundings Research. Radio Propagation Engineering. Data Reduction Instrumentation. Radio Noise. Tropospheric Measurements.

Tropospheric Analysis. Propagation-Terrain Effects. Radio-Meteorology. Lower Atmosphere Physics.

Radio Systems. Applied Electromagnetic Theory. High Frequency and Very High Frequency Research. Modulalation Research. Antenna Research. Navigation Systems.

Upper Atmosphere and Space Physics. Upper Atmosphere and Plasma Physics. Ionosphere and Exosphere Scatter. Airglow and Aurora. Ionospheric Radio Astronomy.

RADIO STANDARDS LABORATORY

Radio Physics. Radio Broadcast Service. Radio and Microwave Materials. Atomic Frequency and Time-Interval

Standards. Millimeter-Wave Research.

Circuit Standards. High Frequency Electrical Standards. Microwave Circuit Standards. Electronic Calibration

Center.
NBS