NBSIR 73-102

Energy Conservation Through

Effective Utilization

Charles A. Berg

Institute for Applied Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D. C. 20234

February 1973

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

NBSIR 73-102

ENERGY CONSERVATION THROUGH EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION

Charles A. Berg

Institute for Applied Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D. C. 20234

February 1973

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Frederick B. Dent, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Richard W. Roberts, Director

ENERGY CONSERVATION THROUGH EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION

Abstract

In two major sectors of the economy (building services and industrial

processes), accounting for approximately 75 percent of total national

energy consumption, energy utilization is found to be inefficient. It

is estimated that in these two sectors, as much as 25 percent of the energy

consumed annually by the nation as a whole may be lost through ineffective

practices. Possible reasons for existence of ineffective utilization are

considered, and possible means of improving effectiveness of utilization

are discussed. Three possible levels of effort to promote effective

utilization of energy are identified; one promotes effective use of

present fuels in present processes; the second promotes utilization of

presently unused energy sources; the third promotes more effective investment

of energy in durable and maintainable products.

Substantial latitude for improvement of effectiveness is shown to be

realizable through technological efforts at these three levels. It is

finally recommended that a national program, incorporating efforts at

the three levels identified, be undertaken with the ultimate goal of

creating and implementing a technology of improved energy utilization.

I

I . Introduc tion

Present indications are that the U.S. demand for energy may well

outstrip both power generating capacity and fuel supply.

The basic problems in energy supply can be divided as follows.

In the short range (1972-80), the most important problem appears to

be inadequate power-generating capacity. In the long range (the year 2000

and beyond), the basic problem of energy is availability of fuel or of

energy in another form such as solar or geo-thermal energy. In the

intermediate range (1972-2000) , the conservation of energy by means

which do not damage the functioning of the economy could well be the

most important consideration.

Broadly speaking, the problem of providing sufficient energy for

future needs can be approached along either of two avenues: supply

or demand. However, these avenues are not independent of each other.

For example, moderation of demand by curtailing industrial electrolytic

processing could adversely affect development of energy supply capacity

by causing shortages of electrical conductor material. Such interactions

between supply and demand must be considered and evaluated in planning

how to meet the overall energy needs of the nation.

This report concerns possible actions to affect the demand for

energy. Here, again, there are two broad avenues of approach. On

the one hand, demand for energy may be discouraged by increases in

price; this may be characterized as the "belt tightening" approach.

On the other hand, it possible to maintain the output of energy-
2

consuming processes, and at the same time, reduce energy consumption

by improved efficiency. In the long run, effective actions to moderate

demand will probably consist of a combination of these two approaches.

Efforts to improve efficiency are essentially technological in nature.

The implementation of technological improvements in energy-consuming processes would probably require, or at least be greatly facilitated by,

appropriate price tax, loan, and regulatory policies, especially as these

pertain to new building construction and industrial plant equipment.

The actions one might take to moderate demand should begin to take

effect in the intermediate time range (1980-2000); as a matter of principle,

actions proposed at this level should be reviewed for possible conflict

with solutions of long-term problems of fuel and energy supply. For

example, proposals for local combustion of fuels to drive power generation

equipment and to provide for local utilization of reject heat frequently

arise. Such proposals should be reviewed in light of the fact that centralized

combustion facilities (e.g., large power plants) can operate at higher

temperature and consequently at higher efficiency and also will usually be

more efficiently operated and maintained. Centralized plants can thus

usually provide higher combustion efficiency than can small low-cost

plants appropriate for installation in individual buildings. Short term

measures to relieve demand on power generation via local combustion could,

in the long run, result in poor use of fuel on a national basis.

The complementary relationship between efforts to increase energy

supply and efforts to improve efficiency of utilization merit specific

mention. The increasing national demand for energy reflects, in large
3

part, influences which are not subject to iiranediate control, such as

increasing population. There appears to be no way to meet the future

needs of society without increasing the national capacity to supply

energy. However, as will be shown, many of the ways in which energy is

presently used to satisfy the needs of society are not particularly

effective. Large amounts of energy are allowed to "leak" out of the

national energy system at the point of consumption, and available techniques

for utilization of reject heat and waste heat in energy consuming processes

are seldom applied. Faced with a developing shortage of non-polluting

fuels and with the recognition that fuels of all types are a non-renewable

resource, it is appropriate to give serious attention to improving the

effectiveness with which energy is used, as well as to improving the

national capacity to supply energy. If the effectiveness of energy utilization were not to be improved, then newly developed supplies of energy would

be permitted to escape utilization through presently accepted "leaks."

This would require the development of surplus energy supply capacity,

with all of its economic implications, merely to supply these leaks.

Thus, improving the effectiveness of energy utilization is seen here

to be necessary both as a measure for conservation (to prevent the

waste of a non-renewable natural resource) and as a measure for economic

optimization of investments in energy (to eliminate the need for surplus

energy supply capacity).

Technological efforts to moderate demand through improved

effectiveness of utilization will consist of a combination of short
range measures, such as upgrading housing insulation or furnace performance, and long range measures including the application of thermal

management techniques to industrial processes, improved building design

and the institution of new technological means of improving the efficiency

of energy utilization in devices. In the following section, the term

"leak plugging" is used to characterize the technological efforts to

improve present and future effectiveness of energy utilization.

II. Present Uses of Energy in the United States

We now turn to the possibility that demands for energy may be

moderated by improving the effectiveness of energy utilization, without

sacrificing the expected output of present processes. To evaluate this

possibility, we must know (a) how much energy is consumed in various

sectors of society, and (b) how much of the energy consumed could be

saved by the use of more efficient practices. The term, "waste energy,"

will be used here to mean energy which need not be used were presently

available technology applied. The possibility of further reductions of

energy requirements for existing processes, through development of new

technology, is an important subject to be dealt with later. .

Considerable data are available about energy consumption and are

well summarized in a report by the Stanford Research Institute (SRI)

entitled, "Patterns of Energy Consumption in the U.S.," which was prepared

for the Office of Science and Technology" (January 1971). However,

data required for the determination of "waste energy" are known for

only a few sectors of the economy.
5

SRI data indicate that, of the total national energy consumption

(NEC), 19.2°a is used in residential building services, 14.4% in commercial

building services, 41.2% in industrial processes, and 25.2% is used

in transportation. For commercial and residential buildings services,

considerable information concerning the effectiveness of energy utilization

is available; for industrial processes, only sample information concerning

the effectiveness of energy utilization is available. The possibilities

of improved energy utilization in transporation systems will not be

considered in this paper.

Ill . Possible Savings in Use of Energy in the U.S.

A. Energy Utilization in Buildings: Correctable Losses

(1) Thermal Performance of Structures

The major uses for energy in buildings are space heating,

air conditioning, and hot water heating (Appendix A) .* Space heating

of residences accounts for 11 percent of the total national energy

consumption, while space heating of commercial occupancies represents

an additional 6.9 percent of that total. Air conditioning in commercial

and residential buildings represents 2.5 percent of the total national

energy consumption (1) . The "leaks" which affect the effectiveness

of heating and air conditioning in buildings are essentially the same,

the, major sources of heat loss or heat gain being inadequate insulation,

excessive ventilation, high air infiltration rates in buildings, and

excessive fenestration. To estimate the effectiveness of present levels

Qf building insulation and ventilation in energy conservation in buildings,

*Hot water heating is treated separately in (4).
6

one may note that the FHA minimum property standards of 1965 permitted

heat losses of 2000 BTU/thousand cubic feet-degree day* in residences,

HUD Operation Breakthrough property standards of 1970 reduced this

figure to 1500 and the newly implemented FHA minimum property standards

(1972) require heat losses to be less than 1000 BTU/thousand cubic

feet-degree day. The reduction in energy consumption implied by these

standards is to be achieved largely by thermal insulation and control

of air infiltration.

The 1972 FHA minimum property standards, of course, bear upon new

construction. Few buildings are designed to exceed the performance

levels of these standards, and therefore one may assume that most of

the residential buildings in use today may consume approximately 40

percent more energy for heating and air conditioning than they would,

had they been insulated and sealed in accordance with present day

minimum property standards. In fact, in certain areas of the country,

whole residential neighborhoods were built prior to the advent of

either FHA or housing insulation, and consist of buildings with little

or no insulation and with very high air infiltration rates. These

neighborhoods are, as a rule, located in areas of high heating requirements. In these neighborhoods the fuel consumption for heating is at

least twice as great as would be required if insulation and infiltration

control required by modern standards were applied. Since the neighborhoods in question are in areas of high heating requirements, their

*This quantity--BTU/thousand cubic feet-degree day--represents the heating

requirements of a building, relative to its size and the severity

of the climate in which it serves.
7

heat losses represent an especially significant "leak" in the national

energy consumption system. (See page (2) of Appendix B)

Sample field observations indicate that the state of insulation and

draft sealing in existing commercial buildings is not significantly

different from that in existing residences. Similar savings of space

heating fuel --approximately 40 percent--may be assumed to be attainable

through insulation and draft control in commercial buildings.

The infiltration of outside air accounts for approximately 25 to

50 percent of the heating and cooling requirements of individual buildings,

depending upon the type of insulation installed in the buildings (3)

Present construction practices yield infiltration rates which exceed

by a factor of four the average ventilation requirements of typical

buildings (4, 5, 6). Special areas in buildings, such as toilet facilities,

kitchens, and conference rooms where heavy smoking may occur, have high

ventilation requirements when in use. However, in present designs and

in most present buildings the high ventilation rates required for use

of these areas are maintained all day.

Reduction of infiltration to presently accepted levels of ventilation

requirements could be assumed to yield a 10 to 20 percent reduction in

national fuel requirements for space heating and air conditioning of

buildings. Control of ventilation in critical areas so that high levels

of ventilation were supplied only when required could provide an additional

relief of up to 5 percent in total fuel requirements for space heating

and air conditioning of commercial buildings.
8

In the above, the energy savings to be realized by bringing existing

buildings up to presently recommended standards of performance have

been considered. Future standards for insulation, ventilation, and

infiltration may offer even greater potential for saving energy. Engineers

presently studying building insulation estimate that it will be technologically and economically feasible to reduce the heating losses

from buildings to approximately 700 BTU/thousand cubic feet-degree

day, through use of insulation. These estimates need to be substantiated

through research and field testing; if they prove to be correct, it would

be feasible to reduce total energy requirements of buildings by more

than 50 percent through well-designed insulation and careful control

of ventilation.

(2) Heating and Air Conditioning Equipment

The efficiency of heating and air conditioning equipment is especially

sensitive to the percent of full load at which the equipment is operated

and to how well it is maintained. Building heating equipment, including

the home furnace as sold, is typically 75 percent efficient when run

at full load. However, the full load capacity of the equipment is

seldom needed, and the equipment is most often operated intermittently

in which mode it is much less efficient. In addition, small accumulations

of soot on boiler surfaces and other minor unattended items of maintenance

continuously reduce the efficiency of heating equipment during its

life time. Taking the few field data presently available together with

what is known about the effects of unattended maintenance and intermittent

operation upon combustion apparatus in heating plants, it would appear

reasonable to estimate that the actual efficiency of heating equipment in

the field to be 50 percent or less, with units functioning at efficiencies

as low as 35 percent not being uncommon (e.g., 16).
9

The efficiency of air conditioning equipment varies widely. Air

conditioners of the same rated output may differ by a factor of two

in their power requirements. Thus, substantial savings in energy could

be realized through inclusion of energy consumption in the criteria

for selection of equipment, and by diligent maintenance of equipment.

(3) Illumination

Illumination of residences and commercial buildings accounts for

1.5% of the national energy consumption (1). In some cases, present

levels of illumination are higher than necessary. The levels of

illumination used in the U.S. office buildings exceed, by as much as

a factor of two, levels of illumination used abroad, and there is no

concrete evidence that the increased illumination is of any benefit

to the building occupants. Also, much greater use could be made of

daylight in providing illumination in office buildings and residences.

While the heat generated by illumination may lighten the heating load

during the colder part of the year, during the time when indoor space

is cooled by air conditioning systems, increased illumination imposes

double energy costs upon building operations. Design techniques to

permit greater use of daylight and optional use of artificial light

exists, and could be more widely applied. Further research to ascertain

the benefits of illumination levels to building occupants would be of

great value in design to reduce excessive energy consumption in buildings.

(4) Hot Water Heating

Hot water heating merits special consideration in energy conservation

efforts. Once the hot water is used, the water, with the energy it contains.
literally goes dov.Ti the drain. Furthermore, as Appendix A shows, hot

water heating accounts for approximately 4 percent of the total national

energy consumption. When viewed in the context of overall national

energy consumption, the energy lost in hot water heating is indeed

significant. A number of suggestions of ways to recapture the heat

in expended hot water, using heat exchangers on drains, has been offered.

Although most such proposals are in conflict with present local plumbing

codes, some could be implemented through m.inor code modifications.

However, solar hot water heaters (which are commercially available

in many countries) could be employed without raising such conflicts,

and could provide a relief of 2 percent or more of the total national

energy requirements

(5) Other Areas

Other components of building operations contribute additional small

amounts to national energy consumption (e.g., cooking 2.2%, clothes drying

0.3%) (1). Although extensive data on the effectiveness of energy utilization

in these areas are not available, sample observations indicate that energy is

used with no greater effectiveness than in other building services. Improved

design of appliances could significantly enhance the efficiency of these

operations

(6) Summary of Energy Leakages in Buildings

The data cited indicate that present buildings consume approximately

40 percent more energy than would be required to maintain present levels

of services and comfort, if the best present standards had been used in

construction and if careful selection and diligent maintenance were applied

to heating and air conditioning equipment. This represents a correctable

Iqss of approximately 13.5 percent of the national energy consumption.
11

The possible courses of action by which more effective utilization of

energy in buildings might be promoted will be described below.

B . Thermal Hf f ectivcncss of Industrial Processes

Data pertaining to effectiveness of energy utilization in industry

are less extensive than those available for building services. However,

sample data indicate that, on the whole, the effectiveness of energy utilization in industry is no greater than in buildings. It would not be

unreasonable to assume that energy savings of approximately 30 percent

might be realized through application of present day energy conservation

techniques to industrial processes. Some of the information on which

this assumption is based is reviewed below.

The effectiveness with which energy is used iii industry varies

greatly, depending upon the nature of the industry and the size of the

plant. In industries such as electric power generation and chemical

refining, the nature of the industry is to convert the energy content

of fuel to some more readily salable form. As a rule, optimal design

of large plants in such industries is based on both initial costs and

operating costs, especially fuel costs. Thus, design of piping systems

to minimize pumping costs and design of pipe insulation in order to optimize

the trade-off between heat loss and total costs (including maintenance)

of insulation are common practices, and are representative of the consideration

given to effective energy utilization in large plants for power generation;

and other similar industries.*

*However, even in large power plants much heat is lost. In a t>T3ical

modern power plant approximately two-thirds of the heating value of the

fuel consumed must be rejected to the atmosphere. This reject heat is

not "waste" in the present context; the rejection of this heat is required

by the second law of thenriodv-namic s . But, by siting a plant near a consumer, m.uch of this heat could be put to use in waste processing,

water purification, space heating, air conditioning, etc.
12

In other industries, including machine manufacturing, materials

processing, and metal forming, the role of energy as an essential ingredient

seems to be less clearly recognized, perhaps because energy costs have not

been a major part of overall costs of operation, and the effectiveness

with which individual items of plant equipment use energy has not been

a major concern. Indeed, in some instances where energy costs have been

taken into account in selection of plant equipment and plant design,

industry has found that because of the prevailing low price of energy it

has been cheaper to permit a leak of energy than to modify or replace

inefficient equipment. The assumption that this rule applies broadly

appears not to be justifiable. Moreover, with the prospect of substantial

increases in fuel prices by 1985 (7), industrial concern for effective

utilization of energy may be expected to increase sharply. In particular,

the management of small plants, to which effective energy utilization

seems presently to be an item of small concern, may be expected to take

a much greater interest in obtaining more effective use of the energy.

It is appropriate to point out that price is not the only factor

influencing industrial concern for effective energy utilization . In

some districts of the country, gas suppliers have assigned industries

fuel quotas which may not be exceeded. Already one can observe an intense

effort on the part of the affected industries to improve the effectiveness

of energy utilization in their plants.

As examples of industrial efforts indicating the potential for

energy savings in industrial operations, one may cite the following:

Many large volume sales offices of gas suppliers currently have

representatives assigned to advise industry how to use less fuel to

conduct their present operations. The success of these recently instituted
13

programs has yet to be measured. But, presumably the possibilities for

energy savings in industry are sufficiently obvious that the gas suppliers

can identify them.

Certain examples of improved equipment merit mention here.

Gas fired vacuum furnaces have recently been developed for industry.

Through the use of well-designed vacuum insulation, heat pipe technology,

and modern heat transfer and combustion techniques, these furnaces operate

with 25 percent of the total fuel consumption of previous vacuum furnaces (8) .

Other studies of the effectiveness of industrial energy utilization

indicate that application of present-day heat recovery devices (e.g., heat

wheels) and thermal management techniques could yield net energy savings

of 30 percent or more in typical industrial operations (9,10,11).

Surveys of energy utilization in steel making and in related industrial

operations indicate that fuel savings of as much as 39 percent could be

realized in operation of certain items of equipment and that average

fuel savings of 25 percent or more could be realized through application

of current techniques of waste heat management and up-to-date equipment

design to the industry as a whole (12).

Interviews with engineering consultants and plant supervisors

have indicated that effectiveness of energy utilization has been of

sufficiently little concern in the past that ample latitude for

economically justifiable improvements in effectiveness presently

exists

.
14

Based upon the observations cited above and upon interviews with

engineers and technologists who are currently studying the possibility

for energy savings in industry, it is estimated that approximately 30

percent of the energy used in industrial processes could be saved through

application of existing techniques, and that the use of these techniques

will be economically justifiable at today's fuel prices. Predicted increases in fuel prices are expected to make energy conservation measures

even more attractive to industry in the near future. The invention of

more efficient devices, more efficient processes (e.g., cement making,

refining, chemical processing) and especially the institution of a

methodology for waste heat management in plants may be expected to yield

further energy savings in industry, beyond the estimated 30 percent quoted

above

IV. Summary of the Problem

Of the total national energy consumption, 33.6 percent goes to operate

buildings and 41.2 percent goes to operate industrial processes. Present da

indicate that building services consume approximately 40 percent more energy

than would be required had optimal use of available technology been applied

to building design and selection of equipment. In addition, sample data

indicate that industrial processes consume approximately 30 percent more

energy than would be required had optimal use of techniques of insulation,

heat recovery, and heat management been applied. Altogether, this means

that approximately one-quarter of the total energy consumed may be assumed

to escape effective use, through correctable "leaks" at the point of

utilization.

Viewed in the context of a developing energy shortage, the identification of "leaks" which permit such a large loss of the national energy
15

supply provokes one to ask just. how such leaks came to be accepted.

The answer appears to lie in the criteria of economic justification applied

in energy utilization, which have been touched upon above. In energy

conversion industries (e.g., power generation) economic justification

of plants is based upon both initial costs and lifetime operating costs

(which represent energy consumption) . However, when one comes to the

point of energy utilization, economic justification of energy consuming

equipment tends to be governed by initial costs.* Thus, one commonly finds

that high energy consumption has been designed into devices and buildings in

order to reduce initial costs, l^atever technological steps might be

taken to increase the effectiveness of energy utilization will have to

be coupled with steps to induce a change in the methods of economic justification of building and equipment purchases. The purchaser should be

alerted to the significance of lifetime operating costs of buildings and

energy utilizing equipment, as well as initial costs. If this can be

accomplished, then the use of excessive energy consumption to decrease the

initial costs of energy utilizing equipment can most probably be eliminated.

The technological possibilities to enhance the effectiveness of energy

utilization in buildings and industrial processes can then be brought

to field implementation.

V . Means to Promote Effective Energy Utilization

Ineffective utilization of energy is a major component of national energy

problems. Here, we suggest three levels of effort at which the problem of

improving effectiveness of energy utilization m.ay be approached. Level I

focuses upon improved effectiveness of use of present fuels in present

*It is not intended to imnly here that quality of performance is not

considered in acquisition of industrial equipment. But rather that of two

devices which yield the same product, the cheaper will tend to be preferred,

irrespective of energy consumption. Those industrial accounting systems in

which energy rec[uirements are carried as overhead appear to reinforce this

tendency.
16

application. Efforts at this level can be mounted through extension and

coordination of present government and industry activity, and may be expected

to be seen in relatively short time years). Level II focuses upon the

utilization of presently unused energy sources and fuels; efforts at this level

will require new programs within government and industry, and may be expected

to take effect in a longer range period ("^-5-10 years) . Level III considers

energy utilization in the broader context of the energy invested in materials

and manufactured goods. Efforts at this level will require new integrated

studies of the technological and economic implications of such possibilities

as more efficient use of materials in construction and the design of the manufactured goods for durability and maintainability. The studies to be conducted

this level will, inevitably, bear upon the conservation of all natural resources

including energy, and will take effect over a long range period ('"^5-10 years) .

Important interactions exist between the efforts at these three levels.

Programs for energy conservation can be constructed by implementing efforts

at the three different levels simultaneously. If sufficient resources for

simultaneous efforts at the three levels were not available, programs

should be constructed by nesting of the three levels (e.g.. Level II should

be pursued in conjunction with Level I; Level III should be pursued in

conjunction with Levels I and II).

Level I - Current Fuels in Curfent Applications

A. Building Design

Two basic branches of activity are required in building design.

First, design criteria and standards for energy conservation in new

construction are required. However, even with present high rates of

construction, approximately half of the buildings in service in the year

2000 will have been built before 1973 (13). Thus, a technology for upgrading the thermal performance of existing structures is also required
17

The principal problems of building construction in need of technological attention are insulation, draft sealing, ventilation, proper

selection and maintenance of equipment, envelope design, fenestration

design, and illumination.

In addition to the purely technological aspects of improved energyutilization in buildings, there are economic questions to be considered.

The optimization of trade-offs between increased capital outlay and decreased

operating costs over the life of a building is one such question. In

this connection, reliable estimates of fuel price increases should be taken

into account (7). Field data to confirm the economic benefits of energy

conser\''at ion measures should be compiled and made l<no\\'n, to alert the public

to the gains realizable through improved building performance. Preliminary

evidence on these matters presently exists (14); this evidence indicates

that, at present fuel prices, increased capital expenditures on thermal

upgrading of present construction (e.g., installation of additional insulation) can pay off in approximately five years. Assuming that fuel prices

will increase, the pay-off time may realistically be assumed to be

substantially less than five years. Although this preliminary evidence is

encouraging, conclusive evidence must be gathered and made knov^m before

one can expect the building purchaser to embrace the theory that it is to

his financial benefit to invest in energy conserving aspects of buildings.

Thermal upgrading of existing buildings e'ntails technological,

economic, and social considerations. Materials and techniques to permit

inexpensive, reliable, attractive and safe (e.g., fireproof) insulation
18

of existing buildings require development. The economic trade-offs

of thermal upgrading of existing construction require study. In addition,

some criteria for estimating the expected life of existing construction

need to be developed; this involves social as well as technological considerations. Certain neighborhoods of older buildings undoubtedly should

not be torn down and replaced with new construction even though modern

technology could offer physical improvements. The social effects

of demolition and reconstruction would prove unacceptable. Thus, in considering the applicability of improved standards of building performance

to financing of building purchases, or in judging the eligibility of neighborhoods for possible financial assistance in thermal upgrading, questions

of social stability should be taken into account.

Finally, it is noted that the development of performance standards,

as opposed to construction standards, by which the effectiveness of

energy utilization in buildings can be judged, are required. A methodology

of performance evaluation for buildings is a prerequisite for such

standards. This methodology must include test methods for measuring

heat transmission from the buildings, methods for determining ventilation

and infiltration rates in buildings, methods for determining the effectiveness

of building equipment, standard duty cycles in which to test building

systems, and means of interpreting test results in terms of effectiveness

of energy utilization; all of these components require development, and

in turn are required in order to ascertain that field practices actually

do lead to more effective use of energy.
19,

The possibility of enhancing the effectiveness of energy utilization

in buildings on a national scale, through federal standards (by FHA, VA)

and through incentives (e.g., home improvement loans) is immense. Thirtyseven percent of the construction in the U.S. is either built for the

Federal government or financially assisted by the Federal government and

the influence of federal policy in construction extends well beyond this

sector. Proper coordination of technological and economic efforts with

regulatory agencies can have a powerful influence upon improving the

eff ecitveness of energy utilization.
20

(B) Industrial Processes

The first step to be taken in the study of industrial energy utilization

is to determine just how efficient industrial processes really are. The

sample data cited earlier indicate that, on the average, industrial processes

may consume approximately 30 percent more energy than would be required to

sustain present production if the processes had been designed for effective

energy utilization. Although the sample data are persuasive, further field

studies are required to determine precisely what improvements in effectiveness

of energy utilization are technologically feasible and economically justifiable.

A national focus is required for such studies. In addition, programs to

distribute information and to alert industry to the technological and economic

aspects of improved effectiveness of energy utilization are required.

An additional important function which is required is the development

and demonstration of methodologies of energy conservation. For example,

techniques of waste heat management using heat recovery devices, application

of efficient heat transfer devices such as heat pipes, and coupling between

presently independent items of plant equipment, need to be deomonstrated

.

These demonstrations would probably be most effective if they were to be

conducted as industrial experiments.

Invention and innovation may be expected in industrial processes as

concern for energy conservation increases. Federal laboratories may be able to

contribute directly to innovation in industrial processes by developing certain

generic processes useful to industry. For example, "air slides" using hot

/
21

gases of combustion as the fluidizing media require development. If proper

developed, these could enhance a number of materials processing operations.

The Federal government may be able to facilitate invention and innovation

in industrial processes by providing assistance in questions of patent

policy and related matters.

C. Total Energy Systems

A Total Energy System is one in which power generation for a small

complex of buildings is done locally, and the reject heat is used to

provide comfort conditioning and hot water for the dwelling units. Total

energy has been enthusiastically embraced by some as a means for effective

fuel utilization. Indeed, the promise of reducing the total fuel requirements of building complexes by 25 to 50 percent has been shown to be

possible in principle. However, reliable field data on which public

confidence in total energy could be established are scarce. Field testing

of total energy systems is necessary to establish the feasibility of

such systems. Moreover, technological problems bearing upon the effectiveness of total energy systems should be identified and carefully studied.

Among these are the following:
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(1) Fuel Efficiency : Total energy plants are, of necessity, small

installations, and, as a rule, the effective temperature of combustion of

a small plant is less than that in a large central power station. In large

stations, one can afford to make use of heat recovery equipment and topping

cycles to attain high combustion temperatures and the efficiencies of power

generation associated with them.* To alleviate local "thermal pollution"

from large plants, one might make use of "bottoming cycles." In small

plants the use of such equipment is not economically justifiable. By using

efficient central station power generators and employing heat pumps to

provide comfort conditioning, it is possible, in principle, to attain

greater effectiveness of fuel consumption than by using small scale total

energy plants with their limited thermal efficiencies.

In addition, the combination of efficient central poiver generation

with local heat pumps permits flexibility in the choice of fuels for

power generation. This may be an important policy consideration, especially

in connection with future shifts toward nuclear power. Local applications

of nuclear power, as in a total energy system, seem not to be feasible for

many reasons. The wisdom of long-range investments in an energy utilization

*A topping cycle is an additional power generation plant which receives heat

at the temperature of combustion, and rejects heat at the maximum temperature

required by the main power plant. The topping cycle utilizes the temperature

drop between the combustion chamber and the boiler of the plant, to generate

power.
23

system, such as total energy, which is both dependent upon fossil fuels

and of limited thermal efficiency must be carefully studied even though

the total energy concept appears to offer certain advantages in the short

range

.

On the other hand, central power stations, with their high effective

temperatures of combustion and consequent high thermal efficiencies, have

certain disadvantages. Thermal pollution, as was mentioned above, can be

alleviated through the use of bottoming cycles which employ low temperature

working fluids.* But these cycles need still to be developed. In

addition, high temperature combustion which yields high thermal efficiency

also yields high levels of pollutants, particularly nitrogen-oxygen compounds (NO ). Finally, while the combination of central power and heat

pumps appears extremely promising, certain environmental questions about

large aerial densities of heat pumps still have to be resolved

(e.g., where to obtain or reject heat without upsetting local natural

conditions). Efficient, easily maintainable heat pumps have to be developed.

Finally, it is noted that there presently exists a broad spectrum of

fossil fuels, some of which are low energy fuels which will not yield high

temperature combustion. If it may be assumed that a sufficient quantity

of the low energy fuels will be available for seme reasonably long period

compared with the useful life of small scale total-energy powergeneration equipment, then it may be appropriate to plan total energy systems

to use low energy fuels while reserving high energy fuels for central

stations. Compatibility of such total energy equipment with expansions of

*In nighttime power generation, it would be possible to reject heat at

sub atmospheric temperatures, through radiative techniques, to avert local

thermal overloading of the atmosphere.
24

the national energy system through nonfossil fuel central station

power plants may not pose serious problems if the supply of low energy

fuel will survive the equipment. However, the supply of such filels^

is not well determined at present; the present technology for utilizing

such fuels in power generation needs development; and, in any event,

supplies of all fossil fuels, including low energy fuels, are exhaustible

The above has not been offered to advocate either central power

or total energy, but to illustrate that there are fundamental and

unresolved technological questions upon which decisions as to implementation of total energy systems, and other matters of energy policy

depend

.

(2) Maintainability : Small scale power units of 500 kw or less

are very important to total energy planning, for these are the units

vAiich can power small complexes of (say) 300 residences or less. However

a survey of records of performance total energy systems in the field

shows a very high rate of failure of these small scale ventures (15).

Moreover, field interviews reveal that a very large number of these

failures can be ultimately attributed to faulty maintenance. To place

the problem of maintenance in proper perspective one may consider that

very high quality aircraft reciprocating engines provide 2,000 hours

of service between major overhauls; a high quality aircraft turbojet

engine provides approximately 7,000 hours of service between overhauls;
25

a very high quality natural gas-rired reciprocating engine will provide

as much as 10,000 hours service between major overhauls. In the period

between major overhauls numerous minor overhauls are commonly required

(e.g., the "top" overhaul of reciprocating engines). Now, the engines

cited above are typical of the prime movers required in small total

energy plants. At best one can expect slightly more than one year

(8,600 hours) of continuous service from these prime movers before

a major overhaul will be required. In the interim, several minor overhaul procedures may be required. This poses severe maintenance and

management problems in operation of small total energy plants, where

overhaul of the prime mover requires temporary shut do'.m, or at least

substantial reduction, of power generation.

Cost of maintenance is an especially important aspect of small

scale power generation. At present, public utilities sell electrical

power at an average price of approximately three cents per kw hour.

The utilities estimate their maintenance costs at approximately 1 percent

of sales prices, or approximately 3/100 cents per kw hour.* The level of

maintenance costs found in total energy units is 3/10 cents per kw hour.

Few small units can justify spending more than 3/10 cents per k\'i hour, and

few can be maintained for less. To examine what this maintenance costs means,

consider a 200 kw capacity plant operating on the average of 50 percent of

full load to supply electrical power for a complex of 100 residences. In

a day, the plant will produce 2400 kw hours of electrical energy.

The maximum maintenance

*Professor K. Boer, University of Delaware, Institute for Energy Conversion,

in private communication.
26

expenditure which can be justified for such a plant is $75.00 per day.

Given today's labor prices this amount is barely sufficient to support

the salary and benefits of one skilled mechanic. The equipment in a

total energy plant is technologically advanced (e.g., reciprocating prime

movers, heat transfer apparatus, air conditioning equipment, electrical

generators, switching apparatus, controls, etc.), and requires a wide

range of skills for maintenance, certainly a wider range than one can

hope to secure through direct employment of staff. The maintenance of

small power generating units, therefore, requires careful management

planning. Furthermore, technological efforts directed toward maintenance

are required. For example, monitoring systems to give advanced warning

of impending mechanical failure need to be developed. Also, possible

management schemes wherein prime movers, or other items of equipment,

might be leased from large companies having maintenance staffs of the

size and breadth of competence to be effective, need to be investigated.

In general, the consideration of maintenance both in design of equipment

and in its utilization needs to be developed as a component of technology.

The particular case at hand, total energy systems, is but one example

of the broader problem of conservation of resources through manufacture

of effective, durable and maintainable equipment; this problem will

be considered further below (Level III). At this juncture, we merely

point out that the development of suitable technology and methodologies

(e.g., monitoring systems, management planning, determination of economic

trade-offs) for establishment of maintainable plants and for determination

of guidelines as to practicality of maintenance procedures, is required.
27

Leve 1 II: Utilization of Unused Energy Sources

A. Solar Energy at the Point of Utilization

The use of solar energy for space heating, air conditioning and

hot water heating is one of the extremely attractive possibilities

for conservation of nonrenewable energy resources . The annual incidence

of solar energy on average buildings in the U.S. is six to ten times

the amount required to heat the buildings (16) . Solar energy is not

only a presently unused and renewable source of energy, but during the

cooling season the unused incident solar energy imposes a high load

on air conditioning equipment which consumes energy from nonrenewable

sources. It would, therefore, be appropriate to mount efforts to utilize

solar energy in local applications for building services.

An important consideration pertaining to local application of

solar energy is that most of the energy required by buildings is low

temperature heat. For example, space heating requires air at approximately

80'F and water heating temperatures are commonly 135°F to ISO^F. These

temperatures are below the reject heat temperatures of most steam

power plants. In present practice, combustion of high energy fuels, such

as natural gas or fuel oil is used to provide this low temperature heat.

But when high energy fossil fuel is used to provide low temperature heat,

its capacity to produce work, which is the precious commodity of energy,

is permanently lost. Utilization of solar energy in local applications

to provide the low temperature heat required by buildings, is, therefore,

an important possible means for conservation.
28

In addition, solar. energy can be employed to provide air conditioning

in buildings. Absorption refrigeration equipment appears particularly

attractive for solar power. Present absorption equipment is very low in

efficiency, but the prospects of substantial improvements in efficiency

through application of modern heat transfer technology are promising.

The chief advantages of absorption refrigeration equipment, in the present

context, are that it requires very little power (mechanical compression is

replaced by chemical effects so pumping for circulation is the only work

required) and it is easy to maintain. These advantages weigh heavily in

favor of development of solar-powered absorption machinery of improved

efficiency.

Although a few technological problems require solution before one

may expect solar energy in local applications to receive the enthusiastic

acceptance of the consumer, many of the basic technological problems of

solar energy have been solved. By using what is known today, it would be

technologically feasible and economically justifiable to apply solar

energy to space heating and water heating on a national scale; approximately

50 percent of these energy requirements (representing approximately

11 percent of the national energy consumption) could be met through

local application of solar energy. The technological problems remaining

* in solar energy for local application are those connected with manufacturing,

advances in collector design, and maintenance'. The design of solar collectors

for simplicity of manufacture and ease of maintenance needs to be developed.

Solar collectors are currently custom-built. Modular collectors which
29

could serve for water heating or home heating can be designed for

mass manufacture, but this has yet to be done. Maintenance -free equipment or exhangeable equipment could be produced, but this also has yet

to be done. The engineering design of collectors so as to optimize

collection efficiency has recently undergone significant advances,

which can be incorporated into designs for maintainability and low

cost (17), (18), (19).

To illustrate the importance of manufacturing technology in the

development of solar energy systems for local application it should be

noted that in the most sophisticated solar energy devices in use today

(the solid-state devices for direct conversion of sunlight to electricity

in space applications) two thirds of the cost of each unit is represented

by the case (20) , While a great deal of research has gone into improving

the efficiency of the electronics and the special materials (e.g.,

selective absorbers) used in solar devices, rather little work has

been done on designing the prosaic components of solar equipment, such

as the cases cited above, so that they can be manufactured cheaply.

And yet, it is the cost of such components which largely determines the

cost of the solar equipment, upon which public acceptance and economic

justifiability of local solar energy applications ultimately depends.

A major effort to address the technological problems of designing solar

equipment for ease of manufacture and simplicity of maintenance is urgently

needed.
30

Systems design is an additional important technological aspect of

local solar energy which requires intensive study. Given any level of

fuel price within the foreseeable future, the economic optimization of

solar energy systems for buildings will require some "booster" heating

or air conditioning capacity v^iich utilizes other energy sources; the

collection and storage facilities necessary to provide all building

services by solar energy are simply too expensive to justify (21)

.

Economic justification of a solar energy system depends upon the tradeoffs between initial capital requirements of solar devices and operating

costs (.e.g., fuel) of conventional equipment. It is common practice

to use stock item home furnaces as booster heating equipment in solarheated buildings; also stock item hot-water heaters and air conditioners

are used as "booster" equipment for other services in solar powered

buildings (22) . Of course, at present there is no alternative to

installing a full size stock item home furnace as the "booster" in an

experimental solar home. But this means that the capital costs of the

solar heating system are simply an addition to the capital costs of a

nonsolar building. The design of integrated solar energy systems for

buildings, in which approximately small booster equipment- -with sufficient

capacity to "boost" but without surplus capacity which mostly remains

idle —could have an immensely favorable influence upon the economic

justification of solar energy in building services. For example, the

combination of solar power with absorption refrigeration machinery,

designed with reroutable circulation, could provide solar-powered air

conditioning in summer and solar-powered building heating--using the
31

absorption machine as a heat pump- -in the winter. Heat could be bled

from the intermediate temperature station of the absorption device

for hot water heating all year. Booster capacity in this case could

be provided by low cost electrical strip heaters applied to the distillation

chamber of the absorption device. In such a system, substantial capital

savings appear to be possible, especially if current expectations for

improved effectiveness of absorption devices are realized. In addition,

a system similar to the one described above could provide for control

of humidity as well as temperature, through solar energy. This would

be a significant attraction to the home owner or building operator.

Although the technological problems cited above do require attention,

the major obstacles to local application of solar energy are cultural

and institutional. Solar collectors on roofs appear strange and impose

certain constraints as to building style and orientation. Reliable

data as to maintenance requirements and measured performance of solar

energy equipment in actual field service are lacking. In general,

solar energy appears to the building buyer, the financier, and the

building constructor as an interesting but as yet unproved idea.

Testing and evaluation of field equipment can provide the information

with which the institutional aind cultural obstacles to the realization

of these benefits might be overcome.
32

Solar Energy and Building Design

The use of solar energy to provide low temperature heat for buildings

should be coupled with efforts to improve thermal performance of buildings

themselves. Estimates in the literature pertaining to the extent to which

solar energy can be used to provide space heating are generally based upon

the assumption that the basic thermal design of the building will be

carried out along conventional lines (22). For example, insulation,

ventilation, infiltration, and fenestration are usually assumed to be

the same as would be found in a building of conventional design and heat

loss factors are taken to be the same as in conventional structures.

In a preceeding section it was pointed out that through proper thermal

design of buildings the energy required to provide space heating could

be reduced by 40 percent or more, compared with energy required by buildings

of conventional designs. With present estimates indicating that solar

energy should be capable of providing 50 percent of the space heating

requirements of a conventional building, it would appear that through

upgraded thermal design of the building itself it would be possible

to build solar homes which derive substantially more than 50 percent

of their space heating energy requirements from the sun. The precise

level of solar heating which one may hope to achieve in a suitably designed

home depends upon economic trade-offs between costs of solar energy,

storage facilities, and costs of additional insulation, draft sealing,

double glazing, etc. Detailed study of this question should be pursued

to provide a basis for design of solar buildings.
33

Some Economic Aspects of Solar Energy in Local Application

One may consider the costs of utilizing solar energy to provide

low temperature heat in local applications, such as domestic hot water

heating, in (at least) two ways. First, the cost to the consumer of

installing a solar device may be compared with the total costs which

the consumer would have to pay for fuel or electric power were the solar

device not to be installed.* A second way to consider the costs of

solar energy is to compare the net capital outlay required to effect

a reduction in demand upon fuels presently used to supply energy with

the costs of increasing the capacity of the present national energy

supply system, assuming continued expansion is indeed possible. The

former consideration has been treated extensively in the literature of

solar research (22) , (23) , (24) . The latter aspect of solar energy

appears not to have been treated previously, and will be considered

here. It is reemphasized that we consider local application of solar

energy to provide low-temperature heat.

Hot IVater Heating as an Example

At present, domestic hot water heating accounts for approximately

3 percent of the national energy consumption (Appendix I) . Solar hotwater heating has been exploited abroad (25), (26). Given the climatic

conditions of the USA, it should be both technologically feasible and

economically justifiable to provide at least 50 percent of this demand

for energy via solar devices (25). Thus, in considering the application

to solar energy to domestic hot-water heating one is dealing with a

potential reduction of 1.5 percent of the national demand for fuels.

*This comparison assumes that the consumer will o\m and maintain the

solar device, but such an arrangement may be neither necessary nor

desirable.
34

Solar collectors of one square meter surface area and having the

capacity to retain an average of 3.5 kwh per day of solar energy in the

form of low-temperature heat have been demonstrated (16), (17).* Presently,

such a collector, suitable for domestic hot-water heating can be produced

for approximately $18 per square meter. Through the application of

modem materials and manufacturing techniques, it should be possible

to reduce this cost to $15 per square meter, or less. At the former

figure, the capital cost of collecting one kwh per year of solar energy,

in the form of low- temperature heat, is 1.4 cents. To make use of

solar energy for hot -water heating in typical residence, the addition

of a collector may be sufficient. For solar space heating, an energy

storage facility, which may double the price of the system, would be

required. To see what the costs estimated above would mean to the

individual householder, consider that a typical dwelling in the USA

uses approximately 10,000 kwh per year for hot-water heating. A

collector to provide half of this energy annually would be approximately

4 square meters in area and would cost approximately $76. For the

nation as a whole, the cost of implementing solar domestic hot-water

heating in the 60 m.illion dwelling units of the USA, to effect a 1.5

percent reduction in demand upon fuels, would be approximately $4.5

billion. Thus, we may take a figure of $3 billion as an approximate

estimate of the capital requirements of reducing national demand for fuel

by one percent, through implementation of solar energy to provide lowtemperature heat.

*The average cited here is taken over a period during which cloudy

and sunny weather obtained.
35

To estimate the capital costs of increasing the national energysupply capacity by one percent to supply low temperature heat in building

services, we note that the low temperature heat used in buildings is

provided, almost entirely, by combustion of natural gas or by electricity.*

Thus, expansion of energy supply capacity to meet growth in building

services will require expansion of supply of gas and electrical power,

or conversion of domestic equipment for utilization of more readily

available fuels such as coal. The costs of converting domestic or

industrial equipment are very high. It would not be unreasonable to

take $200 as the cost of converting gas-fired residential space heating

plant to permit combustion of residual oil or coal. In addition, in some

regions it may not be desirable, or even feasible, to convert equipment

for combustion of other types of fuels.** Thus, in treating expansion

of national energy supply capacity to supply low temperature heat in

building services, it is reasonable to consider expansion of the national

capacity to supply gas and electrical power.

Domestic supplies of natural gas are severely strained. Expansion

of capacity to supply gas will probably entail import of liquified gas.

*Approximately 80 percent of domestic space heating is done by gas-fired

equipment. Virtually, all domestic hot water heating is provided by gas

or electricity.

**For example, in certain industrial areas local efforts to decrease air

pollution started with conversion of both industrial domestic combustion

equipment from coal and oil to gas. It would be difficult to justify

reconversion at this point. The same argument applies to domestic heating

equipment.
36

Current estimates for the capital costs of gas liquification plants

indicate that a plant capable of delivering 100 million cubic feet of

gas per day will cost between $200 and $300 million to build.*

Taking the heating value of the gas ('V'lOOO BTU per cubic foot) as

the basis for estimating the cost of such a plant, one finds that the

capital costs of gas liquification are approximately $160 to $240 per

kilowatt. Assuming that such a plant can be operated at 8000 hours

per year, the capital costs of gas liquification may be estimated as

2 to 3 cents to increase the national energy supply capacity by 1 kwh

per year. These figures reflect only the costs of liquification. In

addition, one must include costs of increasing the transportation system

(e.g., refrigerated tankers), storage capacity (refrigerated tanks), and

distribution network (pipe lines) for this form of fuel, as well as the

capitalization of wells to provide raw petroleum for liquification and

the energy required for transporting the fuel to the point of utilization.

Taking all considerations into account, it would appear reasonable to

estimate the costs of increasing gas supply capacity through liquification

as being approximately 5 cents per kilowatt hour per year. Thus, to

increase the present national energy supply capacity by one percent,

through gas liquification, would cost approximately $10 billion.

To estimate the costs of increasing electrical supply capacity,

one notes that a modern power plant costs between $200 and $300 per

kilov;att to build. In addition to building the plant, one must provide additional fuel and additional electrical distribution capacity

*Such a plant will also be able to supply a large quantity of residual

fuel oil to those installations capable of using it. However, for the

purposes of estimating the costs of supplying energy for domestic con- sumption, we will compare the cost of the plant to its capacity to supply

gas, which is its principal function.
37

for the plant. If one assumes that these additional capital requirements

can be met by $100 per kilovvatt of plant capacity, the net cost of

increasing electrical power capacity may be taken to be approximately

$400 per kilowatt. If one further assxmes that newly constructed plants

may run, on the average, at 65 percent of peak capacity, the capital

cost of increasing national energy supply capacity by 1 kwh per year

is found to be approximately 8 cents. To increase national energy

supply capacity by one percent through expansion of electrical power

would, therefore, cost approximately $16 billion.

The difference in capital requirements for reducing demand for

fuels by one percent via utilization of solar energy for low-temperature

heat billion) and the costs to increase present supply capacity

by one percent (as much as $16 billion), may be debatable in certain

details, and, in any event, require further study. The purpose of this

section has not been to offer a definitive estimate of these costs, but

rather to provide a preliminary estimate to assist one in judging whether

local utilization of solar energy for low-temperature heat offers an

effective investment opportunity, in the context of national energy

policy. Based upon the above, it is concluded here that solar energy

for supply of low- temperature heat in buildings does offer an effective

investment opportunity.

One of the reasons why use of solar energy for low-temperature

heat costs less than corresponding expansion of national energy supply

capacity is that expansion of the present national energy supply capacity
requires energy in high quality form.* High quality energy, such as

fuels for high temperature combustion or electrical energy, are readily

convertible to work, which is the precious commodity of energy. Such

energy is generally expensive to generate. Low quality forms of energy,

such as low-temperature heat, are usually inexpensive to generate; in

fact, low quality energy is often discarded.

Investment in the use of solar energy can be furthered two ways.

Development of effective, reliable, and inexpensive solar collectors

should be pursued. In addition, the role of government construction

policy, particularly in FHA and VA, in adopting standards under which

domestic solar equipment may qualify for residential construction and

loan support could be immensely effective in mobilizing investment in

solar energy.

B. Incineration

The use of solid waste as fuel has attracted favorable attention

of many technologists. Solid waste products are known to have heating

values varying from one half that of fuel oil (paper) to as much as

that of fuel oil (consumer plastics, tins). In addition, solid waste

represents a form of unexploited fuel which will probably remain in

relative abundance for some time to come. It has been estimated that

by the year 1990 the heating content of collected urban refuse could

be used to generate as much as 35 thousand megawatts of electrical

power (27) . However, before the apparently rich fuel resources of

*The thermodynamic notion of quality (or more precisely, availability)

is a measure of the extent to which forum of energy can be converted

to work.
39

solid refuse can be put to use, a number of technological problems require

resolution. These include the design of combustion plants (in this

case, incinerators) to use widely varying fuels (e.g., waste paper,

consumer plastics). In addition, the selection of materials to

tolerate some of the highly corrosive products of combustion of solid

refuse poses another important technological problem to be resolved

in incineration technology. The supply of solid refuse in a given area

may fluctuate seasonally. The planning of incineration plants to operate

effectively with widely varying fuel loadings and the design of electrical

generating plants or district heating systems to use the heat generated

by such incineration plants poses a set of demanding technological problems.

Sorting of refuse according to combustion properties (e.g., separation

of paper, plastic, glass and metal) poses an additional set of challenging

technological problems, solutions of which are required as prerequisetes

to wide spread use of incineration as a source of useful heat. In addition,

the control of potentially polluting emissions from incinerator combustion

chambers, which must accept fuels of widely varying character constitutes

an area of required technological development.

The proceeding list of examples of technological problems to be addressed

is offered to indicate that the use of incineration to provide useful heat

constitutes a field of technology in itself.- This field requires an integrated technological effort to bring it to fully useful form. The federal

government will undoubtedly be substantially involved in incinerator

construction in the coming years. And yet, at present there is no identifiable

resource, either within the federal government or private industry to

provide the technological basis for construction standards, environmental

regulations or rules for qualification for federal support which may apply

to incineration plants. Such a facility would appear to be called for.
40

Level III: Energy Conservation in a Broader Context

The largest single consumer of energy in the U.S.A. is industry. The

potential for moderating national demand for energy by improving the

effectiveness of present industrial processes has already been discussed.

Here we consider the possibility of conserving energy by improving the

products in which the energy of processing is invested. To illustrate

the questions contemplated for study, the follo^ving three specific

examples are offered.

A. The Use of Materials as Dictated by Design Standards

In building construction, plumbing, and several other areas, the

codes governing design are overly conservative for most applications.

This simplifies design procedures, but leads to excessive use of materials,

which in turn requires excessive use of energy. The possibility that

more accurate design standards can be devised, which would permit construction, plumbing, and manufacturing operations to proceed without

excessive use of material and without sacrifice of the functionality on

safety of the product merits detailed study. For example, the size of airvent piping used in plumbing systems is chosen so that it can satisfy

the needs of toilet systems in large apartment complexes or office

buildings. An air-vent pipe of one-fifth the conventional size (with

correspondingly smaller investment in energy of manufacture) would be

complete adequate for most residences. This case and other examples

of excessive materials should be studied in the context of conservation

of energy and other natural resources. Economic implications
41

of shifting industrial emphasis from areas of materials production

to areas of effective materials utilization, should be considered as

an integral part of such a study.

B. Durable vs. Disposable Goods .

The disposable goods to which the public has become accustomed are

widely recognized to constitute a drain on natural resources in general

and energy in particular. The case for adoption of reusable bottles and

containers, as a conservation measure, has been advocated by many. This

example, while it is but one of many one might cite, does serve to

illustrate that sound argum.ents on both sides of the question of durable

goods can be given, and that this question requires thorough objective

study. For, while reusable glass milk bottles are beneficial to

society in connection with conservation of resources, they may constitute

a hazard to the householder.

Field interviews with physicians reveal that glass milk bottles,

which are wet, slippery, and heavy when removed from the refrigerator,

often slip from one's grasp, fall and shatter, producing shards which

can inflict serious wounds. The seriousness of the accidents was

compounded by the fact that the spilled milk made footing slippery

and led at times to the accident victim's falling on the glass shreds.

With the advent of paper milk cartons the frequency of this type of accident

appears to have diminished. However, conclusive evidence is not available

at present. The object of^ citing the glass milk bottle here is
42

just to point out that important ramifications of any major change, such

as converting from durable to disposable goods, exist and require study.

For example, the design of glass containers for both reusability and

safety should be studied if an effective conversion from disposable to

durable containers is to be proposed.

C. Maintainability of Machines

Manufacturing of machines is one of the largest components of U.S.

industry. The possibility that the average life of machines might be

extended through design for durability, careful utilization cf durable

materials and, especially, design for effective maintenance should be

considered. If the average life of machines and other manufactured

goods could be extended by, say 25 percent, then the energy requirements

of the. manufacturing industry might be reduced by a corresponding fraction.

The technological prerequisites for such an alteration of design and

ananufacturing have yet to be satisfied. Moreover, the social and economic

ramifications of such a step require careful study. Nevertheless, the

possibility of using more careful design to produce more durable goods

in which materials, energy and in fact all natural resources are invested

with greater effectiveness than in present practice appears to be an

attractive possible measure f9r conservation of natural resources.
43

In connection with the technological aspects of a possible shift

from disposable to durable materials and manufactured goods as a measure

for conservation of natural resources, it is pointed out that the

technology of maintenance and design for reliability urgently needs

development. Maintenance of machinery, as a technological field, could

be substantially advanced by incorporation of existing techniques of

monitoring performance into field practice. In addition, the establishment of methods for detection of impending failure or malfunction

could be developed through application of existing techniques. Advanced

detection techniques—e.g., the acoustic signature of reciprocating

machinery or v/ear particle analysis—for determination of maintenance

needs require development. As a general rule, one may say that the entire

field of maintenance, as it is practiced today, does not constitute a

technology; the disparity between existing and developable techniques on

the one hand and field practice on the other, is simply too great. And

yet, maintenance of the complicated equipment upon which the advanced

society of the U.S.A. depends, appears to be essential to any effort to

insure effective use of natural resources. Furthermore, maintenance and

monitoring of equipment so as to avoid unexpected failures is an effective

measure for reducing the hazards of personal injury and saving lives as

well as for conserving natural resources. As such, development of effective

technology of maintenance merits support. The establishment of a functioning

effective technology of maintenance, addressed to the problems of extending

the useful life of equipment, avoiding costly and dangerous failures, and

providing for effective utilization of natural resources could represent

an important contribution to resolving a number of critical national

problems.
44

Efforts to study the problems outlined above could be undertaken

along the following lines. Coordinated technological and economic studies

of the questions indicated are required. Technological options such

as development of maintenance technology, design for maintenance and

durability, and utilization of durable materials require study. Economic

trade-offs entailed in implementing the technological options must be

determined. Goals which are both technologically feasible and economically

justifiable need to be identified; the optimal distribution and programming

of investment to attain these goals needs to be determined. The application

of simulation technology to study of overall behavior of the national energy

system, and the response of the system to the alterations under study,

should be pursued.
45

Conclusions and Recommendations

In the above it has been shown that ineffective utilization of

energy in buildings and industrial processes constitutes a major component

of the national energy problem. There is ample latitude for improvement

of effectiveness of energy utilization, and moreover such improvement

appears to be easily justifiable economically, especially when the

costs of the alternative of increasing energy supply capacity to meet

rising energy demands are considered. The measures to improve effectiveness of energy utilization are basically technological in nature. However,

at present, there does not exist an identifiable functioning technology

for energy conservation through effective utilization. To be sure,

techniques for this purpose exist and more advanced techniques are

developable. But, as yet, extant techniques have not been integrated

and applied in rational field practice, and there is no disciplinary

framework within which to pursue possible further developments. It is

recommended that appropriate measures be undertaken to create and implement

a technology for energy conservation through more effective utilization.

Appendik A

r

ENERGY COXSL7.2>TION IN THE UNITED STATES BY END i;SE

1960-1968

(Trillions of Btu and Percent per Year)

Percent of

Consumption Annual Rate National Total

Sector and End Use 1960 1963 of Growth 1960 1968

Residential

Space heating 4,848 6,675 4.1% 11.3% 11.0%

Water heating 1,159 1,736 5.2 2.7 2.9

Cooking 556 637 1.7 1.3 1.1

Clothes drying 93 208 . 10.

6

0.2 0. 3

Refrigeration 369 692 8.2 0.9 1.1

Air conditionins 134 427 15.6 0.3 0.7

Other 809 1 ,241 5.5 1.9. 2 1

Total 7,968 11,616 4.8 18.6 19.2

Commercial

Space heating 3,111 4,182 3.8 7.2 6.9

V/ater heating 544 653 2.3 1.3 1.1

Cooking 98 139 4.5 0.2 0.2

Refrigeration 534 670 2.9 1.2 1.1

Air conditioning 576 1,113 8.6 1.3 1.8

* www 0 b 714 1 7

Other ^ 7

Total 5,742 8,766 5.4 13.2 14.4

Industrial

Process steam 7,646 10,132 3.6 17.8 16.7

Electric drive 3,170 4,794 5.3 7.4 7.9

Electrolytic processes 486 705 4.8 1.1 1.2

Direct heat 5,550 6,929 2.8 12.9 11.5

Feed stock 1,370 2,202 6.1 3.2 3.6

Other ' 118 198 6.7 0.3 0.3

Total 18,340 24,960 3.9 . 42.7 41.2

Transportation

Fuel 10,873 15,038 4.1 25.2 24.9

Raw materials 141 146 0.4 0.3 0.3

Total 11,014 15,184 4.1 25.5 25,2

National total 43,064 60,526 4.3 100.0% 100.0%

Note: Electric utility consumption has been allocated to each end use.

Source: Patter.is of Energy Consisrption In The United States *
Appendix B

A quantitative estimate of the savings in energy for home heating, which

(2)

are technologically feasible, may be obtained from the graphs of Fxgure 1.

The upper point in these graphs (Point A) may be assvjmed to represent the

approximate state of insulation and storm window sealing in approximately

90 percent of housing built prior to issuance of minimum property standards.

The heat losses from these houses can be reduced by approximately 45 percent,

by application of heavy ceiling insulation, side wall insulation and installation

of storm windows. Thus, it would not be unreasonable to assume that if

installation of insulation and storm windows on housing units presently

in service were feasible, the present national demand for fuel consumed

in space heating of residences could be reduced by approximately 40 percent.
Appendix B Annual Keat Loss From Model Kotties in Two Cities

MO

120

-S jio

</> v>Q .

§ 100

ORNU-OWC 7I-9GI5

O . A WITHOUT STORM V/INOOV/S

zz

90 J—

60

70

WITH STORM Y/INOOWS

FLOOf^ UMNSULATCO (U-0.28) FOR FOIL A,\0 AIR GAP,

' OEOUCT M.6 Meto/yr •

. . Annuoi Keot Loss : New ' York Residonce .

ORNL-OWC 71-9614 220

200

= 130

00

t&O <

UlX

i wo

120

A A <^C//, WITHOUT STORM WINDOWS

WITH STORM V/INOOWS

FLOOR UMNSULATEO (U-O.ZB) WITH FOIL ANO AlR CAP (U»0.093> DEDUCT 22.7 M3tg/yr • U"Btu/ft^-hf-»F

too Annuol Hot Loss: Minnoopolis Resid«ACt

.

Pig\ire 1: • .

' Annual heat loss from buildings with various weights of insulation

Source: The Value of Thermal Insulation in Residential Construction

(2)

References

(1) "Patterns of Energy Consumption in the United States" (Stanford

Research Institute, January 1972, p. 6, 7).

(2) Moyers, John C: "The Value of Thermal Insulation In Residential

Construction: Economics and the Conservation of Energy" (Oak

Ridge National Laboratory, December 1971, p. 28).

(3) American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning

Engineers Handbook of Fundamentals , p. 581-383, 1972.

(4) American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning

Engineers Handbook of Fundamentals , p. 537, 1972.

(5) American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning

Engineers Handbook of Fundamentals , p. 421, 1972.

(6) Insulation Manual: National Association of Home Builders Research

Foundation, Inc.

(7) "The Energy Crises: An Analysis" (Department of Commerce, April

1972).

(8) Shefsiek, Paul K. and Lazaridis, Lazaros J.: "Development of a Natural Gas Fired Heat Pipe Vacuum Furnace" to appear in Natural

Gas Research and Technology, 1972.

(9) Maier, George A. : "Practical Means of Conserving Energy Today in

the Residential, Commercial and Industrial Market" Subcommittee

to Dr. David Freeman, University of Pittsburgh, April 1972.

(10) Gregory, D.P.: "A Techno-Economic Study of the Cost-Effectiveness

of Methods of Conserving the Use of Energy" (Institute of Gas

Technology Publication, June 1971) .

(11) Rosenberg, R.B.: "The Future of Industrial Sales" (Institute

of Gas Technology Publication, May 1972).

(12) Nesbitt, J.D.: "Improving the Utilization of Natural Gas in

Major Steel Mill Applications (Institute of Gas Technology

Publication, April 1972).

(13) U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development International

Brief, January 1971.
(14) "Impact of Improved Thermal Performance in Conserving Energy"

(National Mineral World Insulation Association, Inc., April 1972,

p. 55).

(15) Achenbach, P.R.; Coble, J.B.; Cadoff, B.C.; Kusuda, T., "A

Feasibility Study of Total Energy Systems for Breakthrough Housing , Sites" (NBS Report 10 402, Appendix' A, August 1971).

(161 Hottel, H.C. and Howard, T.B.: New Energy Technology- -Some Facts

and Assessments (The MIT Press, 1971).

(17) Buchberg, H.; LaLude, O.A.; Edwards, D.K.: "Performance Characteristics

of Rectangular Honeycomt Solar-Thermal Converters" (Solar Energy,

Vol . 15, pp. 195-221)

.

(18) Hottel, Hoyt C. and IVhillier, Austin: "Evaluation of Flat-Plate

Solar-Collector Performance" (Godfrey L. Cabot Solar Energy-Conversion

Research Project publication #55, MIT Eng. Library).

C19) Tabor, H.: "Solar Energy Collector Design" (Bulletin of the Research

Council of Israel, Vol. 5C, No. 1, December 1955).

(20) "Solar Cells: Outlook for Impro\'ed Efficiency" (National Academy of

Sciences, 1972, p. 5).

C21) Whillier, Austin: "Solar House Heating--A Panel" (Godfrey L.

Cabot Solar Energy-Conversion Research Project Publication #59,

-^IT Eng . Library) .

C22) Tybout, Richard A. and LOf, George O.G.: "Solar House Heating"

(Natural Resources Journal, Vol. 10, April 1970, pp. 268-526).

(25} Hottel, H.C: "Residential Uses of Solar Energy" (Godfrey L. Cabot

Solar Energy-Conversion Research Project Publication #60, MIT Eng.

Library)

.

(24) Pheijel, Gunnar, and LindstrOm, Bert: "A Swedish Solar-Heated House

at Capri" (New Sources of Energy, Vol. 5, United Nations Conference,

Rome, August 21-51, 1961).

(25) Chinnery, D.N.W.: "Solar Water Heating in South Africa" (National

Building Research Institute, Bulletin 44, Council for Scientific and

Industrial Research Report 248, 1967, pp. 1-79).

C26) Richards, S.J. and Chinnery, D.N.1\^: "A Solar Water Heater for LowCost Housing" (National Building Research Institute Bulletin 41,

Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Report 257, 1967,

pp. 1-26).

(271 Technology Review, May 1972, p. 62.
or M f-'i::-: UA ('- 1) U.S. DI PT, or COMM.

biBi..!OGRAr::iC r-AT.^ S'lLCT

1. PL ni.lCATlON OR REPORT NO.

NBSIR 73-102

2. Gov't Acccssiou No.3. Recipient's Accession Uu. !

1

f4. Tii LH Aiv'l) i.li. i l i l.r.

Enei't," Conservation Througfi. Effective Utilization

5. Publication Date February 2, 1973

6. l^erforiiiing Organization Code

7. AUTHOH! s) Charles A. Berg

8. Perroitning Organization ^

iMiJOJ,J\ 1 J —XVJ^ 1 9. pi-!u-okmi.\'g organization name and address

na'!'r:)\'al bureau of standards

department of commerce

washington, d.c. 20234

10. Project/Task/ Work Unit No. UOOO9IO

1 1. Contract/Grant No.

1 12* Spon soi' in ^ Or 2n i zst ion Mzimc £incl Adel rc s s 13. 1 ypc of Report & Period

Covered

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual surriinary of most significant information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.) In tvo major sectors of the economy (building services and industrial processes),

accounting for approxinately 75 percent of total national energy consumption,

energy utilization is found to be inefficient. It is estimated that in these

tvo sectors , as much as 25 percent of the energy consumed annually by the nation

as a whole may be lost "chrough ineffective practices. Possible reasons for

existence of ineffective utilization are considered, and possible means of

improving effectiveness of utilization are discussed. Three possible levels

of effort to promote effective utilization of energy are identified; one promotes effectiA'-e use of present fuels in present processes; the second promotes

utilization of presently unused energy sources; the third promotes more effective

investment of energy in durable and maintainable products.

Stibstantial latitude for improvement of effectiveness is shown to be realizable

through technological efforts at these three levels. It is finally recommended

that a national program, incorporating efforts at the three levels identified,

be undertaken with the ultimate goal of creating and implementing a technology

of improved energy utilization.

'7. KEY WORDS (Alphabetical order, separated by semicolons)

effective utilization; energy conservation

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