Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3. Refuge Resources 

Established in 1980 by the Alaska National Interests Lands Conservation Act, the Refuge was 

created primarily to protect the natural diversity of fish and wildlife populations and their 

habitats. This chapter describes the physical, biological, social, and economic components of 

the ecosystem that could be affected by actions associated with management of the Refuge. 

This chapter is divided into seven major headings: Geographic Setting, Physical 

Environment, Biological Environment, Human Environment, Wilderness Values, Wild River 

Values, and Refuge Infrastructure and Administration. Scientific names of all plants and 

animals are provided in appendix H. 

3.1 Geographic Setting 

3.1.1 Land Status 

Three acts of Congress, the Alaska Statehood Act, the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 

1971 (ANCSA) and the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980 (ANILCA), 

determined the current land ownership patterns of the Refuge. ANCSA authorized the 

formation of village and regional Native corporations and enabled them to select and gain title 

to federal land. ANILCA established the Refuge. 

Refuge boundaries are often straight lines but were also drawn along or near major 

topographical features, such as mountain tops, rivers, or watershed boundaries, regardless of 

existing land ownership patterns. Consequently, the refuge boundaries incorporated lands that 

are owned or selected by individuals, Native corporations, or the State of Alaska (Figure 3-1, 

Figure 3-2, and Figure 3-3; Table 3-1) 

The exterior boundary of the Koyukuk encompasses approximately 4,519,952 acres. The State 

owns 21,662 acres. Regional and village native corporations own 412,850 acres. There are 

15,725 acres under private ownership, including 130 Native allotments. The remaining 

4,069,715 acres of land is national wildlife refuge (Table 3-2). 

The exterior boundary of the Northern Unit Innoko encompasses approximately 

750,991 acres. The State owns 37,839 acres. Regional and village native corporations own 

285,045 acres. Private property, including 25 Native allotments, totals 6,206 acres. The 

remaining 421,901 acres of land is national wildlife refuge (Table 3-3). 

The exterior boundary of the Nowitna Refuge encompasses approximately 2,058,057 acres. 

Regional and village Native corporations own 154,644 acres. Private property, including 

25 Native allotments, totals 2,048 acres. The remaining 1,901,361 acres of land is national 

wildlife refuge (Table 3-4). 

3.1.1.1 Village Native Corporation Land 

Three village Native corporations, Gana-A’Yoo Limited, Zho-Tse Corporation, and Dineega 

Corporation, have land holdings within the refuge boundaries. Each corporation has a total 

land entitlement of 121,507 acres, and each has taken some of this entitlement outside the 

refuge boundary as well as within. As of May 2008, about 37,222 in the Koyukuk and 

43,847 acres in the Northern Unit Innoko had been conveyed to Gana-A’Yoo Limited, and an 

additional 11,720 acres in the Koyukuk and 5,997 acres in the Northern Unit Innoko had been 

selected. Zho-Tse Corporation has selected 853 acres inside the Northern Unit Innoko. The 

Dineega Corporation owns 14,631 acres in the Nowitna. Land status within the Refuge will 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-1 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

Table 3-1. Surface land status of the Refuge, as of May 2008. 

Land Status Koyukuk Northern Unit Innoko Nowitna 

USFWS 3,830,724 387,109 1,826,645 

 Selected Conveyed Selected Conveyed Selected Conveyed 

State of 

Alaska 

21,415 21,662 18,968 37,839 73,457 0 

Regional 

Native 

Corporation 

204,025 375,628 8,521 241,198 0 140,013 

Gana-A’Yoo 

Limited 

11,720 37,222 5,997 43,847 0 0 

Zho-Tse 

Incorporated 

0 0 853 0 0 0 

Dineega 

Corporation 

0 0 0 0 0 14,631 

Native 

Allotment 

(number) 

1831 

(15) 

15,713 

(115) 

453 

(3) 

62066 

(49) 

1259 

(9) 

2048 

(16) 

Other Private 0 12 0 0 0 4 

Table 3-2. Surface land statusa of the Koyukuk, as of June 2008. (See Table 3-4 for notes) 

Category Landowner Area in Acresb 

 Conveyedc Selected Total 

Federal – Refuge United States 3,830,724 0 3,830,724

State Government State of Alaska 21,662 21,415 43,077

Native Allotments Many (130 landowners) 15,713 1,831 17,544

Regional Native Corporation Doyon Ltd. 375,628 204,025 579,653

Other Private 12 0 12

Village Native Corporation Gana-A’Yoo Limited 37,222 11,720 48,942

Table 3-3. Surface land statusa of the Nowitna, as of June 2008. (See Table 3-4 for notes) 

Category Landowner Area in Acresb 

 Conveyedc Selected Total 

Federal – Refuge United States 1,826,645 0 1,826,645

State Government State of Alaska 0 73,457 73,457

Native Allotments Many (25 landowners) 2,048 1,259 3,307

Regional Native Corporation Doyon Ltd. 140,013 0 140,013

Other Private 4 0 4

Village Native Corporation Dineega Corporation 14,631 0 14,631

3-2 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

Table 3-4. Surface land statusa of the Northern Unit Innoko, as of June 2008. 

Category Landowner Area in Acresb 

 Conveyedc Selected Total 

Federal – Refuge United States 387,109 0 387,109

State Government State of Alaska 37,839 18,968 56,807

Native Allotments Many (52 landowners) 6,206 453 6,659

Regional Native Corporation Doyon Ltd. 241,198 8,521 249,719

Other Private 0 0 0

Village Native Corporation Gana-A’Yoo Limited 43,847 5,997 49,844

 Zho-Tse Corporation 0 853 853 a

Acreage figures do not include submerged beds of meanderable water bodies (rivers of 198 feet or more in width 

and lakes of 50 acres or more). Ownership of the submerged lands beneath water bodies depends on the 

navigability status and is yet to be determined for many of the water bodies. No ownership of the land 

beneath water bodies is implied in this table. b

All acreages are GIS-calculated approximations and may differ from official acreage figures reported elsewhere. 

All data are from Master Title Plats maintained by the Bureau of Land Management. c

Includes patented and Interim Conveyed (IC) lands. Only land claims within the Refuge boundary are reported. 

change as selected lands are conveyed, relinquished, or rejected. However, land status should 

be resolved by 2009 under the provisions of the Alaska Land Transfer Acceleration Act of 2004 

(P.L. 108-452). 

3.1.1.2 Regional Native Corporation Lands 

Doyon Limited (Doyon) holds title to 375,628 acres of land in the Koyukuk; 241,198 acres in 

the Northern Unit Innoko; and 140,013 acres of land in the Nowitna. They have selected an 

additional 204,025 acres within the Koyukuk and 8,521 acres within the Northern Unit Innoko 

(see Table 3-1, Table 3-2, and Table 3-3. 

According to the conveyance rules of ANCSA section 14(f), Doyon is granted the subsurface 

rights to the lands conveyed to both Zho-Tse and Dineega village corporations. This provision 

gives the regional corporation the rights to potentially valuable mineral interests but gives the 

village control of the surface lands necessary to supply its subsistence and economic needs. 

3.1.1.3 Native Allotments 

Until its repeal in 1971, the Native Allotment Act of 1906 authorized Alaskan Natives to claim 

up to 160 acres of land. In addition, a 1998 amendment to ANCSA (section 432 of P.L. 105-276 

[43 U.S.C. 1629g]) authorized qualified Alaskan Native Vietnam veterans to apply for an 

allotment if they had not previously done so. The 1998 law addressed the concern that military 

service may have prevented some Native veterans from applying for an allotment under the 

1906 Act. The application period for these new allotments closed on January 31, 2002. To 

date, a total of 115 allottees in the Koyukuk, 49 allottees in the Northern Unit of Innoko, and 

16 allottees in the Nowitna have been deeded a total of 15,713 acres within the Koyukuk, 

6,206 acres within the Northern Unit Innoko, and 2,048 acres within Nowitna (Table 3-1,Table 

3-2 and Table 3-4. Another 1,831 acres (15 parcels on the Koyukuk), 453 acres (3 parcels on 

the Northern Unit Innoko), and 1,259 acres (9 parcels on the Nowitna) have been selected, 

including a total of 207 Vietnam veteran allotment claims. 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-3 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3.1.1.4 Other Private Lands 

Congress extended the nation’s principal land laws to Alaska in 1884. Many of these laws were 

designed to encourage private settlement and improvement of public lands. There is only one 

private patent within the boundaries of the Refuge. This patent was issued for a trade and 

manufacturing site, totaling about 12 acres. The Trade and Manufacturing Act of 1898 allowed 

cash entry for up to 80 acres of land to be used as a place of business. 

3.1.1.5 State of Alaska 

The State of Alaska owns 21,662 acres in the Koyukuk and 37,839 acres in Northern Unit 

Innoko (Table 3-1). There are no State lands within the Nowitna. The Alaska Statehood Act 

(PL 85-508) entitled the State to select 102,550,000 acres of vacant, unappropriated, and 

unreserved land under the general grant, and to select an additional 400,000 acres to 

promote development and expansion of communities. The State was also granted title to 

most of the existing roads, airfields, and associated facilities under the Alaska Omnibus Act 

(Public Law 86-70). 

3.1.1.6 Submerged Lands 

In general, the lands beneath tidelands and inland navigable waters were granted to the State 

of Alaska by the Equal Footing Doctrine, the Submerged Lands Act of 1953, and the 

Statehood Act of 1958. However, lands beneath water bodies that were reserved or withdrawn 

by the federal government prior to statehood on January 3, 1959, may have been retained by 

the United States. If the U.S. did not reserve or withdraw submerged lands, then the 

ownership of submerged lands is determined on the basis of navigability. If a water body is 

navigable, the underlying bed of the river or lake belongs to the State; if non-navigable, the 

bed belongs to the adjacent landowner(s). 

Undoubtedly, the Refuge contains both navigable and non-navigable waters. However, the 

status of many water bodies has not yet been determined. Any disagreements between the 

State and the federal government over what waters are navigable or non-navigable are 

generally resolved through the federal courts. 

Although judicial action through the Quiet Title Act has been the primary means of clearing 

title to submerged lands, recent Bureau of Land Management (BLM) regulation changes 

regarding Recordable Disclaimers of Interest in Lands (RDI) provide an administrative 

means to clear title to submerged lands. The RDI process allows the Secretary of Interior, 

acting through the BLM, to disclaim land interests that have terminated or are invalid. In 

February 2003, the State filed its first disclaimer application for submerged lands beneath the 

Black River in northeast Alaska. An RDI for the Black River was issued later that year. The 

State has filed numerous subsequent applications and cleared title to large areas of lands, but 

none have been for submerged lands within the Refuge. 

Adjudicating the extent and boundaries of navigable waterways may take many years to 

resolve. In the meantime, the Service is cooperating with the State on a case-by-case basis 

regarding management of major waterways that may be determined navigable. 

3.1.1.7 7(b) Easements 

Section 17(b) of ANCSA requires the federal government to reserve easements for access to 

public lands or waters whenever land is conveyed to Native corporations. Easements are 

reserved to ensure access to public lands and waters that would otherwise be completely blocked 

by conveyed Native corporation lands. Easements can be linear (i.e., roads and trails), or 

3-4 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Figure 3-1. Koyukuk land status, existing easements, and rights of way 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3-6 K
Figure 3-2. Northern Unit Innoko land status, existing easements, and rights of way 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3-8 K
Figure 3-3. Nowitna land status, existing easements, and rights of way 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3-10 K
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

one-acre sites for use as temporary campsites and/or to change modes of transportation. Each 

17(b) easement reserves a right to use land owned by another for a specified purpose. Public 

activities, such as recreation and hunting, are not authorized on the easement or on the private 

lands surrounding the easement or through which the easement passes. The conveyance 

document describes in detail each 17(b) easement and the specific use(s) reserved by that 

easement. See appendix G for a complete list of trails and easements listed with the State. 

3.1.1.8 RS 2477 Rights-of-Way 

The State of Alaska identifies numerous claims to roads, trails, and paths across federal lands 

under Revised Statute 2477 (RS 2477), a section in the Mining Act of 1866 that states, “The 

right-of-way for the construction of highways over public lands, not reserved for public uses, is 

hereby granted.” RS 2477 was repealed by the Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 

1976, subject to valid existing claims. 

Assertion and identification of potential rights-of-way does not establish the validity of these 

claims nor the public’s right to use them. The validity of all RS 2477 rights-of-way will be 

determined on a case-by-case basis, either through the courts or by other legally binding 

means. The State of Alaska has identified in Alaska Statute 19.30.400 three routes on the 

Refuge it claims may be asserted as rights-of-way under RS 2477 (see appendix F): RST 

#1888 – Hogatza Road (Koyukuk), RST #840 – Palisades Portage Trail (Nowitna), and RST 

#161 (also known as DOT 97-152) – Nulato-Dishkaket Trail (Northern Unit Innoko). The 

three trails total 137 miles in length, but not all of the trails are entirely located on refuge land. 

3.1.2 Ecosystems 

An ecosystem approach to refuge management was initiated by the 1997 National Wildlife 

Refuge System Improvement Act. This management strategy acknowledges that living 

organisms, their physical surroundings, and the natural cycles that sustain them are all 

interconnected. Ecosystems are not limited by land ownership or conservation unit 

boundaries. From this perspective, the ecosystem level is an appropriate level for refuge 

planning. Hence, refuge lands are to be managed in the context of, and in concert with, 

surrounding public and private lands. Most Alaskan ecosystems are intact, and refuge 

management should contribute to maintaining the health of these natural systems. 

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ecosystem map defines 10 ecosystems in Alaska. The 

source for this map was the U. S. Geological Survey’s Hydrologic Unit Map based upon the 

delineation of watersheds. The Service then grouped these watersheds based on vegetation 

cover types, physiography, and optimum size. The Refuge is located within the western 

portion of the Service’s Interior Alaska Ecosystem (Figure 3-4). 

The Interior Alaska Ecosystem is an inter-montane plateau bounded by the Alaska Range on 

the south and east and by the Brooks Range on the north. It extends west to the Nulato hills, 

and encompasses approximately 528,000 square miles (Van Cleve et al. 1983). This vast region is 

characterized by small, isolated mountain ranges, large areas of gently sloping uplands, 

meandering rivers with broad floodplains, and extensive, flat lowlands dotted with numerous 

lakes. Discontinuous permafrost underlies most of the terrain but is often absent from south 

facing slopes and major floodplains. Black spruce forest is the dominant vegetation type below 

tree line and is closely associated with the presence of permafrost. Sites with warmer soils 

sustain white spruce and deciduous tree and shrub species. Above tree line, subalpine shrubs, 

tundra sedge meadows, and heaths predominate. The major river systems draining interior 

Alaska are the Yukon River and its largest tributary, the Tanana River. 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-11 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3-12 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Other refuges and federal lands included in this ecosystem are: the Tetlin, Yukon Flats, 

Kanuti, and Innoko refuges; Denali National Park and Preserve; Yukon-Charley Rivers 

National Preserve; the Steese National Conservation Area; and the White Mountains National 

Recreation Area. 

There have been numerous attempts to classify ecosystems and ecoregions in Alaska (Gallant 

et al. 1995, Nowacki and Brock 1995). These classification systems are similar and vary mainly 

in small scale boundary differences and terminology. To aid Alaskan users and facilitate 

interagency work, Nowacki et al. (2001) attempted to unify ecoregion boundaries. The 

resulting map delineates 32 ecoregions in Alaska. Of these, the Yukon River Lowlands 

Ecoregion predominates on the Koyukuk and Northern Unit Innoko, and covers the northern 

half of the Nowitna (Figure 3-4). This ecosystem is characterized by floodplains lined by deep 

deposits of undifferentiated sediments, and a continental climate with cool, moist summers and 

cold, dry winters. Permafrost, when present in older floodplains and adjacent lowlands, 

produces poor drainage, a prevalence of wet, organic rich soils, and a dense concentration of 

lakes and ponds. Lowlands underlain by permafrost are dominated by black spruce and birchericaceous shrub and sedge tussock bogs. Permafrost is absent in younger floodplains and 

well drained soils. The vegetation along the major rivers is dominated by white spruce and 

cottonwood, while floodplains and river bars support tall stands of alders and willows. Wet 

sedge meadows are common around sloughs, oxbow lakes, and the numerous ponds formed by 

permafrost thaw. 

Foothills and mountainous areas along the peripheries of the Refuge are classified in four 

other ecoregions (Figure 3-4): the Kobuk Ridges and Valleys Ecoregion, forming the northern 

boundary of the Koyukuk; the Ray Mountains Ecoregion, found along the southeastern edge 

of the Koyukuk; the Kuskokwim Mountains Ecoregion, covering the southern portion of the 

Nowitna and the southeast edge of the Northern Unit Innoko; and the Nulato Hills Ecoregion 

which lies along the western boundary of the Koyukuk. 

All of those mountain ranges are typified by low, rolling hills and mountains, with a generally 

continental climate that is cooler than the lowlands. Thin to moderately thick permafrost 

underlies most of these areas, although is it discontinuous in the Ray Mountains Ecoregion. 

Vegetation patterns are strongly influenced by elevation, with shrub-birch and lichen tundra 

on the highest mountains and ridges. Further down slope willow, birch, and alder shrub lands 

occur and give way to black spruce and white-birch woodlands at progressively lower 

elevations. Black spruce forests dominate on north facing slopes and in moist valleys, while 

white spruce and deciduous forests are found on south facing slopes and in floodplains. 
Figure 3-4. Refuge ecoregions 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3.2 Physical Environment 

3.2.1 Climate 

The Refuge has a continental subarctic climate characterized by low annual precipitation, low 

humidity, low cloudiness, and large diurnal and annual temperature ranges. The summer sun 

provides almost continuous radiation and heats valleys, which are protected from coastal 

winds and clouds by surrounding hills. On June 21, the area gets nearly 22 hours of daylight. 

Between mid-May and late-July, there are 72 consecutive days in which the sun remains 

continuously above the civil twilight limit. During the summer months (June–August), 

temperatures are generally mild, with a mixture of warm sunny days and cooler rainy days. 

The average summer daily high temperature at Galena (1942–2007) is 66 degrees Fahrenheit 

(18.9 degrees Celsius) with highs above 80 degrees Fahrenheit occurring in most years (see 

Table 3-5). Summer daily low temperatures average 58 degrees Fahrenheit (12.8 degrees 

Celsius), and frosts may occur in any month. Galena experiences an average 140 frost-free 

days, and the growing season generally ranges from 90–130 days. 

Galena receives an average of 13.3 inches (33.8 cm) of measurable precipitation. Most occurs 

as rainfall during July–September (45 percent). The fall season is fairly short, with snowfall 

beginning in late September or early October. Ice is present in the lakes and many sloughs 

from early October to late May. Freeze-up of the Yukon River generally occurs in late 

October or early November. Winter snowfall (November–March; average of 66 inches or 

167.6 cm) accounts for nearly 30 percent of annual precipitation. Maximum snowpack at 

Galena averages 26 inches (66 cm) and occurs in March. Eleven snow markers were 

installed on the Refuge from 2004 to 2006, providing both an east-west and north-south 

gradient of snow depth across the refuge units. Snow depths are observed aerially at the 

start of each month from December through May. From February through April, snow 

depths range from two to three feet (61-91.5 cm), with lesser snowpack in other winter 

months. 

During the short days of winter, temperatures are primarily influenced by weather patterns 

rather than solar radiance. On December 21, the sun stays above the horizon for less than 

four hours. Cold spells [usually 20–40 degrees below zero Fahrenheit (28.9–40 degrees below 

zero Celsius) but sometimes as cold as 60–70 below zero degrees Fahrenheit (51.1–56.7 

degrees below zero Celsius)], caused by high pressure systems with clear skies and no wind, 

are moderated by intervening milder weather [20 degrees below zero to 20 degrees above zero 

Fahrenheit (28.9–6.7 degrees below zero Celsius)], with clouds, snow, and light to moderate 

winds and under a low pressure system. Local valleys become cold sinks, and temperatures 

are among the coldest on the continent. 

April and May are transitional months as daylight and temperatures increase, and snow and 

ice melt. Most waterfowl arrive in late April to early May as ground cover and open water 

emerge. Breakup of the Yukon River ice occurs in mid-May, with green up of trees and 

shrubs in late May. 

3-14 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

Table 3-5. Climate data for Galena, Alaska 1942–2007. (Data taken from the National Climate Data Center, NOAA).

Average: Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual 

Max. 

Temperature (°F) -2 5 17 33 54 67 69 62 51 30 11 0 33

Max. 

Temperature (°C) -18.9 -15 -8.3 0.6 12.2 19.4 20.5 16.7 10.5 -1.1 -11.7 -17.8 0.6

Median 

Temperature (°F) -10 -4 5 23 45 58 60 55 44 24 4 -7 25

Median 

Temperature (°C) -23.3 -20 -15 -5 7.2 14.4 15.5 12.8 6.7 -4.4 -15.5 -21.6 -3.9

Min. Temperature 

(°F) -18 -13 -6 13 35 48 52 47 36 18 -2 -15 16

Min. Temperature 

(°C) -27.8 -25 -21.1 -10.5 1.7 8.9 11.1 8.3 2.2 -7.8 -18.9 -26.1 -8.9

Total 

Precipitation (in.) 0.69 0.76 0.66 0.49 0.61 1.27 1.92 2.47 1.58 0.98 0.81 0.89 13.14

Total 

Precipitation (cm) 1.8 1.9 1.7 1.2 1.5 3.2 4.9 6.3 4 2.5 2.1 2.3 33.4

Total Snowfall 

(in.) 9.35 10.04 8.50 5.08 0.42 0 0 0 0.63 8.52 11.29 12.46 66.29

Total Snowfall 

(cm) 23.7 25.5 21.6 12.9 1.1 0 0 0 1.6 21.6 28.7 31.6 168.4

Max. Snow Depth 

(in.) 20 24 26 21 4 0 0 0 0 5 11 17 26

Max. Snow Depth 

(cm) 50.8 61 66 53.3 10.2 0 0 0 0 12.7 27.9 43.2 66

3.2.2 Landforms 

3.2.2.1 Koyukuk and Northern Unit Innoko 

The topography of the Koyukuk and Northern Unit Innoko is dominated by the Koyukuk 

Flats. This extensive lowland, covering about 4,000 square miles, lies along the Koyukuk 

River from the Indian River Upland near Hughes to where the Yukon River narrows between 

the Kaiyuh Mountains and the Nulato Hills below Kaltag. Nearly all the Koyukuk River 

portion is included in Koyukuk, while the Yukon River portion forms the Kaiyuh Flats. 

On the Koyukuk, the Koyukuk Flats encompasses the broad Koyukuk River floodplain, 

adjacent sand dune sheets, and broad silt terraces. Elevations in the flats are about 300 feet 

(91.4 m) where the Koyukuk enters the Refuge near Huggins Island and only 100 feet (30.5 m) 

above sea level where the Koyukuk River leaves the Refuge near its confluence with the 

Yukon River. The floodplain is 5 to 20 miles (8.1–32.4 km) wide, with meander belts in 

younger units along the rivers and thaw lakes in older units. Broad, rolling silt plains—

mantled in part by dunes and in part pocked by thaw lakes—stand 100 to 200 feet (30.5–61 m) 

above the central plains and merge imperceptibly with the surrounding uplands. Several low 

bedrock hills rise from the center of the lowlands. Smaller rivers and streams meander across 

the lowland and have numerous side sloughs. 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-15 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

Northeast of the Koyukuk Flats is an area of low, gently rounded ridges with summits of 1,500 

to 2,000 feet (457–609.6 m) interspersed with irregular lowlands and broad, flat divides. This 

area is known as the Indian River Uplands. Ridges forming the eastern boundary of the 

Koyukuk are generally parallel and trend northeastward, with a few peaks rising to over 3,000 

feet (914.4 m). The streams and small rivers that drain these uplands have extremely 

irregular courses. Numerous thaw lakes are present in the lowlands, valleys, and broad 

passes. 

North of the Koyukuk Flats lies the Pah River section of the Western Alaska province. Here 

a diversified topography includes compact groups of hills and low mountains (including the 

Purcell Mountains and Zane Hills) 20 to 40 miles (32.4–64.8 km) long with elevations up to 

4,000 feet (1219.2 m), surrounded by rolling plateaus 500 to 1,500 feet (152.4–457 m) high and 

broad lowland flats 5–10 miles (8.1–16.2 km) across. The hills were glaciated, as shown by 

crested divides and flared valleys in highest parts north of the Koyukuk. In lower areas, the 

down slope movement of rock and soil has nearly obliterated glacial effects. The northern and 

western parts of the Pah River section drain to the Selawik and Kobuk rivers, while the 

southern and eastern parts drain via the Huslia and Hogatza rivers to the Koyukuk River. 

Numerous thaw lakes and sluggishly meandering streams lie in the lowland flats. 

To the west of the Koyukuk Flats (west of the Yukon and Koyukuk rivers) are the Nulato 

Hills. The topography here is dominated by northeast trending ridges 1,000 to 2,000 feet 

(304.8–609.6 m) high with rounded summits and gentle slopes. Three highland areas of 

steeper ridges rise to near 4,000 feet (1219.2 m). Streams on the east side flow to the Yukon 

River either directly or via the Koyukuk River. Major streams are markedly parallel, flowing 

northeast along fault zones. 

The majority of the Northern Unit Innoko consists of the Yukon River portion of the Koyukuk 

Flats. To the south and east are the Kaiyuh Mountains, a range of northeast-trending ridges 

with rounded to flat summits 1,500 to 2,000 feet (457–609.6 m) high and broad gentle slopes. 

Higher peaks occur infrequently. The Kaiyuh Mountains are the western extension of the 

Kuskokwim Mountains. 

3.2.2.2 Nowitna 

The northern part of the Nowitna includes part of the Nowitna Lowland. Wetlands 

predominate in this area, with numerous lakes and marshlands along the northern boundary. 

Elevations of less than 200 feet (61 m) can be found along the Yukon River on the Refuge’s 

northern boundary. The southern part of the Refuge is characterized by foothills on the 

northern edge of the Kuskokwim Mountains. The foothills in the southeast corner of the 

Refuge rise to over 2,300 feet (701.4 m). The northern lowlands and southern foothills are 

bisected from the center of the Refuge to the eastern boundary by a band of vegetated sand 

dunes and bedrock hills. 

Almost all of the Refuge is in the Nowitna River watershed. The Nowitna River runs the 

entire length of the Refuge from south to north before emptying into the Yukon, and forms a 

wide meandering floodplain varying in width from one to six miles (1.6–9.7 km). The river 

corridor narrows in the Nowitna Canyon portion, as the river flows through hills in the south 

central portion of the Refuge. The Big Mud River and Grand Creek flow through the 

Kuskokwim Mountain foothills on the east side of the Refuge and join before flowing into the 

Nowitna River. The Little Mud River drains the northern edge of the foothills, the central 

wetlands, and the vegetated dune areas. 

3-16 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3.2.3 Geology 

The Koyukuk, Northern Unit Innoko, and Nowitna lie within the vast floodplains of the Yukon 

and Koyukuk rivers, part of the plains and plateau region of interior Alaska (Mark Anthony 

and Tunley 1976). The broad river valleys are edged by small mountain ranges of low relief, 

and there are no steep, rugged mountains or glaciers. The region is an extension of the 

central plateau system found in British Columbia, the Yukon Territory, and the Western 

United States. It extends westward to the Bering Sea. The Yukon-Koyukuk basin is volcanic 

in origin, with perimeters formed of metamorphosed continental rock. The Brooks Range to 

the north, the Ruby Uplift (including the Kaiyuh Mountains, the Kokrines Hills, and the 

Hodzana Highlands) on the east, and the base of the Seward Peninsula to the west delineate 

the basin. Farther south, the perimeter of the basin is unknown, probably buried under the 

Yukon-Kuskokwim delta. 

In terms of plate tectonics, the Yukon-Koyukuk Basin is believed to be a drifted piece of 

oceanic crust that collided with the continental crust of the southern Brooks Range and the 

Ruby Uplift. Upon collision, the oceanic crust overrode the continental material. Thus, the 

continental Brooks Range and Ruby Uplift borderlands were the leading edge of a subduction 

zone, while the oceanic crust was thrust up, over, and through the borderlands. Further 

thrusting occurred inside the formation , bringing volcanic rocks over ocean crust. The result 

is a basin rim of overlapping stacks: fine grained volcanic rock over dark colored igneous rock 

over metamorphic rocks. Troughs formed on the north, and northeast fringes of the basin 

were filled with conglomerate material. 

Very little bedrock is exposed in the Refuge; most is covered by wind and water deposited silt, 

sand, and gravel, much of which is glacial in origin. The most recent Ice Age (Wisconsonian) 

had three glacial periods, interspersed with warmer interglacial periods. The last glacial 

period peaked about 20,000 years ago and ended about 10,000 years ago. During this time, 

when great masses of ice covered much of North America, very little glacial ice was found in 

the Yukon-Koyukuk region. Rivers in the area follow varying courses. A large Pleistocene 

lake formed over the Nowitna Lowland, and beach gravels from the lake edge can still be 

found in the Ruby and Long Creek areas. This lake deposited deep layers of silt (up to 1,400 

feet) over much of the Nowitna. Silt eroded by rivers and streams in the eastern portion of the 

Nowitna formed the geologically unique Boney Creek Dissected Benchlands. The silt layer 

tapers off along the bedrock ridges of the uplands. 

Glacial silts, sand, and till, deposited by wind and water, also cover much of the underlying 

bedrock on the Koyukuk. Glacial drift present in the upper valleys of Billy Hawk and Huslia 

rivers is older than 100,000 years old and probably came from glaciers in the Purcell 

Mountains and the Zane Hills. Local glaciation probably did not extend beyond the Huslia 

River. At one point, wind-blown glacial flour (loess) covered much of the Refuge but was reworked by streams and rivers in many areas. Two loess terraces are present; the higher (and 

oldest) is 100–200 feet above rivers, and the lower (younger) terrace is only 30–80 feet above 

rivers. Between these terraces, and on the Koyukuk River floodplain, are broad areas of windblown sand. The resulting sand dunes are mainly stabilized, or partially stabilized, by 

vegetation. The Nogahabara sand dunes are an active portion of this extensive dune system. 

The volcanic bedrock of the Kaiyuh Flats (Northern Unit Innoko) is primarily overlain by 

micaceous silts (Patton and Moll-Stalcup 2000). The youngest deposits lie in the Yukon River 

floodplain. Older floodplain silt deposits (some dating from the Pleistocene) are found in the 

southern, northwestern, and eastern portions of the refuge. The oldest silt deposits (also 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-17 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

Pleistocene) form a central, higher terrace rising 33 to 330 feet above the floodplain that is 

dotted by many small thermokarst lakes. There is little exposure of the volcanic bedrock on 

the Refuge, with the exception of the outcrop that forms Pilot Mountain. This same material 

forms Koyukuk Mountain, just north of the Refuge. The Kaiyuh Flats are at the edge of the 

Yukon-Koyukuk basin, which is bounded by the Kaiyuh Hills (a portion of the Ruby Uplift) on 

the southeast border of the Refuge. Running along the base of the Kaiyuh Hills is the Kaltag 

fault line, which crosses the southern portion of the Refuge from northeast to southwest. The 

fault line is visible from the air in forested areas along the base of the hills. West of Bonanza 

Creek, the fault follows a more westerly course away from the mountains and across the flats. 

This fault line extends eastward into the northern Yukon Territory, Canada (Lane 1992). 

There has been limited seismic activity related to the fault, including a magnitude 6.0 

earthquake near Ruby in February 2000 (City of Galena 2007). 

The Nowitna contains a variety of bedrock including limestone, sandstone, lignitic coal, 

conglomerates, granite, quartzite, schist, slate phyllite, greenstone, and a variety of volcanic 

rocks. Silt covers most of the Refuge, apparently deposited in a large Pleistocene lake lying 

within the Nowitna Lowland. In the center of the lowland, the rivers are deeply entrenched in 

broad silt plains with a silt layer up to 1,400 feet thick. Silt is also found tapering down from 

the upland bedrock ridges. The Boney Creek Dissected Benchlands are composed of silt that 

has been deeply eroded to form the Benchlands. South of the Yukon River and eastward from 

the Klatsuta River are older terrace deposits. Alluvium covers the Yukon, Nowitna, and Little 

Mud River floodplain sections of the Refuge. Other material in the Refuge is colluvium and 

scattered areas with loess. 

3.2.4 Soils and Permafrost 

Soil units mapped at a scale of 1:500,000 are described in the Exploratory Soil Survey of 

Alaska (Rieger et al. 1979). These soil units, called associations, are collections of individual 

soils grouped by landscape position and texture. Soil associations and locations are shown in 

Figures 3-5a, 3-5b, and 3-5c. 

Soil associations found on the Refuge are fairly uniform, with poorly drained silt loams 

dominating. These soils are continually wet and are generally underlain by continuous 

permafrost except near large water bodies, where permafrost is discontinuous. Combined 

with peat, these soils are found on over 80 percent of the Refuge, including much of the 

lowlands areas of the Koyukuk, Northern Unit Innoko, and Nowitna. These soils vary from 

sandy and clayey in some areas to very gravelly on slopes and in valleys at higher elevations. 

Permafrost is defined as ground that is continuously frozen through at least two successive 

cold seasons and the intervening summer. Permafrost is found throughout the area except 

along major drainages and is usually shallow (from 10 to 25 inches). The western interior 

region of Alaska is primarily discontinuous permafrost (50–90 percent coverage), containing 

medium amounts of ground ice with a thick overburden layer, while some areas are underlain 

by continuous permafrost, with medium amounts of ground ice and thick overburden. In 

interior Alaska, temperatures of the upper layers of the permafrost are in the range of 28 to 31 

degrees Fahrenheit. 

3-18 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Figure 3-5a. Koyukuk soil associations 

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3-20 K
Figure 3-5b. Northern Unit Innoko soil associations 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
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Figure 3-5c. Nowitna soil associations 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
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3-24 K
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3.2.5 Minerals 

3.2.5.1 Nowitna 

Indications of mineral presence in the region are shown in Figure 3-6. Except for one 

underground effort at Gold Hill, all deposits were placer-mined. Most were first explored in 

the early 1900s and have been mined intermittently for about 75 years. Metal produced was 

gold, plus some tin. Latest known major exploration in the region was by Anaconda for hard 

rock deposits in the Long-Poorman area. 

Mining claim records show that most placer mines have had recent activity. There are no 

mining claims on the Refuge. Four claims, staked on the Refuge in 1979, on California Creek in 

Section 17, T. 13 S., R. 26 E., were abandoned in 1986 and voided by the Bureau of Land 

Management in 1987. U.S. Bureau of Mines records credit the property with past production 

(amount unspecified). There are also claims further up California Creek that are not on the 

Refuge. 

In the Long-Poorman area, placer mines are located on nearly all the tributaries of the 

Sulatna River, which drains towards the Nowitna Lowland. Although gold was found in nearly 

all of the streams in the area, production was short-lived. The placer mines were commonly 

irregular and discontinuous, with pay streaks spotty and disseminated. Many of the gold 

deposits were believed to be of beach origin (Mertie and Harrington 1924). 

Although spotty, the widespread nature of the gold indicates that moderate deposits do exist. 

The main problem with prospecting in the Nowitna region seems to be that areas where large 

deposits are expected are buried by silt. “No doubt there are large buried placer deposits in 

the broad depressions that are now filled with deep alluvial deposits—one can see such 

extending up the larger valleys well towards their heads. But since the present streams 

generally do not follow exactly in the courses of the original streams, any prospecting results 

are bound to be erratic and prospecting is not justified.” (Eakin 1918). 

Another indication of mineral resources is the Refuge’s location at the intersection of three 

regional belts of tin-tantalum-niobium mineralization (Warner 1985). The Kokrines-Hodzana 

belt trends southwest from the Sithylemenkat Lake area to the Tozimoran Creek area, and 

across the north part of the Refuge to the Long-Poorman area. The Yukon-Tanana belt 

extends west from Circle through the Tofty tin district to upper Cosna River east of the 

Refuge. South of the Refuge, the Kuskokwim belt is located southwest from near Mystery 

Mountain. The belts are established from evidence of favorable country rock (biotite granite) 

and from compounds of tin, tantalum, and niobium found mostly in gold placer concentrates. 

Coal beds exposed in the Refuge at the Palisades are approximately 20 feet thick, and are 

inter-bedded with lowland silt believed to be no older than late Pliocene (1–10 million years 

ago). Consequently, the coal is probably very immature. Thin or poor quality coal is known 

from limited exposures along the Yukon River and in prospect shafts. The existence of a 

Tertiary basin, which might contain better, older, and deeper coal, is doubtful. 

An active geothermal basin may underlie the north-central portion of the Refuge; however, 

there are no known geothermal resources on the Refuge. 

3.2.5.2 Koyukuk and Northern Unit Innoko 

Though some tentative estimates of mineral potential in the region can be made, there is a lack 

of extensive geologic mapping, sampling, and drilling that an accurate assessment requires. 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-25 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

Until more exploration is undertaken, discussion of mineral resources will be based on the 

limited information that is available. 

Sites of known or indicated mineralization, and locations of favorable terranes (fault-bounded 

tracts of rock with geologic history different from that on the opposite side) and placer mines 

in the vicinity of Koyukuk and Northern Unit Innoko are identified in Figure 3-6. 

The majority of the mineralization found in the vicinity of the Refuge appears to be related to 

contact zones around bodies of granitic rock along the Koyukuk’s northern boundary. Placer 

gold has been produced at various times at sites on Utopia Creek, Indian River, and Bear 

Creek (on the Hogatza River). From 1957 to 1975, the Bear Creek placer mine was worked by 

a dredge with cumulative production exceeding 200,000 ounces of gold. The dredge operated 

again from 1981 through 1984. The Utopia Creek operation produced significant amounts of 

gold from 1930 through 1962. Indian River operation produced a total of 5,000 ounces from 

1911 to 1965. 

Hard rock mining has not occurred in the region but could occur in the future, as placer 

deposits can be traced to conditions favorable for mineralization (Miller and Ferrians 1968). 

Inside the Refuge, indications of mineral presence include previous mining claims, two 

prospects (identified from the Bureau of Mines Mineral Industry Locator System records), 

and lead-copper-silver mineralization in the Sun Mountain area (Miller and Ferrians 1968). 

Seventy-seven lode claims located southwest of Bear Mountain and two other lode claims 

located in the southeast Zane Hills have been identified in Bureau of Land Management 

mining records. These are all no longer listed as valid claims. The two prospects noted in 

Bureau of Mines records are west of Sun Mountain and in the Zane Hills south of Caribou 

Mountain. Copper has been reported at both prospects. 

A coal bearing unit (mapped by Patton 1966) appears along the west edge of Koyukuk south of 

the Kateel River. The coal layer is bituminous and at most is six inches thick. The rock unit 

containing these coal deposits is called the Kaltag Formation. It is about 5,000 feet thick on 

the Refuge and consists primarily of shale, siltstone, and sandstone, and is north-trending. 

Coal thicknesses increase southward in the formation where exposures along the west bank of 

the Yukon River are as much as 39 inches thick with inclusions of eight-foot thick pockets 

(Chapman 1963). These exposures were mined from 1898 through 1902 for use by steamships 

on the Yukon River. The largest output was probably 2,000 tons from the Williams Mine 

about 40 miles downriver from Kaltag. This area of coal, from where it appears along the 

Yukon River up to the Kateel River, is known as the Nulato field. Chapman (1963) describes 

the coal layer as thin, irregular, laterally discontinuous, highly fractured, and steeply dipping 

and probably suitable only for shallow small-scale local use. 

3.2.6 Oil and Gas Occurrences and Potential 

Both Koyukuk and Northern Unit Innoko are within the Yukon-Koyukuk geologic province, a 

broad wedge-shaped depression of Cretaceous and Tertiary volcanic and sedimentary rocks 

that stretches across west-central and southwestern Alaska from the Brooks Range to the 

Yukon River delta. The province was classed as a possible petroleum province 

(Miller et al. 1959). However, subsequent studies indicate that the sedimentary rock types 

present in the province are generally unfavorable for deposits of oil and gas, having been 

involved in severe compression and dislocation (Patton 1973). 

3-26 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Figure 3-6. Refuge mineral presence 

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Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

The earliest sedimentary rocks, probably marine shelf deposits, now form metamorphic 

borderland buttresses. Subsequent marine Cretaceous sediments, possibly 15,000 to 25,000 

feet deep in places, appear to be poured-in volcanics and contain easily alterable tuffs. Little 

chance for sand development exists with these sediments. Some submarine fans, which can be 

favorable for oil and gas accumulation, may exist in these sedimentary rocks. However, the 

entire lower and mid-Cretaceous section is metamorphosed and highly deformed, making the 

potential for petroleum very low. Late Cretaceous sediments, though only gently deformed, 

are limited in extent and are in near-surface positions, which also indicates low potential. 

Aeromagnetic profiles across the Koyukuk Flats indicate the presence of highly magnetic 

rocks at shallow depths. Surface mapping around the margin of the flats suggest that 

Quaternary alluvial deposits are probably underlain by andesitic volcanic rocks of Early 

Cretaceous age (Patton 1973). The flats, except along the Kaltag Fault, do not appear to 

contain any substantial thickness of Cenozoic sedimentary strata, which indicates that oil and 

gas accumulations are probably absent. One exploratory test hole, Nulato No.1, located westsouthwest of Nulato, was drilled to a depth of 12,000 feet entirely in Cretaceous sedimentary 

rocks. 

Inside the Nowitna, possibilities are limited to the speculative presence of Tertiary sediments. 

West of the Refuge, the Galena Basin Cretaceous sediments may have some potential. 

Evidence for a Tertiary basin consists of Tertiary sediments at the Palisades and a gravity low 

along the north side of the Refuge. The low is delineated as a trough, about 10 or 20 miles 

wide, from Big Creek to Blind River and flanks the gravity high marking the southeast edge of 

the rim of the Yukon-Koyukuk Province (Barnes 1976). The low may have developed by downdropping on the south side of the Kaltag Fault and may thus be as old as early or middle 

Tertiary (Patton and Hoare 1968). However, at this time, no identifiable oil and gas basin 

exists in this area or elsewhere within the refuge boundaries. Consequently, the oil and gas 

potential is probably low on the Nowitna. 

3.2.7 Water Resources 

One of the five specific ANILCA purposes of the Refuge is to ensure the conservation of water 

resources, specifically, “to ensure . . . water quality and necessary water quantity within the 

refuge[s] for the conservation of fish and wildlife populations and habitats in their natural 

diversity.” The abundant and mostly pristine freshwater resources within the Refuge support 

plentiful populations of fish, wildlife, and vegetation. 

Water is one of the main ecological drivers on the Refuge. The Refuge encompasses more 

than 1,800,000 acres of wetlands and waters, including over 50,000 lakes and thousands of 

miles of rivers and streams (Table 3-6). Though precipitation across the Refuge is only 12 to 

14 inches per year, permafrost hinders infiltration of water into the ground, thus creating 

lakes and wetlands. River flows are influenced by winter freezing, spring snowmelt and 

breakup, late summer rain storms, and springs. The timing, frequency, duration, and 

magnitude of low and high flow events on the streams and rivers affect both in-channel and 

floodplain habitats through disturbance and recharge of lakes and wetlands. These events 

also drive the use of the landscape by wildlife. 

In 1994, the Alaska Region of the Service identified and evaluated threats to water resources 

in the 16 National Wildlife Refuges in Alaska. This effort was intended to help set priorities 

for hydrologic investigations that would support instream water–rights filings. Most of the 

streams on the Refuge were not judged to be threatened; however, past mining, mineral 

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Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

exploration, and village trash and sewage were identified as potential threats. A subsequent 

‘threats analysis’ in 2007 yielded similar results. 

Table 3-6. Acres of wetland vegetation classes on the Northern Unit Innoko, Koyukuk, and Nowitna. 

 Refuge Total 

Vegetation Class 

N. Unit 

Innoko Koyukuk Nowitna Acres 

Clear Water 38,118 161,709 29,521 229,348 

Dwarf Shrub 80,768 45,568 126,336 

Emergent 6,260 47,745 54,005 

Lichen 3,845 3,845 

Low Shrub 103,680 644,666 91,635 839,981 

Low Shrub - Tussock 

Tundra 295,095 18,434 313,529 

Moss 5,355 5,355 

Turbid Water 9,620 53,202 17,525 80,347 

Tussock Tundra 34,786 34,786 

Wet Graminoid 22,215 36,048 58,263 

Wet Sedge 93,062 93,062 

Total Acres 269,861 1,411,881 157,115 1,838,857 

3.2.7.1 Water Quantity 

To date, there have been no refuge-wide water studies. Stream flow has been measured only 

on the Yukon and Koyukuk rivers outside the refuge boundaries, and not since 1982. No other 

stream flow or water quality studies or stations are known for the refuge. 

The Service plans to conduct a comprehensive investigation of water quantity to support 

instream-flow water rights filings for the Refuge. Reconnaissance and selection of gauging 

sites was conducted in 1998. Installation of flow gauge equipment is scheduled to begin within 

the next 10 years, with data collection planned for the subsequent 6 years. 

3.2.7.2 Water Quality 

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Ecological Services, Fairbanks Field Office, 

conducted a contaminant study of water, sediments, and fish on the Koyukuk and Nowitna 

between 1986 and 1988 (Snyder-Conn et al. 1992). On the Nowitna, metal and metalloid 

contaminants were studied on the Sulatna and Sulukna rivers, Cross Lake, and one pond next 

to the Sulukna (Mueller et al. 1996). These studies essentially found no significant 

contamination in water, sediment, or fish tissues. 

The Service plans to conduct a baseline water quality study in conjunction with the water 

quantity study. Water quality sampling will be done at selected sites on the Refuge. Sampling 

is planned to begin within 10 years and continue for 6 years. 

3-30 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3.2.8 Fire Disturbance Regime 

Wildfires (fire) in the (black spruce-dominated) boreal forest tend to be large and frequent due 

to the dry continental climate, the flammable nature of fuels, and the continuity of fuels, which 

commonly extends from the ground layer to the tree canopy layer. The feathermossdominated understory forms a large, horizontally continuous, and well-aerated fuelbed when 

dry. Most fires in the boreal forest are either intense ground fires or crown fires of sufficient 

intensity to consume or kill both the overstory and understory vegetation. However, these 

fires do not burn with consistent intensity or severity and often leave a patchwork of unburned 

to moderately-burned areas that create a mosaic of different aged vegetation and an irregular 

fire edge. Wildfires often smolder deep in the duff and can hold over through long periods of 

high relative humidity and moderate rainfall. 

The leaf litter and shading found under deciduous and mixed forests combines to create 

moist cool conditions and a compact litter layer that until recently has been less combustible 

than those found in conifer forests. The effects of climate change appear to have altered this 

factor somewhat. Surface fuels in the hardwood and mixed forests typically do not form a 

continuous ladder from the ground to the tree crowns, so surface fires are common. 

Deciduous forests have, in the past, provided a natural fuel break where fire will typically 

smolder in the understory and spread slowly, but that appears to be also changing as a 

result of climate change. 

Shrub habitats and sedge tussock-tundra are characterized by light flashy fuels whose 

moisture content responds quickly to small changes in relative humidity. These fires tend to 

burn quickly and intensely, skipping over and around standing water lying between tussocks 

and pockets of wet sphagnum moss. The presence of wind contributes to high rates of spread 

and short- to medium-range spotting. With a little moisture, these fires go out quickly; they 

do not hold over for long. Moderate intensity wildfires may consume the above ground portion 

of shrubs and forbs but seldom kill the below ground portion. In drier conditions, fires in the 

shrub and tussock-tundra habitats may have high rates of spread and intensity, which can 

easily carry fire into adjacent conifer forests. 

3.2.8.1 Fire Occurrence and Frequency 

Evidence of fire can be found throughout most of the Refuge. Historically, fire has strongly 

influenced the distribution and diversity of interior Alaska plant and animal communities. 

Most fires are lightning caused. There is no evidence of anthropogenic fire on the Refuge. 

The fire return interval is 275 years for the Koyukuk and 192 years for the Nowitna, based on 

the past 50 years of fire records. Such a short timeframe can only yield an approximation of 

the Refuge’s fire return interval. The estimated mean fire interval for other interior Alaska 

black and white spruce forest locations ranges from 25–130 years for black spruce to 50–240 

years for white spruce (Murphy and Whitten 2006). 

Climate change is predicted to result in substantial increases in landscape flammability. 

During the next 20–30 years, interior Alaska will experience the most rapid change in fire 

activity and associated changes in vegetation dynamics, a shift from conifer dominance to 

deciduous dominance across interior Alaska, more frequent large fire seasons, and a 

decrease in the magnitude and periodicity of small fire seasons (Rupp 2008; Rupp and 

Springsteen 2008). 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-31 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3.2.8.2 Fire Size 

Wildland fires on the Refuge range in size from less than one acre to as large as 200,000 acres. 

Fires in the black and white spruce forest types tend to be 125,000 acres or larger. Fire size is 

determined by a variety of factors. 

 The later in the season a fire starts, the less time it has to spread. 

 Weather not only affects initial spread but also eventual fire growth. 

 Fires can hold over during long periods of moist weather and become active again after 

a drying period. 

 Wind can cause a fire to quickly grow. 

 Fuel continuity determines whether a wildland fire can and will continue to grow. 

 Wetlands and rocky areas tend to form barriers to spread that can only be breached by 

spotting. 

 Hardwood stands, wet areas, and old burn scars can serve as barriers because the 

reduced fuel load in these areas usually limits fire behavior and slows fire spread. 

Consequently, some fires may burn only a few hundred square feet, while others burn 

throughout the summer, affecting thousands or hundreds of thousands of acres. 

3.2.8.3 Fire Season 

The fire season on the Refuge can begin as early as Memorial Day and end as late as the first 

week of September. Most of the fire activity occurs during July when fuels have matured and 

are at their lowest live fuel moisture levels. 

3.2.8.4 Impacted Villages Around the Refuge 

Seven villages have the potential to be affected by fire on or adjacent to the Refuge. The 

village of Huslia is located within the Koyukuk. The villages of Galena, Hughes, Kaltag, 

Koyukuk, Nulato, and Ruby are located outside of the refuge boundaries. 

3.3 Biological Environment 

3.3.1 Vegetation 

Riparian vegetation is dominated by willow (Salix spp.), cottonwood (Populus balsamifera 

ssp. balsamifera), and white spruce (Picea glauca). As rivers and creeks move through the 

floodplain, outside banks and vegetation are eroded into the river, and inside banks are built 

up through the deposition of silt, sand, and gravel. Recent inside-bank soil deposits along 

rivers and creeks are well drained and are usually free of permafrost. These factors are 

conducive to the establishment of varying age groups of willow moving inland away from the 

river channel. On extremely winding rivers such as the Yukon, large oxbows are common. 

Within this area, concentric bands of willow or cottonwood of different ages often become 

established. Grass lakes are sometimes intermingled with these bands. Common riparian 

vegetation includes willow and alder (Alnus viridis ssp. crispa and A. incana ssp. tenufolia) 

thickets along gravel bars at the water’s edge, stands of cottonwood trees higher on the bank, 

and bands of white spruce varying in width on the higher banks. Stands of paper birch 

(Betula papyrifera ssp. humilis) and quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) often mix with the 

white spruce forest along the river corridors. 

Treeless bogs are common in the center of the Koyukuk and in scattered locations on the 

Nowitna and Northern Unit Innoko. Bog vegetation consists of dwarf birch (Betula nana ssp. 

3-32 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
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Exilis), shrub birch (Betula. glandulosa), bog blueberry (Vaccinium uliginosum), Labrador 

tea (Ledum palustre), leatherleaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata), myrtle (Myrica gale), bog 

rosemary (Andromeda polifolia), bog cranberry (Oxycoccus microcarpus), cottongrass 

(Eriophorum spp.), sundew (Drosera anglica, ssp. rotundifolia), sedges (Carex spp.), feather 

mosses, and sphagnum moss (Sphagnum spp.). Often intermixed with the bogs are ridges 

vegetated with willow, alders, resin birch (Betula glandulosa), black spruce, and tamarack 

(Larix laricina var. alaskensis).

Wetland vegetation is quite site-specific and varied. Refuge wetlands include upland basins, 

ice-formed lakes on the flats, river flooded lowlands, oxbows, and bog lakes. Spring runoff, 

rain, and river flooding recharge the lakes. Favorable water temperatures in the shallow 

lakes create ideal conditions for the growth of aquatic plants such as duckweed (Lemna sp.), 

horsetail (Equisetum spp.), water milfoil (Myriophyllum sp.), mare’s tail (Hippuris vulgaris), 

and smartweed (Polygonum spp.). One or more of 12 species of pondweed (Potamogeton spp.) 

occur in almost all lakes. Indicators of bog lakes include water lily (Nuphar polysepalum), 

pygmy water lily (Nymphaea tetragona), water hemlock (Cicuta douglasii and C. 

mackenziana), water parsnip (Sium suave), buckbean (Menyanthes trifoliata), and 

bladderwort (Urtricularia macrorhiza). Shorelines of bog lakes vary in character but nearly 

always contain buckbean, wild calla (Calla palustris), various sedges, and burreed 

(Sparganium hyperboreum). Several species of graminoids, including sedge, bluejoint grass 

(Calamagrostis canadensis), and foxtail (Hordeum spp.), are found on the exposed shorelines. 

A variety of forbs grow on recently exposed soils along river shorelines. Cattail (Typha 

latifolia) is an invasive species on the Refuge. 

Shallow, seasonally flooded basins or grass lakes are common along the Koyukuk, Yukon, and 

Nowitna rivers. Grass lakes are usually wetlands during spring breakup and flooding, and in 

summer become dry meadows, many of which show the beginnings of shrub and forest 

succession. The drier portions of grass lakes are vegetated primarily by bluejoint grass and 

occasionally polar grass (Arctagrostis latifolia var. arundinacea). Carex aquatilis, C. 

rostrata, C. capitata, and other sedges and marsh cinquefoil (Potentilla palustris) dominate in 

the wetter portions. 

There are about 14,000 lakes and ponds on the Nowitna, where wetland acreage is 

approximately 30,000 acres. The Koyukuk and Northern Unit Innoko have an estimated 

15,000 water bodies, comprising approximately 280,000 acres of lakes and ponds and 5,500 

miles of rivers and streams. 

Forests cover 88 percent of the Nowitna and 41percent of the Koyukuk and Northern Unit 

Innoko. Black spruce (Picea mariana) is the dominant tree species followed by white spruce, 

paper birch (Betula papyrifera ssp. humilis), quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), and 

balsam poplar. While there are pure stands dominated by a single tree species, stands 

typically mix and grade into one another, depending on underlying soil type. 

The open conifer forests have 25–60 percent tree cover and are found on moderately to poorly 

drained soils. This forest type is composed primarily of black spruce but often includes 

tamarack and willows. Open conifer forests are frequently found on north facing slopes and 

poorly drained lowlands that are usually underlain by permafrost. Ground cover species 

include bog blueberry, Labrador tea, sedges, and mosses. In many areas, a thick blanket of 

lichen species entirely covers the ground, forming an open conifer-lichen association. This 

forest type dominates the Nowitna with 42 percent coverage and 7 percent coverage of the 

Koyukuk and Northern Unit Innoko. 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-33 
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The closed-conifer forests occur on moist to well-drained sites that can be found in the 

lowlands all the way up to mountain slopes and are particularly well developed on alluvial sites 

along the major rivers. Closed forests typically have 60–100 percent cover. The dominant tree 

species is white spruce, which may grow 80–100 feet tall, forming the largest stature forest 

found on the Refuge. Understory species include northern toadflax (Geocaulon lividum), 

highbush cranberry (Viburnum edule), azalea (Rhododendron lapponicum), prickly rose 

(Rosa acicularis), sweetvetch (Hedysarum alpinum), and various species of feathermoss. 

This forest type comprises about two percent of the Refuge. 

Deciduous forests occur on well to imperfectly drained sites—mainly on hills where strips of 

paper birch forest line hillside streams, and aspen is present on south facing sandy hillsides. 

Paper birch, aspen, and cottonwood dominate the overstory. The deciduous forest reaches its 

greatest extent on the Nowitna, where it covers 30 percent of the total surface area—but only 

3 percent of the Koyukuk and Northern Unit Innoko. 

Mixed forests have 25–100 percent cover of deciduous broadleaf trees mixed with conifer 

trees. Mixed forests are distributed mainly along the major water courses, especially on 

islands in the Yukon and Koyukuk rivers, and on relatively dry, south facing hillsides where 

drainage is good and permafrost is absent. This forest type consists of moderately tall (50 to 

80 feet) paper birch, quaking aspen, and cottonwood, mixed with white spruce. Common 

understory species found in mixed forest include highbush cranberry, currant (Ribes triste), 

bunchberry (Cornus canadensis), and prickly rose. This forest type comprises six percent of 

the Koyukuk and Northern Unit Innoko and four percent of the Nowitna. 

Conifer woodlands, sometimes called muskeg, have 10 to 25 percent tree cover and are found 

on moderately to poorly drained soils. These woodlands contain short sparse tree growth 

(mainly black spruce and some tamarack). The ground cover resembles treeless bog and is 

dominated by shrub species such as Labrador tea, bog rosemary, bog blueberry, highbush 

cranberry, bog cranberry, and crowberry (Empetrum nigrum). Various graminoid and moss 

species are common, including cottongrass, sedges, and mosses (especially Sphagnum moss). 

This forest type makes up 26 percent of the Koyukuk and Northern Unit Innoko and 10 

percent of the Nowitna. 

The Refuge contains several non-forest shrub, herbaceous, and graminoid (grass-sedge)

vegetation community types. The dwarf shrub-graminoid tussock peatland community 

contains slow-growing dwarf shrubs less than 1.5 feet tall and frequently occurs on poorly 

drained organic soils. Mosses and lichens cover the surface. Dominant shrub species include 

Labrador tea, leatherleaf, bog blueberry, lowbush cranberry, dwarf birch (Betula nana ssp. 

exilis), cottongrass, sedges, cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus), Sphagnum moss, 

feathermosses (Dicranum spp), and various lichens (Cladina spp. and Cetraria spp). This is a 

dominant vegetation type on the Koyukuk and Northern Unit Innoko (27 percent) but a minor 

type on the Nowitna (2 percent). 

The alluvial/lowland tall shrub community is dominated by deciduous shrubs ranging from 1.5 

to 16 feet in height. The tall shrub communities are found primarily on floodplains and are 

dominated by willows (Salix alaxensis, Salix planifolia pulchra, Salix arbusculoides, and

Salix bebbiana), and in some areas alder. The main understory species include lowbush 

cranberry, Twinflower (Linnaea borealis), bluejoint grass, and horsetail (Equisetum spp.). 

This vegetation type makes up four percent of the Nowitna and three percent of the Koyukuk 

and Northern Unit Innoko. 

3-34 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
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The graminoid tussock-shrub community has a plant composition similar to the previous 

community but is dominated by cottongrass (Eriophorum spp.) tussocks and lesser amounts 

of dwarf shrub and herbaceous cover. This type is transitional to arctic and alpine tundra in 

some areas. It is most common on the Koyukuk and Northern Unit Innoko, where it makes up 

14 percent of the cover. 

The prostrate dwarf shrub tundra community is characterized by relatively bare alpine 

vegetation dominated by low-growing matted dwarf shrubs. This community is rich in lichens. 

Dominant species include dryas (Dryas octopetala), willow (Salix phlebophylla), bog 

blueberry, lowbush cranberry, bearberry (Arctostaphylos alpine), and lichens 

(Sphaerophorus globosus, Cetraria nivalis, C. cucullata, Alectoria ochroleuca, Thamnolia

subuliformis, and Stereocaulon spp). This type comprises one percent of the Koyukuk and 

Northern Unit Innoko and less than one percent of the Nowitna. 

The herbaceous vegetation type is dominated by herbaceous plants (grasses, sedges, and 

flowering plants). The main subclasses of this vegetation type include graminoid-dominated 

bogs, meadows, and marshes. The graminoid-dominated bogs have a moss-dominated surface 

underlain by peat that is often saturated with water. Typical graminoids in this subclass 

include cottongrass (Eriophorum russeolum), sedges (Carex limosa), and (Carex 

chordorrhiza). The graminoid meadow is relatively dry and dominated by bluejoint grass. It

is often associated with old river meanders. The graminoid marsh primarily occurs at the 

margins of lakes and ponds. The most important graminoids in this subclass are sedges 

(Carex aquatilis) and (Carex rostrata). This class occurs along the margins of most wetlands 

on the Refuge. Approximately two percent of the Refuge is covered by this vegetation type. 

Other minor vegetative types are found on the Refuge. There is upland vegetation that 

surrounds some of the wetland floodplain basins. On the Koyukuk, small mountain ranges 

occur on the east, west, and north boundaries of the Refuge. The Kaiyuh Hills form the 

southern boundary of the Northern Unit Innoko. Hills occur along all four sides of the 

Nowitna. Mountaintops on the Refuge typically are scarcely vegetated rock scree (loose rock) 

that often extends down a mountain in fingers of unstable rock. Below the scree, communities 

of prostrate dwarf shrub tundra, alpine meadows, and dwarf shrub tussock tundra 

predominate. These communities grade into subalpine broadleaf shrub communities and a 

treeline composed of stunted white spruce. Alpine habitats are particularly rich in lichen 

species such as Cetraria nivalis, C. cuculata, Alectoria ochroleuca, Thamnolia subuliformis, 

Stereocaulon spp., Cladina spp., and Cladonia spp. Subalpine broadleaf shrub communities 

are dominated by alder and willow (Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra). Estimated cover of these 

alpine and subalpine habitats is three percent on the Koyukuk and Northern Unit Innoko and 

one percent on the Nowitna. 

Land cover mapping was done by Ducks Unlimited (1998a and 1998b) based on a modified 

Alaska Vegetation Classification (Viereck et al. 1992) during three different time periods. The 

northwest section of the Northern Unit Innoko was completed in 1999; the Nowitna was 

completed in 2000; and the Koyukuk was completed in 2001. The classification of the Northern 

Unit Innoko contains 35 different vegetative classes; the Nowitna contains 32 vegetative 

classes; and the Koyukuk contains 33 vegetative classes. There are 12 main vegetative classes 

that cover the bulk of the Refuge. They are described in following text and summarized in 

Table 3-7, Table 3-8, and Table 3-9. 

Open Needleleaf forests have 25 to 60 percent tree crown canopy cover. This class can be 

found on a range of sites - from well drained timberline to poorly drained soils. It is composed 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-35 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

of primarily black and white spruce, some tamarack, and willows. Ground cover species 

include bog blueberry, Labrador tea, sedges, lichens, and feather mosses. 

Needleleaf Woodland forests have from 10 to 25 percent tree canopy cover. This class is often 

referred to as muskeg and is found on a range of sites from near the latitudinal and elevational 

extent of the treeline to cold, wet, and poorly drained soils. Forests are composed of primarily 

black and white spruce and scattered paper birch and willows. Ground cover species include 

alder, cloudberry, dwarf birch, bog blueberry, Labrador tea, highbush cranberry, crowberry, 

cottongrass, sedges, horsetail, feather and sphagnum mosses, and lichens. 

Closed Mixed Needleleaf/Deciduous forests are populated by both conifer and deciduous tree 

species, but neither species has a clear dominance. Both conifer and deciduous species 

contribute 25 to 75 percent of the total canopy cover. Tree cover totals at least 10 percent. 

This forest type is found on a variety of sites including well- to moderately-drained areas, 

floodplains, slopes, bases of south facing slopes, and relatively warm dry sites. Common tree 

species include white spruce, paper birch, quaking aspen, and cottonwood. Understory species 

include alders, willows, prickly rose, highbush cranberry, northern red current (Ribes triste),

spiraea (Spiraea Beauverdiana), highbush cranberry, bog blueberry, Labrador tea, bluejoint 

grass, bunchberry, twinflower, bluebell (Mertensia paniculata var. paniculata), horsetail, 

fireweed (Epilobium spp.), and feathermosses. 

Closed Deciduous forests are dominated by paper birch and have at least a 60 percent tree 

cover. This forest type is commonly found on upland sites that are moderately to welldrained. Common tall shrubs include alder, prickly rose, and highbush cranberry. Dwarf 

shrubs may include only highbush cranberry and twinflower. The herb layer usually is 

dominated by bluejoint grass. Bluebell and horsetail may also be common. Mosses and 

lichens are rare. 

Open Mixed Needleleaf/Deciduous forests are comprised of paper birch and either white or 

black spruce. Total tree cover is 25–60 percent. These forests are found on relatively wet and 

poorly drained wetland sites. Alder and willow are the dominant tall shrubs. Understory 

species include dwarf birch, spiraea, bog blueberry, highbush cranberry, Labrador tea, and 

bluejoint grass. Feathermosses dominate the ground layer. Lichens are very common. 

Woodland Needleleaf – Lichen forests are similar to Needleleaf Woodland forests except they 

are in a late seral stage of development. 

Open Needleleaf – Lichen forests are similar to Open Needleleaf forests except they are in a 

late seral stage of development. 

Closed Mixed Deciduous forests are similar to Closed Mixed Needleleaf/Deciduous forests 

except they are in a late seral stage of development while the latter is in an early to mid-seral 

stage of development. 

Wet Graminoid communities include the treeless bogs, which are the predominant vegetation 

type in the center of the Koyukuk and in scattered locations of the Nowitna and Northern Unit 

Innoko. Bog vegetation on the Refuge consists of various species of cottongrass, dwarf birch, 

shrub birch, bog blueberry, Labrador tea, leatherleaf, myrtle, sedges, and mosses, especially 

Sphagnum. Minor species include bog rosemary, bog cranberry, and sundew. 

Low Shrub communities are dominated by shrubs eight inches to five feet in height. These 

communities have at least 25 percent cover by shrubs at least eight inches tall; trees provide 

less than 10 percent cover and tall shrubs provide less than 25 percent cover. Alder, willow, 

3-36 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

and shrub birch are the dominant shrubs. Myrtle, cinquefoil, and ericaceous shrubs (members 

of the heath family such as blueberry) may dominate some communities. Some ericaceous 

shrubs transcend the boundary between dwarf shrub and low scrub. In general, bog 

blueberry and Labrador tea are considered to be low shrubs. Crowberry, high bush 

cranberry, bearberry, alpine azalea, and diapensia (Diapensia lapponica ssp. obovata) are 

considered to be dwarf shrubs. 

Table 3-7. Acreage summary of land cover classes on the Koyukuk. 

Land Cover Class Federal Acres Private Acres Percent of Refuge 

Open Needleleaf 817,352 146,565 18.2 

Needleleaf Woodland 727,606 90,307 16.2 

Closed Mixed Needleleaf/Deciduous 77,323 29,919 1.7 

Closed Deciduous 103,585 44,010 2.3 

Open Mixed Needleleaf/Deciduous 170,839 42,310 3.8 

Woodland Needleleaf – Lichen 145,515 15,275 3.2 

Open Needleleaf – Lichen 122,397 23,397 2.7 

Closed Mixed Deciduous 55,718 16,609 1.2 

Wet Graminoid 28,808 7,241 0.6 

Low Shrub 559,103 85,563 12.4 

Tall Shrub 166,544 32,442 3.7 

Low Shrub Tussock – Tundra 270,579 24,516 6.0 

Table 3-8. Acreage summary of land cover classes on the Northern Unit Innoko. 

Land Cover Class Federal Acres Private Acres Percent of Refuge 

Open Needleleaf 37,062 48,210 5.6 

Needleleaf Woodland 35,662 29,319 4.8 

Closed Mixed Needleleaf/Deciduous 13,615 34,401 1.8 

Closed Deciduous 4,107 11,615 0.6 

Open Mixed Needleleaf/Deciduous 16,828 34,203 2.3 

Woodland Needleleaf – Lichen 8,470 5,569 1.1 

Open Needleleaf – Lichen 88,668 59,509 12.8 

Closed Mixed Deciduous 0 0 0 

Wet Graminoid 9,919 12,296 1.3 

Low Shrub 53,346 50,334 7.1 

Tall Shrub 5,894 8,952 0.8 

Low Shrub Tussock – Tundra 25 15 <0.1 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-37 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

Table 3-9. Acreage summary of land cover classes on the Nowitna. 

Land Cover Class Federal Acres Private Acres Percent of Refuge 

Open Needleleaf 972,863 98,413 47.0 

Needleleaf Woodland 170,783 16,745 8.3 

Closed Mixed Needleleaf/Deciduous 220,436 48,481 10.7 

Closed Deciduous 101,780 15,582 4.9 

Open Mixed Needleleaf/Deciduous 49,181 5,780 2.4 

Woodland Needleleaf – Lichen 28,887 1,636 1.4 

Open Needleleaf – Lichen 0 0 0 

Closed Mixed Deciduous 13,405 2.123 0.7 

Wet Graminoid 10,913 2,627 0.5 

Low Shrub 81,564 10,072 4.0 

Tall Shrub 9,364 2,372 0.5 

Low Shrub Tussock – Tundra 16,971 1,463 0.8 

Tall Shrub communities have at least 25 percent cover of shrubs five feet or more in height. 

Trees contribute less than 10 percent cover and are often absent. Low and dwarf shrubs may 

be present or absent. Tall shrub communities are found primarily in floodplains or along 

streambanks. They are dominated by willows, and in some areas, alder. Major understory 

species include bog blueberry, twinflower, bluejoint grass, and horsetail. 

Low Shrub Tussock-Tundra communities are characterized by an open canopy of low shrubs. 

They have at least 25 percent shrub cover and are dominated by tussock-forming sedges, usually 

cottongrass but sometimes by Bigelow sedge (Carex bigelowii). This community occurs on 

poorly drained organic soils underlain by permafrost. Trees are absent or very scarce. Mosses 

and dwarf shrubs form a mat surrounding the tussocks. Common shrubs include dwarf and 

shrub birch, Labrador tea, highbush cranberry, bog blueberry, and cloudberry. Herbs other 

than the tussock-formers are generally scarce. 

Figure 3-7, Figure 3-8, and Figure 3-9 depict the cover type classification completed for the 

Refuge by Ducks Unlimited (1998a and 1998b). 

3.3.1.1 Non-Native Invasive Plants 

Invasive non-native plant species pose a significant risk to ecological stability and integrity. 

Opportunistic investigation of invasive plant species on the Refuge during other operations 

has revealed a very limited occurrence. Lambsquarter (Chenopdium album) was observed in 

two places on the upper Nowitna River in 2006. Foxtail barley (Hordeum jubatum) was 

observed on the Nowitna Refuge at the mouth of Junekaket Slough in 2007. Several nonnative plants have been observed in Galena, including lambsquarter, common chickweed 

(Stellaria media), pineapple-weed (Matricaria matricariodes), common plantain (Plantago 

major), dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), red clover (Trifolium repens), timothy (Phleum 

pratense), foxtail barley, cattails (Typha latifolia), and white sweet clover (Melilotus alba). 

Of these, white sweet clover is considered the most invasive, and removal efforts are ongoing. 

Plans are underway to develop a monitoring strategy to identify non-native plants in other 

villages within the region. 

3-38 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Figure 3-7. Koyukuk vegetation types 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3-40 K
Figure 3-8. Northern Unit Innoko vegetation types 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3-42 K
Figure 3-9. Nowitna vegetation types 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3-44 K
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3.3.2 Fish and Wildlife 

3.3.2.1 Fish 

The Refuge contains an extensive assemblage of fish communities and their habitats. These 

waters provide spawning, rearing, feeding, overwintering, or migratory habitats for 21 

reported species of fish (see Table 3-10) (Adams and McLain 2007, USFWS 1991, USFWS 

1993). Most species are classified in the Salmonidae family with individual species 

representing eight other families. The two life history strategies used by these species are 

represented by the anadromous behaviors of salmon and whitefish and the purely freshwater 

dependence of Arctic grayling and northern pike. 

Despite the importance of several species to subsistence, commercial, and sport fisheries and the 

value of all species to the aquatic production, natural diversity, and food webs of the Refuge, 

little is understood about the life history, distribution, behaviors, and harvest of fish on the 

Refuge. Most of the available information is related to salmon, and their basic life history is 

understood in the larger context of the Yukon River system. However, comprehensive 

information about adult salmon stock abundance, population structure, timing, distribution, and 

critical habitats on the Refuge is lacking. Additionally, information about the characteristics of 

juvenile salmon populations on the Refuge or factors affecting them is absent. 

Whitefish are an important Refuge resource. Little information is available about these 

species. Whitefish provide subsistence users with another food source during seasons when 

salmon are not available. Emerging commercial fisheries have the potential to harvest large 

numbers. These fish act as an important prey base for wildlife and other fish species. 

Sheefish are targeted in sport fisheries. Similar to salmon, the migratory habits of this species 

makes refuge stocks susceptible to harvest impacts outside of the Refuge. However, unlike 

salmon, few fundamental population characteristics or critical habitats have been identified. 

While some information exists for other harvested species in the region, such as northern pike 

and Arctic grayling, little is known about these species within the Refuge. Also, information 

about species that are not used directly by humans, but may be important for predator-prey 

relationships and other ecological aspects (e.g., blackfish, lake chub, and trout perch) is 

nonexistent. Additionally, although salmon harvests in some villages are documented annually 

by the Service (Gerken and Holder 2005, Gerken 2006, Gerken 2008) and ADF&G (Busher and 

Hamazaki 2005), with non-salmon harvests occasionally described (Andersen 2007, Andersen 

et al. 2004, Marcotte and Haynes 1985), detailed harvest information for all species is lacking. 

Descriptions of the more commonly known species follow. 

Northern pike are a common species on the Refuge and typically inhabit the lower portions of 

the larger rivers and most lakes of suitable depth (USFWS 1991, USFWS 1993). Fish begin 

spawning during the spring of their third year, and fry emerge one to three weeks after 

spawning (Cheney 1971). Soon after emergence, they become active predators of suitablesized fish and invertebrates. Northern pike have been captured on the Koyukuk in the Gisasa 

River, the mouth of the Kateel River (Alt 1978), the Hogatza River, Clear Creek (Mueller et 

al. 1996), the South Fork of the Huslia River (Wiswar 1994a), the North Fork of the Huslia 

River, and in Billy Hawk Creek (Wiswar 1994a, Wiswar 1994b). Within the Nowitna, this 

species has been captured in the Sulatna, Sulukna, and main stem Nowitna rivers (Wiswar 

1994a). Northern pike were also captured in Camp and Eddy Creeks on the Northern Unit 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-45 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

Innoko (Mueller et al. 1996). Based on a 1994–1996 radio telemetry study, northern pike 

tagged in the Kaiyuh Flats overwintered in three areas: the North Lakes area with most fish 

relocated in Duck Lake; the South Lakes area with most fish relocated in Little Brush Island 

Lake; and in the Khotol River near Manslaughter Slough (Taube and Lubinski 1996). These 

fish exhibited high fidelity to overwintering sites, unlike spawning and summering areas 

where fish were greatly dispersed. Adult northern pike in the Kaiyuh Flats were not reliant 

on movements to the Yukon River for their seasonal needs. 

Broad whitefish are highly migratory, and some stocks in the Yukon River basin are 

considered to be anadromous (Brown et al. 2007). They enter Refuge waters from the main 

stem of the Yukon River to feed in the lower river systems and river-connected lakes soon 

after breakup (Alt 1985). Spawning occurs in the fall. Although broad whitefish have been 

captured on the Koyukuk in the Gisasa River, at the mouth of the Kateel River (Alt 1978), in 

Billy Hawk Creek (Wiswar 1994a, Wiswar 1994b), in the North Fork main stem (Wiswar 

1994b), and the South Fork of the Huslia River, no spawning areas have been identified on the 

Koyukuk or the Northern Unit Innoko (USFWS 1993). Within the Nowitna, this species has 

been captured in the Nowitna River (Alt 1978, Wiswar 1994a). This species is an important 

forage fish for aquatic and terrestrial predators. 

As with broad whitefish, humpback whitefish are highly migratory, and some stocks are 

considered to be anadromous (Brown et al. 2007). The timing of arrival in refuge waters is 

similar to broad whitefish, with both species using overlapping habitats for feeding. This 

species also spawns in the fall. Humpback whitefish have been captured on the Koyukuk in 

the Gisasa River, at the mouth of Kateel River (Alt 1978), and in the North Fork of the Huslia 

River (Wiswar 1994b), but spawning has not been documented on the Koyukuk and Northern 

Unit Innoko (USFWS 1993). Humpback whitefish are common in the Nowitna River (Alt 

1978, USFWS 1991) and have been identified as spawning in the lower reaches of the river 

(Alt 1985). Humpback whitefish are also an important forage species. 

Like the previous whitefish species, least cisco are highly migratory, and some stocks are 

thought to be anadromous (Brown et al. 2007). Their run timing and habitat use appear to be 

similar to broad and humpback whitefish (Alt 1983), with spawning occurring in the fall. 

Documented presence includes at the mouths of the Gisasa and the Kateel rivers on the 

Koyukuk and at the mouth of the Nowitna River (Alt 1978). Least cisco also provide forage 

for aquatic and terrestrial predators. 

Sheefish or inconnu are also highly migratory with several stocks considered to be 

anadromous (Brown et al. 2007). Their distribution across the Refuge is limited to the larger 

river systems and the main channel of the Yukon River (USFWS 1991, USFWS 1993). 

Sheefish overwinter in the Lower Yukon River and migrate into the larger rivers after 

breakup to forage in tributaries (Alt 1985). In general, sheefish are thought to be nonconsecutive year spawners, with females spawning every other year or less, frequently 

beginning at 8–12 years of age (Brown 2000). Males begin spawning at age 6–8. Spawning 

occurs in late September to mid-October with fry appearing in early spring. Fish within the 

Koyukuk spawn in the Koyukuk River near the village of Hughes (Alt 1978) and in the Alatna 

River (Brown 2008). Fish found on the Nowitna spawn upstream of the refuge boundary in 

the Sulukna River (Alt 1985). Sheefish have also been captured at the mouth of the Kateel 

River (Alt 1978) and in the main stem of the Huslia River on the Koyukuk (Wiswar 1994a). 

Important sheefish prey include whitefish, northern pike, longnose suckers, lamprey, and 

3-46 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

salmon parr (juvenile fish preparing to leave their freshwater home) and smolts (juvenile fish 

that become adapted to saltwater and begin their ocean stay) (Alt 1983). 

Table 3-10. Fish of the Koyukuk, Northern Unit Innoko, and Nowitna 

Common Name Scientific name (in taxonomic order) 

 PETROMYZONTIDAE 

Arctic lamprey Lampetra camtschatica

CYPRINIDAE

Lake chub Couesius plumbeus

CATASTOMIDAE

Longnose sucker Catostomus catostomus

ESOCIDAE

Northern pike Esox lucius 

UMBRIDAE

Alaska blackfish Dallia pectoralis

SALMONIDAE

Bering cisco Coregonus lauretta

Broad whitefish Coregonus nasus 

Humpback whitefish Coregonus pidschian 

Least cisco Coregonus sardinella 

Round whitefish Prosopium cylindraceum 

Sheefish (inconnu) Stenodus leucichthys 

Arctic grayling Thymallus arcticus 

Pink salmon* Oncorhynchus gorbuscha 

Chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta 

Coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch 

Sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka 

Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha 

Dolly Varden char Salvelinus malma 

PERCOPSIDAE

Trout perch Percopsis orniscomaycus

GADIDAE

Burbot Lota lota

COTTIDAE

Slimy sculpin Cottus cognatus

* species reported from Koyukuk Refuge only 

 

Arctic grayling are resident fish that congregate at the mouth of clear water tributaries in 

the large river systems prior to spawning in mid-May to early June (USFWS 1991, USFWS 

1993). Arctic grayling begin spawning at age three, with fry emerging within a month of 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-47 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

spawning (Alt 1983). Soon after emergence, the fry seek slower velocity water. The 

documented distribution of Arctic grayling on the Refuge includes the Gisasa River, the mouth 

of the Kateel River (Alt 1978), the Honhosa River (Wiswar 1994b), and Clear Creek (Mueller 

et al. 1996) on the Koyukuk, as well as the main stem Nowitna River above the confluence with 

the Big Mud River (Alt 1985). Insects of the orders Diptera and Hemiptera constitute the 

major food of grayling. 

Chum salmon on the Refuge are part of the Yukon River run and include two distinct groups 

(USFWS 1991, USFWS 1993). Summer chum salmon are more abundant, arrive in late June to 

mid-July, and spawn though August. Spawning areas on the Koyukuk include the Koyukuk, 

Dakli, Gisasa, Indian, and Kateel rivers; the North Fork of the Huslia River; and Billy Hawk 

Creek (Barton 1984). Within the Nowitna River, adult summer chum salmon have been 

captured in the Sulatna River (Mueller et al. 1996). An area near the Nowitna River confluence 

with the Big Mud River has been identified as a spawning area (Alt 1985). Fall chum salmon 

typically pass the Nowitna during August on their way to their primary spawning areas in the 

middle and upper Yukon River basin. However, adult fall chum salmon have been captured in 

the Sulukna River, but a spawning area has not been identified (Alt 1985). Eggs develop 

through the fall and winter, with fry emerging in early spring. Soon after emergence, the fry 

begin migration to salt water and return in three to six years (Salo 1991), although four-year-old 

chum salmon account for most of the annual return (Buklis and Barton 1984). 

Coho salmon on the Refuge are also part of the Yukon River run. These fish enter the area in 

mid-September and spawn throughout late fall (USFWS 1991, USFWS 1993). Within the 

Refuge, adult Coho salmon have only been captured in the main stem of the Nowitna River 

(Wiswar 1994a), with a spawning area suspected near the mouth of Our Creek (Alt 1985). 

Eggs develop throughout the fall and winter, with fry appearing the following spring. Coho 

salmon parr typically remain in fresh water one to three summers and smolt the following 

spring (Sandercock 1991). These fish generally rear for one year in the ocean before returning 

to freshwater to spawn. Four-year-old fish comprise most of the annual return. 

As with chum and Coho salmon, Chinook salmon on the Refuge are part of the Yukon River 

run (USFWS 1991, USFWS 1993). Returning adults arrive in refuge waters in June and July, 

and typically complete spawning by early September. Documented spawning areas on the 

Koyukuk include the Koyukuk, Dakli, Gisasa, Indian, and Kateel rivers (Barton 1984), as well 

as areas on the Hogatza River upstream of the refuge boundary (Eiler et al. 2004, Eiler et al. 

2006a, Eiler et al. 2006b). Spawning areas have also been identified in the Nowitna River 

(Eiler et al. 2004, Eiler et al. 2006a, and Eiler et al. 2006b). Eggs develop throughout the fall 

and winter, with fry appearing early the next spring. Chinook salmon parr typically rear for 

one year in freshwater and smolt during the spring of their second year (Healey 1991). Once 

the smolt enter the ocean, they generally rear and mature for three to six years before 

returning to freshwater to spawn. Five-year-old fish account for most of the annual return. 

3.3.2.2 Amphibians 

Of the eight species of amphibians known to occur in Alaska (MacDonald 2003), only the wood 

frog inhabits the Refuge. In the summer of 2001, a pilot study began monitoring wood frogs 

for malformations at three sites near Galena. The goal was to collect a minimum of 50 froglets, 

young metamorphosed frogs, before their first hibernation, and examine them for deformities. 

This project has since been incorporated into the Refuge’s Inventory and Monitoring Plan 

(I&MP). 

3-48 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3.3.2.3 Birds 

The numerous rivers and creeks of the Refuge provide riparian, wetland, and upland habitats 

that support abundant bird life. Nearly 150 bird species have been recorded on the Refuge, 

and 104 are thought to breed on the Refuge (see appendix H). Of these 104 species, 22 species 

are hardy enough to overwinter. Grouse, owls, woodpeckers, chickadees, gray jays, ravens, 

and redpolls are year-round residents of the Refuge. 

The Refuge was established in part to protect the vast wetland complex in the Northern Unit 

Innoko and the floodplain of the Koyukuk and lower Nowitna rivers. These wetlands are 

important to waterfowl during many of their life stages. Wetland habitats also support a 

diversity of breeding land and water birds, including several species of conservation concern. 

Three Breeding Bird Survey routes and three Off-Road Point Counts are conducted annually 

on or adjacent to the Refuge as part of the I&MP. Basic inventory work is still being 

conducted to update species lists. Species found in subalpine and alpine portions of the Refuge 

are probably underrepresented on these bird lists. 

Several thousand White-fronted geese and several hundred Canada geese nest and molt on 

the Refuge each summer. Annual (aerial) molting and (river-float trip) production surveys are 

conducted on portions of the Refuge. Extensive research on the nesting ecology and 

migratory patterns of interior nesting White-fronted geese have been conducted on the 

Refuge (Spindler and Hans 2005). White-fronted geese have been captured and banded on the 

Refuge for survival rate analysis, but banding efforts ceased in 2001 in favor of banding on the 

main unit of the Innoko Refuge—where more geese can be captured in a cost effective 

manner. Recent analyses of survival data have revealed that interior Alaska White-fronted 

geese have a lower survival rate than other mid-continent White-fronted populations (Schmutz 

2008).

Canada geese are less abundant than White-fronted geese but also breed and molt on the 

Refuge. Both species of geese are important subsistence harvest species, particularly during 

the spring season. 

The Koyukuk contains habitat for both Trumpeter and Tundra swans, and a recent research 

project indicates 50 percent of the nesting swans on the Koyukuk are Tundra swans (Cygnus 

columbianus columbianus), 20 percent of nesting swans on the Northern Unit Innoko are 

Tundra swans, and nesting swans on the Nowitna are 100 percent Trumpeter swans (Cygnus 

buccinator) (Bryant et al. 2007). Tundra swans may be hunted statewide during spring and fall 

seasons, but Trumpeter swans are fully protected and remain closed to subsistence hunting. 

The two species are very similar in appearance and are difficult to identify on the wing.

Annual trend surveys of swans are conducted on the Refuge as part of the I&M Plan. Every 

five years, a refuge-wide census is flown as part of the statewide Trumpeter Swan Census. 

Both the census and trend surveys continue to show a steadily increasing swan population.

Duck abundance on the Refuge is currently monitored using the aerial duck breeding pair 

survey conducted by the Service’s Division of Migratory Birds in Juneau. The following 

population estimates apply to the entire Koyukuk stratum—the Koyukuk refuge is only a part 

of this stratum. A comparison of the breeding pair estimates for the Koyukuk stratum to 

estimates of adults summering on the Refuge (based on 1990–1993 brood survey 

extrapolations) suggested that depending on the year, the Koyukuk represented 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-49 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

approximately 36–65 percent of the ducks estimated for the entire Koyukuk stratum. The 

May 2006 estimated breeding duck population in the Koyukuk stratum was 191,068 ducks. 

Using the percentages given previously, the calculated mean estimated 2006 population for the 

Koyukuk was 68,785–124,194 ducks. These figures are up slightly from those seen in the past 

six years and are above the mid-1990snineties (July) post-breeding estimate of 62,000–117,000 

(Saperstein 1997).

The Nowitna comprises less than 10 percent of the aerial duck breeding pair survey of the 

Tanana-Kuskokwim stratum conducted by the Service’s Division of Migratory Birds. Duck 

production surveys were conducted on the refuge from 1983 through 1992, and summarized in 

A summary of ten years of duck production surveys, Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge, 

Alaska, 1983–1992 (Saperstein 1996). Saperstein found highly variable numbers of ducks and 

production of offspring in the early 1990s, with estimates of adult ducks ranging from 5,000 to 

167,000. 

In addition to the annual banding project at Willow Lake on the Koyukuk, ducks have also 

been banded on the Northern Unit Innoko as part of a statewide avian influenza monitoring 

project. Northern Pintails are the target species with a desired quota of 200 birds for each 

banding site. Ducks have been banded annually on the Koyukuk since 1989, and since 2006 on 

the Northern Unit Innoko. Results from these projects are reported in the I&M Plan 

(appendix C). 

A number of marsh and water birds are commonly observed on the Refuge, including 

Common, Pacific, and Red-throated loons; Red-necked and Horned grebes; and Sandhill 

cranes. Yellow-billed loons are occasionally observed. Past duck production surveys indicate 

that Red-necked grebes, Common loons, and Sandhill cranes are the most common marsh and 

water bird species.

The following shorebird species are commonly observed on the Refuge: Lesser and Greater 

yellowlegs, Arctic tern, Glaucous gulls, Bonaparte’s gulls, Mew gulls, Herring gulls, Longtailed jaegar, Semipalmated plover, Common snipe, Spotted sandpiper, Least sandpiper, 

Pectoral sandpiper, Solitary sandpiper, Northern phalarope, Hudsonian godwit, and 

Whimbrel.

Gallinaceous birds (heavy-bodied, ground-feeding domestic or game birds) such as Ruffed 

and Spruce grouse are common in wooded habitats, while tundra and shrub habitats support 

Willow ptarmigan. Sharp-tailed grouse have also been infrequently observed. 

The Refuge supports a diversity of raptor species, including Rough-legged hawks, Merlin, 

Sharp-shinned hawks, Northern harriers, Red-tailed hawks, Goshawks, Osprey, Great horned 

owls, Great Grey owls, Boreal owls, Northern Hawk owls, American Peregrine falcons, and 

Bald and Golden eagles. Raptors are generally sensitive to disturbance and serve as 

important indicator species.

Peregrine falcon surveys have been conducted periodically on the Yukon River between 

Ruby and Kaltag and on the Koyukuk River above the village of Koyukuk. The Service’s 

Endangered Species Office conducted the survey (as part of a larger survey of the Yukon 

River) between 1979 and 1991. Refuge staff conducted partial surveys in 1992–1994. In 2000, a 

thorough Peregrine survey between Ruby and Tabernacle was conducted by the Endangered 

Species Office. Beginning in 2001, surveys have been conducted annually by refuge staff on 

the Yukon River from just above Ruby to Galena. The presence of adults and nesting 

information is documented on each survey.

3-50 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

The rattling calls of Belted kingfisher can be heard along many creeks and rivers on the 

Refuge. Less common, but still occasionally seen and heard, are the year-round woodpecker 

species: Black-backed, Three-toed, Downy, and Hairy; and the migratory Northern flicker. 

Diverse wetland and terrestrial habitats on the Refuge support close to 50 species of 

passerines (perching birds characterized by having four toes, three directed forward and one 

backward). The most common riparian songbirds are the Northern waterthrush, Alder 

flycatcher, Swainson’s thrush, Yellow warbler, Blackpoll warbler, and Fox sparrow. Several 

species that breed on the Refuge are considered priority species for conservation in the 

northwest interior forest region. These included the Olive-sided flycatcher, Gray-cheeked 

thrush, Blackpoll warbler, and Rusty blackbird (Boreal Partners in Flight Working Group 

2006). Year-round resident songbirds include Black-capped and Boreal chickadee, Gray jay, 

Common raven, Common and Hoary redpoll, Pine grosbeak, and White-winged crossbill.

3.3.2.4 Mammals 

The Refuge has 36 species of mammals either known or suspected to occur on the Refuge (see 

appendix HI). This includes the musk ox, normally a species found along the Bering Sea and 

Arctic Ocean coasts. Musk ox is commonly seen along the continental divide in the northwest 

corner of Koyukuk. Three have been shot along the Kateel and Yukon rivers in the past five 

years. Moose occur in high densities on portions of Koyukuk. The Galena Mountain caribou 

herd commonly uses the Koyukuk. Periodically, large numbers of the Western Arctic caribou 

herd use the Refuge during winter. Both black and brown bears are found on the Refuge. 

Many furbearers are common to abundant. 

The Refuge contains an abundance of moose and large areas of excellent moose habitat. The 

Koyukuk River floodplain is excellent year-round habitat and contains high densities of moose 

(3–10 moose per square mile) from the mouth of the river all the way to the mouth of the 

Hogatza River. Kaiyuh Flats has a much lower density of moose (less than 1.0 per square 

mile), and the floodplain of the Nowitna has a moderate density of moose (1–3 moose per 

square mile), while the rest of the Refuge is considered low density. The Koyukuk and 

Northern Unit Innoko supports 8,000–10,000 moose, and the Nowitna has between 2,000 and 

4,000 moose. Harvest of moose from the Refuge is extremely important to both locals and 

non-locals. Several hundred hunters access the Refuge during September for the fall hunt. A 

hunter check station is manned annually on the Koyukuk River by the Alaska Department of 

Fish and Game, and the Service administers a check station at the mouth of the Nowitna River 

each fall. 

Moose surveys are a big portion of the refuge inventory and monitoring program. Trend 

count surveys are conducted annually over 1,260 square miles of the Refuge. Some of these 

trend count areas have been surveyed annually since the early 1980s. In addition to these 

trend surveys, periodic population estimates are also conducted using the Geo-Spatial 

Population Estimator technique. Twinning surveys are conducted annually in the spring. A 

radio telemetry research project is currently investigating calf performance on different 

winter ranges on the Refuge and across the State. 

Two caribou herds normally occur on the Koyukuk: the Galena Mountain herd (GMH) and the 

Western Arctic herd (WAH). The GMH is a small resident herd of approximately 150 animals 

that winter north of Galena and calve east of the Refuge in the western Kokrines Hills. The 

WAH is currently estimated at about 500,000 caribou. Portions of the WAH winter on 

northern and western sections of the refuge; but in the winters of 1989–1990, 1990–1991, 1992–

1993, and 1998–1999, the WAH wintered southeast of the Koyukuk River from the mouth of 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-51 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

the Koyukuk River, northeast to the village of Hughes. The Galena Mountain herd currently 

contains radio-collared individuals. Monthly radio-tracking flights of these animals are a part 

of the inventory and monitoring program of the Refuge.

Both black and grizzly bear inhabit the Refuge. Black bear are abundant in the lowland 

forests. Estimates of bear numbers on the Refuge are not available primarily due the expense 

involved in censusing the species. Previous research on moose indicated that black bear were 

the most important predator of moose calves on the Koyukuk (Osborne et al. 1991). Black 

bear hunting pressure is low, but some traditional hunting activity occurs in the late fall when 

hunters inspect known den sites for black bear. Bear meat is considered an important local 

traditional food. Information from village residents and incidental observations suggest that 

black bear may be declining in abundance while grizzly bear may be increasing. Sow grizzlies 

with cubs have been observed on the Koyukuk in recent years by staff. Grizzlies are common 

in the hills surrounding the Refuge and use the salmon spawning rivers as feeding areas in the 

fall. Grizzly and black bear are often observed during moose twinning surveys hunting and 

killing moose calves.

Besides black and brown bear, the Refuge supports a wide variety of other carnivores (see 

appendix H for a complete list). Unlike many refuges and parks outside of Alaska, natural 

predator-prey relationships are intact within the Refuge. Wolf density on the Refuge is 

periodically estimated using the Sample Unit Population Estimator technique (Becker et al. 

1998). Annually, all incidental observations of wolves are recorded. During the spring, efforts 

are made to track and count all of the packs on the Refuge. These techniques are incorporated 

into the I&MP. Wolves are important as an integral part of the natural ecosystem. They 

compete with humans for moose (an important subsistence food source) and are a valued 

furbearer. There is considerable local public interest regarding the number and location of 

wolf packs. Because of the high numbers of moose on Koyukuk, there are also high densities 

of wolves there. The wolf density for the Koyukuk was calculated at 13 wolves per 1,000 

square kilometers (386.1 square miles) in spring of 2000, and the density of wolves on the 

Nowitna was 5 wolves per 1000 square kilometers in the spring of 2004 (Scotton and Bryant 

2004). 

The abundance and distribution of lynx populations are affected primarily by natural cycles of 

their primary food source—the snowshoe hare (see the following section on snowshoe hare). 

Based on harvest data and comments from area trappers, Stout (2004) identified peaks in the 

lynx population cycle in 1990–1991 and 2000–2001. If trapping records accurately portray the 

population cycles, the population was at its lowest point during the winter of 1995–1996 (Stout 

2004). The time between population highs in Game Management Unit 21 (see Figure 1-3) 

appears to correspond with the typical 10-year cycle of snowshoe hare and lynx. This is in 

contrast to eastern interior Alaska, where snowshoe hare and lynx numbers appear to have 

increased during the winters of 1990–1991 and 1991–1992, then again during the winters of 

1997–1998 and 1998–1999, earlier than expected (Gardner 2001). 

A study on the Nowitna found that lynx were more abundant in an area that had burned 25 to 

27 years previous than in a mature (greater than 100-year-old) needleleaf forest or in an area 

that had burned 6–8 years previously. The study also found that lynx favored ridges for 

travel. The moderate-aged, burned-over areas and ridges also corresponded to areas with the 

greatest amount of brush cover, a preferred habitat for snowshoe hares (Johnson et al. 1995). 

Wolverine are found throughout all of the Refuge. Incidental winter observations indicate 

that wolverine may be more locally abundant in the hilly regions of the Refuge than in other 

3-52 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

areas. Wolverine tracks are a common sight during wolf surveys, and several suspected den 

sites have been incidentally observed.

Marten are found throughout the Refuge where suitable habitat exists. Incidental winter 

observations indicate that tracks are abundant in both open and closed needleleaf forest areas. 

A radio-telemetry study conducted on the Nowitna looked at marten use of areas impacted by 

wildfire. The severity of the fires was not recorded. The study revealed that marten were 

much more abundant in a 6 to 8 year old burn than in a 25-27 year old burn, but less abundant 

in mature (greater than 100-year-old) needleleaf forests (Johnson et al. 1995). Marten are an 

important trapping species in the region; however, their importance has probably diminished 

substantially compared to the early 1980s when a large number of households participated in 

trapping and derived significant portions of their household incomes from trapping.

River otter and mink are common throughout the Refuge. These species are not specifically 

targeted by many trappers, but they are incidentally taken in low numbers. Population level 

information is lacking, but both species appear to be abundant and healthy based on tracks 

and inspection of carcasses from trapped animals.

Red fox appear to be common and widely distributed throughout most of the Refuge. Based 

on track observations, their numbers can fluctuate dramatically annually. Coyotes are 

present on the Koyukuk and are probably occasionally present on the other two refuges. Two 

have been observed from the air, and one was trapped near Galena during the 2007–2008 

trapping season. Given the abundance of wolves on the Refuge, it is unlikely that a large 

coyote population will become established any time soon.

The smallest carnivore on the Refuge, and the smallest member of the carnivore order, is the 

least weasel. The least weasel preys primarily on lemmings and voles but has been known to 

take small hare as well (Fagerstone 1987); therefore, cover and abundant prey are the primary 

driving factors behind the abundance and distribution of least weasels on the Refuge.

Beaver are abundant on the Refuge and are important ecological landscapers and furbearers. 

They are trapped by local residents for food and fur. They can be a significant component in 

the diet of wolves, particularly during snow-free periods (Peterson 1977). Beaver play a large 

role in shaping the hydrologic features and wetland habitats of the Refuge. Their activities 

increase habitat diversity by changing flow patterns and creating impoundments where lake 

habitats develop. Beaver also influence the structure and composition of terrestrial vegetation 

by foraging on shrubs and felling trees. Beaver dams can restrict fish movement during 

periods of low flow. This has generated concern about the disruption of normal fish 

movements (Andersen and Fleener 2001). Though dams may restrict fish movement at times, 

beaver ponds provide stable rearing habitat for juvenile fish (Snodgrass and Meffe 1999, 

Brown and Fleener 2001). In the Black River drainage of interior Alaska, Brown and Fleener 

(2001) found that juvenile northern pike, humpback whitefish, least cisco, and broad whitefish 

were found only in habitats created by beaver dams, while adults were found in both these and 

flowing water habitats. They also found that relative fish abundance was greater in lake 

habitats, and seasonal high flows provided opportunities for fish to move over beaver dams. 

Older, more stable beaver ponds were found to provide high quality breeding habitat for wood 

frogs (Stevens et al. 2006).

Beaver populations on the Refuge are monitored with trend area fall cache surveys as outlined 

in the I&MP. Densities have generally increased since the early 1990s on the Refuge. The 

Northern Unit Innoko contains the highest concentrations—one township contained at least 

145 active caches during the fall of 2005. Beaver are still trapped for their furs, and the meat 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-53 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

is frequently used for human food, dog food, and trapping bait. Overall harvests are probably 

substantially lower than 20 years ago. 

Muskrat is another furbearer that is important to some trappers. Muskrats were reportedly 

much more abundant in the region in the 1950s through the 1970s than they are now. 

Muskrats were commonly shot in the spring for their furs and for food. A few hunters and 

trappers still pursue them in the springtime, but abundance of muskrats is generally low 

based on aerial pushup observations. Reasons for the low numbers of muskrat on the Refuge 

are unknown and have not been investigated.

While 15 species of voles, lemmings, and mice are known or suspected to occur (appendix H), 

little is known about the distribution and abundance of small mammal species that occur on 

the Refuge. Lehmkuhl (2001) studied yellow-cheeked voles on the Koyukuk and estimated 

densities of yellow-cheeked voles ranging from 13 per hectare (2.5 acres) to as high as 143 per 

hectare. Small and medium-size mammals such as voles and snowshoe hares are the prey base 

for a wide variety of avian and mammalian predators. Krebs (2001) found that, in terms of 

biomass, snowshoe hares, squirrels, mice, and voles comprised a much greater percentage of 

herbivore biomass than moose in the Kluane ecosystem of the Yukon Territory. A similar 

relationship probably exists on large portions of the Refuge. Foraging, seed caching, and 

fertilization through fecal deposition by these herbivores shapes their habitat. The effects of 

their dietary habits on the ecosystem are poorly understood.

Yellow-cheek voles form colonies in burned areas in the boreal forest but are not commonly 

seen in high densities in undisturbed habitat. In terms of biomass, black spruce habitat 

supported more yellow-cheeked voles (approximately 4.5 pounds per acre) than upland sprucebirch forest (Rexstad 2003). This estimate of biomass per unit area is roughly equivalent to 

biomass estimates of moose in the Tanana River floodplain (Flora 2002), again emphasizing 

the importance of small mammals as a prey base and the role of fire in creating habitat and 

species diversity. 

Snowshoe hare are an integral part of the boreal ecosystem. Hare populations are cyclical 

across boreal North America over a period of 8–11 years (Keith 1963, Krebs et al. 1986, Keith 

1990), with 5- to 25-fold increases (Hodges 2000). Hares are an important food item for a wide 

variety of terrestrial and avian predators (Keith 1990, Hodges 2000), and hare densities can 

greatly influence production and recruitment of a variety of species; the best known of these is 

the lynx (Keith 1963, Brand and Keith 1979). Hare densities are also positively correlated 

with other species such as spruce grouse, Willow ptarmigan, and arctic ground squirrel 

(Boutin et al. 1995). Great-horned owl and northern goshawk production and densities are 

also strongly influenced by hare density (McInvaille and Keith 1974, Keith et al. 1977, Boutin 

et al. 1995, McIntyre 1995). Other species, such as wolves, red fox, marten, and red-tailed 

hawks, may be less dependent on hares but likely use the increases during cyclic highs (Wolff 

1980, Todd et al. 1981, Carbyn 1987).

In North America, the order of insectivores is represented by two families, only one of which 

is found in Alaska. Shrews are the smallest mammals in the world. They are characterized by 

having long pointed snouts, short velvet-like fur, minute black bead-like eyes, and short but 

regular type legs (Banfield 1974). Projects on the Koyukuk and Nowitna have confirmed the 

presence of five species of shrews on the Refuge—common shrew, dusky shrew, tundra shrew, 

pigmy shrew, and tiny shrew (appendix H).

3-54 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3.3.2.5 Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive Wildlife 

At this time, there are no federally listed Threatened, Endangered, or Sensitive plants or 

animals on the Refuge. The American race of the peregrine falcon was delisted (removed from 

the endangered species list) in 1999 but remains a (federal) Species of Concern (U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service 2002). Arctic peregrine falcons, which migrate through the Refuge, were 

delisted from threatened status in 1994.

The State has also identified species and subspecies of fish and wildlife native to Alaska that 

have entered a long-term decline in abundance or are vulnerable to a significant decline 

(Alaska Department of Fish and Game 2006). Vulnerability to decline includes low numbers, 

restricted distribution, dependence on limited habitat resources, or sensitivity to 

environmental disturbance. On the Refuge, identified (State) Species of Special Concern 

include Peregrine falcon, Olive-sided flycatcher, Gray-cheeked thrush, Townsend’s warbler, 

and Blackpoll warbler. 

The Olive-sided flycatcher occurs in mature spruce forests associated with habitat edges in 

burns and riparian areas. The Gray-cheeked thrush is found in a variety of habitats: willow 

and alder thickets in lowland, upland, and subalpine areas; upland and riparian deciduous 

forests; needleleaf forests; and needleleaf-deciduous woodlands. Townsend’s warblers select 

mature needleleaf forests for nesting; white spruce appears to be an important component to 

site selection. Blackpoll warblers select for a variety of habitats but are commonly associated 

with tall shrubs in riparian areas, needleleaf forests, deciduous forests, and woodlands. 

3.3.3 Concerns Regarding Fish, Wildlife, and their Habitats 

3.3.3.1 Increased Fishing Pressure 

The potential for increased fishing pressure on existing fisheries may affect population size 

and structure of several species found on the Refuge. In recent years, the Nowitna River and 

Kaiyuh Flats have become popular destinations for guided anglers who target northern pike. 

Although these anglers target trophy fish with little harvest, the combination of subsistence 

harvest, sport harvest, and post-capture mortality in the sport fishery could affect the status 

of the population. The combination of subsistence and commercial harvest has the potential to 

affect salmon stocks and whitefish populations as discussed in section 4.2.2.2 of the draft plan 

and environmental assessment. Also see sections 2.1.1 (Objectives 1, 2, 3, and 4) and 2.1.7 

(Objectives 2, 3, 5, and 6) in this document for a discussion of fish goals and objectives.

3.3.3.2 Off-refuge Harvest of Refuge Whitefish and Salmon Stocks 

Main channel Yukon River mixed stock commercial and subsistence fishing may have an effect 

on the population size and structure of salmon and whitefish that spawn on the Refuge. 

Because there are no available means to rapidly identify particular stocks of these species, 

Refuge stocks could be disproportionately harvested. Disproportionate harvest could be 

especially detrimental to small stocks that pass through the Refuge during a short time frame 

of intense fishing activity. The by-catch of salmon in Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska ground 

fish fisheries may also affect refuge salmon stocks. 

3.3.3.3 Development of Inholdings and Lands Adjacent to the Refuge 

Private lands within and outside the Refuge have the potential to be developed for residential, 

mineral, sport fishing, and remote tourism access. These developments may lead to 

fragmented habitats, degraded water quality, reduced in-stream flows, altered water tables, 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-55 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

increased pressure on fishery resources, and increased conflicts with local users. Coordinated 

planning efforts among agencies and private landowners will help decrease inconsistencies. 

3.3.3.4 Alteration of Wild Salmon Stocks Caused by Enhancement 

During recent times, several stocks of salmon in the Yukon River have become depressed to 

where management actions have reduced fishing opportunities by restricting fishing periods, 

areas, or gear. With insufficient numbers of fish for harvest and escapement, enhancement 

could, at some future date, become a consideration for rebuilding the stocks. Enhancement 

could develop large populations of particular stocks that could be heavily exploited. Such 

exploitation of enhanced stocks could lead to pressure on more vulnerable smaller stocks. 

However, rigorous policies and guidelines of the Alaska Department of Fish and Game help 

mitigate concerns about the potential for inadequate escapement, loss of genetic diversity, or 

an unsustainable harvest. If carefully planned and implemented under both State and Service 

protocols, enhancement could supplement wild salmon production and safely increase salmon 

harvests (see section 2.1.1 objective 2). 

3.3.3.5 Past and Current Off-refuge Mining Activities 

Placer and hard rock mining activities can introduce excessive amounts of sediment and other 

contaminants to streams, causing degraded fish habitat. Historic placer mining activities 

undoubtedly caused increased levels of turbidity and sediment transport in some streams, but 

there are insufficient data available to determine the impact that mining practices may have 

had or will have on refuge fish populations and their habitats. However, current mining 

technology and State and federal regulations have substantially reduced potential pollution. 

Water quality monitoring of refuge streams will identify upstream disturbances that may 

affect refuge fishery resources. 

Mining activities may have introduced contaminants to streams, causing degradation in water 

quality and fish habitat. Placer mining activity on tributaries of the Hogatza River have the 

potential to cause increased levels of turbidity and sediment transport. Another major 

concern is leaching of heavy metals and chemicals such as cyanide into the water. 

3.3.3.6 Climate Change 

Although predicting the effects that climate change will have on refuge fishery resources is 

difficult, this phenomena will undoubtedly require new approaches to research and 

management. Not only will new approaches be needed to understand the biological responses 

by fish to climate change, but there will also be a need to understand changes in use and 

access patterns by all user groups. Future approaches must also consider modifications to 

transportation methods and corridors that may threaten resources formerly not considered at 

risk. Research and management approaches must keep pace with the effects of emerging 

technologies and their effects on fishery resources on the Refuge. 

Long-term changes in weather patterns have become issues of interest and concern both 

among scientists and residents of northern latitude communities where changes have been 

most pronounced. Variations in weather patterns can significantly affect wildlife and plant 

communities, as well as human residents who depend upon their environment for food and 

travel. Overall, the climate in Alaska has warmed by about four degrees Fahrenheit since the 

mid-1950s, including a seven-degree Fahrenheit increase during the winter in interior Alaska 

(Parson et al. 2001). Climate models project that the greatest warming will continue to occur 

in the Arctic region (Parson et al. 2001). A warming climate will have numerous effects on 

3-56 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

habitat, hydrology, and species occurrence that could fundamentally change the boreal forest 

as we know it (Hinzman et al. 2005). 

The Refuge has worked with researchers at the University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF) to 

examine historic local weather patterns using data collected at area villages for the U.S. 

Weather Bureau. Data includes daily temperature extremes and precipitation that has been 

documented for more than 80 years in some villages. Galena weather records date back to 

1942. Analysis of these records indicates a change in weather over the past 65 years. Climate 

change observations corroborate perceptions of many local elders. Following are some of the 

changes that are evident from weather data and local observation. 

 The cold season (October–March) has shown the greatest warming. Extreme cold 

events have decreased in frequency, duration, and severity. 

 Total winter snowfall shows an increase, although moisture contribution does not, 

suggesting that the snow is drier and less compact. Snow comes later in the winter 

(January–March). 

 Temperatures above freezing are more common in March and April. In some years, 

this results in an early thaw. However, late spring frosts continue, and the start of the 

growing season (consecutive frost-free days) has not changed. 

 River breakup is less dramatic, with thinner ice and less frequent flooding. 

 Summer temperatures have remained fairly stable, with a slight cooling trend in 

daily lows. 

 Total annual precipitation has remained fairly stable. Most of it occurs during the 

warm season (June–September) as rain. June and September precipitation has 

increased, while July and August precipitation has decreased. 

 Warm rainy weather typical of late August extends later into September in some years. 

 Despite an increase in the frequency of fall temperatures above freezing 

(September–October), the first fall frost is coming earlier and the Galena growing 

season is getting shorter. 

 More October precipitation occurs as rain instead of snow. Freeze-up is occurring 

later, and conditions are less predictable, causing concerns about ice thickness and 

travel safety. 

Climate change research predicts that the boreal region will experience a decline in wetlands, 

an increased fire frequency and intensity, shifts in the distribution and composition of plant 

communities, changes in plant phenology, changes in the ranges and breeding behavior of 

wildlife species, increased likelihood for invasive plant establishment, and increased possibility 

of wildlife disease and insect outbreaks. These changes in habitat and wildlife due to climate 

warming will, in turn, affect the local people who rely on natural resources for food, livelihood, 

and cultural identity. 

Changes in wetlands are of particular concern due to their extent on the Refuge, contribution 

to biodiversity, and importance to numerous fish and wildlife species. Interior Alaska receives 

relatively little precipitation, and the abundant wetlands result largely from short summers 

with low evapotranspiration and an impermeable permafrost layer, which prevents infiltration 

and impedes drainage of the upper unfrozen layer (Ford and Bedford 1987). Climate warming 

has already caused noticeable widespread melting of permafrost in the boreal region 

(Osterkamp and Romanovsky 1999, Jorgenson et al. 2001) and increased evapotranspiration, 

resulting in shallower, more nutrient-rich wetlands (Rouse et al. 1997, Klein et al. 2005, Smith 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-57 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

et al. 2005). These conditions also contribute to an increase in floating mat vegetation, which 

results in loss of surface water. Over the long term, this insulates the soil and can lead to 

permafrost re-development. The long-term effects of climate change on lake system dynamics 

are unclear. 

Research and monitoring efforts help us understand the extent of climate-related changes on 

the Refuge. Since changes also occur on a much broader scale than the Refuge, it is most 

appropriate to participate in larger, landscape-level efforts to monitor climate change and its 

effects on wildlife and habitats. Though there may be little the Refuge can do to mitigate 

these changes, awareness of long-term climate change effects can lead to changes in 

management strategies. Ongoing communication with resource users regarding 

environmental changes and discussion of potential management approaches is vital in 

developing strategies to deal with the effects of climate change on the Refuge. 

3.3.3.7 Invasive Species 

Although few non-native plant species have been identified within the Refuge, there is concern 

that the diversity of invasive species and number of sites may expand. Lambsquarter and 

barley foxtail were discovered recently on the Nowitna. These species readily invade open, 

disturbed sites such as sand and gravel bars along rivers. Recent burns can provide similar 

habitat. Individual plants can be removed by mechanical means (pulling or cutting), but 

several attempts may be needed for eradication. The spread of invasives is accelerated when 

seeds are moved by wind and water. Finding all occurrences of invasive species on the Refuge 

may be physically impossible. 

3.3.3.8 Forest Defoliators 

Invasive, non-native insects (e.g., larch sawfly and eastern larch beetle) have already 

negatively affected tamarack in the region (Rozell 2007), particularly in the Nowitna River 

corridor. Spruce budworm (Choristoneura spp.) and various leaf miners are of concern 

because of their ability to rapidly alter plant community composition. Insect induced changes 

in plant communities, potentially accelerated by climate changes, could significantly affect 

wildlife communities on the Refuge. Native leaf blotch miners (Phyllocnistis populiella and 

P. ontario) affect conifers, aspen, cottonwood, paper birch, and alder. Willow leaf miners 

(Micrurapteryx salicifoliella) attack all of the willow species found on the Refuge except 

feltleaf willow (Salix alaxensis). Repeated heavy insect attacks on the same tree or shrub 

generally cause reduced growth, and branch dieback and may cause mortality (Holsten et al. 

2001). 

The spruce beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis) is a bark beetle that attacks white spruce and 

can cause extensive tree mortality (Holsten et al. 2001). Bark beetles bore through the outer 

bark then feed and breed in the phloem. If the phloem is girdled, the tree will die. Small 

populations of beetles are usually present in spruce forests and are kept in check by parasites 

and predators of the insect. However, epidemics may be caused when an abundance of 

breeding material is present, often accompanied by an extremely dry summer. Beetles attack 

and breed in fresh wind thrown trees, felled trees, injured trees, and large diameter logging 

slash. Proper treatment of logging slash to minimize potential for spruce beetle outbreaks is a 

condition of the Refuge Special Use Logging Permits. 

3.3.3.9 Moose 

Moose are a critically important local subsistence species and are widely sought after by sport 

hunters. Concern was expressed during public scoping for revision of this Plan about 

3-58 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

competition with non-local hunters and predators. See section 1.9.1 in chapter 1 for additional 

discussion of this issue. 

3.3.3.10 Predator Control 

Moderate densities of moose on the Refuge, coupled with local interest in predator control, 

may contribute to increased pressure on the Refuge to consider a predator control program in 

the future. For additional information about predator management on Alaska National 

Wildlife Refuges, see appendix E. 

3.4 Human Environment 

3.4.1 Area History 

3.4.1.1 Prehistory 

The archaeology of interior Alaska is not well known. This section contains a broad overview. 

Most research has focused on the earliest inhabitants. By about 9000 BC, the unglaciated 

areas of central Alaska, including the refuge region, was occupied by people belonging to 

several archaeological traditions, including the Northwest microblade complex, Nenana 

Complex, Denali Complex, Chindadn, and Sluiceway. These traditions were closely related to 

the East Siberian groups of the same period. Many authorities consider most of these 

traditions to be variations of a single Paleo-Arctic tradition (Clark 1981, Clark 2001, Dumond 

2001, Holmes 2001). 

People from this era used a blade and microblade technology, presumably in conjunction with an 

extensive kit of bone, antler, and wooden tools. A preferred material for blades and microblades 

was obsidian. The primary source of obsidian for interior Alaska was the Batza Tena site in the 

northeast corner of the Koyukuk (Clark and Clark, 1993). Obsidian from Batza Tena has been 

found in archaeological sites throughout Alaska and portions of northern Canada. 

As the glaciers retreated, lines of communication were opened to the south and east. The 

previously easy routes to the west were blocked by the encroaching Arctic Ocean and Bering 

Sea. There are indications of contact and perhaps an amalgamation of the Siberian-related 

cultures and the Paleo-Indian cultures during this period that had been developing south of 

the continental ice sheets. The Mesa site on the North Slope and the Spein Mountain site in 

southwest Alaska have been interpreted as a manifestation of the big-game hunting PaleoIndian tradition, with roots in the Great Plains. 

The Northern Archaic tradition began about 6,000 years ago with clear ancestral lines in the 

Paleo-Arctic tradition. This tradition is defined by the presence of side notched points in tool 

assemblages. In addition, Northern Archaic people used leaf-shaped spear points; large 

bifaces; a variety of end scrapers, choppers and hide scrapers; and notched stone net sinkers. 

Net sinkers signal a significant shift in subsistence from land based hunting to a mixed 

hunting and fishing economy that incorporated the rich fish resources available in lakes and 

rivers. The presence or absence of microblades in Northern Archaic sites remains a debated 

point of northern archaeology. Microblades are rare at most sites dating after this time, but 

they never totally disappear from the record. 

The Northern Archaic tradition lasted until about 2,000 years ago and is generally assumed to 

be ancestral to the more recent cultures of the area. This later prehistoric period, up until 

European contact, is characterized by small, tapered-stem projectile points, ground-stone hide 

and wood working tools, bone implements, and limited use of copper. Sites from this period 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-59 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

are larger than those of the earlier Northern Archaic and Paleo-Arctic peoples and contain 

semi-subterranean houses and cache pits. There is, however, substantial diversity in the sites 

of the later period. The advent of sites that can be described as clearly being in the 

“Athabascan tradition” is highly variable in time. Much work remains to be done to clarify and 

explain what have been described as somewhat ambiguous data (Clark 1981). 

3.4.1.2 Ethnography 

The majority of the Koyukuk and Northern Unit Innoko lie within the territory of the 

Koyukon Athabascan Indians. The Northern Unit Innoko falls into the Lower Yukon 

subdivision; while the Koyukuk falls into the Koyukuk River subdivision. The northwestern 

portion of the Koyukuk River has been described as being within the territory traditionally 

inhabited by Eskimos, however, that area was sparsely populated, and the Eskimo population 

will not be discussed here. The Nowitna lies within the territory of the Upper Yukon 

subdivision. The Koyukon Athabascan depended heavily on the anadromous fish resources of 

the Yukon and Koyukuk rivers and their major tributaries, along with moose, caribou, and a 

variety of other fish, small game, and—to a lesser extent—plant resources for their food 

source. They frequently occupied large semi-permanent villages and fish camps during the 

summers and dispersed from these into the tributary drainages for hunting and trapping in 

the fall and winter. 

At the time of European contact, it was estimated that the Lower Yukon Koyukon group 

numbered about 425 individuals, while the Koyukuk River Koyukon numbered over 289 

people, and the Upper Yukon Koyukon were at about 300 people. Koyukon and Upper Yukon 

groups were generally divided into small bands of less than 50 members that were based on a 

core of several matrilineal extended families and included some unrelated individuals. Band 

territories were fairly well defined and quite large, reaching as much as 50 to 75 miles across. 

In the Lower Yukon area, there was no clan development, and band areas were exploited by 

groups based on semi-sedentary villages. Communal property (most large game hunting 

areas, fowling areas, and berry picking areas) was present within most band territories, but 

other sites were seen as private or family property e.g., beaver houses and ponds, other 

trapping areas, fishing sites, and bear dens (Clark 1981). 

There was no distinct developed political organization among the Koyukon, although 

individual leaders were recognized in some cases (most commonly, they were economically 

successful and often the owners of the best fishing, hunting, and trapping areas). The elders 

of a group might be called upon to decide on important matters, but this was not a structured 

process. The Koyukuk River Koyukon maintained friendly relations with the Upper Yukon 

group. However, the Koyukuk River and Upper Yukon Koyukon regarded the Lower Yukon 

Koyukon as hostile (Simeone 1982). 

3.4.1.3 History 

European presence in the Middle Yukon region began with Andrei Glazunov’s exploration up 

the Unalakleet river and overland to the Yukon settlement of Ttutago in 1837 (deLaguna 

2000). Declining sea otter populations had prompted the Russian-American company to seek 

new sources of fur on Alaska’s Arctic coast and in the interior. In 1838, Petr Vasil’evich 

Malakhov of the Russian-American Company followed a similar route to Glazunov’s. He found 

a suitable location for a trading post near the mouth of the Nulato River. Despite tremendous 

impacts of smallpox in Nulato, a post was established the following year. For the first several 

years, operation of the post was intermittent due to lack of food and periodic burning of the 

company’s buildings by local Natives. 

3-60 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
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European trade goods had become available some years earlier through Yupik and Inupiaq 

Eskimo middlemen trading from the Llower Yukon, Norton Sound, and the northwest coast 

(De Laguna 2000). In 1842, Lieutenant Lavrentii A. Zagoskin of the Russian Navy was sent to 

investigate the unknown trade routes by which much fur from the Nulato region was 

bypassing the post and reaching Kotzebue and thence Siberia. In 1843, Zagoskin led an 

exploration up the Koyukuk River as far as the Kateel River, where he discovered a wellestablished trade network between the Koyukuk Indians and Malemiut Eskimos of Kotzebue 

Sound (De Laguna 2000). Zagoskin also led an expedition up the Yukon River to near the 

mouth of the Nowitna River. The party encountered a number of camps and settlements 

along the Yukon River, as well as native traders from the upper Innoko River.

The establishment of the Hudson's Bay Company Post at Fort Yukon by Alexander Hunter 

Murray in 1847 provided competition for the Russians and reduced the importance of the 

Lower Yukon Koyukon as trade middlemen for the upriver Koyukon. The post was 

continuously operated until 1869 (Turck and Turck 1992). There was an important Native 

trading site and settlement called Nowikakat at the mouth of the Nowitna River, which was 

visited by the explorers Whymper and Dall from the Scientific Corps of the Western Union 

Telegraph Expedition in 1867 (De Laguna 2000). At the time, Nowikakat was a substantial 

village of some 150 residents who were living in skin and commercial woven fabric tents. The 

natives were equipped with English flintlocks, as opposed to percussion rifles which were 

obtained from the Russians (Simeone 1982). The first trading post in the immediate vicinity of 

the Nowitna was established in 1869 by Gregory Hakorcins (later changed to Kokrines), a 

Russian or Creole trader, at Fourteen Mile. Hakorcins subsequently moved his post to the 

site on the Yukon River currently known as the Kokrines. This move resulted in the move of 

the entire village Nowikakat (Hart 1981). 

Unrest between Native trade groups and the Russians, including periodic raids and attacks, 

was somewhat common in the region and culminated in the Nulato Massacre of 1851. This 

attack was one of a series of strikes made by the Koyukuk River people against the Lower 

Yukon Koyukon, likely the result of trade rivalry. It resulted in the death of over 50 people 

living in and around the trading post. Despite these difficulties, the Nulato post continued to 

serve as a profitable trading station until the Alaska Purchase in 1867. 

The upper Koyukuk River area remained virtually unexplored by non-Natives until 1885 when 

Lieutenant Henry T. Allen was sent by the U.S. Army to investigate reports of a drop in 

prices paid for furs and to count the Native people. Gold prospectors followed Allen and by 

the late 1880s had begun what has been a long history of mining in the area (mainly upriver of 

the Koyukuk). The first ascent of the Koyukuk River by steamboat occurred in 1897. The 

same year, a U.S. Post Office was established at Nulato. The first wood-powered paddlewheeler had begun regular service on the Yukon River in 1869. The cutting of cordwood for 

the steamboats provided some income to Natives living along the river. Gold was discovered 

near Ruby in 1907, beginning another substantial influx of outsiders to the area. Mining 

interests in the Ruby region were generally confined to the area west of the Nowitna 

(Hart 1981). 

The construction of a military telegraph line and posts along the north side of the Yukon River 

brought more Americans into the area at the turn of the twentieth century. The posts were 

located about 40 miles apart, resulting in a semi permanent Euro-American presence 

throughout the area. However, the line was virtually abandoned by about 1915 (Simeone 

1982). Roadhouses became established to accommodate dog teams hauling mail and other 

winter travelers and remained for some time scattered along the Yukon at approximately 30-

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-61 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

mile intervals (Hart 1981). Wireless radio transmitters were installed at telegraph stations 

along the river in 1922, operated by the U.S. Army Signal Corps (Hart 1981). 

Interest in gold mining had generally subsided by the 1920s, and numerous miners left the 

region upon being called up to fight in World War I (Hart 1981). Many of the remaining 

residents turned to trapping for income. A boom in fur prices in the 1920s and 1930s filled the 

river valleys with trappers, both Native and white. Many of the Natives had begun to settle in 

communities that offered a store, school, and church. Missionaries had begun work in the 

region near the turn of the century. Several mission schools were well established by World 

War I. Changes in technology continued to affect life in the Koyukon Region, with airplanes 

and gas engines replacing the dog team and paddled boats. 

A long steady process of change for the Koyukon people was well underway by World War I. 

The shift from a semi-nomadic, subsistence oriented lifestyle to a community centered, 

sedentary lifestyle became more complete by 1956, by which time all of the Koyukon villages had 

a school (Turck and Turck 1992). Requirements for year-round school attendance had 

significant impacts on the culture and lifestyle. Prior to 1976, most communities did not have 

secondary schools, and older students were sent to boarding schools. Community 

infrastructures developed to accommodate increasing populations and changes in technology. 

Airports; roads; housing developments; clinics; and water, sewer, and electrical systems 

gradually became available in each village. The passage of the 1971 Alaska Native Claims 

Settlement Act (ANSCA) also had substantial impacts on the organization of tribes and their 

relationship to the land. Despite all these changes, the harvest of fish, game, and other 

resources remained vital components of the Koyukon economy and culture. When the Alaska 

National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA) became law in 1980, it contained language 

specifically supporting continued traditional and customary use on federal lands. Contemporary 

life in the Koyukon region today is a unique blend of modern culture along with subsistence 

practices and other lifestyle elements which differ surprisingly little from the days of first 

European contact. 

A summary table of historic events is found in appendix I. 

3.4.1.4 Archaeological and Historic Sites 

The Koyukuk has 269 recorded historic and cultural sites. Of these, 128 are listed on the 

Alaska Heritage Resources Survey (AHRS), and most of these are archaeological sites. The 

non-AHRS sites include place names, historic sites, cabins, and other reported but unverified 

sites. The best known archaeological sites on the Koyukuk include Hahanudan Lake, the 

Batza Tena obsidian source on the Little Indian River, and the Nogahabara sand dunes. The 

sites at Hahanudan Lake represent an apparent intrusion of Ipiutak Eskimo peoples into an 

area presently occupied by Athabascans (Clark 1977). Artifacts from these sites are similar to 

those recovered from the Ipiutak site at Point Hope. Sites around Little Indian River span a 

time period of up to 12,000 years and a wide diversity of cultures ranging from Paleo-Indian 

materials (fluted points) up through sites from the immediate pre-contact period (Clark and 

Clark 1993). This area accounts for over 75 of the AHRS sites listed for the Koyukuk. One 

site on the Nogahabara sand dunes is a Pleistocene age site where over 260 biface and uniface 

tools, microblades, and preforms were recovered (Odess and Rasic 2007). Within the 

assemblage are microblade cores, lanceolate bifaces, and notched projectile points—tool types 

previously thought to be characteristic of unrelated cultural traditions and archaeological 

complexes. Most artifacts were obsidian from Batza Tena and showed transport wear that 

demonstrates a high level of material conservation. 

3-62 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
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Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-63 

During later prehistoric periods, the question of the dynamics between coastally adapted 

(Norton, Ipiutak) people moving inland and their interactions, if any, with Athabascans is of 

great archaeological interest. If more recent sites are found, they would provide information 

on the development and adaptations of Koyukon Athabascan culture. The history of the 

Koyukuk River area is incomplete. Historic remains are an invaluable record of the early 

exploration and use of this area of the refuge. 

The Northern Unit Innoko has about 175 recorded native place names but no recorded 

archaeological or historic sites, and nothing listed on the AHRS. 

The Nowitna has 10 recorded sites, including two on the AHRS. Among these is Nowikakat, a 

settlement and trade center situated at the mouth of the Nowitna River. No extensive work 

has been done at this site. The present extent of the remains of the village is unknown. Two 

other reported camp locations (Minkhotlyatno River Camp at the mouth of Big Creek, and 

Tsoonakeek'at on Junakaket Slough) may also contain archaeological remains. 

It is unlikely that these small and geographically restricted samples represent the true extent 

of the archaeological resources of the Refuge. It is probable that there are a substantial 

number of sites that have yet to be discovered. Since the area was ung1aciated during the late 

Pleistocene, it is entirely possible that other very early sites may be located within the Refuge. 

Due to the meandering nature of the streams of the area, many such sites may already have 

been destroyed or covered by natural causes. There is a high likelihood of finding recent sites 

on present stream banks, but older sites probably only remain on higher ground. 

3.4.2 Population and Settlement Patterns 

3.4.2.1 Overview1

 

The Refuge lies within the Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area (Figure 3-10), which covers over onequarter of Alaska’s landmass but is home to less than 5,900 people (Table 3-11). Three other 

national wildlife refuges are also located wholly or partially within the Census Area. Most of 

the Refuge, and most of the communities affected by refuge management, lie within the 

Koyukuk–Middle Yukon Census Sub-area. Galena is the largest community in the sub-area, 

with 675 residents. 

Table 3-11. Population trends in the Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area in Alaska 1990–2020.

Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area – Alaska 

 Census Estimate Projections 

1990 2000 2006 2010 2015 2020

Population 8,478 6,551 5,844 5,899 5,766 5,595

About 70 percent of the Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area population is Alaska Native. Forty-six 

percent of area residents are female, and the median age is 32. Males have a median age of 33. 

Roughly 74 percent of the adult population has at least a high school education, and 14 percent 

have completed a bachelor’s or higher degree. 

 

1

Except where otherwise noted, this section is adapted from: Windisch-Cole, B. 2001: The Yukon-Koyukuk Census 

Area: A profile of rural Interior Alaska. Alaska Economic Trends, 21(2). 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3-64 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

The Institute of Social and Economic Research (ISER) at the University of Alaska prepared a 

set of population projections for Alaska in the late 1980s (Goldsmith 1986) based on four 

different economic scenarios. The population in the Yukon-Koyukuk region was projected to 

grow between zero and 31 percent from 1986–2010. After a short period of growth, however, 

the populations of most communities in the region stabilized or began to decline. In 2000, 

there were just over 2,200 residents in the region—about 100 fewer than in 1980 (Table 3-12). 

Most of the reduced population is attributable to declines in Galena, which now has nearly 200 

fewer residents than in 1990. Huslia is the only village to have had a substantial population 

increase since 1980 (Table 3-12). Current population projections suggest a continued but less 

dramatic decline for the Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area (Palin et al. 2007) (see Table 3-12). 

Table 3-12. Population trends in the Koyukuk, Northern Unit Innoko, and Nowitna area communities. 

COMMUNITY 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 

Galena 0 0 0 0 0 67 44 176 261 302 765 833 675

Hughes 0 0 0 0 45 0 32 49 69 85 73 54 78

Huslia 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 65 168 159 188 207 293

Kaltag 45 29 0 141 89 137 140 121 165 206 247 240 230

Koyukuk 150 174 0 121 124 143 106 79 128 124 98 126 101

Nulato 168 118 281 230 258 204 113 176 283 308 350 359 336

Ruby 0 0 0 0 128 132 138 132 179 145 197 170 188

Tanana 0 203 186 398 213 185 170 228 349 120 388 345 308

TOTAL 363 524 467 890 857 868 743 1,026 1,602 1,449 2,306 2,334 2,209

3.4.2.2 Principle Refuge-Affected Communities2

 

Residents of eight local villages rely most heavily on the Refuge for subsistence resources. 

These communities are Galena, Hughes, Huslia, Kaltag, Koyukuk, Nulato, Ruby, and Tanana 

(see Figure 3-10 for locations). Galena is important as a regional service hub and population 

center and as the site of the refuge headquarters. Within the broader region, these eight 

communities are most likely to affect, and be affected by, refuge management. 

All of the villages are accessible by air or water only. No roads connect these villages with any 

other community or to Alaska’s road system. All the villages are located on the bank of a major 

river: six are on the Yukon River, and two are on the Koyukuk River. Rivers are essential to 

local transportation—boats provide warm season transportation between villages and access to 

subsistence resources, and river barges deliver cargo during summer months. Snowmobile 

trails are established on the rivers for winter travel. Automobiles, snowmobiles, ATVs, and 

boats are used for local transportation within the village. State-owned, lighted gravel airstrips 

provide year-round access. Galena has the only paved airstrip. Supplies, services, and travel 

out of the region generally route through Fairbanks, the urban center of interior Alaska. 

 

2

Except where otherwise noted, this section is adapted from the Alaska Community Database Online, provided by 

the Alaska Department of Commerce, Community, and Economic Development and accessed online at: 

www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/commdb/CF_BLOCK.htm 
Cha

Figure 3-10. Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

Galena 

Galena is located on the north bank of the Yukon River 270 air miles west of Fairbanks. It 

lies just north of the northeastern portion of the Northern Unit Innoko and is less than 10 

miles south of the Koyukuk. Galena was established in 1918 near a fish camp called 

“Henry’s Point” as a supply point for nearby lead ore mines. In 1920, Natives living 14 miles 

upriver at Louden began moving to Galena to sell wood to steamboats and to work hauling 

freight for the mines. A school was established in the mid-1920s, and a post office opened in 

1932. Military presence at Galena began in 1941 with the construction of a runway and 

hangar adjacent to the civilian airport. In 1945, the community suffered a major flood. 

During the 1950s, military facilities at Galena and the nearby Campion Air Force Station 

were constructed in support of the 5072nd Air Base Group, headquartered at Elmendorf Air 

Force Base, Anchorage. The Air Force presence in Galena provided improvements to the 

airport and the local infrastructure and economic growth for the area. Due to another 

severe flood in 1971, a new community site (New Town) was developed alongside Alexander 

Lake, about 1.5 miles east of the original townsite. City offices, the health clinic, schools, a 

store, and more than 150 homes were eventually constructed in “New Town,” and a city 

government was formed. The Galena Air Force Base was placed in a caretaker status in 

1993, following the end of the Cold War. It was decommissioned in 2008. Some of the base 

facilities are being used by the Galena School District as a boarding school. Galena serves as 

the transportation, government, and commercial center for the western interior. Federal, 

State, city, school, and village government jobs dominate, but there are other jobs associated 

with air transportation and retail businesses. 

Hughes 

The community of Hughes, situated on the east bank of the Koyukuk River, is surrounded by 

the Indian Mountains to the east, the Hatdolitna Mountains to the north, and Hughes 

Mountain directly west of the town. Hughes is about 210 miles northwest of Fairbanks, 65 

miles northeast of Huslia, and 12 miles north of the Koyukuk. Hughes is the smallest of the 

communities near the Refuge with a population of 78 in 2000. There are strong social ties 

between the residents of Hughes and Allakaket and Huslia. 

Traditionally, the Hughes area was used as a trade center between the Athabascan and 

Inupiaq Eskimo. In 1884, Roy Hughes prospected an area two miles upstream from the 

village, but according to the U.S. Geological Survey, the community was named in 1910 after 

New York Governor Charles Hughes. It served as a riverboat landing and supply port for the 

Indian River gold fields until 1915 when the local mining industry declined. The Hughes Post 

Office was established in 1942. An airstrip was built in the 1950s, a school in 1956, and a clinic 

in 1968. The city was incorporated in 1973. Local roads were built in 1974. A community-wide 

electric system was developed in 1981. In September 1994, flood waters destroyed and swept 

away nearly all of the community buildings, homes, and winter food caches. Residents rebuilt 

homes and facilities following the flood. River transportation is very important to Hughes, 

although barge service is not reliable due to shallow water. Most fuel and heavy freight is 

brought in by air. 

Huslia 

Huslia is the only community located within refuge boundaries (Koyukuk). It is situated on 

the east bank of the Koyukuk River in the Koyukuk Lowland. The lands surrounding Huslia 

are generally low with numerous lakes, streams, and rivers. Roundabout Mountain is 12 miles 

southwest of Huslia on the opposite side of the Koyukuk River. The Huslia River flows east 

3-66 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
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across the northern portion of the Koyukuk to its confluence with the Koyukuk River midway 

between the old townsite of Cutoff and Huslia. Because of its location, subsistence activities of 

Huslia residents are centered on the Koyukuk. 

The village of Huslia traces its roots to the Cutoff Trading Post, which was established in the 

1920s about 4 miles north (16 river miles) of Huslia. In 1949, the community moved to the 

present site because the Cutoff location flooded frequently, the ground was swampy, and the 

drinking water was of poor quality. Huslia (originally spelled Huslee) was named after a local 

stream. The area had been used as a burial site since 1886, but by the time of the move, most 

of the old cemetery had been destroyed by bank erosion. In 1950, the first school was 

established, followed in 1952 by a post office, airport, and limited road construction. At that 

time, families began to live year round at Huslia. In 1960, a health clinic was constructed, and 

in 1963, hand-pumped water wells were installed. The city government was incorporated in 

1969. Running water and indoor plumbing arrived in 1974. A new airstrip was constructed 

during the summer of 2000, and new homes have been built along the old airstrip. A new clinic 

and water plant were constructed during 2005–2007. Cargo arrives by barge several times a 

year. Huslia is accessible by air year round. 

Kaltag 

Kaltag is located on the west bank of the Yukon River at the base of the Nulato Hills, directly 

across the river from the Northern Unit Innoko. Some residents of Kaltag have historic ties to 

the Kaiyuh Flats and continue to use the southwest corner of the Northern Unit Innoko. The 

village is 335 miles west of Fairbanks, 33 miles southwest of Nulato, and 75 miles west of Galena. 

The community has undergone numerous changes during its 150-year history. It was located on 

an old portage trail, which led east through the mountains to Unalakleet. It served primarily as 

a cemetery for surrounding villages until about 1900, when disease and starvation dramatically 

affected the Native population. Survivors from nearby areas moved to Kaltag to regroup. 

During the next 30 years, mining and steamship activity caused a mini-boom in the area. A 

series of schools and post offices opened, closed, and re-opened again during this period. 

Modern facilities, including an airport and clinic, were constructed in the 1960s. The city 

government was incorporated in 1969. A lighted airstrip, regular barge service, and the 90-mile 

Old Man Trail to Unalakleet provide relatively good access into and out of the community. 

Koyukuk 

The village of Koyukuk is located at the confluence of the Yukon and Koyukuk rivers, directly 

across from Koyukuk Island and the Kaiyuh Flats, and about 10 miles south of the Koyukuk. 

Koyukuk is 290 miles west of Fairbanks and 30 miles west of Galena. In 1867, Koyukuk 

became the site of a telegraph station when the military telegraph line was established on 

north side of the Yukon River. A trading post opened around 1880, just before the gold rush 

of 1884–1885. The post office was first operated in 1898. The first school was constructed in 

1939. After the school was built, families began to live in Koyukuk year round. The city was 

incorporated in 1973. The community has experienced severe flooding from both the Yukon 

and Koyukuk rivers, most recently in 2006. Significant erosion of the riverbank since the 

1960s has also caused loss of structures, including homes, a Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) 

school, a church, a store, and two community halls. The community is considering relocation 

to a higher site within a few miles of the current location. Koyukuk has a small local road 

system, summer barge service, and a State-owned, lighted gravel airstrip. The airstrip was 

rebuilt in 2005–2006 to raise it above the floodplain. 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-67 
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Nulato 

Located next to the Nulato Hills, Nulato lies on the west bank of the Yukon River across from 

the Kaiyuh Flats. Nulato is located 310 air miles west of Fairbanks and 35 miles west of 

Galena. The first trading post in the region was established at Nulato by the Russians in 1839. 

Nulato was a center of missionary activity. Many area Natives moved to the village after a 

Roman Catholic mission and school, Our Lady of Snows Mission, was completed in 1887. A 

post office was opened in 1897. Nulato incorporated as a city in 1963. During the 1970s, a 

clinic, water supply, new school, and telephone and television services were developed. In 

1981, housing development began above the floodplain at a new townsite located on a hill north 

two miles from the old townsite. Nulato has a small local road system, summer barge service, 

and an airstrip. 

Ruby 

Ruby is located on the south bank of the Yukon River in the Kilbuck-Kuskokwim Mountains, 

just downstream from the confluence of the Melozitna and Yukon rivers. It is about 230 air 

miles west of Fairbanks and 50 air miles east of Galena. Ruby lies adjacent to the western 

edge of the Nowitna. The 35-mile State-maintained road south to Long Creek Mine comes 

within eight miles of the Nowitna. 

Ruby developed as a supply point for gold prospectors following a gold strike at Ruby Creek in 

1907. The village was named for the red stones, thought to be rubies, found in the same creek. 

At the time, there was a telegraph station across the river at Melozi. In 1911, a second gold 

strike 30 miles south at Long Creek attracted hundreds more prospectors to the area. At one 

time, over 1,000 miners lived in Ruby and around the nearby creeks. Placerville, Poorman, 

Sulatna Crossing, Kokrines, and Long Creek were some of the area’s boom settlements. 

A post office was established in 1912. Ruby incorporated as a city in 1913. Initially, the city 

was governed by miner’s meetings, then later by Pioneer Igloo Number 5 Lodge. After the 

gold rush, the population declined rapidly. By 1939, there were only 139 residents. During 

World War II, the mining operations were shut down, and most of the residents left. After the 

war, the remaining residents of nearby Kokrines relocated to Ruby, and the population began 

to increase. Gold mining continues in the area on a very small scale. In 1998, Barry Clay 

discovered the largest gold nugget ever found in Alaska. It weighed over 294 troy ounces and 

was found in the Long-Poorman area. Ruby incorporated as a second class city in 1973. A 

clinic, water source, and schools were constructed in the 1970s. During the 1980s, telephones 

and television services were provided. Construction of a new water source, water treatment 

plant, and washeteria was completed during the past decade. Ruby is accessible by a lighted 

gravel airstrip, and barges make several deliveries each summer. Riverboats, trucks, 

snowmobiles, and ATVs are used for local transportation. 

Tanana 

Tanana is located on the north bank of the Yukon River a few miles west of its confluence with 

the Tanana River. The village is located about 130 miles west of Fairbanks and about 25 miles 

east of the Nowitna. Tanana was a traditional trading settlement for Koyukon and Tanana 

Athabascans before European contact. In 1880, Harper’s Station, an Alaska Commercial 

Company Trading Post, was established 13 miles downriver from the present townsite. In 

1881, Church of England missionaries from Canada built a mission eight miles downriver. 

Between 1887 and 1900, an elaborate school and hospital complex, the St. James Mission, was 

constructed. It became an important source of services and social change along both rivers. 

3-68 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
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In 1899, Fort Gibbon was founded at Tanana to maintain the telegraph line between 

Fairbanks and Nome. A post office was also established, and several other trading posts 

developed around the turn of the century. Fort Gibbon was abandoned in 1923. The St. James 

Hospital was transferred to the BIA administration in the 1920s. During World War II, an air 

base was established near Tanana as a refueling stop for the lend-lease aircraft program. New 

hospital facilities were built in 1949; and during the 1950s, hospital administration was 

transferred to the U.S. Public Health Service. The City of Tanana was incorporated in 1961. 

The hospital complex was a major employer during this period but was closed in 1982. Also in 

1982, Tanana incorporated as a first class city to assume control of the local school system. 

The hospital facilities were remodeled for use as a health clinic, counseling center, tribal office, 

and Regional Elders Residence. Tanana is accessible only by air and river transportation. 

The city maintains 32 miles of local roads and a dock on the Yukon River. 

3.4.2.3 Social Infrastructure 

Social infrastructure includes local government, housing, education, health services, local 

transportation, water and sewage systems, solid waste disposal, police and fire protection, and 

communication systems. 

Galena and Tanana are first class cities. The other villages are incorporated second class 

cities. All eight villages have mayor-council governments. Traditional tribal governments are 

active in all of the villages. 

All of the communities are eligible for land entitlements under the Alaska Native Claims 

Settlement Act. The Native residents of area communities are shareholders in Doyon, 

Limited (the regional Native corporation), members of the non-profit Tanana Chiefs 

Conference, and shareholders in local village corporations organized under ANCSA. The 

regional and local corporations have land holdings and are often involved in local business 

concerns. Table 3-13 lists the communities and their respective village corporations. 

Table 3-13. ANSCA village corporations in the vicinity of the Refuge.

Community ANCSA Village Corporation 

Galena Gana-A'Yoo, Limited 

Hughes K'oyitl'ots'ina, Limited 

Huslia K'oyitl'ots'ina, Limited 

Kaltag Gana-A'Yoo, Limited 

Koyukuk Gana-A'Yoo, Limited 

Nulato Gana-A'Yoo, Limited 

Ruby Dineega Corporation 

Tanana Tozitna, Limited 

The communities all have a similar infrastructure. Law enforcement is provided by city police 

departments in the villages of Galena and Tanana; village public safety officers in Huslia, 

Nulato, and Ruby; and the Alaska State Troopers in all villages. 

Elementary and secondary schools are available in all of the villages. The Tanana Chiefs 

Conference offers the Headstart program for preschoolers in Huslia, Kaltag, Nulato, Ruby, 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-69 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

and Tanana. Galena’s Headstart program is run by Galena City Schools. The Galena School 

District also operates the Galena Interior Learning Academy, a high-school level boarding 

school, as well as the IDEA home-school support program. 

Health facilities are provided in the villages by the Indian Health Services, which is under the 

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Clinics are staffed by health aides trained 

by the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS). Galena has medical and mental health facilities at 

the city-owned Edgar Nollner Health Center, which also provides services to outlying villages. 

In addition, PHS physicians and other health caregivers visit the villages regularly. 

Communication facilities are relatively good in the area. Post offices, satellite communications 

(telephone and television), and electricity are available in all of the communities. The region is 

served by a public radio station (KIYU) located in Galena. 

Housing consists of both wood frame and log homes. Most homes date from the 1960s with 

recent construction becoming more common. Public lodging is available in Galena, Huslia, 

Ruby, and Tanana. Community water and sewage systems are available to most residents. 

Many residents haul water from a public water source (drilled wells). Some of the Galena 

residents are served by a centralized water system. 

3.4.3 Subsistence Way of Life 

In 1980, the U.S. Congress passed the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act 

(ANILCA), which established the Refuge, along with other conservation system units. One of 

the purposes of the Act, and of the Refuge, is to provide the continued opportunity for rural 

residents to stay engaged in a subsistence way of life (ANILCA sec. 101(c)). Subsistence is 

regarded as a way of life rather than merely a recreational activity. The meanings of 

subsistence are based on a culture that has been shaped over the years by family traditions, 

religion, relationships with particular animals and places, and a preference for natural foods. 

Several communities rely on the resources of the Refuge for subsistence purposes: Hughes, 

Huslia, Koyukuk, Nulato, Kaltag, Galena, Ruby, and Tanana are all either adjacent or within 

the Refuge. The primary subsistence-use areas within the Refuge are the rivers and river 

corridors of the Yukon, Koyukuk, Huslia, and Nowitna rivers, as well as the Kaiyuh Flats and 

Dulbi Slough. 

A wide variety of subsistence activities occur year round on the Refuge, while other activities 

are seasonal and depend upon the resource and its location. Waterfowl hunting, a common 

subsistence activity, occurs in late spring and fall. Fishing for northern pike, by jigging 

through the ice, typically occurs in the early spring. As spring turns to summer, salmon 

fishing begins, starting with Chinook and summer chum, and then progressing to Coho salmon 

and fall chum in late summer and fall. Sheefish and other whitefish species are also caught 

during the summer. Berry picking and the gathering of other plants occurs during the late 

summer. Moose hunting and firewood gathering are primarily fall activities. Throughout the 

fall and early winter, blackfish, burbot, and whitefish are harvested. As lakes and rivers begin 

to freeze in early winter, nets are sometimes set under the ice for whitefish and northern pike. 

Other animals hunted during the fall and winter months are Spruce and Ruffed grouse, 

ptarmigan, snowshoe hare, muskrat, beaver, and black and grizzly bear. Trapping begins 

after the lakes and ponds have frozen, usually during early November. Marten, beaver, lynx, 

and fox are the primary furbearers trapped. Other species include: muskrat, mink, otter, wolf, 

and wolverine. Early spring is also a traditional time to harvest moose and caribou, provided 

populations are stable. 

3-70 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
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Following is a description of subsistence activities in the villages surrounding the Refuge. 

Galena 

Galena’s central location allows residents to use the Refuge. Large mammal hunting in 

Galena focuses mainly on moose, although bear and caribou are taken, when available. The 

Yukon and Koyukuk rivers and their tributaries are used for traveling to moose and black 

bear hunting areas. The Alaska Department of Fish and Game (Brown et al. 2004) reported 

110 moose were harvested (on average) each year from 1997–2003 by Galena residents. 

During the same time period, an average of 17 caribou and 11 black bear were harvested each 

year (Brown et al. 2004). 

Galena residents harvest fish primarily from the Yukon River. A smaller percentage of fish 

are caught in tributaries, sloughs, and lakes off the Yukon River. Set nets, drift nets, and fish 

wheels are utilized for harvesting salmon. From 1994–1998, an average of 1,992 Chinook, 

2,792 summer chum, 3,814 fall chum, and 636 Coho salmon were harvested each year. From 

1999–2003, an average of 1,943 Chinook, 712 summer chum, 955 fall chum, and 402 Coho 

salmon were harvested each year (Busher et al. 2008). From 1999–2003, an average of 1,943 

Chinook, 712 summer chum, 955 fall chum, and 402 Coho salmon were harvested each year 

(Busher et al. 2008). 

Trapping is still a common activity that supports the subsistence lifestyle of residents. 

Residents use the Koyukuk, Northern Unit Innoko, and main Innoko refuges for furbearer 

trapping. 

Hughes 

There are strong social ties between the residents of Hughes and Allakaket and Huslia. The 

stretch of river that lies between the villages is the focus of many subsistence activities. Moose 

are a primary source of protein in Hughes, although they were generally not hunted before the 

1930s. Residents of Hughes hunt moose along the Koyukuk River, from the mouth of the Kanuti 

River to below Hog River Landing, and up the Little Indian River. Most of the hunting is 

concentrated in the Huggins Island–Matthews Slough area on the Koyukuk. The river corridor 

that is used for moose hunting is also used for black bear, waterfowl, and some small game 

hunting. Black bear are hunted primarily in the early fall, though a few are taken in the spring. 

Hughes residents also participate in bird and waterfowl hunting. In 1998, residents harvested 

a total of 130 ducks and 128 geese, nearly 7.3 birds per capita, the highest in the region (Webb 

1999). Most of the small game hunting takes place in the area surrounding the community. 

Common species taken include snowshoe hare, grouse, and ptarmigan. 

Caribou have historically been an important food source. More recently, when the Western 

Arctic caribou herd comes into the Hughes-Huslia area, residents will hunt them. 

Fish comprise the largest volume of food harvested in Hughes. Summer run chum salmon 

make up a major portion of this harvest. Much of the fishing is done using set nets at fish 

camps along the Koyukuk River from Discovery Creek to Florence Island. The lower part of 

this harvest area is within the Koyukuk. Most of the fishing occurs downstream from the 

community where the salmon are more abundant and in better condition. Non-salmon fish, 

including blackfish, burbot, grayling, northern pike, sheefish, sucker, and whitefish are also 

harvested. Whitefish species—such as broad, humpback, and cisco—are harvested mainly 

with a set or seine net in the Koyukuk River. In 2002, an estimated 12,541 pounds of nonKoyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-71 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

salmon fish (burbot, grayling, pike, sheefish, sucker, and whitefish) were harvested by Hughes 

residents (Andersen et al. 2004). 

Trapping areas, used by the residents of Hughes, include the general area from the Hatdolitna 

Hills west to the Hogatza River and from the Klikhtentotzna Creek area south to the 

Takhakhdona Hills. The southern portion of the Hughes trapping area is within the Koyukuk. 

Plant gathering is an activity which fulfills a wide range of needs in the community. Most 

buildings, including houses, smokehouses, and storage buildings, are built from local timber. 

Wood is the normal heat source. Firewood is generally gathered close to town, along the 

Koyukuk River between Hughes and Allakaket, or in a nearby burn area. Smaller poles are 

used for wall tents and fish drying racks. 

Huslia 

Huslia is located within the Koyukuk. Due to Huslia’s location, subsistence activities (2004 

census indicated 269 individuals) are focused on the Koyukuk. Residents often utilize 

resources in a large proportion of the Refuge. 

Large mammal hunting focuses on moose, caribou, and black bear. Residents mainly hunt for 

large mammals along the Koyukuk, Huslia, and Dulbi River corridors. Caribou are taken 

when available. On average, 77 moose, 120 caribou, and 26 black bear were harvested annually 

from 1996 to 2003 by Huslia residents (Brown et al 2004). 

Waterfowl and small game are also important food sources. In 1998, 535 ducks and geese 

were harvested in the surrounding area (Webb 1999). Small game hunting has concentrated 

on hares, beaver, muskrat, ptarmigan, and grouse. 

Trapping is a major activity that supports the subsistence lifestyle of the residents, providing 

furbearers for clothing, crafts, and sale, as well as food. The first part of the trapping season 

focuses on marten, fox, and lynx. In February and March, trapping emphasis shifts to beaver. 

They are harvested for their meat and their pelts. The area used for trapping by residents 

extends over much of the Koyukuk. People use the area up the Dakli River north to the 

Continental Divide, Cutoff Slough and the mouth of the Hogatza River, the Holitnakakatina 

Creek and Natlaratlin River areas to the south, from the Nayuka and upper Dulbi rivers to 

Three Day Slough, and along the Huslia River to the Nulato Hills to the west. 

The harvest of fish occurs primarily in the Koyukuk River, from Cutoff Slough to the mouth of 

the Dulbi River. Nets are set for sheefish and whitefish in May, as soon as the ice melts. In 

2002, the total community harvest of these species was 873 sheefish and 4,650 whitefish. A 

total of 33,635 pounds of non-salmon fish (blackfish, burbot, lake trout, grayling, pike, sheefish, 

sucker, and whitefish) were caught in 2002 (Andersen et al. 2004). Summer chum salmon are 

the most heavily harvested of the fish species. Fall chum salmon, pike, and Chinook salmon 

are also important harvest species. 

Kaltag 

Some of the residents have historic ties to the Northern Unit Innoko and continue to use the 

southwest corner of the Refuge and the area south of Kaltag from Kaiyuh Slough along the 

Yukon and Khotol rivers. Most of the resource use by residents occurs off of the Refuge. 

As in the other communities in the region, Kaltag residents depend on moose, waterfowl, small 

game, and fish for protein. Caribou are also taken in the Nulato Hills when available. Berries 

are harvested for food. Wood is gathered for fuel and building materials. 

3-72 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

On average, 41 moose were harvested annually by residents from 1996–2003. Most moose 

hunting takes place along the Yukon River and its smaller tributaries. A considerable portion 

of protein harvested by residents comes from salmon. During the 1994–1998 salmon fishing 

seasons, an annual average of 1,489 Chinook, 820 summer chum, 793 fall chum, and 220 Coho 

salmon were harvested. During the 1999–2003 fishing seasons, an annual average of 1,581 

Chinook, 413 summer chum, 520 fall chum and 330 Coho were caught (Busher et al. 2008). 

Koyukuk 

As with other communities in the region, the residents depend on the resources of the Refuge 

for their living. They use portions of both Koyukuk and Northern Unit Innoko. Use of the 

Koyukuk centers on the Koyukuk River, from the Three Day Slough area south to the Yukon 

River, including parts of the Natlaratlen River to the east, and the Gisasa, Honhosa, and 

Kateel rivers to the west. The northwest portion of the Northern Unit Innoko is used, 

primarily the Squirrel Creek drainage north to the Yukon River. 

Similar to other communities in the area, residents depend mainly on moose and salmon for 

the majority of their protein; and bear, caribou, small game, waterfowl, other fish, and plants 

are also harvested when available. Residents of Koyukuk harvested an annual average of 14 

moose from 2001–2007 (ADF&G 2008). During the 1997 spring and fall waterfowl hunting 

season, residents of Koyukuk harvested 202 ducks and 209 geese (Webb 1999). 

Nulato 

Residents use the Kaiyuh Flats, refuge lands along the Yukon River and up the Koyukuk 

River, as far as the Three Day Slough area, and the Nikolai Slough northwest of Galena. 

The Kaiyuh Flats, which is productive for beaver and mink, is a popular trapping area. 

Trapping occurs in late winter, usually February through April. Residents are similar to the 

other communities in the region and depend on moose, bear, waterfowl, small game, and fish 

for protein. Caribou are also hunted in the Nulato Hills when available. 

Brown et al. (2004) estimated residents, on average, annually harvested 58 moose from 1996 to 

2003. During the same time period, an average of four caribou and three black bear were 

harvested (Brown et al. 2004). In addition to sheefish, whitefish, and pike, salmon is the main 

fish protein source. From 1994–1998, an average of 2,090 Chinook, 1,168 summer chum, 1,122 

fall chum, and 136 Coho salmon were harvested each year (Busher et al. 2008). From 1999–

2003, an average of 1,863 Chinook, 596 summer chum, 766 fall chum, and 299 Coho salmon 

were harvested each year (Busher et al. 2008) 

Waterfowl hunting occurs during late spring and fall on the lakes and sloughs of the Northern 

Unit Innoko. During the 1997 hunting season, Nulato residents harvested 211 ducks and 160 

geese (Webb 1999). 

Ruby 

Residents mainly subsist along the Yukon River corridor and its smaller tributaries. The 

Nowitna is also used for subsistence activities. From 2001–2007, residents have annually 

harvested an average of 16 moose. Caribou and black and grizzly bear are harvested when 

available. 

Along with whitefish, sheefish, and pike, residents harvest salmon by using fish nets and/or 

fish wheels. Salmon species make up the majority of harvested fish species. During the 1994–

1998 salmon fishing seasons, an annual average of 1,936 Chinook, 3,317 summer chum, 3,086 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-73 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3-74 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

fall chum, and 975 Coho salmon were harvested. During the 1999–2003 fishing seasons, an 

annual average of 1,194 Chinook, 1,247 summer chum, 792 fall chum, and 476 Coho were 

caught (Busher et al. 2008). 

Tanana 

Residents mainly subsist along the Yukon and Tanana River corridors and their tributaries. 

They also use the Nowitna for subsistence activities. Moose, waterfowl, and small game are 

harvested on the Nowitna. 

Similar to other communities in the area, residents depend mainly on moose and salmon but also 

harvest caribou, bear, non-salmon fish species, small game, berries, and other plant material 

when available. From 2001–2007, residents annually harvested eight moose (ADF&G 2008). 

During the 1994–1998 salmon fishing season, an annual average of 3,389 Chinook, 4,073 summer 

chum, 24,105 fall chum and 3,294 Coho salmon were harvested (Busher et al. 2008). During the 

1999–2003 fishing season, an annual average of 3,621 Chinook, 2,373 summer chum, 12,406 fall 

chum and 4,200 Coho were caught (Busher et al. 2008). 

3.4.4 Recreation 

3.4.4.1 Overview 

Recreational visitor access to the Refuge is by boat, snowmobile, or small airplane. The 

Refuge issues special use permits for commercial air and boat taxis each year. Some visitors 

arrive in private boats or airplanes. There are no recreational facilities located on the Refuge. 

The primary purpose of most recreational visits to the Refuge is to go moose hunting or 

fishing. Wildlife observation and photography, camping, berry picking, and other incidental 

activities also occurs. 

3.4.4.2 Moose Hunting 

The Refuge lies within portions of Game Management Units (GMU) 21B, 21C, 21D, 24C, and 

24D (see Figure 1-3). A portion of the Koyukuk is within the Koyukuk Controlled Use Area. 

This area is closed during moose hunting season to the use of aircraft for the purposes of 

hunting moose. Since fly-in hunting is primarily recreational, the Controlled Use Area 

generally restricts recreational hunters. The bulk of recreational hunting on the Refuge 

occurs in GMU 21B and 21D along the Nowitna and Koyukuk rivers. 

In 1993, permitting regulations were restructured on all Alaska National Wildlife Refuges, 

and nine, sole-use big-game guide areas were established on the Refuge. Five sole-use biggame guide areas were allocated to the Koyukuk, three to the Nowitna, and one to the 

Northern Unit Innoko (see Figure 3-11). At present, there are three big-game guides 

permitted to operate on the Koyukuk (one guide holds the permit for all three areas), two on 

the Nowitna (one guide holds the permit for two areas), and none on the Northern Unit 

Innoko. Each big-game guide, under his/her prospectus application, is required to report the 

number of clients, moose taken, and areas hunted. 
Cha

Figure 3-11. Refuge guide use areas 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3.4.4.3 Fishing 

Each year, the Refuge issues one or two special use permits for fishing guides who primarily 

advertise opportunities to catch trophy-sized northern pike. At present, one fishing guide 

operates on the Nowitna and one on the Northern Unit Innoko. 

3.4.4.4 Environmental Education and Interpretive Programs 

The focus of the Environmental Education program is to promote a greater public 

understanding and appreciation of the ecology of fish and wildlife, habitat preservation, and 

refuge management. Program activities include school and community programs held in the 

eight adjacent villages; development and distribution of educational resources, curricula, and 

teaching kits; and public contact via an informational kiosk, displays, radio programs, 

newsletters, brochures, and web-sites. The Refuge partners with the Galena schools and 

Louden Tribal Council to conduct a two-week science camp for elementary students each 

summer. The refuge staff has also participated in other village science camp programs as 

opportunities arise. 

3.4.5 Economy 

The region surrounding the Refuge is sparsely populated and relatively undeveloped. 

Opportunities for year-round salaried employment are fairly limited, and overall income is 

low. Hunting and fishing remain vitally important to the subsistence lifestyle and local 

economy. The harvest of big game and fish predominates. It is supplemented by waterfowl 

harvest and the use of plant resources. Harvest of these traditional foods is basic to a 

subsistence-oriented economy. Grocery prices are among the highest in the State because 

transportation charges to small remote communities are high. 

Traditional cash-generating activities of the region (gold mining, commercial fishing, 

firefighting, and trapping) all suffered significant declines during the 1990s (Windisch-Cole 

2001). In 2006, the economy of the Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area supported nearly 2,200 yearround jobs, and over 65 percent were local, State, or federal government positions (Alaska 

Department of Commerce, Community, and Economic Development 2008). Local 

governments and school districts are a dominant employer. Within the private sector, many 

jobs are associated with Alaska Native organizations, many of which provide services under 

contract with non-profit or government entities. Construction activity, another important 

private sector employer, also largely depends on public funding. Public subsidies are common 

and needed in most communities to cover annual operating expenses. 

Overall wage and salary income within the Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area is well below the 

State average. In 2004, the median family income was just over $39,000, more than 45 percent 

below the statewide median. In early 2008, the unemployment rate was just over 17 percent, 

compared to less than 8 percent statewide (Alaska Department of Commerce, Community, 

and Economic Development 2008). The expense of travel and daily life in the area compounds 

the effect of low employment and low family incomes. 

Employment and income statistics do not provide a complete picture of regional economic 

conditions because of the important role that subsistence hunting and fishing plays in the local 

economy. Personal income statistics can give a misleading picture of the well-being of 

residents of communities in which subsistence is a significant source of food and other needs. 

Such communities often have more resources available than is reflected by personal income. 

Nevertheless, even in the most subsistence-oriented communities, cash is still needed for the 

3-76 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

purchase of fuel, food, firearms, ammunition, fishing gear, snowmobiles, boats, ATVs, vehicles, 

and associated maintenance costs. 

3.4.6 Regional Access 

Historically, boats and dog sleds were the only means of access to the Refuge. The advent of 

outboard motors and snowmobiles has brought many changes to local transportation and the 

harvest of natural resources. Now almost all visitors to the Refuge use motorboats, 

snowmobiles, or aircraft for access. There are no established landing strips currently on the 

Refuge, so aircraft must be equipped for landings on snow, water, or gravel bars. There is 

currently no known local use of three- or four-wheelers or other off-road vehicles for access to 

subsistence resources on the Refuge. This finding is based on interviews of elders in the 

villages of Huslia, Ruby, and Galena. 

Residents use trucks and other automobiles, off-road vehicles (primarily four-wheelers), and 

snowmobiles for transportation within the villages. Boats, airplanes, and snowmobiles are 

used for travel between villages and in surrounding areas. No roads connect these villages 

with any other community. All of the villages have airstrips and are served by regularly 

scheduled commercial flights and local air charter operators. The availability of regularly 

scheduled flights to Fairbanks or Anchorage varies from village to village. Most villages have 

a minimum of five daily flights per week. Seasonal barge service is available to all villages 

near the Refuge, depending on water level. Regular barge service is available to the villages 

located on the Yukon River. Access to the Refuge is relatively good by interior Alaska 

standards, and no proposals for additional means of access have been identified. 

3.5 Wilderness Values 

3.5.1 Introduction 

Section 304(g) of ANILCA requires the Service to identify and describe the special values of 

the Refuge, including wilderness values. The term “values” is often viewed synonymously 

with a range of similar terms, from subjective beliefs and preferences (e.g., family values) to 

more objective functions, services, and benefits (e.g., ecological values). Of interest here are 

the objective kinds of values, specifically those that are related to the condition and wild 

character of the natural environment. 

The 1964 Wilderness Act (Act) recognized wilderness as a resource in and of itself and also 

established a mechanism for preserving that resource in a national system of lands. The 

definition of wilderness found in the Act provides a framework for identifying and describing 

wilderness values. According to the Act, the fundamental qualities of wilderness are 

undeveloped, untrammeled, natural, and outstanding opportunities for solitude, or a primitive 

and unconfined type of recreation. These qualities are defined in the following text. In 

addition, the Act states that wilderness “may also contain ecological, geological, or other 

features of scientific, educational, scenic, or historical value.” The 1987 Plan evaluated eight 

potential areas (see section 3.5.3 through 3.5.10) for inclusion as wilderness. Only the 

Koyukuk Wilderness was designated as a Wilderness Area. 

3.5.1.1 Undeveloped 

This is the most immediately observable and easily measured wilderness quality. 

Undeveloped simply means free from roads, structures, and other evidence of modern human 

presence or occupation. The undeveloped quality strongly influences other core wilderness 

values—in particular, experiential opportunities for solitude and primitive recreation. A lone 

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structure may have only minimal impacts on natural processes while still serving as a constant 

reminder of human influence for recreational visitors. Certain kinds of structures or 

improvements may be considered desirable in a given wilderness setting (e.g., trails) or 

acceptable according to specific legislation, but that does not diminish their negative impact on 

the undeveloped quality. 

3.5.1.2 Untrammeled 

The Wilderness Act states that wilderness is “an area where the earth and its community of 

life are untrammeled by man.” In other words, wilderness is essentially uncontrolled or 

unrestricted by purposeful human actions. Synonyms for untrammeled include uncontrolled, 

unmanipulated, self-willed, and wild (Landres et al. 2005). The untrammeled quality of the 

wilderness resource is diminished when ecological events or processes are constrained or 

redirected to suit modern human ends (e.g., by suppressing naturally ignited fires or 

introducing non-native plants or animals). 

3.5.1.3 Natural 

Naturalness is a measure of the overall composition, structure, and function of native species 

and ecological processes in an area. In contrast to the quality of being untrammeled, the 

natural condition of an area may sometimes be enhanced through purposeful human action 

(e.g., to restore an eroded stream bank or eradicate an invasive weed). 

3.5.1.4 Outstanding Opportunities for Solitude 

Solitude in the wilderness context is generally understood to mean freedom from sights, 

sounds, and other evidence of modern man (Landres et al. 2005). While the relative amount of 

freedom from these things necessary to experience solitude is highly personal and variable, 

the Act states only that outstanding opportunities for solitude be provided. Accordingly, 

encountering other people, hearing mechanized sounds (from aircraft overflights, for 

example), or seeing the lights of a distant population center are all examples of things that 

may negatively affect solitude opportunities; while remoteness, low visitor density, and 

vegetative or topographic screening are things that may enhance solitude opportunities. 

3.5.1.5 Outstanding Opportunities for a Primitive and Unconfined Type of Recreation 

Primitive and unconfined recreation occurs in an undeveloped setting and is relatively free 

from social or managerial controls. Primitive recreation in wilderness has largely been 

interpreted as travel by non-motorized and non-mechanical means. Primitive recreation is 

also characterized by experiential dimensions such as challenge, risk, and self-reliance. 

Dispersed use patterns, which frequently occur where there are no facilities, enhance 

opportunities for self-reliance and solitude. Conversely, some actions aimed at maintaining 

opportunities for solitude, such as limited permit management systems, may negatively affect 

opportunities for unconfined experiences. 

3.5.1.6 Other Special Features 

Lands that exhibit the core wilderness qualities described above may also contain additional 

special features of scientific, educational, scenic, or historic value. While the Act makes it clear 

that although these features are not wilderness qualities in and of themselves, their presence 

may distinguish one area with wilderness values from another. In the context of Alaska 

refuges, special features might include such things as active volcanoes or sand dunes, unique 

abundance or concentrations of a given species, fossil deposits, or evidence of prehistoric 

cultures. 

3-78 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
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In 1980, 400,000 acres of the Koyukuk was designated as a Wilderness Area by ANILCA. 

Additionally, as directed by sections 304(g) and 1317 of ANILCA, lands currently 

administered by the Refuge were reviewed during preparation of the first Plan in 1987 “as to 

their suitability or non-suitability for preservation as wilderness” (see sections 3.5.3 through 

3.5.10 for more detail). The following identification and description of wilderness values is 

based on that review, with additions and amendments as appropriate. 

3.5.2 Characteristics Common to All Units 

In designating the Koyukuk Wilderness Area (Figure 3-12), Congress found that it exhibited 

the characteristics of wilderness described in the Wilderness Act. Refuge lands within the 

following wilderness review units also exhibit all the core wilderness values: Purcell Mountain, 

Takkakhdona Hills, Coffee Can Lake, Kaiyuh Flats, Nowitna River, Little Mud, and Big 

Creek. They are largely undeveloped, untrammeled, highly natural, and support abundant 

opportunities for solitude and primitive recreation. All of these management units support the 

full suite of fish and wildlife species and plant communities representative of local ecosystems. 

Topographic variation provides a variety of wildlife habitats within each unit. Habitat 

diversity is created through several natural processes: river meander, ice scouring, spring 

flooding, and fire. The meandering rivers of the Refuge constantly change course by cutting 

new channels and creating oxbows, which eventually become isolated oxbow lakes. The 

floodplains are dotted with lakes in various stages of successional development. They create 

ideal nesting, staging, and migrating habitats for waterfowl. Meandering rivers also produce 

diverse terrestrial habitat as erosion destroys mature vegetation on the outside of river bends 

and deposits gravel bars on the inside of bends. Gravel bars are colonized by early 

successional plants such as herbs, willows (an extremely valuable moose browse), and 

cottonwood. During spring breakup events, large blocks of ice scour vegetation growing along 

the banks of the larger rivers, providing an ideal site for the establishment of early 

successional plants such as herbs, willows, and cottonwood. Ice jams formed during breakup 

cause flooding, which replenishes nutrients in the floodplain. Wildland fires set mature (late 

seral) plant communities back to the early seral stage, provide new wildlife habitat and 

rejuvenated food sources, release nutrients that sustain interior ecosystems, and maintain the 

interconnected fire-related processes (e.g., retention of the dominance of black spruce across 

the interior landscape) that have developed over eons. Hot, dry summers and afternoon 

thunderstorms provide lightning for ignition that has given the interior a rich fire history. 

Although the wilderness review units generally have very few visible signs of human 

manipulation or permanent human presence, there are scattered trapping cabins and 

remnants of other uses within some of them. Major rivers are important travel corridors for 

wildlife and for local residents traveling between villages and/or participating in subsistence 

activities. Many of the rivers are suitable for float trips. Winter travel by snowmobile occurs 

mainly on rivers and traditional trails. Travel away from these areas can be quite challenging 

but offers excellent opportunities for solitude and primitive recreational experiences. 

3.5.3 Koyukuk Wilderness 

The 400,000-acre designated Koyukuk Wilderness Area lies north of the Koyukuk and Kateel 

rivers, and encompasses the Nogahabara sand dunes. Formed thousands of years ago when 

sand from melting glaciers blew up against the Nulato Hills, these spectacular sand dunes are 

constantly shifting in the wind. The dunes range from 50 to 100 feet high and may be over 300 

feet in length. Portions of the dune plant community are relics from the last ice age. 

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3-80 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Also within the Koyukuk Wilderness is Three Day Slough, a wildlife-rich and productive area 

of forest and wetlands north of the Koyukuk River. Travel in the interior of the Koyukuk 

Wilderness is difficult, but Three Day Slough is navigable by boat during high-water 

conditions, and the area is popular for fall moose hunting. Away from the Three Day Slough 

area, most of the topography within the Koyukuk Wilderness consists of rolling stabilized 

dunes dotted with lakes and covered by black and white spruce, aspen, and paper birch 

communities. 

The following areas were analyzed during preparation of the 1987 Plan and were found 

suitable for wilderness designation but were not recommended for inclusion as wilderness. 

3.5.4 Purcell Mountain Unit (Koyukuk) 

The Continental Divide dominates this 840,000-acre unit, forming the northernmost boundary 

of the unit and the Koyukuk. The divide follows the ridgeline of the Purcell Mountains and 

forms the headwaters of Huslia River. Elevation in the unit ranges from Purcell Mountain at 

3,831 feet to less than 200 feet where the Huslia River enters the Koyukuk River. Extensive 

wetlands in the unit are characterized by numerous thaw lakes and tightly meandering 

streams. Part of the Western Arctic caribou herd frequently winter within the Purcell 

Mountain region. The unit is bounded on the south by the Koyukuk Wilderness, on the east by 

a block of privately owned or selected lands, and to the west by Bureau of Land Management 

land. Although difficult to access, the Purcell Mountains and foothills provide good hiking and 

backpacking opportunities, with scenic vistas in all directions visible from the Continental 

Divide. 

3.5.5 Takhakhdona Hills Unit (Koyukuk) 

This unit covers approximately 1,009,000 acres within the eastern portion of the Koyukuk. 

Topography ranges from 3,000-foot mountains to lowlands below 200 feet in elevation. The 

most noticeable topographic features are 3,126-foot high Hochandochtla Mountain on the 

refuge boundary south of the Takhakhdona Hills, the Koyukuk River, and several large lakes 

within the Koyukuk River floodplain. The unit contains a vast region of productive wetlands 

that support large populations of waterfowl as well as other boreal forest wildlife. The 

Koyukuk River is an important migration stream for salmon and an important transportation 

route for local people and visitors. The Takhakhdona Hills unit includes numerous important 

archaeological sites in the Hahanudan Lake and Indian River areas, adding to its unique 

character. 

3.5.6 Coffee Can Lake Unit (Koyukuk) 

Extensive wetlands of the Koyukuk River floodplain (Koyukuk Flats) dominate this 1,500,000-

acre unit. The Koyukuk River drains south along the western portion of the unit. The eastern 

portion is drained by the Dulbi River, a tributary of the Koyukuk River. Mountains in the 

eastern and western portions of the unit contribute to topographic and ecosystem diversity. 

The floodplain is 5–20 miles wide, with meander belts along the rivers and thaw (thermokarst) 

lakes away from the rivers. Broad, rolling silt plains, mantled in part by dunes and in places 

where there are abundant thaw lakes, stand 100–200 feet above the central plains and merge 

into the surrounding uplands. Several low bedrock hills rise from the center of the lowlands. 

The Galena Mountain caribou herd, a small resident herd, winters near Coffee Can Lake and 

spends summers on the eastern side of the unit in the Kokrine Hills. 
Cha

Figure 3-12. Koyukuk Wilderness 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
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3.5.7 Kaiyuh Flats (Northern Unit Innoko) 

The southeastern portion of the unit extends up the northwest slope of the Kaiyuh Hills to an 

elevation of nearly 3,000 feet. However, the majority of the unit is comprised of low lying 

wetlands with abundant lakes, and meandering streams that drain into the Yukon River. The 

primary vegetation along the water courses consists of alder, willow, and grasses, with white 

spruce growing on the better drained sites. The wetland ecosystem found here is subject to 

frequent spring flooding and the rise and fall of the Yukon River level, which helps produce 

abundant populations of fish, waterfowl, and furbearers. The area has long been of great 

importance to local Native subsistence and culture. A large portion of the unit has been 

selected for private (village and Native corporation) ownership. Federal ownership is 

approximately 387,109 acres (52 percent). Primary access is by boat; however, navigation can 

be difficult in the vast maze of wetlands. 

3.5.8 Nowitna River Unit (Nowitna) 

The dominant feature of this 325,000-acre unit is the 223-mile segment of the Nowitna River 

that was designated by ANILCA as a Wild River in the National Wild and Scenic River 

System. The wilderness review unit encompasses the Wild River corridor as well as 182,600 

additional acres within the Nowitna River floodplain and several Yukon River islands. Most of 

the unit is a broad flat floodplain with the exception of the 16 miles of Nowitna Canyon where 

the river cuts through the foothills of the Kuskokwim Mountains. 

Wetlands in the Nowitna River floodplain are less acidic and more productive than many other 

areas in Alaska because spring flooding caused by ice damming during breakup enriches the 

lakes and sloughs with nutrients and carbonates from the limestone bedrock in the Nowitna 

headwaters. The carbonates buffer the pH of the naturally acidic wetland waters making 

nutrients more available for plant uptake. 

The large size and high density of white spruce in this unit are uncommon in interior Alaska. 

The mixture of mature forest and early successional plant communities make the Nowitna 

River corridor the best winter and spring moose habitat on the Nowitna. Mature spruce 

forests provide nesting areas for raptors and are excellent marten habitat. 

Most public use of the unit occurs on the Nowitna River during fall moose hunting season, and 

includes boat and floatplane use. There are several Native allotments, trapping cabins, and 

one administrative cabin located along the Nowitna River. However, most of these are not 

visible and generally do not detract from the wild character of the river. Outside of moose 

hunting season and summer boat traffic on the Yukon River, visitors are unlikely to encounter 

others within the unit. 

3.5.9 Little Mud Unit (Nowitna) 

Bounded to the west by the Nowitna River corridor and extending east to the refuge 

boundary, this unit encompasses nearly 1,132,800 acres. The Little Mud River is one of three 

major tributaries of the Nowitna River that flow across the unit from northeast to southwest. 

Several islands in the Yukon River are also included in this unit. The Palisades lies along the 

Yukon River. It is an impressive series of silt bluffs extending seven miles along the south 

bank. The bluffs are locally called the “Boneyards” because Pleistocene fossils often wash out 

of the frozen silt as the bluffs erode. The Palisades are an important site for paleoenvironmental research. 

3-82 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
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The northern third of the Little Mud Unit is part of the Nowitna Lowlands, a broad plain 

studded with marshes, bogs, and thaw ponds. The remainder of the unit consists of vegetated 

sand dunes and bedrock hills rising to over 2,000 feet in elevation. The Boney Creek Dissected 

Benchlands on the eastern edge of this uplifted region are an unusual geological feature that 

was recommended as a Geological Landmark in Alaska (Young and Walters 1982). These flattopped mesas, dissected by small parallel drainages, resemble canyon land topography 

associated with the southwestern United States. 

Access to this unit of the Nowitna is extremely difficult, and human use is primarily limited to 

areas along the Yukon River. There is one administrative cabin in the unit. 

3.5.10 Big Creek Unit (Nowitna) 

This unit covers the Nowitna west of the Nowitna River unit. The majority of the 418,000-acre 

unit is composed of the flat wetlands of the Nowitna Lowland but also includes several Yukon 

River islands. A high ridge rising to 2,300 feet, which is an extension of the Kuskokwim 

foothills, makes up the southern end of the unit. Vegetation in the lowlands is primarily sparse 

black spruce and an understory of Labrador tea, bog blueberry, cranberry, and sphagnum 

moss. The high country is forested with white spruce and paper birch, giving way to subalpine 

broadleaf scrub at timberline. Moose hunting, fishing, berry picking, wildlife viewing, and 

camping occur in this unit; but it is seldom visited, and recreation is concentrated on the 

Sulatna and Yukon rivers where access is good and wildlife resources are most abundant. 

3.6 River Values 

3.6.1 Introduction 

Section 304(g) of ANILCA requires the Service to identify and describe certain values of the 

Refuge including “...archeological, cultural, ecological, geological, historical, paleontological, 

scenic, or wilderness values...” River resources may contain a variety of these and other 

values and thus should be described and evaluated. 

Section 5(d) of the 1968 Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (U.S. Congress 1968) requires that federal 

agencies consider river values in developing land use plans: 

“In all planning for the use and development of water and related land resources, 

consideration shall be given by all Federal agencies involved to potential national 

wild, scenic and recreational river areas, and all river basin and project plan 

reports submitted to the Congress shall consider and discuss any such potentials. 

The Secretary of the Interior and the Secretary of Agriculture shall make specific 

studies and investigations to determine which additional wild, scenic and 

recreational river areas within the United States shall be evaluated in planning 

reports by all Federal agencies as potential alternative uses of the water and related 

land resources involved.” 

The act recognizes the importance of a river’s free-flowing nature and specific “outstandingly 

remarkable values” such as scenery, recreation, geology, fish and wildlife, history, and any 

other features that make a river unique. Thus, an analysis of river resources consists of an 

examination of the river’s hydrology, including man-made alterations, and an inventory of its 

natural, cultural, and recreational resources and other features. In order to be assessed as 

“outstandingly remarkable,” a river-related value must be a unique, rare or an exemplary 

feature that is significant at a comparative regional or national scale. While the spectrum of 

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Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

resources that may be considered is broad, all values should be directly river-related and 

should: 

1. be located in the river or on its immediate shore lands (in Alaska, generally within 

one-half mile on either side of the river); 

2. contribute substantially to the functioning of the river ecosystem; and/or 

3. owe their existence or location to the presence of the river. 

Rivers and streams that are both free-flowing and possess at least one outstandingly 

remarkable value meet the eligibility criteria put forth by the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act. 

These rivers should then be classified as wild, scenic, or recreational based upon the type and 

degree of human development(s) associated with the public lands involved at the time of the 

review. The actual classification is determined by Congress. The Nowitna River has been 

designated and is managed as a wild river (Figure 3-13). 

The river classifications are described as: 

Wild 

These are waterways or sections of waterways on public lands that are free of impoundments 

and generally inaccessible except by trail and with watersheds or shorelines essentially 

primitive and waters unpolluted. 

Scenic 

These are waterways or sections of waterways on public lands that are generally free of 

impoundments with watersheds still largely primitive and shorelines still largely primitive and 

largely undeveloped but still accessible by roads. 

Recreational 

These are the waterways or sections of waterways on public lands that are readily accessible 

by road or railroad, may have some development along their shorelines, and may have 

undergone some impoundment or diversion in the past. 

All eligible rivers on the Refuge would be categorized a wild as there are no roads, 

impoundments, or diversions affecting rivers within the Refuge. 

3.6.2 River Values 

The Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (U.S. Congress 1968) provides for the protection of rivers of 

the nation that are found to possess at least one unique, rare, or exemplary feature that is 

significant at a regional or national scale. Guidelines were developed by the Interagency Wild 

and Scenic Rivers Coordinating Council to provide greater consistency in identifying 

“outstandingly remarkable values” (Diedrich and Thomas 1999). They illustrate minimum 

thresholds to establish “outstandingly remarkable values” but are not all-inclusive and should 

be adapted to suit specific areas under consideration. Descriptions of the categories of 

“outstandingly remarkable values,” as developed informally by refuge staff consistent with 

national general guidelines, are described in section 3.6.2.1. 

3-84 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Figure 3-13. Nowitna Wild River corridor. 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3-86 K
 Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3.6.2.1 Scenery 

Landscape elements such as landform, vegetation, water, color, and related factors provide 

exemplary scenery and visual attractions over most of the river or river segment. Factors 

such as seasonal variations in vegetation, or visibility, size, and appropriateness of cultural 

modifications may be considered. 

3.6.2.2 Recreation 

The river or corridor possesses recreational opportunities that are unique or rare within the 

region, and may be popular enough to attract visitors from throughout the region and beyond. 

River-related recreational opportunities could include wildlife viewing, motor-boating or 

floating, camping, photography, hiking, fishing, and hunting. 

3.6.2.3 Wildness 

Wild rivers are natural and undeveloped (free from the effects of modern civilization) and 

provide opportunities for solitude and primitive and unconfined types of recreation. 

3.6.2.4 Geology 

The river or corridor contains a geologic feature or process that is unique to the region. The 

feature may be in an unusually active stage, represent a “textbook” example, or embody a 

unique or rare combination of geologic characteristics. 

3.6.2.5 Fish 

The river provides exceptionally high quality habitat for fish species of the region and/or is an 

important producer of resident and/or anadromous fish populations. Of particular significance 

is the presence of rare, threatened, endangered, or sensitive species. Diversity of species and 

habitats is also an important consideration. 

3.6.2.6 Wildlife 

The river or corridor contains nationally or regionally important populations of indigenous 

wildlife species and/or provides exceptionally high quality habitat for wildlife of national or 

regional significance. Of particular significance are species considered to be unique and/or 

populations of rare, threatened, endangered, or sensitive species. Diversity of species and/or 

habitats may also be of remarkable quality. 

3.6.2.7 Cultural Values 

The river or corridor contains an area significant to traditional cultures. Examples might 

include sites that support traditional activities or religious ceremonies. 

3.6.2.8 History 

The area contains a site or feature associated with a significant event, an important person, or 

a cultural activity of the past that is unique to the region. Historic sites and features are 

generally defined as 50 years old or older and may be listed on the National Register of 

Historic Places. 

3.6.2.9 Prehistoric Values 

The river or corridor contains an area important for interpreting human prehistory, including 

sites of archaeological significance. Sites must have unique or rare characteristics or 

exceptional human interest value. 

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Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

3.6.2.10 Other Values 

No specific national evaluation guidelines have been developed for the “other values” category, 

but other river-related values such as hydrology, paleontology, and botany may be considered. 

3.6.3 Rivers and River Segments 

In interior Alaska, rivers provide vital habitat and function as important travel corridors for 

wildlife and people. Rivers support subsistence activities and attract recreational users 

interested in fishing, hunting, boating, and wildlife observation. Fish and wildlife travel and 

feed in and along rivers and rear young in associated terrestrial habitat, ponds, and wetlands. 

The following qualities are common to all refuge rivers and meet classification criteria for Wild 

River designation under the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. 

Department of Agriculture 1982): 

All rivers within the Refuge are free-flowing and free of impoundments. 

Shorelines are primitive, with little or no evidence of human activities. Trapline cabins and 

fish camps are generally the only developments along rivers, are fairly uncommon and 

inconspicuous, and are culturally and historically appropriate for the region. 

Rivers are generally inaccessible by land, with no provisions for vehicle travel within the river 

area and few trails. 

Water quality meets or exceeds levels necessary for aesthetics and propagation of fish and 

wildlife using the river. 

Following is an inventory of free-flowing rivers or river-segments located within the Refuge. 

Based upon known river qualities, Table 3-14 is a list of rivers evaluated by refuge staff for 

outstandingly remarkable values. Appendix K lists all of the rivers examined. 

Table 3-14. Rivers examined. 

Refuge River Considered 

Koyukuk Billy Hawk Creek 

Koyukuk Cottonwood Creek 

Koyukuk Dakli River 

Koyukuk Dulbi River 

Koyukuk Dulbi Slough 

Koyukuk Gisasa River 

Koyukuk Hogatza River 

Koyukuk Holtnakatna Creek 

Koyukuk Huslia River (north and south forks) 

Koyukuk Indian River 

Koyukuk Kateel River 

Koyukuk Koyukuk River 

Koyukuk Little Indian River 

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Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-89 

Refuge River Considered 

Koyukuk Natlaratlin 

Koyukuk Nayuka River 

Koyukuk Nulitna 

N. Unit Innoko Bishop Creek 

N. Unit Innoko Bonanza Creek 

N. Unit Innoko Eddy Creek 

N. Unit Innoko Gorton Creek 

N. Unit Innoko Green Water Creek 

N. Unit Innoko Kaiyuh Slough 

N. Unit Innoko Khotol River 

N. Unit Innoko North Creek 

N. Unit Innoko Soonkakat River 

N. Unit Innoko Squirrel Creek 

N. Unit Innoko Tsurotlurna slough 

N. Unit Innoko Wounded Cub Creek 

N. Unit Innoko Yukon Creek 

Nowitna Bering Creek 

Nowitna Big Creek 

Nowitna Big Mud River 

Nowitna Blind River 

Nowitna Deer Creek 

Nowitna Grand Creek 

Nowitna Junekaket Creek 

Nowitna Klatsuta River 

Nowitna Little Mud River 

Nowitna Our Creek 

Nowitna Sethkokna River 

Nowitna Sulatna River 

Nowitna Sulukna River 

Nowitna Susulatna River 

Nowitna Titna River 

Nowitna Yukon River 
Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

The following rivers or river segments were informally identified by refuge staff as having 

exceptional values. 

Billy Hawk Creek - Outstandingly Remarkable Values: Wilderness, Wildlife, and Fish

(Koyukuk) 

Billy Hawk Creek is a tributary to the Huslia River. Its headwaters lie in the Purcell 

Mountains a few miles north of the northeast corner of the Koyukuk. This stream flows over 

refuge land for most of its length and is difficult to access even by floatplane, and as such, 

provides recreation opportunities in a wilderness setting where solitude is of a degree 

uncommon to other areas of the Refuge. The river is one of the major chum salmon spawning 

areas on the Koyukuk. Grizzly and black bear opportunistically feed on spawned-out chum 

salmon, other wildlife, and vegetation in the corridor. Tracks and scat of bear, lynx, wolf, 

wolverine, beaver, river otter, and other mammals are commonly found along the river, though 

actual observations are less so. During the summer months, common birds on the river 

include White-fronted geese, Lesser Canada geese, swallows, and numerous species of ducks. 

Dakli River - Outstandingly Remarkable Values: Scenic and Wildlife (Koyukuk) 

The Dakli River originates in the southwestern flanks of the Zane Hills and flows south over 

the northern boundary of the Refuge, joining the Koyukuk River on one of its meander bends. 

The broad river valley provides panoramic view of the Purcell Mountains and Zane Hills. The 

valley is used every winter by some of the Western Arctic caribou herd. The Dakli River is 

the traditional caribou hunting area of people from Huslia. 

Dulbi River - Outstandingly Remarkable Values: Scenic, Wildlife, Cultural, and Historic

(Koyukuk) 

The Dulbi River headwaters are located outside the Koyukuk Refuge’s southeast boundary 

near Hochandochtla Mountain. It flows southwesterly for more than half of its length before 

turning northwest before it crosses into the Refuge. . The lower section of the river has a high 

moose density. Moose commonly feed on the willows along the river. Grizzly and black bear 

opportunistically feed on fish, other wildlife, and vegetation in the river corridor. Tracks and 

scat of bear, lynx, wolf, wolverine, beaver, river otter, and other mammals are commonly found 

along the river, though actual animals observed are less so. During the summer months, 

common birds on the river include White-fronted geese, Lesser Canada geese, swallows, and 

numerous species of ducks. The river is a major breeding and molting area for waterfowl. 

The Dulbi River is important to the villages of Huslia, Galena, and Koyukuk for waterfowl 

hunting, moose hunting, and trapping. Two abandoned villages and several sites that are 

important to Alaska Native history are located along the Dulbi River, including Hadokhten 

and Dalbi villages. 

Gisasa River - Outstandingly Remarkable Values: Historic and Fish (Koyukuk) 

The Gisasa River flows 70 miles southwest to northeast, from its headwaters in the Nulato 

Hills to its mouth on the Koyukuk River in the southwest corner of the Koyukuk. Only the 

lower third lies within the Refuge. The river is important for anadromous fish (Chinook and 

chum salmon) and resident northern pike. The (Service) Fairbanks Fishery Resource Office 

maintains a fish counting weir on the lower portion of the river. The Gisasa River is important 

to the village of Koyukuk for moose hunting and winter trapping. A historic Native village site 

was located at the river mouth. 

3-90 Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
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Hogatza River - Outstandingly Remarkable Values: Scenic, Wilderness, and Historic

(Koyukuk) 

The Hogatza River flows 120 miles southwest, from its headwaters in the foothills of the 

Endicott Mountains to its mouth on the Koyukuk River near the northern border of the 

Refuge. The Hogatza River is a meandering clear water stream subject to frequent high 

water events. This river is difficult to access even by floatplane, and as such, provides for 

recreation opportunities in a wilderness setting where solitude is of a degree uncommon to 

other areas of the Refuge. Travel along the river provides spectacular views of the east side of 

the Zane Hills. The river contains the Hog River landing site, which is part of the area’s 

mining history. 

Kateel River - Outstandingly Remarkable Values: Scenic, Fish, and Historic (Koyukuk) 

The headwaters of the Kateel River lie in the Nulato Hills. The 115-mile long river flows 

northeast and then southeast before joining the Koyukuk River just inside the western border 

of the Refuge. Only the southeastern trending portion of the river lies within the Refuge. The 

Kateel River has two major tributaries: Aravesta Creek in the Nulato Hills outside the 

Refuge; and Honhosa River, which also originates in the Nulato Hills outside the Refuge but 

flows nearly half its length inside the Refuge. Floating down the river provides varying views 

of a narrow river valley and an outstanding experience of wildness, as the river twists and 

turns through this unusually narrow river valley. The river is important for anadromous fish 

and resident northern pike. The Kateel River is an important chum and Chinook salmon 

spawning area. A historic Native village site was located at the river mouth. 

Koyukuk River - Outstandingly Remarkable Values: Scenic, Wilderness, Fish, Wildlife, 

Historic, and Prehistoric (Koyukuk) 

The headwaters of the Koyukuk River are at the confluence of its Middle and North forks 

near Bettles. From these headwaters, the river flows 424 miles to its mouth on the Yukon 

River. The river is a major natural landmark on the Refuge, meandering 300 miles across the 

Refuge from northeast to southwest. The river commonly floods during spring runoff and 

occasionally after high intensity fall rains. The river contains 20 species of fish, including 

salmon, cisco, sculpin, lamprey, whitefish, northern pike, Dolly Varden, and sheefish. The 

river is a crucial migration corridor for anadromous fish, including Chinook and chum smolt 

heading downstream to the ocean and adults returning upstream to spawn. The river 

corridor, with its abundant willow, provides critical habitat for moose. The Koyukuk River 

corridor has one of the highest moose population densities in the State—up to 12 moose per 

square mile in some areas. The river is used extensively by the villages of Koyukuk, Huslia, 

Hughes, and Galena for fishing, hunting, trapping, and transportation. The river is used in the 

summer months to barge goods and fuel to Huslia. Numerous historic Native villages and 

archeological sites (some dating back over 10,000 years) are located along or near the river. 

Little Indian River - Outstandingly Remarkable Value: Historic (Koyukuk) 

The Little Indian River drains an uplands area adjacent and east of the Refuge. The 

headwaters of the river lie just outside the Refuge. The river flows for most of its length in 

the Refuge. Batza Tena is one of the few known obsidian sources in Alaska. Batza Tena 

played a significant role in cultures inhabiting the area during the last 10,000 years, as well as 

aboriginal cultures as far away as central Canada. Also located near the river is the “Trading 

Place,” reported to have been the traditional location where Kobuk Eskimo would announce 

their arrival to local Koyukon Athabascan in order that trading activities might commence. 

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Kaiyuh Slough - Outstandingly Remarkable Values: Hydrology, Fish, Wildlife, and 

Recreation (Northern Unit Innoko) 

Kaiyuh Slough is a 25-mile long waterway with unique hydrologic properties. The slough 

connects lakes in Kaiyuh Flats and the Khotol River with the Yukon River. During part of the 

year when the Yukon River water level is higher than the water level on Kaiyuh Flats lakes, 

the slough serves as an inlet to the lakes and the Khotol River from the Yukon River. When 

the level of the Yukon River is below that of the lakes, the slough serves as an outlet for the 

lakes, and flow direction will reverse. Kaiyuh Slough lies entirely within the Refuge. This 

reverse flow feature helps create the habitat used by so many different species of waterfowl 

and other wildlife. The slough has the highest beaver population in the area, with over 30 

animals per square mile in some places. The slough provides ideal habitat conditions for large 

northern pike, which in turn provides for a very productive pike fishery. Several historic 

Native villages and archeological sites are located along the slough or in the connected lakes. 

Yukon River - Outstandingly Remarkable Values: Recreation, Geologic, Fish, Wildlife, 

Historic, and Prehistoric (Nowitna) 

The Yukon River commonly floods during spring runoff and occasionally after high intensity 

fall rains. The river is a crucial migration corridor for anadromous fish (Chinook, chum, Coho 

salmon, and sheefish), including salmon smolt heading downstream to the ocean and adults 

returning upstream to spawn. Many of the river islands provide critical winter moose habitat. 

The river is used extensively by local people for transportation, fishing, hunting, and trapping. 

The river is used in the summer months to barge goods and fuel to villages up and down the 

river. Several historic villages, archeological sites, and the old telegraph line (from the 1890s) 

are located along the river—all of which are important parts of Native and Alaska history. An 

area of frozen silt bluffs known as the Palisades or “Boneyards” lies along a seven-mile stretch 

of the Yukon River. This area is home to the remains of ice age animals and plants, making it 

both unique and an extremely important component for understanding this area’s prehistoric 

past. 

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Figure 3-14. Koyukuk Refuge river values 

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Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

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Figure 3-15. Northern Unit Innoko Refuge river values 

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Figure 3-16. Nowitna Refuge river values 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
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 Chapter 3: Refuge Resources 

Koyukuk/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 3-99 

3.7 Refuge Infrastructure and Administration 

3.7.1 Administrative Facilities 

The Refuge is administered out of the headquarters office located in Galena. The Galena 

facility consists of an office building and warehouse/maintenance shop that is leased from 

Gana-A’Yoo Limited, an airplane hangar located on State-owned property adjacent to the 

Galena airport, and a storage yard/gas facility located on the old Galena Air Force Base. The 

Refuge owns eight homes scattered throughout the city and one duplex located on the old 

Galena Air Force Base. There are two seasonal floatplane docks—one located on Alexander 

Lake behind Service Quarters #3 and the other on the Yukon River in front of the office. 

The Hog River and Gisasa Weir administrative cabins are located on the Koyukuk. The 

Round Lake and Lower Nowitna administrative cabins are located on the Nowitna. 

There are four remote automated weather stations (RAWS) located on the Refuge. The 

Kaiyuh RAWS is located on the Northern Unit of Innoko. The Cottonwood and Koyukuk 

RAWS are located on the Koyukuk. The Round Lake RAWS is located on the Nowitna. 

Four radio repeater sites are located on the Refuge: Roundabout Mountain and Tough 

Mountain on the Koyukuk; Totson Mountain on the Northern Unit Innoko; and Hill 2321 on 

the Nowitna. There is only one leased radio repeater site, Kokrines, which is on BLM land 

and serves the Nowitna. Each repeater site consists of a structure enclosing a radio and 

battery bank system. 

3.7.2 Staffing 

The current staffing at the Refuge consists of 14 permanent positions. The Refuge 

occasionally hires temporary biological technicians and maintenance helpers, Student Career 

Experience Program personnel, and other student program participants. The Refuge has a 

volunteer program that involves up to six individuals annually. 

Current authorized refuge staff includes: 

Wildlife refuge manager 

Deputy wildlife refuge manager 

General biologist – subsistence 

 Refuge information technician 

Administrative support assistant 

Refuge clerk 

Park ranger 

Maintenance worker 

Supervisory wildlife biologist/pilot 

Wildlife biologist 

Wildlife biologist/GIS specialist 

Airplane pilot 

Law enforcement/park ranger 

Fire management officer