A Publication of the

National Wildfi re 

Coordinating 

Group

PMS 841 August 2007

Wildland Wildland 

Firefighter Firefighter 

Fatalities Fatalities 

in the 

United States: United States: 

1990–2006 1990–2006

Wildland Wildland 

Firefighter Firefighter 

Fatalities Fatalities 

in the 

United States: United States: 

1990–2006 1990–2006

Wildland Wildland 

Firefighter Firefighter 

Fatalities Fatalities 

in the 

United States: United States: 

1990–2006 1990–2006
Cover photos—

Fridley Fire, 2001, Emigrant, MT

Inset: Markers commemorating fatalities 

during the South Canyon Fire, July 6, 

1994, Glenwood Springs, CO
Sponsored for NWCG publication by the NWCG Safety and Health 

Working Team, August 2007, in cooperation with the USDA Forest 

Service Technology and Development Center, Missoula, MT. This 

document was produced under Missoula Technology and Development Center contract with Richard Mangan, retired Fire, Aviation, 

and Residues Program Leader for MTDC and owner of Blackbull 

Wildfire Services, Missoula, MT. E-mail: blackbull@bigsky.net

Questions or comments about this publication should be directed 

to:

Michelle Ryerson, Chair—NWCG Safety and Health Working Team

Program Leader—Office of Fire and Aviation 

Bureau of Land Management 

National Interagency Fire Center 

Phone: 208–387–5175

E-mail: michelle_ryerson@nifc.blm.gov

or:

Leslie Anderson, Program Leader—Fire, Aviation, and Residues 

USDA Forest Service

Missoula Technology and Development Center 

Phone: 406–329–1043 

E-mail: landerson@fs.fed.us 

This publication is available at 

http://www.nwcg.gov/pms/pubs/pubs.htm 

The National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) has developed this information for the 

guidance of its member agencies and is not responsible for the interpretation or use of this 

information by anyone except the member agencies. The use of trade, firm, or corporation 

names in this publication is for the information and convenience of the reader and does not 

constitute an endorsement by the National Wildfire Coordinating Group of any product or 

service to the exclusion of others that may be suitable.

A publication of the

NWCG

Safety and Health Working Team

PMS 841 August 2007

Wildland Wildland 

Firefighter Firefighter 

Fatalities Fatalities 

in the 

United States: United States: 

1990–2006 1990–2006

Wildland Wildland 

Firefighter Firefighter 

Fatalities Fatalities 

in the 

United States: United States: 

1990–2006 1990–2006

Wildland Wildland

Firefighter Firefighter

Fatalities Fatalities

in the

United States: United States:

1990–2006 1990–2006
ii

I would like to acknowledge the work of Heather Matusiak and Sunni Bradshaw, who used computer magic and hard work to 

make sure the fatalities recorded in 17 years of “Safety Grams” were tallied accurately. 

Contents

Introduction ___________________________________________________1

Other Wildland Firefighter Fatality Reports _______________________3

Study Protocol _________________________________________________4

Causes of Death ________________________________________________5

 Burnovers __________________________________________________6

 Vehicle Accidents ____________________________________________7

 Heart Attacks _______________________________________________7

 Aircraft Accidents ___________________________________________8

 Falling Trees/Snags and Rolling Rocks ___________________________9

 Medical Causes Other Than Heart Attacks ________________________9

 Miscellaneous Causes of Death _________________________________9

Incidents With Multiple Fatalities ________________________________ 10

Organizations ________________________________________________11

 Volunteer Firefighters _______________________________________ 11

 Federal Firefighters _________________________________________ 13

 State Firefighters ___________________________________________ 14

 Ground Contractors _________________________________________ 14

 Aviation Contractors ________________________________________ 14

 County Firefighters _________________________________________ 14

 Private Individuals __________________________________________ 14

 Military Personnel __________________________________________ 14

Locations of Fatalities __________________________________________15

Trends and Analysis ___________________________________________ 18

 Aircraft Accidents __________________________________________ 18

 Vehicle Accidents ___________________________________________ 18

 Heart Attacks ______________________________________________ 19

 Burnovers _________________________________________________ 19

 Entrapments _______________________________________________ 21

 Falling Trees/Snags, Other Medical, and Miscellaneous Causes ______22

Common Denominators for Wildland Firefighter Fatalities __________23

References ___________________________________________________24

Acknowledgments
1

Wildland firefighting is a high-risk occupation, 

evidenced each year by deaths or injuries in the 

line of duty. One way to help reduce wildland 

firefighter deaths is to identify factors responsible for past 

fatalities so we can mitigate those factors in future fire seasons. 

My interest in firefighter fatalities was fueled by my 

work on entrapment and fatality investigation teams, beginning with the Dude Fire in 1990 and continuing to the 

Sawtooth Prescribed Burn fatality in 2003. In 1999, while 

serving as the Fire, Aviation, and Residues Program Leader 

at the Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Missoula Technology and Development Center (MTDC), 

I wrote a report on firefighter fatalities, “Wildland Fire 

Fatalities in the United States: 1990–1998” (figure 1). 

That report was based on data from the National Wildfire 

Coordinating Group’s (NWCG) Safety and Health Working 

Team “Safety Gram,” issued annually to document firefighter fatalities and entrapment events across the United 

States. “Wildland Fire Fatalities in the United States: 1990–

1998” underreported aircraft accidents by three fatalities and 

heart attacks by one fatality.

This report, “Wildland Firefighter Fatalities in the 

United States: 1990–2006,” continues to rely on the “Safety 

Gram,” comparing data from the original 9-year period (1990 

to 1998, called the initial period) to data from the following 8 years (1999 to 2006, called the most recent period). 

Fatality data (figure 2) is summarized for the entire 17-year 

period (1990 to 2006, called the entire period). Because the 

most recent period is 1 year shorter than the initial period, 

the basis for comparison between the two periods will be the 

annual average during each period. 

This report is sponsored by the NWCG Safety and 

Health Working Team and the MTDC Fire and Aviation 

Program. The Safety and Health Working Team collects 

and analyzes data to validate and prioritize safety issues and 

works to improve firefighter health, safety, and effectiveness. 

Figure 1—The 1999 report showed that from 1990 to 1998 burnovers killed 

more wildland firefighters than any other cause.

• From 1990 to 2006, 310 persons died during

wildland fire operations. 

 • The number of wildland fire-related

fatalities increased 26 percent from the 

initial period (1990 to 1998) to the most 

recent period (1999 to 2006).

 • The leading causes of death are now

aircraft accidents and vehicle accidents, 

closely followed by heart attacks.

I

ntroduction
2

Figure 2—The annual death toll for persons who died during wildland fire operations from 1990 to 2006 (310 total deaths).

17

12

11

8

34

15

12

10

18

26

20

18

23

30

20

12

24

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Initial Period Most Recent Period

Total Deaths During Wildland Firefighting Operations (All Causes) From 1990 to 2006
3

sioned a task force that prepared a “Report of Task Force to 

Recommend Action to Reduce the Chances of Firefighters 

Being Killed by Burning While Fighting Fire” (1957). That 

study resulted in development of the “10 Standard Fire 

Orders” and the “13 Situations That Shout Watch Out” (now 

“18 Situations That Shout Watch Out”).

A Forest Service fire safety review team issued a 1967 

report: “A Plan to Further Reduce the Chances of Men Being 

Burned While Fighting Fires.” After more fire fatalities in 

the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s, the Forest Service 

issued the “Preliminary Report of Task Force on Study of 

Fatal/Near-Fatal Wildland Fire Accidents” (1980). The report 

documented Forest Service firefighter fatalities from 1926 

to 1979, firefighter fatalities for other agencies from 1933 

to 1979 (including firefighter fatalities in Canada), and near 

misses for all agencies from 1949 to 1979.

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has 

also looked at wildland firefighter fatalities, sometimes at the 

request of Federal agencies. An NFPA report in August 1988 

summarized all firefighter fatalities in the United States, 

including those involving wildland firefighters. Two NFPA 

studies looked specifically at wildland firefighter fatalities: 

an August 1991 report covered fatalities from 1981 to 1990 

and a special analysis in 1997 covered wildland firefighter 

fatalities from 1987 to 1996. None of these studies relied 

solely on the annual “Safety Gram.”

Although wildland fires have burned the American 

landscape since long before the arrival of 

Europeans, they received little national attention 

before the 20th century. Even the Peshtigo Fire that burned 

more than 1.5 million acres in Wisconsin, killing more than 

1,200 people, was overshadowed by the Great Chicago Fire 

that began the same day in 1871. 

When the Big Burn of 1910 killed at least 78 firefighters 

and burned millions of acres in northern Idaho and western 

Montana, the public and politicians became aware of the 

tremendous loss of life and property associated with wildland 

fires.

The NWCG report “Historical Wildland Firefighter 

Fatalities 1910–1996” (1997) records numerous wildland 

firefighter fatalities from 1910 to 1948. On August 6, 

1949, 13 firefighters died in a sudden blowup in Montana’s 

Mann Gulch. A thorough investigation was conducted. The 

events were popularized in the 1952 movie, “Red Skies of 

Montana,” and documented in Norman Maclean’s bestselling book, “Young Men and Fire.”

In the 1950s, 15 firefighters were killed at the 

Rattlesnake Fire in northern California (1953) and another 

11 died at the Inaja Fire in southern California (1956). 

After those fires, the Chief of the Forest Service commisOther Wildland Firefi ghter Fatality Reports
4

Other factors used in fatality analyses prepared by 

other groups and agencies were not used in this report. 

They include:

Month: While the month of a fatality may be an 

important factor in structural firefighting where there 

is a year-round fire workload, it has little relevance in 

wildland firefighting. The occurrence of wildland fire 

is generally seasonal across the United States, driven 

by highly variable weather conditions.

Ages of Deceased: This information is not reported 

in the “Safety Gram.” 

Time of Death: This information is not reported in 

the “Safety Gram.” 

The 1999 report, “Wildland Fire Fatalities in the 

United States: 1990 to 1998,” lumped all contractors into a 

single class. In recent years, the contracted workforce has 

increased significantly. To distinguish trends, this report 

breaks ground contractors into a separate category from 

aviation contractors, such as pilots and flight crews.

During the entire period, seven events with 3 to 14 fatalities each have the potential to distort the findings and mask 

some trends. This report shows the analysis and trends with 

and without these events. Percentages may not add up due to 

rounding.

•

•

•

This study is based on the annual “Safety Gram” 

(figure 3) produced by the NWCG’s Safety and 

Health Working Team, allowing data from the 

initial period to be compared with that from the most recent 

period. The “Safety Gram” reports fatalities that meet the 

Safety and Health Working Team’s criteria, as well as any 

fire entrapments and significant vehicle accidents that occur, 

even if they do not result in fatalities. 

The main data in the “Safety Gram” include:

The cause of death

The agency for which the deceased worked

The State where the fatality(ies) occurred

•

•

•

Figure 3—The “Safety Gram” published annually by the National Wildfire 

Coordinating Group’s Safety and Health Working Team was the source of 

the data used in this report.

Study Protocol
5

From 1990 to 2006, 310 individuals died during 

wildland fire operations. Four major causes of death 

were responsible for 275 (about 89 percent) of the 

fatalities (figure 4). These causes of death include:

Aircraft accidents—72 deaths, 23 percent

Vehicle accidents—71 deaths, 23 percent

Heart attacks—68 deaths, 22 percent

Burnovers—64 deaths, 21 percent

•

•

•

•

Falling Trees/Snags/Rocks

3.9%

Misc.

4.5%

Other 

Medical

2.9%

Heart Attacks

21.9% 

Burnovers

20.6%

Aircraft Accidents 

23.2%

Vehicle Accidents

22.9% 

Fatalities by Cause of Death From 1990 to 2006

Fatalities by Cause of Death From 1999 to 2006

Falling Trees/Snags/Rocks

4.0%

Misc. 

6.4%

Other 

Medical

3.5%

Burnovers

14.5%

Vehicle Accidents

26.6%

Heart Attacks 

22.5%

Aircraft Accidents

22.5% 

Fatalities by Cause of Death From 1990 to 1998

Falling Trees/Snags/Rocks

3.6%

Misc.

2.2%

Other 

Medical

2.2%

Vehicle Accidents

18.2% 

Aircraft Accidents

24.1%

Heart 

Attacks

21.2%

Burnovers

28.5%

Figure 4—The causes of death for 310 persons who died 

during wildland fire operations from 1990 to 2006.

Causes of Death
6

Burnovers

Burnovers were the only cause of death in which fatalities 

decreased. Burnover fatalities dropped from 39 (4.3 fatalities 

per year) during the initial period to 25 (3.1 fatalities per year) 

during the most recent period, a 28-percent decrease in the 

annual average. The number of fires reported to the National 

Interagency Fire Center in Boise, ID, (table 1) decreased 

from an average of 83,296 during the initial period to 79,313 

per year during the most recent period. Despite fewer fires 

during the most recent period, the acres burned each year 

increased 107 percent from an average of 3.27 to 6.79 million 

acres. 

The fires with the most burnover fatalities during the 

initial period were the South Canyon Fire (1994, 14 fatalities) 

and the Dude Fire (1990, 6 fatalities). During the most recent 

period, the wildland fires with the most fatalities were the 

Esperanza Fire (2006, five fatalities) and the Thirtymile Fire 

(2001, four fatalities).

Year Fires Acres Acres

(Alaska only)

Fatalities

(All causes)

Fatalities

(Burnovers)

Initial Period

1990 122,763 5,452,874 Not available 17 10

1991 75,754 2,953,578 Not available 12 3

1992 87,394 2,069,929 Not available 11 0

1993 58,810 1,797,574 Not available 8 3

1994 79,107 4,073,579 Not available 34 17

1995 82,234 1,840,546 Not available 15 2

1996 96,363 6,065,998 Not available 12 2

1997 66,196 2,856,959 Not available 10 1

1998 81,043 2,329,704 Not available 18 1

 

Subtotal 749,664 29,440,741 N/A 137 39

Most Recent Period

1999 92,487 5,626,093 Not available 26 2

2000 92,250 7,393,493 Not available 20 4

2001 84,079 3,570,911 216,883 18 5

2002 73,457 7,184,712 2,176,665 23 1

2003 63,629 3,960,842 559,332 30 4

2004 65,461 8,097,880 6,523,817 20 1

2005 66,753 8,689,389 4,440,149 12 1

2006 96,385 9,873,745 266,266 24 7

Subtotal 634,501 54,397,065 14,183,112 173 25

Total 1,384,165 83,837,806 14,183,112 310 64

Table 1—Number of fires, acres burned by wildland fires, and fatalities from 1990 to 2006. 

The source for annual fires and acreage is the National Interagency Fire Center Web site: http://www.nifc.gov/fire_info/fires_acres.htm. 

The Alaska acreage is available at: http://www.nifc.gov/fire_info/lightning_human_fires.html. 

The fatality figures are taken from the “Safety Gram” (1990 to 2006).

•

•

•
7

Vehicle Accidents

Vehicle accident fatalities increased more than any other 

cause of death, from 25 (2.8 fatalities per year) during the 

initial period to 46 (5.8 fatalities per year) during the most 

recent period, a 107-percent increase in the annual average. 

The spike in vehicle accidents (figure 5) can be attributed to: 

the Forest Service rollover on the Stanza Fire (2002, three 

fatalities), the Grayback Forestry, Inc. rollover (2002, five 

fatalities) and the First Strike Environmental vehicle accident 

(2003, eight fatalities). These three accidents killed 16 firefighters. No similar multifatality accidents occurred during 

the initial period. 

Heart Attacks

Heart attacks caused 29 deaths during the initial period 

(3.2 fatalities per year), and 39 (4.9 fatalities per year) during 

the most recent period, a 51-percent increase in the annual 

average. Volunteer firefighters were the most likely to die 

from heart attacks (44 deaths, 65 percent of all heart attack 

fatalities). The number of volunteer firefighters dying from 

heart attacks probably can be explained by a couple of 

factors: many more volunteer firefighters are involved in 

wildland fires on the local level than are agency firefighters, 

and many volunteer departments have no physical fitness 

testing or health screening requirements. The National 

Fire Protection Association said that there were more than 

823,350 volunteer firefighters nationwide in 2005.

Since 1998, 11 fire personnel have died while taking 

or preparing for the Work Capacity Test. In 2000, Federal 

agencies began implementing a wildland firefighter medical 

standards program. During 2005 and 2006, there were no 

reports of firefighters dying while taking or training for the 

Work Capacity Test.

Figure 5—Vehicle accidents are now the second most common cause of 

death during wildland fire operations.
8

Aircraft Accidents

Aircraft accident fatalities increased from 33 during the 

initial period (3.7 fatalities per year) to 39 during the most 

recent period (4.9 fatalities per year), a 33-percent increase in 

the annual average.

Aircraft accidents involving both fixed-wing (figure 6) 

and rotary-wing aircraft (figure 7) continue to be a significant cause of death. In recent years, the use of single-engine 

airtankers (SEATs) for wildland fire operations has dramatically increased. During the most recent period, four fatalities 

involved SEATs. 

Two catastrophic fixed-wing, multiengine airtanker failures resulted in the entire Federal fixed-wing, multiengine 

airtanker fleet being grounded temporarily. The use of Type 

1 and Type 2 helicopters to drop water, foam, and retardant 

increased dramatically during that period. 

Figure 7—Helicopters are being used more frequently during wildland fire 

operations.

Figure 6—Aircraft accidents were the most common cause of fatalities for 

persons who died during wildland fire operations from 1990 to 2006.
9

Falling Trees/Snags and Rolling Rocks

Falling trees/snags (figure 8) and rolling rocks claimed the 

lives of five firefighters during the initial period (0.6 fatalities 

per year) and seven during the most recent period (0.9 fatalities 

per year). Given the large number of acres burned during the 

most recent period and increasing concerns about forest health, 

it’s possible that increased emphasis on snag safety by firefighting agencies and teams may have helped prevent some fatalities. For the entire period, falling trees/snags and rolling rocks 

caused 12 deaths (4 percent of the total).

Medical Causes Other Than Heart Attacks 

Medical causes other than heart attacks (heat stress, 

aneurysms, general illnesses) were responsible for three 

fatalities during the initial period (0.3 fatalities per year) 

and six during the most recent period (0.8 fatalities per 

year). These fatalities were distributed evenly between State, 

county, and volunteer firefighters. The nine deaths accounted 

for 3 percent of the total fatalities.

Miscellaneous Causes of Death

Miscellaneous causes of death that do not fit into any of 

the above categories claimed the lives of 3 firefighters during 

the initial period (0.3 fatalities per year) and 11 firefighters 

during the most recent period (1.4 fatalities per year). Some 

of the causes of death in this category include electrocution, 

lightning, falls, smokejumper training, and murder. The 

miscellaneous causes classification accounted for 5 percent 

of all fatalities during the entire period.

Figure 8—Firefighters must stay alert to the dangers of falling trees/snags 

and rolling rocks.
10

Seven events with 3 to 14 fatalities each occurred 

during the study period, contributing 45 of the 310 

total fatalities. Burnover events included: 

Dude Fire (1990)—6 deaths

South Canyon Fire (1994)—14 deaths

Thirtymile Fire (2001)—4 deaths

Esperanza Fire (2006)—5 deaths 

Vehicle accidents included:

Stanza rollover (2002)—3 deaths

Grayback Forestry rollover (2002)—5 deaths

First Strike Environmental accident (2003)—8 deaths 

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

If these events are removed because of their disproportionate impact, the causes of the remaining 265 fatalities 

are: aircraft accidents, 27 percent; heart attacks, 26 percent; 

vehicle accidents, 21 percent; burnover fatalities, 13 percent; 

miscellaneous causes, 5 percent: and other medical causes, 3 

percent.

I

ncidents with Multiple Fatalities
11

The “Safety Gram” breaks firefighters into seven 

categories based on the fire organization (figure 9): 

volunteer, Federal, State, contractor, county/rural, 

private, and military. This report identifies contractors as 

aviation contractors or ground contractors.

Volunteer Firefi ghters

Volunteers died more often on wildland fires than did 

firefighters in any of the other groups. The fatalities for 

volunteers increased from 42 during the initial period (4.7 

fatalities per year) to 64 during the most recent period (8 

fatalities per year), a 71-percent increase in the annual average. Volunteers accounted for 34 percent of all fatalities 

during the entire period.

Fatalities by Organization From 1990 to 1998

County/Rural 

4.4%

Federal 

State 26.3%

14.6%

Aviation Contractors 

16.8% 

Volunteers 

30.7%

Ground 

Contractors 

5.1%

Military 

0.7%

Private 

1.5%

Figure 9—Fatalities grouped by the organizations of persons 

who died during wildland fire operations from 1990 to 2006.

Fatalities by Organization From 1990 to 2006

County/Rural

3.5%

Federal

23.5%

Military

0.3%

Private

1.0%

State

13.5% Ground Contractors

8.4%

Aviation Contractors

15.5%

Volunteers

34.2%

Fatalities by Organization From 1999 to 2006

County/Rural 

2.9%

Federal

21.4%

State 

12.7%

Aviation Contractors 

14.5%

Ground Contractors 

11.0%

Volunteers 

37.0%

Military 

0.0%

Private

0.6%

Organizations
12

Heart attacks were the leading cause of death for volunteers 

(44 fatalities, 42 percent of all fatalities for volunteers), with 

vehicle accidents a close second (40 fatalities, 38 percent of all 

fatalities for volunteers). Burnovers accounted for 11 fatalities 

(10 percent of all fatalities for volunteers), or less than one per 

year. Other causes of deaths among volunteers include miscellaneous causes (five fatalities), other medical causes (three fatalities), and falling trees/snags and rolling rocks (two fatalities).

Fatalities for volunteers increased in all categories 

during the most recent period (figure 10). The largest 

percentage increase was in heart attack fatalities, which 

increased from 19 during the initial period (2.1 fatalities per 

year) to 25 during the most recent period (3.1 fatalities per 

year), an increase of 48 percent in the annual average. 

Figure 10—The causes of death for the volunteers who 

died during wildland fire operations from 1990 to 2006.

Fatalities of Volunteers by Cause of Death From 1990 to 2006

Falling Trees/Snags/Rocks 

1.9%

Misc.

4.7%

Other Medical 

2.8%

Vehicle Accidents

37.7%

Aircraft Accidents 

0.0%

Heart Attacks 

41.5% 

Burnovers 

11.3%

Fatalities of Volunteers by Cause of Death From 1990 to 1998

Falling Trees/Snags/Rocks 

0.0%

Misc. 

2.4%

Other Medical 

0.0%

Aircraft Accidents 

0.0%

Vehicle Accidents 

40.5%

Heart Attacks 

45.2%

Burnovers 

11.9%

Fatalities of Volunteers by Cause of Death From 1999 to 2006

Falling Trees/Snags/Rocks 

3.1%

Misc. 

6.3%

Other Medical 

4.7%

Aircraft Accidents 

0.0% 

Vehicle Accidents 

35.9%

Heart Attacks 

39.1% 

Burnovers 

10.9%
13

Federal Firefi ghters

Federal firefighters suffered 73 fatalities (23 percent of 

the total) over the entire study period, 36 during the initial 

period (4 fatalities per year) and 37 during the most recent 

period (4.6 fatalities per year). Burnovers during 3 fires 

killed 23 Federal firefighters: South Canyon (14), Esperanza 

(5), and Thirtymile (4). Two burnover fatalities occurred 

during prescribed burning operations. 

Heart attack fatalities among Federal firefighters (figure 

11) increased slightly, from four during the initial period (0.7 

fatalities per year) to six during the most recent period (0.8 

fatalities per year). Four heart attack fatalities have occurred 

while firefighters were participating in or training for the 

Work Capacity Tests since the “Safety Gram” began reporting 

these fatalities in 1998.

Figure 11— The causes of death for the 73 Federal employees 

who died during wildland fire operations from 1990 to 2006.

Fatalities of Federal Employees by Cause of Death From 1990 to 1998

Falling Trees/Snags/Rocks 

5.6%

Misc. 

5.6%

Other Medical 

5.6%

Vehicle Accidents 

11.1% 

Aircraft Accidents 

16.7% 

Burnovers 

44.4%

Heart Attacks 

11.1%

Fatalities of Federal Employees by Cause of Death From 1999 to 2006

Falling Trees/Snags/Rocks 

10.8%

Misc. 

5.4%

Other Medical

0.0%

Vehicle Accidents 

10.8% Aircraft Accidents 

21.6% 

Heart Attacks 

16.2%

Burnovers 

35.1%

Fatalities of Federal Employees by Cause of Death From 1990 to 2006

Misc. 

5.5%

Other Medical 

2.7%

FallingTrees/Snags/Rocks 

8.2%

Aircraft Accidents 

19.2% 

Vehicle Accidents 

11.0% 

Burnovers 

39.7%

Heart Attacks 

13.7%
14

Deaths from aircraft accidents increased from six during 

the initial period (0.7 fatalities per year) to eight during the 

most recent period (1 fatality per year), a 50-percent increase 

in the annual average. All but one of the fatalities involved 

helicopter crashes. Deaths from falling trees/snags and rolling rocks increased from two during the initial period (0.2 

fatalities per year) to three during the most recent period (0.4 

fatalities per year). 

Vehicle accident fatalities remained low for Federal 

employees (four fatalities in each period). Deaths from 

miscellaneous causes remained the same (two) during both 

periods. 

State Firefi ghters

State firefighters suffered 42 fatalities (14 percent of 

the total): 20 during the initial period (2.2 fatalities per 

year), and 22 during the most recent period (2.8 fatalities 

per year). Burnover fatalities decreased from 11 during the 

initial period (including six on the Dude Fire, an average of 

1.2 fatalities per year) to 4 during the most recent period (0.5 

fatalities per year). 

Fatalities in aircraft crashes increased from three 

during the initial period (0.3 fatalities per year) to six during 

the most recent period (0.8 fatalities per year). Accidents 

involving State-owned and operated fixed-wing aircraft in 

California accounted for six of those fatalities. State firefighter fatalities from heart attacks increased from three 

during the initial period (0.3 fatalities per year) to six during 

the most recent period (0.8 fatalities per year).

Ground Contractors

Ground contractors suffered seven fatalities during the 

initial period (0.8 fatalities per year): three from vehicle accidents, two from burnovers, one from a heart attack, and one 

from a falling snag. Ground contractors suffered 19 fatalities 

during the most recent period (2.4 fatalities per year), when 

significantly more contractors were in the firefighting workforce. Fourteen of the fatalities were from vehicle accidents, 

with two accidents accounting for all but one of the fatalities. 

The remaining fatalities were caused by heart attacks (two) or 

miscellaneous causes (three). For the entire period, 26 ground 

contractors died, or 8 percent of the total.

Aviation Contractors

Aviation contractors suffered 23 fatalities during the 

initial period (2.6 fatalities per year) and 25 fatalities during 

the most recent period (3.1 fatalities per year). The total of 48 

deaths constituted 16 percent of all fatalities during the entire 

period. Four fatalities during the most recent period involved 

crashes of SEATs, a relatively new tool in air operations. 

County Firefi ghters

County firefighters suffered a total of 11 fatalities, 6 

in the initial period and 5 in the most recent period. Half 

of the fatalities during the initial period (three) were from 

burnovers. Causes of death during the most recent period 

included one fatality from a heart attack, one from other 

medical causes, one from a vehicle accident, and one from 

miscellaneous causes. County firefighter fatalities accounted 

for 4 percent of all fatalities.

Private Individuals

Two private individuals acting on their own behalf were 

killed by a burnover during the initial period. During the 

most recent period, one private individual was killed in a 

vehicle mishap while rushing to a fire. These three fatalities 

comprised 1 percent of the total fatalities. On February 2, 

2005, the “Safety Gram” criteria were updated. The “Safety 

Gram” no longer includes fatalities of private individuals 

acting on their own behalf.

Military Personnel

One member of the military was killed in an aircraft 

fatality during 1994. That military fatality represents less 

than 1 percent of the total fatalities. The military generally is 

asked to help only during severe fire seasons after all other 

resources have been committed. 
15

period, 137 persons died in 33 States (15.2 fatalities per year). 

During the most recent period, 173 persons died in 41 States D (21.6 fatalities per year).

uring the period covered by this study, all but 7 of 

the 50 United States had fatalities during wildland 

fire operations (figure 12). During the initial study 

14

14

64

2

14 12

25

8

3

18

14

3

5

3

5

6 4

6

2

4

7

4

3

1

2

3

3

2 19

Fatalities During Wildland Fire Operations, 1990 to 2006 Fatalities During Wildland Fire Operations, 1990 to 2006

310 Total

4

1

2 2

2

1

3

2

5

3

1

2

3

9

Figure 12—All but seven 

States had fatalities during 

wildland fire operations from 

1990 to 2006.

The “Safety Gram” identifies fires by State. The following groups of States were used to provide an overview of fatalities for 

different sections of the country (figure 13).

Hawaii—(There were no fatalities in this State during the entire period.)

Alaska

California 

Pacific Northwestern States—Oregon, Washington

Rocky Mountain States—Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, Wyoming 

Northern Plains States—Montana, North Dakota

Great Basin States—Idaho, Nevada, Utah

Southwestern States—Arizona, New Mexico

Southern States—Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, 

Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia

Eastern States—Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, 

Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, West Virginia, Wisconsin

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Sections of the Country

Locations of Fatalities
16

Figure 13—One in five fatalities during wildland fire operations 

from 1990 to 2006 was in California.

Fatalities by Section of the Country From 1990 to 1998

Alaska 

0.7% California 

21.2%

Eastern 

10.2%

Great Basin 

8.8% Rocky Mountain 

13.1%

Southern 

20.4%

Southwestern 

12.4%

Northern Plains 

5.1%

Pacific Northwestern 

8.0%

Hawaii 

0.0%

Fatalities by Section of the Country From 1999 to 2006

Alaska 

0.6%

California 

20.2%

Eastern 

12.1%

Great Basin 

9.8%

Hawaii 

Northern Plains 0.0%

4.6%

Pacific Northwestern 

9.8%

Rocky Mountain 

11.6%

Southern 

26.0%

Southwestern 

5.2%

Fatalities by Section of the Country From 1990 to 2006

Alaska 0.6%

California

20.6%

Eastern

11.3%

Great Basin 

9.4%

Pacific Northwestern 

9.0%

Rocky Mountain 

12.3%

Southern

23.5%

Southwestern

8.4%

Northern Plains 

4.8%

Hawaii

0.0%
17

California was the State with the largest number of 

fatalities, 64 (3.8 fatalities per year). Fatalities in California 

increased from 29 during the initial period (3.2 fatalities per 

year) to 35 in the most recent period (4.4 fatalities per year), 

a 36-percent increase in the annual average. The California 

incident with the largest number of fatalities was the October 

2006 Esperanza Fire that killed five Federal firefighters 

during a burnover. 

Other States with large numbers of fatalities were: 

Colorado (25 fatalities, including 14 from the 1994 South 

Canyon Fire and 5 in the 2002 Grayback Forestry vehicle 

rollover), Texas (19 fatalities, including 11 during the most 

recent period); Idaho (18 fatalities, including 11 during 

the most recent period—four in a single aircraft crash). 

Washington, Oregon, Montana, and Arizona had 14 fatalities each. New Mexico had 12 fatalities. Other States had no 

more than 10 fatalities during the entire period.

Fatalities in the Southern States increased from 28 

during the initial period (3.1 fatalities per year) to 45 during 

the most recent period (5.6 fatalities per year), an 81-percent 

increase in the annual average. Within this section of the 

country, seven States (Mississippi, Florida, Tennessee, 

North Carolina, Texas, Arkansas, and Kentucky) had a 

large increase in fatalities from the initial period (14, 1.6 per 

year) to the most recent period (35, 4.4 per year). The large 

increase in fatalities in the Southern States might be driven 

in part by drought conditions responsible for large increases 

in the number of fires and the acres burned.

In the Pacific Northwestern States, fatalities increased 

from 11 (1.2 fatalities per year) during the initial period to 

17 (2.1 fatalities per year) during the most recent period. The 

large increase in this area was due to eight fatalities in the 

First Strike Environmental vehicle accident.

The Eastern States had the third largest percentage 

increase in fatalities, from 14 during the initial period (1.6 

fatalities per year) to 21 during the most recent period (2.6 

fatalities per year), a 69-percent increase in the annual average. This increase is not due to any single event, but to a 

combination of events across the region.

Overall, fatalities in the Great Basin States increased 

from 12 during the initial period (1.3 fatalities per year) to 

17 during the most recent period (2.1 fatalities per year). 

Idaho had 7 fatalities during the initial period (0.8 fatalities 

per year) and 11 fatalities during the most recent period (1.4 

fatalities per year). 

The Southwestern States had a meaningful drop in fatalities: from 17 fatalities during the initial period (1.9 fatalities per 

year) to 9 fatalities during the most recent period (1.1 fatalities 

per year), a decrease of 40 percent in the annual average. The 

initial period included six fatalities on the Dude Fire in 1990.

The Northern Plains and Rocky Mountain States experienced moderate increases in fatalities during the most recent 

period. In the Northern Plains States, fatalities were up 14 

percent, from 7 (0.8 fatalities per year) to 8 (1.0 fatality per 

year.) In the Rocky Mountain States, fatalities were up 11 

percent, from 18 (2.0 per year) to 20 (2.5 per year). 
18

Vehicle Accidents

Vehicle accidents (figure 14) also were a leading cause 

of death, killing 71 persons (23 percent of the total fatalities), 

an average of 4.2 fatalities per year. Vehicle accident fatalities increased from 25 during the initial period (2.8 fatalities 

per year) to 46 during the most recent period (5.8 fatalities 

per year), a 107-percent increase in the annual average. Most 

vehicle accident fatalities involved a single individual. Many 

of the victims were driving to an incident or were returning 

home after being demobilized. 

Because the time of accidents is not reported in the 

“Safety Gram,” it is not possible to evaluate the effect of 

darkness and/or fatigue. Rollovers were a recurring factor. 

Several reports documented firefighters being thrown out of 

their fire apparatus and being run over by the vehicle. 

Volunteer firefighters suffered the most vehicle accident 

fatalities (40), 56 percent of the total. This percentage may 

be attributed to the large number of volunteer vehicles that 

respond to wildland fires across the country. 

The greatest benefit of retrospective studies is that they 

allow us to see trends that have developed, or have 

continued, over a long period (17 years, in this case). 

Instead of making a short-term, knee-jerk reaction to perceived 

problems, fire managers can rely on retrospective studies to 

identify the problems that have recurred, their causal factors, 

and the mitigation measures needed to resolve them.

Overall, fatalities increased during the most recent period 

compared to the initial period. The 137 fatalities during the 

initial period represent an average of 15.2 fatalities per year. 

The 173 fatalities during the most recent period represent an 

average of 21.6 fatalities per year, a 42-percent increase in 

the annual average. Although burnover fatalities dropped, 

increases in other causes of death contributed to the overall increase in fatalities. While the average number of fires 

per year decreased about 5 percent during the most recent 

period, the average number of acres burned each year 

increased by 91 percent.

Aircraft Accidents

Aircraft accidents are the leading cause of fatalities during 

wildland fire operations. Aircraft accidents accounted for a 

total of 72 fatalities, (4.2 fatalities per year), about 23 percent of 

all fatalities. Fatalities increased from 33 (3.7 fatalities per year) 

during the initial period to 39 (4.9 fatalities per year) during 

the most recent period. The increase may be related to the 

number of acres burned during the period. Several fixed-wing, 

multiengine airtankers crashed during this period, resulting in a 

temporary shutdown of fixed-wing, multiengine airtanker operations and later a reduction in the number of fixed-wing, multiengine airtankers being used. This reduction led to an increase 

in the use of SEATs and Type 1 helitankers. Four SEAT crashes 

with fatalities occurred during the most recent period. Figure 14—Pay attention to speed, seat belts, and fatigue to avoid being 

injured or killed in a vehicle accident.

Trends and Analysis
19

Heart Attacks

Heart attacks continue to be a leading cause of death 

among wildland firefighters (22 percent of the total fatalities). The number of heart attacks increased from 29 during 

the initial period (3.2 fatalities per year) to 39 during the 

most recent period (4.9 fatalities per year), a 51-percent 

increase in the annual average. 

Among Federal and State firefighters, heart attacks 

increased from 7 during the initial period (0.8 fatalities per 

year) to 12 during the most recent period (1.5 fatalities per 

year), an 88-percent increase in the annual average. From 

1998 to 2004, four Federal, three State, and two volunteer 

firefighters died from heart attacks while taking the Work 

Capacity Test or training to do so. No one died during 2005 

or 2006, the period during which Federal firefighters were 

required to undergo improved health screening before taking 

the Work Capacity Test. The brochure, “Work Capacity 

Testing for Wildland Firefighters: Promoting Wildland 

Firefighter Safety” (figure 15), is available at http://www.

fs.fed.us/fire/safety/wct/2002/brochure_2002.pdf.

Burnovers

The NWCG defines a burnover as “...a situation where 

personnel or equipment is caught in an advancing flame 

front.” Burnovers (figure 16) are the most visible cause of 

death for wildland firefighters, but they caused only 64 (21 

percent, or an average of 3.8 fatalities per year) of the total 

(310) fatalities. Four burnovers were responsible for nearly 

half (29) of the 64 fatalities:

Dude Fire in Arizona (1990)—6 fatalities

South Canyon Fire in Colorado (1994)—14 fatalities

Thirtymile Fire in Washington (2001)—4 fatalities

Esperanza Fire in California (2006)—5 fatalities

The first three major burnover fatality events (Dude, 

South Canyon, and Thirtymile Fires) led to significant 

changes in the way wildland fire suppression efforts are 

undertaken. If we remove these three events and the 2006 

Esperanza burnover from consideration (for a total of 29 

fatalities), the average number of burnover fatalities drops to 

a base level of 2.1 burnover fatalities per year. 

•

•

•

•

Figure 15—The Work Capacity Test 

(sometimes called the pack test) helps 

ensure that firefighters are fit for their 

jobs.

Figure 16—Burnovers continue to be one of the major causes of death during 

wildland fire operations.
20

To get a better sense of trends that might be lost by 

consolidating data, the analysis of burnover fatalities was 

broken into timeframes that differ from the study periods 

used elsewhere in this report (figure 17):

1990 to 1994—From the Dude Fire (1990) through 

calendar year 1994 when the South Canyon Fire occurred.

1995 to 2001—After the South Canyon Fire, its 

reviews, and subsequent changes in fire operations. 

This timeframe includes the four fatalities on the 

Thirtymile Fire.

2002 to 2006—The “Post-Thirtymile” era that 

includes the five fatalities on the Esperanza Fire.

•

•

•

Burnovers killed 33 firefighters from 1990 to 1994, an 

average of 6.6 per year. More than half of those fatalities 

were on the Dude (6 fatalities) and South Canyon Fires (14 

fatalities). Many of those killed during this timeframe were 

Federal and State firefighters who were suppressing fires that 

were viewed as direct or indirect threats to private homes and 

other structures (figure 18). 

After the South Canyon Fire, several reviews, special 

studies, and conferences focused the attention of wildland 

firefighters across the United States on the need for safer 

work practices on the fireline. 

Figure 17—Burnovers can be grouped based on the changes that occurred after the most serious burnovers: the Dude Fire (1990), the South Canyon Fire 

(1994), and the Thirtymile Fire (2001).

Burnover Fatalities From 1990 to 2006

10

3

0

3

17

2 2

1 1

2

4

5

1

4

1 1

7

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Dude Fire

(1990)

South Canyon Fire

(1994)

Thirtymile Fire

(2001)

Esperanza Fire

(2006)
21

From 1995 to 2001, 17 firefighters died in burnovers, an 

average of 2.4 per year. Both 1996 (6.0 million acres burned) 

and 2000 (7.4 million acres burned) were significant fire 

years. In 2001, the Thirtymile Fire killed four firefighters 

and led to a new round of reviews and policy changes. 

From 2002 until 2006, an additional 14 firefighters 

were killed by burnovers, an average of 2.8 per year. During 

October 2006, five Federal firefighters were killed by a burnover on the Esperanza fire in California. 

Entrapments

Although this report documents and analyzes fatalities that occurred during wildland fire operations, close call 

events that are not as well documented may lead to future 

fatalities. The “Safety Gram” does document entrapments. 

The NWCG defines an entrapment as “...a situation 

where personnel are unexpectedly caught in a fire behavior-related, life-threatening position where planned escape 

routes or safety zones are absent, inadequate, or have been 

compromised. An entrapment may or may not include the 

deployment of a fire shelter for its intended purpose. These 

situations may or may not result in injury. They include near 

misses.”

Entrapments were reviewed during the same timeframes 

as burnover fatalities: 1990–1994; 1995–2001; and 2002–

2006. While the number of burnover fatalities decreased 

after fires with multiple fatalities from burnovers, such as 

South Canyon (14 fatalities, 1994) or Thirtymile (4 fatalities, 

2001), the number of entrapments did not drop. The “Safety 

Gram” and “Wildland Firefighter Entrapments: 1976–1999” 

(figure 19), recorded a total of 875 entrapments from 1990 to 

2006 (figure 20): 

1990 to 1994—218 entrapments (43.6 per year) 

1995 to 2001—414 entrapments (59.1 per year) 

2002 to 2006—243 entrapments (48.6 per year) 

While many of these events did not result in fatalities, 

they are a harsh reminder of the fine line between a close call 

and death. They merit our attention.

•

•

• Figure 18—Protecting homes in the wildland-urban interface has increased 

the risk to firefighters. This wildland-urban interface is on Long Island.

Figure 19—This report is available online at: 

http://www.fs.fed.us/t-d/pubs/htmlpubs/htm00512853/ 

Username: t-d, Password: t-d 

—Cover photo by Mark Erickson, Silver City, NM.
22

Falling Trees/Snags, Other Medical, and 

Miscellaneous Causes

Falling trees/snags and rolling rocks killed 11 firefighters: five during the initial period (0.6 per year) and six during 

the most recent period (0.8 per year).

Fatalities from other medical and miscellaneous causes 

increased from 6 during the initial period (0.7 per year, 

including 3 from other medical causes and 3 from miscellaneous causes) to 17 during the most recent period (2.1 per 

year, 6 from other medical causes and 11 from miscellaneous 

causes). Other medical causes included brain aneurysms, 

undefined sickness, and heat stress. 

The miscellaneous causes included being struck by lightning, electrocution, drowning, and even a murder in a staging 

area. While the 23 fatalities from other medical and miscellaneous causes include only 7 percent of the total deaths, 

targeted actions (figure 21), such as training in lightning 

awareness and powerline dangers, can be taken to reduce the 

number of fatalities, especially those with nonmedical causes. 

31 30

2

38

117

9

200

29

17

44

81

34

48

65

51

15

64

0

50

100

150

200

250

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Entrapments From 1990 to 2006

Figure 20—The number of entrapments from 1990 to 2006.

Figure 21—Following safe practices at all times can help reduce fire 

fatalities. Riding outside an engine is not a safe practice.
23

I

n the mid-1970s, fire researcher Carl Wilson identified 

four common denominators of fire behavior that caused 

fatalities and near-misses on wildland fires. These four 

common denominators have been cited for decades in fire 

safety training, in the “Fireline Handbook” (PMS No. 410–1), 

and in the “Incident Response Pocket Guide” (PMS No. 461).

Based on my analysis of 310 fire fatalities during wildland fire operations from 1990 to 2006, I believe that it is 

time to consider some 21st-century common denominators to 

help reduce wildland firefighter fatalities.

Common Denominators for Wildland Firefi ghter Fatalities

As the major causes of firefighter fatalities shift, additional factors need to be considered:

Firefighters are most likely to die in an aircraft accident. Before every flight, fire managers must ask, “Is this 

flight essential?” and “Is everyone onboard essential to the mission?”

Firefighters are nearly as likely to die in a vehicle accident as in an aircraft accident. Driving too fast for the 

conditions, failure to wear seat belts, rushing to a fire, and driving home while exhausted from firefighting 

kills firefighters.

Firefighters can reduce their risk of dying from heart attacks on the job by staying fit, maintaining their body 

weight, and having regular medical checkups.

Unexpected events such as falling snags, rolling rocks, downed power lines, and lightning strikes cause more 

than 8 percent of fatalities during wildland fire fighting operations. Firefighters and fire managers can reduce 

fatalities by learning to expect these unexpected events.

More than 20 percent of fatalities during wildland firefighting operations continue to occur in burnovers. Carl 

Wilson’s original common denominators are just as important in the 21st century as they were in the 20th.

There are four major common denominators of fire behavior on fatal and near-fatal fires. Such fires often occur:

On relatively small fires or deceptively quiet areas of large fires.

In relatively light fuels, such as grass, herbs, and light brush.

When there is an unexpected shift in wind direction or wind speed.

When fire responds to topographic conditions and runs uphill. Alignment of topography and wind during the 

burning period should always be considered a trigger point to re-evaluate strategy and tactics.

1.

2.

3.

4.

1.

2.

3.

4.

21st-Century Common Denominators for Wildland Firefighter Fatalities

Carl Wilson’s Common Denominators of Fire Behavior on Tragedy Fires
24

Bushey, Charles L. 1997. Wildland fire/aircraft firefighter 

fatalities in the United States compared with ground based 

firefighter fatalities. In: Proceedings of the International 

Association of Wildland Fire Canada/U.S. Wildland Fire 

Safety Summit, Rossland, BC, Canada.

Mangan, Richard J. 1999. Wildland fire fatalities in the United 

States: 1990–1998. Tech. Rep. 9951–2808–MTDC. Missoula, 

MT: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Missoula 

Technology and Development Center. 14 p. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/t-d/pubs/htmlpubs/htm99512808/

Username: t-d, Password: t-d

Mangan, Richard J. 2001. Investigating wildland fire 

entrapments: 2001 edition. Tech. Rep. 0151–2823–MTDC. 

Missoula, MT: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, 

Missoula Technology and Development Center. 34 p.

http://www.fs.fed.us/t-d/pubs/htmlpubs/htm01512823/

Username: t-d, Password: t-d

Munson, Steve; Mangan, Dick. 2000. Wildland firefighter 

entrapments: 1976–1999. Tech. Rep. 0051–2853–MTDC. 

Missoula, MT: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, 

Missoula Technology and Development Center. 10 p. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/t-d/pubs/htmlpubs/htm00512853/ 

Username: t-d, Password: t-d

National Fire Protection Association. 1988. Analysis 

report on firefighter fatalities. Quincy, MA: National Fire 

Protection Association. 52 p.

National Fire Protection Association. 1991. Wildland fire 

fatalities, 1981–1990. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection 

Association. 13 p.

National Fire Protection Association. 1997. Special 

analysis—U.S. firefighter fatalities as a result of wildland 

fires: 1987–1996. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection 

Association. 7 p.

National Wildfire Coordinating Group. 1980. Preliminary 

report of task force on study of fatal/near-fatal wildland fire 

accidents. Boise, ID: National Interagency Fire Center. 76 p.

http://www.wildfirelessons.net/documents/NWCG_Joint_

Task_Force_Fatal_Near_Fatal _Wildland_Fire_Accidents_

1980.pdf

National Wildfire Coordinating Group. 1997. Historical 

wildland firefighter fatalities: 1910–1996. NFES 1849. Boise, 

ID: National Interagency Fire Center. 29 p. 

http://www.wildfirelessons.net/documents/fatalities_1910_

1996_pdf.pdf

U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service. 1957. 

Report of the task force to recommend action to reduce the 

chances of men being killed by burning while fighting fires. 

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest 

Service. 30 p. plus appendixes.

U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service. 1967. Report 

of the fire safety review team: a plan to further reduce 

the chances of men being burned while fighting fires. 

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest 

Service. 76 p.

U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service. 2004. Trends 

in wildland fire entrapment fatalities. Information Briefing 

Paper. Boise, ID: National Interagency Fire Center. 5 p.

http://www.nifc.gov/wfstar/safety_essays/Entrapment_

Fatality_Trends.pdf

Wilson, Carl C. 1977. Fatal and near-fatal forest fires: the 

common denominators. In: The International Fire Chief 

43(9). 6 p.

References
25

Dick Mangan founded Blackbull Wildfire Services after retiring from MTDC in 2000. Dick came to MTDC in 1989 

as the Fire and Aviation Program Leader. He served as an advisor to the National Wildfire Coordinating Group’s Safety and 

Health and Fire Equipment Working Teams and was chair of the National Fire Protection Association’s Technical Committee 

on Wildland Fire Protective Clothing and Equipment (NFPA 1977) from 1995 to 2000. In the wildland fire suppression 

world, Dick is qualified as an operations section chief, safety officer, and planning section chief. He has been involved 

in suppression operations across the United States and has been chief investigator, team member, and technical expert on 

wildland fire entrapment and fatality investigations. He has written and spoken widely on fire safety and equipment issues 

not only in the United States, but also in Australia, Spain, and Siberia. He is a member of the International Association of 

Wildland Fire, the National Fire Protection Association, and the National Association of Fire Investigators. In April 2001 

he was awarded the GEICO Insurance Public Service Award for Fire Safety. He served on the board of the International 

Association of Wildland Fire from 2001 to 2006 and was president from 2004 to 2006.

Fire season 2001

About the Author
26

Library Card

Mangan, Richard. 2007. Wildland firefighter fatalities in the United States: 1990–2006. NWCG PMS 841. Boise, ID: 

National Wildfire Coordinating Group, Safety and Health Working Team, National Interagency Fire Center. 28 p.

This report updates the 1999 report, “Wildland Fire Fatalities in the United States: 1990–1998” (9951–2808–MTDC). From 

1990 to 2006, 310 persons died during wildland fire operations. The number of fatalities each year increased 26 percent 

from the initial period (1990 to 1998, 15.2 fatalities per year) to the most recent period (1999 to 2006, 21.6 fatalities per 

year). Burnovers were the leading cause of death during the initial period. During the most recent period, the leading causes 

of death were aircraft accidents, vehicle accidents, and heart attacks. Mangan proposes four new “21st-Century Common 

Denominators of Wildland Firefighter Fatalities” to supplement the original four “Common Denominators of Fire Behavior 

on Tragedy Fires” identified during the 1970s by fire researcher Carl Wilson.

Keywords: accident prevention, accidents, aircraft, burnovers, common denominators, contractors, deaths, entrapments, 

fatalities, fire fighters, fire fighting, firefighting, fire shelters, fitness, heart attacks, safety at work, vehicles, volunteers, 

wildfires, wildland fires

The NWCG “SafetyGram” and “Historical Wildland Firefighter Fatality” 

reports are available on the Internet at:

http://www.nwcg.gov/teams/shwt/safetygram2.htm

Electronic copies of MTDC’s documents, including 

“Wildland Firefi ghter Fatalities in the United States: 

1990–2006” (0751–2814–MTDC), are available on the 

Internet at:

http://www.fs.fed.us/eng/t-d.php

Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management 

employees can search a more complete collection of 

MTDC’s documents, videos, and CDs on their internal 

computer networks at:

http://fsweb.mtdc.wo.fs.fed.us/search/