NBSIR 77-1308

Annual Conference on Fire

Research

Clayton Huggett, Editor

Center for Fire Research

Institute for Applied Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D C. 20234

October 1977

Final Report

U S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

NBSIR 77-1308

ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE

RESEARCH

Clayton Huggett, Editor

Center for Fire Research

Institute for Applied Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

October 1977

Final Report

U S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Juanita M. Kreps, Secretary

Dr. Sidney Harman, Under Secretary

Jordan J. Baruch, Assistant Secretary for Science and Technology

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler. Acting Director

FOREWORD

This Conference is an important first for the fire research community. In

past years there have been meetings at which grantees have described their work

but NBS staff have not made presentations. On other occasions a few of the Center's

staff have presented their programs to meetings attended by some of the grantees.

But never before have we managed to collect in one place all of the NBS grantees

and all of the NBS program chiefs and senior investigators. Indeed, the NBS

program has never before been presented all at once. We are able to do this at

this time because the grants and the NBS work are now all part of the same overall

program.

We at NBS regard this work of our grantees as an integral part of our program,

in fact an indispensable part. Despite the difficulties imposed by geographical

separations we have sought to treat the work done on grants with the same concern

and consideration as the work done here at NBS. After one year of work by

Dr. Huggett and the chiefs to improve grantees' understanding of our goals and

objectives and to encourage our people to work more closely with the grantees, we see many encouraging signs that the efforts are paying off handsomely. Our

work is stimulated and enriched by the work done elsewhere; the work of the

grantees is more relevant to the National goal we all pursue. I have every

confidence that this conference will give impetus to this trend and that all

participants will feel the time here was well spent.

July 12, 1977 J. W. Lyons

Director, Center for Fire Research

iii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

FOREWORD iii

Final Program 1

ABSTRACTS OF PROGRAMS

Center for Fire Research

Program for Information and Hazard Analysis 4 Program for Chemistry 7 Program for Physics and Dynamics 12

Program for Toxicology of Combustion Products 17

Program for Fire Prevention—Products 22

Program for Fire Control—Furnishings 23

Program for Fire Control-Construction 24

Program for Fire Detection and Control Systems 29

Program for Design Concepts 32

Contracts and Grants

Brown University

Flame Propagation and Extinction for Solid Fuels 39

California Institute of Technology

Convective Flow Associated with Room Fires 42

Cornell University

Flame Spread Over Liquid Fuel 47

Georgia Institute of Technology

Properties of Combustion Products from Building Fires 50

Georgia Institute of Technology

Effects of Ignition Sources and Fire Retardants on Material Ignition 55

Georgia Institute of Technology

A Kinetics Investigation of Several Reactions Involving Bromine Compounds as Related to Flame Initiation and Propagation 61

Harvard University - Factory Mutual Research Corporation

The Home Fire Project 63

Full-Scale Fire Test Program 63

Prediction of a Fire 63

The Modeling of Fires in an Enclosure 64

Radiation from Flames and Smoke Layers 64

The Effect of Radiation on Ignition and Fire Spread 65

The Heat of Combustion of Smoke 65

Extinguishment 66

v
IIT Research Institute

Fire Alarms and Responses to Alarms in Health Care Institutions 68

The Johns Hopkins University

Evaluation of Toxicity of Combustion Products . 69

• The Johns Hopkins University/Applied Physics Laboratory

Fire Casualties Study 75

Combustion Research 78

The Pennsylvania State University

An Investigation of Fire Induced Plumes Along a Vertical Wall 83

Portland Cement Association

Simulation of Realistic Thermal Restraint During Fire Tests of Floor and

Roof Assemblies - Phases III-V 90

Princeton University

An Experimental Investigation of Flame Spread Over Condensed Combustibles:

Gas Phase Interactions 92

Princeton University, Guggenheim Laboratories

Modeling the Generation of Toxic Gases by the Smoldering Combustion of

Polyurethanes 95

Stanford Research Institute

Application of Decision Analysis to Problems of Fire Hazard Quantification. . . 98

Stevens Institute of Technology

Flammability Studies of Cellular Plastics 100

University of California at Berkeley

Fire Safety in Urban Housing 104

Full-Scale Experiments and Fire Tests 104

Flame Radiation 107

Fire Modeling 110

Polymer Combustion and Flame Chemistry 113

University of California at Berkeley

Human Behavior in Institutional Fires and Its Design Implications 116

University of California at San Diego

Flame Extinction in Relationship to Fire Suppression 119

University of Maryland

A Theoretical Rationalization of the Goal Oriented Systems Approach to Building Fire Safety 124

University of Maryland

Smoke as a Determinant of Human Behavior in Fire Situations 126

University of Maryland

The Examination of Selected Systemic Variables Influencing the Discharge

Distribution Pattern from Automatic Sprinkler Heads 130

University of Massachusetts

Flame Suppression by Chemical Inhibitors 132

vi
University of Montana

Chemistry of Cellulosic Fires 142

University of Notre Dame

Fire and Smoke Spread 146

University of Pittsburgh

Toxicity of Plastic Combustion Products 151

University of Utah

The Physiological and Toxicological Aspects of Smoke Produced During the

Combustion of Polymeric Materials 153

Development of Protocol for Assessment of Relative Toxicity of Materials

Upon Combustion 156

Smoke Optical Density Studies 163

Polymer Degradation Studies 165

University of Washington

Development and Evaluation of Vocal Alarm Systems for Hospitals and

Convalescent Homes 174

Integrated Systems, Inc. Air Movement and Smoke Diffusion Simulation Programs 176

APPENDIX A - ORGANIZATION CHART, CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH 177

APPENDIX B - FEDERAL FIRE PREVENTION AND CONTROL ACT OF 1974; PL 93-498 178

vii

Final Program

CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

Center for Fire Research

Institute for Applied Technology

National Bureau of Standards

August 3, 4, 5, 1977

Wednesday, August 3

8:15 a.m. Registration, Employee Lounge

9:15 Opening Session, Green Auditorium

Welcome

Dr. Ernest Ambler, Acting Director

National Bureau of Standards

Dr. George Suzuki, Acting Deputy Director

Institute for Applied Technology

Update on the National Fire Prevention and Control Administration

Mr. David Lucht , Deputy Administrator

National Fire Prevention and Control Administration

Program of the Center for Fire Research

Dr. John Lyons, Director

Center for Fire Research

The Extramural Research Program of the Center for Fire Research

Dr. Clayton Huggett, Chief

Office of Extramural Research

11:00 Coffee Break, Employee Lounge

11:30 Simultaneous Technical Sessions

Green Auditorium

Fire Modeling

Dr. John Rockett, Discussion Leader

Lecture Room D Hazard Analysis

Mr. Benjamin Buchbinder, Discussion Leader

12:30 p.m. Lunch, NBS Cafeteria

1:30 Simultaneous Technical Sessions

Green Auditorium

Fire Modeling (Continued)

Lecture Room D Systems Design

Mr. Harold Nelson, Discussion Leader

3:30 Coffee Break

1
4:00 Fire Modeling (Continued)

Human Behavior

Mr. Harold Nelson, Discussion Leader

5:30 Adj ourn

6:30 Barbecue, Smokey Glen Farm

Thursday, August 4

9:15 a.m. Simultaneous Technical Sessions

Green Auditorium

Combustion Chemistry

Dr. Richard Gann, Discussion Leader

Lecture Room D Fire Hazards of Interior Furnishings

Mr. Sanford Davis, Discussion Leader

10:30 Coffee Break

11:00 Green Auditorium

Combustion Chemistry (Continued)

Lecture Room D Fire Hazards of Consumer Products

Mr. James Winger, Discussion Leader

12:30 Lunch, NBS Cafeteria

1:30 Simultaneous Technical Sessions

Green Auditorium

Toxicity of Combustion Products

Dr. Merritt Birky, Discussion Leader

Lecture Room D Fire and Materials of Construction

Mr. William Parker, Discussion Leader

3:00 p.m. Coffee Break

3:30 Green Auditorium

Toxicity of Combustion Products (Continued)

Lecture Room D Fire Detection and Suppression

Mr. Richard Custer, Discussion Leader

5:00 Adj ourn

6:00 Optional Event

Dinner and Concert, Wolf Trap Farm Park

Friday

,

August 5

9:15 a.m. Closing Session, Green Auditorium

11:00

Dr. Robert S. Levine, Chairman

Summary Reports by Discussion Leaders

Coffee Break

2
11:30 Closing Session (Continued)

Mr. Irwin A. Benjamin, Chairman

Response by Grantees - New Directions

Dr. Zoltan Annau

Dr. John de Ris

Dr. Robert Fristrom

Dr. John Keating

Closing of Conference

12:30 p.m. Lunch, NBS Cafeteria

1:30 Free Time

Informal Discussions

Visits to Laboratories

Tour of Fire Research Facility (Building 205)

Tour of NBS

Transportation to Airports

3
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBSs Gaithersburg, Md. , August 3-5, 1977

(Issued October 1977)

PROGRAM FOR INFORMATION AND HAZARD ANALYSIS

FIRE SCIENCE DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

Benjamin Buchbinder, Program Chief

Susan Helzer, Mathematician

Nora Jason, Technical Information Specialist

James Slater, Mathematician

Linda Miles, Research Associate (Cotton Foundation)

Kirt Smith, Research Associate (PPG Industries, Inc.)

Hazard Quantification Project

Quantitative methods are used in decision analysis framework to

evaluate alternative intervention strategies for the reduction of fire

losses. The choice of the best strategy is based on minimizing the

cost of implementing the strategies and the associated fire losses

incurred (i.e., the cost plus loss). The methodology does provide the

appropriate framework for combining fire loss data, fire test results,

and expert judgment to provide the technical basis for choosing among

alternatives. The actual choice of a strategy rests with the policy

makers. The role of hazard analysis is to provide the framework for

the decision and the technical analysis, and to indicate where the policy

makers need to supply value judgments. The methodology will be further

applied to other problem areas such as mobile homes.

Accomplishments: A pilot decision analysis using the upholstered

furniture problem as a test case; preliminary analysis of the effect of

the proposed upholstered furniture standard and mandatory smoke detectors

on the upholstered furniture flammability problem.

Delivery mechanisms will be reports of analyses, intervention

strategies, presentations to professional organizations and contributions

to standards-making organizations.

General Hazard Analysis Project

This is a study of the effect of fiber content, construction, level

and type of FR finish on the ignition time of fabrics during combustion,

the potential injury level and char integrity. Commercially treated

apparel fabrics with varying percentages of phosphorus are tested on three different experimental devices (Mushroom Apparel Flammability

Tester, Apparel Flammability Modeling Apparatus, Instrumented Mannequin)

to study burning behavior of partially treated fabrics.

Accomplishments: Providing supporting data for the general apparel

standard.

4
Delivery mechanisms will be reports of analyses, presentations to

professional organizations and supporting documentation for the general

apparel standard.

Plastics Hazard Analysis

The objective is to identify and characterize those properties of

plastics products which cause them to be a fire hazard in real-life

situations; and to create an information base on fire hazards of plastics

products for use in the design of appropriate test methods. Detailed

investigative reports on plastic fires are obtained and analyzed, and the

materials involved are identified and characterized in the laboratory.

The chain of events of the fire is studied and verified when questionable.

Fire performance and basic properties are determined in the laboratory

and correlated with field data. The data are computerized and analyzed

to assess the fire hazards of plastics.

Accomplishments: Acquisition of 175 field investigation reports,

development of laboratory procedures for sample analysis, development

of a computerized data base and laboratory simulations of observed fire

patterns

.

Delivery mechanisms will be published reports of analytical

results, presentations to professional organizations, and contributions

to the activities of volunteer standards organizations.

Fire Research Information Services

The objectives are to expand and maintain a techical fire literature

collection, provide technical information services to the Center for Fire

Research and provide information services to the fire community.

For the fire community, selected mailing lists are used to disseminate reports written by and for the Center for Fire Research;

interlibrary loans are exchanged with participating institutions; and

referrals are made to experts for specialized information.

Accomplishments: The collection and dissemination of information

is continuous. Two reports resulting from a NASA contract will be

published soon: "Fire Research Specialists: A Directory" by Nora H. Jason and "Hazard Characteristics of Combustion Products in Fires:

The State-of-the-Art Report" by Merritt M. Birky. A listing of

all reports written for and by the Center for Fire Research is

published yearly.

Document acquisition, bibliographic searching and information

services are directly related to Center for Fire Research projects and

the technical interests of the fire community.

5
Publications

Birky, M. M. Hazard Characteristics of the Combustion Products of Fires:

The State-of-the-Art Report. National Bureau of Standards NBSIR

76-1234, May 1977. Final report. It also will be published as a National Aeronautics and Space Administration Contract report,

NASA CR-135088; publication date to be announced.

Buchbinder, B. and Buchbinder, L. B. The Fire Hazard Analysis Process at

the National Bureau of Standards. Fire Safety of Combustible

Materials, International Symposium Proceedings, University of

Edinburgh, October 1975.

Buchbinder, B. , Helzer, S. G. and Offensend, F. Pilot Decision Analysis

Model for Assessing Fire Losses. Presented at the NFPA Annual

Meeting, Washington, D.C., May 18, 1977. It will be published in

the Society of Fire Protection Engineers Seminar.

Helzer, S. Backup Report for the Proposed Standard for the Flammability

of General Wearing Apparel by E. Braun, V. B. Cobble, S. Helzer,

J. F. Krasny, R. D. Peacock and A. K. Stratton. National Bureau

of Standards Report NBSIR 76-1072, Final Report, June 1976.

Jason, Nora H. Fire Research Publications, 1975. National Bureau of

Standards NBSIR 76-1120. Final report.

Jason, Nora H. Fire Research Publications, 1976. National Bureau of

Standards NBSIR to be published.

Jason, Nora H. Fire Research Specialists: A Directory. A Contract

report for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration,

NASA CR-135089. Publication date to be announced.

Miles, L. Burning Behavior of Borderline Fabrics. Textile Flammability

LeBlanc Symposium. Proceedings, New Orleans, April 1977.

Miles L. Extinguishability of Flammable Textiles: Part 2. Effects of

Ambient Oxygen Concentration by L. Miles, G. R. Bhat, R. L. Sun,

K. Yeh and S. M. Spivak. Journal of Consumer Product Flammability

Vol. 3, No. 3, 166-192 (September 1976).

6
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH3 NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS3 Gaithersburg3 Md. 3 August 3-53 1977

(Issued October 1977)

PROGRAM FOR CHEMISTRY

FIRE SCIENCE DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

Dr. Richard G. Gann, Acting Chief

Dr. John W. Rowen, Physical Scientist

Dr. Gerald D. Mitchell, Research Chemist

Dr. Kermit C. Smyth, Research Chemist

Dr. W. Gary Mallard, Research Chemist

Michael J. Manka, Chemist

Irene T. Cheng, Chemist

Dr. David D. Evans, Postdoctoral Research Associate

Dr. Maurice Ducloux, Research Associate, Rhone-Poulenc

Affiliated

Dr. John Hastie, Inorganic Materials Division

Dr. Michael Kurylo, Physical Chemistry Division

Dr. Wing Tsang, Physical Chemistry Division

1. Introduction

The Program for Chemistry is indicative of the recent rise in

research emphasis in the fire program. Of the current professional

staff, only half were here a year ago. The goal of the Program is to develop a better understanding of the chemical processes occurring in

fires and transmit that knowledge to other fire research groups and to the technical community at large for use in developing fire resistant

materials, standard test methods and building design codes.

2 , Condensed Phase Combustion Chemistry

In this portion of our effort, we are looking at the effects of the

fuel chemistry on the fuel's contribution to the fire. In addition, we consider the effects within the substrate of various fire retardants.

2 . 1 Spontaneous Ignition

In many instances fires begin or propagate when materials are heated, smolder for a while, and then burst into flame or ignite some other substance. The Bureau of Mines has a similar problem with the

ignition of low-grade coals long before they reach their eventual destination. Hence, studies on the self-heating of materials have a dual

potential to reduce both fire loss and energy waste. It is our intent

to develop a scientifically based susceptibility index for materials

prone to spontaneous ignition and to demonstrate the validity of this

index as a basis for ranking these materials for fire hazard.

7
The approach taken in the first year of this project has made use

of an adiabatic furnace. An updated version of the original design

pioneered at NBS some 25 years ago is now operational, and several

samples, ground from a particular coal seam, have been studied. The use

of coal samples reflects the partial sponsorship of the Bureau of Mines

and the relative "cleanliness" of coal samples as compared to, for

instance, polyurethanes. The preliminary results show thermal runaway

at temperatures as low as 60°C. The data are being used as a test for

the applicability of thermal explosion theory. A further revision of

the furnace, designed to ease sample handling, will be constructed this summer

2 . 2 Smoldering Combustion

According to current statistics, at least one fourth of all fire

deaths result from scenarios which include a non-flaming step. We have

constructed a simple vertical flow tube to unravel the parameters which

contribute to the propagation of the smoldering front. In this apparatus, a mixture of oxygen and an inert (such as N2 , Ar, or He) is flowed

upward at various rates through a bed of granulated coconut shell charcoal. This fuel was selected for the simplicity of its combustion

products and its relatively high reproducibility. Five thermocouples

are inserted into the bed at various heights, thus providing a means for

measuring the downward rate of passage of the smoldering front. The

combustion products are analyzed for CO, CO2 , O2 and ^0.

We have ascertained that after the smoldering front has passed

through the sample, only a nominal 6% by weight of the charcoal has been

consumed. Thus, within reason, the packing of the bed is unchanged.

Moreover, after one initial smoldering pass, the product gas concentrations vary little during successive passes, implying a steadiness in the

chemistry. We have begun development of a one-dimensional analytical

model for treating the propagation physics and gross chemistry.

The apparatus is also being used to further investigate results

from two other projects. First, experiments in the Physics and Dynamics

Program have shown that elemental sulfur is a general purpose inhibitor

of smoldering. Preliminary results in this apparatus indicate that the

addition of 10% sulfur by weight to the charcoal reduces only slightly

the combustion propagation. Discovering the reasons for this anomaly

will cast some light on the as yet unknown mechanism of sulfur retardance. Second, we have previously shown that CO

2 is not an effective

suppressant for the smoldering of cotton. In fact, it acts more like

air than like nitrogen, argon or heluim. This is another anomaly to be

studied

2 . 3 Extinction Phenomena

Since its creation in the 1960's, the Oxygen Index Test has become

a standard method for assigning relative flammability potential to materials. It is, however, quite clear that plastics with oxygen

indices greater than 21 still burn vigorously when involved in fires.

We would like to know, then, what, if any, properties of the substrate

the Test is measuring. Using a conventional 01 apparatus with a sample

holder designed for liquids, we have measured the oxygen index of a homologous series of n-alcohols as a function of sample pool temperature. When the results are reduced on the basis of fuel vapor pressure, the data seem to converge to a single locus. Logically, a preliminary hypothesis is that the test measures the balance of heat

transfer to the fuel and heat loss to the holder. This is being further

tested using more varied fuels, fuel holders and flow conditions.

8
2 . 4 Rate of Heat Release (RHR)

Fortunately, when a component of a room catches fire, it generally

does not burn instantaneously to completion. Rather, a gradual involvement occurs, often with far less heat than AH

c being released over an extended time interval. Coordinating with the Program for Fire ControlConstruction, we are involved with two aspects of this phenomena. The

first, recently completed, was a detailed study of the time response

characteristics of the OSU calorimeter used to measure rate of heat

release. This has led to a computer program to correct for the thermal

lag of the instrument. The results, tested against calibration standards, have been submitted to Fire Technology .

A second project uses a RHR calorimeter to elucidate the mechanisms

of polymer degradation during flaming combustion. The intent is to

allow some degree of predictability for the contribution of components

to room fires. This is in the development state, with the criteria for

the calorimeter still being considered. Variables likely to be studied,

in addition the structure of the fuel, are irradiance level, air flow,

and sample orientation. Analysis of both the gaseous combustion products

and polymer residue is planned.

2 . 5 Polymer Combustion

An investigation of the burning behavior of polymer rods is underway using a common oxygen index apparatus. The rods of PMMA and a cross-linked polystyrene are ignited at the top and burned in flows

containing various oxygen fractions. The mass burning rate and burning

surface area are marked functions of the oxygen fraction, but the mass burning rate per unit area (m") is independent. The external temperature and sample diameter have been varied, with m" and the oxygen index

decreasing slightly with increasing temperature and ih" varying as d~^/2^

We have also found that as the oxygen index is approached, the cone angle of the burning rod increases until, at extinction, the top surface

is flat. A model encompassing all these observations is being formulated

with completion expected by early autumn.

3 . Flame Inhibition Chemistry

Numerous studies have indicated that a major component of fire

retardance occurs in the gas phase above the burning fuel. We are concerned with the specific mechanisms of fire retardant additives for

the purposes of laying the groundwork for developing new suppressants

and retardants, devising new chemical fire detection techniques and

deciphering the effects on current detection methods, such as enhanced

(or reduced) smoke formation.

3 . 1 Flat Flame Burner

Attempts to construct or test a model for flame inhibition have

been hindered by the lack of a wide range of data from a single apparatus. To correct this, we have constructed a cooled, porous plug

burner in a pressure-controlled housing. One purpose is to develop an analytical tool to study the heat tranfer, heat capacity and chemical

changes that lead to reducing the propagation velocity of a flame. A

wide range of fuels, inhibitors, inert gases, stoichiometries, pressures,

gas flows and temperatures will be utilized to aid in predicting the

behavior of large classes of inhibitors.

9
Initially, the prime analytical tool will be a thermocouple measuring changes in the maximum flame temperature (related to changes in

flame velocity) as each of the above parameters is systematically

varied. Construction of the apparatus is complete, and the first experiments involve inhibition of methane flames with CF3Br. There is

already some detailed study of this system, thus providing some reference for the ensuing sequence.

3 . 2 Laser Diagnostics

During a recent study sponsored by the American Physical Society on

the application of physics to combustion problems, the importance of

enlarging our basic knowledge of combustion processes, in particular the

combustion chemistry, was emphasized, as opposed to patchwork solutions

to specific problems on an ah hoc basis. In this spirit the Laser

Diagnostics program is exploring the utility of several optical techniques as probes for interesting atomic and molecular species in flame

environments. The broad goals of this program are to investigate and

develop new laser-based methods and then apply these techniques to measure temperature and species concentration profiles, which are essential input data for modeling of the flame chemistry. Four areas

are now under active investigation; intracavity absorption, optogalvanic spectroscopy in flames and discharges, laser- induced fluorescence, and coherent anti-Stokes Raman Spectroscopy. All of these

efforts involve collaboration with other spectroscopy groups at NBS,

including the Laser Chemistry Program, the Optical Physics Division, and

the Analytical Chemistry Division. To date, the effort in opto-galvanic

spectroscopy has produced four papers, with Na atom detection capability

in the range of 1010 /ml. A calibration method for laser wavelength and

bandwidth has also been demonstrated. The other three techniques are under development.

3 . 3 Mass Spectrometry

An alternative method for identifying flame species and measuring

their concentration profiles is by molecular beam sampling directly into

a quadrupole mass spectrometer. Studies have been carried out on retard

ant systems based on phosphorus, iron, molybdenum, antimony and halogencontaining species, Numerous radicals have been identified, many previously unobserved. Coordinated H-atom optical studies have shown that

in different temperature regimes, phosphorus additives can either promot

or reduce H atom formation. OH absorption studies are being pursued

with the intent of comparing fuel-rich systems where H-atom processes

are expected to dominate with fuel-lean systems where OH reactions are prevalent. In addition, a new, high pressure sampling mass spectrometer

apparatus is under construction. This will enable sampling of diffusion

flames, flames at pressures up to 10 atm, and flames containing particulates .

3 . 4 Flame Inhibition Kinetics

A recent survey of the status of measured rate data for flame

inhibition reactions revealed a sorry state of affairs. Few rates had

been measured and virtually none with a sufficient degree of confidence.

Accordingly, we are mounting an effort to obtain data for at least some central ractions involving halogenated inhibitors. We hope that extrapolation of these results to other halons will be possible based on simple thermochemical considerations. At present, shock tube studies on the unimolecular decomposition of CF3 Br are underway. In addition, a high temperature flash photolysis-resonance fluorescence system is being

developed

10
3 . 3 Flame Inhibition Modeling

The culmination of all of the above efforts will be the drawing

together of the results into a computer model of an inhibited flame.

The model will inlcude detailed chemistry and transport and must reproduce the trends observed in the flat flame burner studies. At present,

we are evaluating the status of input data and numerical schemes. The

model, in its various stages of development, is to be used to highlight

the important chemical and physical properties of inhibitors and thus

provide predictive guidance for generating more effective use of inhibitors ,

11
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md., August 3-5, 1977

(Issued October 1977)

PROGRAM FOR PHYSICS AND DYNAMICS

FIRE SCIENCE DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

John A. Rockett, Program Chief

Howard R. Baum, Research Physicist

Margaret Harkleroad, Physicist

Takashi Kashiwagi, Material Engineer

Thomas G. K. Lee, Fire Protection Engineer

Bernard J. McCaffrey, Mechanical Engineer

Robert J. McCarter, Chemical Engineer

George W. Mulholland, Research Chemist

James G. Quintiere, Mechanical Engineer

Ronald Rehm, Mathematician

Project Summary

1. Growth and Spread of Room Fires: To predict the growth and spread

of fire in a room or a set of simply interconnected rooms.

2. Turbulence: To develop calculation methods for use in buoyancy

driven flows in enclosures.

3. Ignition: To identify and quantify the phenomenon related to

flaming ignition of solid and liquid fuels.

4. Smoke Characterization: To develop instrumentation suitable to

describe smokes and to assess the performance of fire detectors.

5. Smoldering: To identify and quantify the phenomenon related to

smoldering combustion of (porous) solid fuels and to devise means

of quantifying the smolder tendency of materials.

Progress Report

The Program for Physics and Dynamics of Fire currently focuses on four

problem areas: modeling the growth of fire in a room, with a significant subprogram on turbulence, the physical characterization of smoke,

ignition, and smoldering combustion. The largest project is the room

fire modeling. This includes the work at NBS of Quintiere, and McCaffrey and of Baum and the contract/grant work of Harvard/FM, Cal Tech,

Notre Dame, Penn State and parts of the work at Berkeley. Our inhouse work includes both large and small scale fire experiments with

both wood and plastic fuels displayed in simple geometries and the

development of a (computer based) fire behavior prediction model. The

12
currently used hydraulic analogy and plume flow model seems generally

satisfactory but plume entrainment (based on Taylor, Morton and Turner)

is not in agreement with experiments. Although the hydraulic analogy

gives excellent agreement between measured pressures and those calculated from measured temperatures , use of the model, in its present form,

does not give satisfactory flow predictions, even with adjusted entrainment coefficients. Measured flows based on relatively few sampling

points do not give a mass balance. For this limited data, use of

orifice coefficients from Enmons and Prahl for the inflow is satisfactory but outflow data seems to imply values closer to unity.

As a part of the application of a general computer model for buoyant

flows now being developed, we hope to improve our understanding of

entrainment. This work is partially supported by non-fire appropriations from the NBS Director's funds. The program under development

assumes inviscid (large Grashof number) strongly buoyant flow. Two

approaches are being pursued: a "conventional" field equation solution

and a vortex tracking system. The vortex tracking approach appears

to have significant advantages for flow features which require particle

following but has never been applied to this type of flow.

Our work on smoke includes that of Lee and Mulholland and the grant

program of Zinn. The in-house work has centered on instrumentation to

characterize aerosols and approaches to produce aerosols of known,

reproducible, controllable characteristics. A set of careful experiments at NBS and the University of Minnesota has established the

relative accuracy and performance limits of most of the currently

available aerosol characterization instruments. Used respectively

in their appropriate range it is possible to get a reasonable characterization of many real smokes. When one does, it is found that the

commonly used "log normal" distribution is not a good representation

of the data. The implications of this are still to be delineated

but they are probably going to be important to our models of smoke

formation. The development of reliable monodisperse aerosol generators

greatly facilitated this instrumentation calibration work. Perhaps

greater interest is the use of the monodisperse aerosols to map the

response characteristics of a number of commercial fire detectors.

A simple, light, portable apparatus has been developed for use in

testing installed fire detectors. A reproducible, polydisperse

aerosol is generated and stored in a plastic bag at a controlled

concentration. This is then flushed, at a known rate, through a housing placed over the detector. Five concentrations spanning

a range above and below the desired detector threshold, can be

produced. The velocity across the detector is typical of that

thought to be appropriate to real fire situations.

The study of ignition by T. Kashiwagi is an in-house program that

does not currently have a grant contribution. The work is partially

supported by AFOSR. Solid and liquid fuels are ignited by a powerful

IR laser beam. It has been found that strong absorption of the laser

energy occurs in the pyrolyzed gas column above the sample surface.

This can be related to the chemistry of the gassified fuel through

its absorption spectrum. As much as 80% of the energy goes into

heating the gas in this way and appears to be very important to

non-piloted ignition. Ignition delay for piloted and non-piloted

ignition has been measured for a range of incident energies for

horizontally mounted FtMA and red oak. For some liquid fuels very

little energy may be absorbed, especially when the cup has a polished

surface. At low incident flux the red oak surface chars and glows

(FMMA does not) . The glowing appears important to ignition of the

gas and may explain the relatively small difference between piloted

and non-piloted ignition found for oak.

13
Work here by McCarter on smoldering combustion is complemented by

that of Princeton. Most of McCarter's recent effort has dealt with

the use of elemental sulphur as a smolder suppressant for cotton.

This material is inexpensive, easy to apply in practical configurations and effective at low dosage. U.S. and foreign patents have

been applied for.

Greatest interest within the furniture industry centers on the use of sulphur in conjunction with latex backing of upholstery covering

fabrics and in the bedding industry on its use with cotton padding.

Currently we are exploring its practicality for cellulose loose fill

insulation and on supplementing sulphur with other, compatible chemicals

to obtain both flame and smolder retardancy.

Accomplishments

1. Found simple, inexpensive way to control smolder in cellulosic

materials.

2. Developed practical controllable aerosol generators and applied

these to the determination of fire detector performance.

3. Established the basic validity of the "hydraulic analogy" fire

model and defined seme limits of its validity.

4. Demonstrated possibility of using vortex tracing for buoyant

flows

.

5. Identified the importance of gas phase absorption in radiation

stimulated ignition.

Potential Applications

1.

Based on industry response and requests for patent licenses sulphur

is being tested extensively as a smolder inhibitor in furniture,

bedding and also blown insulation.

2. Artifical (non- fire) aerosols seem especially suited to precise

determination of fire detector performance. They are being used

by one manufacturer for production quality control and may be

adopted for use in standard measuring apparatus.

3. Improved analytic fire predictive systems can be used for

rational fire safe design only when they are capable of making

distinctions at the resolution needed by the designer. We are

a step closer to making distinctions between fuel types, at

least in simple situations, for both ignition and room fire

development

.

Milestones

1. Develop exchange of machine readable experimental data - Nov.

1977.

2. Define a conceptually satisfactory standard for smolder tendency - July 1978.

3. Obtain acceptance of the concept of monodisperse spectral response

for defining the performance of smoke detectors - Dec. 1978.

14
4. Obtain tentative acceptance of a (portable) standard for assess- ment of installed fire detectors - May 1978.

5. Clarify plume entrainment models for near field - Dec. 1978.

6. Obtain reasonable, detailed room fire energy and mass balance

with enough clarity to analytically model these - June 1978.

Publications

1. Baum, H.R. , "Laminar Flow Induced by a Point Source of Heat," J. Res., Nat. Bur. Stand., 1977, to appear.

2. Baum, H.R., Mulholland, G.W. and Lee, T.G.K. , "The Coagulation of

Aerosols with Broad Initial Size Distributions," J. Colloid and

Interface Sciences, 1978, to appear.

3. Baum, H.R. and Rehm, R.G., "The Equations of Motion for Thermally

Driven, Buoyant Flows," submitted to Physics of Fluids.

4. Kashiwagi, T. and Newman, D.L., "Flame Spread Over an Inclined

Thin Fuel Surface," Combustion and Flame, 26^, p. 163, 1976.

5. Lee, T.G.K. , NBSIR 77-1222 "Reproducibility of the Radiant Panel Test

Method (ASTM E 162-167) Using Polyurethane Foam, Neoprene, and Hardboard Specimens," was published.

6. McCaffrey, B.J. and Rockett, J.A. , "Static Pressure Measurements of

Enclosure Fires," in WERB review.

7. McCaffrey, B.J. and Quintiere, J.G., "Buoyancy Driven Countercurrent

Flows Generated by a Fire Source," presented at the 1976 International

Seminar in Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia, August 30 - September 4, 1976.

8. McCarter, R.J., "Smoldering of Flexible Polyurethane Foam," Journal

of Consumer Product Flamm. , 2, pp. 128-140, June 1976.

9. McCarter, R.J., "Smoldering Combustion of Wood Fibers, Cause and

Prevention," submitted to Journal of Fire 8 Flamm. , May 1977.

10. McCarter, R.J., "Smoldering Combustion of Cotton and Rayon," Proc.

of 5th Annual Sym. on Textile Flamm., New Orleans, La., to be submitted

for journal publication - May 21, 1977.

11. Mulholland, G.W. , Liu, B.Y.H. and Kapadia, A., "Accuracy of the

Electrical Aerosol Analyzer for Measuring Nunber and Volume Concentration of Polydisperse Aerosol," submitted to the Journal of

Colloid and Interface Science.

12. Mulholland, G.W. and Mountain, R.D., "Calibration of Time Response of

Thermometers: Concepts and Model Calculations," to be published as an NBS Tech Note.

15
13. Quintiere, J.G., McCaffrey, B.J. and Ririkinen, W. , 'Visualization of

Room Fire Induced Smoke Movement and Flow in a Corridor," in WERB

review.

14. Quintiere, J.G., McCaffrey, B.J. and Kashiwagi, T., "A Scaling Study

of a Corridor Subject to a Room Fire," to be presented at AIChE-ASME

Heat Transfer Conference, Salt Lake City, Utah, August 15-17, 1977.

15. Quintiere, J.G., Growth of Fire in Building Compartments," FfAe

StandaAcU and Safety, ASTM STP 614, A. F. Robertson, Ed., American

Society for Testing and Materials, 1977, pp. 131-167.

16
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. , August 3-5, 1977,

(Issued October 1977)

PROGRAM FOR TOXICOLOGY OF COMBUSTION PRODUCTS

FIRE SCIENCE DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

Merritt Birky, Program Chief

Maya Paabo, Research Chemist

James Brown, Research Chemist

Sue Womble, Chemist

In-House Program Summary

Objective I:

Develop methodology for assessment of combustion product

toxicity.

Approach:

A bioassay technique is being developed for the toxicity

assessment. Environmental quantification of selected

toxicants is being correlated with selected biochemical

toxicant levels and physiological dysfunction as determined

at death or by incapacitation.

17
Current Status

A bioassay system for assessing combustion product toxicity has been

developed and consists of 3 major parts:

1. combustion product generation system,

2. animal exposure system and

3. chemical analysis system.

Two methods of generating combustion products in the animal chamber are being explored. The first is a horizontal radiant heating system that

consists of a quartz-iodide lamp. The lamp is outside the animal chamber

to reduce temperature rise in the chamber. The radiation is transferred

into the chamber onto the sample through a quartz window. The second

system for product generation is the closed-end furnace described by

Potts (1).

These two systems are being intercompared with gas data and toxicological

data and with the full scale fire test data.

Two animal incapacitation models are being studied. The first involves

the technique reported by Smith (2). In this system the rats are

forced to exercise mildly and the method represents a whole body exposure

technique. The second animal incapacitation model being explored is

the hind leg flexure technique developed by Packham (3). This model

represents a head-only exposure technique.

Measurements of CO, CO

2

, C>2 and temperature are being recorded continuously

in the animal chamber. Blood COHb is measured on selected animals at

the time of incapacitation or at the end of the experiments which is

limited to 30 minutes. When a nitrogen containing polymer is degraded,

environmental HCN is measured gas chromatographically and blood cyanide

is also measured in the rats in these experiments.

The time to incapacitation is being correlated with COHb and blood

cyanide data from various materials. Experiments have been done on

wood, polyurethane (rigid and flexible) and PVC. Repeats will have

to be done to verify the results. Table 1 is a summary of some urethane and wood experiments.

Animals have also been exposed to combustion products from large scale

fire experiments to determine the relevance of small scale combustion

techniques

18
Bibliography

1. W. J. Potts ar.d T. S. Lederer, A Method for Comparative Testing

of Smoke Toxicity, J. Combustion Toxicology, Vol. 4, pp. 114-162,

(1977).

2 . P. W. Smith, Materials Toxicological Evaluation by Direct

Animal Exposures, National Academy of Sciences, International

Symposium on Toxicity and Physiology of Combustion Products,

Proceedings March 22-26, 1976.

3. S. Packham, Behavior and Physiology: Tools for the Assessment

of Relative Toxicity, National Cellular Plastics Conference on Safety and Products Liability, 19th, Society of Plastics

Industry, Washington, D.C., November 18-20, 1974.

19
Small

Scale

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PQ • • zu« > is r^ c u CM W EC i a. c ca •h a rH CM m CO V ' • • • • •H m CO to H CM CM CO CM s ON CO CM 00 O LO 'd- <* • oo O O o > O ON 00

<d ON ON 00

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QJ rHa HT ON CO § to m tO

to

•H •H

Ph P-» • CO CO o cd cd P-* cd rH rH 2 00 00 X 3 3 <0 O o rH o Cl fH

20
Publications

1. Merritt M. Birky, Hazard Characteristics of Combustion Products

in Fires: The State-of-the-Art Review, NBSIR 77-1234, 1977.

2. Steve C. Packham, D. B. Frens, J. B. McCandless, J. H. Petajan

& Merritt M. Birky, A Chronic Intra - Arterial Cannula and

Rapid Microtechnique for Carboxyhemoglobin Determination,

J. Combustion Toxicology, Vol. 3, 471-478, (1976).

3. Merritt M. Birky, Philosophy of Testing for Assessment of

Toxicological Effects of Fire Exposure, J. Combustion Toxicology,

Volume 3, 5-23 (1976).

4. M. M. Birky, A. W. Coats, S. E. Alderson, J. E. Brown, M. Paabo

& B. Pitt, Measurement and Observations of the Toxicological

Hazard of Fire in a Metrorail Interior Mock-up, National Academy

of Sciences International Symposium on Toxicity and Physiology

of Combustion Products, Proceedings, March 22-26, 1976.

21
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH3 NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS3 Gaithersburg 3 Md. 3 August 3-53 1977 3 (Issued October 1977)

PROGRAM FOR FIRE PREVENTION—PRODUCTS

FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Staff

James H. Winger, Chief

Emil Braun, Physicist

Donna Hopkins, Textile Technologist

John Krasny, Textile Technologist

Joseph Loftus, Research Chemist

Richard Peacock, Chemical Engineer

Lee Smith, Physicist

Stephanie Wiedel, Textile Technologist

Project Summary

The goal of the Program for Fire Prevention—Products (PFP-P) is to reduce fire losses by reducing the probability of ignition in the environment. The Program works primarily with consumer products.

The work of the group has been concentrated in two major product areas,

upholstered furniture and general wearing apparel.

The fire accident data for upholstered furniture shows that the major

portion of the problem is cigarette ignition of the furniture followed by

smoldering combustion which releases large quantities of combustion products resulting in death. The most important product of combustion in this

scenario appears to be carbon monoxide.

A cigarette ignition test method for upholstered furniture has been

developed. The test is conducted on mocked-up furniture constructions

because of the unpredictable interactions of components and the cost of

full-sized items of upholstered furniture. A proposed standard has been

written around the cigarette ignition test method and submitted to the

Consumer Product Safety Commission with the recommendation that it be published as a proposal for comment. Work in this area will continue.

The fire accident data for apparel shows that long, loose-fitting

garments, such as nightgowns, are more often involved in serious burn incidents than shorter, tighter fitting garments such as shirts. Further analysis of the data, evaluation of the fabric types involved in the accidents,

and laboratory accident simulations show that heat transferred from the

burning fabric to a surface simulating the skin is an appropriate parameter to measure and control. From the same work and also intuitively,

the probability of ignition should be reduced. The ignition probability

can be reduced by controlling time to ignite under appropriate conditions

and also controlling garment fit.

A proposed standard for the flammability of general wearing apparel

has been prepared incorporating garment fit limitations, ease of ignition,

and rate of heat transferred from the burning fabric to a surface. This

standard has been submitted to the Consumer Product Safety Commission with

the recommendation that it be published as a proposal for comment. Work

in this area will continue.

A new area of work for the Program is fire safety in underground mines.

The fire hazards in mines will be investigated and fire tests and standards

developed for products and materials used in and around mines. These will

be developed for the Mining Enforcement and Safety Administration. A systems analysis of the fire safety in mines will be conducted and appropriate

recommendations made to MESA.

22
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. , August 3-5, 1977,

(Issued October 1977)

Program for Fire Control-Furnishings

Fire Safety Engineering Division

Center for Fire Research

Professional Personnel

Sanford Davis, Chief

Vytenis Babrauskas, Fire Protection Engineer

Raymond C. Hess, Research Associate

Theodore 0. Stolz, Research Associate

The problems associated with fire have been a subject of concern to society

for many years, but it has only been for the past 15 years or so that

serious consideration has been given to the role played by interior furnishings

in the contribution to fire losses. Code officials, fire officials, architects,

and government regulators have emphasized the importance of the proper choice

of materials and design factors in building the structure, but they have had

little or no control of the contents brought into these structures. Although

there have been efforts to control furnishings in regulated occupancies, such

as hospitals and places of assembly, nothing could be done about residential

occupancies. Besides, the state-of-the-art has not been able to predict how

assumed safe materials and products would behave in real fire situations.

The Program for Fire Control-Furnishings has had three major projects under

study for the past few years. Each of these is in various stages of progress

and will be described briefly.

1. Floor Covering Test Development

The flooring radiant panel test for measuring the critical radiant flux of

flooring systems used in corridors and exitways was refined at NBS and has

been moved forward as a standard test method. It is being processed by NFPA

and ASTM as a standard test method for flooring systems and by GSA for carpets.

Its adoption by regulatory agencies and codes groups has been accomplished or

is in progress and our current efforts have been supportive of its broad acceptance.

2. Full-Scale Room Fire Experiments

We have carried out several series of experiments to evaluate the behavior of

interior furnishings in full-scale room fires. Current work is in progress

to analyze the results of these experiments involving Parsons tables, upholstered

furniture, and mattresses. In the near future we will begin to examine the

effects of interactions between two (or more) pieces of furniture such as would be found in hospital rooms or in residential occupancies.

3. Small-Scale Test Development

Based on full-scale fire experiments we expect to be able to determine the

relative hazards of various furnishing materials and constructions; however,

it would be desirable to be able to anticipate these hazards using small-scale

predictive tests to measure inherent properties of materials and systems.

Towards this end we have been working on the development of test procedures

for ease of ignition, flame spread rate, and burning rate which can be applied

to furnishing materials and, in particular, thermoplastic materials. In

addition, measurement of heat release rates, smoke densities, and other thermal

properties are being carried out. It is anticipated that we will be able to

utilize inherent properties of these systems to predict the behavior of products

in real world situations.

23
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1208

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. , August 3-5, 1977

(Issued October 1977)

PROGRAM FOR FIRE CONTROL—CONSTRUCTION

FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

W. J. Parker, Chief

L. A. Issen, Research Engineer

J. B. Fang, Chemical Engineer

B. T. Lee, Fire Protection Engineer

E. K. Budnick, Fire Protection Engineer

W. D. Walton, Fire Protection Engineer

D. P. Klein, Fire Protection Engineer

J. R. Lawson, Research Associate

D. L. Chamberlain, Research Associate

J. P. Tordella, Research Associate

D. L. Sensenig, Research Associate

The overall goal of this Program is to improve the probability of

preventing the spread and growth of a fire and its combustion products

by materials selection and passive design concepts.

Fire Test Standards (CFR)

The objective of this project is to develop laboratory fire test methods

for evaluating the potential fire hazards of construction materials.

The fire properties of concern are ignitability , heat release rate,

flame spread, and smoke. The approach is to participate actively in

ASTM, NFPA, ISO, CIB, and government-wide committees, to develop appropriate fire test methods and standards, to perform testing, analysis and

round robin coordination of such tests, to make recommendations for

performance standards and test criteria, and to relate building fire

standards to actual building construction fire performance.

A new heat release rate calorimeter is being constructed for research

studies on heat release rate. This instrument will be capable of

measuring the simultaneous heat and mass loss rates of vertical speci- mens 12 x 12" and horizontal specimens 6 x 12" at radiant fluxes up to 8 W/cin^. A draft report has been completed on an ease of ignition test by

flame impingement. This will be submitted as a standard test for ignitability of interior finish materials. A report on an investigation of

the fire environment in the ASTM E-84 tunnel test is now at the printers.

The NBS Smoke Density Chamber Test has been adopted as standard NFPA

285-1976 and the potential heat test was adopted as standard NFPA 259-

1976. The project leader is W. J. Parker. The professional personnel

include the following research associates: J. R. Lawson, Gypsum Association; D. L. Chamberlain, National Forrest Products Association; J. P. Tordella, Society of the Plastic Industries.

24
Fire Spread and Growth (CFR)

The objective of this project is to evaluate the potential for fire

spread and growth in various occupancies in terms of the materials of

construction, the combustible contents, the building design and the

probable ignition sources. The approach consists of (a) developing

analytical models of fire growth based on heat and mass balance con- siderations which take into account the spread of flame over the com- bustible interior finish materials and their heat release rates, (b)

running full scale fire tests for validation of these models, (c) and

conducting reduced scale fire tests, which permit verification of the

model for many more combinations of parameters at considerable savings

in time and money.

The work includes a cooperative effort between CFR and the National

Research Council of Canada on the E-84 Tunnel Test. In order to es- tablish the most realistic method of running and reporting on the tests

of cellular plastics a set of materials with a large range of flame

spread is being tested in three different configurations in the tunnel,

in full scale and reduced scale rooms and corners, and in various

laboratory fire tests. In another study a reduced scale model has been

used to investigate the fire buildup process in a room by D. L. Sensenig,

a Research Associate from the Armstrong Cork Company. As part of this

task a method was developed to measure the total rate of heat production

in a room from the oxygen depletion in the hot air leaving the compartment.

The project leader is W. J. Parker and the other CFR investigator is D. Walton.

Structural Fire Endurance (CFR)

The objective of this project is to predict the fire endurance of

structural building components under typical fire exposure conditions

using thermal and structural analysis and to verify with full scale

tests. The basic analytical approach is to combine thermal analysis and

structural analysis programs which include elasto-plastic material

properties, creep in concrete and steel, and local failures. Improved

basic data on concrete creep at elevated temperatures will be obtained,

as well as experimental data on thermal restraint due to expansion of

fire-exposed concrete floors and roofs.

This project has been largely carried out through contracts with the

Center for Building Technology at NBS , the Portland Cement Association,

and the University of California at Berkeley. A report was published by

Ellingwood and Shaver in CBT entitled "Analysis of Reinforced Concrete

Beams Subjected to Fire". Reports by the other contractors will be

included in their summaries. The project leader is D. Gross. Other

professional personnel at CFR include: W. J. Parker and L. A. Issen.

Fire Endurance of Floor Constructions (HUD)

The objective of this project is to develop a test procedure for evaluating the structural fire resistance of floor assemblies in residences

and to recommend rational performance criteria for protected and un- protected load-bearing components. The approach is to conduct full

scale fire tests in a simulated basement recreation room using modern

furniture with a typical fire load for that type of room. At the present

time a series of 14 tests with varying room size, interior finish, and

ventilation conditions is half completed. The fire is started with a newspaper on a couch with polyurethane cushions. The temperatures, heat

fluxes and pressures recorded during these tests will form the basis of

the new test procedure. A standard set of conditions will be selected

and another series of room fire tests will be run with different floor

25
constructions including cases with exposed floor joist. Finally, the

time-temperature curve, and the pressures will be duplicated in a gasfired fire endurance furnace and the same types of floor constructions

will be tested. An analytical prediction capability for fire growth

is being developed along with the experimental testing. The project

leader is J. B. Fang.

Fire Safety in Mobile Homes (HUD)

The objective of this project is to document the effect of interior

finish materials on fire growth and spread and on the attainment of

untenable conditions in mobile homes in order to provide a rational

basis for regulating these materials. The approach is to conduct full

scale fire tests on single-wide mobile homes using upholstered chairs and

wood cribs as ignition sources in the livingroom and bedroom areas. The

chair is a realistic source of ignition which will not lead to full

involvement of the mobile home in the absence of combustible interior

finish while the wood crib provides a relatively reproducible ignition source for comparison of different interior finish materials. Temperatures, heat fluxes, smoke densities, and gas concentrations are monitored

throughout the mobile home. The interior finish materials are characterized by their E-84 tunnel rating, heat release rate, time to ignition in

the ease of ignition test, and the smoke density in the NBS Smoke Density

Chamber.

A report by E. K. Budnick, "Fire Spread Along the Mobile Home Corridor,"

NBS IR 76-1021 was published in July 1976. Most of the full scale

testing has been completed. During the next stage of the work an attempt will be made to duplicate the essential features of the full

scale test results using reduced scale modeling. This will then be

followed by an attempt to deduce the results by analytical prediction

techniques. The project leader is E. K. Budnick the other Fire Protection Engineer on the project is D. P. Klein.

Shipboard Fire Research (Navy)

The objective of this project is to evaluate the potential fire hazard

of submarine hull insulations and to improve the application of laboratory fire tests for screening compartment lining materials. The approach

is to subject the variety of submarine hull insulations, some of which

are protected with fire resistant materials, to laboratory fire tests on ignitability, flame spread, rate of heat release, and potential heat.

The performance of these insulations are then examined in quarter and

full scale compartment fires. By comparing the time to flashover or maximum temperature in the full size compartment with the results of the

laboratory fire test methods improved acceptance criteria for materials

can be derived. By comparing the performance of the material between

the full and reduced scale fire tests, the usefulness of the quarter

scale model as a screening tool can be evaluated. The project leader is

B. T. Lee.

Evaluation of Fire Loads in Residences (HUD)

The objective of this project is to provide fire and live-load data for

single-family dwellings and mobile homes in order to provide a basis for

establishing standard fire exposures for structural fire endurance tests

of building elements in residences. The approach involves a two-phase

survey of fire loads in residences using inventorying techniques for a variety of typical constructions and geometrical arrangements. A pilot

(phase 1) survey will involve dwellings in the Baltimore-Washington

area; this will be followed by a more extensive national survey. The

assembled data will provide the fire load input to analytical models of

fire growth and severity which will generate fire exposure curves for

residences and mobile homes.

26
The first phase of this project has been completed and a report is in

the review process. No decision has been made to continue with the

second phase of the project at this time. The project leader is Lionel

Issen. The survey was carried out by George Washington University, the

program for converting the survey data to fire and live-loads was done

on contract to the Center for Building Technology at NBS . The program

for producing the tables and frequency distributions was written by W. D. Walton.

Fire Tests of Marine Construction (Coast Guard)

The objective of this project is to furnish technical data on a flame

spread test method under consideration as an international standard on marine construction and make recommendations for improvements in the

test method and its application. Studies will be made of, (a) the

method of securing and positioning specimens, (b) the incident heat flux

distribution to several levels, (c) a suitable pilot burner for igniting

the sample, and (d) the effect of air cross flow in means of controlling

test variability. Samples of several materials will be tested and the

results analyzed to evaluate the performance under various modifications

of the existing method. The specimen can be run in either a floor, wall

or ceiling orientation. Materials run in the room fire tests will also

be evaluated with this test method in order to establish its validity.

The project leader is W. J. Parker.

Dr. A. F. Robertson has done the most extensive work with the test to date and has made periodic reports at the ISO meetings.

Fire Criteria for Solar Heating Fluid (ERDA)

The objective of this project is to provide a technical basis for

specifying the flammability standards for the heat transfer fluids used

in solar heating systems. Six representative combustible heat transfer

fluids will be chosen. The size and type of ignition source required

for sustained ignition of these fluids will be determined. The maximum

room air temperature that can be developed by burning pools and flowing

leaks of the heat transfer fluid will be measured. The maximum room air

temperature produced by burning selected framing and insulation materials

saturated with the heat transfer liquids will also be determined. On

the basis of this research, a standard test method and suggested

criteria for screening combustible heat transfer fluids based on their

relative fire hazard will be developed. B. T. Lee is the project

leader. The project started on July 1, 1977.

Fire Hazards of Insulation in Residential Occupancies (Research Proposal)

The objectives of this proposed project are: 1) to identify and determine

the magnitude of the various fire risks associated with the use of

particular types of insulation, 2) to recommend, and develop where

necessary, the laboratory fire tests needed to characterize insulation

materials with respect to these risks and to control their use for

insulation retrofit; 3) to provide the necessary data on fire and

thermal properties for generic types of insulation considered for use in

the basements, wall cavities in attics of buildings; 4) to recommend

acceptance criteria suitable for adoption in the building code.

27
The project would start with a review of the available fire statistics.

Reduced scale model tests, based on the scaling rules developed at NBS

would be run with various insulation materials to verify the important

fire scenarios. The models tested would include 1) the simulated basement with exposed insulation, 2) an above grade room with insulation in

the wall cavities and in the space above the ceiling, and 3) an attic

space with exposed insulation. These tests would determine the effect

of the insulation on 1) the maximum fire intensity (as measured by air

temperature rise) , 2) the time to full involvement of the space, if it

occurs, and 3) the rate of production of the smoke and toxic gas. The

role of the insulation as a site for flaming and smoldering ignition

would be examined in these models. Important findings would be verified

by full scale tests. A test for smoldering ignition of insulation

materials will be developed. The settling and moisture absorption of

the insulation in the leeching of the flame retardant chemicals will be

investigated for loose fill insulation.

28
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. , August 3-5, 1977

(Issued October 1977)

PROGRAM FOR FIRE DETECTION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

Richard L.P. Custer, Program Chief

Richard G. Bright, Senior Research Engineer

Richard W. Bukowski, Research Engineer

Francis C.W. Fung, Mechanical Engineer

Warren D. Hayes, Fire Prevention Engineer

John O'Neill, Fire Prevention Engineer

The Program for Fire Detection and Control Systems (PFDCS) has

as its objective the reduction of life and property losses

through the encouragement of the use of improved fire detection, fire suppression and smoke control systems in the

built environment. In pursuit of this objective PFDCS is

studying the performance and installation requirements for

these systems and appropriate test methods by which to judge

the system capabilities. An additional goal is to develop

design criteria and installation guidelines that will lead

to reduced cost in the use of these systems. The program

effort is divided into three specific areas: automatic fire

detection, automatic fire suppression, and smoke control

systems. Each of these will be discussed below.

The fire detection program has been concerned primarily with

the development and evolution of residential smoke detectors

.

Full scale and bench tests have been used to define the performance characteristics of existing residential detection hardware. The results of these tests have led to the development

of improved test methods both for the small and large scale

evaluation of residential smoke detectors. Work is currently

underway to develop a graded approach to the full scale evaluation of all fire detection devices (heat, smoke, and flame)

.

In addition to the work on test methods and device performance, considerable effort has been expended in studies relating to the siting of detection devices in residential

occupancies including mobile homes. The effects of air

conditioning and number of floors has been studied for

dwellings and recommendations prepared regarding minimum

detection requirements. Work is also underway to define

the role of automatic fire detection in the overall scheme

of fire protection in health care facilities. To this end

a series of full scale tests in a simulated health care environment have been conducted to determine the optimum location and type of detection device that should be used for

this application.

29
Other important work in the detection area involves the study

of the reliability of these devices both in the field and in

the laboratory. Several instances of detector failures in

the field have been analyzed and reports prepared for the

Consumer Products Safety Commission regarding these failures.

The automatic fire suppression project has been concentrating on the generation of information relating to the

performance of automatic sprinkler systems. The initial

work that was done to develop design criteria for the use

of automatic sprinklers in the protection of door openings

in multi-family and care type facilities led to the determination that there is a need for more definitive test

methods to define the performance capabilities of automatic sprinklers. Work has been completed that relates

to sprinkler discharge rate to maximum cooling in the

corridor sprinkler system application. The results indicate that significant differences in cooling rates

exist between individual sprinklers from different manufacturers or of different design. Work is also underway

studying the development of water distribution mapping

techniques, factors affecting the distribution of water from

sprinklers, statistical parameters of water droplet populations

from sprinklers as a function of pressure and deflector design,

and the use of sprinklers in health care facilities.

A special facility is being constructed in which to study the

use of sprinklers for the protection of large open stairway

configurations. This work will attempt to refine and build

upon tests done in the mid-40's for methods which are currently

in use in the NFPA sprinkler and life safety standards. In

addition to this long range work, continuous effort has been

made to assist in the development of both U.S. and international standards for automatic sprinkler systems and components. This work has included analysis of water distribution patterns, K-factor measurement techniques, and mechanical safety factors applied to sprinkler devices.

The smoke control project has been in operation for a number

of years. During that time the work has developed along

two parallel and now converging directions. Initially work

was done with simple computer modeling of smoke movement in

buildings. This effort built upon the work of the National

Research Council of Canada and others. At the same time field

tests were conducted in actual office, apartment and hospital

buildings using sulfur-hexafluoride tracer gas to study the

movement of simulated smoke under a variety of mechanical

systems and climatic conditions. Included in the field work

were several studies of buildings equipped with smoke

control systems. In each case the building was evaluated

both with and without the smoke control system in operation.

This allowed for comparison of the relative effectiveness

of the systems compared to a building without any smoke

control. More recently, the output from the field survey

program has been combined with a sophisticated computer

program designed to predict the movement of air in a building as influenced by an air handling system. The

result has been the generation of a computer-based design

methodology for smoke control that allows the designer to

experiment with various conceptual designs prior to development of the final plans for the building. In this way it

30
is possible to optimize on the best smoke control system

design in the total context of the heating/air-conditioning

system. Work has also been done to compare the results

of sulfur-hexafluoride smoke movement studies to actual

movement of smoke in dwellings. This work showed substantial correlation between the simulated smoke and real

smoke. Work is currently in progress to develop a small

scale model with which to test the computer model for the

movement of smoke and design of smoke control systems.

The future work will involve the development of smoke

control methodologies for residential application.

The primary output mechanisms for the results of this research is through additions or changes to the various voluntary standards relating to work of the Program for Fire

Detection and Control Systems. This includes international

standards relating to detectors and sprinklers, and domestic NFPA and ASHRAE standards.

31
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. , August 3-5> 1977

(Issued October 1977)

PROGRAM FOR DESIGN CONCEPTS

FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

Harold Nelson, Program Chief

Bernard M. Levin, Research Psychologist

A. Jeffrey Shibe, Operations Research Analyst

Other Contributors

Major contributors to the activities of the Program for Design Concepts

include:

A. NBS Organizations

1. Architectural Research Section, Center for Building Technology (R. Wehrli, J. Archea, and F. Stahl)

2. Human Factors Section, Center for Consumer Product Technology

(H. VanCott and V. Pezoldt)

B. Contractors and Grantees (Principal Investigators)

* 1. T. Waterman and R. Pape, IITRI - Room Fire Development,

bibliography and model.

2. R. Fitzgerald, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Probability

Predictions of Fire Spread and Severity

3. J. Watts, University of Maryland, Goal Oriented Systems

Approach

4. F. W. Fothergill, Integrated Systems Incorporated, Smoke

Control Modeling

5. L. Lerup, University of California, Berkeley, Mapping

and Analyzing Behavior in Fires

6. J. Bryan, University of Maryland, Post Hoc Investigations

of Actions during Fire

7. J. Keating and E. Loftus, University of Washington, Emergency

Voice Communication and Message Content

8. L. Bickman, Loyola University, Chicago, Assumptions Inherent

in Emergency Plans, etc.

9. H. Wakeley, IITRI, Alarm System Outputs and Alarm Response

32
Funding

Current funding for work undertaken by the Program for Design Concepts comes from HEW, OSHA and the CFR grants program.

Program Goal and Objectives

The objectives of the Program are to synthesize and integrate research

and technology to develop technically based rational approaches towards

providing safety from fire facilities; and to provide operating mechanisms

for using these approaches in setting fire safety requirements in these

facilities

.

Output Forms

The basic characteristics of the outputs of this program will fall into

five categories:

A. Management Tools . Management mechanisms for setting improved

mandatory requirements.

B. Operating Tools . Technical design data and guides for architects,

fire protection engineers, and others to aid them in selection of the

cost effective ways of meeting requirements. These tools will permit

the use of innovative and non-traditional approaches toward total system

safety to a greater extent than is now permitted.

C. Short-Range Recommendations . Specific proposals based on the

results of the research efforts, for revisions and other improvements

in existing fire safety codes, regulations, and standards.

D. Targets of Opportunity . Serendipitous outputs that appear

and indicate potentials of increased fire safety. These are pursued

even though they were not in the original research where there is potential

for high payoff with relatively little resources.

E. Fundamental Improvements . Advances in the state-of-the-art

of applied fire protection engineering and fire technology, including

the development of an improved technological base, both to support the

credibility and acceptance of the other products and serve as the basis

for future improvements in fire protection.

Technology Development and Technology Transfer

Inherent in the objectives of the Program are both the updating of existing

technology and the delivery mechanisms useful in technology transfer

between the world of research and the applied world as it actually exists

and functions.

The world of technology and its uses can be divided into three basic

element areas. The work of this Program is formed around these divisions.

The three elements are:

33
Data

Scientific and empirical data. This ranges from physical properties

such as calorific value, density, rate of heat release, and critical

radiant flux to empirical values such as detection time, flame spread

ratings, and sprinkler discharge capabilities. All of these involve one or more types of basic reproducible tests directed at producing

data either for handbook reference or other descriptive literature.

Major efforts in this program are directed at producing missing data

elements particularly in areas related to detection, automatic extinguishment, and human behavior and capabilities under fire stress.

Models

Models and systems used by scientists or engineers to explain the interrelationship of two or more data elements. These can range from simple

formula to complex inter-relationships. The Program has undertaken

modeling efforts. Significant success and spillover has been achieved

in advancing the interest and activities of the entire scientific fire

research community in this area.

Use

"Use systems" that are now used or can be used to govern and measure the

real world. Were the technology and description of the real world

perfected to an advanced level of understanding and predictability,

the models developed by the scientists and research engineers could

fulfill this function. The real world however is not that well described

or completely understood and the practitioners must produce answers at

a rate that demands relatively simple but sufficiently accurate approaches.

Various types of use systems therefore govern the real world.

Use systems are frequently in the form of codes, standards, and evaluation

system. There is currently no method for a direct crosswalk from scientific data and models to the use system. In each case judgment of how

the technological data fits into the real world is involved. In current

practice the difficulty in crossing this gap has resulted in the development of existing use systems that ignore technical bases and presume

that a parliamentary concensus equates to technical accuracy.

The data and model development activities are directed at producing

technologically sound outputs that will be more responsive to the needs

of the use systems. Simultaneously the project points at further reducing

this gap by developing use systems that are more accountable to the

technological base and receptive to improved data. Professional judgment

and concensus will remain a major portion of the developments of use

systems for the forseeable future. Major improvements can, however, be

made in the quality and accountability of these judgment and concensus

activities. The end result will be both improved approaches that are more readily evaluated and accepted as rational; and a compendium of

design measurements and parameters that will permit wider flexibility

in the individual designs, with traceable consistency of the technological basis, the performance requirements, and the approaches from

jurisdiction to jurisdiction.

34
Activity Areas

The Program contains many individual project and activity areas. This

report does not identify the individual progress on these but rather

gives a general overview of the most important outputs and impacts.

The pages following this section show a graphic breakdown of the general

product areas in each of the three categories of use systems, models,

and data development. These graphic charts lay out the areas of interest

including those which the Program benefits from without necessarily

active participation. The graphs are coded to indicate the degree of

participation by the Program.

35
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ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH3 NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS3 Gaithersburg3 Md. 3 August 3-53 1977

(Issued October 1977)

Institution : Brown University

Grant No . : NBS G7-9009

Grant Title : Flame Propagation and Extinction for Solid Fuels

Principal Investigator: Merwin Sibulkin, Division of Engineering, Brown University,

Providence, RI 02912 (401) 863-2867

Other Professional Personnel: Anil Kulkarni, graduate student

Project Summary :

The objectives of this program are to advance our understanding of flame

propagation and extinction for fuels involved in urban fires. An understanding of

the theoretical basis of flame propagation and the ability to make quantitative

predictions of flame spread rates should lead to more rational ways of testing the

relative flammability of different materials. A more fundamental understanding of

extinction mechanisms is desired to enable improved methods of fire suppression to

be developed. The program includes both experimental and analytical tasks. Flame

spread and burning rate measurements are made with solid fuels of simple geometry

in controlled atmospheres of oxygen, nitrogen and extinguishing agents. Temperatures and heat fluxes are measured to obtain an energy balance for the flame-fuel

system. A parallel theoretical effort is made to develop models which will predict

flame spread rates and extinction conditions.

Progress Report :

Previous work in a Limiting Oxygen Index type apparatus has shown that the LOI

is a limit for downward flame propagation. Extinction was shown to occur when the

heat flux from the flame to the fuel is insufficient to raise the surface temperature ahead of the flame to a critical value for pyrolysis. The current work con- siders the comparable problem for a fuel sample ignited at the bottom. After the

upward spreading flame has fully enveloped the sample, measurements of mass burning

rate m are made as a function of oxygen concentration Y in an 0^ 3 N

2 atmosphere using cylindrical samples. Polymethyl methacrylate ?^MMA) was chosen as a typical noncharring material which maintains its shape while burning and gives

reproducible results. Preliminary tests of charring materials were made with

polycarbonate, cross-linked polystyrene, phenolic laminate and wood. Of these,

wood was chosen as the least unsatisfactory of the charring materials.

Measurements with 1/2 inch and 1 inch diameter PMMA cylinders showed that m

decreased as Y was decreased. Extinction occurred for Y < 0.181 for both

diameter cylinders. Just prior to extinction the burning rate was about 75 percent

of its atmospheric value. A comparison of the effects of Y on burning rate m (current work) and downward flame propagation rate V (previous work) is shown in

Fig. 1. The value of Y at extinction for a fully burning cylinder is significantly lower than for a 8ownward burning cylinder. The comparison also shows that

the decrease of V with Y is more rapid than the decrease of m with Y Results with wood were qualitatively similar to those with PMMA but with considerably more scatter; extinction occurred for Yqx < 0.205. The next phase of the

experimental program is the measurement of temperature profiles through the boundary

layers of fully burning fuel slabs. Preliminary tests show that temperature

39
fluctuations of considerable magnitude exist in the peak temperature region while

signal averaging times are limited by regression of the sample surface. Techniques

are being developed to overcome these difficulties.

Accomplishments :

Burning rates and extinction limits for fully burning samples have been

measured. Comparison of these results with previous measurements on downward

burning samples shows that the oxygen concentration at extinction is significantly

lower for the fully burning case.

Potential Applications :

This work increases our knowledge of the factors affecting extinction which

could lead to the design of improved test methods and to more effective fire

suppression techniques.

Future Milestones :

Measurement of gas phase temperature profiles for fully burning fuel specimens;

determination of profile changes as extinction is approached. Analysis of the

effect of heat losses on extinction of fully burning fuel specimens.

Publications :

"Comparison of the effects of and CF Br on the extinction of PMMA fires," by

M. Sibulkin and M. Little (under review}.

"Flame propagation and extinction of downward burning fires," by M. Sibulkin and

M. Little (under review).

40
Fig. 1. Comparison of effect of oxygen concentration on burning

rate and downward propagation rate. PMMA cylinders;

1/2 inch diameter.

41
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. , August 3-5, 1977

(Issued October 1977)

California Institute of Technology

Grant Title:

Convective Flow Associated with Room Fires NSF Grant No. : ENV76-0660

Period:

1 June 1976 - 31 May 1977

Experimental Study of Environment and Heat

Transfer in a Room Fire

NBS Grant No. : NBS 5-9004

Period;

1 December 1976 - 30 November 1977

Principal Investigator: Professor Edward E. Zukoski

California Institute of Technology, 301-46

Pasadena, Ca. 91125

(213) 795-6811, ext. 1785

Other Professional Personnel:

Faculty Associate: Professor Toshi Kubota

Graduate Students; William S. Sargent

Ernst N. Tangren

Project Summary:

The flow field produced by fire within a single compartment or

within a multi- compa rtment structure plays an important role in the

development of the fire and in the spread of hot products of combustion

throughout the structure. The flow field of a fire is characterized by

strongly stratified regions, turbulent and buoyant plumes, and turbulent entrainment processes. Many of these processes cannot be treated analytically now. The aim of the programs discussed here is to obtain an understanding of the fluid dynamic aspects of these flows and the convective

heat transfer processes associated with them. This understanding will

allow the development of rational calculation schemes which will make

possible the prediction of the rate of spread of products of combustion

through a complex building and will become a part of models designed

to predict the complete fire spread process.

The work described here consists of two parallel programs.

The first, supported by an NSF Grant, has been concerned with the use of small scale models to study the effects of various geometric

and fluid dynamic parameters on the natural convective flow field set

up in the early stages of a room fire. Emphasis has been placed on

the study of turbulent mixing processes and stratified flow fields

which cannot be treated analytically. These include the turbulent

42
and buoyant plume produced by the fire, see Figure 1, (2) the mixing

in the ceiling layer associated with the plume - ceiling interaction and

(3) the stratified flows and mixing in the doorway and just inside and

outside the doorway.

Figure 1

In this phase of the work; experiments were carried out in 1/5

scale models; salt water with specific gravity in the range 1. 10 to

1. 002 was used to model the hot products of combustion and fresh

water, to model the unheated air. Single rooms were studied with

models of scale 1/2 meter high by about one meter square.

This modeling work has now been completed and a final report

assessing the usefulness of this type of modeling is now in preparation.

The second program, supported by an NBS Grant, concerns

a study of the heat transfer and flow field produced in a single room

prior to flash over. The work is carried out in a half scale room

model with a natural gas fired burner to simulate a fire. The primary aim of this program is to develop scaling laws for the convective

heat transfer to the room walls and to develop a better understanding

of the flow field within the room and at the opening during the early

stages of a fire.

Measurements of heat transfer rates, and the velocities,

temperatures and concentrations of CO 2, in the room are the primary

experimental data. Fire heat input rate and position, and opening

geometry are the primary parameters of the experiment.

In support of both of these projects, simple analytical and

numerical models of the flow fields produced by a fire in a multicompartmental single story building have been constructed. These

are in various stages of development and documentation. They have

been used to guide the experiments and check the assumptions used

in their interpretation.

43
Progress Report

Salt Water Model: The salt water modeling work has been

completed and a final report is in preparation. In this report, we

will describe all the work concerning salt water modeling of convective flows in building fires, which we have carried out under

this and previous NSF Grants.

During the past year we have studied the effects on a fire

plume in a single room of a number of parameters. These include

fire strength and fire geometry, fire location within the room and

its vertical location with respect to the floor, opening geometry,

and an examination of the density gradient set up in the ceiling lay- er during the development of that layer.

The result of this work will be available in September as a progress report and several results are discussed here.

In the case of an exisymmetric fire geometry, the dependence

of the flow field on fire strength and a range of opening variations can be predicted by the simplest models. However, once the ceiling layer interface reaches the lower edge of the opening (e. g. , the

bottom sill of a window) considerable contamination of the incoming

cold flow occurs and our simple models fail. We are currently

studying this mixing process and the corresponding mixing process

which occurs when the hot door jet impinges on the ceiling outside

the opening. See (3) Figure 1. The effect of fire geometry have been studied by comparing

axisymmetric fire with rectangular fires of aspect ratio 2:1 and 5:1,

and a line fire. The axisymmetric and line fire cases agree with

simple models. The effect of the door jet, (the jet produced at the opening by the inflow of cold air), on fire plume has been studied. For fires located near the opening the entrainment can be increased and in all cases, the impingement point of the fire plume

on the ceiling is effected. Appreciable swirl can be produced in

the plume by off- centerline fire locations.

Finally, when an axisymmetric fire is placed in a corner, it behaves as if it were 1/4 of a fire of strength four times larger.

That is, it entrains cold air as if it were one quadrant of a fire 4

times larger. In contrast, the entrainment rate of a line fire placed

against a wall is greatly reduced.

Heat Transfer Model: The one-half scale room (1.22xl.22x

2. 44 M long) is constructed of 12. 7 mm thick marinite walls which

are cooled on the outside by a flow of air in a cooling passage.

Local heat transfer rates are measured by using the wall itself as

a heat transfer gage. Temperatures are measured with 175 pairs

44
of thermocouples imbedded in the inside and outside surfaces of the

marinite sheets. The overall heat transfer rate to each wall is determined by measuring the heat input to the cooling air stream.

A rotating -translating probe allows gas temperature and composition samples to be obtained throughout the room. The local

concentration of CO;? is obtained from six sampling tubes attached

to the probe. The opening is instrumented with a separate array

of thermocouples.

The premixed-natural gas burner used to simulate the fire can

be moved around within the room and the fire strength can be varied over a wide range (at least 10 to 200 KW).

Preliminary results obtained with this apparatus indicate that a previously developed heat transfer prediction scheme will give a reasonable estimate of the maximum convective heat transfer rates.

Model Development: Several solutions have been obtained to describe the motions of gas (in a room or two rooms) during the early

progress of a room fire. These solutions deal with gas motion alone;

the fire is treated as a known source of heat and heat loss to walls is

added in an ad hoc manner.

(i) Nearly-Closed Room. When heat is added to an ideal gas

in a fixed volume, the pressure must increase in response to the

temperature rise since the average density must remain fixed. In a room fire situation, the pressure rise is often kept very small due

to gas leaks through openings in the walls of the room such as cracks

around windows and doors. Under these circumstances we are interested in the time required for the gas remaining in the room to be

contaminated and heated by mixing with the products of combustion

from a fire of given heat input.

We have examined this problem for a simple example: the fire

treated as a point source of heat with a specified strength and our examination is restricted to a volume composed of a single room with

a horizontal ceiling layer of hot gas formed under the ceiling. This

layer may contain a non-uniform temperature distribution. However,

we can solve for a position of the interface between the hot and cold

regions as a function of time without knowing the details of this temperature distribution due to the interesting results that in a constant

pressure room fire the enthalpy of the gas remaining in the room is

constant regardless of the temperature distribution. During the progress of the fire, the thickness of the ceiling layer grows in time and

we are interested in predicting when the lower boundary will reach the

floor level because this time is related to the time available for escape

from the room. Analytic solutions have been found for this problem

and are reported in a Progress Report.

Our purpose was to illustrate the general order of magnitude of

the time involved and the manner in which various parameters influence

this time by looking at cases which are mathematically very simple.

This problem is a special case of a room fire and a numerical solution

for the more general problem is described below.

45
(ii) Two-Room Fire Model. A building, in most cases, is a combination of rooms, halls, and corridors, 'and it is desirable to have a simple method for estimating the movement of hot air, smoke and

noxious gases throughout the building. For this purpose, a mathematical model for multi -room convective flow has been constructed by

combining a simplified description for the fire plume, ceiling layer,

and flow through openings.

Dependent variables are the ceiling layer height, the gas densities in the ceiling layer and below the ceiling layer, and the pressure in each room. By applying the conservation of mass and energy

in each region, we obtain a necessary and sufficient number of differential equations from which time evolution and dependent variables may

be computed for any time -dependent energy input Q from the fire.

The exchanges of mass and energy between two rooms and outdoors

through openings are formulated by using the counter -current orifice

flow assumption reported in Semiannual Progress Report, June 1975.

The size of openings are functions of time, so that the affects of openings or closing of doors during fire may be computed. A program

incorporating these approximations has been written and documentation

of the program is in progress.

Accomplishments

(1) Completion of salt water modeling work; effects of a range

of parameters on fire plume have been examined.

(2) Completion of 1/2 scale test rooms; heat transfer data

collection started.

(3) Development of one and two room convective flow models

completed.

Potential Applications

Results will be used in development of fire spread models which

will lead to better codes.

Repo rts

E. E. Zukoski, "Development of a Stratified Ceiling Layer in

the Early Stages of a Closed-Room Fire. " Progress Report, February 1, 1977, National Bureau of Standards, Grant No. 5-9004.
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. , August 3-5, 1977

(Issued October 1977)

Institution: Cornell University Grant No: NSF ENV74-15253

A01

Grant Title: FLAME SPREAD OVER LIQUID FUEL

Principal Investigator: Kenneth E. Torrance

Grumman Hall

Cornell University

Ithaca, New York 14853

(607) 256-6253

Other Personnel

:

E. Martin Remick

Graduate Research Assistant

Project Summary:

The object of this research is to determine in a quantitative way the

range of physical parameters which will allow a flame to spread over the

surface of a liquid fuel when the fuel is at a temperature below its flashpoint. The research to date has focused on the development and evaluation

of a theoretical -numerical model for the liquid phase and, more recently,

on the extension of such a model to the coupled gas-liquid combustion problem.

Progress Report:

A physical model has been developed for flame spread over a liquid fuel.

The equations governing time dependent fluid motion in two dimensions are approximated by stable and explicit numerical methods. The physical model

consists of a liquid fuel layer with an overlying oxygen-ni trogen atmosphere.

The layer is at a sub-flash temperature. Although global reaction kinetics

of a fairly general nature are permitted for the gas phase, only results for

infinite-rate kinetics using Schvab-Zeldovich variables have been obtained

with reasonable computing economy. The model includes detailed balances of

mass, heat, and shear at the fuel surface, as well as forces due to buoyancy

and surface tension effects.

Studies on two fuel geometries have been completed. One geometry is

that of a shallow fuel pool of finite length burning in a cross wind. The

effects of several parameters haVe been documented; such as shear rate, surface tension, buoyancy, fuel temperature, fuel type, gaseous inert concentration, and radiation models. Results indicate that surface tension effects

dominate the liquid fuel behavior, and that buoyancy effects trigger timeperiodic motions in the gas phase.

The second geometry which we have considered is that of a moving flame

propagating over a shallow fuel layer of infinite horizontal extent. The

parameters considered for the aforementioned pool burning problem have also

been considered for the moving flame problem. Moving flames have been obtained for fuel depths of 0.4 cm and' 5.0 cm and the results compared with

laboratory experiments at Princeton University. A representative moving

flame solution for the shallower fuel depth is shown in Figure 1. The various

graphs display mass fraction (Y), streamline (^ ) , and temperature (T) contours for a steadily propagating flame at 2.4 cm/sec. The fuel is n-decane

47
and the oxidizer is air. The surface-tension-driven eddy and its influence

are clearly apparent in the streamline and temperature fields. Although

several factors are important for the flame spread process, it appears that

flame radiation and flame unsteadiness are closely coupled and in many cases may be much more important than previously thought.

Results of the moving flame and pool burning studies are currently being

written up as part of the doctoral thesis of E.M. Remick. Corresponding re- ports are also in preparation.

Accompl ishments:

A numerical model for the coupled gas/liquid phases has been formulated

and validated. Parametric studies have been completed for the case of pool

burning and for the case of a moving flame.

Potential Applications:

The research is relevant to activities involving the use, handling, or production of flammable liquids, and will provide fundamental information on the physical mechanism of fire spread over liquids. Such information will

be useful for the design and control of industrial combustion processes, and

for the engineering design of storage facilities and fire prevention and ex- tinguishment systems. The results are also relevant to the successful burning of oil or hydrocarbon spills.

Future Milestones:

Future work will include study of buoyancy-driven flames and comparison

of results with physical experiments.

48
Figure 1. Mass fraction contours (oxidizer, Y^; fuel, Y^); streamlines (ip ) and

isotherms (T, in °C) for flame spread over a 0.4 cm layer of n-decane.

Origin of coordinate system coincides with leading edge of flame.

Computed flame speed, V^, is 2.4 cm/sec.

49
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH3 NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS3 Gaithersburg3 Md. 3 August 3-53 1977

(Issued October 1977)

INSTITUTION

School of Aerospace Engineering

Georgia Institute of Technology

GRANT TITLE

"Properties of Combustion Products from Building Fires"

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS

Dr. Ben T. Zinn, Regents' Professor and Dr. Robert A. Cassanova,

School of Aerospace Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology

404-894-3033.

OTHER PROFESSIONAL PERSONNEL

NBS GRANT NO. G7-9001

NSF GRANT NO . AEN 73-03168 A02

Sr. Research Engineer,

, Atlanta, Ga. 30332,

Dr. Eugene A. Powell, Assistant Professor; Dr. C. Perry Bankston, Research Engineer;

Dr. R. F. Browner, Assistant Professor; Dr. J. U. Rhee, Research Chemist.

PROJECT SUMMARY

Objectives

The objectives of this program are: (1) continued development and utilization of facilities and experimental techniques required for the determination of particle size distributions and particulate mass concentrations, the chemical properties of both smoke and gaseous

products, and the optical properties of smoke produced by burning various building materials; (2) determination of the dependence of the properties of smoke generated by the com- bustion of various materials on the temperature and composition of the chamber atmosphere,

the type of burning, the radiant heat flux to the sample in non-flaming combustion, the

orientation of the sample, and the amount of ventilation; (3) determination of the dependence of smoke and gaseous products generated by burning synthetic polymers on the type and

amount of chemical additives found in those polymers; and (4) utilization of small-scale

test data with related theoretical models to predict the smoking properties of various

materials

.

Research Plan

To pursue the objectives outlined above, the efforts of this research project can be

divided into three major categories or tasks. Task I is concerned with the continued improvement of and modifications to the experimental capabilities of the fire research facility. Task II deals with the actual determination of the detailed characteristics of

the products generated during the combustion of materials in a ventilated, small-scale

Combustion Products Test Chamber under carefully controlled conditions. Finally, Task III

is concerned with the theoretical modeling of smoke producation from burning materials.

PROGRESS REPORT

Task I - Experimental Capabilities

Facilities which have been previously developed in this research project are: (1) a ventilated Combustion Products Test Chamber (CPTC); (2) a Combustion Products Sampling

System; (3) an Optical Aerosol Measurement System; and (4) a Chemical Analysis System.

Modifications and improvements to these facilities that have been carried out during the

past year are reviewed below.

Further development of the optical system . The in situ optical system is presently being

modified in order to determine the imaginary part of the complex refractive index of the

smoke particles. Two additional detectors will be incorporated into the present system to measure 90 - scattering intensities both parallel to (1.^) and perpendicular to (Ij_) the

plane of polarization of the incident light beam. A data reduction procedure has been developed to determine the complex refractive index (m=n-ik) from the measured ratio Iij/Ij.

considered along with the ratio of optical densities at two wavelengths and the mean par50
tide size D32 determined from the forward scattering measurements. These improvements of

the optical system will allow the determination of volume concentrations for smokes which

absorb as well as scatter light.

Computerized Data Acquisition . On-line data acquisition and data reduction system utilizing a Hewlett-Packard 2100 mini-computer has been implemented for all optical and sampling

measurements taken during CPTC smoke tests.

Addition to the Chemical Analysis System. During the past year a Hewlett-Packard 5722A

Gas Chromatograph has been added to the Chemical Analysis System. This gas chromatograph is a single column model equipped with a thermal conductivity detector and is utilized in the

analysis of gaseous and other low molecular weight combustion products generated during

tests run in the CPTC.

Task II - Determination of the Characteristics of Combustion Products

High Temperature Studies . A series of high temperature tests conducted with samples of

Douglas fir and a rigid FVC have been completed. For both nonflaming and flaming combustion,

the vertically mounted samples were tested at ventilation gas (air) temperatures of 100°C,

200°C and 300°C, while exposed to a radiant flux of 5 W/cm . In addition, flaming tests were conducted at 400°C without the radiant heater. As previously reported, the data indicated

changes in smoke optical densities and particle size characteristics due to changes in ventilation gas temperature for both flaming and nonflaming conditions. Figures 1 and 2 provide

examples of these results; where optical densities are plotted for wood burning (flaming)

at 200°C and 300°C, and the average particle size behavior is given for flaming PVC at 300°C

and 400°C. In general for the tests of wood, smoldering samples produced smaller particles

and lower optical densities at higher ventilation gas temperatures, while under flaming

conditions larger particles and greater optical densities were evident as temperature increased. For nonflaming PVC tests, higher temperatures produced larger particles and lower

optical densities. Under flaming conditions PVC samples again generated larger particles

as temperature increased, while temperature did not have a strong effect upon the measured

optical densities.

Tests of PVC and Different Additives . Tests were conducted to determine the effects of

several different, commonly used PVC additives on the smoke production and the physical

characteristics of the smoke particles. PVC samples which contained a lead stabilizer, two

different plasticizers, lubricants, CaCC^, AI2O3OH2O and M0O3 were tested under nonflaming combustion conditions. In general, the samples with the least amount of additives produced the highest concentration of smoke and the largest smoke particles. The samples which

contained the fillers, CaCC>3 or AI2O3OH2O, produced the least concentration of smoke and

the smallest smoke particles. Data is available on smoke particles size distributions, mean

particle size and optical density variations during the sample combustion, sample weight

loss during combustion and smoke mass concentration. Tests are continuing for samples ex- posed to flaming ignition and high temperature ventilation gases.

Tests of Polypropylene with Different Additives . A series of tests of polypropylene

samples containing various commercial fire retardant additives has been initiated. To date, seven formulations have been tested under nonflaming conditions in the horizontal sample

mount at a radiant heat flux of 5 W/cm^ (in air). Figures 3 and 4 give typical results for

three of the samples tested. Figure 3 shows cascade impactor data from tests of a pure polypropylene polymer and two fire-retarded polypropylenes. These data indicate that more smoke

(by mass) was generated by the pure polymer than by the particular fire-retardant formulations tested, although the particle size distributions peak near the same particle size in

all three cases. Time resolved optical density measurements presented in Figure 4 show nearly

the same behavior for all three samples tested. Analysis of data from tests of the remainder

of the polypropylene samples show varying effects on smoke characteristics as other fire re- tardant formulations are considered. Measured quantities for all samples include particle

size distribution, average particle size, particulate mass concentration and smoke optical

density. Tests of the same samples under flaming conditions will be initiated during August

of 1977.

51
Chemical Analysis of Particulates . The chemical analysis efforts have focussed on two

primary objectives: (i) the analysis of compounds important because of their high toxicity,

and (ii) the analysis of compounds important to aid modeling studies of the combustion

process. In the first category, compounds of prime interest are the low molecular weight

compounds absorbed onto the particulates which are known to possess high acute toxicity

(such as HC1 , HCN and certain aldehydes). The general analytical scheme involves the thermal

desorption of these compounds from the particulates into a stream of dry N2, collection and

concentration of the released volatile compounds onto a packed trap and subsequent release

of these compounds for analysis by gas chromatography. Identification is by g.c. retention

time and by g.c./m.s. Methodology is currently under development for quantification of this

analysis, and recovery experiments using standard atmospheres of certain known mixtures

are underway.

The chemical analysis of high and intermediate molecular weight compounds, necessary

for incorporation into analytical models of the combustion process, has been continued.

For the high molecular weight compounds, pre-separation by high pressure liquid chromatography, followed by g.c./m.s. of the collected fractions has been used successfully to achieve

a high degree of resolution and make identification of many compounds possible.

Recently, work has begun on a micro-preparative g.c. scheme for the pre-separation of

low molecular weight compounds, prior to identification by g.c. retention time and g.c./m.s.

By this means, it is hoped to achieve effective "clean-up" of the complex mixture of organic

compounds in the approximate molecular weight range 44-120. In all phases of the chemical

analysis program, the emphasis has been on obtaining thorough pre-separation of the complex

particulate material prior to the analytical step, in order to obtain reliable compound

assignments, and considerable progress has been made in this area.

Task III. - Theoretical Efforts

Development of an analytical model capable of describing certain "smoking" characteristics of different solid materials is underway. Specifically, a one-dimensional model describing the smoldering decomposition with charring of a slab of polymeric material of finite

thickness has been considered. The fact of the "sample" is subjected to a known incident

heat flux and both solid and gas phase properties are described. Initially, fundamental

equations have been formulated to account for solid decomposition, solid/gas phase energy

and the transport of the volatile, condensable products of thermal degradation. The material

sample is characterized by regions which range from the primary solid decomposition reaction

zone to a very porous char structure closest to the sample surface. A computer program which

utilizes an implicit finite differencing scheme has been written to obtain solutions to the

developed governing equations. The program includes a block tri-diagonal matrix inversion

routine and presently calculates gas density, solid porosity, gas velocity and gas/solid

temperature. Debugging of the program has recently been completed and calculations of the

above-mentioned quantities for selected thermally decomposing materials have been initiated.

Once the present model is found to be yielding acceptable results, particulate formation and

growth processes such as nucleation, condensation, agglomeration, etc., will be added on a stepwise basis. It is expected that these "smoke" formation processes will begin to be included in the model in September of 1977.

ACCOMPLISHMENTS

The following is a list of accomplishments under NSF Grant AEN 73-03168 A02 and NBS

Grant No. G7-9001 during the period July 1, 1976 - June 30, 1977.

(1) Experimental facilities have been enhanced by the addition of (i) on-line computerized

data acquisition and data reduction for all optical and sampling measurements taken

during CPTC smoke tests, and (ii) a new gas chromatograph to utilized in the

analysis of gaseous and low molecular weight combustion products.

(2) High temperature smoke tests of wood and a rigid PVC plastic in air have been

completed and results show variations in smoke characteristics as ventilation

gas temperatures are increased for both nonflaming and flaming conditions.

52
(3) Tests designed to determine the effects of various additives on the smoke production of burning FVC have continued. Results show that samples with the least

amount of additives produced the highest concentration of smoke and the largest

smoke particles for the formulations studied under nonflaming conditions.

(4) Tests designed to characterize and determine the effects of various additives on smoke production from burning polypropylene have been initiated. Results show

that for nonflaming conditions measured smoke characteristics are directly dependent upon the fire-retardant formulation utilized.

(5) The chemical analysis of high and intermediate molecular weight compounds has

continued. Utilization of high pressure liquid chromatography with g.c./m.s.

techniques have provided for more accurate identifications of additional com- pounds in smoke particulates.

POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS

Data obtained in this research program will aid in the evaluation of hazards resulting from smoke produced during building fires. Furthermore, these data can be of use in

determining what environmental conditions and material additives most affect smoke production, and thus aid in the development of safer commercial materials. Finally, correlation of measured smoke properties with theoretical predictions will provide detailed information on the mechanisms of smoke production which has not previously been available.

FUTURE MILESTONES

The following milestones have been established for the coming year: (i) High temperature and flaming tests of PVC + additives will be completed by December, 1977; (ii) Flaming tests of polypropylene samples will be completed by September, 1977; (iii) Low temperature tests of polyethylene will begin in September, 1977 and should be completed by February, 1978; (iv) Cataloging of all physical property measurements obtained in CPTC tests

will begin in July, 1977 and be completed by the end of December, 1977; (v) Design and con- struction of a new small-scale, low-pressure test chamber will begin in October, 1977 and

should be completed by the end of March, 1978; (vi) Microprobe and in situ optical measurements in the near-sample region will begin in April, 1978; (vii) Development of the theoretical model for smoke production will continue with the addition of particulate formation

processes to the model during the Fall of 1977.

REPORTS AND PUBLICATIONS

1. Cassanova, R. A., Powell, E. A., Bankston, C. P. and Zinn, B. T. , "The Effects of PVC

Additives on the Properties of Smoke Produced During Nonflaming Combustion," presented

at the Combustion Institute Meeting (Western Section) on Combustion Diagnostics and

Fire Research, La Jolla, Ca., October 18-19, 1976.

2. Bankston, C. P., Powell, E. A., Cassanova, R. A. and Zinn, B. T. , "Detailed Measurements of the Physical Characteristics of Smoke Particulates Generated by Flaming

Materials," presented at the Combustion Institute Meeting (Eastern Section) on Chemical and Physical Processes in Combustion, Philadelphia, Pa., November 18-19, 1976

(Submitted for publication).

3. Zinn, B. T. , Powell, E. A., Cassanova, R. A. and Bankston, C. P. , "Investigation of

Smoke Particulates Generated During the Thermal Degradation of Natural and Synthetic

Materials," Fire Research , Vol. 1, March 1977, p. 23.

53
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4.
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg , Md. , August 3-5, 1977

(Issued October 1977)

INSTITUTION GRANT NO.

Fire Hazard and Combustion Research Laboratory NBS G7-9003

School of Mechanical Engineering

Georgia Institute of Technology

Grant Title : Effects of Ignition Sources and Fire Retardants on Material Ignition

Principal Investigator

Professor P. Durbetaki

Fire Hazard and Combustion Research Laboratory

School of Mechanical Engineering

Georgia Institute of Technology

Atlanta, Georgia 30332

(404) 894-3282

Other Professional Personnel

Professor W. C. Tincher, Faculty Associate

Mr. H. Chang, Graduate Research Assistant

Mr. L. R. Lloyd, Graduate Research Assistant

Mr. R. P. Lowery, Graduate Research Assistant

Mr. C. C. Ndubizu, Graduate Research Assistant

Mr. M. L. Teague, Graduate Research Assistant

Mr. W. J. Tingle, Graduate Research Assistant

Mr. V. L. Wolfe, Jr., Graduate Research Assistant

Project Summary

The objective of the research program has been (i) to provide modeling rules

and experimental data for the prediction of thermally thin and thermally thick

material ignition, (ii) to measure ignition time, ignition frequencies and evaluate

the necessary parameters which describe the probability of ignition under given

exposure P(I/E), for single and pairs of fabrics, and for building materials, (iii)

to measure material thermophysical properties which characterize the material behavior during the preignition processes, (iv) to develop universal ignition criteria

for thermally thick and thin media, and establish constitutive descriptions required

for the modeling analysis, (v) to establish the relationship between laboratory and

actual exposure conditions, and (vi) to assess the effects of geometry and material

combinations on ignition.

The program currently in progress is divided into the following tasks:

Ignition Characteristics of Flame Retardant Fibers

and Fabrics

Ignition/Destruction Characteristics of Unrestrained

Fabrics

Effect of Convective Source Type and Size on the

Ignition Time of Thermally Thin Materials

Progress Report

Thermal radiative properties have been measured both on original and charred

samples of cellulosic and thermoplastic materials. The charring was carried out

both under quasi-steady and under transient heating conditions. The method of

charring has shown significant difference in the absorptance of the material tested.

55
Ignition time measurements have been carried out on plane-parallel pairs of

thermally thin materials under convective and radiative mode of heating. The

ignition time measurements on similar and dissimilar fabric pairs have shown that

under convective heating the ignition time of the front fabric is completely

independent of the presence of the back material. The ignition time measurements

under radiative heating using fabric number 5 (100% cotton) for the similar pair,

and fabric number 18 (100% cotton) front with fabric number 3 (100% polyester) back

for the dissimilar pair are shown in Figures 1 and 2. These measurements have

shown no apparent chemical interaction between the fabric layers but strong thermal

interaction has been observed as the figures indicate.

Ignition frequency measurements have been carried out using the Convective

Ignition Time Apparatus (CITA) on thermally thick materials to determine the median

self-sustaining ignition time, the standard deviation, and the probability of ignition given laboratory exposure. The self-sustaining ignition process which leads

to the material destruction consists of two stages: the pyrolyzate ignition and the

post-pyrolyzate heating to establish self-sustaining ignition. Each stage has its

characteristic time where the pyrolyzate ignition time is strongly dependent on heating intensity and weakly dependent on material thickness. The self-sustaining

ignition time is strongly dependent on both heating intensity and material thickness.

Figures 3, 4 and 5 give the representative ignition probability under laboratory

exposure for some of the material tested. The standard deviation which accounts for

the stochastic variation of thermally thick material properties ranges between 0.93

and 5.63% of the median self-sustaining ignition time for the material tested. These

materials included wood veneer, polymethyl metharcylate (PMMA) and polyethylene.

The effect of sample size and convective ignition source size on the ignition

time measurements of thermally thin and thick materials has been investigated under

convective heating mode. In the range of ignition source size used (12.5 mm - 37.0 mm diameter burners) and the range of thermally thin material sample size used

(63.5 mm - 120 mm), pyrolyzate ignition times and solid ignition times have been

found to be independent of source size and sample size.

The Lower Ignition Temperature and Concentration Apparatus (LITACA) was designed

and built with a resistance heater furnace which provided a heating rate of 20-25

C/min for the sample to be pyrolyzed. While the level of heating is comparable to

those rates used in DTA/TGA analysis, it does not establish heating rates on the same order as those encountered in actual fires and in laboratory ignition studies.

Therefore, a major change in the apparatus was carried out with the replacement of

the resistance heater furnace by a radiant heater furnace. This new furnace is

capable of pyrolysis heating rates in excess of 6000 C/min. Measurements were carried out with pyrolyzate gases generated using different heating rates. The

pyrolyzate gases were used to determine their minimum self-ignition temperature as a function of concentration in a mixture with air. The results of these measurements using pyrolyzate gases generated from 100% polyester and 100% cotton materials

are shown in Figures 6 and 7 respectively. Pyrolyzate gases have also been generated from a flame- retarded 100% cotton at two heating rates and the minimum

self-ignition temperature measurements on these gases are presented in Figure 8. The results at the high heating rate are also compared in Figure 9 with those of

the untreated 100% cotton fabric. Minimum self-ignition temperatures of pyrolyzateair mixtures have been found to depend on the heating rate during the pyrolysis of

the material. The ignition temperatures decrease with increasing heating rates.

Accomplishments

Experimental techniques and apparatus have been developed to measure ignition

times and ignition frequencies on small and large samples of thermally thin and

thermally thick media under time invariant radiative heating.

Experimental techniques and apparatus have been developed to measure ignition

times and ignition frequencies on thermally thin and thermally thick media at various

orientations and under time invariant convective heating.

56
Experimental techniques and apparatus have been developed to pyrolyze materials

at heating rates ranging from 20 C/min to an excess of 6000 C/min and to measure the

minimum self-ignition temperatures on pyrolyzate-air mixtures as a function of

pyrolyzate concentration.

Modeling analysis has been developed to describe the ignition process along with

the associated preignition stages for thermally thin materials under convective and

radiative heating.

Potential Applications

The ignition times measured and the modeling analysis developed serve to assess

the relative ease of ignition for thermally thin and thermally thick materials.

The investigations with flame retardant material serve to assess the effect of

the treatment and level of treatment on the ignition process.

The investigations on the self-ignition temperatures of pyrolyzate-air mixtures

serve to describe the ignition of materials as well as flashover in a room fire.

Future Milestones

Experimental efforts are directed at:

(i) Measurement of ignition of materials and self-ignition temperatures of

pyrolyzate-air mixtures to determine the effect of flame retardant treatment and

level of treatment on the ignition process.

(ii) Measurement of ignition and ignition statistics to determine the effect

of convective source size and type on the ignition process of thermally thin materials.

Analytical efforts are directed at:

(i) Modify the modeling analysis developed for the prediction of ignition

times of single fabrics and assembly of fabrics under radiative heating.

(ii) Develop a model for the description of the preignition processes of

thermally thick materials under convective heating.

Reports and Papers

1. P. Durbetaki, "Measurement and Prediction of Fabric Ignition Time and Its Relation

to Fire Hazard", Fire Retardants: Proceedings of 1976 International Symposium on Flammability and Fire Retardants , Technomic Publishing Co., Inc., Westport, CT,

1977, pp. 88-98.

2. P. Durbetaki, L. R. Lloyd, and W. C. Tincher, "ignition Probability of Thermally

Thin Media Subject to Convective Heating: Effect of Orientation", Coatings and

Plastics Preprints of Papers Presented at the 172nd Meeting , 36 , No. 2, American

Chemical Society, 1976, pp. 185-190.

3. K. Annamalai and P. Durbetaki, "Ignition of Thermally Thin Porous Pyrolyzing

Solids Under Normally Impinging Flames", Combustion and Flame , 27 , pp. 253-266,

1976.

4. P. Durbetaki, W. Wulff, G. L. Matson, W. P. Ryszytiwskyj , and P. T. Williams,

"Ignition of Pyrolyzing Solids in Air", Fall Technical Meeting, Eastern Section,

The Combustion Institute, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, 18-19 November

1976.

5. P. Durbetaki, "Fundamental Studies on Fabric Ignition", Proceedings of the Tenth

Annual Meeting , Information Council on Fabric Flammability, Galveston, TX, 1976,

pp. 243-254.

6. V. L. Wolfe, Jr. , and P. Durbetaki, "Ignition of Thermally Thick Media Under

Convective Heating", Spring Meeting, Central States Section, The Combustion

Institute, NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, OH, 28-30 March 1977.

7. P. Durbetaki, and C. Thorn-Andersen, "Effect of Heat Flux Level and Exposure Time

to a Radiant Heat Source on the Thermal Radiative Properties of Cellulosic and

Thermoplastic Materials", Seventh Symposium on Thermophysical Properties,

National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, MD, 10-12 May 1977.

8. P. Durbetaki, "Effects of Ignition Sources and Fire Retardants on Material

Ignition", Quarterly Progress Report No. 7, NBS Grant No. G7-9003, Fire Hazard

57
and Combustion Research Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia

Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 11 January 1977.

9. P. Durbetaki, W. C. Tincher, L. R. Lloyd, R. P. Lowery, W. J. Tingle, and

V. L. Wolfe, Jr., "Prediction of Fire Hazard from Fabrics and Building Materials",

Fifth Research Report, NSF Grant No. AEN72-03359 A04, Fire Hazard and Combustion

Research Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of

Technology, Atlanta, GA, 28 February 1977.

10. P. Durbetaki, "Effects of Ignition Sources and Fire Retardants on Material

Ignition", Quarterly Progress Report No. 8, NBS Grant No. G7-9003, Fire Hazard

and Combustion Research Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia

Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 11 April 1977.

0 .4 .» 1.2 14 G,cm

Figure 1. Ignition Time of Front Fabric

as a Function of Spacing and

Heating Intensity; Fabric No.

5 (100% Cotton) Front and

Back; Open Points Denote

Single Fabric Ignition Times.

Figure 3. Self-Sustaining Ignition

Probability as a Function

of Exposure Time and Convective Heating Intensity;

Material No. 1, Red Oak

Veneer, 0.91 mm Thick.

Figure 2. Ignition Time of Front Fabric

as a Function of Spacing and

Heating Intensity; Fabric No.

18 (100% Cotton) Front with No. 3 (100% Polyester) Back; Open

Points Denote Single Fabric

Ignition Times.

Figure 4. Self-Sustaining Ignition

Probability as a Function of

Exposure Time; PMMA , 3.18 mm Thick.

58
Figure 5. Self-Sustaining Ignition Probability as

a Function of Exposure Time and Convective

Heating Intensity; Material No. 12, High

Density Polyethylene, 1.65 mm Thick.

PYROLYSATE MASS FRACTION

*F Figure 6. Minimum Self-Ignition Temperatures of

Pyrolyzate Gases Generated at Four

Different Heating Rates from 100%

Polyester Fabrics.

59
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60
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH3 NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS3 Gaithersburg3 Md. 3 August 3-53 19773 (Issued October 1977)

Grant No.: GT-9020; NBS

Grant Title: A Kinetics Investigation of Several

Reactions Involving Bromine Compounds

as Related to Flame Initiation and

Propagation

Principal

Investigators: A. R. Ravishankara, F. P. Tully

and D. D. Davis

Georgia Institute of Technology

Atlanta, Georgia 30332

(404)894-3424

Project Summary : Knowledge of the rate constants for the reactions of

hydroxyl radicals with constituents of both uninhibited and

inhibited flames is essential to the understanding and

modeling of flame dynamics. Under the present grant, we

are measuring the rate constants for the reactions of OH with

the test fuels CH

4 and H2 and with several halon fire inhibiting agents.

Our experimental approach is to study these reactions

under pseudo-first order kinetic conditions; OH is formed

upon flash photolysis of water, and is always maintained at

a lower concentration than the stable reactant. The decay of

the OH concentration with time is monitored by either the conventional resonance fluorescence method or the more recently

developed laser induced fluorescence technique. By obtaining

the time dependent concentration profiles at different stable

reactant (i.e,, CH^, halons, etc.) concentrations, the

bimolecular rate constants are determined. These bimolecular

61
rate constants are then measured at different temperatures to

obtain the activation energy for the reactions.

Progress Report ; We are presently completing the installation and testing of a new stainless steel reaction cell which will be capable of reaching temperatures of 1200K. In the near future,

we will be interfacing a frequency doubled tunable dye laser

(pumped by a C.W. Argon ion laser) , with this high temperature kinetics system. Using a previous reaction cell, and

resonance fluorescence detection, we have measured the rate

constants for the reactions of OH with CH^ and H

2 up to 700K.

62
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md . , August 3-5 , 1977

(Issued October 1977)

Institutions : Harvard University and Factory Mutual Research Corporation

NFPCA Grant #76-024 PRC Grant //RP-77-3-4

Grant Title : The Home Fire Project

Principal Investigators : Howard W. Emmons Raymond Friedman

Pierce Hall, Harvard University Factory Mutual Research Corp.

Cambridge, Mass. 02138 Norwood, Massachusetts 02062

(617) 495-2847 (617) 762-4300, Ext. 570

Other Professional Personnel :

H. U. Research Fellows: Henri Mitler, Run Min, Phiroz Bhagat, A. Fernandez-Pello

Research Associate: Richard Land

Graduate Students: Jana Backovsky

Undergraduates: L. Trefethen, B. Chang, M. Fedorchak, P. Barth, H. T. Sung

L. Healy

FMRC: Task Leaders: J. deRis, R. Alpert, P. Croce, G. Markstein

Other Scientists: A. Modak, L. Orloff, F. Tamanini, A. Tewarson

Project Summary : The broad objective is to make predictable the growth of fire

in a home. The project consists of eight tasks-the most important of which are

the development of the Computer Fire Code for the prediction of fire growth and

the closely coupled full scale fire tests.

Task Progress Reports :

(1) Full-Scale Fire Test Program - Ronald L. Alpert

Most of this work was sponsored by NFPCA. Its continuation is sponsored by P.R.C.

We are currently performing a series of about eight full-scale fire tests to

evaluate Harvard's fire development computer model. The present test series

principally focuses on the effects of enclosure geometry on the development

of the fire to flashover. The computer-model predictions are based on measurements of the initiating item burning in the open (outside the 8-foot by

12-foot enclosure). The series of fire tests includes variations in the

following parameters: (1) maximum size of initiating item; (2) distance from

top of doorway to ceiling; (3) addition of window; (4) location of fire

relative to window; (5) door half-closed, no window; (6) elevation of base of

fire. We have also made a very broad set of basic laboratory-scale flammability

measurements for the polyurethane foam being used for both the initiating and

target items. As the year progresses, we intend to predict the fire

development in terms of the foam's basic flammability properties.

(2) Prediction of a Fire - H. Mitler, H. W. Emmons, B. Chang, L. Trefethen

The fire in an enclosure is viewed in modular form: a burning object, a plume,

a hot gas layer, flow out a vent, radiation heat transfers, toxic gas production

and distribution, etc. The appropriate transient equations are written for each

module including all important interactions; e.g. radiative feedback. These

equations (40 or more) are solved for the time history of the fire growth given

an initial ignition. Approximate equation systems have been solved analytically

or through a time-constant formalism. Such solutions while fair are not good

63
enough for general fire prediction. When solved on a computer, however, the

predictions are beginning to be in acceptable agreement with our former full

scale bedroom tests.

Sub-routines of greater precision and generality are being prepared and used

and will be further tested by predicting before the actual burns, the full

scale fires to be run this summer.

The Computer Fire Code has been devised in such a way that anyone - anywhere

can prepare a subprogram for some module which will run with the main program

without having to rewrite any other subprogram. The program needs further

development and we would welcome the participation of others in subprogram

development.

(3) The Modeling of Fires in an Enclosure

(3.1) Pressure Modeling of Fire Growth in Enclosures - R. L. Alpert

Precise measurements of the radiative properties of PMMA flames at elevated

pressures are currently being obtained to investigate the practicality of

pressure modeling radiation-dominated fires. Both narrow angle (radiance)

and wide angle (irradiance) instruments have been used with simultaneous

burning-rate measurements at ambient pressures from 14 to 28 atmospheres.

Preliminary results of the irradiance measurements for a 12.7-cm-high wall

show that the radiant fraction, x> is from 22% to 28%, compared to about 33%

for a 360-cm-high wall at one atmosphere. Radiance measurements at angles of

incidence of 0° (wall normal to radiometer axis) and 60° yield calculated

flame temperatures of about 1500K, compared to a 1400-K-flame temperature at

1 atm. These results, which are self-consistent, will be further refined with

additional measurements at 0°, 30° and 75° angles of incidence.

(3.2) Modeling of Enclosure Fires at Atmospheric Pressure - P. A. Croce

After a demonstration of the usefulness of this modeling method for quasisteady crib fires within an enclosure, the method has been applied to transient,

non-spreading fires using PMMA slabs as the primary fuel. Geometrically

similar full-and quarter-scale enclosures were utilized, with ventilation

provided through a doorway-like opening; doorway width was a parameter.

Quantities such as burning rate (weight loss), gas and wall temperatures, gas

species concentrations and radiation escaping through the opening were monitored

continuously during a test. General overall agreement was obtained between

large-and small-scale results. Currently, the method is being applied to

spreading transient enclosure fires, using foamed polyurethane as the primary fuel.

(4) Radiation from Flames and Smoke Layers - G. H. Markstein

Studies of fire radiation have concentrated on two areas: (1) measurements of

radiative properties of plastics fires and (2) measurements on smoke layers.

Both studies are performed with equipment of intermediate scale so that results

applicable to full-scale tests can be obtained.

In the work on plastics fires, narrow-beam radiometry with blackbody background

combined with photographic determination of flame geometry has been used for

characterizing steady pool fires of various materials by their radiation

temperature T^ and their absorption coefficient a^. Recently, the method has

64
been extended to charring plastics that cannot support a steady pool fire, by

working instead with fires spreading over elongated rectangular fuel beds.

Measurements performed by this technique on a polyurethane foam gave results

( T = l^Of) K. ot = 1 . close to those obtained earlier with polymethylIn the smoke layer study, measurements are performed on the combustion products

of plastics pool fires flowing along a 0.6 m wide, 0.6 m deep and 3.6 m long

channel open at the bottom. The instrumentation includes one absorption meter

employing a blackbody source (600 C) and one with an infrared-emitting diode

source, a flow velocity probe and a thermocouple arranged for vertical traverse

in the channel, a probe for sampling particulate products, and mass loss

measurement of the pool fire. This study not only will provide data to be used

in the analysis of full-scale tests, but the absorption meters also serve as prototypes of devices incorporated in the current FMRC full-scale test program.

Continuation of these studies, and development of a method for two-dimensional

scanning of fire radiance is planned.

(5) The Effect of Radiation on Ignition and Fire Spread -A.C. Fernandez-Pello,

Upward flame spread velocity over vertical sheets of Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA)

and downward flame spread velocity over vertical sheets of PMMA, Filter Paper and

White Pine wood were measured under the influence of externally applied radiant

fluxes ranging from 0 to 2.0 w/cm . The flame spread rate was found to be

dependent on the surface temperature of the fuel prior to flame arrival. For both

modes of fire spread a power law correlation exists between the flame spread

velocity and the difference between the vaporization temperature of the fuel and

its surface temperature prior to flame arrival. An approximated theoretical model

for upward laminar flame spread was developed and present theoretical models for

downward flame spread were extended to account for the additional effect of

external radiation. It is shown that the predictions of the theoretical models

agree qualitatively with the experimental observations.

The theory of free convective burning under external radiation has been developed

in various degrees of approximation. A careful study is being made of these and more exact theories of steady, laminar, free convective burning of a vertical fuel

surface including fuel surface and flame radiative properties. The degree to

which similarity solutions can be found is being examined.

(6) The Heat of Combustion of Smoke - Kun Min

A catalytic sensor in the form of a heated platinum wire is being tested to measure the heat of combustion of smoke generated in a fire.

Calibration of the sensor with different fuel gases shows that its sensitivity,

defined as the ratio of the sensor output to the heat of combustion per unit

volume of the fuel-air mixture, varies by a factor of about two. Effort is being

made to design a sensor with less variation in sensitivity.

In preparation for its use in the forthcoming full scale fire tests, the sensor was tested with gases from a small enclosure fire - a crib fire inside a 6"x6"x6"

enclosure with a door opening. Tests showed that the sensor responds negatively

to the moisture produced by the fire. This behavior is presently under study.

J. Backovsky

65
The fuel gases in smoke are measured by removing the particles by a filter.

However some low accuracy data on the heat of reaction of the particles per

unit volume of smoke is obtainable by measuring the whole smoke with an open

wire and then the filtered smoke with a second wire. A first use of such a combined instrument will be made in the full scale tests this summer.

(7) Extinguishment - P. M. Bhagat

The top end of a vertically positioned charcoal cylinder is burnt in a stagnation

air flow. Water is introduced into the air stream by injecting steam upstream of

the air blower and by spraying water at a point just downstream of the blower.

This method permits close control and accurate measurements of the amount of

moisture introduced. Several experiments were conducted to measure the moisture

content in the airstream, and the rate of water being deposited on the stagnation

plane, for various air and water flow rates. The heat transfer coefficient at

the stagnation plane was measured for various conditions.

Tests were run to determine the burning characteristics of charcoal for various

air and water flow rates. A very small amount of liquid water causes an increase

in burning rate by the removal of the ash which normally adheres for a while on

the burning surface. An analytical model was developed in an attempt to understand the ash removal mechanism. Ash is also blown off more easily if the fire crosses the grain from the center of the tree outward rather than inward;

suggesting a ring structure which inhibits inward burning.

Experiments have been conducted in the water flow range where extinguishment

occurs at the edges and the extinguished zone encroaches on the burning region,

leading to total extinguishment.

At present, the burning data for various air and water flow rates is being

analyzed.

Special Test Burns of Mattress and Bedclothes - R. Land

Our full scale tests begin with fire on the bed. The growth of the fire on bedding is sensitive to many parameters. If the ignition technique is not

controlled carefully, a large uncertainty in starting time for the burn results.

In comparison with dry tests (40% RH) , when the bedding has been subjected to

high relative humidity before the test, the rate of spread and mass pyrolized

is reduced by about one- third and the foam has less char on its surface after

extinguishment. Lab tests under dry conditions produced results similar to

early data in the full scale bedroom test of 1975.

A Special Senior Project - The Breaking of Window Glass by Fire - P. Barth,

and H. T. Sung

Windows are usually broken in a fire. Uneven heating, sudden cooling by water,

or some mechanical event is sufficient and one gets the impression that the

breaking is a random event. When heated by radiation, free standing small glass

sheets 3" x 3" to 6" x 6" break only at high heating rates. If the edge of the

glass is shielded from the radiation (as when installed in a window frame) they

break easier but reproducibly in a time which depends upon the radiation

intensity and the size of the glass sheet. The break always starts at an edge

away from the corners, never in the middle. The stress relieving crack moves,

at very high speed, through the cool edge then divides into two (or sometimes

more) cracks, two of which run along the hot-cool boundary for some distance

before turning up symmetrically through the main sheet. At a heating rate of

.1 watt/cm^ the break occurs at 1 minute.

66
Publications and Presentations from the Home Fire Project

Alpert, R. L. , "Pressure Modeling of Fires Controlled by Radiation," Sixteenth Symposium

(International) on Combustion, Combustion Institute, MIT, Aug. 1976.

Croce, P. A., "Modeling of Vented Enclosure Fires," Presentation to 5th International Fire

Protection Seminar, Karlsruhe, West Germany, September 22-24, 1977.

Croce, P. A., "A Method for Improved Measurement of Gas Concentration Histories in

Rapidly Developing Fires," Combustion Science and Technology, Vol. 14, 1976.

Croce, P. A. and Modak, A. T. , "Flame Radiative Feedback and the Burning of Horizontal

Plastic Slabs," Sixteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion, MIT, August 1976.

de Ris, J., "Buoyant Diffusion Flames," Presentation to International Heat and Mass Transfer

Seminar, Dubounik, Yugoslavia, August 1976.

Emmons, H. W. , "Computer Fire Code (II)," Home Fire Project Technical Report No. 20,

January 1977.

Emmons, H. W. , "The Home Fire - Viewed as a Scientific System," Home Fire Project Report No.

21, April 1977, to be published in SFPE Journal.

Emmons, H. W. , "The Modeling of Fires," Presentation to the U.S. -Japan Cooperative Program

on Natural Resources, Fire Research Subcommittee, Tokyo, Japan, Oct. 19-23, 1976.

Emmons, H. W. , "Physics of Fire - A Review," Presentation to the Gordon Conference,

Wolfboro, N.H., August 22-26, 1977.

Evans, D. and Emmons, H. W. , "Combustion of Wood Charcoal," Fire Research, Vol. 1, January 1977.

Fernandez-Pello , A. C. , "Fire Spread over Vertical Fuel Surfaces under the Influence of

Externally Applied Thermal Radiation," Home Fire Project Technical Report No. 19, January 1977.

Fernandez-Pello, A. C. , "Downward Flame Spread Under the Influence of Externally Applied

Thermal Radiation," Combustion Science and Technology, 1977.

Friedman, R. , "Ignition and Burning of Solids," Symposium on Fire Standards and Safety, ASTM,

STP 614, January 1977.

Land, R. I., "Full-Scale Fire Tests," Presentation to the Borehamwoods Fire Research Station,

London, England, April 5, 1976.

Markstein, G. H., "Radiative Energy Transfer from Turbulent Diffusion Flames," Combustion

and Flame, Vol. 27, No. 1, 1976.

Markstein, G. H. , "Scaling of Radiative Characteristics of Turbulent Diffusion Flames,"

Sixteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion, MIT, August 1976.

Min, Kun, "Vapor Phase Thermal Analysis of Pyrolysis Products from Cellulosic Materials,"

Combustion and Flame.

Mitler, H. E. , "The Harvard Home Fire Project," Presentation to the National Bureau of

Standards Conference on Fire, Washington, D.C., January 10-11, 1977.

Modak, A. T. (Editor), "The Third Full-Scale Bedroom Fire Test of the Home Fire Project

(July 30, 1975): Vol. II - Analysis of Test Results," FMRC Technical Report, Serial No. 21011.7, November 1976.

Modak, A. T. and Mathews, M. K. , "Radiation-Augmented Fires within Enclosures," Presentation

to the Seventeenth National Heat Transfer Conference, Salt Lake City, Utah, August 1977.

Modak, A. T. , Alpert, R. L. and Orloff, L., "Burning of Large-Scale Vertical Surfaces,"

Sixteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion, MIT, August 1976.

67
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1208

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. , August 2-5, 1977

(Issued October 1977)

Institution : IIT Research Institute

Grant or Contract No. : T-9023

Grant Title : Fire Alarms and Responses to Alarms

in Health Care Institutions

Principle Investigator : Harold Wakeley

IIT Research Institute

10 West 35th Street

Chicago, Illinois 60616

312/567-4757

Other Professional Personnel ; Thomas Waterman, Engineering Advisor; Howard Schechter, Research

Engineer; Joe Koeberl , Graduate Student; Kenneth Brown, Summer

Student Assistant

Project Summary : The objective of the study is to determine the effectiveness of various

fire alarm and evacuation systems in nursing homes. The initial problem is

determining the noise levels in nursing homes and the signal characteristics

of existing alarm systems. Information is desired on the attenuation characteristics of the room, corridors, and area ways as well as the response of

the patients and staff to fire alarms.

Objective measures of sound intensity and spectral distribution are

obtained by recording information at the site and processing the material

later with a third octave band analyzer. Complete descriptions of the

recording and sound source and the configuration of the building are obtained

plus photographic records. Staff responses to fire alarms are recorded by

questionnaires

.

Progress Report ; A substantial amount of information has been obtained from a complete

range of nursing homes. Preliminary evaluations have been performed and data

collection is being completed.

Accomplishments : A satisfactory method of reliably obtaining noise/fire alarm sound

measurements in nursing homes and its evaluation has been achieved. Methods

for obtaining access to nursing homes and the performance of fire alarm tests

and drills have been developed. Some specific problems with existing fire

alarm systems have been identified.

Potential Applications : Improved fire alarm systems will improve communications during actual

fires, substantially reduce stress and confusion during drills and fires,

and improve human responses to fire alarms.

„ Future Milestones:

Summarize questionnaire and objective data to identify improved fire

alarm characteristics. , Q DO
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. , August 3-5, 1977,

(Issued October 1977)

INSTITUTION :

The Johns Hopkins University

GRANT (or Contract) NO .

:

NBS Grant Number GT-9019

GRANT (or Contract) Title :

Evaluation of Toxicity of Combustion Products

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR(s) :

Zoltan Annau, Ph.D. and William F. Sette, Ph.D.

The Johns Hopkins University

Department of Environmental Health Sciences

School of Hygiene & Public Health

615 North Wolfe Street

Baltimore, Maryland 21205

(301) 955-3029

PROJECT SUMMARY :

OBJECTIVES

1. To provide a sensitive, reliable, and valid behavioral baseline

for evaluating the toxicity of smoke.

2. To characterize and compare the effects of smoke from different

materials by constructing concentration response curves.

These objectives will be attained by: a) exposing animals to smoke

during large scale burns and measure a variety of physical, physiological

and behavioral variables; b) exposing animals trained on a behavioral task

to small controlled combustion experiments and measure quantitatively changes

in the rate of ongoing behavior, as well as physiological parameters.

PROGRESS REPORT :

We have participated in room scale burns in cooperation with other

personnel at NBS. In the last series, four sizes of wood and polyurethane

cribs were burned. Products were drawn through a teflon coated stovepipe

69
to a 125 liter plexiglass exposure chamber equipped with a tumblecage and

3 nose exposure ports. Measurements were made of temperature, oxygen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and cyanide concentrations in the chamber

during each burn.

Three tumble cage and three nose exposure rats were used in each burn.

Two rats from each exposure condition were subjected to several behavioral

tests immediately after each exposure. These measures were: posture, 60

seconds of open field activity, breathing rate, corneal reflex, tail pinch

response, and righting reflex. This cluster of tests provides a simple

screen for disruptions in the central nervous system and is a derivation of

tests common in pharmaceutical laboratories. Blood was drawn from these

animals and analyzed for carboxyhemoglobin and cyanide levels. For some

burns, we also examined body weight, food and water intake, and daily wheel

running activity before and after exposure.

Figures 1 and 2 show the data from a representative polyurethane and

wood burn. In the polyurethane burn, there were slight postural changes and

some inhibition of response to the tail pinch in some animals, but these

are small effects and not consistent in all subjects. The other burns presented a similar picture, that is, relatively low blood values and small,

inconsistent behavioral changes.

These exposures led us to the conclusion that large scale burns are not

viable or economic means for evaluating toxicity. While the problems encountered are not insurmontable, we feel that the greater control that can

be achieved over temperature and FAS concentrations in laboratory scale exposures outweighs the presumed greater relevance of a genuine mattress burn

to fire toxicity.

The major behavioral technique used to study the effects of drugs on

on the functioning of the central nervous system is the schedule of reinforcement. Animals are trained to perform a response such as pressing a

70
lever to obtain a rewarding stimulus or to avoid an aversive stimulus. By

specifying the relationship between the lever press and its consequences,

we can produce a reliable rate and pattern of responding. The drug effect

is then measured as a change in this controlled rate of lever pressing.

Our experience with the large scale burns described in this report indicates

that during the combustion of plastics, in particular, the animals inhale

large quantities of particulates, which during autopsies can be seen in the

oral cavities and the upper respiratory tract. For this reason, we have

chosen as our behavioral model the lever press avoidance of mildly aversive

electric shock rather than responding for food.

On this schedule, each lever press postpones this delivery of a shock

by 30 seconds. If there is no response, brief shocks are delivered every

five seconds. After about two weeks of training, the rats will respond at

a steady rate for several hours and receive few shocks. This schedule is

widely used in drug houses as a simple, yet sensitive, CNS screen. It has

been used to characterize the effects of hundreds of drugs (Cook and Catania,

1964).

Male Long-Evans rats, are serving as subjects. There are four plexiglass chambers which measure 12.5 x 20.5 x 21 cm with stainless steel grid

floors and a lever at one end. The grid floor and lever of each chamber is

wired so that brief scrambled shocks (2 mamps, 0.5 seconds) may be delivered.

The avoidance schedule now is controlled by convential electro-mechanical

equipment which will soon be replaced by a small digital computer programmed

in a language (SKED) designed for behavioral experiments.

The stainless steel exposure chamber (Wahmann) is approximately a 53 cm

cube and has a volume of 200 liters. This chamber is now being interfaced

at the bottom to a conductive heat furnace provided by Dow Chemical Company.

Within the chamber, we will monitor concentrations of O

2

, CO, CO

2

, CN and

temperature.

71
Rats will be exposed under static conditions for 30 minutes to products

decomposed at both pyrolysis and combustion temperatures. Concentrations

will be varied by weight and each subject will be exposed to four concentrations at least twice in an ascending - descending order. Blood samples will

be drawn from subjects prepared with chronic arterial cannulae and the blood

analyzed for carboxyhemoglobin and cyanide.

Cook, L. and Catania, A.C. Effects of drugs on avoidance and escape behavior.

Proceedings of Federation of American Societies of Experimental Biology, 23 : 818-835, 1964.
73

ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg3 Md. , August 3-5, 19773 (Issued October 1977)

Institution : The Johns Hopkins University/Applied Physics Laboratory

Grant Title : Fire Problems Program

NBS Grant No. 4-9022 NFPCA Grant No. 76-033

Principal Investigators :

Robert M. Fristrom; Walter G. Berl

Applied Physics Laboratory

The Johns Hopkins University

Johns Hopkins Road

Laurel, Md. 20810

(301) 953-7100

Marshal S. Levine

The Johns Hopkins University

School of Hygiene and Public Health

615 Wolfe Street

Baltimore, Md. 21205

(301) 955-3295

Other Professional Personnel :

Y. M. Caplan (Toxicology)

0. J. Deters (Mathematics)

R. S. Fisher (Pathology)

C. Grunfelder (Physics)

N. deHaas (Physics)*

Overall Project Summary : The objectives of the APL-directed Fire Problems Program, supported

since 1970 by the National Science Foundation (IRP0S and RANN) and more recently by the

Center for Fire Research of the National Bureau of Standards (1974) and by the National Fire

Prevention and Control Administration (1975) are two-fold:

1. To quantify the medical and biochemical effects of fires on humans,

2. To investigate the physical and chemical principles of fuel ignition and extinction.

B. M. Halpin (Mathematics)

L. W. Hunter (Chemical Physics^

P. J. van Tiggelen (Chemistry)

A. A. Westenberg (Physical Chemistry)

•k Part Time

These topics are reported on separately as subtasks.

I. FIRE CASUALTIES STUDY

Project Summary : The objective of the program is to obtain reliable in-depth information

about people exposed to the fire atmosphere. The two project areas are:

A. The Fire Fatalities Project is an on-going program initiated in 1971 under the

RANN Program and transferred to NBS in 1974. Case studies are made of exposures to the

fire atmosphere resulting from respiratory system insult. The study does not include

fatalities occurring more than 6 hours after fire exposure. This eliminates most "burn"

cases

.

B. "Project Smoke" began in October of 1973. It is being conducted by the School of

Hygiene and Public Health/JHU in cooperation with the Baltimore City Fire Department. The

current series of investigations includes both the acute and chronic effects of inadvertent

exposure, and the effects of the occupational exposure to the fire atmosphere.

Progress Report :

A. Fire Fatalities Project : This project has four major sub-efforts that involve

cooperation among APL, the State Medical Examiner, the State Fire Marshal and other local

fire department jurisdictions. The four tasks are: (1) Case Histories, (2) Cyanide Study,

(3) Heart Study in Fire Victims, and (4) Analysis of Soots.

75
(1) Case Histories : Four hundred twenty-one fatalities have been studied

through December 1976. The victim had to have died within 6 hours after the fire and an autopsy had to be performed with a detailed evaluation of the coronary system. A review

of the circumstances at the fire scene is also included.

The fatalities occurred in 315 fires with 293 of them in a residence. For the

time period there were 1.3 deaths per fire with 254 single fatality fires.

"Smoking" was considered to be the cause of the fire in 50% of the cases, and the

human element was quite apparent in the overall fire problem from ignition to casualty.

Alcohol played a significant role in the majority of the "smoking" caused fires with other

drugs as a very minor problem.

Carbon monoxide poisoning was considered to be the primary cause of death in

approximately one-half of the fatalities. Pre-existing heart disease in combination with

carbon monoxide has been implicated in another 30% of the cases (see heart study). Approximately 10% of the cases require better definition of the cause of death.

A larger fraction of the residences in which the fatal fires occurred have had more synthetic materials in furnishings than in the first years of this study. The synthetics are found in all classes of furnishings for the homes as well as clothing, etc.

(2) Cyanide Study : A study has been underway to investigate factors in the

analysis and interpretation of cyanide concentrations so that its role could be evaluated.

A gas chromatograph with electron capture detector is used to determine blood cyanide levels

.

The distribution of the measured blood cyanide levels for 152 cases shows that 33%

of the victims had a normal level. The normal level is considered to be 0.25 Mg/ml of blood.

That means that 67% had a raised level of blood cyanide. Thirty-two percent of the cases

had levels considered to be in the possibly toxic and probably toxic ranges. The range of

measured values are 0.0 to 4.3 pg/ml.

In those fires where cellulosic materials were involved normal levels of blood

cyanide were measured. When synthetic materials were involved that might have produced

cyanide during the fire, raised levels of blood cyanide were also measured in the victims.

There is no direct evidence that cyanide was either the incapacitating or lethal

agent in the fatalities studied. In general a high level of blood cyanide is accompanied

by a high level of blood carboxyhemoglobin.

(3) Heart Study : This study was initiated to explore the relationship between

pre-existing heart disease and blood carbon monoxide levels inasfar as lethality is

concerned. Persons with pre-existing heart disease would be expected to survive for a shorter period of time in a CO contaminated atmosphere than healthy individuals. This

premise is based on the assumption that heart disease already jeopardized the myocardial

oxygen supply in a normal atmosphere.

A measurable and quantifiable parameter of pre-existing heart disease is the

degree of coronary stenosis. In addition, it is the most important and prevalent form of

heart disease.

The study includes those individuals who die in a "typical" house fire while

eliminating flash fires, automobile collision fires, immolations, etc. Further, those who

survived for some period of time after the incident were excluded. This provided a data

base of 119 cases for comparative analysis.

Using a scoring system based on the amount of stenosis and the distance from the

heart that the stenosis occurs, the relationship between blood carbon monoxide level and

coronary artery stenosis can be examined. No constant relationship could be seen between

the two parameters. This leads one to believe that the pre-existing heart disease contributes to early incapacitation in a fire atmosphere. This premise would explain the high

incidence of heart disease in our series since the heart disease would "select" those

individuals to be fatalities.

76
(4) Analysis of Soots : Chemical and instrumental analyses are performed on the

"internal" soots that can be isolated from the tracheobronchial trees of fire victims and of

"external soot deposits collected at the fire scene. The former will not give evidence for

compounds readily dissolved by body fluids (such as hydrochloric acid) . The latter presents

a total cross-section of the particles that are deposited during the course of the fire.

The results of the autopsies indicate the sooty deposits are found in the total

respiratory system of nearly all fire casualties. The analysis of the soots shows that a number of inorganic metals frequently in large amounts are present. Some of the metals

found are Pb, Sb, Cd, Zn, Mn, Cu and Cr. There were 20 "external" soot samples of sufficient

quantity to analyze for both HC1 adsorption and organic metals. In 11 of those 20 anitmony

was found. Lead and cadmium were found in all 20 samples. The Cl was found in 84% of the

"external" soot samples analyzed in quantities up to 20% by weight of the sample.

The soot analyses raise unresolved questions concerning the clinical significance

of the findings, particularly in those instances when a person is injured and is not a fatality. Other questions raised relate to the possible treatments for those persons exposed

to the toxic fire atmospheres.

B. Project Smoke : "Project Smoke" is the name given to investigations being conducted

by The Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health and the Applied Physics Laboratory

with the cooperation of the Baltimore City Fire Department. This grew out of and is a logical extension of the Fire Fatalities study being conducted by The Johns Hopkins Applied

Physics Laboratory and the School of Hygiene and Public Health.

Project Smoke deals with the acute and chronic effects of exposure to the fire

atmosphere, both in accidently exposed civilians, and in occupationally exposed firefighters.

The range of these activities includes the investigation of the medical outcomes of civilian

fire casualties, the acute exposures of firefighters to toxic gases, epidemiological studies

of long-term chronic pulmonary and cardiac disease in firefighters, and the mortality experience of Baltimore firefighters.

Baltimore firefighters have been extensively investigated to evaluate the presence of

chronic pulmonary and cardiac disease. Volunteers complete a detailed questionnaire expanded

from the standard British MRC questionnaire to include cardiac and general medical history,

as well as smoking and fire exposure history. Pulmonary function studies including FVC

,

FEV, and MMEF are performed on a Stead-Wells spirometer. Resting electrocardiograms and

blood pressure readings complete the examination. To date 900 men have completed this

examination, and the data have been computerized. We anticipate a total sample of approximately 1000 men when this study is completed. Preliminary findings to date have shown that

for all parameters, FVC, FEV, and MMEF firefighters are somewhat below the standard. This

deficit remains constant when regression curves are plotted for increasing age.

As more data are collected and analyzed, we hope to be able to determine the

separate effect of smoking, urban environment, and firefighting on pulmonary function, and

on cardiac status.

Mortality studies of the Baltimore Fire Department are also underway. We have

collected death certificates of all deceased firefighters for the ten year period 1963-1973.

These death certificates have been coded by ICDA cause of death and transferred to computer

tapes. A preliminary examination of causes of death indicate that accidental deaths may

occur more frequently among firefighters. This finding will be tested by on-going studies.

Accomplishments ; The framework of cooperation of the Fire Fatalities Studies is functioning

smoothly. The special study areas such as heart, cyanide and soot analyses are providing

some interesting results and procedures. The foundations for expanded effort in all areas

of study has been established, and important data are being obtained.

Potential Applications : Knowledge of the physical and medical causes and complications

resulting in fire casualties can be used to suggest the direction for care of patients who

are "overcome," designs of "fire safe" materials for use in residences, building design,

and the need for more intense public education and effective detection and warning devices.

77
Future Milestones : Fires which have significant interest to the fire community will be

included in the study. These will include special materials fires and fires in which fire

detection or suppression systems have been involved.

The epidemiological studies of long-term pulmonary and cardiac disease in firefighters, and the mortality experience of Baltimore City firefighters will be continued.

Protocols will be established and published for the various segments of the Fire Casualties

Program. These will include protocols for the investigation, post-mortem, and toxicological

phases of the program.

REFERENCES

1. W. G. Berg and B. M. Halpin, "Fire Related Fatalities: An Analysis of Their Demographic,

Physical Origin, and Medical Causes in Fire Standards and Safety . ASTM STP 614, pp . 26-

54, A. F. Robertson (Ed.) American Society for Testing and Materials (1977).

2. B. M. Halpin (Ed.), Proceedings of the Fires Conference and Workshop on Fire Casualties , May 28-29, 1975, APL/JHU FPP B76-1 (April 1976).

3. B. M. Halpin, R. S. Fisher, Y. H. Caplan, "Fire Fatality Study" in International

Symposium on Toxicity and Physiology of Combustion Products , March 22-26, 1976

(to be published).

4. B. M. Halpin, J. Dinan, and 0. Deters, "Assessment of Hypothetical Fire Protection

Systems' Impact on Actual Fire Incidents" (Preliminary Report), APL/JHU Topical Report,

FPP TR29 (April 1977).

5. E. P. Radford and M. S. Levine, "Occupational Exposures to Carbon Monoxide in

Baltimore Fire Fighters," J. Occup . Med

.

, 18 628-632 (1976).

6. M. S. Levine, "Fire Victims: Medical Outcomes and Demographic Characteristics,"

Am. J. Public Health (to be published)

.

II. COMBUSTION RESEARCH

Staff and Collaborators: L. W. Hunter, R. M. Fristrom, C. Grunfelder, C. H. Hoshall,

A. A. Westenberg, N. Dehass, N. Brown (Un. of Calif., Berkeley), R. Sawyer (Un. of Calif.,

Berkeley), P. van Tiggelen (Un. of Louvain, Belgium).

A. POLYMER FLAMMABILITY

Progress : Polymer combustion is an important fire problem because fires commonly involve

such fuels. We have developed the Moving Wire Technique (MWT) for studying polymer combustion

(Fig. 1). In the MWT, the polymer is coated on a supporting metal or fiberglass strand and

then moved at a controlled speed through a heat source. The MWT determines reproducibly

(better than 5%) the minimum surface temperature at ignition (Refs. 1 and 2). This quantity

is independent of scale (Ref. 2). The technique, in its present state of development, also

determines the qualitative chemical composition of the pyrolyzate gases and their evolution

sequence as a function of surface temperature (Ref. 3).

The heat transfer characteristics of the heat source in the MWT are important to the

analysis and interpretation of the polymer combustion studies. In the past year, we demonstrated a new technique (Refs. 4 and 5) for measuring forced convection heat transfer

(Fig. 2) and are presently extending it to the measurement of radiant heat transfer. The

technique is potentially applicable in practical fire plumes.

Two theoretical papers (Refs. 5 and 6) were prepared on the MWT. One application is the

calculation of the surface temperature of the polymer coating on the moving wire. Scaling

laws were developed to predict the position and wire speed at which the polymer surface

attains a given temperature, such as the gasification point.

78
Development of a low pressure MWT apparatus is nearly complete. Preliminary results

indicate that the ignition transition is sharp. A new feature is that flammable pyrolyzate

can survive even in the presence of O 2 . The ignition point no longer coincides with the

onset of flammable gas evolution. A goal of our MWT studies is a polymer flame structure

analysis for the determination of reaction mechanisms and rates. The low pressure apparatus

expands the polymer flame as required but so far the concentration profiles have not been

sufficiently reproducible.

Potential Applications : The MWT is applicable as a flammability test, but also provides

insights into the chemical and physical mechanisms of polymer combustion.

Future Milestones : We are presently investigating the possibility that polymer pyrolysis is

intrinsically unstable. The wire geometry is convenient for exploratory studies at low

pressure but other geometries, such as a ribbon, may allow us to study a wider range of

polymers. We hope to demonstrate that ignition is well defined in other moving polymer

geometries

.

References

1. R. M. Fristrom, L. W. Hunter and C. Grunf elder, "Exploratory Studies in Polymer

Ablation, Ignition and Extinction by the Moving Wire Technique," Combustion and

Flame 27 , 33 (1976); ibid.

2. L. W. Hunter, H. Schacke, C. Grunf elder, and R. M. Fristrom, "Surface Temperature

Measurements in the Moving Wire Technique," Combustion Science and Technology

15, 41 (1976).

3. H. Schacke, L. W. Hunter, C. Grunfelder, and R. M. Fristrom, "Combustion of Poly(vinyl

chloride) Studied by the Moving Wire Technique," Sixteenth Symposium International on Combustion (The Combustion Institute, 1977).

4. L. W. Hunter and C. Grunfelder, "Moving Wire Technique Measurements of Heat Transfer

in Flame Gases," to be submitted to Combustion and Flame .

5. L. W. Hunter, "Theory of the Moving Wire Techniques for Measuring Heat Transfer and

Studying Polymer Combustion," submitted to J. Heat Transfer .

6. L. W. Hunter and S. Favin, "Steady State Temperature Distribution in a Solid

Cylinder Moving in the Direction of Its Axis Through a Cross-Flow of Hot Gas,"

submitted to J. Heat Transfer.

Helium Gas Va-iable -180°C Speed Orive

Figure 1. The moving wire apparatus. A gas sampling probe

and a heat extractor for solid sampling are shown.

79
'

Figure 2. Validation of a new technique for measuring heat transfer. A chromelalumel thermocouple was drawn through a cross-flow of hot N2 at temperatures 440 °C (lower plot) and 640 °C (upper plot) . C is the heat capacity

3T of the wire, a is the wire diameter, and -r— is the rate at which the

O t thermocouple temperature (T) rises. The slope is the product k Nu of

f

clS s

s product characterizes the heat transfer. The successful comparison

between theory (solid lines) and data (points) validates the formula

k Nu

gas

a

2 C 9T

at

(t

gas

T)

which may be applied to the measurement of k

gas

Nu in other systems.

B. INHIBITION CHEMISTRY

Project Summary : The objective of the Inhibition Chemistry studies has been to develop an understanding of the chemical inhibition of flames so that predictions could be made of the

effect of an inhibitor based on its chemistry in flames. This would have the two-fold value

of suggesting promising candidates for inhibition and extinction and provide an upper

collision limit for the effectiveness for such processes. Comparison between this limit and

existing inhibitors would indicate whether much improvement can be expected from new

inhibitors.

Progress Report : Progress was made in three areas of the program. (1) The rates of two

reactions involving inhibitors with H atoms were measured using a new technique Flash

Photolysis-Resonance Fluorescence. A paper reporting the work has been published, (2)

In collaboration with the University of California Fire Research Group, a paper applying a two-zone model to the hydrogen oxygen flame inhibited by HC1 was prepared for publication

(Fig. 1), and (3) In collaboration with the University of Louvain la Neuve (Belgium), a compilation of the inhibition literature is being prepared to test the generality of the

observation of additivity of atomic contributions to inhibition. The F-S inhibition index

has been reinterpreted to allow separation of the effects of fuel system, scavenging

reactions, and catalytic radical recombination on inhibition (Fig. 2).

80
Development of a low pressure MWT apparatus is nearly complete. Preliminary results

indicate that the ignition transition is sharp. A new feature is that flammable pyrolyzate

can survive even in the presence of O2 . The ignition point no longer coincides with the

onset of flammable gas evolution. A goal of our MWT studies is a polymer flame structure

analysis for the determination of reaction mechanisms and rates. The low pressure apparatus

expands the polymer flame as required but so far the concentration profiles have not been

sufficiently reproducible.

Potential Applications : The MWT is applicable as a flammability test, but also provides

insights into the chemical and physical mechanisms of polymer combustion.

Future Milestones : We are presently investigating the possibility that polymer pyrolysis is

intrinsically unstable. The wire geometry is convenient for exploratory studies at low

pressure but other geometries, such as a ribbon, may allow us to study a wider range of

polymers. We hope to demonstrate that ignition is well defined in other moving polymer

geometries

.

References

1. R. M. Fristrom, L. W. Hunter and C. Grunf elder, "Exploratory Studies in Polymer

Ablation, Ignition and Extinction by the Moving Wire Technique," Combustion and

Flame 27, 33 (1976); ibid.

2. L. W. Hunter, H. Schacke, C. Grunfelder, and R. M. Fristrom, "Surface Temperature

Measurements in the Moving Wire Technique," Combustion Science and Technology

15, 41 (1976).

3. H. Schacke, L. W. Hunter, C. Grunfelder, and R. M. Fristrom, "Combustion of Poly(vinyl

chloride) Studied by the Moving Wire Technique," Sixteenth Symposium International on Combustion (The Combustion Institute, 1977).

4. L. W. Hunter and C. Grunfelder, "Moving Wire Technique Measurements of Heat Transfer

in Flame Gases," to be submitted to Combustion and Flame .

5. L. W. Hunter, "Theory of the Moving Wire Techniques for Measuring Heat Transfer and

Studying Polymer Combustion," submitted to J. Heat Transfer .

6. L. W. Hunter and S. Favin, "Steady State Temperature Distribution in a Solid

Cylinder Moving in the Direction of Its Axis Through a Cross-Flow of Hot Gas,"

submitted to J. Heat Transfer.

Helium Gas Va-iable -180°C Speed Drive

Figure 1. The moving wire apparatus. A gas sampling probe

and a heat extractor for solid sampling are shown.

79
Figure 2. Validation of a new technique for measuring heat transfer. A chromelalumel thermocouple was drawn through a cross-flow of hot N2 at temperatures 440 °C (lower plot) and 640 °C (upper plot) . C is the heat capacity

8T

of the wire, a is the wire diameter, and is the rate at which the

thermocouple temperature (T) rises. The slope is the product k Nu of

the thermal conductivity, , and the Nusselt number, Nu. This

product characterizes the heat transfer. The successful comparison

between theory (solid lines) and data (points) validates the formula

k Nu

gas

a

2 C 9T

at

(T

gas

T)

which may be applied to the measurement of k^^Nu in other systems.

B. INHIBITION CHEMISTRY

Project Summary : The objective of the Inhibition Chemistry studies has been to develop an understanding of the chemical inhibition of flames so that predictions could be made of the

effect of an inhibitor based on its chemistry in flames. This would have the two-fold value

of suggesting promising candidates for inhibition and extinction and provide an upper

collision limit for the effectiveness for such processes. Comparison between this limit and

existing inhibitors would indicate whether much improvement can be expected from new

inhibitors.

Progress Report ; Progress was made in three areas of the program. (1) The rates of two

reactions involving inhibitors with H atoms were measured using a new technique Flash

Photolysis-Resonance Fluorescence. A paper reporting the work has been published, (2)

In collaboration with the University of California Fire Research Group, a paper applying a two-zone model to the hydrogen oxygen flame inhibited by HC1 was prepared for publication

(Fig. 1), and (3) In collaboration with the University of Louvain la Neuve (Belgium), a compilation of the inhibition literature is being prepared to test the generality of the

observation of additivity of atomic contributions to inhibition. The F-S inhibition index

has been reinterpreted to allow separation of the effects of fuel system, scavenging

reactions, and catalytic radical recombination on inhibition (Fig. 2).

80
Future Milestones : During the next year the program will include application of the zonal

model to fuels other than hydrogen, and general halogenated compounds and to illustrate

compatability of the additive concept for inhibitors with this model. Experimental studies

will center on the development of the modulated point source technique and its application

to measurement of inhibition kinetics. Reactions which are planned for study are: (1)

the three body recombination reactions H+X+M HX+M* and scavenger reactions of the type

RX+H HX+R.

Reports :

1. A. A. West.enberg and N. DeHaas , "A Flash Photolysis-Resonance Fluorescence Study of

the 0+C

2 H

2 and 0+C2 H

3 Cl reactions," J. Chem. Phys. 66 4900 (1977).

2. N. J. Brown at the University of California, Berkeley, R. M. Fristrom, and R. F. Sawyer

at the University of California, Berkeley, "A Two Zone Model of Flame Propagation

Applied to H2+ Air Flames and HC1 Inhibited Flames," prepared for submission to

Comb, and Flame.

81
200

Figure 1. Dependence of burning velocity of stoichiometric hydrogen-air flame on added HC1 (Ref. 2).

Figure 2. Comparison of calculated and experimental

inhibition indices.

82
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersb y,g, Md. , August 3-5, 1977

(Issued October 1977)

The Pennsylvania State University NBS Grant No.: 5-9020

Grant Title : An Investigation of Fire Induced Plumes Along a Vertical Wall

Project Summary :

Objectives : Wall plumes are generated by fires burning both on and near upright surfaces. Heat transfer between the hot gases within the

plume and the surface governs both flame spread rates and the general

heating of a structure by fire. The plume also provides a mechanism for

transporting smoke and toxic materials throughout a structure, thereby

affecting fire hazards and fire detection. The aim of the present investigation is to study fire induced wall plumes, with the following specific

objectives:

1. Non-Flaming Turbulent Wall Plume. Measure heat transfer rates

between the plume and the wall, and profiles of mean and turbulent quantities within the plume (velocity, temperature, Reynolds

stress, etc.). Correlate the measurements with a simple integral

model which can be readily used within comprehensive models of

fires within structures.

2. Flaming Laminar Wall Plume. Measure wall heat transfer rates and

flame shapes. Compare the measurements with a detailed theoretical

model based on exact, variable property solutions of the boundary

layer equations. Determine criteria for transition to turbulent

flow.

3. Flaming Turbulent Wall Plume. Measure radiative and convective

wall heat transfer rates and profiles of mean velocity and temperature. Correlate the measurements with a simple integral model

which can be readily used within comprehensive models of fires

within structures (the extension of this model to laminar flow.

Part 2, is also to be considered).

Approach : The investigation began with the study of nonflaming wall

plumes and continued with successive consideration of the flaming region

for laminar and turbulent flow conditions. The approach employed in each

of these phases may be summarized as follows:

1. Nonflaming Turbulent Wall Plume. The test wall plume was generated

by a linear array of small gas flames along the base of a water-cooled

wall, 1.22 m wide and 2.44 m high. Heat transfer rates were measured

Principal Investigator: Gerard M. Faeth

214 Mechanical Engineering Building

University Park, Pennsylvania 16802

(814) 865-3743

Other Professional Personnel: J. A. Liburdy, Graduate Student

T. Ahmad, Graduate Student

A. Lau, Undergraduate Student

83
with various combinations of hot wire probes and fine wire thermocouples.

2. Flaming Laminar Wall Plume. The fire source was simulated by

burning liquid fuels from a wick mounted flush with the front

surface of the wall. Wall heat flux was measured by transient

heating of a segmented copper wall. Flame shapes were determined

from dark field photographs, the onset of turbulence was determined from shadowgraphs.

3. Flaming Turbulent Wall Plume. Heat flux measurements were made

using an apparatus similar to the laminar study. A trip at the

base of the wall insured fully turbulent flow. Radiation effects were evaluated by using gold-plated low emissivity surfaces as well as high emissivity black-painted surfaces. Profiles of mean

quantities are obtained with a water-cooled wall using fine wire

thermocouples and a pitot-static probe system. Radiation from

the flame to the ambient environment was measured with a radiation

transducer.

Progress Report :

Nonflaming Turbulent Wall Plume : Work in this area has been largely

completed and details of the results may be found in Items 1-4 under Reports

and Papers. Integral analysis suggested that the flow should exhibit local

similarity, based on the local thermal energy flux in the plume and height

above the source, if the wall friction factor and Stanton number were slowly

varying. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate that local similarity is approximately

satisfied for the present measurements of temperature and velocity profiles.

The measurements for an isothermal wall plume fall between earlier results

for free-line plumes and adiabatic wall plumes. Surprisingly, the wall plumes

have higher velocities and temperatures than the free-line plume for com- parable conditions, in spite of direct losses to the wall. This behavior is

due to the wall stabilizing the large scale meandering observed with free-line

plumes. The stabilizing effect is also reflected in lower values of the

entrainment constants for wall plumes than for free plumes.

Figure 3 illustrates the correlation of measurements of heat flux between

the plume and the wall. Through the Colburn analogy, the results can also

be used to infer wall friction factors. The integral theory yields a simple expression for the wall heat flux, which can also be used to estimate

the variation in the thermal energy flux of the plume with distance above

a fire.

Profiles of turbulent quantities were also measured (u 1 , v' , w', u'v',

u't', v't', and t')- These quantities also exhibited local similarity.

The measurements provide more detail than is required by an integral model,

however, the findings are of value in developing more complete turbulence

models of buoyant processes along surfaces.

Flaming Laminar Wall Plume : Work in this area has been largely completed

and the details of the results may be found in Items 5 and 6 under Reports

84
and Papers. In order to reduce radiation from soot, various alcohols were used as test fuels. The theory for the flaming plume region involves

extension of earlier boundary layer analysis developed for the zone of

active combustion.

Figure 4 illustrates a typical comparison between measured and predicted wall heat fluxes for different pyrolysis zone lengths, x

q

. The

comparison between theory and experiment is reasonably good, particularly

in view of the difficulties in estimating physical properties for flames.

The presence of the flame maintains an extended region of high wall heat

flux, followed by a rapid decrease in the heat flux beyond the tip of

the flame. Transition to turbulence beyond the flame tip did not result

in a marked variation in heat flux. Similar results were obtained for

ethanol and 1-propanol. Radiation effects were found to be small in the

laminar region for these fuels.

Figure 5 illustrates measured and predicted flame shapes for a number

of alcohols. The theoretical predictions are quite good, except near the

tip of the flame where quenching of the reaction by the cool wall causes

the combustion process to terminate somewhat sooner than the predictions.

Conditions for transition to turbulence in this flow were not fully

resolved, although laminar flow was generally observed for Grashoff numbers

less than .5 - 2 x 10 8

. The Grashoff number does not completely describe

transition requirements; effects of fuel type, presence or absence of combustion, pyrolysis zone length, and wall angle were also observed.

Flaming Turbulent Wall Plume : With work completed on the turbulent

nonflaming and laminar flaming wall plumes, efforts are now concentrating on the completely turbulent flaming wall plume. In order to simplify

interpretation of the results, alcohols are also being used in these tests

to reduce radiation from soot.

In terms of normalized distances, x/x

q

, flame lengths are shorter

for turbulent flow than for laminar flow. Aside from radiation contributions from the thicker turbulent flames, the maximum heat flux values in

the flaming region are not very different from the values measured for

laminar flow. Similar to the findings of nonflaming plumes, the results

indicate that turbulent mixing with the ambient gas has the strongest

influence on flame properties, while wall effects are secondary. This

behavior simplifies the task of data correlation.

For wall heights up to 0.66 m, using alcohol fuels, the effect of

radiation is not large, comprising ten to twenty percent of the total heat

flux to the wall. The radiative heat flux from the flame to the ambiance

is somewhat greater than the flux to the wall, agreeing with earlier findings

obtained at Factory Mutual Research. This effect appears to be due to absorption of radiation by the fuel and product-rich region between the

flame zone and the wall.

Work in progress includes completion of measurements of profiles of mean temperature and velocity. These measurements will provide a basis for

85
an integral model of the flow in both the pyrolysis zone and the flaming

plume region. This model will also be applied to the laminar results in

order to provide a more convenient treatment of wall heat transfer than

the complete boundary layer analysis.

Accomplishments :

1. Measurements of wall heat flux and profiles of mean and turbulent

quantities were completed for turbulent, nonflaming wall plumes.

The results were correlated by an integral model to allow use of

the results in more comprehensive models of fires within structures.

2. Wall heat flux and flame shape measurements were completed for

laminar flaming wall plumes. The measurements compared favorably

with a laminar boundary layer analysis of the process. Preliminary

criteria for transition to turbulent flow have been developed.

3. Radiative and convective heat flux measurements have been completed

for turbulent flaming wall plumes. An apparatus has been constructed

for measurements of mean velocity and temperature profiles in this

flow.

Potential Applications :

The theoretical and experimental results obtained during this investigation can be applied as a part of room fire models. The results provide

simple expressions for heat transfer rates between fire plumes and surfaces

which are also useful in modeling and interpreting flame spread data for

both laminar and turbulent upward fire spread on surfaces. In addition

to direct application to fire research, the measurements also serve to

expand the data base for turbulent buoyant flows along surfaces, and should

prove to be helpful in the development of more sophisticated models of turbulent buoyant flows along surfaces.

Future Milestones :

Measurements of mean profiles of temperature and velocity in turbulent

flaming plumes will be completed. The results will be correlated using

an integral model of the process, including both the pyrolysis and plume

regions. The model will also be applied to results already generated for

the laminar flaming plume.

Reports and Papers :

1. Liburdy, J. A. and Faeth, G. M. : "Theory of a Steady Laminar Thermal

Plume Along a Vertical Adiabatic Wall", Letters in Heat and Mass

Transfer 2, 407-418 (1975).

2. Liburdy, J. A.: "Investigatons of Thermal Plumes Along Vertical Walls",

Ph.D. thesis. The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA

(1976).

86
3. Liburdy, J. A. and Faeth, G. M. : "An Experimental Investigation of a Turbulent Thermal Plume Along an Isothermal Wall", proceedings

of the Symposium on Turbulent Shear Flows, Vol. 1, pp. 6.51-6.59,

The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA (1977).

4. Liburdy, J.A. and Faeth, G. M. : "Heat Transfer and Mean Structure

of a Turbulent Thermal Plume Along a Vertical Isothermal Wall",

submitted to ASME, Heat Transfer Division, 1977 Winter Annual Meeting.

5. Liburdy, J. A., Ahmad, T., and Faeth, G. M. : "An Investigation of

the Overfire Region of Wall Fires", presented at the Fall Technical

Meeting, Eastern Section, The Combustion Institute, Philadelphia,

PA (1976).

6. Ahmad, T. and Faeth, G. M. : "An Investigation of the Laminar Overfire

Region Along Upright Surfaces", ASME/AIChE 17th National Heat Transfer

Conference, Salt Like City, Utah, (August, 1977).

87
Figure 1

Figure 2

Isothermal wall plume velocity profiles compared with results

for adiabatic wall plumes and free line plumes.

Isothermal wall plume temperature profiles compared with results

for adiabatic wall plumes and free line plumes.

88
q

w

xPr^/Q„k*,C

f

/2

Figure 3 Wall heat flux for the isothermal Figure 4 Wall heat flux for the laminar

wall plume. flaming plume region of a wall

fire.

Figure 5 Flame shapes for the laminar wall plume.

89
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg3 Md. 3 August 3-5s 1977

(Issued October 1977)

PROJECT SUMMARY

Institution: Portland Cement Association

Research and Development

Construction Technology Laboratories

Old Orchard Road

Skokie, Illinois 60076

Grant No.

National Bureau of Standards

Grant No. G4-9011

Grant Title: Simulation of Realistic Thermal Restraint

During Fire Tests of Floor and Roof

Assemblies - Phases III-V

Principal

Investigator: Melvin S. Abrams

Manager, Fire Research Section

5420 Old Orchard Road

Skokie, Illinois 60076

(312) 966-6200

Other Professional

Personnel: Dr. T. D. Lin

Senior Research Engineer

Fire Research Section

Project

Summary

:

The major objectives of the research program are:

1. To develop analytical procedures for calculating

thermal restraint that occur in floor and roof

assemblies.

2. To obtain experimental information from tests

of carefully designed slabs that will serve

to verify calculated restraints.

3. To develop method to simulate these tests in

fixed frame floor furnaces.

4. To verify these procedures for fixed frame

furnaces by full scale tests.

Progress

Report: Based on results of Phases I and II of the overall

program, analytical procedures were developed to

calculate expans ion- time relationships and axial

forces to simulate behavior of floor systems in

actual structures. Tests were conducted on full

90
scale flat slab, pan joist, and waffle floor

specimens to verify the validity of the

analytical programs. Further analytical

studies were made to study the use of certain

compressible materials to reproduce expansiontime relationships in fixed frame furnaces

.

These furnaces are not normally equipped to

control expansion of the specimen and, consequently, the restraint forces that develop. Tests of

full scale floors using compressible materials

to simulate realistic restraint conditions will

be conducted soon. Flat slab, pan joist, and

waffle floor types are involved. Tests will be

made to simulate interior and exterior slabs

in the structure.

Accomplishments :Analytical methods have been developed and verified

by tests to simulate in fire tests of floor

assemblies the realistic behavior of concrete

floors in concrete buildings exposed to fire.

Potential

Applications : Information developed in this research program

should result in more realistic building code

requirements for concrete structures that are

more economical to build, and that provide

safer structures for the protection of life

and property.

Reports and

Paper: Progress and final reports submitted to

National Bureau of Standards

91
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH3 NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS3 Gaithersburg3 Md. 3 August 3-53 19773 (Issued October 1977)

Institution : Princeton University

Grant No . : NBS 7-9004

Grant Title : "An Experimental Investigation of Flame Spread Over

Condensed Combustibles: Gas Phase Interactions"

Principal Investigators :

E’. L. Dryer and I. Glassman

Dept, of Aerospace and Mechanical Sciences

Engineering Quadrangle, Princeton University

Princeton, New Jersey 08540

(Telephone No. 609 452-5206)

Other Professional Personnel

R. J. Santoro, Research Staff

C. E’ernandez-Pello , Research Staff

J Newman, Graduate Student

Project Summary : Princeton University has had a continuing effort on fire safetyrelated research with particular emphasis on the problem of flame spreading

over combustible materials. Of primary concern to date has been development

of a physical understanding of the mechanism controlling flame spread over

liquids. With major emphasis on high-flash-point temperature materials,

both analytical and experimental research have been conducted in the past.

The present research is a continuation of the experimental endeavors

of the previous program in order to resolve what we consider to be one of

the remaining critical factors with respect to the mechanism of flame

spreading — the importance of induced (and forced) convective gas phase

flow to the flame spread mechanism. In the case of flame spread over highflash-point liquids, this question is the one remaining area which has not

been investigated previously. Measurements of other parameters, particularly

surface temperature distribution has led us to postulate the existence of a gas phase recirculation or separation region near the flame front. Of more

importance, the fundamental insights gained through previous research have led

us to postulate that gas phase phenomena may play a significant role in flame

spread over solid materials, a fact completely neglected by existing flame

spread theories.

The resolution of these questions can only be made through precise

experimental measurement of the gas phase flow fields. With this goal in

mind, this laboratory has undertaken construction of a two-dimensional

laser-doppler velocimetry facility for conducting time and spatially resolved

flow field measurements on bench-scale fires. With the completion of the LDV

facility, liquid and gas phase flow field measurements over high-flash-point

materials are being completed and measurements of the gas phase flow field over solid materials are to follow.

92
Progress Report ;

During the current grant period the laser-doppler velocimetry (LDV)

facility has been made operational. Verification of the operation of the

optical, electronic signal processing and computer data acquisition subsystems has been achieved. The complete LDV facility has been tested and

optimized using well-dejfined liquid flows to determine the importance of

particle seeding, laser power, shielding from rf noise, stray light and

signal processing threshold.

The reduction of rf noise pick-up proved to be critical for optimum

performance of the LDV electronics. The Bragg cell frequency shifting and

beam splitter technique utilized in the facility was the source of the rf

signal. Careful shielding of the components and elimination of ground loops were responsible for the major reduction in this rf pick-up. Seed particle

size and concentration also proved to be important for obtaining optimum

results. The importance of seeding is, of course, well documented in the

literature, nevertheless for any LDV application the proper seeding requirements for an experiment must be ascertained on an individual basis.

Once the LDV operation had been verified using a well-defined flow,

measurements of the liquid flow field resulting from surface tension induced

convective flow were undertaken. A binary mixture of ethanol-water (90 proof)

,

the mixture generally used for the studies in this laboratory, was chosen as the fuel. In fact, velocity profiles using hydrogen bubble techniques had

previously been determined. Thus a comparative data set existed. Velocity

profiles were taken with the LDV as close as 0.5 cm from the surface. Large

concentration gradients in the region near the surface due to the binary nature

of the fuel made it impractical to obtain measurements closer to the surface.

The results of these experiments are in good agreement with past hydrogen

bubble technique results.

The LDV has also been applied to measuring a well-defined gas phase

flow. As in the liquids case the goal was to examine seeding requirements

and optimization of the LDV optics and electronic subsystems. This work

is now being extended to measure gas flow velocities above the liquid surface.

As mentioned previously the objective of this study is to determine the

importance of gas phase recirculation, and perhaps separation, on the flame

spread mechanism for both liquid and solid combustibles.

Accomplishments : Specific achievements during the current grant period include:

1. A LDV capable of measuring a two-dimensional velocity field

including flow reversal has been completed.

2. The operation of the LDV has been proven using well-defined

liquid and gas flows.

3. Seeding requirements for the liquid and gas phase LDV measurements

of the velocity fields generated by flames spreading over a com- bustible surface have been examined.

4. Velocity measurements for the liquid phase have been made for a binary mixture of ethanol and water. The results have been

compared with earlier work using a hydrogen bubble technique

and yielded good agreement.

93
Potential Applications : A thorough understanding of the flame spread process over condensed

fuels will provide a basis for the application of measures to avoid or control fire hazards. Potential applications of the studies of flame spread

over liquid fuels include fighting of large scale fuel tank fires, oil spill

clean up problems, and design of aircraft runaways. For the case of solid

fuels applications include flammability ratings of materials, flashover

times for room fires and better evaluation of fire hazards of wood and

plastics.

Future Milestones:

Future efforts will concentrate on measuring the gas phase velocity

for flames spreading across liquid and solid combustibles. These experiments will be aimed at elucidating the importance of gas phase recirculation

on the mechanism of flame spread.

Reports and Papers ;

1. Dryer, F. L. and Newman, J. S., "Flame Spread over Liquid Fuels —

The Mechanism of Flame Pulsation," Paper No. 76-48, Fall Meeting

of the Western States Section of the Combustion Institute,

La Jolla, California, 18-19 October 1976.

2. Glassman, I., Santoro, R. J. , and Dryer, F. L. , "A Review and Some

Recent Results of the Princeton Program on Flame Spread over Condensed Phase Combustibles," Paper No. 76-29, Fall Meeting of

the Western States Section of the Combustion Institute, La Jolla,

California, 18-19 October 1976.

3. Glassman, I., "Some Perceptions on Condensed Phase Flame Spreading and

Mass Burning," Session IVB Paper No. 1, Spring Meeting of the Central

States Section of the Combustion Institute, NASA Lewis Research

Center, Cleveland, Ohio, 28-30 March 1977.

94
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md., August 3-5 , 1977,

(Issued October 1977)

Institution : Princeton University, Guggenheim Laboratories

Grant Ng. : G4-9026

Grant Title : Modeling the Generation of Toxic Gases by the Smoldering

Combustion of Polyurethanes

Principal Investigator : M. Summerfield

Guggenheim Laboratories

Princeton University

Princeton, New Jersey

Other Professional Personnel : T. J. Ohlemiller and F. E. Rogers

Project Summary :

Toxic gases arising from smoldering combustion of bedding and upholstery

materials are implicated in a large fraction of residential fire deaths.

Flexible polyurethane cushioning materials, in combination with cellulosic

fabrics, have been found to smolder and, thereby contribute strongly to this hazard situation. This research is aimed at an understanding of the

mechanism of smolder in these permeable polyurethanes by means of experimental and modeling studies as an aid in eliminating it and other potential

smolder problems.

Smolder in polyurethanes can conveniently be studied in materials which,

while they can self-sustain the process, are still qualitatively similar to the majority of formulations requiring some weak heat source (e.g., fabric

smolder) to sustain them. Such studies have shown the smolder to be

drastically different from the more familiar flaming combustion. The smolder wave is thick (few cm), very low in temperature (300-500 °C) , and orders of

magnitude slower than flames (^lO- ^ cm/sec). It is also extremely incomplete in its oxidation of the polymer, requiring only a few percent of the

stoichiometric air supply. The wave is essentially oxygen-limited in all

of its characteristics and as more oxygen is supplied, all of these characteristic numbers change; the wave speeds up and its output of carbon

monoxide is sharply increased. In the absence of some external pilot source,

transition to flaming is surprisingly difficult, requiring more than 50% O2

in the permeating gas (pilot sources do, however, easily ignite smoldering

upholstery)

.

The transitions taking place in the polyurethane as the smolder wave

overtakes it are very complex, both physically and chemically. In a gross

sense, one finds the wave gasifies about half of the polymer and leaves

behind a high surface area, porous, and char-like residue retaining varying degrees (depending on formulation) of the original foam cell structure.

The polymer degradation process can be followed crudely by C, H, 0, N

analyses of successive layers across the wave; the end product is far from

being pure carbon. Infrared studies of these layers suggest that the charforming reactions involve formation of amide and/or isocyanurate linkages.

Charring is important to smolder for two reasons : it provides a high sur- face area fuel and, by leaving a residue, provides an insulation layer

95
around the reaction zone. This latter fact, coupled with its versatility,

accounts for the surprising stability and tenacity of an established

smolder wave despite its seemingly weak, marginal character as a combustion

process.

When an open-celled polyurethane foam is subjected to heating in an inert atmosphere it goes through successive stages of depolymerization

which eventually lead to a tarry residue. During the first stage the

individual struts, which surround the cells of the foam, lose their

elasticity and become progressively weaker. Continued heating causes further depolymerization of the polymer chain, presumably at the urethane

bonds, and the struts become gel-like in appearance. At this point,

they are very weak and yield to slight pressure. Collapse of the structure follows soon after the appearance of the gel structure. In a typical foam the transition from a cellular structure to tar takes place

with a 20-30% weight loss. In the presence of air, oxidation reactions

may intercept this process and convert the weakened struts to a stronger

char-like structure. Formation of the charry struts give the cellular

structure new strength and impedes the collapse due to pyrolysis. The

balance of these two competing processes will determine whether smolder can take place. If the oxidation reactions are fast enough to intercept

the structure destroying pyrolysis process a cellular char results which

has the necessary surface area (and insulative properties) to permit

smolder. If the oxidation reactions are too slow then the structure

collapses and no smolder Is possible. Any physical, structural, or chemical variable in the foam or its environment that alters this com- petition will influence the potential for smolder in the foam. The

addition of fire retardants may or may not inhibit smolder. In certain

formulations the common retardant called TRIS actually promotes smoldering.

It does this by slowing down the tar forming reaction and accelerating

the oxidative char forming step. Other polymeric chlorophosphate retardants are fairly effective smolder inhibitors and some even inhibit

smolder in a cellulosic fabric atop the foam. Certain components in the

original foam formulation can alter the polymeric structure to give

varying smolder potential. The presence of water in the formulation

promotes the formation of urea blocks in the polymer. These blocks are

less thermolabile than the usual urethane bond and seem to be nuclei for

char formation. When the water content is decreased in a particular

formulation, smolder potential Is reduced. The molecular weight and

nature of the pendant groups (grafting) in the polyol moiety of the foam

also play an important but less characterized role.

On the basis of the above observations of the character of smolder in

flexible polyurethanes, a simplified mathematical model of the process

has been developed. The model employs the overall chemistry of the

polyurethane degradation described above, coupled with a description of

the important thermophysics. The resultant set of nine differential

equations is solved by computer. By this means the parameters influencing the initiation and propagation of one-dimensional smolder wave, can

be studied. The model confirms the oxygen-limited nature of established

smolder and, under these circumstances, the chemical behavior of the

96
polyurethane is of secondary importance. It is of primary importance,

however, in the smolder initiation process. Parametric studies show

that suppression of self-sustained smolder is not excessively difficult

However, fabric-assisted smolder is the more usual problem in practice

and it appears unavoidable if (1) the fabric-smolder is not suppressed,

and (2) the char-forming character of the polyurethane is not altered.

Some promising leads on (2) have been formulated. McCarter at NBS has

been successful with (1).

With the above studies as a basis for understanding smolder in one rather limited application, future work will branch out to other con- figurations. The intent is to first look at a variety of organic

materials in a standardized test. These results, coupled with thermal

analyses of the materials should provide a basis for rating relative

smolderability of materials. The influence of physical configuration

variables will then be examined with the intent of obtaining guidelines

for reliable testing of potential smolder hazard.

97
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. , August 3-5, 1977

(Issued October 1977)

Institution Stanford Research Institute

Contract Number 7-35756

Contract Title Application of Decision Analysis to Problems

of Fire Hazard Quantification

Principal Investigator: Fred L. Offensend

Project Objectives:

The principal objective of this project has been to test the

utility of the decision analytic approach in quantifying fire hazard

and in evaluating alternative Intervention strategies for improving

fire safety. The project is a joint effort between the Decision

Analysis Group , Stanford Research Institute and the Program for Information and Hazard Analysis, Center for Fire Research.

Project Accomplishments:

As a vehicle for testing the utility of the decision analytic

approach to problems of fire safety, this project has focused on evaluating a small set of alternatives for reducing upholstered furniture fire

losses. A simple probabilistic model has been developed to assess the

costs and losses that would occur under each intervention strategy. The

model addresses such factors as the type of ignition source, whether

anyone was home at the time of ignition, whether there was a functional

smoke detector, time of discovery, and extent of flame damage. Over 500

sets of possible conditions under which upholstered furniture fires can

burn are defined by the model. Expected levels of loss (measured in

terms of personal and property loss) are assigned to each set of five

conditions, and once likelihoods of each of the individual fire conditions are assigned, the model calculates the range and likelihood of

possible fire losses under the intervention strategy in question. The

98
output of the analysis gives a probability distribution on the cost

plus loss for the alternative in question, reflecting the uncertainties

on the individual input factors to the analysis.

The project isactively underway at the time of this writing. It

is anticipated that three principal alternatives will be analyzed and

evaluated by the time of the CFR Extramural Research Conference. Those

alternatives are 1) a proposed upholstered furniture ignition standard,

2) a possible federal requirement requiring installation of smoke

detectors in all U.S. residences and 3) no action at all.

Reports :

It is anticipated that a detailed report outlining the decision

analytic approach and its application to the upholstered furniture fire

problem will be available in fall, 1977.

Potential Applications

:

Both the Decision Analysis Group and the Program for Information

and Hazard Analysis are convinced that the decision analytic approach

has widespread application, far beyond the upholstered furniture problem.

The decision analytic approach provides for a systematic structuring of

the many complex factors and relationships that affect a fire safety

decision problem and thereby provides a vehicle to explicitly address

uncertainty and carry out a systematic evaluation of alternatives.

99
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. t August 3-5t 1977

,

(Issued October 1977)

Institution Stevens Institute of Technology

Grant No. NSF ENV 76-07136

Grant Title "Flammability Studies of Cellular Plastics"

Principal Investigator Prof. Richard S. Magee

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Stevens Institute of Technology

Hoboken, N.J. 07030

(201) 792-2700 x 580

Other Professional Personnel Angelo A. Volpe* - Faculty Associate

Salvatore S.Stivala* - Faculty Associate

Jean Marie Dineen* - Graduate Student

John Vigliotta - Graduate Student

* Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering

Project Summary

The overall objective of this investigation is to correlate the

results of fundamental polymer characterization studies and fundamental fire dynamic studies on a variety of cellular plastic materials

with 1) the ratings or values assigned to these materials by various

laboratory test standards and procedures (e.g., E-84 and rate of heat

release tests) , and 2) their performance in full-scale geometry tests.

In support of this generally stated objective, the specific objectives of this investigation are:

1. To determine the physicochemical characteristics of the

cellular plastics under study. This involves an in-depth

polymer characterization study. (A frequent criticism

of many fire dynamic flammability studies is lack of

characterization of the materials tested.

)

2. To perform a fundamental fire dynamic investigation of

the burning intensity of these cellular plastics. The

response of these materials (mass loss, mass burning

rate, self-ignition) is determined as a function of

radiant heat input. Thus, the "fire response" of each

material is determined.

100
3. To collect the performance of these materials in standard

tests from continuing or completed studies.

4. To obtain the contribution of these materials to early

fire development and early fire growth under a variety

of building enclosure geometries.

5. To analyze and compare the data from the fundamental

chemical and fire dynamic studies with results from

standard tests and large-scale tests to determine those

material physicochemical properties which are most

critical in determining the level of fire hazard.

6. To obtain a series of curves for the mass burning rates

of these materials over a sufficient range of realistic

fire conditions so that i) designers, architects and

fire protection engineers will have a basis on which to

evaluate the potential fire hazard of a given material

in a specific application and ii) fire dynamic specialists concerned with predicting temperature- time and

concentration-time curves in a burning enclosure will

have the necessary boundary condition data.

The following experimental program was undertaken.

Polymer Characterization

The major objective of this phase of the research effort is to

determine the physicochemical characteristics of the cellular plastics

irnder study and to identify those properties which are characteristic

of and related to the level of fire hazard.

Analytical procedures used have included solubility tests,

elemental analysis, KBr pellet infrared analysis, thermogravimetric

analysis (TGA) , and analysis of TGA decomposition products by gas

chromatography and chemical ionization mass spectrometry.

Burning Intensity

Single slabs of the materials (7" wide x 14" high) are subjected

to burning as a vertical wall. Electrical radiant heaters, directed

at the burning surface, are employed to simulate real fire conditions.

2 Radiant heat fluxes to the fuel surface up to 4 watts/cm have been

101
employed. A water-cooled transducer and load plate assembly measured

the response of the plastics to the externally applied radiant flux.

Tests were conducted with and without a pilot flame. Quantities

measured included: 1) minimum radiant flux levels to cause thermal

decomposition, 2) weight loss versus time at various external fluxes,

and 3) minimum radiant flux levels to cause self-ignition. Quantities

determined included burning rate versus time curves as a function of

radiant flux.

Progress Report

The investigation was initiated with five specimens: two polyurethanes, two polyisocyanurates and one carbodiimide. These materials

and the manufacturers ASTM E-84 flame spread classifications are

shown below.

SPECIMEN ASTM E-84 FSC

Urethane-A 75

Urethane-B 75*

Isocyanurate-A 25

Isocyanurate-B 25

Carbodiimide 20

Listed as a class II

Obviously these specimens offer a limited variation of flammability behavior, as measured by E-84, and there is also some uncertainty

to the correct flame spreading classification assigned urethane B.

Nevertheless, these specimens formed the starting point for our investigation. Unfortunately, the performance of these materials in

full-scale geometry tests was not available. Consequently the results from this study could only be compared with performance in

laboratory and standard tests.

These specimens have been subjected to the above mentioned polymer

characterization and burning intensity studies.

Accomplishments

Test results from TGA carried out in a helium atmosphere indicate

some correlation of percent residue of samples remaining at 500°C and

80Q°C with the E-84 flame spread classification (FSC) for these materials.

102
The slopes of the mass loss versus time curves were obtained and

these burning rates plotted versus time. These results are extremely

encouraging, indicating a maximum burning rate which occurred generally

within the first ten seconds of external heating. The order and magnitude of these values correlated extremely well with the ASTM E-84

ratings, including the polyurethane-B (75 FSC) discrepancy discussed

earlier.

By multiplying the mass burning rate curves by the specimen's

corresponding heat of combustion, as measured in a Parr oxygen bomb

calorimeter, maximum potential rate of heat release curves were obtained.

These were then compared with measured rate of heat release curves.

These results seem to indicate a strong correlation between maximum

burning rate and maximum heat release rate. However, the potential

rate of heat release may in fact be 3-4 times larger than anticipated.

Potential Applications

This burning intensity study seems to indicate that the maximum

burning rate is a good indication of fire hazard; it correlates well

with the ASTM E-84 flame spread classification. More testing, employing a wider range of materials, is required to confirm this finding.

This laboratory test method must also be tested against the behavior

of these materials in large scale room and corner tests. However, it is

hoped that since the burning rate involves a more sensitive measurement than the E-84 FSC, it may be a better indication of actual hazard,

and thus be able to identify materials that will burn in a very hazardous

manner in the real world. The E-84 test has not been able to consistently identify hazardous materials.

If successful, this approach will offer a simple and inexpensive

method for assessing the fire hazard potential from a particular material. While it will not eliminate the \need for "real geometry" largescale fire tests, a good predictive test would greatly reduce the number

of full scale tests required to insure an acceptable level of fire safety.

Future Milestones : This program was only funded for one year.

Reports and Papers : Vigliotta, J.J. "Flammability Studies of Cellular Plastics" Masters

Thesis, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stevens Institute of

Technology, May 1977.

Final report and paper in progress.

103
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-IZ08

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS3 Gaithersburg, Md. t August 3- 5, 1977

(Issued October 1977)

Institution : University of California at Berkeley

Grant No

.

: NBS Gran-t - G7 - 9006

Grant Title : Full Scale Experiments and Fire Tests

Principal Investigator : Robert Brady Williamson, Civil Engineering

Department, University of California,

Berkeley, California 94720.

Telephone: (415) 642-5308

Other Professional Personnel :

V. Babrauskas (now at National Bureau of Standards)

R. Draemel (Assistant Specialist)

F. Fisher (Principal Engineering Aid)

H. Hasegawa (Assistant Specialist)

W-C. Ling (Research Assistant)

D. Van Valkinburg (Research Assistant)

C. Warbington (Research Assistant)

A. Weatherly (Assistant Programmer)

P. Wolf (Sr. Electronic Technician)

Project Summary : This project is focused on the correlation between full scale

fire experiments, laboratory scale fire tests and actual fire con- ditions. It has been divided into two parts (1) pre- f lashover

fire growth and (2) post - f lashover fire endurance. The objective

of the first part is to establish methods for evaluating the con- tribution of room furnishings and finishing materials to fire development. This study will concentrate on the evaluation of ex- perimental results and the comparison of different test methods.

The objective of the second part is to more clearly define the

relationship between requirements for post- f lashover fire endurance and the fire resistance of building components. This involves

producing an improved description of expected fires as well as constructing a rational set of criteria for judging fire test

performance of building components. The emphasis in the last six

months has been to develop techniques of translating the results

of fire tests (such as ASTM E-1I9 and E-162) into probabilistic

framework

.

The approach has been to analyze fire growth and fire en- durance within the context of the current knowledge of fire. In

fire growth situations, one is often faced with the identification

of a possible causal-chain-of-events that either did or could lead

to a serious fire situation. There are a large number of cases

in which this is reduced to evaluating the contribution of an isolated specimen to the rate of fire propagation; but for the

presence of a given specimen, it is clear that the fire would not

have spread. Thus, intervention strategies can be visualized to

prevent such fires in the future. A state transition model has

been proposed for fire growth experiments and this has been coupled

with fault tree analysis in order to interpret the role of specific laboratory fire test methods.

104
In the post- flashover regime the unexposed faces of walls,

floors, doors and other fire containment building components become

the potential source of fire spread to the adjacent areas. The

existing criteria for failure of fire endurance tests are being

analyzed in the fire growth context described above. The pressure

differentials across assemblies and the production of excess

pyrolysis products in the fire compartment have not been duplicated

in the standard test procedures and this will necessitate certain

changes in the test standards before meaningful criteria can be

introduced

.

Progress Report :

In the area of fire growth, our efforts have concentrated in

reviewing previous compartment and corner wall experiments and

further developing the state transition techniques. The State

Transition Model of' fire growth has been generalized and it has

been coupled with fault trees and/or success trees in each transition event. It is planned to send a summary of our thoughts

to other investigators who have conducted fire growth experiments.

The assistance of these investigators will be solicited in supplying

experimental data and suggestions for application of the analysis.

As part of this summary, the method has been applied to a number of

research projects which included fire growth experiments. It is

hoped that a new subcommittee on full-scale fire tests of the

combined E5/39 Committee of ASTM will be a focus for this activity.

The new burn-out module has been designed and constructed and

a series of experiments are in progress to simplify full-scale fire

trials. It is designed so that specimens can be easily mounted and

so that the experiments can be conducted with a minimum of set-up

time. Some additional improvements have been planned which will

make the set-up and clean-up even easier. This is one aspect of

compartment tests which has made them more expensive than small

scale tests.

In the post- flashover fire tests area, the description of

end-point criteria has been studied for door tests. Two door

tests were conducted with side-by-side doors in one hour fire walls.

Hoods were placed above the door to trap the flames and hot gases

that were forced through some doors. Special features were added

to certain doors to prevent the penetration of the flames and these

were completely successful in one case and partially successful in

another. A fault tree analysis will now be made of the door tests

and recommendations will be prepared for new criteria.

Accomplishments : There is definite progress toward quantitative methods of

correlating full-scale fire experiments with many laboratory scale

experiments and test methods. Corner-wall compartment fire trials

are being used to evaluate the contribution of many materials,

products and assemblies. This research project has been involved

with many progressive steps in the area. It is hoped that we can

continue to contribute.

105
In the post- f lashover area, Dr. Vytenis Babrauskas finished

his doctoral work. He developed methods of calculating the gas

temperatures in fully involved compartments with known ventilation,

fuel load, and wall properties or with the worst possible (i.e.,

pessimized) choices of these factors. He reviewed the history of

fire testing for fire endurance and this historical review has

allowed a more rational assessment of the limitations of our cur- rent post- f lashover fire tests. The lack of scientific knowledge

severely limited many of the possible choices for the early fire

test standards and codes.

Potential Applications ; The improvement of fire tests and the closer regulation of

the actual fire behavior of materials are now within the grasp

of the fire research community. ASTM, NFPA and Building Code groups

are taking notice of our research as well as that of other organizations. This represents an indirect area of application.

Publications :

1. Vytenis Babrauskas, Fire Endurance in Buildings , Doctoral

Dissertation, November 1976, University of California, Berkeley.

2. V. Babrauskas and R. B. Williamson, "Post - Flashover Compartment Fires: Part I A Theoretical Model," submitted to Fire and

Materials .

3. V. Babrauskas and R. B. Williamson, "Post- Flashover Compartment Fires: Part II Application of the Model" in preparation.

4. R. B. Williamson, "Fire Performance Under Full Scale Test

Conditions - A State Transition Model," presented at the 16th.

International Symposium on Combustion 15-21 August 1976. To

be published in the Proceedings .

5. R. B. Williamson, "Wide-Span, Fire-Rated Automatic Fire Barriers," presented at 1977 NFPA Annual Meeting 16-19 May 1977.

6. R. B. Williamson, "Installing ABS and PVC Drain Waste and

Vent Systems in Fire- Resistive Buildings," presented at the

1977 NFPA Annual Meeting 16-19 1977.

106
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1309

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. , August 3-5, 1977

(Issued October 1977)

Institution: University of California at Berkeley

Grant No.

:

NBS Grant- G7- 9006

Grant Title: Flame Radiation Section in "Fire Safety in Urban Housing"

Principal Investigator: Chang- Lin Tien, Mechanical Engineering Department

University of California, Berkeley, California 94720

Telephone: (415) 642-0877

Other Professional Personnel (all graduate research assistants)

L. C. Chow (now, Engineer at General Electric)

G. L. Hubbard

G. S. Shiralkar

W. W. Yuen (now, Assitant Professor, UC-Santa Barbara)

Project Summary

To characterize flame radiation in a simple, realistic manner constitutes

the major objective of the present research program. In the past few years,

fundamental studies have been conducted on the overlapping of both continuous and band spectra due to soot and gaseous combustion products, as well

as the effect of nonhomogeneity due to temperature and species distributions.

Specific recent contributions include flame radiation measurements and

data interpretation of plastic fuels, a simple scheme to calculate flame

emissivities , and the characterization of infrared mean (or gray) absorption

coefficients for luminous flames and smoke. Further research is planned

on the radiation mean beam length calculation, radiation interaction with

combustion, and combined radiation and convection in enclosures.

Progress Report

Flame radiation is being recognized as a critical factor in many physical

and transport phenomena in fires. In flames and smoke, both gaseous and

particulate matters emit, absorb and scatter radiation in a significant

way in the visible and infrared. In the past, however, little systematic

and fundamental information on flame radiation was available to provide a better basic understanding or a simple, quantitative characterization for

practical fire- radiation calculations. The purpose of this research program

has been to develop a sound physical basis as well as a simple calculation

for flame radiation.

Analytical studies have been performed on the various important factors

in characterizing flame radiation, including scattering and absorption of

soot and conglomerated particulates, overlapping gaseous bands and its

interaction with soot radiation, and nonhomogeneous temperature and species

distributions. Most of these results are contained in the FRG publications

during the period of 1975-76. Low -resolution spectroscopic measurements on

flames of polymer fuels (polystyrene, plexiglass and Delrin) have generated

107
fundamental information regarding various pertinent parameters in flame

radiation (Buckius and Tien, 1977)

.

Significant progress made during the past year include establishing

a simple calculation scheme for the luminous -flame emissivity and developing a method to calculate the mean (or gray) absorption coefficient of

flames. The emissivity calculation scheme is based on a physical model

of gray soot and nongray gases. In particular, the model allows a comparative analysis of soot emission characteristics in flames produced by

fuels of different chemical composition. In most applications, however,

the mean absorption coefficient is a more fundamental and convenient

parameter to work with than the total emissivity, which depends on the

optical pathlength. Based on the physical model of a homogeneous nongray

flame, the coefficient can be conveniently expressed as a function of

temperature , the volume fraction of soot and the partial pressures of CO2 and H2O. The mean-coefficient concept is particularly useful because the

Planck mean for the optically thin limit and the Rosseland mean for the

optically thick limit do not deviate much from each other.

Further research on the radiation mean beam length for flames of

different goemetric shapes is planned. Continuing effort has been spent on

the development of a more efficient computation technique for elliptic

convection equations as applied to enclosures. Exploratory work on

interaction between radiation and combustion processes in flames has also

been initiated.

Accompl i shment

s

On the basis of the fundamental information obtained for the gaseous

and particulate radiation contributions in flames in the past few years,

two simple, realistic methods of calculation have been developed for the

total emissivity and the mean (or gray) absorption coefficient of luminous

flames. Results for common gaseous and solid fuels have been tabulated or graphically presented.

Potential Applications

Radiation of flames and smoke is an important concern in all practical

fire problems such as fire detection, ingnition, spread, plume convection,

and modeling. Radiation assumes an even more prominent role in fires in an enclosure such as in urban housing fires because of the restricted

high-side walls. Emissivity and mean absorption coefficient calculations

developed in this study have already been used by other groups in their

related studies and calculations.

Future Milestones

Further measurements and data interpretation for flame radiation

from burning polymeric materials in both open and confined systems. Refinement of analytical techniques in calculating radiation from flames

of complex geometries. Development of a computational analysis for flame

and smoke plume spread in a confined system, including convection, combustion

and radiation.

108
PUBLICATIONS OF FIRE RADIATION RESEARCH

Refereed Publications

I. Tien, C. L. , Doornink, D. G., and Rafferty, D. A., "Attenuation of

Visible Radiation by Carbon Smokes," COMBUSTION SCI. TECH., 6, 55-59

(1972)

.

2 Felske, J. D. , and Tien, C. L. "Calculation of the Emissivity of

Luminous Flames," COMBUSTION SCI. TECH., 7, 25-31 (1973).

3. Felske, J. D. , and Tien, C. L. , "Infrared Radiative Transfer from

non-Homogeneous Gas Mixtures Having Overlapping Bands," J. QUANT.

SPECT. RADIAT. TRANSFER, 14, 35-38 (1974).

4. Felske, J. D. , and Tien, C. L. , "A Theoretical Closed-Form Expression

for the Total Band Absorptance of Infrared Radiating Gases," INT. J. HEAT MASS TRANSFER, 17, 155-158 (1974).

5. Dayan, A. , and Tien, C. L. , "Radiant Heating From a Cylindrical Fire

Column," COMBUSTION SCI. TECH. , 9, 41-47 (1974).

6. Tien, C. L. , Felske, J. D. , and Dayan, A., "Analytical Basis For Fire

Radiation," LETTERS HEAT MASS TRANSFER, 1, 79-80 (1974).

7. Felske, J. D. , and Tien, C. L. , "Wide-band Characterization of over- lapping Band Radiation," COMBUSTION SCI. TECH., U, 111-117 (1975).

8. Dayan, A., and Tien, C. L. , "Heat Transfer in a Planar Medium with

Anisotropic Scattering," J. HEAT TRANSFER, 97, 391-396 (1975).

9. Dayan, A. , and Tien, C. L. , "Radiative Transfer with Anisotropic

Scattering in an Isothermal Slab," J. QUANT. SPECT. RADIAT. TRANSFER,

16, 113-125 (1976).

10. Yuen, W. W. , and Tien, C. L. , "A Simple Calculation Scheme for the

Luminous - Flame Emissivity," 16th International Symposium on Combustion

(1976).

II. Buckius, R. 0., and Tien, C. L. , "Infrared Flame Radiation," INT. J. HEAT MASS TRANSFER, 20, 93-106 (1977).

12. Felske, J. D. , and Tien, C. L. "The Use of the Milne- Eddington Absorption Coefficient for Radiative Heat Transfer in Combustion System,"

J. HEAT TRANSFER, 99, (1977).

Papers in Preparation

13. Hubbard, G. L. and Tien, C. L. , "Infrared Mean Absorption Coefficients

for Luminous Flames and Smoke."

109
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. , August 3-5, 1977

(Issued October 1977)

Institution : University of California at Berkeley

Grant No.

:

NBS Grant-G7-9006

Grant Title : Fire Modeling Section in "Fire Safety in Urban Housing"

Principal Investigator : Patrick J. Pagni, Mechanical Engineering Department

University of California, Berkeley, California 94720

Telephone: (415) 642-0729

Other Professional Personnel

T.M. Shih (Postdoctoral Research Engineer)

M.S. Sahota (now at Aerojet General)

R. Toossi (Graduate Research Assistant)

S. Bard (Graduate Research Assistant)

C.M. Kinoshita (Graduate Research Assistant)

S.T. Wang (Graduate Research Assistant)

K. Kayayan (Graduate Research Assistant)

Project Summary

The overall goal of the Fire Modeling Group is to develop analyses of fire

growth within the compartment of origin and propagation throughout the structure.

These physical and mathematical models permit prediction of the consequences of

specific designs, materials and strategies. They also provide the bases for development of meaningful test methods to evaluate real fire material and configuration hazards. The following problem areas are under consideration: 1. Extensions

of Excess Pyrolyzate : Several new flow fields have been considered. An analysis

of mixed mode, forced and free, laminar boundary layer combustion has been completed. Turbulent flames in forced flow downstream of a burning fuel slab have

been described. New techniques for extracting explicit variables from probability

density functions for the Shvab-Zeldovich variables have evolved. Preliminary

studies on excess pyrolyzate in laminar opposed flow diffusion flames have been

completed. 2. Combustion of Urethane Foams : Empirical histories of flame shape,

temperature, and specie concentrations as well as mass loss rates have been

obtained. Good agreement is achieved with analytic calculations of mass loss.

3. Flame Spread, Porous Media, Particulates : These programs are in the process

of being completed. Final flame spread experiments are under way. The analyses

of temperature fields and water vapor fields in wet porous concrete will be

published shortly. A flame apparatus has been designed and constructed which

may become a standard apparatus for research on flame chemistry and structure.

Progress Report

1. Extention of Excess Pyrolyzate : The work begun in Reference 1 has been

extended to combined mode laminar flames (Ref. 8) and to turbulent flames (Ref.

6). In the process some useful general techniques for describing flame variables

with Gaussian distributions were developed (Ref. 7). In conjunction with the

sub-program sub-committee of the Ad Hoc Group of Mathematical Fire Modeling,

these developments have been programmed and documented (Ref. 9). Additional

110
details may be found in the cited publications. Further research will be

directed tc calculating excess pyrolyzate and flame heights for these mixed

mode and turbulent flames. Radiation effects will be included and the crucial

variation of ambient oxygen, as found in a burning compartment, will be studied

in detail

.

2. Combustion of Urethane Foams : In coordination with the Harvard-FMRC

series of full scale room fire tests, small scale studies of urethane combustion

were undertaken. The now completed experiments provided empirical histories describing early fire growth. Calculations of the radiant heat transfer to the

surface, using measured temperatures, geometries, and specie concentrations

were performed. Good agreement was obtained between the observed mass loss

rate and that predicted on the basis of the radiation calculation. (Ref. 4).

The soot volume fraction is a crucial parameter in such a calculation. Indeed,

the gas phase contribution to the radiation was less than 10%. Techniques were developed using laser absorption which permit direct measurement of the soot

volume fraction in any flame. A report of giving volume fraction measurements

for a wide variety of typical fire fuels is in preparation.

3. Flame Spread, Porous Media, Particulates : During this past year a graduate course in flame spread taught jointly with Prof, de Ris and with

Profs. Sirignano and Williams as invited lecturers was offered. A preliminary

report on laminar flame spread has been published (Ref. 6). Additional experiments and analytic work stimulated by the above course are under way. The work

on heat and mass transfer in wet concrete has been completed (Ref. 3). Further

work on postflashovers structural consequences of internal heat and mass transfer

has been postponed to the next grant period. Study of particulate generation

in premixed flames led to the development of a cooled flat flame burner which

has potential application as a standard apparatus. A detailed report is in

preparation.

Accompl ishments

Much progress has been made on quantifying excess pyrolysis in systems

which approach real fires. While much remains to be done, the extension to turbulent flames was a crucial step. The experimental study of urethane com- bustion may prove useful input to other fire modelers. It was shown that

radiation very quickly (~ 60 sec.) dominates convection as the major heat

transfer mechanism in this pool-like fire. A simple accurate technique to measure the soot volume fraction in a flame was developed. The flame spread

course generated considerable enthusiasm among our graduate students. The

heat and mass transfer in concrete study developed a relatively simple procedure to incorporate water vapor effects in structural elements subject to fires; indeed, in many cases these effects are of secondary import.

Potential Application s

The study of excess pyrolyzate explains why fires fueled by synthetic

plastics propagate so much more rapidly through structures than do those

fueled by natural polymers. It also suggests the ability to rank polymers

according to this specific hazard on the basis of flame height tests. A

slight adaptation of the ASTM E-84 tunnel test might speed the practical use of these results. Radiation has been shown to be an often dominant mode of

energy exchange in fires, however its quantification requires knowledge of

the amount of soot in the flame. No theory to predict soot formation is

currently available, consequently the experimental techniques developed here

ill
may prove of important utility. The application of the heat and mass transfer study is that water vapor effects in concrete structural elements do not

appear to be essential.

Future Milestones

Compartment fire applications of excess pyrolyzate remain to be quantified. The effects of flame radiation and external radiation on full scale

burning fuel slabs will be incorporated in the near future. A more general

analysis including variable ambient oxygen is also under way. The combustion

process in the ceiling layer is of crucial import to the spread of the fire

throughout the structure. Physical and mathematical models for this phenomena

will be developed. Final reports will be forthcoming shortly on empirical

histories of urethane combustion, flame spread experiments and analysis,

heat and mass transfer in wet concrete and particulate formation in premixed

f 1 ames

.

Publications

1.

) Pagni, P.J. and Shih, T.M., "Excess Pyrolyzate" Sixteenth Symposium

(Int'l.) on Combustion , The Comb. Inst., in press.

2.

) Pagni, P.J., "Flame Spread Over Thin Solid Fuels", Journal of Heat

Transfer, 97c: 1

,

153, 1975.

3.

) Sahota, M.S., "Heat and Mass Transfer in Porous Concrete Structures

Subject to Fires" Report UCB-FR6-76-15, Fire Research Group, University of California, Berkeley, September 1976.

4.

) P.J. Pagni, K.H. Clow, S. Bard and G. Heffner, "Observations on the

Burning of Urethane Mattresses" Western States Section of the Combustion Institute, Paper No. 76-35. Also Report UCB-FRG-76-2, October

1976.

5.

) C. K~Y. Chan and P.J. Pagni, "Flame Spread in Laminar Opposed Flow"

Report UCB-FRG-76-8, Fire Research Group University of California,

Berkeley, December 1976.

6.

) T.M. Shih and P.J. Pagni, "Wake Turbulent Flames" American Society of

Mechanical Engineers Paper No. 77-HT-97 to be presented at the AIChE

-ASME Heat Transfer Conference, Salt Lake City, Utah, August 15-17,

1977. Also Report UCB-FRG-77-4, April, 1977.

7.

) T.M. Shih and P.J. Pagni, "Analytic Incorporation of Probability

Density Functions in Turbulent Flames", submitted to the International

Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. Also Report UCB-FRG-77-3, April

wrr.

8.

) T.M. Shih and P.J. Pagni, "Laminar Mixed-Mode, Forced and Free, Diffusion Flames" submitted to the Journal of Heat Transfer. Also Report

UCB-FRG-77-6, June, 1977.

9.

) T.M. Shih and P.J. Pagni, "Excess Pyrolyzate from Diffusion Flames",

Fire Research Group, University of California, Berkeley, Report UCBFRG-77-7, June, 1977.

112
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. , August 3-5, 1977

(Issued October 1977)

Institution : University of California, Berkeley

Grant No . : NBS Grant-G7-9006

Grant Title : Fire Safety in Urban Housing

Polymer Combustion and Flame Chemistry Task

Principal Investigator : Professor Robert F. Sawyer

Department of Mechanical Engineering

University of California

Berkeley, CA 94720

415-642-5573

Other Professional Personnel : Dr. Nancy J. Brown

William J. Pitz, Ph.D. Candidate

Linda Doppleb, M.S. Candidate

Project Summary : Experimental and theoretical studies of polymer combustion,

flame inhibition, and flame chemistry are being pursued. Fundamental parameters

(burning rates, extinction limits, mass transfer numbers, and flame structure

data) have been obtained under well-controlled and reproducible conditions. These

data have contributed toward a better understanding of polymer combustion mechanisms

and the physical and chemical polymer properties which control flammability.

The flame inhibition research has been directed toward gaining an improved

understanding of the inhibition mechanism(s) which prevails in different combustion environments. Experimental and theoretical flame chemistry studies have

been concerned with providing chemical descriptions of various levels of complexity

for premixed laminar flame systems.

Progress Report : The opposed flow diffusion flame has proven a useful laboratory

tool for the study of the combustion of both liquids and solids. Quantitative

determinations of burning rates, extinction limits, mass transfer numbers, polymer

thermal diffusivity, and flame structures have been obtained under well-controlled

and reproduceable conditions. The temperature and composition structure of the

flame is of particular interest as detailed knowledge should yield a better understanding of the mechanisms of polymer combustion, physical and chemical polymer

properties which control flammability, and approaches for polymer flame retardation.

The nature of the flame composition near the polymer surface should prove decisive

in the resolution of the controversy over the importance of surface oxidation

reactions in the combustion of polymers.

Since spatial resolution on the order of 100 y is desirable in extractive

methods, assessment of the disturbance introduced by the microprobe is essential.

Deflection mapping has been found to be a convenient means for determination of

probe influence. Interf erograms of the flame without the presence of a sampling

probe, in the presence of a sampling probe but without sample extraction, and in

the presence of a sampling probe with sample extraction were obtained by the

method of deflection mapping using a helium-neon laser light source. From the

113
records produced, maximum fringe deflection contours were obtained, which indicate

flame height changes due to probe effects.

Modelling studies of chemical flame inhibition in a hydrogen/oxygen flame are underway. The kinetics of the hydrogen /oxygen systems have been extensively

reviewed and a thirteen step reaction mechanism with appropriate rate data has been

constructed to describe the system. Flames are being studied at equivalence ratios

of 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5, at 1.0 and .01 atmospheres. Blow out curves for the perfectly

stirred reactor environment are being computed for the case of hydrogen chloride

and hydrogen bromide inhibition. A plug flow, adiabatic reactor calculation is

also underway to investigate the effects of chemical inhibitors on peak radical

concentrations, individual radical concentration and mean species residence times.

The use of an approximate code to describe premixed laminar flames is under con- sideration.

Work associated with the construction and demonstration of a two zone flame

model has been completed and reported. The model allows for the computation of

flame propagation velocity and average properties in the radical generation and

fuel attack regions of a flame. The approach is suitable for inhibition calculations. A study of low pressure hydrogen/oxygen flames has also been completed

and reported. This involved the careful analysis of flame structure to examine the

branching mechanism, water formation mechanism and partial equilibrium approximation.

In addition various approximations for estimating radical concentrations in flames were compared. The flame model work and hydrogen /oxygen flame study were performed

in collaboration with Dr. R. M. Fristrom of JHU/APL.

Accomplishments ; A shear interferrometric optical system was developed and applied

to the opposed flow diffusion flame for visualization of the disturbance caused by

sampling probes. It was concluded that probe samples can be extracted without

unacceptable affects on the flame structure and burning rate.

Much progress has been made in understanding flame chemistry and flame inhibition.

A zonal approach to flame structure has been devised which is useful for computing

average properties of the radical generation and fuel attack regions, flame propagation velocity and for treatment of flame inhibition. A review of hydrogen/oxygen

kinetics has been accomplished. Branching and product formation mechanisms, partial

equilibrium approximations, and techniques for estimating radical concentrations have

been examined in low pressure hydrogen/oxygen flames. A fruitful collaboration has

been maintained with investigators from JHU/APL and the combustion research group at

Gottingen.

Potential Applications : Determination of the mechanisms of polymer combustion

will provide a foundation for the design of materials with low flammability

characteristics. An improved understanding of flame inhibition will have useful

applications in the development of flame retarded materials and in fire suppression

methods. The work also applies to the development and understanding of

unambiguous test procedures.

Future Milestones : Flame structure measurements (temperature and composition)

will be obtained with a polymer not containing oxygen to determine importance

of oxygen diffusion to polymer surface to the burning process. The study of

halogen inhibition in the opposed flow diffusion flame configuration will be

pursued to determine the mechanism of inhibition.

114
Repo rts and Papers :

Brown, N.J., Eberius, K.H., Fristrom, R.M., Hoyermann, K.M. and Wagner, H.Gg.,

"Low Pressure Hydrogen/Oxygen Flame Studies" (in press).

Brown, N.J., Fristrom, R~.M. , Sawyer, R.F., "A Two-Zone Model of Flame Propagation

Applied to H2 + Air Flames and HC1 Inhibited Flames" (in press).

Pitz, W.J. and Sawyer, R.F., "Deflection Mapping in the Study of Polymer Burning,"

Western States Section/The Combustion Institute, Paper No. 77-21; also University

of California Report UCB-FRG-77-5.
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. , August 3-5, 1977

(Issued October 1977)

Institution: Department of Architecture. College of Environmental

Vi Design, University of California, Berkeley

Grant Number : NBS Grant No. 6-9013

Grant Title : Human Behavior in Institutional Fires and Its Design

Implications

Principal Investigator : Lars Lerup, Architecture Life Safety Group,

Center for Planning and Development Research, College of Environmental

Design, University of California, Berkeley, 94720, Telephone 642-4942 (415)

Other Professional Personnel : David Cronrath, John K. C. Liu, Zahava

Sternberg, and Harold Bexton (consultant)

Project Summary :

Obj ectives

The goal of this project is to gain further understanding of the

complex interrelationships between human emergency actions and physical

settings. The specific objective is to derive design implications from

the in-depth analysis of behavior in institutional settings under fire.

The context and the data for this pursuit are drawn from ten case studies

of significant nursing home fires which occurred in the United States

between 1970 and 1974.

Approach

A working model describing the interaction of people and fire is

developed. The method of analysis of the case studies is qualitative,

based on a mapping technique developed specifically to facilitate the

116
understanding and description of behavior in fires. The basic unit

of analysis is human behavior in the form of behavioral episodes, the

fire development in the form of distinct states, and the interaction

between the two in the context of a defined set of life-saving actions.

Progress Report : completed February 28, 1977

Accomplishments : The analysis of recurrent sequences of human actions

is inconclusive, only suggesting a repetition of certain behavior patterns.

However, recurrent types of behavior are distinct and do warrant further

study. These are:

1. The tendency for staff to call the fire department even when it has already been notified.

2. The apparent need to investigate face-to-face and verify

the existence and severity of the fire emergency.

The analysis of the ten case studies generated seven

design implications concerning fire doors, holding and releasing systems,

alarm systems, location of nurse stations, egress systems, smoke detectors,

and defense of nonambulatory patients.

An environmental approach to life safety and fire

protection is suggested, in which knowledge, behavior and fire-directed

solutions are intimately connected.

Potential Applications : Although largely methodological, the study suggests that an environmental approach to life safety and fire protection

in institutional facilities would in its focus on simultaneous attention

to education and the safety features of a facility improve the potential

of avoiding a fire incident as well as improve life safety in case of

an emergency.

117
Other Related Work : The theoretical work undertaken in this study and

the previous one has resulted in an exploratory primer for teaching architects about the fire phenomena: Learning From Fire: A Fire Protection

Primer for Architects , Architecture Life Safety Group, 1977 (NFPCA Grant)

Two papers have been prepared:

"Mapping Fire and Behavior" ERISTICS; The Problems and Science of

Human Settlements , July 1977

"Mapping Fire: A Technique for Depicting Dynamic Aspects of Environment and Behavior", FIRE RESEARCH, July 1977

118
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCHt NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS3 Gaithersburg, Md. s August 3-5, 1977

(Issued October 1977)

Institution :

Grant Title :

Grant No. :

University of California, San Diego

Flame Extinction in Relationship to Fire Suppression

NSF AEN-75-20997

Principal Investigator Professor Forman A. Williams

Department of Applied Mechanics

and Engineering Sciences

University of California, San Diego

La Jolla, California 92093

(714) 452-3172

Other Professional K. Seshadri (Graduate Student)

Personnel Bernard Bregeon (Postdoctoral Fellow)

Alvin S. Gordon (Adjunct Professor)

Project Summary

The objective of this work is to develop an improved understanding of mechanisms of fire suppression by studying flame extinction in the presence of suppressive

agents. Main suppressants considered are nitrogen, CF^Br and water. Principal

configuration studied is the counterflow diffusion flame produced by directing an

oxidizing gas stream, containing suppressant, downward onto the burning surface of

liquid or solid fuel. Data include concentration profiles (obtained by sampling and gas

chromatographic analysis), temperature profiles (measured with thermocouples) and

extinction conditions (in terms of suppressant content and flow rate of oxidizer).

Results are interpreted on the basis of theory which specifies a critical Damkohler

number for extinction. Plan is to apply the theory to extract overall chemical

kinetic information under conditions near extinction, to attempt to relate such information to chemical kinetic mechanisms underlying suppression, to ascertain differences

in the thermal, flow and kinetic aspects of extinction by the different agents and to consider theoretical prediction of suppression under nonideal conditions.

Progress Report

During the past year work on ignition theory, on extinction theory and on

theory of the structure of diffusion flames has been published, and progress has been

made in experimental studies of near- limit phenomena in premixed systems and of

extinguishment of diffusion flames above solid and liquid fuels. Since the theoretical

work has been discussed previously, only references to the publications will be given

here. The following discussion is restricted to experimental work.

Measurements were completed on nitrogen concentrations required to prevent

downward propagation of hydrogen- oxygen and methane -oxygen flames in open tubes of

2. 5 and 5. 1 cm diameter. Limits plotted as functions of the fuel-oxygen ratio showed

that quenching is most difficult on the fuel- lean side for hydrogen flames and near

stoichiometric for methane flames. Cellular patterns were observed near

119
flammability limits, and near-limit flame speeds were measured. Results have been

interpreted mainly in terms of conductive losses from cellular flames since alternative mechanisms appear to produce qualitatively inconsistent predictions. Support

for the interpretation is provided by Figure 1, in which the product of the flame speed

and the cell size, divided by the thermal diffusivity of the mixture, is shown to be

independent of the hydrogen-oxygen ratio at extinction, within the accuracy of the data.

This independence is predicted by the model of conductive losses from cellular

flames. Incidentally, the measurements definitely showed that the flame speed at

extinction does not remain constant, independent of the hydrogen-oxygen ratio. This

work was reported at a meeting of the Western States Section of the Combustion

Institute.

Since polymethylmethacrylate is known to depolymerize largely to its

monomer when heated, the chemical kinetics in the gaseous diffusion-flame produced

by this polymer in a fire may coincide with that of burning liquid methylmethacrylate.

To test this hypothesis, flat diffusion-flames were probed and extinguished adjacent

to surfaces of each of these fuels. Profiles of temperature and of concentrations of

stable chemical species were obtained --as were gas velocities of approach flow

required to produce extinction, for various oxygen-nitrogen ratios of the stream.

Results revealed structural differences attributable to differing thermal properties of

the fuels. Many fuel species were observed in the gas phase, their profiles being

partially rationalized on the basis of a suggested decomposition mechanism for gaseous

methylmethacrylate. Representative concentration profiles for the polymer are shown

in Figure 2. Overall kinetic parameters for gas-phase combustion, obtained by use of

extinction results in a previously developed theory, as illustrated in Figure 3, are nearly the same for the polymer and monomer but appear to differ by amounts exceeding experimental uncertainties. It appears that this may be traced to small differences

in fuel species leaving the condensed phase which, for the polymer, is covered by a

thin, two-phase region. This work will be published in the Journal of Polymer Science.

Additional experimental work that has been completed includes extinction

measurements for cellulosic fuels in the diffusion-flame apparatus and extinction of

methanol and of heptane by application of water sprays in oxygen-nitrogen mixtures.

The cellulose behaves in a relatively complex manner which differs for different types

of materials (e.g8 , Douglas fir differs from birch). Time-dependent effects are of

paramount importance for these fuels. The water-application results appear to be

consistent with the previous results, within the accuracy of the data, if it is hypothesized that the fine sprays employed vaporize prior to reaching the flame and merely

act as diluents to the gas stream. These results are still being analyzed and will be

reported more fully at a later time.

Accomplishments

1. Some clarification has been obtained for the influence of cellular-flame

phenomena on extinguishment of downwardly propagating premixed flames in tubes.

2. The relationship between diffusion-flame combustion of polymethylmethacrylate and of its liquid manner has been clarified, it having been demonstrated

that these fuels burn by gas-phase combustion mechanisms that have similar but not

identical kinetics.

120
Potential Applications

Long-term applications of these results consist mainly in possible improvements in techniques for fire suppression. If developed through the present program

these improvements will be derived from increased understanding of mechanisms of

flame extinction, taking into account interactions between chemical kinetics, fluid

flow and heat transfer. The work affords the possibility of extracting basic information on both the fluid mechanics and the chemical kinetics of combustion near

extinction, which may be useful in analyzing extinctions under widely different

conditions of burning and of suppressive action.

Future Milestones

The main milestone planned for the future is theoretical explanation of data on

extinctions effected by application of halogenated suppressants. All other major

aspects of the program either have been completed or are nearly completed.

The halon suppression work is largely theoretical and possesses an uncertain

probability of success. Techniques that have been useful in extracting overall kinetic

data from experiments on extinction by nitrogen addition will continue to be studied for

possible application to data on extinction by halon addition, including further exercise

of equilibrium chemistry routines for estimating ideal flame temperatures. If peculiar results persist, explanations will be sought through more detailed considerations of chemical kinetics. Experimentally, use of halons to extinguish solid fuels

will be investigated for purposes of comparison with liquid fuels.

Reports

1. L. Krishnamurthy, F. A. Williams and K. Seshadri, "Asymptotic Theory

of Diffusion- FI ame Extinction in the Stagnation- Point Boundary Layer", Combustion

and Flame 26, 363-377 (1976).

2. L. Krishnamurthy, "On Gas-Phase Ignition of Diffusion Flame in the

Stagnation- Point Boundary Layer", Acta Astronautica 3, 935-942 (1976).

3. R. W. Bilger, "The Structure of Diffusion Flames", Combustion Science

and Technology 13, 155-170 (1976).

4. B. Bregeon, A. S. Gordon and F. A. Williams, "Near-Limit Downward

Propagation of Hydrogen and Methane Flames in Oxygen Nitrogen Mixtures", WSS/CI

Paper Number 76-51, Fall Meeting, Western States Section, the Combustion

Institute, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, Calif., October 18, 1976.

5. K. Seshadri and F. A. Williams, "Structure and Extinction of Counterflow Diffusion- Flames above Condensed Fuels: Comparison between Polymethylmethacrylate and its Liquid Monomer, both Burning in Nitrogen-Air Mixtures.

121
18 r

16

UJoOSUJ

CL.

<M o

14

12

10

«\J % 8

ac

ITS o

Polymethylmethacrylate

N 2

in O 2 Y

02 = 0.178

U = 0.315 m/s

ooc

oo

-EM oo

oCM

90

80

70

60

50

oce

o

CM

DISTANCE FROM LUMINOUS FLAME ZONE (mm)

Figure 2

122
- 12 . 8 -

Symbol App. Fuel L in cm Date

O Old Monomer 1.0 Oct 10, 74

New Monomer 1.0 Auq 10, 76

A New Monomer 0.75 +

(.045to.09)

Aug 13,76

V New Monomer 1.0 Aug 16,76 • Old Polymer 1.2 Nov 11,74

A New Polymer 1.17 Auq 9, 76

a New Polymer 0.814 +0.1 Auq 13 ,76

v x 34 k cal /mole

^9v

^/Monomer

•\« \ 40'

o \ V

— X

An

4.9 5.0

r'xio4

(°k

h

i

Figure 3

123
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH3 NBSIR 77-1208

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg3 Md. 3 August 2-53 19773 (Issued October 1977)

Institution : Department of Fire Protection Engineering

College of Engineering

University of Maryland

NBS Grant No :

Title : A Theoretical Rationalization of the Goal Oriented Systems Approach

to Building Fire Safety.

Principal Investigator : Jack Watts

Department of Fire Protection Engineering

University of Maryland

College Park, Maryland 20742

(301) 454-2424

Summary :

The objective is to reformulate the GSA version cf a Goal Oriented

Systems Approach to Building Fire Safety. The research is being carried

out in 5 phases. Phase I consists of a literature review and state of the

art analysis of the Goal Oriented Systems Approach. Phase II is an analysis

of the problem addressed by the Goal Oriented Systems Approach in terms of

objectives, scope, the variables and their relationships. Phase III is the

formulation of a revised Goal Oriented Systems Approach employing a sound

theoretical basis. Phase IV is the evaluation of the revised model in terms

of the available data and Phase V will present a summary and conclusions

of the research.

Status :

Four basic components of the problem have been identified in Phase II.

These are: Pre-flashover fire, post-flashover fire, automatic sprinklers

and fire barriers. In Phase III, the model will require a two parameter

probability distribution for each of these components. The scale parameters

will be calculated by deterministic relationships of the significant

variables and the shape parameters will be derived by subjective evaluation

124
of reliability features. A stress /strength reliability model will

then be applied to appropriate pairs of probability distributions to

derive failure probabilities for each spatial module in a fire scenario.

Finally, a modification of the GSA combinatorial model will compute the

spatial probabilities of the limitation of fire spread.

Application :

This research will ascertain the theoretical validity of a new approach

to fire protection design which is in current use.

Reports :

The Phase I report is being published by NBS as a grant report.

125
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. , August 3-5, 1977

,

(Issued October 1977)

Institution : Fire Protection Curriculum

College of Engineering

University of Maryland

NBS Grant No : 4-9027

Title : Smoke as a Determinant of Human Behavior in Fire Situations.

(Project People)

Principal Investigator : John L. Bryan

Fire Protection Curriculum

College of Engineering

University of Maryland

College Park, Maryland 20742

(301) 454-2424

Other Professional Personnel : David J. Icove, Harold D. Hicks, James A. Milke,

William P. Wheeler, and Jamie E. Weaver, Student Research Assistants, Fire

Protection Curriculum.

Project Summary :

This study involved the interviewing of 584 participants by fire

department officials at the scene of the fire Incident. The study involved

335 fire incidents from eleven jurisdictions, including the Cities of

Baltimore, College Park and Annapolis, Maryland, and Alexandria, Virginia;

with the Maryland and Virginia suburban jurisidictions of Arlington County,

Fairfax County, Prince William County, Montgomery County, Howard County,

Baltimore County, and Anne Arundel County. The fire Incidents involved in

the study occurred between January 15, 1975, and April 30, 1976.

The analysis and study of the interview data from the 584 participants,

in the 335 fire incidents involved the determination of the critical

variables relative to the fire incidents involving: The occupancy of the

building; The number of previous alarms in the building; The amount of

smoke spread in the building; The time of the fire incident, and the

height of the buildings involved in the fire incidents.

126
The participant population parameters were determined relative to the

following demographic and empirical variables: The participant's sex; The

participant's age; The participant's occupation; Previous training relative

to fire situations; Previous experience in fire incidents; The participant's

location in the building at the time of the fire; The means by which the

participants became aware of the fire incident; Persons with the participant

Time of the participant's presence in the building; and the belief of the

participant in the safety of the building.

The first, second and third actions of the participants after becoming

aware of the fire incident were analyzed and compared relative to third

actions. The variables of the participants relative to their distance

from the fire, their belief in the safety of the building, the number of

previous alarms in the building, and the extent of smoke spread were all

compared with the selection of first actions. The selection and utilization

of first actions were also compared relative to the participant's previous

fire experience, and their previous training for fire incidents. The first,

second, and third actions of the participants were also analyzed relative

to any differences in the actions of the participants according to the

sexual distribution of the participant population.

The various aspects of the participants movements through the smoke in

the fire incidents were analyzed and compared. The first actions of the

participants were considered relative to the smoke spread in the fire

incident building. The evacuation time and the distance of evacuation

movement for the total participant population and the participants that

moved through smoke were compared. The evacuation distance relative to the

time of occurrence of the evacuation were also compared. The distance of

the participants movements through smoke were compared for the participants

with and without previous fire experience, the participants with and without

127
previous training, and the sexual distribution of the participants. The

number of the participants who were forced to turn back in their movement

through the smoke were compared relative to the previous fire experience,

the previous training and the sexual distribution of the population. The

visibility distance of the participants was also compared with the movement

through smoke and the turned back behavior of the participants.

The critical aspects of this study were compared with aspects of

Wood's study on the British population consisting of 952 fire incidents

and 2193 participants. Data from both studies were compared relative to

the characteristics of the fire incidents, the participant populations,

and the actions of the participants. The occupancy of the fire incident

building, the time of the fire incident, the floor of origin of the fire

incident, and the extent of the smoke spread within the building, were compared

for both studies. The reported sexual distribution, age distribution, and

the means by which the participants became aware of the fire incident

were compared for both of the participant populations. The actions of the

participant population were compared from both studies relative to the

first, second and third actions of the respective population. The first

actions of both populations were compared relative to the male and female

members of the respective populations. The percentages of the populations

relative to the reasons for reentry behavior were also compared. The

occurrence of the reentry, fire fighting, evacuation, movement through

smoke, and the turned back behavior for both populations were also compared.

The visibility distance for both populations was compared relative to the

movement through smoke and the turned back behavior.
Progress Report :

Project has been completed, and final report submitted, June 30, 1977.

Accomplishments :

The study results and conclusions provide verification of previous

investigations, and differences between British and American populations.

The study has provided a basic format for the collection and analysis of

behavioral information from participants in fire incidents in future studies.

Potential Applications :

The questionnaires developed in the study and the computer analysis

procedures should have application in other studies. The introduction of the

sequential analysis of the behavioral actions of the participants with the

technique of weighted diagraphs may be adapted to related projects.

Reports and Papers :

Bryan, John L., "The Determination of Behavior Responses Exhibited in

Fire Situations," The Journal of Fire and Flammability , VII, (July, 1976),

319-336.

Bryan, John L. , "Human Behavior in Fire Situations," Presented at the

Second Joint Panel Meeting on Fire Safety and Research, UJNR; Tokyo, Japan,

October 20, 1976.

Bryan, John L. , "Project People - A Study of Human Response in Fire

Incidents," Presented at Fourth International Symposium on Flammability

and Fire Retardants, Washington, D.C., May 20, 1977.

129
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH3 NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS3 Gaithersburg3 Md. , August 3-53 1977

(Issued October 1977)

Institution : Fire Protection Curriculum

College of Engineering

University of Maryland

NBS Grant No. : 6-9008

Title : The Examination of Selected Systemic Variables Influencing the

Discharge Distribution Pattern from Automatic Sprinkler Heads.

Principal Investigator : John L. Bryan

Fire Protection Curriculum

College of Engineering

University of Maryland

College Park, Maryland 20742

(301) 454-2424

Other Professional Personnel : Craig L. Beyler, Research Assistant, Fire

Protection Curriculum.

James M. Thompson, Harry L. Bradley, Robert C. Seller, and Edward B. Douberly, Student Research Assistants, Fire Protection Curriculum.

Project Summary :

The effects of flow rate, supply pipe size, direction of supply, deflector

to ceiling clearance, orientation of sprinkler arms, angles of the sprinkler

head, and sprinkler guards on the distribution of water from sprinkler heads

have been studied. Implications for the design of sprinkler heads and systems

have been identified.

Progress Report :

Initial project has been completed, and three volume final report

submitted June 30, 1977. Additional analysis of related study data is to

be completed in August, 1977.

Accomplishments :

The study reports and conclusions have provided some significant

insights into the relationships of the flow from automatic sprinkler heads

as follows:

1. Distribution patterns from upright and pendent heads are dissimilar.

2. The coverage area or area within a given isodensity line of both

upright and pendent heads have a maximum which is approached

asymptomatically

.

130
3. A minimum feasible coverage area can be defined given a required

density. At flow rates below that yielding the minimum feasible

coverage area, the coverage area is not yet developed and could

not provide adequate coverage regardless of sprinkler spacing.

4. Unsteadiness and turbulence in the nozzle stream improves the

distribution pattern.

5. The Reynold ' s Number of the flow in the supply pipe has an important

effect on distribution patterns.

6. Sprinkler arms are an important determinant of the distribution

pattern.

7. Sprinkler guards reduce the area of coverage of sprinkler heads.

8. Sprinkler spacing rules should be derived from sprinkler distribution

patterns to provide for optimum system performance.

Potential Applications :

The procedures from the measurement of the flow from the automatic

sprinkler heads may be applicable to further studies with consideration of

the following adaptations from this study:

1. The radial collection container array is an excellent method of

collection for single heads. However, when superimposing patterns

to generate multiple head distribution patterns, the rectangular

arrays is far simpler.

2. Stopping test to empty containers directly below the sprinkler

head and supply pipe should be avoided bacause the data points

lo3t are not important and the practice of restarting tests may

induce error.

3. Isodensity comparisons, numerical overaly comparisons, and side by

side comparisons of distribution patterns are all useful analytic

tools

.

Reports and Papers :

Beyler, C. L. , The Effect of Selected Environmental Variables on The

Distribution of Water from & Sprinkler Head . Paper accepted for The

Seventh CIB Congress and General Assembly, Fire and Buildings: September

14-21, 1977, Edinburgh, Scotland.

Beyler, Craig L. and Richard L. P. Custer, "An Engineering Analysis of

Actual Discharge from Sprinkler Heads," presented at The National Fire

Protection Association, 81st. Annual Meeting, Washington, D.C., May 17, 1977.

Beyler, Craig L. , "An Evaluation of Sprinkler Discharge Calculation

Methods," Fire Technology , XIII, 3, (August, 1977), accepted for publication.

131
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. , August 3- 5 , 1977

(Issued October 1977)

FLAME SUPPRESSION

BY CHEMICAL INHIBITORS

INSTITUTION: University of Massachusetts

GRANT NO: G 7 - 9010

SOURCE OF FUNDS: NBS

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS:

Marcel Vanpee

Chemical Engineering Dept.

Univ. of Massachusetts

Amherst, MA 01003

Tel: (413) 545-0593

James C. W. Chien

Polymer Research Institute

Univ. of Massachusetts

Amherst, MA 01003

Tel: (413) 545-2704

PROJECT SUMMARY

GOALS

This research is a systematic search for better inhibitors than

those currently in use. The program primarily has implications for flame

retardancy in polymer burning but, by nature, will also apply to the problem

of fire suppression in general.

The work is clearly divided between the two principal investigators.

Professor Vanpee will study the effect of inhibitors on the propagation

of flame and chemical processes in the gaseous phase. Professor Chien will

investigate the effect of inhibitors and pyrolysis, oxidative pyrolysis

and charring of the polymers.

In an extended phase of the program, we envision studying in some depth

the mechanism of flame inhibition of selected additives of particularly

high efficiency. Examples of such types of inhibitors are the compounds of

lead, alkali metals and transition elements.

132
APPROACH

In the search for new inhibitors emphasis is put on devising new

test methods for evaluation of flame inhibition efficiency. Two new

approaches are summarized here.

1 . Atomizer Diffusion Burner

Liquid fuel is dispersed through a nozzle in the form of a

spray of finely dispersed droplets, and is ignited in an atmosphere of

N2/02 of controlled oxygen index. The additive is dissolved in the fuel.

Its efficiency is then measured by the oxygen index method.

2. Counter diffusion liquid burner

The special burner designed by F. Williams, et. al . to

study the burning of liquid fuel will be used also to assess the efficiency

of flame inhibitors.

PROGRESS REPORT

This research is a continuation of an inhouse program. Our progress

report will therefore not be limited to the work accomplished during the

2 month period that this grant has been effective, but will include our

previous work. Also included will be unpublished results of the authors'

(Vanpee) earlier research on flame inhibition of interest to this meeting.

1 . Earlier work in flame inhibition

Earlier work on flame inhibition by the author had to deal with

the suppression of afterburning in rocket exhaust by metal components.

The experiments were carried out in the following way: The additives were

(1 ) Extinction of Laminar Diffusion Flames for Liquid Fuels - J.A. Kent

and F.A. Williams, Fifteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion

p. 315 (1974).

133
dispersed in a rich ethylene-oxygen-nitrogen mixture while it was

undergoing explosion in a closed spherical vessel. A quick-opening valve

released the fuel rich products to the atmosphere where they produced an

afterburning flame. Reduction in afterburning flame duration by

increasing amounts of powdered additive was used as the criterion for

inhibition efficiency. A total of 40 additives were tested including many

salts of the alkali metals. Potassium salts prove to be the best flame

suppressants in general and were greatly superior to iodine, one of the

best known inhibitors.

Lithium salts were normally less efficient than the potassium salts

with one exception, Li^N , which was 5 times more efficient than Kg CO^

most efficient salt of the potassium series.

The effect of increasing amounts of additive on the afterburning flame

is illustrated in Fig. 1 for CO^. This work was reported partially in

( 2 ) Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics .

2. Current Results

I . Tests with the atomizer diffusion burner

The work on afterburning leads us to pursue our investigations

on the salt of the alkali. The candidate salts were dissolved in liquid

fuels (methanol, ethanol and benzene) and the solutions were burned in an

atmosphere of oxygen and nitrogen, in the form of a spray of fine liquid

droplets, produced by an atomizing nozzle. The effectiveness of an additive

salt was measured by the limiting oxygen index method. Typical results

(2) Inhibition of Afterburning by Metal Compounds - M. Vanpee , R. N. Tromans and D. Burgess. Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics,

15, 419 (1964).

134
obtained by this method are shown in Fig. 2 for various additives in a

methyl alcohol flame. The best additives were: lead tetracetate, ferric

acetyl acetonate, benzene chromium tricarbonyl, rubidium hydroxide, potassium

hydroxide and ferrocenes.

In the grouping of the alkali hydroxides, it was found that:

a) At low concentrations, the order of effectiveness was:

Rb > K > Na > Li > Cs

b) At relatively high concentrations (> 5% Wt), their effectiveness was

in the order of their atomic masses as follows:

Cs > Rb > K > Na > Li

II . Counter diffusion liquid burner

During the first 2 month period that this grant has been effective we have built and tested a counter diffusion liquid burner similar

to the one designed by F. Williams and Kentf1 ^ A flow of oxidizer (air

or N

2 /O2 mixtures of various compositions) of uniform velocity is directed

toward a circular fuel surface and produces, when ignited, a flat diffusion

flame close to the surface of the burning liquid. We intend to use this

burner to investigate the effectiveness of inhibitors when added to the

liquid fuel.

Limiting oxygen index (LOI) will be used to screen the various candidates

LOI is the mole fraction of Oxygen at the extinction of the flame. LOI will

be determined for various additive concentrations in the liquid fuel and the

effectiveness will be determined by the slope of the plot of LOI versus the

additive concentration. The flat flame geometry is particularly helpful because extensive mathematical modelling has been done on the extinction of

(3)

flat laminar diffusion flames by Williams et al . The analysis is based on

(3) Krishnamwithy, L., Williams, F. A., and Seshadri , K., Combustion and Flame

26, 363 (1976).

135
the observation that extinction occurs when the Damkohler number is below

a critical value. The method described will be used to determine the

kinetic parameters of the fuel in the presence of the inhibitor. Thus

a correspondence between flame inhibition and reduction in kinetic parameters

could be sought.

Ill . Test methods for the evaluation of pyrolysis inhibition

efficiency

The principal chemical events occurring in the solid polymer

during combustion are thermal pyrolysis in regions devoid of oxygen and

oxidative pyrolysis in regions containing dissolved oxygen. At the

University of Massachusetts we have a unique thermoanalytical laboratory

specially suited for such investigation.

The facility includes a CMEX MP-3 and a CDS 820 apparatus which

permit the pyrolysis of polymer from 4°/min to 20,000°/sec in inert or

reactive atmosphere such as oxygen. The polymer sample is held at the

reaction temperature for predetermined length of time. The products are

collected in a liquid Ng trap, back-flushed into a master GC. The eluents

from the master GC are on-line identified by a SPEX MC-2 Mass Chromatograph,

a CDS 1200 peak identifier and a Perkin-Elmer Mass Spectrograph. The entire

system is interfaced with a PDP II/I0E minicomputer for data acquisition.

With the above system, the products of pyrolysis and oxidative

pyrolysis can be identified, their abundance quantitatively analyzed, and

the kinetics of their formation determined. The effect of an inhibitor on

each product by either pyrolysis or oxidative pyrolysis can be individually

evaluated.

136
Figure 3 compares the product distributions of thermal pyrolysis of

normal and transition metal inhibited polypropylene at 438°. Figure 4 compares the product distributions of oxidative pyrolysis of these materials at

three temperatures. These figures show that most of the products are suppressed

by the inhibitor at a very low level of 0.4%.

Reports

N. X. Hung

A Study of Flame Retardation for Polymer Systems, M.S. Dissertation,

University of Massachusetts.

J. C. W. Chien and J. K. Y. Kiany

Pyrolysis and Oxidative Pyrolysis, To be Published in J. Polymer Sci.

137
» 2

‘

0.2 jro«*»

' •• ', .T*

. •: ' < >!

1# *

Vt ,'> ' ti

t

•i .<

a. .-. .% , • ..vi ‘ *^y •»« 1

- (f

‘ -'iA^*

1.0 groms

p„|I;

•

.

' '*)

14 gront

wr-f

^wwy-iwi' > i w.^(i^>?rwya|

. i. %>

2.G groat

Fig. 1 Photographs of afterburning flames showing the

effect of increasing amounts of K2CO3 additive.

138
Figure 2. Limitin g Oxygen Index vs. Concentrati on For Metallic Additives in Methanol

L.O. I

139
140
KETONES

NORM. PRODUCT DISTRIBUTION Or In. IFF RELATIVE TO

IPP IN AIR

141
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. , August 3-5, 1977

(Issued October 1977)

Institution: NFPCA Grant No. 76026

Wood Chemistry Laboratory

University of Montana

Missoula, Montana 59812

Grant Title: Chemistry of Cellulosic Fires

Principal Investigator: Fred Shafizadeh

University of Montana

Missoula, Montana 59812

Telephone: 406- 24 3-6212

Research Associates: Peter P.S. Chin, Allan G.W

Bradbury and Peter J. Lieu

Research Assistants: William F. DeGroot and Thomas W. Aanerud

Project Summary:

The objectives of this project are to systematically determine the transformations and

chemical reactions involved in the initiation, propagation and suppression of cellulosic fires

in order to provide a scientific basis for coping with the related problems.

Progress Report:

It has been shown that acids or flame retardants, which can generate acidic compounds

on heating, lower the decomposition temperature of cellulose and suppress the flaming

combustion by reducing the rate of production and total amount of combustible volatiles and

tarry products.

Chlorine and phosphate derivatives, whether present as an additive or substituent,

mainly act in the same manner by releasing related acidic materials. The detailed mechanism

of the reactions involved was shown by the synthesis and investigation of chlorinated and

phosphorylated sugar derivatives as model compounds and cellulose derivatives with various

degrees of substitution.

In view of the role of acid catalysis in flameproofing of cellulosic materials, these

studies have been extended to wood and its other major components, mainly lignin and xylan

(hemicellulose) . The effect of zinc chloride on the pyrolysis of wood is shown in Table I. It was found that on high temperature pyrolysis, diammonium phosphate is much more effective than phosphoric acid in catalyzing the dehydration and charring reactions.

Investigation of this synergistic effect indicate that at temperatures of more than 200°,

diammonium phosphate decomposes to produce ammonia and phosphoric acid derivatives. The

acidic products catalyze the breakdown of the cellulose macromolecule and its reaction with

ammonia to produce ammoniated compounds; most likely glycosylamines and related derivatives

formed by interaction of newly formed carbonyl compounds and ammonia. The ammoniated

142
compounds on further heating dehydrate to produce a stable char as shown for glycosylamines

.

Analysis of cellulose samples heated at various temperatures in the presence of diammonium

phosphate or ammonia and phosphoric acid demonstrated the production of ammoniated derivatives

and the synergistic effect of nitrogen and phosphorus derivatives.

Addition of flame retardants not only results in partial combustion of cellulosic

materials, but also decomposition at lower temperatures, which alters the rate of release

of combustible volatiles and the heat of combustion as a function of temperature. Therefore,

the rate of heat release could be used for evaluation of flame retardants and ignitability

of cellulosic materials in general.

Originally, a flame ionization detector (FID) was used for thermal evolution analysis

of cellulosic materials with or without flame retardants and the results were calibrated to

provide the heat of combustion of the volatile pyrolysis products as a function of temperature.

In the subsequent experiments, reaction coulometer, which measures the amount of oxygen

required for combustion, was adapted for measurement of the heat release. This system provides a reliable and unique method for analysis of various cellulosic fuels involved in

propagation of hazardous fires.

Accomplishments

:

1. The catalytic effect of common fire retardants in reducing flammability of the

cellulosic materials by altering their pyrolysis products has been established.

2. A method has been developed for evaluating the flammability of cellulosic fuels

by measuring their rate of heat release as a function of temperature.

Potential Applications:

The basic information developed in these studies provides a guideline for reducing

the fire hazards by chemical treatments and measurement of the flammability of cellulosic

fuels

.

Future Milestones:

1. Analysis of wood products before and after treatment with commonly used flame

retardants to determine their flammability and variation in production of smoke and toxic

gases

.

2. Determine a chemical description of the reactions involved in smoldering combustion

of cellulosic materials.

143
Reports and Papers:

1. F. Shafizadeh, Y. Z. Lai and C. R. McIntyre, "Thermal Degradation of 6-Chloro Cellulose

and Cellulose-Zinc Chloride Mixture," J. Appl. Polym. Sci., in press.

2. F. Shafizadeh and W. F. DeGroot, "Combustion Characteristics of Cellulosic Fuels,"

Thermal Uses and Properties of Carbohydrates and Lignins . F. Shafizadeh, K. Sarkanen

and D. Tillman, Editors, Academic Press, New York, 1976.

3. F. Shafizadeh and P. P. S. Chin, "Thermal Deterioration of Wood," ACS Symposium Series . No. 43 , Wood Technology: Chemical Aspects , 1977.

4. F. Shafizadeh and P. P. S. Chin, "Preparation and Characterization of l,6-Anhydro-3,4-

dideoxy-g-D- glycero- hex- 3-enopyranos-2-ulose ," ACS Symposium Series, No. 39 , Snythetic Methods for Carbohydrates, 1976.

5. R. A. Susott, F. Shafizadeh and T. W. Aanerud , "Determination of Heat Release by

Reaction Coulometry," manuscript prepared for publication.

6. F. Shafizadeh and P. P. S. Chin, "Effect of Phosphate Derivatives on Pyrolysis and

Combustion of Cellulose: 1. Diphenyl phosphate. 2. Diammonium phosphate," manuscript

being prepared for publication.

7. F. Shafizadeh, "Combustion and Flameproofing of Cellulosic Materials," a paper presented

at the 172nd National American Chemical Society Meeting, San Francisco, California,

August 30 September 3, 1976.

8. F. Shafizadeh, P. P. S. Chin, and W. F. DeGroot, "Application of TEA for Evaluation

of Flammability and Flameproofing," a paper presented at the Fourth International

Conference on Non-Flammability of Polymeric Materials," Bratislava, September 14-16,

1976.

9. F. Shafizadeh, "Combustion, Combustibility and Heat Release of Forest Fuels," a paper

presented at the 69th Annual Meeting of American Institute of Chemical Engineers,

Chicago, Illinois, November 28 - December 2, 1976.
Table I. Pyrolysis Products of Cottonwood at 600°

.

Product Neat + 5% ZnCl

Carbon monoxide

I

-C^ O

QJ 3.6

Carbon dioxide 5.8 5.5

Acetal dehyde 2.0 4.4

Furan 0.7 7.9

Acetone

Propionaldehyde 1.5 0.9

Propenal 2.9 0.9

Methanol 1 .4 2.7

2-Methyl furan b b

2 ,3-Butanedione 2.4 1 .0

1 -Hydroxy- 2-propanone 2.1 T

Glyoxal 2.2 T

Acetic Acid 5.7 5.4

2-Fural dehyde 1.3 5.2

Formic Acid 0.9 0.5

5-Methyl -2-fural dehyde 0.3 0.9

2-furfuryl alcohol 0.6 T

Guaiacol 0.6 T

Phenol 1.2 T

£-C resol 0.5 T

Water 15.9 19.3

Tar 27.9 19.6

Char 17.3 53.6

Percentage, yield based on the weight of the sample; T = trace amounts.

Pot clearly identifiable for wood.

145
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH3 NBSIR 77-IZ08

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS3 Gaithersburg3 Md. 3 August Z-5, 1977

(Issued October 1977)

Institution

University of Notre Dame

Grant No.

NBS Grant G7-9002

Grant Title

Fire and Smoke Spread

Project Coordinator

Dr. K. T. Yang, Professor and Chairman, Department of Aerospace and

Mechanical Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556

(219) 283-7466

Principal Investigator

Dr. J. R. Lloyd, Associate Professor (219) 283-7198

Co -Investigator s Dr. A. M. Kanury, Associate Professor

Dr. S. T. McComas, Professor

Dr. V. W. Nee, Professor

Dr. A. A. Szewczyk, Professor

Consultant

Dr. E. W. Jerger, Professor and Associate Dean

Research Assistants

L. C. Chang, Graduate Student

H. C. Chiou, Graduate Student

V. K. Liu, Graduate Student

N. P. Lynch, Graduate Student

C. J. Tsu, Graduate Student

Project Summary

The purpose of this research is to develop an improved predictive method for

describing the physical movement of fire and smoke in enclosures such as rooms,

compartments and corridors. The long-term goal is the development of a numerical computer code (UNDSAFE, University of Notre Dame Smoke and Fire in Enclosures) capable of predicting the fire and smoke spread behavior in an enclosure

as a function of geometry and materials content. It can be used to study a wide

range of phenomena associated with fire in an enclosure, including the motion of

hot gases generated by a fire, temperature build-up and distribution of products

of combustion, ventilation of fire through windows and doorways, radiation from

walls, soot and hot gases, and interactions among multiple fire plumes as well as between plumes and ceilings, walls and corners.

This numerical code is based on a finite difference representation of a set of

first -principle differential field equations for unsteady turbulent recirculating

flows including effects of strong buoyancy, compressibility, combustion, multiple

species and wall, soot and gaseous radiation. The mathematical modeling of

turbulence, radiation and combustion is based on phenomenological and physical

principles, and the validity is established by comparison of the numerical calculations with experimental studies carried out at the University of Notre Dame and

at the Center for Fire Research of the National Bureau of Standards. The complexity of the real fire and smoke spread phenomena dictates a step-by-step approach of developing the numerical model to insure that at each step the model is

self-consistent physically and correct in terms of known results.

This project was originally initiated under NSF RANN Grant GI-37191, and has

since been continued under Grants ATA73-07749A01, AEN-73-07749-A02 and

NBS G7-9002.

146
Progress Report

Two basic geometries are utilized in this study. One is a simple rectangular

enclosure with a doorway on one end which is primarily used in the step-by-step

development of the numerical code. The other is an interconnected room-corridor enclosure also with a door at the end of the corridor. The small-scale ex- periments, both at Notre Dame and at the NBS, deal specifically with the roomcorridor geometry to obtain needed data for evaluating the accuracy of the

UNDSAFE code. A brief summary of the current progress being made in the

various areas of development is given below:

1.

Computer Code Development

Our current operational UNDSAFE code is capable of handling two-dimensional

compartments, corridors and interconnecting enclosures involving turbulent

compressible buoyant flows caused by simulated floor or elevated fires. Wall,

soot and gaseous radiation in one -dimension, arbitrary thermal boundary conditions at the ceiling and the floor, and an extended region to include conditions

outside the enclosure can all be taken into account. An error correction scheme,

which has been found to be effective in controlling the accuracy of the numerical

calculations in a variety of situations, is now fully incorporated into the working

code. The documentation of a simplified version of this code, known as UNDSAFE

1. which deals with a simple two-dimensional compartment with a floor source of

arbitrary strength and location, a window or doorway, arbitrary ceiling and floor

thermal boundary conditions, and no radiation effects, has now been issued as a Technical Report TR-79002 -77 - 1 , which is currently being distributed through

NTIS

.

2. Turbulence Modeling

The turbulent buoyant flow associated with fire and smoke spread in corridors

and compartments is characterized by turbulent intensities ranging from that of

almost laminar flows to that of very strong turbulent flows. The latest algebraic

turbulence model for the eddy viscosity, which is an improved version of that re- ported in the last year's meeting, takes into account both local shear and stratification effects and is specifically formulated to accommodate the wide range of

intensities mentioned above. A technical report describing the development of

this algebraic model, its sensitivity, and its advantage over other existing models

including phenomenological differential field models, is now being prepared. This

model will be severely tested to determine its validity in the corridor problem as soon as the detailed transient temperature and velocity data, now being obtained

in our laboratory, become available. From a basic fluid mechanics point of view,

the algebraic model does have some inherent limitations concerning the transport

of turbulence, the extent of which is difficult to assess at this time, but which can

be determined by comparisons with the experimental data. Some preliminary

study has been carried out to apply differential field turbulence models developed

for simple turbulent shear flows to the present problem.

3. Radiation Modeling

Simulation studies using UNDSAFE and a one -dimensional radiation model for wall,

soot and gaseous radiation are being conducted to determine the relative importance of these radiation quantities as function of the depth of the smoke layer, soot

concentration, species concentrations of the participating gases, and boundary

temperatures at the ceiling and the floor. Since the inclusion of radiation in UNDSAFE

calculations greatly increases the computer CPU time, a systematic study has been

carried out to explore the possibility of not updating radiation effects at every time

step, but rather, updating the effects at regularly spaced time steps. The results show for the present calculations that radiation updating every 10 time steps

provides very adequate results when compared to that when the updating is done

every time step. This simplification is now incorporated in the UNDSAFE code

for the radiation simulation studies.

147
4. Experimental Studies

There are two currently active experimental studies. One deals with the measurement of transient temperature and velocity fields in a model corridor with strip

heaters and methane burners to simulate floor fires. Temperature measurements

in both heater cases have now been completed. We now also have corresponding

steady-state velocity data. We have plans to use a laser Doppler velocimeter to

map the complete transient velocity fields for the two simulated fire cases. A

second experimental study deals with mean flow and turbulence measurements in a wind tunnel with an unstable temperature profile. The study will be used to provide direct experimental data on the effect of temperature stratification on the

turbulence field which is needed to verify the effect of stratification as predicted

by our latest algebraic turbulence model. The previously designed heater, which

produces linear temperature profiles at the tunnel test section entrance, has been

found to be inadequate to produce the level of Richardson number expected in the

enclosure fire phenomena. Current effort is directed toward base plate heating in

the wind tunnel to generate high Richardson numbers.

5. NBS Data Simulation

The validity of the UNDSAFE code can only be determined by comparing numerical

results with appropriate experimental data. The transient velocity and temperature measurements in the Notre Dame model corridor will be used exactly for this

purpose. Also, simulation studies have been in progress to generate numerical

results which can be used to compare with the steady-state experimental data obtained in the NBS corridor facilities. This latter comparison is somewhat difficult to make at the outset because of unknown thermal boundary conditions in the experiments and the two-dimensional nature of the UNDSAFE code. One completed case

is worth mentioning at this time. An attempt has been made to adjust the strength

of the simulated floor fire for the case of having a soffet only at the corridor exit so that the resulting steady-state temperature profiles would match that of the NBS

data. It is found that to do so requires a heater source of 150 KW, as compared to

the experimental value of 210 KW. We feel that this comparison is satisfactory,

particularly in view of the fact that heat losses in the experiment were not controlled.

Other calculations for possible comparisons with the NBS data are now continuing.

6. Multiple Plume -Ceiling Interaction Study

In this study the UNDSAFE code is utilized to study the interaction between two adjacent plumes and the interaction of these plumes with floor and ceiling. The objective is to determine the plume merging time, the extent of the plume region that

interacts with the ceiling,and the smoke layer thickness generated by the plumes

as functions of heat source geometry relative to the ceiling height and heat source

strengths. Several previously completed computer runs are now being repeated

with the latest algebraic turbulence model. Results will be correlated on the basis

of Grashof numbers and various geometrical ratios, and compared with data existing in the literature.

7. Combustion Modeling

The fire has so far been simulated in our study by volumetric heat sources with location and strength corresponding to those of the simulated fires. A program has

been initiated to develop experimental data so that the combustion process in the

fire can be modeled for incorporation into the UNDSAFE code. Fire testing facilities are now being fabricated in our laboratory for experimental studies on free

burning fires as well as fires burning in the proximity of walls and ceilings. These

fire tests will commence shortly.

8. Cinematics

A formal contract has been signed with the Argonne National Laboratory to provide

movie -making services to convert computer output from UNDSAFE in transient

velocity and temperature fields into movies. All the needed software has been
debugged and we have established compatibility with the Argonne computer and

movie-making system. A trial run shows very promising results, and a production run is scheduled.

Accomplishments

1. A computer code, UNDSAFE, for two-dimensional unsteady recirculating flows

with turbulence, compressibility, strong buoyancy, combustion and radiation has

been developed. The code is sufficiently flexible to incorporate any desirable physical models for turbulence, radiation and combustion as well as accommodate a wide variety of enclosure and corridor configurations.

2. The validity of UNDSAFE has been examined in detail regarding its numerical

stability and accuracy, and also in terms of comparison with known results in

several limiting cases. An error correction scheme has also been developed and

incorporated into UNDSAFE, and is shown to be an effective tool to ascertain the

numerical accuracy in a variety of enclosure fire problems.

3. This computer code also incorporates output in the form of CALCOMP plotted

instantaneous velocity vector and temperature fields so that different recirculation zones and regions of high temperature can be readily discerned. This mode

of output is also used as a data base to generate computer movies showing the detailed time responses of the flow and temperature fields.

4. The computer code UNDSAFE currently incorporates a new algebraic turbulence model for recirculation flow and wide ranges of turbulence levels, a radiation

model which accounts for one -dimensional wall, soot and gaseous radiation, and a combustion model based on simulated volumetric heat sources valid throughout

the corridor except in the immediate vicinity of the fire. These models are continually refined based on new experimental data.

5. Computer simulation runs have been carried out to support the ongoing corridor

fire program at the NBS Center fof Fire Research. Many of the flow features and

temperature field variations observed in the NBS experiments do agree with that

from the computer calculations.

6. Two test facilities have been constructed at Notre Dame and are now in continuing use. One is a wind tunnel capable of burning gaseous fuels or employing

strip heaters as simulated fires. The other facility is a model enclosure simulating

a burn room with a corridor attached in line. Instrumentation includes probes for

temperature, velocity, and gas concentration, as well as for flow visualization with

smoke. Test results obtained so far include flow patterns from flow visualization,

steady velocity profiles, and also detailed transient temperature profiles. Some

of these results have already been utilized in the development of refined physical

models in the computer code.

Potential Applications

Once the code UNDSAFE is developed to the extent that it adequately predicts the

spread of real fire and smoke in any enclosure configuration, many potential applications can be identified. In the case of fire hazard testing of materials, applications of UNDSAFE can be found in the design and data interpretation of such

tests as the tunnel tests, radiant panel tests, corner tests, and the like. The computer code can also be used in the support of large-scale fire tests in rooms or even in buildings in terms of pre-test simulation, instrumentation and data acquisition and post-test data reduction and analysis. Applications can also be found in

architectural design in the generation of input data for the design of structure for

fire integrity, escape routes in buildings, compartmentalization for fire containment, fire detection and fire fighting techniques, and also for the design of building

codes. Lastly, this computer code can also serve as a vital simulation tool in the

training of fire fighting personnel to show the importance of various physical effects on the spread of fire and smoke in rooms and corridors.
Future Milestones

1. Finalization of the turbulence model based on the steady and unsteady velocity

and temperature measurement in the Notre Dame model corridor.

2. Finalization of the combustion model.

3. Completion of basic studies on plume interaction and room ventilation.

4. Complete analysis of NBS small scale corridor test data.

5. Complete analysis of the E-84 tunnel test data of the Underwriters' Laboratory.

6. Development of the three-dimensional computer code and the associated physical

models.

7. Utilization implementation.

Reports and Papers

1. K. T. Yang and J. R. Lloyd, "Fire and Smoke Spread, " Technical Report

ND-PR-07749-7, Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering,

University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, October 1, 1976, 37 pp.

2. A. C. Ku, M. L. Doria and J. R. Lloyd, "Numerical Modeling of Unsteady

Buoyant Flows Generated by Fire in a Corridor, " Proceedings of the Sixteenth

(International) Symposium on Combustion, Boston, Mass., August 15-20, 1976.

3. K. T. Yang and L. C. Chang, "UNDSAFE I. A Computer Code for Buoyant

Flow in an Enclosure, " Technical Report TR-79002 -77 - 1 , Department of

Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre

Dame, Indiana, March 1, 1977, 102 pp.

4. K. T. Yang and J. R. Lloyd, "Fire and Smoke Spread, " Final Technical Report

submitted to the National Science Foundation, ND-PR-07749-8, Department of

Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame,

Indiana, May 31, 1977.

150
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77 -ISO

8

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. , August 3-5, 1977

(Issued October 1977)

Institution: University of Pittsburgh

Grant No.

:

5-9005

Grant Title: Toxicity of Plastic Combustion Products

Principal Investigator: Yves Alarie, Ph.D.

Graduate School of Public Health

University of Pittsburgh

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261

(412) 624-3047

Other Professionals

and Students: Dr. Magi 11, Dr. Frohliger, Dr. Anderson, Dr. Lucia,

Dr. Barrow, Mr. Dierdorf, Mr. Melnick, Mrs. Kane

Project Summary: To develop toxicological methodologies to assess

the hazards of thermal decomposition products from

polymeric materials. The project is particularly

oriented toward irritating gases and aerosols in

the smoke produced.

Progress Report and Accomplishments:

In a special report to NBS dated February 1977 which consists of the

doctoral thesis of C.S. Barrow our main progress to date is described in

detail. This report may be purchased directly from the National Technical

Information Service, 5825 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22151.

The order number is PB-2672 33 . The cost of a paper copy is $9.75; a

microfiche copy costs $3.00.

Our objectives are now expanding and are summarized on the following

diagram.

151
TOXICITY

SCREENING

FOR

POLYMERS

THERMAL

DECOMPOSITION

PRODUCTS

Ui

o') <X

CL

CL

152

’Barrow. CS

Toxicological

methodologies

to

ui«u

tha

relative

hazards

ol

thermal

decomposition

products

from

p<

materials.

Doctoral

thesis.

University

of

Pittsburgh.

1076.

Issued

asa

Special

Report

to

the

National

Bureau

of

Standarc

Research

Grant

15*9005,

February

1977.
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg , Md. , August 3-5, 1977,

(Issued October 1977)

INSTITUTION:

GRANT NUMBER:

GRANT:

Flammability Research Center University of Utah

P.0. Box 8089

Salt Lake City, Utah 84108

Telephone: (801) 581-8431 7-9005-NBS

"The Physiological and Toxicological Aspects of Smoke Produced

During the Combustion of Polymeric Materials 1 '

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR:

(CO-PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS) :

Professor I. N. Einhorn Professor, Materials Science and Engineering

Adjunct Professor, Chemical Engineering

Adjunct Professor, Biopharmaceutical Sciences

Director, Flammability Research Center

Pr*of.

FACULTY:

S. C. Israel Asst. Prof., Mat'ls Sci A Eng., Manager Chemistry Division

W. A. Galster Res. Assoc., Flammability Research Center, Manager Biomedical Division

Prof. R. C. Baldwin Asst. Res. Prof., Mat'ls Sci & Eng., Biomedical Division

Prof. D. A. Chatfield Asst. Res. Prof., Mat'ls Sci & Eng., Chemistry Division

Prof. M. L. Grunnet Assoc. Prof. Dept, of Neurol. & Pathol., Manager Pathol. Section

Prof. B. M. Hughes Assoc. Res. Prof., Mat'ls Sci & Eng., Manager Data Systems

Prof. F. D. Hileman Asst. Res. Prof., Mat'ls Sci & Eng., Chemistry Division

Prof. S. M. Moore Clinical Assoc. Prof., Dept, of Pathol., Medical Examiner, State of Utah

Prof. J. H. Petajan Prof., Dept, of Neurol ., Manager Neurol. A Neurophysiology Section

Prof. J. D. Seader Prof., Chairman, Dept, of Chemical Enq. , Manager Smoke Research Section

Prof. K. J. Voorhees Assoc. Res. Prof., Mat'ls Sci & Enq., Senior Res. Fellow, Chemistry Division

INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH ASSOCIATES:

Dr. G. E. Hartzell Research Associate The Dow Chemical Company

Dr. D. G. Farrar Research Associate Imperial Chemical Industries PROJECT STAFF:

Mr. T. L. Blank Research Special ist Biomedical Division

Ms. C. L. Fraley Secretary Flammability Research Center

Mr. A. P. Krensky Business Manager College of Enqineerinq

Mr. R. B. Jeppsen Research Assistant Biomedical Division

Mr. J. B. McCandless Research Associate Biomedical Division

Mr. W. H. McClennen Research Technician Chemistry Division

Mr. D. N. Osborne Analytical Chemist Chemistry Division

Ms. S. B. Pedersen Laboratory Technician III Biomedical Division

Mr. D. L. Pope Junior Analytical Chemist Chemistry Division

Mr. R. F. Rose Medical Technologist III Biomedical Division

Ms. A. A. Synder Electron Microscope Tech. Biomedical Division

Ms. P. L. Tadman Administrative Assistant Flammability Research Center

Mr. L. H. Wojcik Data Analyst Flammability Research Center

GRADUATE STUDENTS:

Mr. J. R. Angal Chemical Engineering

Mr. R. W. Darr Bioengineering

Mr. B. G. Dinger Physiology

Mr. D. M. Hou Materials Science & Eng

Mr. N. Igarashi Materials Science & Eng

Mr. S. S. Ou Chemical Engineering

Mr. D. J. Wendel Chemical Engineering

Ph.D. Candidate

(Society of the Plastics Industry Fellowship)

(Forest Products Association Fellowship)

Ph.D. Candidate

(Society of the Plastics Industry Fellowship)

M.S. completed, Ph.D. Candidate

(Society of the Plastics Industry Fellowship)

Ph.D. completed June 1977 (Society of the Plastics Industry Fellowship)

Ph.D. Candidate

(Society of the Plastics Industry Fellowship)

Ph.D. Candidate

(International Isocyanate Institute Fellowship)

153
PROJECT SUMMARY

The Flammability Research Center of the University of Utah combines

efforts of an extensive staff of personnel from the Colleges of Engineering, Medicine, and Science, together with significant participation from

members of agencies actually involved in fire fighting and public safety.

This multidisciplinary team is engaged in a three-part program aimed

toward an indepth assessment of the basic hazards to human survival as a

result of fire exposure.

TASK i - DEVELOPMENT OF PROTOCOL FOR ASSESSMENT OF RELATIVE TOXICITY OF

MATERIALS UPON COMBUSTION

A. Evaluation of commonly employed combustion/exposure systems.

B. Development of analytical methodology necessary to monitor

commonly encountered toxicants as well as to identify unusual

toxicants that may be encountered during fire exposure.

C. Evaluation of behavioral and physiological responses of rats

to selected toxicant systems in order to determine those parameters which are most meaningful, sensitive, and reproducible

in evaluating toxicological hazards.

D. Histophathological evaluations to correlate potential tissue

damage resulting from toxicant exposure with functional impairment observations.

E. Development of computerized data acquisition and reduction

systems to handle the vast amount of analytical and physiological data resulting from animal exposure experiments.

154
TASK II - SMOKE OPTICAL DENSITY STUDIES

Task II is a continuation of smoke optical density studies, with

particular emphasis on an examination of the additivity of optical density

produced from the burning of composites.

TASK III - POLYMER DEGRADATION STUDIES

Task III involves development and application of improved methodology

for studying materials produced from burning materials. Research is being

conducted within the scope of this task to aid in determination of the

mechanics of polymer thermal decomposition of specific systems.

POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS

1. FIRST-TIER SCREENING PROTOCOL - COMBUSTION PRODUCTS TOXICITY

A first-tier screening protocol has been developed which will permit

easy and reproducible assessment of the development of "unusually toxic"

products in the complex mixtures of combustion products.

2. SECOND-TIER SCREENING PROTOCOL - COMBUSTION PRODUCTS TOXICITY

An indepth, or second-tier protocol which may be used to assess the

physiological and toxicological responses to animals resulting from a

single acute exposure to combustion products has been developed. Present

research is designed to develop the specifications required for standards

promulgation

.

FUTURE MILESTONES

An intensive study of combustion product toxicology is in progress

to determine the potential physiological and toxicological hazards

155
resulting from combustion of natural and synthetic materials used in

our "built environment." Analysis procedures are in the final stages of

development which, when completed, should permit a premarket assessment

of hazards relating to combustion product toxicity.

TASK I - DEVELOPMENT OF A PROTOCOL FOR ASSESSMENT OF RELATIVE TOXICITY

OF MATERIALS UPON COMBUSTION

A. Combustion Module Development and Evaluation

An essential ingredient required for development of a screening

protocol is an appropriate combustion device which would be interfaced

with an animal monitoring/exposure chamber and analytical instrumentation.

Development of this aspect of research is difficult due largely to

the unavailability of relevant combustion methodology which is meaningful,

reproducible, and applicable to comparison of a variety of materials. There

also exists considerable controversy surrounding utilization of radiant

heat energy as compared to conduction heat, as well as flaming and nonflaming modes. The goal of this task was to resolve the significance of

two important issues: (1) separation of pure flaming combustion from nonflaming oxidative decomposition; and (2) the question of radiant versus

conductive energy input, i.e., heat flux versus sample temperature.

Laboratory evaluation of the tube furnace combustion device (e.g.,

DIN Combustion Apparatus), the static combustion furnace, and the Aminco

NBS Smoke Density Chamber. A variety of reference matertals (wood, cellular plastics, and solid polymers) were selected and combusted under a

variety of conditions. Performance of each system was judged using the

analysis of combustion products as well as by the use of physiological and

behavioral response of rats.

Based upon the results of such laboratory evaluation it has been

possible to design, build, and evaluate a hybrid combustion device more

156
suitable for screening applications of combustion toxicology than any

currently available apparatus.

Protocol development has progressed through the experimental stage

entering the evaluation of precision and accuracy of the method with

some selected applications. A system capable of combusting materials in

the flaming and nonflaming modes allowing animal exposure to toxic fumes

without appreciable heat stress has been perfected. Rapid conductive

heating to temperatures just below and above the flaming point is used

for the two modes of combustion. Different amounts of the material sufficient

to estimate the apparent dose (g/m ) for incapacitating (EC cr.) and killing

du

(LD,-

0

) half of the animals is used. Head only exposures providing opportunities for close examination of animal responses, easy collection of

blood samples, and observation of the lethal effects, improves the biological assessments of the animals' responses. Causality of these responses

is also explored through correlation between behavioral responses, blood

parameters, and analysis of respiratory and toxic gases in the chamber.

Relative toxicity assessment is now envisioned as a determination of

the material's flash point, EC cr,, ED cri , toxic causality and emission of

DU DU

gases during both modes of combustion. Comparison of materials in these

ways should provide a wider data base necessary for appropriate application

by industry. The utility of this approach remains to be evaluated,

especially in the precision and sensitivity of this method.

Simplified methods for identifying effects of asphyxia and other

toxic interactions are being sought. Hopefully, this will provide an

157
easier method for detecting the usual toxicity of combustion products,

sortinq out unusual problems with new materials. Recommended practices

involving practical and economic evaluations of combustion toxicity of

products in a first-tier screening are envisioned.

B. A computerized analytical system has been designed and assembled

which is capable of monitoring, by batch processing, the combustion

chamber environment. Routine analysis of the concentration of respiratory

gases, oxygen, and carbon dioxide are conducted every three minutes during

the 30-minute exposure episode. Other analytical techniques have been

developed to permit routine analysis, by batch processing of carbon monoxide,

acetaldehyde, acrolein, hydrogen halides (chlorine or bromine), hydrogen

cyanide, selective nitriles, styrene monomers, and total hydrocarbons,

either individually or in selected combinations. A complete computerized

assessment of the above information can be readily retrieved after a given

exposure episode.

C. As mentioned previously, the combustion/exposure chamber has been

designed, built, and used for assessment of toxicity of combustion products.

Special monitoring devices have been designed and constructed to permit

easy and accurate assessment of loss of avoidance using a leg-flexion

paradigm. Techniques have been developed which have permitted assessment

of pH homeostasis. Blood data measurements, pH, PO^, PCC^, HCO^,

hemoglobin, oxyhemoglobin, and carbox.yhemoqlobin , have been developed

and a system designed and fabricated to permit rapid and accurate

computerization of this information.

158
D . Histophathological Studie s

In studying the hi stopathology of animals exposed to the products

of combustion from various materials, we have found that smoke from

each material produces some unique effects that we had not expected.

It has also become clear that smoke from a given material affects different organs and tissues differently. That is, smoke from different materials may produce uniquely different pathological patterns. These patterns

may be helpful in allowing us to know what organs and tissues might be

affected acutely by the inhalation of certain types of smoke by a patient.

Patterns could also implicate the contribution of specific materials to

the complex mixtures of smoke. It should be possible to anticipate what

the delayed and sometimes fatal sequelae of some exposure to smoke of

various types might be.

1. Evaluation of Douglas Fir

Animals exposed to wood smoke have shown an apparently

unique pathological pattern. Wood smoke contains CO, CO^,

as well as a-ldehydes such as acrolein and acetaldehyde. The

physiological and pathological effects of Douglas fir subjected

to a variety of heat fluxes with and without a pilot flame have

been studied, as well as the exposure chamber concentrations of

0^, CO, CO

2

, acetaldehyde, and acrolein.

Rats exposed for 20 minutes to smoke from 20 g of Douglas

2 fir irradiated at 2. 5-5.0 watts/cm without pilot flame developed

severe respiratory distress. Three to 24 hours later coagulation

necrosis of epithalium of the trachea-bronchial tree with slough159
ing and purulent exudate could be seen. The lungs showed

congestion and atelectasis. The thyroid gland developed

progressively increasing desquamation of epithelium into the

follicular colloid with infiltration by inflammatory cells

and macrophages. Other organs appeared normal. If the

animal lived 7- to 8 days the tracheobronchial tree was reepithelized by normal pseudostrati fied columnar epithelium

and moderate to severe pneumonia was present. Animals which

lived 30 days postexposure showed moderate pneumonia, flattened

thyroid epithelium, and globules in thyroid colloid. Animals

surviving 10 months after exposure showed similar changes.

Other organs, including the brain, appeared normal.

2. Evaluation of Polyvinyl Chloride Polymers

In studies of animals exposed to the combustion products

of polyvinyl chloride polymers there was a significant mortality.

The intoxication syndrome was characteri zed again by respiratory

distress, but with the added effect of damage to the cornea.

The mortality rate and severity of the pathology appeared to

be related to the percent of vinyl chloride monomer in the

original sample. Pathological changes in animals dying within

24 hours consisted of coagulation necrosis of tracheal and

bronchial mucosa, with sloughing and purulent exudate. The

lungs initially showed congestion, atelectasis, and edema.

Later, pneumonia supervened. Eight to 16 days postexposure

animals had abnormal re-epi thel i zation of tracheal and bronchial

160
mucosa with tall, columnar, mucous-secreting epithelium introbronchial exudate and pneumonia. That is, goblet-cell hyerplasin of the tracheobroncial tree developed after exposure.

The thyroid glands in animals exposed to the degradation

products of PVC polymers appeared normal. A number of animals

showed small foci of necrosis in heart and liver. Other organs,

including spleen, kidney, thyroid, and brain, showed no significant abnormalities. Thus, PVC smoke intoxication does differ

from wood smoke intoxication. The abnormal cells produced as a

consequence of exposure to the degradation products of PVC

polymers may cause an individual exposed to PVC smoke to develop

chronic bronchitis or other types of chronic pulmonary disease.

It is possible that such individuals might later develop bronchial

epithelial metaplasia and subsequent anaplasia.

3. Other Studies

Further studies have been conducted using pure gases commonly

found in "real fires" such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide.

The pathological effects of exposure to these gases has been

defined.

E. Computerization Related to MBS Research Programs

Over the year, two major software projects originally begun in 1975

under RANN funding and designed to facilitate the studies into the toxicity

of burning materials have been completed. The first involves the direct

interface of our general laboratory computer with the gas chromatographic

integrator to assist in the calculations and data storage of the concentra161
tions of volatile gases present in exposure chamber atmospheres. Using

the facilities of newly-purchased disc drives and using a disc-orientated

operating system developed by Hewlett-Packard, files of data are received

from the gas chromatographic integrator system and stored on magnetic

tape. With operator interaction these files can be used as standards

or unknowns to calculate concentrations of total hydrocarbons, organics,

air species Ar, CO and CO^), and other species such as HCN and

HC1 present in the combustion atmospheres at various times.

The second software program involves development of a standard file

structure in which to organize data from various exposures. This involves

details of the exposure along with animal data such as loss of avoidance,

death, and blood parameters measured at various times of exposure. A

schematic representation of the file structure is shown in Figure 1.

Using a specific data format, as that shown in the figure for storage of

experimental results, permits detailed statistical evaluations of experiments with limited amount of operator interaction. This latter phase of

the computerization program is envisioned to continue into next year's

program.

A major achievement was also the design of a medical terminal which

will allow direct input from our blood analysis equipment directly into

the file structure mentioned above. While this I/O device has not yet

been incorporated into the existing software, it should be fully operational

and integrated into the above software capabilities in next year's program.

In addition, implementation of a real-time executive monitor system for

162
our laboratory computer will allow multiple exposures to be monitored,

while reducing the amount of manual data input, presently being required.

TASK II - SMOKE OPTICAL-DENSITY STUDIES

Smoke studies at the Flammability Research Center during the past

few years have been directed toward development of a convenient and

reliable method for predicting smoke development. In this regard

theoretical studies have been supplemented by small-scale experimental

work.

The method of Robertson can be used for estimating the potential

hazard from smoke production in a room. However, rather than using

maximum specific optical density, as obtained with the NBS chamber, the

percentage of smoke as measured with the Arapahoe flow-through chamber

can be substituted. This method, as applied to all finishing and furnishing materials in a room, involves estimation of an effective light

extinction coefficient from the equation:

{% Smoke).MLih_ d)

100

where: V = volume of the room

r

= a factor that accounts for expansion and loss of smoke

from the room (Robertson suggests a value of 0.25)

(% Smoke) = percentage of a material converted to particulates

M = Mass of material m

POD = particulate optical density

( POD) 2 . 303 6 Keff

* — E

r i

163
Based on our experiments, the following values of POD have been

determined:

2 POD = 19,000 cm / gm for the nonflaming or smoldering mode

POD = 36,000 cm'Vgm for the flaming mode

These values are in good agreement with theoretical light scattering and

absorption calculations made assuming absence of multiple scattering

effects. This latter assumption we have recently verified in a separate

study

.

Values of K ^from Eq. (1) are compared to limiting values of Jin to

determine whether an occupant of the room can detect an exit. For a

backlighted sign, Jin gives

However, Eqs . (2) and (3) assume that the observer's eyes are not irritated.

The summation term in Eq. (1) is based on the assumption that the

amount of smoke produced from two or more different materials is additive,

irrespective of whether the materials are placed side-by-side or back-toback. Because experimental data to support .this important assumption

were lacking in the literature, a study was recently initiated at the

Flammability Research Center using the NBS chamber in the non-flaming mode.

The material combinations and other pertinent information are listed in

Table 1. For these materials the data on D/L and C, are well correlated

£

2 by a POD of 19,000 cm /gm, which was determined by earlier experiments

( 2 )

where: L = visual distance.

v For an illuminated wall, Jin gives

(3)

at the Flammability Research Center.
The effect of time on the specific optical density for PVC,

a-cellulose, and their side-by-side combination was determined. When

the pure material was tested two samples of it were placed side-by-side.

Values of the specific optical density for the combination appear to be

the summation of the values for separate materials after dividing by two.

The additivity of results is also evident for the maximum specific optical

density and for the mass loss. When these same materials are tested

back-to-back results again demonstrate the validity of the additivity

assumption.

Results for maximum specific optical density and mass loss from sideby-side tests on all binary pairs of ABS, PVC, and Douglas fir (DF) were

determi ned.

Based on studies made thus far it appears that Eq. (1), (2), and (3)

provide an acceptable method for determining whether a room is optically

safe or not in the event of a fire. However, supporting data in the

flaming mode are needed as well as additional data in the non-flaming mode.

TASK III - POLYMER DEGRADATION STUDIES

A. Effluent Gas Analysis (TGA/MS)

A new effluent gas analysis system has been constructed and tested

during the last six months. The system resembles the original design

(1) with the exceptions of lower dead volumes in the furnace and shorter

transfer lines between the furnace and the mass spectrometer

.

A number of specific tests have been conducted to evaluate the

system. These tests include: surface absorption characteristics of

gases such as hydrogen chloride; convolution problems associated with

diffusion; and rapid and reproducible heating of the sample to a preselected isothermal temperature.

165
( R

)

The heated Teflon' ' lines and the entire system was pretreated

with hydrogen chloride until a small continuous bleed was observed.

At this point samples were injected at sizes representing increases of 2,

4, 6 fold. A plot of how these materials interacted with the surface

was obtained by monitoring m/e36 with time and then mathematically fitting

a function to the tail of the peak. It was found following pretreatment

that the observed peak shape at the mass spectrometer was independent

of sample size injected. It was concluded from this experiment that one

could precondition the surface to prevent or minimize surface absorption.

Injection of any sample at the oven as a slug produced a gaussian peak

as monitored by the mass spectrometer. Therefore, the specific ion plot

of a given mass at the mass spectrometer did not represent the production

of gases in the oven, rather an additive convolved function. Deconvolution

procedures have become possible in recent years because of computers and a

better understanding of Fourier transforms. A convolution can be written

<7 ( X ) * fix) = Mx) ( 1 )

To deconvolve ^(x) one has to know or guess the fix), the convolution

function. In our case this function can be obtained accurately by injecting

a slug of compound at the oven and then obtaining diffusion curve at the

mass spectrometer. After obtaining this function it can be fed into a

computer along with the convolved data, followed by fast Fourier transform

(FT), which then allows Eq. (1) to be written

ff(x)

= ftjxj (2)

The function ^(x) can then be obtained by a reverse FT. Using this

approach in a program written at the Flammability Research Center, it

was deduced that the design of the system was adequate and only minor

convolution was produced.
In the past the sample was heated in the Mettler oven by heating at

70°C/min to the isothermal temperature. At present the samples are placed

in the oven below the heating zone while the oven is evacuated and flushed.

At this point the sample crucible on the sensing stick is raised into the

heating zone. Temperature rise times of 40O-5OO°C/min are obtained using

this method.

B. Polyurethane Polymers

Chemical Characteri zation of Polyurethane Foams . Four rigid

polyurethane foams, widely used in commerce, were hydrolyzed in aqueous

base. This hydrolysis produced a mixture of the original polyols and

polyomines corresponding to the raw materials used in foam production.

These components were analyzed by chemical ionization mass spectrometry

without prior separation. The chemical ionization produced mainly the

protonated molecules in (M+N)

+

. Ion assignments were made for each compound

of each homologous series. Observed fragmentation was limited to the loss

of aniline from certain polyomines and the loss of water from each polyol.

The polyomines were analyzed further by high pressure liquid chromatography. These methods complement the classical methods of determining

the chemical composition of polyurethane foams.

C. Thermal Decomposition Mechanisms in Polyurethane Polymers

Considerable progress has been made in development of analytical

procedures which have been utilized in the study of polymer thermal

decomposition mechanisms.

Products of pyrolysis in a helium atmosphere of a model urethane

polymer were 'investigated using GC/MS and GC/C1-MS. Chemical-ionization

mass spectrometry was used because it produces, primarily, protonated

molecular ions (M+l) with little fragmentation which facilitated the

identification of the polyol decomposition products. Combining this

information with results of the identification of volatile compounds, a detailed

mechanism for urethane-polyol pyrolysis has been formulated.

167
D. Combustion of. Douglas Fir

A detached study of Douglas fir and a-cellular was conducted utilizing

newly developed analytical procedures. Attempts were made to separate the

lignin from the Douglas fir with as little change to the lignin as possible.

Application of direct pyrolysis chemical-ionization mass spectrometry

and the subtraction of spectra has provided a criteria for determining when

lignin has been extracted in a form similar to that in wood.

The following of light gas decomposition products of Douglas fir in

air and helium has provided new insight into the kinetics of decomposition.

Faster and higher-resolution gas chromatographic techniques are being

developed to follow an even greater number of products, many of which,

due to common molecular weight or serious electron impact fragmentation,

cannot be followed by a mass spectrometer.

168
REPORTS AND PAPERS

FRC/UU

069

070

071

072

073

074

075

UTEC Mo. Title and Author(s)

76-213

76-221

76-227

76-228

"Some Physical, Chemical, Toxicological, and

Physiological Aspects of Fire Smokes," J. D. Seader and I. N. Einhorn; paper presented at the

Sixteenth International Symposium on Combustion

of the Combustion Institute, Massachusetts

Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts,

August 15-21, 1976. Proceedings 16th Combustion

Institute (In Press).

"The Physiological and Toxicological Aspects of

Combustion," I. N. Einhorn, M. L. Grunnet, J. H. Petajan, and R. C. Baldwin; paper presented at

the Fifth International Fire Protection Seminar,

Karlsruhe, West Germany, September 22-24, 1976.

"Flammability and Thermal Characteristics of a Urea

Formaldehyde Foam," I. N. Einhorn, K. J. Voorhees,

and D. A. Chatfield; an invited paper presented at

the Fourth International Cellular Plastics Conference

of the Cellular Plastics Division, Society of the

Plastics Industry, Montreal, Canada, November 18,

1976.

"Thermal Degradation of Model Urethane Foams--An

Analytical Study - I," I. N. Einhorn, M. S. Ramakrishnan , K. J. Voorhees, and R. W. Mickelson;

invited paper presented at the Fourth International

Cellular Plastics Conference, the Society of the

Plastics Industry, Montreal, Canada, November 15-19,

1976; Polymer Science and Engineering (In Press).

"Thermal Degradation of Model Fire-Retarded Urethane

Foams--An Analytical Study - II," I. N. Einhorn,

M. S. Ramakrishnan, K. J. Voorhees, and R. W. Mickelson; invited paper presented at the Fourth

International Cellular Plastics Conference, the

Society of the Plastics Industry, Montreal, Canada,

November 15-19, 1976; Polymer Science and

Engineering (In Press).

76-229 "The Assessment of the Human Survival Response

During Aircraft Accidents," I. N. Einhorn; invited

paper presented at an International Seminar on Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting, National Fire

Protection Association (International), Geneva,

Switzerland, September 13-17, 1976.

76-230 "Pathology and Neuropathology of Fire Victims in

Aircraft Fires," M. L. Grunnet; invited paper

presented at an International Seminar on Aircraft

Rescue and Fire Fighting, National Fire Protection

Association (International), Geneva, Switzerland,

September 13-17, 1976.

169
076

077

078

079

080

081

083

084

085

76-238 "An Investigation of the Thermolysis Mechanism of

Model Urethanes," K. J. Voorhees, F. D. Hileman,

I. N. Einhorn, and J. H. Futrell; paper presented

at the Fourth International Cellular Plastics

Conference of the Cellular Plastics Division, The

Society of the Plastics Industry, Montreal, Canada,

November 18, 1976; Journal of Polymer Science

(In Press).

76-248 "Chemical Characterization of Polyurethane Foams,"

N. A. Mumford, I. N. Einhorn, and D. A. Chatfield;

paper presented at the Fourth International Cellular

Plastics Conference of the Cellular Plastics

Division, Society of the Plastics Industry, Montreal,

Canada, November 18, 1976.

76-254 "The Physiological and Toxicological Aspects of

Combustion," I. N. Einhorn, M. L. Grunnet, and

J. H. Petajan; paper presented at the Second Joint

Meeting, U. S. - Japan Panel on Fire Research and

Safety, Tokyo, Japan, October 19-22, 1976.

76-259 "Physiological and Behavioral Responses to Fire

Combustion Products," G. E. Hartzell, S. C. Israel,

S. C. Packham, F. D. Hileman, M. L. Dickman, R. W. Mickelson, R. C. Baldwin; invited paper presented

at the Fourth International Cellular Plastics

Conference, The Society of the Plastics Industry,

Montreal, Canada, November 15-19, 1976.

76-260 "Fire Research and Public Safety," G. E. Hartzell;

invited paper presented at the 64th National Safety

Congress and Exposition, Chicago, Illinois, October

18-21, 1976.

76-266 "Combustion Products of Material s--Assessing the

Toxicity Hazard," S. C. Israel; invited paper

presented at the American Chemical Society 12th

Midwest Regional Meeting, Kansas City, Missouri,

October 28-29, 1976.

"Correlation of Gravimetric Smoke Measurement by

the Arapahoe Chamber with Optical Smoke Measurement

by the NBS Chamber for Flaming Combustion," S. S. Ou, J. D. Seader, Fire Research (In Press).

"Prediction of the Smoking Tendency of Materials,"

J. D. Seader, S. S. Ou, paper presented at the

Committee on Fire Research, National Academy of

Sciences International Symposium on Toxicity and

Physiology of Combustion Products, University of

Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah (March 22-26, 1976).

"Correlation of the Smoking Tendency of Materials,"

J. D. Seader, S. S. Ou, paper presented at meeting

of The American Chemical Society, September 1976;

Fire Research (In Press).
087

088

089

77-059

77-069

77-070

"The Physiological and Toxicological Aspects of

Combustion," I. N. Einhorn, M. L. Grunnet, J. H. Petajan; paper presented at a Symposium and

Workshop, The Polytechnic Institute of New York

and U. S. Department of Transportation, April 1977.

"Component Analysis of Rigid Polyurethane Foams,"

N. A. Mumford, D. A. Chatfield, I. N. Einhorn,

Fire Research (In Press).

"The Analysis of Rigid Polyurethanes by Chemical

Ionization Mass Spectrometry," N. A. Mumford, D. A. Chatfield, I. N. Einhorn, submitted to Journal of

Applied Polymer Science.

Theses and Dissertations (1976-1977 )

Hileman, F. D. , New Techniques for the Analysis of Thermolysis Products.

Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Chemistry, College of Science,

University of Utah (February 1977).

Hou, D. M. , The Effect of Fire Retardant Concentration on the Flammability

Characteristics of Rigid-Urethane Foam Polymers. M.S. Dissertation,

Department of Materials Science and Engineering, College of Engineering,

University of Utah (July 1977).

Igarashi , Nobuya, Studies Pertaining to the Mechanisms of Step-Growth

Polymers — Nylon 6, Polyethylene Terephthalate, and Polycarbonate.

Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Materials Science and Engineering,

College of Engineering, University of Utah (June 1977).

171
E • | o * ? ° _ O z

+- a £ 3 °

3 - T3 -D c 41 — O w Cl

C “

o o o -

E .2

C “ o = X :T 3 s

° ° Si a x

CE a> .c

<uE •- - <u s

Q. £E

X 3

a> c ° 5

v> ~

c O

2 t; - E

^ 2 E - « o o — *- c - C

170

Figure

1

.

Data

acquisition

and

display

of

experiments

presently

being

conducted

on

the

toxicities

of

combustion

products.
Table 1

Tests with Material Combinations

Material

Combination

Placement Dimensions, inches

PVC/a-cellulose side-by-side 1-7/16 x 11/16 x 0.030 each

PVC/a-cellulose back-to-back 1-7/16 x 11/16 x 0.060

ABS/PVC side-by-side 2-15/16 x 2-15/16 x 1/8

DF/PVC side-by-side 2-15/16 x 2-15/16 x 1/8

DF/ABS side-by-side 2-15/16 x 2-15/16 x 1/8

173
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. , August 3-5, 1977,

(Issued October 1977)

Institution : University of Washington

Grant No . G6-9016

Grant Title : Development and Evaluation of Vocal Alarm Systems for

Hospitals and Convalescent Homes

Principal Investigators : John P. Keating and Elizabeth F. Loftus

Department of Psychology

College of Arts and Science

University of Washington

Seattle, Washington 98195

Project Summary :

In 1973 the current research team (principal investigators Keating and

Loftus) developed the messages used for emergency alarms in the Seattle

Federal Building. These messages were designed using techniques of

behavioral science research and subsequently experimentally evaluated to determine that they facilitated efficient, quick, and calm egress from

affected areas during fire and other emergency situations. Subsequently,

this system has been adopted by newly constructed federal high-rise

buildings as well as copied by a variety of other high-rise structures.

The research team was asked to investigate the feasibility of developing

such vocal alarm messages for health facilities (hospitals and convalescent homes). Since health care facilities posed a variety of problems

not faced by high-rise structures, the investigation began by a careful

review of all literature pertinent to emergency evacuation systems in

such facilities. Convinced that the extant literature was almost non- existent concerning this problem, the investigators initiated a program

of research specifically aimed at development of emergency messages for use in health facilities.

The initial phase of this research entailed in-depth interviews with

selected hospital and nursing home fire specialists. These interviews

acquainted the investigators with problem areas specific to emergency

evacuation in hospitals and nursing homes. Surprisingly varied approaches

to emergency training and communication were reported during the interviews. While all institutions had some form of alarm signal whether it

be vocal communication or simple bell alarms, the way such messages were

communicated and alarms sounded dramatically differed between the institutions studied.

To verify this information and to help generalize to a broader hospital/

nursing home population, investigators conducted a mail interview survey

concerning alarm procedures that was mailed to all hospitals and nursing

homes in the State of Washington. The response to this survey was better than fifty percent. The investigators felt that an accurate

representation from the variety of hospitals and nursing homes sampled was secured through the questionnaire format. Once again the variety in
messages and emergency procedures in use throughout the hospitals and

nursing homes in Washington was perhaps the most important finding from

the survey.

Since the investigation team's particular mandate was to look at the

feasibility of developing vocal alarm messages for health facilities,

the focus of the research program was aimed directly at this problem.

Relying on the information gained through the interviews and survey, the

number one priority was defined as some kind of standardization in the

construction of vocal alarm messages for health facilities. Such standard

forms seemed essential given the transient character of many doctors who

work several hospitals in a community as well as the nursing staff which

frequently can be interchanged among cooperating hospitals. The problem

of standardization may not be so critically important for nursing homes

since nursing homes frequently do not have more sophisticated alarm

delivery systems, and usually rely on some electronic alarm to signal an emergency.

The first issue addressed by the investigators was whether such vocal

alarm systems should deliver coded messages to alert personnel to emer- gencies, or simply communicate to personnel as well as patients the fact

that an emergency situation in the structure existed. Based partly on our interviews and partly on the written responses to the questionnaire,

the investigators concluded that because of a variety of problems with

differing patient populations (e.g., burn victims, mental patients),

such vocal alarm messages in hospitals should be delivered in a coded

format

.

With this decision made, the next question addressed by the investigators

was how might delivery of a coded message be easily recognized by targeted

personnel while at the same time allowing the message to remain concealed

from the patient population. Relying on the principles of cognitive

experimental psychology, a program of studies was initiated to construct

messages with high connotative meaning for informed and trained personnel

which at the same time would communicate relatively innocuous messages

to the patients. To accomplish this purpose, a research paradigm was designed to identify words which directly connote fire and at the same

time do not explicitly inform the entire population effected that there

is a fire in the facility. It is our intent to recommend such words be

used to introduce fire messages and at the same time establish a standard,

coded format for such messages. For example, the introduction of a fire

alarm message could begin with "Nurse Blaze 4 West, Nurse Blaze 4 West"

signaling a fire situation on the fourth floor, west wing. The introduction of the message with the title nurse seemed optimal since from our interviews and questionnaire survey nurses seem to be the identified

component of the personnel staff whose quick and meaningful response to emergency situations is crucial for successful fire response. The title

"nurse" seems also preferable to other possible titles since nurses are seldomly solicited by name over hospital public address systems.

The data collected enabling us to properly identify words and messages

for use in health facilities is currently being analyzed and will be

available for presentation at the August NBS contractors meeting. At

that time, messages will be recommended for use during emergencies in

health facilities, and future direction of this research will be described.

175
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH, NBSIR 77-1308

Proceedings of a Conference Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md. , August 3-3, 1977

,

(Issued October 1977)

Institution:

Grant Title

:

Grant No.

:

Integrated Systems Inc.

Air Movement and Smoke Diffusion Simulation Programs

6-35822

Principal Investigator : John Fothergill

Integrated Systems Inc.

II88 O Coakley Circle

Rockville, Md. 20852

Project Summary :

Under Contract to the Center for Fire Research, Integrated Systems, Inc.

(ISI) has developed an improved version of a steady state air movement computer

simulation program. This model has a much greater ability to represent

a contemporary building system and is significantly more efficient than an earlier model completed in 1975- It also provides for horizontal movement and

a much improved representation of HVAC systems. Under this same contract, ISI

has also developed a new smoke transport computer simulation program which

predicts smoke concentrations in a building based upon air movement data.

This model is completely compatible with the latest air movement simulation

program, including an ability to predict the movement of smoke through HVAC

systems.

To provide a basis for testing these new simulation programs, trace gas field

tests of three buildings have been and will be made. Trace gas concentration

data, state data and pressure differential data has been and will be collected.

Parametric models of these buildings are constructed and simulated to

calibrate the models against field data. After calibration of the models,

parametric variations are simulated to evaluate various smoke control hypothesis.

An unsteady thermal state smoke movement simulation program has also been

developed and is being tested. Thermal effects, due to a hypothesized fire

scenario, in air movement behavior and smoke transport can be simulated with

this program.

An investigation of the practicality of modeling and simulating the effects

of dispersion in the smoke transport program has been performed. Present

simulation models assume instantaneous homogeneous mixing. This approach appears

to be satisfactory for some structures but does not appear to be satisfactory

for others. Straight forward treatment of dispersion in the classical form

is not economically or practically feasible as an added simulation function

to the smoke movement programs. Consequently, a pragmatic approach has been

sought in this investigation.

A guideline for smoke control systems designers is also presently in preparation

as a part of this effort.

176
PROGRAM

FOR

DESIGN

CONCEPTS

X3175

B06
Appendix B

Public Law 93-498

93rd Congress, S. 1769

October 29, 1974

3n 3tt

To reduce losses of life and property, through better tire prevention and control, and for other purposes.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That this Act may

be cited as the “Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974”.

FINDINGS

Skc. 2. The Congress finds that—

(1) The National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control,

established pursuant to Public Law 90-259, has made an exhaustive

and comprehensive examination of the Nation’s fire problem, has made

detailed findings as to the extent of this problem in terms of human

suffering and loss of life and property, and has made ninety thoughtful recommendations.

(2) The United States today has the highest per capita rate of death

and property loss from fire of all the major industrialized nations in the world.

(3) Fire is an undue burden affecting all Americans, and fire also constitutes a public health and safety problem of great dimensions.

Fire kills 12,000 and scars and injures 300,000 Americans each year, including 50,000 individuals who require extended hospitalization.

Almost $3 billion worth of property is destroyed annually by fire, and

the total economic cost of destructive fire in the United States is esti- mated conservatively to be $11,000,000,000 per year. Firefighting is the Nation’s most hazardous profession.

(4) Such losses of life and property from file are unacceptable to the Congress.

(5) While fire prevention and control is and should remain a State and local responsibility, the Federal Government must help if a sig- nificant reduction in fire losses is to be achieved.

(6) The fire service and the civil defense program in each locality

would both benefit from closer cooperation.

(7) The Nation’s fire problem is exacerbated by (A) the indiffer- ence with which some Americans confront the subject; (B) the

Nation’s failure to undertake enough research and development into

fire and fire-related problems; (C) the scarcity of reliable data and

information ; (D) the fact that designers and purchasers of buildings

and products generally give insufficient attention to fire safety; (E)

the fact that many communities lack adequate building and fire pre- vention codes ; and (F) the fact that local fire departments spend about

95 cents of every dollar appropriated to the fire services on efforts to extinguish fires and only aoout 5 cents on fire prevention.

(8) There is a need for improved professional training and education oriented toward improving the effectiveness of the fire services,

including an increased emphasis on preventing fires and on reducing

injuries to firefighters.

(9 ) A national system for the collection, analysis, and dissemination

of fire data is needed to help local fire services establish research and

action priorities.

(10) The number of specialized medical centers which are properly

equipped and staffed for the treatment of burns and the rehabilitation of victims of fires is inadequate.

(11) The unacceptably high rates of death, injury, and property

loss from fire can be reduced if the Federal Government estaDlisnes a

P. L. 93-498 O (302)

86 STAT. 1535

Federal Fire Prevention end

Control Aot of 1974.

15 USC 2201

note.

15 USC 2201.

15 USC 278f

notes.

178
68 STAT. 1536 Pub. Law 93-498 October 29, T 974

coordinated program to support and reinforce the fire prevention and

control activities of State and local governments.

PURPOSES

15 use 2202. Sec. 3. It is declared to be the purpose of Congress in this Act to

(1) reduce the Nation’s losses caused by fire through better fire prevention and control

j (2) supplement existing programs of research, training, and

education, and to encourage new and improved programs and

activities by State and local governments;

(3) establish the National Fire Prevention and Control Administration and the Fire Research Center within the Department of

Commerce ; and

(4) establish an intensified program of research into the treat- ment of burn and smoke injuries and the rehabilitation of victims

of fires within the National Institutes of Health.

DEFINITIONS

15 use 2203. Sec. 4. As used in this Act, the term

(1) “Academy” means the National Academy for Fire Prevention and Control;

(2) “Administration” means the National Fire Prevention and

Control Administration established pursuant to section 5 of this Act;

(3) “Administrator” means the Administrator of the National

Fire Prevention and Control Administration;

(4) “fire service” means any organization in any State consist- ing of personnel, apparatus, and equipment which has as its purpose protecting property and maintaining the safety and welfare

of rhe public from the dangers of fire, including a private fire- fighting brigade. The personnel of any such organization may be

paid employees or unpaid volunteers or any combination thereof. The location of any such organization and its responsibility for

extinguishment and suppression of fires may include, but need

not be limited to, a Federal installation, a State, city, town, borough. parish, county, fire district, fire protection district, rural

fire district, or other special district. The terms “fire prevention”,

“firefighting”, and “firecontrol” relate to activities conducted by

a fire service; (5) “local” means of or pertaining to any city, town, county,

special purpose district, unincorporated territory, or other politi- cal subdivision of a State;

( 6) “Secretary” means the Secretary of Commerce; and

(7) “State” means any State, the District of Columbia, the

Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, the Canal

Zone, Guam, American Samoa, the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands and any other territory or possession of the United States. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NATIONAL FIRE PREVENTION AND CONTROL

ADMINISTRATION

15 Use 2204. Sec. 5. (a) Establishment of Administration.—There is hereby

established in the Department of Commerce an agency which shall lie known as the National Fire Prevention and Control Administration.

(b) Administrator.—There shall be at the head of the Administration the Administrator of the National Fire Prevention and Control

Administration. The Administrator shall be appointed by the Presi179
October 29, 1974 Pub. Law 93-498 68 STAT. 1537 dent, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, and shall be

compensated at the rate now or hereafter provided for level IV of the

Executive Schedule pay rates (5 U.S.C. 5315). The Administrator

shall report and be responsible to the Secretary.

(c) Deputy Administrator.—There shall be in the Administration

a Deputy Administrator of the National Fire Prevention and Control

Administration who shall be appointed by the President, by and with

the advice and consent of the Senate, and who shall be compensated at the rate now or hereafter provided for level V of the Executive Schedule pay rates (5 U.S.C. 5316). The Deputy Administrator shall per- form such functions as the Administrator shall from time to time

assign or delegate, and shall act as Administrator during the absence

or disability of the Administrator or in the event of a vacancy in the

office of Administrator. PUBLIC EDUCATION

Sec;. 6. The Administrator is authorized to take all steps necessary

to educate the public and to overcome public indifference as to fire and

fire prevention. Such steps may include, but are not limited to, publications, audiovisual presentations, and demonstrations. Such public

education efforts shall include programs to provide specialized infor- mation for those groups of individuals who are particularly vulnerable

to fire hazards, such as the young and the elderly. The Administrator

shall sponsor and encourage research, testing, and experimentation to determine the most effective means of such public education.

NATIONAL ACADEMY FOR FIRE PREVENTION AND CONTROL

Sec. 7. (a) Establishment.—The Secretary shall establish, at the

earliest practicable date, a National Academy for Fire Prevention and

Control. The purpose of the Academy shall be to advance the professional development of fire service personnel and of other persons engaged in fire prevention and control activities. (b) Superintendent.—The Academy shall be headed by a Superintendent, who shall be appointed by the Secretary. In exercising the powers and authority contained in this section the Superintendent

shall be subject to the direction of the Administrator.

(c) Powers of Superintendent.—The Superintendent is authorized to

(1) develop and revise curricula, standards for admission and

performance, and criteria for the awarding of degrees and

certifications

;

(2) appoint such teaching staff and other personnel as he

determines to be necessary or appropriate

;

(3) conduct courses and programs of training and education, as defined in subsection ( d ) of this section

;

(4) appoint faculty members and consultants without regard to the provisions of title 5, United States Code, governing appointments in the competitive service, and, with respect to temporary

and intermittent services, to make appointments to the same extent

as is authorized by section 3109 of title 5, United States Code;

(5) establish fees and other charges for attendance at, and subscription to, courses and programs offered by the Academy. Such

fees may be modified or waived as determined by the Superintendent

;

(6) conduct short courses, seminars, workshops, conferences,

and similar education and training activities in all parts and

localities of the United States

;

15 USC 2205*

15 USC 2206.

5 USC 101 et aeg.

180
M STAT. I53B Pub. Law 93-498 October 29, 1974

Financial

sus s±3*5anoe *

?Qgt, p. 1545.

©

m enter into such contracts and take such other actions as may be necessary in carrying out the purposes of the Academy

;

ana

(8) consult with officials of the fire services and other interested persons in the exercise of the foregoing powers.

(d) Program of the Academy.—The Superintendent is authorized

to

(1) train fire service personnel in such skills and knowledge as may be useful to advance their ability to prevent and control fires, including, but not limited to

(A) techniques of fire prevention, fire inspection, firefighting, and fire and arson investigation;

(B) tactics and command of firefighting for present and

future fire chiefs and commanders;

administration and management of fire services;

tactical training in the specialized field of aircraft

fire control and crash rescue; (E) tactical training in the specialized field of fire control and rescue aboard waterborne vessels; and

(F) the training of present and future instructors in the aforementioned subjects;

(2) develop model curricula, training programs, and other

educational materials suitable for use at other educational institutions, and to make such materials available without charge;

(3) develop and administer a program of correspondence

courses to advance the knowledge and skills of fire service personnel

;

(4) develop and distribute to appropriate officials model questions suitable for use in conducting entrance and promotional

examinations for fire service personnel; and

(5) encourage the inclusion of fire prevention and detection

technology ana practices in the education and professional practice of architects, builders, city planners, and others engaged in design and planning affected by fire safety problems.

(e) Technical Assistance.—The Administrator is authorized, to the extent that he determines it necessary to meet the needs of the

Nation, to encourage new programs and to strengthen existing pro- f

rams of education and training by local fire services, units, and

epartments, State and local governments, and private institutions, by

providing technical assistance and advice to

(1)

vocational training programs in techniques of fire prevention, fire inspection, firefighting, and fire and arson investigation

;

(2)

fire training courses and programs at junior colleges; and

(3)

four-year degree programs in fire engineering at colleges

and universities.

(f) Assistance.

The Administrator is authorized to provide

assistance to State and local fire service training programs through

grants, contracts, or otherwise. Such assistance shall not exceed 4 per centum of the amount authorized to be appropriated in each fiscal year

pursuant to section 17 of this Act.

(g'i Site Selection.The Academy shall be located on such site as the becretary selects, subject to the following provisions

:

(1) The Secretary is authorized to appoint a Site Selection

Board consisting of the Academy Superintendent and two other

members to survey the most suitable sites for the location of the

Academy and to make recommendations to the Secretary.

(2) The Site Selection Board in making its recommendations

and the Secretary in making his final selection, shall give consideration to tho training and facility needs of the Academy, environ

181
Pub. Law 93-498 se STAT. 1539 October 29, 1974

mental effects, the possibility of using a surplus Government

facility, and such other factors as are deemed important and rele- vant. The Secretary shall make a final site selection not later than

2 years after the date of enactment of this Act. (h) Construction Costs.—Of the sums authorized to be appropriated for the purpose of implementing the programs ot the Administration, not more than $9,000,000 shall be available for the

construction of fatalities of the Academjr on the site selected under

subsection (g) of this section. Such sums for such construction shall remain available until expended.

(i) Educational and Professional Assistance.—The Administrator is authorized to-

(1) provide stipends to students attending Academy courses and programs, in amounts up to 75 per centum of the expense of

attendance, as established by the Superintendent;

(2) provide stipends to students attending courses and nondegree training programs approved by the Superintendent at universities, colleges, and junior colleges, in amounts up to 50 per centum of the cost of tuition;

(3) make or enter into contracts to make payments to insti- tutions of higher education for loans, not to exceed $2,500 per academic year for any individual who is enrolled on a full-time

basis in an undergraduate or graduate program of fire research or engineering which is certified by the Superintendent. Loans

under this paragraph shall be made on such terms and subject to such conditions as the Superintendent and each institution involved may jointly determine; and

(4) establish and maintain a placement and promotion opportunities center in cooperation with the fire services, for firefighters

who wish to learn and take advantage of different or better career

opportunities. Such center shall not limit such assistance to stu- dents and graduates of the Academy, but shall undertake to assist

all fire service personnel.

(j) Board of Visitors.—Upon establishment of the Academy, the Secretary shall establish a procedure for the selection of professionals

in the field of fire safety, fire prevention, fire control, research and

development in fire protection, treatment and rehabilitation of fire victims, or local government services management to serve as members

of a Board of Visitors for the Academy. Pursuant to such procedure,

the Secretary shall select eight such persons to serve as members of such Board of Visitors to serve such terms as the Secretary may prescribe. The function of such Board shall be to review annually the program of the Academy and to make comments and recommendations

to the Secretary regarding the operation of the Academy and any

improvements therein which such Board deems appropriate. Each

member of such Board shall he reimbursed for any expenses actually

incurred by him in the performance of his duties as a member of suen Board.

(k) Accreditation.

The Superintendent is authorized to establish Committee on a Committee on Fire Training and Education which shall inquire into Fire Training

and make recommendations regarding the desirability of establishing and Eduoation. a mechanism for accreditation of fire training and education programs Establishment,

and courses, and the role which the Academy should play if such a mechanism is recommended. The Committee shall consist ot the Superintendent as Chairman and eighteen other members appointed by the Administrator from among individuals and organizations possessing

special knowledge and experience in the field of fire training and education or related fields. The Committee shall submit to the Adminis- Report to trator within two years after its appointment, a full and complete Administrator.

182
Pub. Law 93-498 October 29, 1974

66 STAT, 1540

Terainatioa, report of its findings and recommendations. Upon the submission of such report, the Committee shall cease to exist. Each appointed member of the Committee shall be reimbursed for expenses actually

incurred in the performance of his duties as a member.

(1)

Admission.—The Superintendent is authorized to admit to the courses and programs of the Academy individuals who are members

of the firefighting, rescue, and civil defense forces of the Nation and

such other individuals, including candidates for membership in these

forces, as lie determines can benefit from attendance. Students shall be

admitted from any State, with due regard to adequate representation

in the student body of all geographic regions of the Nation. In select- ing students, the Superintendent may seek nominations and advice

from the fire services and other organizations which wish to send

students to the Academy.

FIRE TECHNOLOGY

15 use 2207, Sec. 8. (a) Technology Development Program.—The Administrator shall conduct a continuing program of development, testing, and

evaluation of equipment for use by the Nation’s fire, rescue, and civil defense services, with the aim of making available improved suppression, protective, auxiliary, and warning devices incorporating the

latest technology. Attention shall be given to the standardization, compatibility, and interchangeability of such equipment. Such develojpment, testing, and evaluation activities shall include, but need not be limited to

(1) safer, less cumbersome articles of protective c’othing.

including helmets, boots, and coats

;

(2) breathing apparatus with the necessaiy duration of service,

reliability, low weight, and ease of operation for practical use;

(3) safe and reliable auxiliary equipment for use in fire pre- vention, detection, and control, such as fire location detectors, visual and audio communications equipment, and mobile equipment ; (4) special clothing and equipment needed for forest fires, brush fires, oil and gasoline fires, aircraft fires and crash rescue,

fires occurring aboard waterborne vessels, and in other special

firefighting situations;

(5) fire detectors and related equipment for residential use with

high sensitivity and reliability, and which are sufficiently inex- pensive to purchase, install, and maintain to insure wide accept- ance and use;

(6) in-place fire prevention systems of low cost and of increased

reliability and effectiveness; (7) methods of testing fire a’arms and fire protection devices

and systems on a non-interference basis

;

(8) the development of purchase specifications, standards, and

acceptance and validation test procedures for all such equipment

and devices; and

(9) operation tests, demonstration projects, and fire investigations in support of the activities set forth in this section. (b) Limitation.—The Administration shall not engage in the manufacture or sale of any equipment or device developed pursuant

to this section, except to the extent that it deems it necessary to ade- quately develop, test, or evaluate such equipment or device.

(c) Management Studies.—(1) The Administrator is authorized

to conduct, directly or through contracts or grants, studies of the operations and management aspects of fire services, utilizing quantitative techniques, such as operations research, management economics,

cost effectiveness studies, and such other techniques and methods as

183
October 29, 1974 Pub. Law 93-498

may be applicable and useful. Such studies shall include, but need

not be limited to, the allocation of resources, the optimum location of

fire stations, the optimum geographical area for an integrated fire service, the manner of responding to alarms, the operation of city wide

and regional fire dispatch centers, firefighting under conditions of civil disturbance, and the effectiveness, frequency, and methods of building

inspections.

(2) The Administrator is authorized to conduct, directly or through

contracts or grants, research concerning the productivity and efficiency

of fire service personnel, the job categories and skills required by fire services under varying conditions, the reduction of injuries to fire service personnel, the most effective fire prevention programs and

activities, and techniques for accurately measuring and analyzing the

foregoing.

(3) The Administrator is authorized to conduct, directly or through

contracts, grants, or other for ms of assistance, development, testing,

and demonstration projects to the extent deemed necessary to intro- duce and to encourage the acceptance of new technology, standards,

operating methods, command techniques, and management systems for

utilization by the fire services. (4) The Administrator is authorized to assist the Nation’s fire services, directly or through contracts, grants, or other forms of assistance,

to measure and evaluate, on a cost-benefit basis, the effectiveness of the programs and activities of each fire service and the predictable conse- quences on the applicable local fire services of coordination or combination, in whole or in part, in a regional, metropolitan, or statewide

fire service. (d) Rural Assistance.—The Administrator is authorized to assist the Nation’s fire services, directly or through contracts, grants, or other

forms of assistance, to sponsor and encou rage research into approaches,

techniques, systems, and equipment to improve fire prevention and

cont rol in the rural and remote areas of the Nation.

(e) Coordination.—In establishing and conducting programs

under this section, the Administrator shall take full advantage of

applicable technological developments made by other departments and

agencies of the Federal Government, by State and local governments,

and by business, industry, and nonprofit associations.

NATIONAL FIRE DATA CENTER

Sec. 9. (a) General.—The Administrator shall operate, directly or through contracts or grants, an integrated, comprehensive National

Fire Data Center for the selection, analysis, publication, and dissemination of information related to the prevention, occurrence, control,

and results of fires of all types. The program of such Data Center shall be designed to (1) provide an accurate nationwide analysis of the fire problem, (2) identify major problem areas, (3) assist in setting priorities, (4) determine possible solutions to problems, and (5) monitor

the progress of programs to reduce fire losses. To carry out these functions, the Data Center shall gather and analyze—

•

(1) information on the frequency, causes, spread, and extin- guishment of fires; (2) information on the number of injuries and deaths resulting

from fires, including the maximum available information on the

specific causes and nature of such injuries and deaths, and infor- mation on property losses; (3) information on the occupational hazards faced by fire- fighters, including the causes of deaths and injuries arising,

directly and indirectly, from firefighting activities;

88 STAT. 1541

15 USC 2208.

Data Center

program, functions.

184
October 29, 1974

gg 5TAT. 1542

.Information dia

semination.

15 USC 2209.

Hepert to

Congress,

Pub. Law 93-498

*—~wInformation on all types of firefighting activities, including

inspection practices

;

(5) technical information related to building construction, fire properties of materials, and similar information;

(6) information on fire prevention and control laws, systems,

methods, techniques, and administrative structures used in foreign

nations

;

(7) information on the causes, behavior, and best method of

control of other types of fire, including, but not limited to, forest

fires, brush fires, fire underground, oil blow-out fires, and water- borne fires; and

(8) such other information and data as is deemed useful and

applicable.

(bl Methods.

In carrying out the program of the Data Center,

the Administrator is authorized to

fll develop standardized data reporting methods;

(2) encourage and assist State, local, and other agencies, public

and private, in developing and reporting information; and

(3) make full use of existing data gathering and analysis organizations, both public and private.

(c) Dissemination.—The Administrator shall insure dissemination to the maximum extent possible of fire data collected and devel- oped by the Data Center, ana shall make such data, information, and

analysis available in appropriate form to Federal agencies, State and

local governments, private organizations, industry, business, and other

interested persons. MASTER PLANS

Sec. 10. (a) General.—The establishment of master plans for fire prevention and control are the responsibility of the States and the

political subdivisions thereof. The Administrator is authorized to encourage and assist such States and political subdivisions in such

planning activities, consistent with his powers and duties under this Act.

(b) Eeport.—Four years after the date of enactment of this Act,

the Secretary shall submit to the Congress a report on the est \blishment and effectiveness of master plans in the field of fire prevention

and control throughout the Nation. Such report shall include, but need

not be limited to

(1) a summary of the extent and quality of master planning

activities

;

(2) a summary and evaluation of master plans that have been

prepared by States and political subdivisions thereof. Such sum- mary and evaluation shall consider, with respect to each such plan

(A) the characteristics of the jurisdiction adopting it, including,

but not limited to, dens’ty and distribution of population ; ratio of volunteer versus paid fire services; geographic location, topography, and climate ; per capita rate of death and property loss from fire; size and characteristics of political subdivisions of the governmental units thereof; and socio-economic composition ; and

(B) the approach to development and implementation of the maker plans;

(3) an evaluation of the best approach to the development and

implementation of master plans (e.g., central planning by a State agency, regionalized planning within a State coordinated by a State agency, or local planning supplemented and coordinated by

a State agency)

;

( 4 ) an assessment of the costs and benefits of master pi ans

;

(5) a recommendation to Congress on whether Federal financial assistance should be authorized in order that master plans can he

developed in all States; and

185
Pub. Law 93-498

86 STAT. 1543 October 29, 1974

(6) a model master plan or plans suitable for State and local implementation.

(c) Definition.—For the purposes of this section, a “master plan”

is one which will result in the planning and implementation in the area involved of a general program of action for fire prevention and

control. Such master plan is reasonably expected to include (1) a survey of the resources and personnel or existing fire services and an

analysis of the effectiveness of the fire and building codes in such area

;

(2) an analysis of short and long term fire prevention and control needs in such area ; (3) a plan to meet the fire prevention and control needs in such area; and (4) an estimate of cost and realistic plans for financing the implementation of the plan and operation on a continuing

basis and a summary of problems that are anticipated in implementing

such master plan.

REIMBURSEMENT FOR COSTS OF FIREFIGHTING ON FEDERAL PROPERTY

Sec. 11. (a) Claim.

Each fire service that engages in the fighting of a fire on property which is under the jurisdiction of the United

States may file a claim with the Administrator for the amount of direct expenses and direct losses incurred by such fire service as a result of

fighting such fire. The claim shall include such supporting information

as the Administrator may prescribe.

(b) Determination.

Upon receipt of a claim filed under subsection (a) of this section, the Administrator shall determine

(1) what payments, if any, to the fire service or its parent jurisdiction, including taxes or payments in lieu of taxes, the United

States has made for the support of fire services on the property

in question;

(2) the extent to which the fire service incurred additional fire- fighting costs, over and above its normal operating costs, in connection with the fire which is the subject of the claim; and

(3) the amount, if any, of the additional costs referred to in paragraph (2) of this subsection which were not adequately

covered by the payments referred to in paragraph (1) of this subsection.

(c) Payment.—The Secretary shall forward the claim and a copy

of the Administrator’s determination under subsection (b) (3) of this section to the Secretary of the Treasury. The Secretary of the Treasury

shall, upon receipt of the claim and determination, pay such fire service or its parent jurisdiction, from any moneys in the Treasury not other- wise appropriated but subject to reimbursement (from any appropriations which may be available or which may be made available for the purpose) by the Federal department or agency under whose

jurisdiction the fire occurred, a sum no greater than the amount

determined with respect to the claim under subsection (b) (3) of this

section. (d) Adjudication.—In the case of a dispute arising in connection

with a claim under this section, the Court of Claims of the United

States shall have jurisdiction to adjudicate the claim and enter judgment accordingly. REVIEW OF CODES

Sec. 12. The Administrator is authorized to review, evaluate, and

suggest improvements in State and local fire prevention codes, build- ing codes, and any relevant Federal or private codes and regulations. In evaluating any such code or codes, the Administrator shall consider

the human impact of all code requirements, standards, or provisions

"Master plan."

15 USC 2210.

State-looal

fire preven- tion coda s, review.

15 USC 2211.

186
86 STAT. 1544 Pub. Law 93-498 October 29. 1974

in terms of comfort and habitability for residents or employees, as well as the fire prevention and control value or potential of each such

requirement, standard, or provision.

KRE SAFETY EFFECTIVENESS STATEMENTS

15 use 2212, Sec. 13. The Administrator is authorized to encourage owners and

managers of residential multiple-unit, commercial, industrial, and

transportation structures to prepare Fire Safety Effectiveness State- ments, pursuant to standards, forms, rules, and regulations to be

developed and issued by the Administrator.

ANNUAL CON FERENCE

15 USC 2213, Sec. 14. The Administrator is authorized to organize, or to participate in organizing, an annual conference on fire prevention and control. He may pay, in whole or in part, the cost of such conference and the expenses of some or all of the participants. All of the Nation’s fire services shall be eligible to scud representatives to each such conference

to discuss, exchange ideas on, and participate in educational programs

on new techniques in fire prevention and control. Such conferences shall be open to the public. PUBLIC SAFETY AWARDS

15 USC 2214, Sec. 15. (a) Establishment.—There are hereby established two

classes of honorary awards for the recognition of outstanding and

distinguished service by public safety officers

(1) the President's Award For Outstanding Public Safety

Service (“President’s Award”) ; and

(2) the Secretary’s Award For Distinguished Public Safety

Service (“Secretary’s Award”).

(b) Descrcttion.—(1) The President’s Award shall be presented by

the President of the United States to public safety officers for extraor- dinary valor in the line of duty or for outstanding contribution to public safety.

(2) The Secretary’s Award shall be presented by the Secretary, the Secretarv of Defense, or by the Attorney General to public safety

officers for distinguished service in the field of public safety.

(c) Selection.—The Secretary, the Secretary of Defense, and the Attorney General shall advise and assist the President in the selection of individuals to whom the President’s Award shall be tendered and

in the course of performing such duties they shall seek and review

nominations for such awards which are submitted to them by Federal,

State, county, and local government officials. They shall annually

transmit to the President the names of those individuals determined

by them to merit the award, together with the reasons therefor. Recipients of the President’s Award shall be selected by the President.

(d) Limitation.—(1) There shall not be presented in any one cal- endar year in excess of twelve President’s Awards.

(2) There shall be no limitation on the number of Secretary’s

Awards presented.

(e) Award.—(11 Each President’s Award shall consist of

(A) a medal suitably inscribed, bearing such devices and

emblems, and struck from such material as the Secretary of the

Treasury, after consultation with the Secretary, the Secretary of

Defense, and the Attorney General deems appropriate. The Secretary of the Treasury shall cause the medal to be struck and fur- nished to the President ; and

(B) an appropriate citation.

187
October 29, 1974 Pub. Law 93-498

88 STAT. 1545

(2)

Each Secretary’s Award shall consist of an appropriate

citation. (f) Regulations.—The Secretary, the Secretary of Defense, and

the Attorney General are authorized and directed to issue jointly such

regulations as may be necessary to carry out this section. (g) Definitions.—As used in this section, the term “public safety

officer” means a person serving a public agency, with or without

compensation, as

(11 a firefighter

;

(2) a law enforcement officer, including a corrections or court

officer; or

(3) a civil defense officer. ANNUM. KKPOKT

Sec. 16. The Secretary shall report to the Congress and the President

not later than June 30 of the year following the date of enactment of

this Act and each year thereafter on all activities relating to fire pre- vention and control, and all measures taken to implement and carry out this Act during the preceding calendar year. Such report shall include, but need not be limited to

(a) a thorough appraisal, including statistical analysis, esti- mates, and long-term projections of the human and economic losses due to fire

;

(b) a survey and summary, in such detail as is deemed advisable,

of the research and technology program undertaken or sponsored

pursuant to this Act

;

(c) a summary of the activities of the Academy for the preceding 12 months, including, but not limited to

(1) an explanation of the curriculum of study;

(2) a description of the standards of admission and

performance

;

(3) the criteria for the awarding of degrees and certificates; and

(4) a statistical compilation of the number of students attending the Academy and receiving degrees or certificates; (d) a summary of the activities undertaken to assist the Nation’s

fire services;

(el a summary of the public education programs undertaken;

(f ) an analysis of the extent of participation in preparing and

submitting Fire Safety Effectiveness Statements;

(g) a summary of outstanding problems confronting the administration of this Act, in order of priority

;

(h) such recommendations for additional legislation as are deemed necessary or appropriate ; and

(i) a summary of reviews, evaluations, and suggested improve- ments in State and local fire prevention and building codes, fire services, and any relevant Federal or private codes, regulations,

and fire services.

AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS

Sec. 17. There are authorized to be appropriated to carry out the foregoing provisions of this Act, except section 11 of this Act, such sums as are necessary, not to exceed $10,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1975, and not to exceed $15,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1976. FIRE RESEARCH CENTER

Sec. 18. The Act of March 3, 1901 (15 U.S.C. 278), is amended by

striking out sections 16 and 17 (as added by title I of the Fire Preven-

"Publio safety

offloer,"

Report to Congress and President,

15 USC 2215,

15 USC 2216,

188
M STAT. 1546

15 USC 278f,

279g. Establishment.

15 use 278f.

Pub. Law 93-498 October 29. 1974

tion and Control Act of 1908) and by inserting in lieu thereof the following new section

:

“Sec. 16. (a) There is hereby established within the Department of

Commerce a Fire Research Center which shall have the mission of

performing and supporting research on all aspects of fire with the aim

of providing scientific and technical knowledge applicable to the pre- vention and control of fires. The content and priorities of the research program shall be determined in consultation with the Administrator

of the National Fire Prevention and Control Administration. In implementing this section, the Secretary is authorized to conduct,

directly or through contracts or grants, a fire research program,

including

“(1) basic and applied fire research for the purpose of arriving

at an understanding of the fundamental processes underlying all aspects of fire. Such research shall include scientific investigations

of

“(A) the physics and chemistry of combustion processes: “(B) the dynamics of flame ignition, flame spread, and

flame extinguishment;

“(C) the compositfon of combustion products developed by

various sources and under various environmental conditions;

“(D) the early stages of fires in buildings and other structures, structural subsystems and structural components in. all other types of fires, including, but not limited to, forest fires, brush fires, fires underground, oil blowout fires, and water- borne fires, with the aim of improving early detection capability ; “(E) the behavior of fires involving all types of buildings

and other structures and their contents (including mobile

homes and highrise buildings, construction materials, floor and wall coverings, coatings, furnishings, and other combustible materials), and all other types of fires, including

forest fires, brush fires, fires underground, oil blowout fires, and waterborne fires

;

“(F) the unique fire hazards arising from the transportation and use, in industrial and professional practices, of combustible gases, fluids, and materials

;

“(G) design concepts for providing increased fire safety

consistent with habitability, comfort, and human impact in buildings and other structures ; and

“(H) such other aspects of the fire process as may be

deemed useful in pursuing the objectives of the fire research program

;

"(2) research into the biological, physiological, and psychological factors affecting human victims of fire, and the performance

of individual members of fire services, including

“(A) the biological and physiological effects of toxic substances encountered in fires

;

“(B) the trauma, cardiac conditions, and other hazards

resulting from exposure to fire

;

“(C) the development of simple and reliable tests for determining the cause of death from fires

;

“(D) improved methods of providing first aid to victims

of fires; “(E) psychological and motivational characteristics of persons who engage in arson, and the prediction and cure of

such behavior;

“(F) the conditions of stress encountered by firefighters, the effects of such stress, and the alleviation and reduction of

such conditions ; and

189
October 29, 1974 Pub. Law 93-498

88 STAT. 1547 “(G) such other biological, psychological, and physiological effects of fire as have significance for purposes of

control or prevention of fires; and

“(3) operation tests, demonstration projects, and fire invcsti- S

itions in support of the activities set forth in this section, e Secretary shall insure that the results and advances arising

from the work of the research program are disseminated broadly. He

shall encourage the incorporation, to the extent applicable and practicable, of such results and advances in building codes, fire codes, and

other relevant codes, test methods, fire service operations and training,

and standards. The Secretary is authorized to encourage and assist in the development and adoption of uniform codes, test methods, and

standards aimed at reducing fire losses and costs of fire protection.

“(b) For the purposes of this section there is authorized to be Appropriation,

appropriated not to exceed $3,500,000 for the fiscal year ending

June 30, 1975 and not to exceed $4,000,000 for the fiscal year ending

June 30, 1976.” VICTIMS or FIRE

Sec. 19. (a) Program.—The Secretary of Health, Education, and 42 use 290a. Welfare shall establish, within the National Institutes of Health and

in cooperation with the Secretary, an expanded program of research on burns, treatment of burn injuries, and rehabilitation of victims

of fires. The National Institutes of Health shall

(1)

sponsor and encourage the establishment throughout the Nation of twenty-five additional burn centers, which shall comprise separate hospital facilities providing specialized burn

treatment and including research and teaching programs, and

twenty-five additional burn units, which shall comprise specialized

facilities in general hospitals used only for burn victims;

(2)

provide training and continuing support of specialists to

staff the new burn centers and burn units

;

(3)

sponsor and encourage the establishment of ninety burn

programs in general hospitals which comprise staffs of burn injury

specialists

;

(4)

provide special training in emergency care for burn vic- tims;

(5)

augment sponsorship of research on burns and burn treat- ment ;

(6)

administer and support a systematic program of research concerning smoke inhalation injuries; and

(7)

sponsor and support other research and training programs

in the treatment and rehabilitation of burn injury victims. (b) Authorization of Appropriation.

For purposes of this section, there are authorized to be appropriated not to exceed $5,000,000

for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1975 and not to exceed $8,000,000

for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1976.

PUBLIC ACCESS TO INFORMATION

Sec. 20. Copies of any document, report, statement, or information 15 use 2217. received or sent by the Secretary or the Administrator shall be made

available to the public pursuant to the provisions of section 552 of

title 5, United States Code: Provided, That, notwithstanding the

provisions of subsection (b) of such section and of section 1905 of

title 18, United States Code, the Secretary may disclose information

which concerns or relates to a trade secret

(1) upon request, to other Federal Government departments

and agencies for official use

;

190
la STAT« 1548 Pub. Law 93-498 October 29, 1974

{2) upon request, to any committee of Congress having juris- diction over the subject matter to which the information relates; (3) in any judicial proceeding under a court order formulated

to preserve the confidentiality of such information without

impairing the proceedings ; and

(4) to the public when he determines such disclosure to be neces- sary in order to protect health and safety after notice and opportunity for comment in writing or for discussion in closed session within fifteen days by the party to which the information pertains

(if the delay resulting from such notice and opportunity for com- ment would not be detrimental to health and safety).

ADMINISTRATIVE PROVISIONS

15 USC 2218.

Cccrrtrollar

Ger.arai, access to records.

Publication in ?8d2»al Register.

Sec. 21. (a) Assistance.—Each department, agency, and instru- mentality of the executive branch of the Federal Government and each

independent regulatory agency of the United States is authorized

and directed to furnish to the Administrator, upon written request, on

a reimbursable basis or otherwise, such assistance as the Administrator

deems necessary to carry out his functions and duties pursuant to this Act, including, but not limited to, transfer of personnel with their consent and without prejudice to their position and ratings.

(b) Powers.—With respect to this Act, the Administrator is authorized to—

(1) enter into, without regard to section 3709 of the Revised

Statutes, as amended (41 U.S.C. 5) such contracts, grants, leases, cooperative agreements, or other transactions as may be necessary

to carry out the provisions of this Act

;

(2) accept gifts and voluntary and uncompensated services,

notwithstanding the provisions of section 3679 of the Revised

Statutes (31 U.S.C. 665(b))

;

(3) purchase, lease, or otherwise acquire, own, hold, improve,

use, or deal in and with any property (real, personal, or mixed,

tangible or intangible) , or interest in property, wherever situated

;

and sell, convey, mortgage, pledge, lease, exchange, or otherwise

disoose of property and assets

;

(4) procure temporary and intermittent services to the same

extent as is authorized under section 3109 of title 5, United States Code, but at rates not to exceed $100 a day for qualified experts;

and

(5) establish such rules, regulations, and procedures as are nec- essary to carry out the provisions of this Act.

(c) Amir.—The Secretary and the Comptroller General of the United States, or any of their duly authorized representatives, shall have access to any books, documents, papers, and records of the recipi- ents of contracts, grants, or other forms of assistance that are pertinent

to its activities under this Act for the purpose of audit or to determine

if a proposed activity is in the public interest.

( d) Inventions and Discoveries.—All property rights with respect

to inventions and discoveries, which are made in the course of or under

contract with any government agency pursuant to this Act, shall be

subject to the basic policies set forth in the President’s Statement of

Government Patent Policy issued August 23, 1971, or such revisions of that statement of policy as may subsequently be promulgated and

published in the Federal Register.

(e) Coordination.—To the extent practicable, the Administrator

shall utilize existing programs, data, information, and facilities already available in other Federal Government departments and agencies and, where appropriate, existing research organizations, centers,
October 29, 1974 Pub. Law 93-498

86 STAT. 1549 and universities. The Administrator shall provide liaison at an appropriate organizational level to assure coordination of his activities with

State and local government agencies, departments, bureaus, or offices concerned with any matter related to programs of tire prevention and

control and with private and other Federal organizations and offices so concerned.

ASSISTANCE TO CONSUMER PRODUCT SAFETY COMMISSION

Sec. 22. Upon request, the Administrator shall assist the Consumer 15 use 2219,

Product Safety Commission in the development of tire safety standards

or codes for consumer products, as defined in the Consumer Product

Safety Act (15 U.S.C. 2051 et seq.)

.

conforming amendments

Sec. 23. Section 12 of the Act of February 14, 1903, as amended

( 15 U.S.C. 151 1 ), is amended to read as follows

:

“bureaus in department

“Sec. 12. The following named bureaus, administrations, services,

offices, and programs of the public service, and all that pertains thereto,

shall be under the jurisdiction and subject to the control of the Secre- tary of Commerce

:

“(a) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration;

“(b) United States Travel Service;

“(c) Maritime Administration;

“(d) National Bureau of Standards;

“(e) Patent Office; “(f) Bureau of the Census

;

“(g) National Fire Prevention and Control Administration; and

“(h) such other bureaus or other organizational units as the Secre- tary of Commerce may from time to time establish in accordance with

law.” Approved October 29, 1974.

LEGISLATIVE HISTORY l

HOUSE REPORTS! No, 93—795 aocompanying H.R. 11989 (Comm, on Solenoe and Astronautios) and Nos, 93-1277 and 93-1413 (Committees of Conferenoe}. SENATE REPORTS: No, 93-470 (Comm, on Commeroe) and Nos, 93-1088 and 93-1211 (Committees of Conferenoe). CONGRESSIONAL RECORD:

Vol, 119 (19731: Nov, 2, considered and passed Senate,

Vol, 120 (1974): Apr, 25, 29, considered and passed House, amended, in lieu of H.R, 11989,

Oct, 9, House agreed to oonferenoe report.

Oot, 10, Senate agreed to conferenoe report, WEEKLY COMPILATION OF PRESIDENTIAL DOCUMENTS: Vol* 10, No, 44 (1974): Oot, 29, Presidential statement.

192
NBS-1 14A (REV. 7-731

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NO. NBSIR 77-1308

2. Gov’t Accession

No.

3. Recipient’s Accession No.

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Annual Conference on Fire Research

5. Publication Date October 1977

6. Performing Organization Code

7 - AUm§&n Huggett, Editor 8. Performing Organ. Report No.

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

10. Project/Task/Work Unit No. 4900900

11. Contract/Grant No.

12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Complete Address (Street, City, State, ZIP)

Same as No. 9

13. Type of Report & Period Covered Final Report

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most significant information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.)

This report contains extended abstracts of grants and contracts

for fire research sponsored by the Center for Fire Research, National

Bureau of Standards and descriptions of the internal programs of the

Center for Fire Research. It was prepared as a preprint for use at

a conference of contractors and grantees held at NBS on August 3-5, 1977.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name; separated by semicolons) Combustion products; fire hazards; fire modeling;

fire research; human behavior in fires.

18. AVAILABILITY Unlimited

For Official Distribution. Do Not Release to NTIS

|

1 Order From Sup. of Doc., U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402, SD Cat. No. C 1 3

fxl Order From National Technical Information Service (NTIS)

Springfield, Virginia 22151

19. SECURITY CLASS

(THIS REPORT)

UNCLASSIFIED

20. SECURITY CLASS

(THIS PAGE)

UNCLASSIFIED

21. NO. OF PAGES

198

22. Price

$9.00

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