COMMERCIAL

STANDARDS

MONTHLY

cy

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

ISSUED BY THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE UNITED

STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D. C., U. S. A.

Vol. 8, No. 5 NOVEMBER, 1931

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price .00 per Year
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GEORGE K. BURGESS, Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY, S. F. Tillman, Editor

The Commercial Standardization Group

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE

Edwin W. Ely

The division of simplified pracftice cooperates with industrial and commercial groups to reduce wa^te, usually through

eliminating unnecessary variety of producTt, method, or

pradlice. Its funtflion is to bring together all parties inter- ested in a projedt of this charadter, and to coordinate their

work in developing a simplified pradtice recommendation.

Such work includes surveys of current pradtice, formulation of a simplified pradtice program, and presentation of

that program for adtion by a general conference representing

all interests. The division then transmits to all concerned

a full report of the general conference, with a requeSt for written acceptance of the adtion taken. When the volume

of acceptances is sufficient to indicate initial success, the

Department of Commerce indorses the program and publishes

the recommendation. The division thereafter cooperates

with a Standing committee appointed by the industry concerned, in condudting periodic surveys to determine the

degree of adherence, to maintain and extend support of the

recommendation, and to secure data for reaffirmation or

revision. Simplified pradtice may be applied to any com- modity or adtivity in which it will reduce

waSte. The division Stands ready to render

service in developing and making effedtive any application of simplified pradtice which

will reduce waSte, Stabilize business, or extend commerce.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION

J. S. Taylor

The division of building and housing,

formed in 1921, cooperates with business,

technical, and professional groups in furtherng conStrudtion adtivities. It works to modernize building codes and to encourage improved Standards for the quality of building conStrudtion, and the practical application of the lateSt development in design and use of building materials.

It encourages home ownership through the development

of an enlarged. Steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating demand for dwellings—the largeSt single class of

buildings which the construction industries provide.

The division also cooperates with other governmental

agencies and with many private business and professional

groups in efforts to distribute building adtivity more evenly

throughout the year and to secure less fludtuation from

year to year. The work on city planning and zoning has the broad

objedtive of making buildings more useful through proper

location with respedt to other Strudtures, Stabilizing of land

values and property uses, well coordinated thoroughfare

systems, and well laid out public works.

STANDARDIZATION

..IS.. A CONTINUING PROCESS

<r+o ITS AIM IS NOT FIXITY OR STAGNATION

..BUT.. TO ADD SERVICEABILITY

AS OFTEN .45 THE

POTENTIAL GAIN

MAKES IT WORTH WHILE

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS

A. S. McAllister

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote

and facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so it carries on adtivities involving cooperation with

technical societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and

municipal Government specifications making and using

agencies; producers, distributors, and consumers; and teSting

and research laboratories. It ascertains the Standardization

and specifications promoting adtivities of the associations and societies, and brings to their attention the work being

done by the commercial Standardization group. It brings the

Federal specifications and commercial Standards to the atten- tion of the maximum number of producers and users of commodities complying with these Standards and specifications.

It compiles and distributes liSts of sources of supply of materials guaranteed to comply with the Standards and specifi- cations. It shows both buyers and sellers the benefits froaa handling nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The division prepares direcftories of governmental and

nongovernmental teSting laboratories and the Diretftory of

Specifications, and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the firSt two volumes of which

have been issued, namely, “Standards and

Specifications in the Wood-Using Industries”

and “Standards and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and their Produ(fts.” It also aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook.

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS

I. J. Fairchild

The division of trade Standards, on requeSt,

assists industrial and commercial groups in the voluntary establishment of Standards

covering grades, quality, dimensional interchangeability, or other acceptance criteria as a national

basis for marketing manufadtured commodities.

The detail criteria are seledted or determined voluntarily

by interested buyers or sellers, without any Government

didtation or domination, and adjusted at a general confer- ence of producers, distributors, and users so as to represent

the composite views of all branches. The division fundtions

chiefly as a neutral agency to see that all interested elements

are given full opportunity to be heard and satisfied; to

solicit and record acceptances; and to publish and promulgate

the Standard when a satisfadtory majority of acceptances is obtained and provided there is no adtive opposition.

Industries are encouraged to apply self-certifying labels to produdts meeting the commercial Standard requirements, as a means of protedting the consumer and the scrupulous seller from misrepresentation or unfair methods of marketing.

Provision is made for regular revision of the Standard

through the appointment of a Standing committee to consider periodically any necessity for revision of the Standard,

in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with

progress in the industry.

Address BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Washington, D. C.,for further information
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 8 WASHINGTON, D. C., NOVEAIBER, 1931 Number 5

SUBJECT ANALYSIS

AERONAUTICS

Page

Airscrew hubs (standardization briefs) 160

Antiaircraft equipment standardized (standardization

briefs) 160

Vibration tests for airplanes 151 AGRICULTURE

Adopting uniform labels for wheat products 141 Federal grades specify dressed-turkey styles (standardization briefs) 160 Food testing program enlarged 148 Marketing beans of known quality 147 Standard apple and pear containers (standardization

briefs) 160

Standardizing grades for livestock and meats 138

ASSOCIATIONAL ACTIVITIES American Standards Association 150

Association and company standardization movements 143

Federal specifications 148 Use of “marked” lumber increases (standardization

briefs) 160 CONTAINERS

Report on trunk simplification sent to industry 138 Standard apple and pear containers (standardization

briefs) 160 INTERNATIONAL

Airscrew hubs (standardization briefs) 160

Electrical supply apparatus (standardization briefs) 160 Fourth Pan American Commercial Conference 149 Standard apple and pear containers (standardization

briefs) 160

Standardizing activities of the Pan American Sanitary Bureau 155 Standardization in housekeeping (standardization briefs). 160

Textile standards to reduce costs (standardization briefs). 160 Turkey adopts metric system (standardization briefs) .. 160 MANAGEMENT

Reducing costs of operation 156 The value of specifications to industry 135 To improve marketing methods 151 Value of specifications in the manufacture of steel 145

METALS

Page

Airscrew hubs (standardization briefs) 160

Oil storage tanks (standardization briefs) 160

Reaffirmation of standard for gage blanks 148

Steel bone plates and screws 134 MISCELLANEOUS

A trip through the Bureau of Standards 131 Home building and home ownership 146

Past year an active one for Bureau of Standards 157 PUBLICATIONS

Circular on reclaimed rubber (publications) 159 New 7,000 series of standard wood moldings 140

Staple seats for water-closet bowls (publications) 159 PURCHASING

Thirty-eight States adopt centralized purchasing methods. 144 Marketing the radio 153

Significance of specifications 152

Specifications in governmental buying 158 QUALITY MARKS AND LABELS

Adopting uniform labels for wheat products 141 Federal grades specify dressed-turkey styles (standardi- zation briefs) 160

Oil-storage tanks (standardization briefs) 160 Use of “marked” lumber increases (standardization

briefs) 160 SAFETY

Dust explosions serious problems 134

Food-testing program enlarged 148

Predictions by machinery 139

Seidell method standard for vitamin “B” 137 Standardizing activities of the Pan American Sanitary Bureau 155 TEXTILES

Conference approves recommendation for surgical '

dressings 15.5 Cooperation between buyer and seller 133 Standard approved for hosiery 142

Textile standards to reduce costs (standardization

briefs) 160

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A cordial invitation is extended to all interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories of

the Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at 2.15 p. m.

daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may be arranged at other times by writing to the

bureau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s Manual may be had for the asking. This lists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of typical dis- coveries and inventions wdiich have been notable, basic contributions to radio, aviation, and other

modern arts and industries.

84800—31 1 12!)
SAMUEL WESLEY STRATTON

1861 - 1931

Director, Bureau of Standards

1901 - 1923

Member, Visiting Committee, Bureau of Standards

1923 - 1931
NOVEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY 131

A TRIP THROUGH THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

“ The Visitor ” Writes of His Experience in This Extensive Group of Laboratories

By H. G. Bouteix, Bureau of Standards

A pleasant ride along Connecticut Avenue north of

Hock Creek Bridge takes one from the center of the

city to Upton Street, the entrance to the grounds of

the Bureau of Standards. The visitor is at once sur- prised to find an institution consisting of a group of

laboratory buildings arranged like a university, situ- ated on a natural hill amidst beautiful country sur- roundings. The glimpses of specimens of material

under exposure tests alone give outward signs of the

scientific work that is being carried on, much of it by

night as well as by day.

The visitor is directed to the administrative offices in the South Building, and after a few minutes’ talk

about the bureau and its functions accompanies a member of the staff on

a general trip through

the laboratories.

“ This is an unusual

location for a Government bureau, far from

the business section of

the city,” the visitor re- marks. “ It would be

for most Government

offices, but not for a plant of this kind. We

had to get away from

electrical and mechanical disturbances, which

seriously interfere with

precise measurements. Also, the ground we needed was easier to secure and cheaper than that in the

built-up district. However, even now some of our

precise work has to be performed at night, when the

elevators, street cars, and other heavy vehicles are not

in operation.”

“ The bureau deals with five classes of standards,

standards of measurement, standard numerical constants, standards of performance, standards of quality,

and standards of practice. In this vault on the first floor of the South Building are kept the fundamental

standards of measurement—the meter and kilogram.

These were supplied to our Government by the Inter- national Bureau of Weights and Measures at Paris.

All measurement work is really referred back to these

two basic standards and the standard unit of time.

“ ‘ Is a material standard of length such as this absolutely constant ?

’ the visitor asks. ‘ No ; that is sometimes a difficulty. All such length standards change

with temperature and may change with time, even if only a very little—negligibly it may seem to most of

us. But even a millionth of an inch can no longer be

ignored. We hope eventually to adopt a certain wave

length of light as our standard of length. Then, if all material standards of length were destroyed, we could

easily carry on.’ “Here in this adjoining room is a device set up to show you that a massive 5-inch steel bar supported at the ends bends measureably under the pressure of your

finger. In the ej’epiece here you see those rings enlarge as you press down. Those are shadow lines

(interference bands) cau.sed by the interfering light waves. By measuring their movement Ave can tell how

much the bar is bent. You didn’t believe you could

bend a 6-inch bar? Well, you can see it bending under

your touch if you ha\^e an instrument delicate enough

to show the motion, perhaps a feAv millionths of an

inch. Using light waA^es directly we haA’e ruled here

the most accurate scales in the world.

“ In this other room we haA’e a series of precision

balances for comparing very accurate weights for

precise Aveighings. We compare two Aveights of about

2 pounds each Avith an error of only one fifty-millionth

of a pound. For such fine work the operator must

stand at a distance

from the balance so that the heat of his

body will not affect the test. These rods

are used to control the

mechanism, and the

telescope to take the

readings.

“ In the basement

of this building is a

tile lined tunnel lab- oratory 165 feet long

for comparing the base

line measuring tapes

for our national surA^eys and certifying other standard tapes in terms of our national standard of length.

“ The West Building, which is one of the four that

surround the ‘ campus ’ on the hill, houses seA’eral lines

of Avork. On the top floor Ave haA^e the polariscopic

testing of sugar; on the other floors Avork in connection with heat and temperature measurements. These

rectangular pieces are specimens of typical insulating

materials, such as are used in refrigerators and buildings, and Ave are investigating the heat transfer

through them. In other words, the bureau is measuring their efficiency in keeping out the cold in winter

and heat in summer.

“ This peculiar looking set-up in the basement is an

apparatus for testing elevator interlocks. Approximately 75 per cent of the elevator accidents fatal to the public can be prevented bj^ using a satisfactory

interlock, and on the basis of our Avork a safety code

has been prepared which specifies what a satisfactory

interlock should do.”

“ Is the bureau carrying on this work for any special

industry or manufacturer?”

“ No; of course, many industries Avill profit from it, but the Avork Avas taken up originall}'^ for a certain

municipality in connection Avith the preparation of an elevator safety code.

“ In this noisy room next door AA’e are ini^estigating

the fatigue resistance of duralumin, the alloy used in

the construction of aircraft. These rectangular speci- mens of tlie metal are supported entirely on films of

Visitors are always welcomed at the Bureau of

Standards. HoweA^er, many readers of the Commercial Standards Monthly are unable to visit the bureau in person. With this thought in mind

the author accompanied a group of visitors

through the bureau, and here presents his observations for the readers of the magazine unable to make the trip in person.
132 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER. 1931

air and are made to vibrate at a rate of 200 or 300

cycles per second by a high speed air stream.

“ We are now in the Low Temperature Building,

where another line of work is carried out by the heat

and power division. This large steam-driven compressor takes ordinary air and compresses it to about

3,000 pounds per square inch. It is then cooled and

allowed to pass through a long coil of copper tubing.

As it escapes from a valve at the bottom of the coil

it expands, and in doing so it takes up heat from the

coil. In other words, the air cools itself until some

of it is cool enough to liquefy.”

“What is the temperature of the liquid?”

“ Three hundred and ten degrees below zero Fahrenheit, but we have produced liquid helium in this lab- oratory at a temperature of —456° F., only 3.4° above

the absolute zero. “ In this brick building and the smaller ones near

it we carry out experiments on internal-combustion

engines and appurtenances. We can mount an air- plane engine in this concrete chamber, and then by

pumping out the exhaust gas and air we can lower the

pressure to that corresponding with any desired alti- tude up to about 30,000 feet. We can also cool the air

by a refrigerating plant to a temperature of —40° or even lower, and in this way duplicate the conditions of an actual flight. “ Here we are testing automobile brake linings. We

developed this standard testing equipment several

years ago. Similar apparatus has been installed by

manufacturers, and the consequent improvement in

brake linings was estimated by the industry as saving

the public $15,000,000 a year. “A cooperative research with the engine builders and

petroleum refiners is resulting in better fuels and more

uniform performance of automobiles under all weather

conditions.

“ This small building we are now in houses our

54-inch wind tunnel, which was built during the

ATorld AA^ar and in which many important military

aeronautical problems have been solved. Wind tunnels are used to determine, by means of a model, the

performance of any device designed to function in an

air stream, but recently we have been studying the

-fundamental problem of the air flow in the tunnel

itself, so that results obtained in different laboratories

will be comparable.

“ The large outdoor tunnel which you see to the

north is 10 feet in diameter and is used for testing

large models of buildings, bridge members, and other

^structural designs. The model you see in the tunnel

is a miniature of the Empire State Building, New

York’s tallest skyscraper. It was constructed to a

scale of 1 equals 250. Wind pressures at several different floor levels and at speeds up to 60 miles per

' hour are being measured.

“This large building (Northwest) houses our metallergical laboratories, the testing of high-precision

gages, and other experimental work, including that on sound, aeronautical instruments, etc. You see, we

have a complete equipment of furnaces, a rolling mill,

drawbench, forging press, and other metal producing

and working equipment.

“Yes; it is really a small experimental metal-working plant, and I judge you can duplicate actual processes on a reduced scale.” “ That is the idea. You

can not set standards for a big industry by sitting at

a desk and theorizing; you must get down to facts

by actual experiments. We can study the mill procedure and show where improvements can be made by

varying the constituents of a metal or alloy and

methods of working it, and do it more quickly,

cheaply, and more accurately than could possibly be

expected in a full-sized commercial plant. That idea

! applies to much of our work, as you will see when we

get to the Industrial Building.

“ We will now walk across the ‘ campus ’ to the East

Building to see the electrical work and the radio laboratory—that long, low building at the right. Let us go to 'the top floor of the Electrical Building. Here

is the assembly room, where the staff members meet

to discuss their work. Many scientific societies of the

country meet here when they come to AYashington.”

“ What a beautiful outlook.” “ Yes ; you can see the

Capitol, the radio towers at Arlington, the Naval

Observatory, the new cathedral, and the greater part

of the city. An attractive quiet location is really an

inspiration for the best results. “ In this room on the third floor we are testing

under measured conditions the life of incandescent

lamps purchased by the Government. Samples of all lamps the Government buys are tested by the bureau,

so Uncle Sam is reasonably sure to get what he orders

and pays for. “ Other work deals with tests of batteries, performance of electrical instruments, studies of telephone

systems, and the maintenance of the electrical standards. These include standard cells by which the

standard of voltage is maintained, the silver voltameter for maintaining the ampere, the current bal- ance, etc. “ In this small building at the north end of the East

Building experiments with high voltages (up to 100,000 volts) are in progress. Here is our absolute

electrometer for measuring voltage by the attractive

force on a metal disk, thus tying up the electrical with

the mechanical units of measurement.

“ The work on safety codes also heads up in the East

Building. You have heard of the Electrical Safety

Code, the Head and Eye Code for Industrial Workers, the Logging and Sawmill Code, etc.?” “Yes;

the Electrical Code was used by our State government

in framing its jiresent regulations.”

“ Here in the Kadio Building we work on fundamental problems underlying radio. AVe also aid

almost everyone who uses radio, and this means a large portion of our population, by sending out standard frequency signals, which anyone can use in testing

his or her receiving set. Ten years ago we published

designs and descriptions of several simple receiving

sets, and these undoubtedly did much to popularize

radiobroadcasting. Here is our national standard of

radio-frequency, maintained by quartz oscillators with an error of only 1 part in 10,000,000.

“We will now walk down to the Industrial Building

to see the experimental plants for technical research

in cement, stone, clay, glass, lime, plaster, paper, textiles, rubber, leather, sugar, and other structural and

miscellaneous materials. In this central wing are lo- cated our big testing machines. The largest one, here on the left, has a crushing power of 10,000,000 pounds,

and was recently used to confirm the strength of portions of the towers for the new Hudson River Bridge.”
NOVEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 133

“ Yes; I have seen pictures of that machine, and also

the large Emery precision testing machine, which I

notice in the room on the right. It is one of the most

accurate testing machines in the world, is it not?”

“ Yes; that is correct. Its capacity is 2,300,000 pounds

and the error is. not more than 2 or 3 pounds.

“Across the areaway is the Kiln House, where re- search on optical glass and other ceramics work is in progress. Prior to the war we began to develop the

technique for making optical glass. The importance

of optical glass in the making of lenses for all sorts of

laboratory, industrial, and military devices has at- tracted nation-wide attention to this plant. Here,

too, work is done on refractories, porcelains, and en- ameled metal ware, as well as a part of our work on

the fire resistance of structural materials.

“In these smaller buildings adjacent to the Industrial Building may be seen experiments of many sorts; for example, on intensity and duration of fires in

buildings, the fire resistance of various types of roof

construction, the fire and impact resistance of safes,

and a wide variety of other work.

“ Returning to the Industrial Building, we have ex- perimental plants for paper making, for spinning and

weaving textiles, for manufacturing and testing rubber goods, for the production of sugar, and many other

materials of industry under controlled conditions. At

the World’s Fair held in 1915 at San Francisco this

photographic laboratory on the third floor won the

highest award for the quality of its photography.

Here were developed the apparatus with which the

sensitiveness of all types of photographic plates and

films of American make were studied in great detail,

adding a new chapter on the technical and practical

side of photography. In another room was determined the relative utility of every part of a leather

hide for making soles for shoes. This gave valuable

data for the leather industry.

“ These automobile tires are being run under experimental conditions to simulate road travel, and with means to measure the loss of power in the tires. We

found an appreciable loss of power in transmission

from the motor through the tires to the ground, varying with the design of the tires. In this laboratory

specifications for tires were drafted, the details of rubber manufacture applied to specific problems, and vari- ous formulas tried out in making commercial rubber

in the bureau’s rubber mill. “ The cement laboratory is in this building. Research is in progress on important problems, some of

them going on for many years. These include the

study of the effects of sea water on concrete structures,

to give data to engineers for making such structures endure where hitherto they had to be renewed every

year or two ; the effect of alkali waters on concrete tile used in irrigation projects; the effect of cement fine- ness on the strength of concrete; the microcrystallography of the constituents of cement; and many

others affecting notably the technology of this important material. From here is administered the test- ing of Government cement—the cement used in the

Panama Canal and other projects is tested by bureau

experts and certified for use. A cement reference

laboratory is maintained jointly by the bureau and the

industry. Its experts visit the numerous commercial

laboratories throughout the country, thus securing

uniformity in equipment and methods.

“ The ceramics research on the technology of clay

products ranges from brick to fine porcelain, including glazes and enamels. The bureau’s fundamental

work in this field paved the way for the scientific use of American clays by specifying the means of pre- treatment, mixing, and chemical methods so that some

of the finest foreign products could be equaled.

“ Here we end our trip. The time allowed us has

passed, and you have seen many of the things which

would interest you most. I hope jmu enjoyed 3'our

visit.” “ I certainly have enjoyed the glimpses of

your work, and to prove it I am going to tell my

friends all about 3mur bureau. We have many industrial plants in our town ; I see that much of your work

and the data you have obtained would be of great

value to them. We are still in the dark on many technical aspects of our work. I shall ask your advice on

several problems in my own plant.”

“ We shall try to help you and will be glad to see you again at any time.”

“ Thank you ; on my next visit I hope to spend at

least a day here. It is one of the most interesting and

instructive visits I have ever made.”

COOPERATION BETWEEN BUYER AND

SELLER

In a recent address before the Sixteenth Annual

International Conference of the National Association

of Purchasing Agents at Toronto, Canada, Robert F. Bowe, vice president Hunter Manufacturing Co., dis- cussed an effective example of what cooperation between buyer and seller can accomplish in the standard specifications worked out by the rubber and

pyroxylin coating group. (Commercial Standard

No. CS 32-31.)

“For example,” said Mr. Bowe, “I have in mind

one construction of wide cotton goods which was

being used regularly by many different buyers.

Seven of these buyers had entirely different specifications which were demanded of the cotton mills. The

fabric itself was approximately the same but the

specifications varied in regard to count or tensile re- quirements. Under those conditions no mill could

afford to carry all the various specifications in stock. Consequently, the buyers, some of whom are present.

were paying premiums for their requirements and

had unnecessary delays in deliveries. Now see what

was accomplished through cooperation and an intensive study of each other’s problems. To-day, all who

use that particular fabric can buy it from any one of

a number of mills, made by each of them to the same

specifications.”

Mr. Bowe pointed out that tliis was made possible

by a group discussion of 11 commission houses and 23

pyroxylin and rubber manufacturers, who last year developed standard specifications for their cotton goods

requirements. He expressed as his opinion that the

results of the conference are the most constructive of

their kind Avhich has been accomplished in the cotton- goods industry in many years, adding that it*is “ the

final proof of what can be developed through a complete understanding between buyer and seller.” The commercial standard, wliich is entitled “ Cotton

Cloth for Rubber and Pyroxylin Coating,” is now in

the hands of the Government Printer and in due

course will be available for purcliase.
134 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1931 DUST EXPLOSIONS SERIOUS PROBLEM

National Fire Protection Association Preparing Codes for the Prevention of Dust Explosions

Attention is being given by the Dust Explosions

Hazards Committee of the National Fire Protection

Association to the preparation of a code for the pre- vention of dust explosions in country grain elevators,

Hylton R. Brown, of the Bureau of Chemistry and

Soils, said October 20 in a recent address over stations

of the National Broadcasting Co. The committee,

which functions under the leadership of the Department of Agriculture, met in Washington on October

20. The section of Mr. Brown’s address dealing with

codes for the prevention of dust explosions follows in

full

Since scientists first discovered that dust particles in sus- pension in air could be ignited and produce an explosion

similar to a gas explosion, other scientists have tried to develop

methods of overcoming this hazard. We now know that dis- astrous dust explosions can occur in any industrial plant

where combustible dusts are created during the operating

process. The chemical engineering division of the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils in the Department of Agriculture is con- stantly conducting investigations to determine the exact cause and nature of such explosions.

The results of these investigations have been made available

to the Dust Explosion Hazards Committee and through them

to the industry in the form of codes or regulations for the prevention of dust explosions. Such codes have been pre- pared for flour and feed mills, terminal grain elevators, starch

factories, sugar and cocoa pulverizing plants, pulverizing-fuel

installations, wood-flour manufacturing establishments, spicegrinding plants, and coal pneumatic cleaning plants. Hardrubber grinding, sulphur pulverizing, and the production of metallic dusts are some of the lines of work still being studied,

and special attention is being given at present to the preparation of a code for country grain elevators. There are approximately 4,000 farmers’ elevator associa- tions in the United States, and the value of the plants through

which they handle their grain is placed at $65,000,000. It is estimated that the.se associations handle annually 550,000,000 bushels of grain. Many of their small elevators are built along the railroad or in a small settlement. Their isolated

locations make them a serious fire hazard. This is due both

to the nature of the business and to the fact that available

flre-fighting facilities are, as a rule, totally inadequate to cope with a fire in such a large building.

An analysis of fire losses in country elevators shows that

practically all are preventable. It is a case where precaution,

care, and attention to fire-prevention practices by the eievator operator are of greater value than flre-fighting equipment.

Frequently when a fire starts in a plant of this kind, a dust

explosion quickly follows and the flames are carried to all parts of the building. Before any real fire fighting can be

done the structure and its contents are a total loss. It is for

this reason that the Dust Explosion Hazards Committee plans

to give special attention to the reduction of fire and dust- explosion hazards in country grain elevators. There are a number of generally recognized precautions

against fire which .should be made a part of the operating

regulations of every cooperative or country grain elevhtor.

First, it is necessary to obtain a reliable manager, one who

will take an active interest in fire protection, and then co- operate with him in eliminating the hazards usually found

in such plants.

Require a thorough inspection of the plant before closing

at night.

Provide sufficient help so that the care and repair of machinery are not neglected during the rush periods.

Hot bearings are responsible for many fires. Make special

efforts to eliminate this source of trouble. Stones, scrap iron, shotgun shells, matches, and other material capable of starting a fire in machinery have been found

in grain brought to country elevators. Provide screens to catch this material before it enters the house.

Strictly prohibit smoking or the use of open flames around

the plant.

Lightning is a frequent cause of fires in country elevators. To guard against this hazard properly equip all buildings with

lightning rods. Keep both the building and the surrounding land clean and

free from accumulations of dust and rubbish which would

cause the rapid spreading of a fire. Place fire extinguishers and water barrels at convenient

points about the plant and install a loud alarm or some means

for calling assistance in case a small fire occurs. A small fire in a country elevator, if not checked promptly, is soon beyond

control.

STEEL BONE PLATES AND SCREWS

Acceptances have been received from producers, dis- tributors, and users of steel bone plates and screws

representing an estimated 85 per cent of production

by volume, and the success of the project was an- nounced on October 15 with the effective date set for

November 16, 1931. Hospitals and individual sur- geons from all sections of the country have signed

acceptances indicating a widespread interest in the

project.

This commercial standard is the result of an in- vestigation begun in 1929 by the American College of

Surgeons, following the receipt of numerous complaints concerning the unreliability of the plates and

screws then on the market. A subcommittee of the

National Fracture Committee of the American College of Surgeons, with Dr. P. D. Wilson as its chairman, carried out the investigations in a very thorough manner and arrived at the conclusion that the failure

of these plates and screws was largely due to the use of inferior grades of steel or improper heat treatment.

Following a request to the Bureau of Standards by

the American College of Surgeons for the establishment of a commercial standard, the division of metallurgy of the Bureau of Standards submitted recom- mendations as to adequate testing methods to be used

to insure proper heat treatment, and its recommendations were incorporated in a proposed commercial

standard, which was adopted by a general conference on June 18, 1931. The purpose of this commercial standard was not

only to provide the surgeon with reliable steel bone

plates and screws but to enable him to identify such

material when offered for sale on the open market.

Accordingly, each plate manufactured according to

this specification is to be stamped with the inscription

CS 27-31 and packed in a transparent sealed envelope

bearing the guarantee label of the manufacturer.

The standard will be printed in due time as a publication of the Bureau of Standards. A mimeographed

edition of the recommended commercial standard,

which is essentially the same as the printed edition,

is available, while the supply lasts, from the Division

of Trade Standards, Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.
NOVEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 135

THE VALUE OF SPECIFICATIONS TO INDUSTRY

Standardization of Specifications Has Been a Major Factor in Attaining Industrial Leadership

By Capt. D. B. Wainvveight,^ Jr., United States Navy

The promotion of knowledge of the materials of en- gineering and the standardization of specifications

and the methods of testing has been a great factor in

attaining industrial leadership for our country and is essential to the future maintenance of this supremacy.

The American Society for Testing Materials has made

a splendid contribution to our country’s progress and

has a field of great usefulness lying ahead of it. Nothing has been demonstrated more clearly by the

present depression than the close community of interests between producers and consumers. Their rela- tions are absolutely interdependent. Eeduce consumption, and overproduction results ; reduce production,

and through unemployment a further reduction ensues in consumption. Proposed remedies for the pres- ent unfortunate business situation are based upon the

principle that both producers and consumers will benefit alike in any plan that will increase consumption.

This has served to bring the consumer, not alone the

large users but the many small ones as well, into the

limelight of general consideration. His needs and desires have taken on a degree of importance probably

in excess of any previous experience of “ a buyer’s

market.”

There is a general impression that consumption has

receded further than the conditions of unemployment

warrant. This view is supported by the unprecedented accumulation of savings. Apparently even

those who have the means are not satisfying their

normal needs. This situation, if it does exist, is due

probably in large part to apprehensions of the individuals concerned regarding the future and the con- sequent provision of an emergency fund. But is not

this reticence to buy occasioned to some extent at least by another factor? There is considerable evidence

that unscrupulous merchants have taken advantage of

unsettled business conditions to flood the market with

inferior materials which are sold to the unwary con- sumer as “ mark downs ” and “ reductions.” The un- happy experiences of the purchasers of these materials has undoubtedly made them suspicious of legitimate price adjustments. In any event, the present

problem is to restore consumer confidence, and in the

future to maintain it. There is a growing demand on the part of the con- sumer for more knowledge regarding the things he

buys and for protection against dishonest practices in

the merchandizing field. This sentiment has made

itself manifest in two directions; First, in the enact- ment of protective laws, and, second, in the formation

of consumer associations. The desire of the consumer

for further knowledge and protection is indicated, outside of the legislative field, by the consumer organizations, representative of which are the American Home

Economics Association, the National Association of

Purchasing Agents, the American Hospital Associa-

' Abstract of paper by Captain Wainwright, Assistant Chief Coordinator, United States Government, before the October 15, 1931, meeting

of Committee D—13 of the .\morican Society for Testing Materials.

tion, the Hotel Managers’ Association, the Garment

Manufacturers’ Association, the Consumers’ League,

the Better Fabrics Testing I3ureau, the various better

business bureaus, and others.

The modern trend of thought in this direction is in- dicated by one of the large advertising agencies in a paid advertisement in which is pointed out, among

other factors, that “ the most effective advertising is the most informative. Advertising which simplj'^

urges people to buy goods will have no place in the

selling advertising of the future. Advertising will

sell by interpreting goods in terms of usefulness or desirability to the consumer. Advertising which tells consumers how to use goods more efficiently, more

thoroughly, how to take care of them, how to repair

them, how to get the most of value and service out of them. And advertising of this kind will be—is to-day—more profitable than any circus stunt or ballyhoo that can be devised.”

To carry out such a program of consumer education there is an urgent need for standardization to provide both the producer and the consumer with a yardstick of value. To be of the greatest worth to all concerned, standardization should be undertaken

through the coordination of the interests of both producer and consumer and with their closest cooperation.

A manufacturer usually feels that his product is a

little better than his competitor’s, and objects to ac- cepting a standard or specification which both can

meet. Therefore, he is content as a rule with the

development of standard methods of tests and the

adoption of reasonable commercial tolerances. He

seems perfectly willing to let each individual con- sumer set any numerical value he chooses on the re- quirements in the specification. This attitude disregards several very obvious advantages to the manufacturer resulting from the general use of standard

specifications. Among these may be mentioned:

1. He is not compelled to supply for essentially the same purpose materials ordered to a variety of specifications that may differ by just enough to require

separate production under each specification, involving many classifications in production, in stock files, and the like, with no commensurate benefits to the consumer.

2. In times of general business depression he can

continue to produce “ standard ” materials knowing

that when business picks up there will be a market for

them. In this way he can keep his plant running

and his organization intact, avoid excessive labor

turnover, prevent large increases of overhead expense

in relation to output, can frequently take advantage

of favorable market conditions in purchasing raw

materials, and, in general, maintain the efficiency of

his operations. In other words, he follows the in- junction of Poor Kichard, “ Drive thy business, let not that drive thee.”

3. He knows exactly what he is expected to furnish

and how the material will be tested and inspected by
136 COMMEKCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1931

the consumer, thus reducing to a minimum the possibility of misunderstandings, which are both vexatious

and expensive.

4. By thus standardizing the uniformity and reli- ability of materials, and thus eliminating unsatisfactory experiences of users in obtaining the qualities desired, he checks the encroachment of materials from

competitive industries.

5. Last, but not least, he is provided with a defense

against unfair competition by the unscrupulous within

his own industry.

On the other hand, we find that the consumer, particularly the larger one, usually feels that the specification which he himself has drawn up and is using

is entirely satisfactory, and that there is nothing to be gained by making the slight changes in it which

are necessary to make it agree with the specification

being used by other consumers of the same material.

Admitting that the use of the standard specification

automatically eliminates minor sales talk, this loss is more than overbalanced by the benefits secured.

Those to the consumer include the following:

1. He benefits indirectly from the advantages of

standardization to the producer.

2. He can secure truly competitive prices on the same quality of material.

3. Standard methods of test and inspection facili- tate establishing a routine procedure for acceptance

of material. When associated with quality labels, this

will be of the greatest value to the small consumer.

4. The greater uniformity and reliability of materials and the fact that their properties are better

understood will make possible their more economical

use.

5. The procedure of purchasing is simplified and

standardized, a matter of great importance in large

org^anizations.

Standardization, especially of specifications, is not

a static thing, but is dynamic, involving a continuous

change to meet new conditions, either of the user’s needs or of manufacturing processes. Doubtless the

realization of this fact has served to make the type of

specification known as the “ materials ” specification

unpopular, particularly with producers.

The “ materials ” siDecification describes in detail

the materials to be used. It generally includes tests to be passed at time of purchase, but requires no future

performance from the material. This type of specification is based on the theory that the purchaser knows

the best design, materials, and manufacturing practice for his needs; that he has' had satisfactory' service

from such before; and that he desires to purchase

exactly the same thing again, regardless of improvements. He would rather buy what he knows to be

only fairly good, even at greater cost, than run the

supposed risk of accepting something bad.

Periodic revisions of “ materials ” specifications are only a partial remedy for their defects, for no matter

how frequently made they are always lagging behind

the art. To make proper revisions the purchaser

would have to keep himself informed on all the ad- vances of the art. This is impractical, and experience

shows that he has not done so in the past. It is strictly

in the province of the manufacturer to be so informed.

A newer type of specification is the “ performance ” type. It is based on the principle that the product

ought to pass tests which indicate the performance in

service. To meet this kind of specification, the product must be capable of rendering a definite service and

by such tests the purchaser so assures himself. He is not concerned with the materials or the method of

manufacture as long as the product accomplishes the

desired results. The manufacturer, on the other hand,

is left free to make the best product at the lowest

cost to suit the service. He can take advantage

of all modern technical Imowledge and methods of

manufacture.

The “ performance ” specification is free from the

objections to the “ materials ” specification. While the

performance ” specification fixes the lower limits of

availability to render service, it does not in any way

prevent or delay the making of better products. Improvements due to new materials and methods do not

necessitate any revision whatever, for surely no one

objects to getting something better than he demands.

Unrestricted by any prescriptions as to materials and

processes, the manufacturer is free, by the proper

choice of them, to exceed the requirements or to sat- isfy them at a lower cost. If the purchaser desires to

raise the limits it can be easily and quickly done without any fundamental revision. This type of specification is ideally suited to the purpose of both producers

and consumers. Its use wherever practicable would

facilitate the more rapid progress of standardization

by eliminating many of the objections heretofore

raised by both producers and consumers. The preparation of a “ performance ” specification

may appear, at first thought, to involve a highly scientific investigation, during which cross currents might

develop and lead in so many directions that no conclusive results would be possible. Further consideration, however, will show that it is entirely feasible for consumers to develop, for many kinds of material,

work factors based on actual service use of the

material.

The problem is to select the variable factors enter- ing into the service of a given material under its normal conditions of use and to reduce these factors

to a simple mathematical formula in conjunction with an easily duplicated test, which shall simulate—in a

test laboratory, let us say—actual service conditions.

Besides the advantages of the “ performance ” specification to the producer, this specification will generally be the means of securing considerable economy for

the consumer. For instance, among 13 samples of

hack-saw blades for hand frames, one purchaser found

that the number of cuts per blade varied from 8.33

to 22.33, and that the number of strokes per cut varied

between 4,602 and 8,523. He found that the best set of samples gave 167 per cent greater service than the

poorest set, whereas the price of the best blade was

only 10 per cent greater than the price of the poorest.

A similar situation existed in selecting hack-saw blades

for machine use. By measuring the work done by valve-grinding

compounds of two suppliers, a purchaser found that

the compound of one cost 1.17 times that of the other,

but the cost of removing a pound of metal with the

compound of the first was approximately 74 cents as compared with $1.47 for the same work with the com- pound of the other. As evidence of need for standard specifications in

the textile industry, one has only to note that textiles are not free from competition from materials of other
NOVEMBER. 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 137

industries. Paper bags and paper towels are now

being used instead of textiles, and paper tape is taking

the place of twine. Some of the new floor coverings,

such as linoleum tile, are competing with rugs. Transmission and conveyor belts are sometimes made of canvas, but many other materials can be used. A rope

drive, for instance, may be either wire rope or manila

rope. A transmission belt may be canvas, leather, or

steel. While conveyor belts are generally canvas, they

compete with bucket elevators, screw conveyors, etc. In the electrical industry silk and cotton as insulating materials are meeting competition from paper and

from synthetic resins. In the aircraft industries the

all-metal planes and the all-metal dirigibles are competing directly with cotton. Is it entirely a coincidence that one of the few standard specifications

developed by an A. S. T. M. committee is for Osnaburg cement sacks, an article which is suffering from

inroads of the paper cement sack ? In considering a program of standardization, it is necessary to survey the means of carrying it out. A

picture of the organization of the industry is needed,

and the author must confess that the organization

of the textile industry appears to be chaotic. It has

been learned that there are a large number of national associations of textile manufacturers, divided on the basis of the fiber used and the material made.

There are the National Association of Cotton Manufacturers, the American Association of Cotton Manufacturers, and the Cotton Textile Institute ; three

large associations made up of manufacturers of cotton

goods.

Similarly, there are the National Association of

Wool Manufacturers, the Kayon and Synthetic Fiber

Institute, and the American Silk Association. There

are the Association of Knit Underwear Manufacturers, the Knitted Outerwear Manufacturers Association, the National Association of Hosiery and Underwear Manufacturers, and many more similar

groups, so that any individual manufacturer should

logically belong to so many associations that it would

keep him poor paying dues. These associations have

SEIDELL METHOD STANDARD FOR

VITAMIN “ B

”

International Conference Adopts Formula Devised by Specialists in U. S. Public Health Service

A method of preparing vitamin “ B ” concentrate

devised by Dr. Atherton Seidell, of the United States

Public Health Service, has been adopted as the international standard preparation by the International

Conference on Vitamin Units and Standards, according to an announcement of the United States Public

Health Service.

A report of the conference, which was organized

by the Permanent Standards Commission of the

Health Organization of the League of Nations and

which was held in London, England, early in the summer, recommended the adoption, as international

standard, “ of the absorption product of the antineuritic B vitamin prepared in the medical laboratory,

Batavia, Java, by the method of Seidell.

The method of pre^iaring the standard, which was

done by Doctor Jansen, consists in extracting rice pol84800—31 2

to do with manufacturers only. There are similarly

a large number of associations representing the converters, finishers, bleachers, mercerizers, and dyers,

many of whom have made some attempts at standardization.

Second, the distributors are represented by the

National Retail Dry Goods Association, and, third,

the consumers are represented by the American Home

Economics Association, both of these being powerful

associations but having done little or nothing about

writing specifications for textiles. There are many other associations in which con- sumers of textiles are grouped for other purposes, but

which do include textile standardization in their work.

To date, however, the most important work in this

field has been done by the large individual retailers

acting independently of the manufacturers and of

each other. Macy & Co., of New York City ; Marshall

Field, of Chicago; and Filene, of Boston, are probably

the outstanding leaders from the department-store

standpoint. Chain stores, such as Montgomery Ward,

Sears-Roebuck, and J. C. Penny, have also been very

active. The Pullman Co. and the Bell Telephone Laboratories should also be included in this group as con- tributing largely to the development of specifications

for textiles. The groups mentioned do not provide a central

point of contact where the several interests concerned can get together and formulate standard specifications

for textiles. The demand for consumer standards in all products

will grow, and rightly so. A group of more intelli- gent buyers is being developed. This means, inevitably, protection not only for the purchaser but for the

honest manufacturer and the honest distributor.

What is needed is a new approach to the problem.

Instead of being merely on the defensive against un- sound plans, the textile industry should be on the

offensive and take the lead in development of standards which will really be helpful to the consumer and

consequently to the ethical concern in industry >/nd

trade.

ishings with water, adding sulphuric acid, salicylic

acid, toluene (methylbenzie), and fuller’s earth (specially selected for its absorptive powers). Subsequently, the solution is filtered off and the fuller’s earth, after being washed with water and alcohol, is dried. Three kilograms of the fuller’s earth absorbate

represents the antineuritic B vitamin from 100 kilograms of rice polishings.

The report recommended that a batch of 25 kilograms of the standard preparation be prepared and

that this amount be kept at the National Institute for

Medical Research, London, acting for this purpose as central laboratory on behalf of the health organization

of the League of Nations.

Although declaring that there is no evidence that

loss of potency is liable to occur in the standard absorption product, the conference suggested that further investigations of its stability be undertaken by

certain laboratories, among which was included the

National Institute of Health of the United States Public Health Service.
138 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1931 STANDARDIZING GRADES FOR LIVESTOCK AND MEATS

Work of Division in Bureau of Agricultural Economics Outlined

By C. V. Whaun*

The livestock, meats, and wool division is a research

and service organization in the Bureau of Agricultural Economics, United States Department of Agriculture. Its activities are devoted largely to the national problems of marketing livestock and livestock

products.

Livestock products include meats, meat products,

wool, mohair, hides, fats, and other animal by-products. Since meat is the principal product of livestock,

and since meat values and the practices and conditions in the wholesale and retail meat trade largely

determine the values and the marketing of livestock,

the solution of many of the problems of livestock

production and marketing is found in the wholesale

and retail meat trade. In many respects there problems are identical, and services rendered to either are

beneficial to all branches of the industry. While live- stock marketing problems claim first attention, those

attending the marketing of meats and meat products

require and receive almost equal consideration.

Livestock and wholesale meat values are influenced

and largely determined by the actions of meat con- sumers in their demand and preference for meats. The national livestock and meat trade is so evenly

balanced that when the meat consumers buy freely or economize collectively there is an almost immediate

reaction back through the various trade channels and

agencies to the farm and feed lot. The livestock producer is far removed from this barometer of his busi- ness and as a rule is not familiar with the underlying

economic factors asserted there which so vitally affect his enterprise.

The various intermediate commercial agencies between the livestock producer and his ultimate market—the consumer—are not organized for advising

the producer adequately regarding the true conditions. Most of them are in no better situation in this

respect than he, and few can serve their own needs

adequately.

Since livestock production and marketing to satisfy consumer preference and demand is a business that

promises to become even more highly specialized, the

' Principal marketing specialist, livestock, meats, and wool division. Bureau of Agricultural Economics, Department of Agriculture.

producer is demanding information regarding market

conditions and trends of the essential economic factors

and influences affecting his business that he may keep

his production and marketing programs adjusted to them. Lacking his own service organization he looks

to an unbiased and financially disinterested agency to provide the needed service and demands it of his Government. In this he is joined by the marketing and

distributing agencies because of their need for similar

services. The livestock, meats, and wool division was cre- ated to supply these services in so far as practicable.

In the performance of its duties, therefore, the division comes in close contact with the national trade

in meats and meat products as well as in that of

livestock, as it gathers, analyzes, and disseminates

useful market and economic information and renders

needed authorized services to all branches of the in- dustries concerned.

In order to render the required services most effec- tively there must be an intimate contact with and

knowledge of all branches of the meat trade as well

as with the livestock industry and livestock markets.

This is acquired by rendering specific needed services to the wholesale and retail meat trade. Among these

services are the wholesale meat market news service,

meat grading service, beef grading and stamping service, and economic information service.

The standardization of the grades for meats is fundamental to practically all of the services ren- dered. It is basic to a practical and usable meat

market news service, because it provides a uniform

national language to disseminate market information

regarding quotations and values in a nation-wide news

service. It is basic to trading on specifications and

fundamental to economic analyses and statements re- garding the industries. Such standards, both tentative and official, for the various market classes and

grades of meat have been worked out with the aid

of the various branches of the meat trade. Since

livestock grades and values are closely related to the

grades and values of the meats they produce, meat

grade standards and livestock grade standards have

been so correlated that similar nomenclature is given

to both the animal and the meat of similar qualities.

REPORT OF TRUNK SIMPLIFICATION SENT TO

INDUSTRY

A summary report of a recent general conference,

which approved a simplified practice recommendation

covering the box sizes and terminology for stock varieties of trunks, has been mailed by the Bureau of

Standards to all interests for their consideration and

written acceptance.

This recommendation establishes lists of outside

dimensions of the box, not considering bulges, handles, rollers, or unusual protrusions for wardrobe.

dress, steamer, and tray and wardrobe hand trunks.

It is estimated by the industry that the general adoption of the recommendation will effect a reduction in

the variety of wardrobe trunks from 91 to 4, dress

trunks from 102 to 3, steamer from 68 to 3, hand

trunks, tray style from 55 to 4, and hand trunks, wardrobe style from 46 to 3. Subject to the written acceptance by the industry,

the recommendation will be effective for new production on January 1, 1932. A further transitional

period from January 1, 1932, to July 1, 1932, is allowed

for clearance of existing stocks.
NOVEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 139

PREDICTIONS BY MACHINERY

Extraordinary Device Accurately Forecasts Tides and Currents

By Capt. Path, C. Whitney ’

, Accurate knowledge of the rise and fall of tides and

the direction and velocity of currents, published well

in advance, is an invaluable aid to the navigator wdio

must operate his vessel on exacting schedule. The in- creased distribution of tide and current tables is but

another evidence of our unprecedented national progress and the ever-expanding service rendered by the

Coast and Geodetic Survey to those who follow the sea. By means of a highly specialized machine, conceived

by officials of this bureau of the Federal Government

and constructed in its shops, this service isi able to much more quickly predict the time and height of

high and low tides, and the direction and velocity of currents at hourly intervals, for any given place for

any day in any year, and do it with unfailing accuracy.

To describe this machine, originally used only in

predicting the tides, would overrun the space of this

article, for it took

many years to build,

and each year meant

many calculations and

much study by experts

who devoted their

lilies to learning the

laws of the tides and

their relation to the

sun, moon, and mother

earth.

Some 45 years ago

Dr. William Ferrel,

of this bureau devised a machine, prior to the use of which tidal

predictions were laboriously computed by means

of empirical tables and graphs. The idea of the pres- ent apparatus, better adapted to the prediction of

tides of every type, was conceived by Dr. R. A. Harris,

of the coast survey, and constructed in its shops under

the direction of Ernest G. Fischer. It was not a small

task, for work was begun in 1895 and not completed

until 1910. As illustrated in the accompanying picture, this is a supercalculating machine of large proportions, made

of shiny brass and blued steel, with cogs, pulleys,

dials, and a fine, flexible chain, which was run more

than a thousand miles in an oil bath to give it proper

pliability before it was placed in the apparatus. The

machine is 10 feet 9 inches in length, G feet 2 inches

in height, and 2 feet wide. The dimensions of its some 15,000 separate parts were chosen with particular

view to rigidity and freedom from flexui’e. Workmanship and material are such as to produce deterioration due to wear to the minimum, and the wearing

parts are planned so as to pei’mit of replacement or

repair Avithout ever interrupting the regular output of

the machine.

This complicated piece of machinery not only does

the work of at least GO mathematicians, but it is much

1 Chief of the tide and current division, U. S. Const and Geodetic

Survey, U. S. Department of Commerce.

superior to experts in this line of ivork because of its speed and the assurance of accuracy. Accuracy is one

of the details concerning which the Coast and Geodetic Survey is most particular, for mistakes in any

of its many activities might mean loss of life and

ships.

Tides are dependent upon the combined pull of

the sun and moon, and the effects upon the tides of

the ever-changing relative positions of these bodies can be predicted with unfailing accuracy. Tide prediction, therefore, becomes solely a complicated mathematical problem, requiring the consideration of some

37 factors, or constants, each representing one phase

of position of sun and moon.

Before beginning the predictions for any port, the

constants, representing the different components for

each constituent tide, which have been obtained from

a series of tidal observations, are set on

the proper cranks and

dials which are so arranged that when

the machine is put in

motion by means of a crank and gears it will sum up the effects of

all these elementary waves into the tide of

nature, which is also depicted upon a roll of

moving paper. The

resulting graph gives the datum, with hours and

days indicated, and the rise and fall above and below

the datum plane. The machine is also so constructed

that this summation is indicated through dials on the

face of the instrument as high and low waters, with

their heights and times of occurrences. To predict a year’s tides for a station takes one man from 2^ to 4 hours according to the number of

components used, for the setting of the machine, and

from 8 to 15 hours, according to the complexity of the

tides at the station, for copying the indicated results upon the form ready for the printer.

These predictions can be made for a number of

years in advance as well as for one year; the}' can be

ascertained just as readily for years that are past.

Winds and other meteorological conditions will cause a change from the normal and in instances of this

nature must be allowed for. Some idea of the importance of this work may be

obtained from the fact that a ship’s officer can tell exactly what the tide will be at any given point on

a certain day—information obviously of the greatest

value in marine transportation. The Coast and

Geodetic Survey now issues seven publications on

these predictions; namely, tide tables for the United

States and foreign ports, tide tables for the Pacific

coast, and special pocket-size editions for New York

Harbor. Boston Harboi', San Francisco Harbor, and

Puget Sound.

Modern science has never produced a more remarkable machine than the Coast and Geodetic Survey’s

“tide predictor,” which does the work of GO mathematicians and accurately gives the time of high and low

tide in any part of the world, for any day of the past

or future. The value of these machine-made predictions may be judged from the fact that the tide tables

in seven Government publications are based on data

furnished by this invention.
140 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER. 1931

A view of the predicting machine of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey

This machine is likewise used for current predictions, with the result that this service likewise publishes predicted current data. There is the same

periodicity in tidal current movements as there is in

tides. The waters respond to the tide-producing

forces of sun and moon not only with the vertical

rise and fall of the tide, but also with a horizontal for- ward and backward movement known as the tidal current. These two movements are intimately re- lated, being merely different phases of the single

phenomenon of the response of the waters to the

tide-producing forces, and therefore may be and are similarly predicted on this machine after a special

set-up of the dials.

NEW 7,000 SERIES OF STANDARD WOOD

MOLDINGS

Of much importance to the entire lumber trade is the announcement by the Central Committee on Lumber Standards of the issuance in published form of the

new revised 7,000 series of American standard moldings.

This new publication makes a timely appearance

following President Hoover’s announced advocacy of

home building, and designers and builders now will

be able to specify from stock beautiful effects in

beamed ceilings or paneled walls; properly constructed

door and window sections; assemblies of authentic

Colonial and Gothic designs. Heretofore, such details were jiossible largely for luxurious homes where specialized millwork and high architectural fees prevailed. Now the modest home at standard prices can

be an architectural gem, as far as interior accoutre- ment is concerned.

The book contains some 250 patterns, each consistent

Avith good architecture, and each with serial designations; 81 typical assemblies; a cross-index from the

revised to the old series, and an extended index to the

various types of moldings.

In making the announcement concerning the new

imblication, John H. Kirby, chairman of the Central

Committee on Lumber Standards, predicted that be- cause of the painstaking manner with which this

authorized revision of the original 7,000 series was made and its universal approval by architects and

manufacturers and distributors of lumber and millwork, these new molding patterns and designs should

quickly become standard practice throughout the lumber and millwork manufacturing and di^ributing

branches of the trade. To that end he urges every

lumber and millwork manufacturer to secure, either

from his association or direct from the Central Committee on Lumber Standards, Transportation Building, Washington, D. C., a copy of the new publication and to put the new patterns and sizes into actual

production as rajiidly as possible.

The regular procedure of the division of simplified

practice of the Bureau of Standards provides for the

revision of any existing simplified practice recom- mendation of the Department of Commerce and its subsequent publication when the acceptors thereof

have recorded with this office their written approval

of any changes proposed by the standing committee of

the industry.

These revised 7,000 series molding designs and sizes having been regularly approved and recommended to the Department of Commerce by the Central Committee on Lumber Standards, the standing committee

of the lumber industry. The division of simplified

practice has therefore circularized the various

branches of the lumber industry requesting the asso- ciations and companies to indicate on an Inclosed

blank form whether or not they wish the new moldings included in the next edition of Simplified Practice Recommendation R 16-29 in place of the molding

patterns appearing in the current edition.
NOVEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 141

ADOPTING UNIFORM LABELS FOR WHEAT PRODUCTS

How the Federal Food and Drug Administration Cooperates With Milling Industries

By G. L. Bidwell ’

AVhen Congress enacted the Federal food and drugs

act, 25 years ago, that body had primarily in mind

the protection of the public from impure, unwholesome, and falsely or fraudulently labeled foods and

drugs. Such ecpnomic cheats flooded the market

jirevious to the passage of the measure, and there was

a crying need for national legislation which would

prevent the interstate shipment of such fraudulent

commodities. Twenty-five years’ enforcement of the

national pure food law has effected a substantial improvement in the quality and in the honesty of label- ing of foods and drugs that reach the American

consumer. Now, it is axiomatic that any legislation which in- creases public confidence in commodities on sale—and

thus stimulates buying—has a beneficial effect upon

business, the producer of such commodities. And

while the Federal food and drugs act is primarily designed to safeguard the consumer, the amazing

growth of the food and drug manufacturing trades

in the past quarter of a century is good evidence

that the law has not neglected the interests of the

manufacturer.

As a matter of fact, so confident have operators in

the food industry become of the essential importance

of the pure food law that the influence of the canners led, in the summer of 1930, to the passage of an amendment to the act known as the McNary-Mapes

bill, which materially strengthens the food and drugs

act. This amendment was passed at the instance of

the canning industry and did not originate in the

Department of Agriculture.

Day-by-day operations in the enforcement of the

food laws bring officials of the Federal Food and

Drug Administration into constant and friendly re- lationship with business. This is well illustrated by

developments in the stock-feed industries within the

last two decades. About 20 years ago certain representatives of the feed industry met in Washington

with several State and Federal feed officials to discuss

mutual problems of manufacture and regulatory control of these products. This meeting resulted in the

formation of the American Feed Manufacturers’ Association and the Association of American Feed Control Officials. The two associations, one representing

the industry and the other representing control offi- cials, have worked harmoniously ever since. For 20 years the Food and Drug Administration

and its predecessor, the Bureau of Chemistry, have

been constantly represented in the Association of

American Feed Control Officials and have taken active

part in its deliberations. That association’s definitions, standards, and resolutions have resulted in a marked improvement in practices in the industry and

have brought about substantial benefits to the industry

itself, to control officials, and to the public. A great

deal of credit for this improvement is due to the in-

‘ Chemist in charge, cattie feed unit. Food and Drug .\dmi'nistration. Department of Agricuiture.

telligent and friendly cooperation of State control

officials and members of the feed-manufacturing

trades with Federal officials. The Food and Drug Administration likewise has

many contacts with manufacturers of foods designed

for human use. One of the principal ones comes

through the operations of the Food Standards Committee, a group appointed by the Secretary of Agriculture, which consists of 9 members, 6 of whom are State officials, and 3 of whom represent the United

States Department of Agriculture. This committee

has the duty of assembling information by independent investigation and chemical analysis—of determining what is -regarded as good commercial practice by

those who make the food product—of finding what

consumer understanding may be, and then of drawingup for the approval of the Secretary of Agriculture

a definition which, in the opinion of the committee,

will be a fair and workable standard from the standpoint of the consumer, the manufacturer, and enforcement officials. If the Secretary approves, the definition is promulgated as official, and it then becomes

the duty of the Food and Drug Administration to apply that definition in enforcing the food and

drugs act. One year ago, upon recommendation of the Food

Standards Committee, the department announced defi- nitions for whole wheat and entire wheat flour. Those

definitions were designed to unify labeling of certain

wheat products, and the compliance therewith by the

industry meant, in some cases, radical changes in in- dustrial practices. Representatives of the milling in- dustry met in Washington and had conferences with

officials of the Food and Drug Administration.

While there were initial differences of understanding,

as is natural, most of those were ironed out and the

industry is now enabled to label its products entirely

in conformity with the act. As a result of these conferences the Millers National Federation, Chicago, 111., has published a pamphlet containing the official definitions, which

publication has been distributed Avidely to the milling

trade. This circular contains, in addition to the new

standai’ds, considerable valuable information con- cerning the provisions of the food and drugs act, to- gether with suggestions regarding proper labeling of

intermediate Avheat products, definitions for which

have not been established.

The Food Standards Committee of the department

has spent a large part of its time in considering questions relating to flour, cereals, and the various products made therefrom. Every definition that goes out

from that committee is of advantage to the millingindustries, since, while the standard may cause temporary embarrassment at first, in the end it always results in unifying the branding and naming of millingproducts and places competition among manufacturers of such ju-oducts on a more fair and definite

basis. The standai-ds serve as a definite guide for the
142 COMMERCIAL STAKDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1931

labeling of various wheat products, thus benefiting the

millers and also help to place consumers and bakers

in a position where they can know exactly what they

are getting.

The adoption of definitions for all food products is of advantage to the food industries in another way,

in that such standards serve as guides for State authorities in the enforcement of State pure food legislation and thus tend to hasten the formulation and

adoption of uniform rules for the labeling of foods in

the different States. The resulting advantage to food

manufacturers who ship interstate is at once apparent.

The food industries have materially assisted the

committee in formulating these standards and definitions. A recent hearing on mayonnaise was well at- tended by mayonnaise manufacturers, who gave the

committee valuable information on manufacturing

methods and whose opinions on what should consti- tute a quality product proved of great value. The

same is true of farina, semolina, and macaroni manufacturers, and the Millers’ National Federation con- tributed data which were highly significant in the

formulation of definitions for wheat products. Many

other cases of cooperation with the committee hj^ manufacturers of other food products could be mentioned

here ; in fact, manufacturers have been in close touch

vrith the committee in its survey of practically every

food schedule considered up to the present.

STANDARD APPROVED FOR HOSIERY

Trade Approves Standard for Methods of Measurements and Uniform Measurements

Believing that a reduction in the variations of

hosiery lengths is of economic importance to both the

user and the manufacturer, a general conference of the

trade, held October 29, 1931, under the auspices of the

Bureau of Standards, approved the adoption, as a commercial standard, of the standard in use for sev- eral years by the members of the National Association

of Hosiery and Underwear Manufacturers.

Through the medium of the approved standard

there will be provided uniform methods of measure- ment and uniform measurements for the guidance of

producers, distributors, and users, in order to elimi- nate confusion now existing from a diversity of meas- urements and methods of making measurements.

There will likewise be provided a uniform basis for

guaranteeing full lengths. The standard is to be

applicable to finished hosiery as delivered by the

manufacturer.

The interest of the individual purchaser of hosiery

in this program is evident Avhen consideration is given

to the discomfort resulting from wearing liosiery, the

leg of which is too long or too short. Although not

relatively as important as the length of the foot, for

the A^ariation in length of an inch may not cause any

decided discomfort, yet the purchaser Avishes to have some reasonable assurance that the hosiery is the same

length at each purchase.

The chief consideration on the part of the manufacturer is in the establishment of a fair standard as a matter of trade procedure. This must bring about

fairer methods of competition. It Avill also tend to decrease the number of disputes and cancellations.

The saving in materials Avill be a factor in those in- instances Avhere the manufacturer is noAv exceeding

the proposed standard by several inches. In addition, it Avas brought out at the conference that the

adoption of this standard is expected to increase the

efficiency of the mill.

According to E. M. Schenke, research associate of

the Bureau of Standards, representing the National

Association of Hosiery and UnderAvear Manufacturers, Avho conducted the tests at the Bureau of Standards Avhich led to the development of the standard,

the hosiery industry has readily recognized the advantages to be gained by the adoption of a uniform

method of measuring the length of hosiery and the

fixing of standard lengths. As a result this work

Avas undertaken by the association as one of its problems of research and standardization.

This particular standard is for ladies’, men’s, chil- dren’s ribbed, children’s spoi’t, infants’ ribbed, and

infants’ and children’s socks. While other lengths

will be available on order, the standard length for

Avomen’s hose is 30 inches, that for men’s is 14 inches

for size 10 and under and 14i/^ inches for sizes above 10. There are now tAvo other projects under way at the

Bureau of Standards, under the sponsorship of the

National Association of Hosiery and UnderAvear Manufacturei’s. One relates to standard dimensions of the

various parts of men’s and Avomen’s hosiery. The

other is a study of the Avearing quality of hosiery.

The purpose of the second project is to dcAuse satis- factory tests for the resistance to rubbing of the toe and heel of hosiery and to apply this test under standardized conditions to a A'ariety of hosiery constructions in order to find out the constructions that stand

the best Avear. The Avearing quality of hosiery depends on the material and the Avorkmanship built into

the hosiery by the manufacturer. This program is not concerned Avith the Avear resultant from the use of

ill-fitting hosiery or ill-fitting shoes, of garters that

do not function properly, of runs resultant from

snags, or similar causes Avithin the control of the user. L. E. Gilbert, Avho represented the division of trade

standards, Bureau of Standards, under whose auspices the conference was held, stated that the approved commercial standard Avould immediately be

submitted to the trade for the necessary written ac- ceptance, in accordance with the established procedure

of the bureau. Subject to this acceptance the standard Avill become effective for neAv production and

clearance of existing stocks on March 1. 1932.
NOVEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY 143

ASSOCIATION AND COMPANY STANDARDIZATION MOVEMENTS

Fundamental Principles Essential to Success of These Activities

By P. G. Agnew, Secretary, American Standards Association

All buying and selling in which goods do not come

under the immediate personal inspection of the purchaser must necessarily be based ujion some standard.

The existence of a standard broadens the market for a commodity, the breadth of the market being coincident with the extent to which the standard is recognized and used.

Examples of association work. —In a great many

fields, technical and professional societies have been

instrumental in group standardization. Most of the

early group standardizations were developed by the

technical societies. For example, the fundamental

standardization work which made possible the interchange of railway rolling stock, which, in turn, made

possible our national transportation system, was car- ried out by the master mechanics and master car builders through what were then their technical societies—

now merged as a technical branch of a trade association, the American Railway Association.

A. 8. M. E. —Dimensional interchangeability of machinery parts and supplies, such as bolts and nuts,

pipe flanges and fittings, small tools and machine-tool

elements, screw threads, and pipe threads have been

dealt with extensively by the American Society of

Mechanical Engineers. After the organization of the

American Standards Association, all the society’s

standards in these fields were broadened, so that offi- cial representatives of all other interested organizations were included in the technical commitees, thus

giving the work a national status. A. P. /.—One of the most complete and thorough

standardization programs to be found in any industrial field is that of the American Petroleum Institute

which is probably unique with respect to the speed

and energy with which it was organized and set in

productive operation. The work includes a large

group of materials and supplies such as pipe, belting,

tool joints, rig irons, derricks, cordage, and pumping

equipment. Officers of the institute have estimated

that the industry has for years invested several hundred thousand dollars a year in speeding up its vig- orous standardization program, and the industry considers that its program has been extremely profitable

investment. The institute licenses manufacturers making tubular and other material complying with its specifications to stamp its official monogram upon

their materials.

Apples and cit'njbs fmdts. —Striking examples of the

standardization of products for purposes of largescale market exploitation are furnished by western

fruit growers. The citrus growers of southern California and the apple growers of Washington and Oregon have created national markets for their products

primarily by the use of a clever, but simple and thorough-going standardization program.

The apple growers have brought about a grading

of their apples, which is so thoroughly well done and

is so completely but simply indicated on each box that

the producers, the distributor, and the consumer may

readily know that each box contains 40 pounds of

apples; the exact number of apples in each box; the

quality of apples both as to color and flavor, and that

the apples are of closely uniform and known size. A very similar marketing program based upon

standardization has been carried out by the citrus

growers of Southern California. While their competitive advantage over the Florida growers has not

been so great as in the case of the western apple growers, the more thorough-going job of standardization of

the Californians has given them some very definite advantages.

The technical society, its membership broadly rep- resentative of a wide industrial field, is in a particularly good position to provide for the interests of miscellaneous, unorganized, and scattered groups.

In a trade association, corporate management as such is directly represented. In a strictly professional

society this is impossible since the basis of organization must necessarily be the individual, and to recognize corporation control would break down the professional standing of the organization. This is, I believe,

the basic reason for the steadily increasing role which

the trade association is playing in the standardization

movement.

Decision and authority can not be permanently sep- arated. It is fundamental in human nature that management should insist on being in a position to control

decisions affecting its own policies. The normal

agency for bringing this about in cooperative work

atf'ecting competing companies is the trade association.

It is significant that trade associations are more and more setting up technical and professional divisions

within their own organizations.

The national hody.—Through a recent reorganization, the American Standards Association is now a federation (maintained at present by 45 national or- ganizations, 8 departments of the Federal Government, and 37 trade associations). The American

Standards Association is purely a service organization providing

1. A form for the cooperative development and

revision of standards.

2. A systematic method of formal approval of

“American Standards.”

3. The official channel of international contact and

cooperation in standardization matters. More than 200 trade associations, all of the great

engineering societies and nearly 40 depai'tments and

bureaus of the Federal Government are actively participating in the work.

Conflicts and controversies.—The standardization

pi’ocess often leads to conflicts between groups.

While most of these conflicts finally turn out to be more appai’ent tlian real, they frequently lead to controversies which at times take on somewhat serious as- pects. Sometimes they are merely jurisdictional in character, but frequently they center in real problems
144 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1931

affecting in important ways, the nature and content

of the standards in question.

Drawn issues are bound continually to arise in any

movement like standardization which has to do with

live issues of moment to industry. A great number

of examples could be cited in which the industrial

and technical groups concerned have faced each other

and the common problem across the table and found

an equitable and satisfactory solution because they were bound that such a solution could be found. A

tense situation in connection with the elevator safety

code has been replaced by a continuing cooperative re- search program. Still more tense situations in regard

to electrical safety codes have been relieved by entirely

workable solutions. A stalemate of many years’

standing between manufacturers of cast-iron pipe and

the principal consuming groups has given way to a

cooperative research program.

Gadding principles—The company.—There are cer- tain guiding principles which should be followed

when standardization is carried on by a company;

namely

1. Executives should be alive to the economic importance of the movement, and in sympathy with it. 2. Standardization work should be specifically provided for and systematically organized, each department concerned taking an active part.

3. The company should cooperate actively in standardization work of the trade association, and through

it, in the development of national standards.

4. The head or heads of the standards organization

should act as authoritative spokesman of the firm in

standardization work in their trade association, and

should cooperate in the standardization activities of

technical societies.

5. Conversely, the set-up should be such as to permit

an immediate start in the introduction of each new

national or association standard which concerns the

work of the company.

6. The goods the company buys, and the goods it produces for sale should be dealt with by this same

general method.

7. All this should be equally true of big and of little firms, of manufacturers, distributors, and operating

companies. In the same general sense it should be

true of city. State, and Federal Governments.

Associations.—Associations engaged in standardization work should be guided by the following principles : 1. Associations should have effective machinery for

promptly getting a real consensus of all members

concerned with a particular subject.

2. An educational function of the association should

be to bring home to the executives of its member comTHIRTY-EIGHT STATES ADOPT CENTRALIZED

PURCHASING METHODS

Centralized purchasing methods, involving the principle of buying on specifications, have been adopted

by the State governments of Maine and North Carolina during the current year. This now brings the

total number of States which are operating under a policy of centralized purchasing to 38, according to a report prepared by Walter N. Kirkman, purchasing

agent for the State of Maryland and chairman of Ilie

pallies the economic importance of standardization,

and its significance as a managerial tool.

3. In consultation with other groups, and with the

national body, each organization should decide what

part of its standardization work is to be handled

purely as an association matter on account of its scope and influence being limited to one narrow field without reflexes upon other industries, and what part

needs cooperation with other groups from the point

of view of national standardization.

4. The organization should become thoroughly re- sponsible and should require responsibility on the

part of its members and committees.

{a) It should provide responsible representatives on the working committees of the national body, and

whenever possible, back up such representatives by a committee and then see that its members are kept in- formed of the acts of their representatives (most men

do not fully understand the meaning of representation, or of the responsibilities which it entails. It is the duty of a representative to keep sufficiently in

touch with his organization so that he can correctly in- terpret its attitude in the development of the work

and in participating in decisions in committee ; to keep

his organization informed of developments; to act as a leader in the formulation of the policies of organization in regard to the matters with which he is dealing; and to refer back to his organization questions

upon which he feels unauthorized to speak for it). (&) Responsibility in the sense of carrying out

with administrative competence, work for which re- sponsibility has been assumed.

(c) Accept responsibility for the consequences of

the acts of its authorized committees and representatives. Judged by these criteria, the majority of the numerous associations and societies could not justly

claim a consistent record for responsibility.

(d) Technical staff assistance to voluntary committees is generally necessary (such assistance generally

pays for itself many times over in saving the time of

committee men, minimizing the number of meetings

required, etc.).

(e) The association should systematically promote

the use, by its own members and by industry generally,

both of its own standards and of those national standards in whose formulation it has taken part.

(/) Organizations should make their decisions in

standardization matters with due regard to the in- terests of other groups and of the general public, and

also (specifically in the case of technical societies)

with regard to the interests of unorganized consumer

groups, as well as on the basis of service to thpir

members.

committee on governmental purchasing of the National Association of Purchasing Agents.

In his report Mr. Kirkman stated that among counties

and cities which considered the adoption of central buying as an economy and efficiency measure during the past

year were the counties of West Virginia and Washington, and Albany County, N. Y. ; and the cities of Vancouver,Canada ; Niagara Falls, N.Y. ; Knoxville, Tenn.

New Bedford, Mass. ; Omaha, Nebr. ; Chattanooga,

Tenn. ; Ottawa, Canada ; Peoria, 111. ; Providence, R. I.

New Haven, Conn. ; Tacoma, Wash. ; and York, Pa.
NOVEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 145

VALUE OF SPECIFICATIONS IN THE MANUFACTURE OF STEEL

Standarization Aimed to Afford Greatest Economy to the Ultimate Consumer—Work Still in Its Infancy

By John Brunnee*

With the development of the Bessemer and especially the open-hearth processes of making steel in

large quantities, and at a reduced cost, its use has

grown to such an extent that it now materially affects our mode of living and tends to influence the development of modern civilization in many directions.

Through its use, marked changes have been made in

all fields of construction, manufacturing, agriculture,

transportation, preservation, and distribution of food

supplies, and of many other commodities, making the

steel industry one of the most important basic

industries.

With such an extensive application of steel man}’

different requirements are placed upon it so that it may be of a quality that properly functions in service. The many years of experience and observations in its manufacture and in its performance in service have

enabled engineers to prepare specifications for the various qualities required in its many applications. The

number of varieties of steel in respect to special qualities required by the users have steadily increased until

to-day the steel maker has a large number of different

specifications to comply with in manufacturing steel. It is apparent that in order to furnish the proper

qualities the steel maker must be closely guided by

requirements of specifications, and hence the specifications are of great value to him in his operations.

Many specifications, like those of the American Society

for Testing Materials, are the result of cooperation

between the representatives of the users and of the

producers of steel and are used to a larger extent than

other specifications in connection with the grades they

cover. Many other technical bodies have gone into

the matter of standardizing specifications, and hence we have to-day a large number of standard specifications covering many grades and qualities of steel. Under some specifications the steel is tested, in- spected, and accepted before it leaves the mills. In

other cases, where the specifications relate to chemical

composition only, and the tests are made by the users, the proper interpretation of requirements as to other

qualities in the steel is often obtained through personal

contact between the user’s and producer’s technical

staffs and through observation of its performance at the user’s plants.

With the close competition which exists between the

fabricators in selling their finished products, the per- formance of the steel in their operations as far as it affects their final cost and the quality of their finished

products, becomes most important. The number of

operations used by the fabricators in the production

of their finished product are usually reduced to a minimum within the working endurance of the steel, in

order to obtain economic fabricating costs. Hence the

steel maker must at all times exercise the greatest care

in his production and be in touch with the perform-

' Manager, department of metallurgy and inspection, Illinois Steel

Co.. Chicago. This paper was presented before a recent joint meeting

of the American Society for Testing Materials and Western Society of Engineers in Chicago.

ance of the steel in the fabricator’s plants, so as to develop a steel which meets the requirements in con- nection with his particular equipment and method of

manufacturing.

While specifications cover the principal requirements of the quality of the steel as determined by

tests the question of furnishing a steel best suited for

the particular purpose for which it is to be utilized, in

the last analysis, rests with the steel maker, as specifications can not be so complete as to fully prescribe the

quality of the steel which would give the best performance in the further fabricating process and in service.

The steel maker must therefore select and use the

proper kind of raw materials in the right proportions,

the proper time in each of his processes, the proper

temperatures in each process, and many other details

which are required to produce the best steel for a given purpose. These details can not be covered in

specifications, nor can they always be closely checked

by tests made on the final product of the steel mill.

With the rapid development in the use of steel an

increasing number of technical men are employed in

the steel industry, and these men are engaged in an

earnest study of developments and of improvements

in manufacturing methods and in the final quality of

the steel products sold to the ultimate consumer. With the research, investigation, and effort now

being made to obtain the best results in the final products, the specifications for steel have increased both in

number and in their requirements in order to cover the

developments and secure the improvements desired.

As a result of these efforts many different compositions and alloys are employed by the fabricators to meet their particular aim.

The steel maker has more specifications to comply

with to-day than he has had at any time in the past.

A few of these specifications apply to special struc- tures or special purposes only and can not, for this reason, be standardized. There are many others which

could be standardized in groups, resulting in the best

economy in the production and in the use of the steel. Specifications which accompany orders for steel may

be divided into several groups in accordance with

their requirements. Some specifications, as those for

structural materials, etc., require physical tests on

specimens cut from the finished product at the steel maker’s plant, and the results of these tests form the

basis of acceptance. This group of specifications is, in general, well standardized with definite and eco- nomic requirements.

Another specification group requires chemical composition of the steel, together with impact tests. Railroad rails and railroad axles come under this group in

general, and the product is accepted on the tests at the mill. This group covers highly important grades

of steel and is well standardized with slight variations to cover local conditions.

Another group requires that check anal3"ses shall meet certain requirements as to composition. Attempts have been made to standardize this group, but
146 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1931

standards have not become general in use. A small

group of specifications requires that physical tests as well as chemical composition fall within certain

ranges. It is often difficult to meet the requirements

in this group as the two sets of requirements are not

always properly coordinated with each other. Other

groups require hardness tests, fracture tests, deep-etch

tests, grain-size tests, and cleanliness tests. No defi- nite standards have been established for most of these

groups. One of the groups, and one which covers

considerable tonnage, accepts the steel on analyses made

on test ingots taken at the time the steel is poured.

Many specifications, before they are transmitted to the mill for execution, must include not only quality

requirements, but also rolling tolerances, cutting toler- ances, branding, stamping, tagging, bundling, blocking in the cars, and other details which can not be

covered by standard specifications, but must be developed for each customer to suit the unloading,

handling, and manufacturing equipment which he has

in his plant.

All specifications relating to orders in the steel manufacturer’s plant are distributed to the men in

responsible charge of any part of the steel making,

rolling, etc., and serve as guides throughout the vari- ous processes so that when the steel reaches the in- spection, it Avill comply with the requirements of the

specifications. Some of the steel is inspected by representatives of the purchaser, but a large part of it is inspected by the steel maker’s inspectors, in which

case the steel maker’s responsibility, as to compliance

with the specifications, usually does not end until the

material has been used by the fabricator. This illus- trates the value of specifications to the steel maker and

the necessity of having complete specifications for all steel products in order to satisfactorily and economically fill the orders.

In the requirements of specifications the necessity of

sufficient tolerances and ranges in quality, as well as

in section and size, should be recognized so as to . permit the steel maker to conduct his operations consistent with good practice and in line with the best

economy, as it is reflected on the product furnished

the ultimate consumer. Through the cooperation between steel users and

steel producers improvements in the steel quality re- quired for the particular product in which it is used

have gone forward at a rapid rate during the past

few years. To accomplish this new equipment, new

methods, and new practices have been evolved, but we have evidently not reached the limit as yet, and

better accomplishments may be obtained in the future.

Steel for a long time to come will continue to be

the most reliable construction material in most fields,

and its use will increase as new fields in which it can

be used are deATloped. The American Society for

Testing Materials has done splendid work in standardizing specifications, and several other technical

organizations have followed its lead, thereby obtaining better material at reduced costs. However, the

work of standardization has only begun, and it should be, continued with all vigor to accomplish its aim, namely, the greatest economy to the ultimate consumer. HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP

Conference to be Held in December to Promote Home Building and Home Ownership

The President’s Conference on Home Building and

Home Ownership, which will be held early in December, will be attended by individuals coming from each

of the 48 States, and representing many national and

State organizations, chiefly civic and commercial in

nature, Avhich are working for the promotion of home

building and home ownership or interested in programs leading to the improvement of existing condition of housing and home making.

President Hoover in announcing this conference a year ago stated that it would study on a nation-Avide

scale problems of home building and home ownership

in order to arrive at a better understanding of the

questions involved and in the hope of inspiring better

organization to cope with such problems. He ap23ointed Kobert P. Lamont, Secretary of Commerce,

and Dr. Ray Lyman Wilbur, Secretary of the Interior, as joint chairmen of the conference and Dr.

John M. Dries as its executive secretary.

A planning committee of 30 members appointed at that time divided up the subject matter and arranged

for the a|ipointment of small committees, usually of

ajDjAroximately 15 members each, to weigh the facts and

formulate their collective judgment as to the best Avays

of meeting the j^roblems assigned to each. TAventy-five

committees are already at work upon their researches.

The jiroblems that are being studied involve the set- ting for the home; cit}^ zoning; subdivision layout; landscape planning and planting; [ utilities for houses; financing; home ownership and t leasing; problems of taxation in relation to housing; i blighted areas and slums; reconditioning, remodeling,

and modernizing; house construction—relative merits ^ of different types of dwellings; fundamental equipment—heating, lighting, ventilation, plumbing, and i refrigeration; standards for kitchens, laundries, and | other work centers; household management; home- i making; home furnishing and decorating; farm and

village housing; negro housing; relation of income j and the home ; organization and management of large

scale operations; and home information centers. I Each of the committees is engaged in the compila- ; tion of the best available information on its subject j matter and is studying, so far as jDossible, the experi- ence of business groups, civic organizations, public ! departments, and others who have already been work- j ing on the problems assigned to them. They recog- |

, nize that the first essential is the determination of |

i

i facts, and the formulation of collective judgment 1 'f| based upon the best contemjDorary experience of lead- I [[ ers Avho have special knowledge of these subjects. SeA^eral of the committees are conducting special inj vestigations in the field, or by the questionnaire j method, and these findings will be analyzed and re- ! ports draAvn up Avhich Avill be made available to the

country Avhen the conference is called. tj A
NOVEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 147

MARKETING BEANS OF KNOWN QUALITY

Federal Bean Inspection Services Protect Buyers and Sellers

By W. A. WHEELE31, V. S. Department of Agriculture

A standard of quality is essential to good will in the

merchandising of anj^ product. This is particularly

applicable to food products. Of these products none

is more susceptible to being standardized on a basis

which reflects production problems, marketing practices, and consumers’ demands than dry edible beans.

The relative importance of beans as an article of

food in the United States is not always understood.

It is conservatively estimated that the American

people consume 1,000,000,000 pounds of beans annually. Furthermore, the annual demand for beans in- dicates that the per capita consumption, as well as the

total consumption, is steadily increasing. Beans are consumed by all groups and classes of people in all parts of the United States. Inasmuch as 90 per cent

of this supply is produced in widely scattered areas

mainly in New York, Michigan, Montana, Wyoming,

Idaho, Colorado, New Mexico, and California—there

arises the problem of distribution. This problem is complicated b}^ the fact that there are at least 21 varieties or kinds of beans produced and that local prefer- ence may be for a particular variety obtainable only

from a distant producing State. Perfection of quality or freedom from defects (such

as split and damaged beans and foi’eign matter) is a

controlling factor in the grading and consumption of

beans. In order to obtain the quality of beans demanded by some consumers, intricate milling or re- cleaning, and, in many cases, hand-picking operations

are necessary. It is rarely economical or feasible to

attain the same high standard of quality for the entire

crop. Therefore, if buyers, whether wholesale or

retail distributors, canners or housewives, are to get

the quality of beans desired, there must be a definite

basis for defining and measuring that quality. In

addition to that, there should be provided for the

determination of such quality a disinterested thirdparty agency, especially on large commercial transactions. It is for this purpose that standards of quality for

beans haA’e been prepared by the United States Department of Agriculture and recommended for use in the purchase and sale of this commodity. These

standards at the pi’esent time cover 21 commercial

classes of beans, which include practically all of the

important varieties of beans produced and marketed

in the United States. The standards do not provide

the same high quality for all classes of beans, as this

is not practicable from the standpoint of the producer

nor necessary from the consumer’s viewpoint.

They do, hoAveA’er, jirovide a uniform basis for determining the relative quality of all classes of beans.

There are three numerical grades designated for eacli

cla.ss of beans coA’ered by the United States standards. U. S. No. 1. U. S. No. 2, and U. S. No. 3, except Lima

and Baby Lima beans, for which there are onlv grades

y. S. No. 1 and U. S. No. 2. The U. S. No.'l grade

for a given class of beans represents the highest -quality of such class handled commercially; PT. S. No. 2

and U. S. No. 3 are loAver qualities. Beans which do

not meet the requirements of one of the numerical

grades are designated as “ U. S. Sample grade.”

In order that the United States standards may be

consistently and accurately applied to beans purchased on this basis, a Federal bean inspection service has

been organized. Inspectors are now located at primary

shipjDing points in Idaho, Montana, Colorado, and

California and at several important markets, among

Avhich are Los Angeles, San Antonio, Kansas City,

Chicago, Toledo, Atlanta, Philadelphia, and New

York. An inspector is also located at Lansing, Mich.,

and is available for making inspections at accessible

points in that State. These inspectors are trained and

licensed by the United States Bureau of Agricultural

Economics and authorized to issue a Federal certifi- cate showing the grade and class of each lot of beans

insiiected by them. This certificate is official evidence

of the true quality of the beans inspected. During the

past season 70 per cent of the beans shipped from

Idaho and a smaller percentage of those shipped from

Montana and Colorado were inspected by a Federal

inspector and both buyer and seller jirotected against

shipments of questionable quality, and the inevitable

delay and financial loss attending rejections at desti- nation.

A Federal inspection certificate can be had on all beans shipped out of the States and markets named.

Contracts should be made on the basis of United

States standards and certificates issued at original

shiiiping point. Dealers who purchase, for example,

U. S. No. 1 great northerns not only get beans of a quality equal to or better than so-called 98’s, but if a Federal certificate issued at original shipping point

is demanded, are assured that they will get what they

buy.

This system of inspection applied to beans produced in the more humid States of Michigan and

NeAv York would tend to eliminate controA^ersies rela- tive to moisture, as well as promote more consistent

interpretation of other quality factors. Federal in- spection means more than the use of United States standards. It provides for uniform procedure Avith

standardized equipment in the application of such

standards. Furthermore, Federal inspectors are under

the close supeiwision and control of a centralized dis- interested agency—the United States Bureau of Agricultural Economics—Avhich assures the use of all equipment in accordance with approved methods.

Such a system can only result in more efficient in- spections and a more nearly accurate determination

of the grade or quality of all lots of beans inspected.

The foregoing statements are justified by the results of the use of Federal inspection during the past four

years. The number of inspections the second year

Avas moi-e than double the number made during the

year this service Avas inaugurated. During the third

year, which ended June 30, 1929, inspection increased

25 per cent over the preceding year, not counting any
148 COMMEECIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1931 new inspection points, and a further increase of 60

per cent was made during the year ending June 30,

1930.

Buyers who have been making their purchases on

this basis are appreciating more and more the value of

the Federal certificate and the protection it affords

against the receipt of beans which are not equal to the

quality specified in contracts. This sentiment is ex- pressed by one of the largest wholesale distributors as follows: “We think so much of it (Federal inspection) we would not buy beans any other way.” Many

other large buyers and distributors who have not been

so fortunate in being able to purchase all of their re- quirements on this basis are in accord with this idea

and have asked when this service will be available at shipping points in all important producing sections.

This will come when there is sufficient demand from

both buyers and shippers to warrant it. The demand

FOOD TESTING PROGRAM ENLARGED

The scope of the food-testing program of the

American Medical Association has been enlarged to include several new procedures, according to the association. It was originally planned to test only food

products that claim special health-giving qualities, to check these products against their advertising, and

where claims are justified to issue a certificate of

approval, which includes the association stamp on

foods and advertising. The new provisions in the

program are

1. Testing labeled goods for purity and relation of

package contents to copy on label.

2. Passing on advertisement as to authenticity and

justification of claims.

3. Issuing of certificates of approval when merited.

4. Testing of approved products frequently to in- sure continued and uniform adherence to approved

standard.

5. Censoring of manufacturer’s advertising continually to see that all claims are justified.

REAFFIRMATION OF STANDARD FOR GAGE

BLANKS

A meeting of the standing committee on gage

blanks held at the Bureau of Standards, October 16,

1931, voted to reaffirm the commercial standard entitled “ Plain and Thread Plug and Ring Gage

Blanks, CS 8-30 ” for another year or until revisions are ready for general approval.

The standing committee indorsed the program laid

down by the American Gage Design Committee at the meeting on May 20 in accordance with which

the commercial standard will in due course be revised

and extended to cover

1. An alternative design of the reversible type

gage, the design shown on General Motors Handbook Sheets, Volume III, pages F-14 to F-16, in- clusive, for plain cylindrical plugs and that shown in

Volume III, pages F-17 to F-21, inclusive, for thread

plugs.

2. Adjustable limit snap gages, 0 to 12 inches.

3. Adjustable limit length gages, 0 to 12 inches.

4. Adjustable limit length gages, 12 to 36 inches.

for the service in increasing as the value of official ! bean quality insurance becomes known. i Beans which start on their journey to the ultimate

|

consumer, under the protection of a Federal certificate | of grade, escape the many pitfalls to which thej^ are U ordinarily subjected en route. Shippers in producing >. States are appreciating more and more that buyers I and wholesale distributors want beans of assured quality and they are preparing to deliver such beans with ^ the aid of United States standards and inspection, j; Furthermore, if consumers gain a clearer understand- ' ing of the meaning of quality expressed in the terms ; of U. S. No. 1, U. S. No. 2, etc., the consumption of , beans should continue to increase. In like manner, • foresighted producers will appreciate the influence of

quality on the consumption and will lend their support : to a program of marketing beans of known quality in . terms of the United States standards. I

5. Combined solid snap and ring up to and includ-

' ing 1 inch (ordnance gages). ; 6. Taper pipe thread gages up to and including 8 ! inches. | 7. Plain plugs above 4.510 inches to and including j

12.010

inches. j 8. Plain rings above 4.510 inches to and including

12.010

inches.

9. Thread plugs above 4.510 inches to and including ])

12.010

inches. l 10. Thread rings above 4.510 inches to and includ- | ing 12.010 inches.

j FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS

j Nineteen specifications were acted on by the Federal ' Specifications Board during the month of October, i Of this number, 16 were submitted for revision and i 3 for consideration as proposed specifications. Copies i of these specifications (in mimeographed form) and i further information can be obtained from the Federal ; Specifications Board, Bureau of Standards, Washing- ! ton, D. C. I The new specifications submitted for revision bear : the new designation in accordance with the system 1 used in the Federal Standard Stock Catalogue.

New desig- nation Specifications to be revised F. S. BNo.

25c

25c

25c

25c

409 478

599 575a

574b- 573a

576

549

550

AA-C-311 AA-T-101

OG-S-776

PP-S-71

PP-S-81

PP-S-91

PP-S-101 QQ-S-691

QQ-S-701 CCC-C-521a

Chairs, office Tables and stands, typewriter, wood

Straightedges, steel

Sausage, frankfurter style

Sausagej Vienna style, canned

Steel, plates (marine boiler) -

Steel, staybolt (boiler) Cloth, shade

Lockers, steel (clothes) 471 Cabinets, steel (for clothing, stationery, storage) 471

New desig- nation Specifications proposed F. S. B.

No.

Fire-alarm systems, electric, hand operated (shunt type)- -

I
NOVEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 149

FOURTH PAN AMERICAN COMMERCIAL CONFERENCE

Conference Approves Measure to Have Specifications Developed for Agricultural and Mineral Products

Which Enter Into the Latin American Export Trade

Inter-American trade problems covering a wide

range of subjects were discussed, and a number o£

important resolutions and recommendations adopted,

by the Fourth Pan American Commercial Conference

in session at the Pan American Union, Washington,

D. C., from October 5 to 13. With delegates in attend- ance representing every government of the American

republics and numerous chambers of commerce and

trade groups from the different countries; with addresses by the President of the United States, by the

Vice President, and other prominent officials, as well

as by leaders in the business, economic, and financial

world of the Americas, the conference assumed a significance of unusual importance.

President Hoover, after stating that the theory of

the United States is that “ commercial enterprise,

except as rare emergency action, is essentially a pri- vate undertaking.” went on to say that “ the larger

significance of your meeting is attested by the fact

that at stated intervals the accredited representatives

of the Governments and of the commercial organizations of this continent come together with a view to interchange of experience and fostering that mutual

confidence without which the development of international commerce is impossible.”

The subject of standardization of commodities as an

aid to commerce and the protection of producer and

consumer occupied a most important part on the

agenda of the conference.

In opening the group meeting on standardization

the chairman, J. Silva Herzog, called on H. J. Besley,'

chief of the grains division. United States Department of Agriculture, to explain the methods employed

in the United States in the classification of grains.

J. A. Jauregui, delegate of the Museo Social Argentina, then spoke on the obstacles in the grain trade,

due to the irregularities which exist in grain standards, and offered a resolution to the effect that the

Argentine Republic be advised of a method to be fol- lowed in the standardization of grains, inasmuch as the inter-American grain trade has become a very

large one. This resolution was referred to a committee for proper action.

The work which has been done in the United States

to protect the consumer, and at the same time to en- courage industry and agriculture, was explained by

Dr. A. S. McAllister, Assistant Director, Bureau of

Standards.

Chile has taken a great interest in the subject of

standardization of commodities, declared Ricardo

Heatley, delegate from Chile, who pointed out that

his country had formulated many regulations with

respect to this subject.

C. V. Whalin,^ chief of the livestock, meats, and

wool division of the United States Department of

Agriculture, spoke on the standardization of cattle,

meat, and wool products in the United States. He

'See “Grain Grading,” by H. J. Besley, Commercial Standards Monthly, October, 1931.

- See “ Standardizing Grades for Livestock and Meats,” by C. V. Whalin, in this issue of Co.mmercial Standards Monthly.

was followed by Wells A. Sherman, chief of the fruits

and vegetables division of the same department, who

gave a resume of the methods employed in standardization of fruits and vegetables.

Robert F. Martin,® of the United States Department of Commerce, supported the opinions expressed

during the conference regarding the need of establishing fixed standards favorable to both producer and

consumer. He referred specifically to the success achieved by the Haitian Government in the improvement of coffee from that country, the price of which

increased from 3 to 40 per cent during the years which

the experiment of grading coffee has been in process. Following these discussions the conference approved

a resolution which recommended to the governments

of the American Continent that (1) they make known

the specifications, composition, and analysis of their

agricultural and mineral products, which enter into

their export trade; (2) that they subscribe to the

draft convention formulated by the Inter-American

High Commission for the establi.shment of uniform

specifications and common nomenclature in the countries of this continent; and (3) to reiterate to the

Inter-American High Commission compliance with

the resolution on uniformity of specifications adopted

at the Sixth International Conference of American

States, held at Habana, Cuba, in January and February, 1928.

The Sixth International Conference of American

States recommended that “ the Inter-American High

Commission shall at an early date address the organizations of importers and consumers of the United

States who import Latin American products, with a view to obtaining all manner of data concerning the

form in which the products at present exported in

greatest quantities from each Latin American country

to the United States is most acceptable, including full details relative to packing.

“ The executive council of the Inter-American High

Commission shall furnish all such data to its sections

in each country, requesting them to convey the same

to the producers and exporters with a view to the

fulfillment of the recommendations they contain as far as possible. It was recommended that there be created a Pan

American Commission, to be formed of representatives

of the organizations of consumers and exporters of

the United States and of the organizations of producer’s and exporters of each Latin American country,

which will take up the stud}^ at periodical meetings of

the best means of standardizing the specifications of

each product, endeavoring to adopt therefor the metric

decimal system, a uniform name in Spanish for the

products of identic specifications, and to have the

equivalent of such name in other languages used for

the designation of the same product only. It was suggested that the dates and places of meetings be fixed by the governing board of tlie Pan

’ See “ Standardization of Export Products in Ilaill," by Robert F. Martin, in Co.m.mercial Standards Monthly. December. 1930.
150 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1931

American Union and that the preliminary work of

the commission be carried on by the governing board

in cooperation with the Inter-American High Commission, and that adequate educational and propaganda work be carried on by the governments mem- b

bers of the Pan American Union in collaboration ' with the sections of the Inter-American High

Commission.

AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

News of Associational Activities During Month of October

Current developments of the following standardization projects under the auspices and procedures of the

American Standards Association have been furnished

by that association

Coal-mine tracks, signals, and switches.—A revision

of the American standard for coal-mine tracks, signals, and switches, which will outline further standardization and simplification of frogs and turnouts

for coal-mine tracks for both gathering and main-line

haulage ways, is being developed under the technical

direction of the American Mining Congress. Final

specifications should be available to the industry

within a few months and should result in marked decreases of stocks of track materials carried on hand by

manufacturers and coal-mining companies.

Consideration is also being given to the possible

necessity of requesting amplification of certain sections

of the standard specifications for cross ties and switch

ties.Sieves for testing purposes.-—The association has approved the request of the American Society for Test- ing Materials and the Bureau of Standards to initiate a project for the development of specifications for

sieves for testing purposes. Prior to giving approval

to the request the association made a canvass of the

major interests affected to ascertain whether or not

the proposal would be acceptable. It is anticipated

that the sectional committee of the A. S. A. will co- operate with the technical committee on sieves for

testing purposes of the International Standards Association, looking to the development of an international standard for testing sieves. National Electrical Code.—Copies of the revised

edition of the National Electrical Code, which has

been published by the National Board of Fire Underwriters, are now available from the headquarters of

the American Standards Association, 29 West Thirtyninth Street, New York, N. Y. The revised code re- ceived approval August 18, 1931, as an American

standard.

Drainage of coal mines.—A revision of American

tentative standard for drainage of coal mines has been

approved by the association, which gives the project

the status of an American recommended practice.

The revision deals in detail with the methocls of in- stallation and operation of equipment used for control

of mine drainage. Included among the topics are pumps, piping, storage of mine waters, limitations of

natural drainage methods of unwatering abandoned

workings, the effect of mine waters on drainage equipment, and recommendations regarding the use of acidresisting metals and alloys.

Safety codes.—A group of 6 safety codes, 5 of them

for the prevention of dust explosions in industry, and ’

1 providing for the use of inert gas for fire and explosion prevention, has been approved by the association. The need for such codes is evidenced by the

fact that more than 28,000 industrial plants in the

United States are subject to the hazard of dust explosions. These plants employ approximately

1,300,000 persons, and their annual production is valued at more than $10,000,000,000.

The codes, which were prepared by the sectional

committee under the sponsorship of the National Fire

Protection Association and the United States Department of Agriculture, are as follows; Installation of

pulverizing systems for sugar and cocoa, prevention ' of dust explosions in starch factories, prevention of

dust explosions in terminal grain elevators, prevention

of dust explosions in wood flour manufacturing establishments, prevention of dust ignition in spice-grinding plants, and use of inert gas for fire and explosion

prevention.

The codes for the use of inert gas for fire and ex- plosion prevention, for the prevention of dust ex- plosions in wood flour manufacturing establishments, and for the prevention of dust explosions in

spice-grinding plants are new. The code relating to

the prevention of dust explosions in terminal grain

elevators is a complete revision of the project origi- ; nally approved in 1928, while the one for the prevention of dust explosions in starch factories and that of

installation of pulverizing systems for sugar and cocoa

represent minor revisions.

The regulations for the prevention of dust ignition

in spice-grinding jilants has been prepared as a guide

to safe practice in the construction and operation of

such plants. Although there has as yet been no serious

dust explosion during the normal operation of spicegrinding plants, the existence of a potential hazard

made the preparation of this code advisable.

Provision is made in the code for the use of inert

gas for fire and explosion prevention, for the dilution

of the air in inclosures in which flammable liquids,

dusts, or vapors are handled, so as to reduce the

oxygen contents of the air to a point where combustion can not occur. The regulations in question in- clude a table for the maximum permissible oxygen

percentage for various flammable substances, and provides for the use of flue gases, carbon dioxide, and

nitrogen, or other inert gases.
NOVEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 151

VIBRATION TESTS FOR AIRPLANES

Naval Aircraft Factory Has Developed a Standard Vibrator for Its Tests

By C. D. Tripolitis ’

Vibration and its effects upon structures is attract- ing the attention of all engineers and particularly

those engaged in the construction of aircraft. The

vibrations caused by the engine, the propeller, and the

wind resistance against the structure, struts, and wires

combine themselves in such a way that it is impossible

to determine their exact characteristics. The Bureau

of Aeronautics, of the Navy, has been experimenting

with various types of accelerometers and oscillographs

to determine the nature of these vibrations, but only

with a limited amount of success. The question of fuel tanks and their service life came to the front about two years ago when fuel tanks

apparently well constructed had sprung leaks after,

comparatively, a short period of service. The question of fatigue of the metal and joints, particularly

aluminum alloy welded joints came up for considerable

discussion, and the Bureau of Aeronautics proceeded

to settle the question by actually vibrating fuel tanks on

arbitrary values of frequency, amplitude, and duration.

A prominent airplane company constructed the first tank vibrator. This vibrator consisted of two main

parts—the stationary base, fixed to the floor, and the

vibrating platfoi-m. The base carried a 2-inch rotat- ing hexagonal bar finished and fitted to ball bearings

at either end and a pulley at one end for belt driviug.

The vibrating platform is pivoted at one end; at the

other end it has a fii/^-inch steel plate resting on tlie hexagonal bar. The bar is rotated at 600 r. p. m., making a frequency of 3,600 cycles per minute and

amplitude five-sixteenths of an inch. The duration

period was set at 25 hours. This equipment has several distinct disadvantages. The noise was a very

objectionable feature. The hexagonal bar, in spite of

perfect lubrication, becomes round in a short period

of operation.

The vibration was not similar either throughout the

platform or for varying weights.

Several modifications were made to this machine at the Naval Aircraft Factory, without materially improving the difficulties mentioned. Several other types were constructed at the factory applying the cam principles, air hammers, or eccentric weights with the car- riage supported on springs, with varying degress of

success, but the same difficulty of compensating for

different weights was always present.

^ Naval Aircraft Factory, Philadelphia, Pa.

TO IMPROVE MARKETING METHODS

To provide for systematic study and discussion of

marketing problems and formulation of standards of

principles in this field, an association for the advancement of science in marketing was inaugurated at a recent meeting in New York. The conference was

attended by 112 of the leading retail executives, marketing officials, consultants, and research men. For

the present it has been decided to name the organization the American Marketing Society (an association

The Naval Aircraft Factory has finally adopted a vibrating machine which is a modfication of a “ sand

sifter.” Its motion is based on the principle of centrifugal force generated by the circular motion of two

steel balls, located diametrically opposite one another.

The main housing is rigidly attached to the underside of a rectangular platform 40 by 60 inches. This

platform is flexibly connected to a base by means of

three bolts and heavy rubber washes at each corner. The platform is perforated with %-inch holes for

bolting tank supports or other structures thereto.

The frequency of this machine has not been ac- curately determined, but it is in the neighborhood of

3,600 cycles per minute. The amplitude is slightly

less than one-sixteenth of an inch. The type of motion

is double conical with the apex in the center and the

axis of motion identical wuth the axis of the vibrator

shaft. Theoretically there is a neutral axis on the

vibrating platform at right angles to the rotating

shaft. This condition, however, does not exist. The

entire platform has a certain amount of vibration

which is maximum on the two sides and “ tapering

off ” toward the center on the other two sides. The machine has been in successful operation for more than a year with loads varying from 100 to 1,200

pounds. The load, apparently, does not alter the

characteristics of the machine as was found to be the

case with previous types, and therefore no compensation of load has to be made.

Apparently the double conical type of motion of

this machine is more severe than the linear motion

caused by a cam or the original hexagonal bar, or a cylindrical motion generated by an eccentric shaft.

In order to establish a definite duration for tank

tests the Bureau of Aeronautics contemplates testing

several fuel tanks of a type or types of construction

which have successfully passed in service of not less than 1,000 flying hours. The average life of these

tanks on the vibrating machine will be considered as the standard vibrating period which other designs

will be required to withstand.

Private manufacturers who prefer to construct their

own vibrating machines will be required to submit

one or more tanks to the Naval Aircraft Factory to be vibrated on the Navy’s standard vibrator, and by

conducting similar tests on their own machines, a time ratio can be established between the Navy’s standard vibrator and those of private manufacturers.

for the advancement of science in marketing) and to consider a permanent name after January 1, 1932. Activities will be carried on largely through two

sets of committees—one termed as

“ operating ” and

the other as “ technical.” Technical committees thus far

suggested include formulation of research, standards

for marketing courses, marketing terminology, industrial marketing, consumer demand, simplified practice, trading areas, market data, cost of distribution,

manufactui'ers’ selling policies, sales quotas, and co- ord’nation of marketing activities.
152 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1931 SIGNIFICANCE OF SPECIFICATIONS

Five Essential Details of Purchase Specifications Outlined

By P. Paeke^

It is obvious that ivlieii a purchaser orders materials

to a specification, whether it be his own, the manufacturer’s, or those prepared by a technical society, he

has studied his requirements and concluded what materials are more suitable for his purpose. In ordering

to specification, he benefits from all the research, ex- perimental, and development work of which the

specification is the final summary.

The question may be asked, “ Why so many sources

for specifications; why not buy to the manufacturer’s

specification ? ” The

answer to the latter part of the question is that this is frequently

done; and to the first part, the answer is that the individual

manufacturer’s specification commonly

represents the product

which he can most

conveniently produce.

The manufacturer’s

specification is valuable as a guide to the

trade, though it may

not precisely comply

with the requirements

of the buyer.

Specifications supplied by such an or- ganization as the A.

S.T.M. have a greater

value because they

represent the results

of the composite ef- fort of the various

interests making up the trade as a whole. No doubt

in many cases the specifications of such a society are compromises, but in all cases they are reliable and are

a valuable guide to consumers; but many users have

problems of their own, necessitating studies and in- vestigations which may indicate certain modifications or deviations from standard specifications. The usual

procedure in such cases is to formulate, on the substantial foundation already laid, the user’s own specifications. As experience shows the way, he revises his

specifications and keeps them up to date. The thought,

study, and compilation of experience incident to this

process must inevitably be of value alike to the manufacturer, the user, and the industry as a whole.

All products of one industry, as they become the

materials of another, must be carefully checked. The

user of steel must know that the material supplied to him is precisely what he wants so that it can be put

^ Paper delivered by Chief Engineer Parke, of the Pullman Co., before the recent joint meeting of the American Society for Testing Materials and the Western Society of Engineers, at Chicago. He spoke on the economic significance and value of standard material specifications to the large user of steel.

into production without hitch or hesitation. If an

error is discovered after production starts, the result

will be a shop tie-up, with machines idle and production schedule disjointed until replacement is made.

With improper material, a costly amount of scrap must

result. Without specifications there are too many

chances for something of this sort to go wrong.

The purchaser may leave the matter of specification

to the producer, who will do his best to supply precisely what is wanted, for in such cases he commonly

guarantees his product. But something

may go wrong either

through lack of complete understanding

or through error in

the producing plant.

In that event the user, not having ordered to

specifications, must

rely on the manufacturer and he has no means of checking the

material before start- ing production. Improper material will cause delay and ex- pense to the user, be- cause, while the manufacturer replaces defective material, he

does not stand the

consequent expense

incidental to delay.

In referring to improper material, we

may, by way of illus- tration, refer to such items as sheets and plates.

These may be perfectly proper for certain uses, but

undesirable for others. One user may emphasize

strength, another ductility, for cold-pressing steel ; yet

another may require a special surface finish and uniform thickness. Again, in forging steel, one user may require the maximum degree of ductility for materials subject to shocks; another may need the maximum strength where stiffness is important.; and yet

another may find that the cheapest grade of material

will answer his purpose, and that to use anything more

expensive would add to his cost without in anywise

improving his product.

Specifications to cover the precise requirements per- mit the best and only assurance of obtaining entirely

suitable material. They are invaluable to the large consumer who commonly draws his material from

several sources of supply. Their proper application

in such cases insures that materials from different sources will be of uniform and suitable quality.

A user of steel may require deliveries at widely

separated localities, but of absolutely uniform quality.

“What is the demand for a specification but a repetition of the age-old desire for a definition of the needs

of man ? ” asks the author. “ In its economic signifi- cance, the specification is an aid to the progress and

well-being of mankind.” He summarizes the advantages to the buyer in five parts.

1. Specifications are evidence of the fact that

thought and study have been given to the service re- quirements for which a particular material is intended.

2. They constitute a standard for measuring and

checking up on materials as supplied. Such checking

insures against delay and waste in fabricating plants,

which would occur with improper materials. 3. They

are invaluable to the large consumer who commonly

draws his material from several sources of supply.

4. They promote the highest and best use of materials

for each particular purpose. 5. They open a field of

fair competition.
NOVEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 153

If, for example, we require steel wheels delivered at the Atlantic seaboard, we do not order them from

Chicago; yet we must be sure that the wheels, from

whatever source, shall conform to a rigidly fixed and

uniform standard of quality.

Both safety and economy in wheel service depend

upon the closest adherence to the standards which

have been developed and proved by service. It is highly improbable that anyone in a position of re- sponsibility would purchase or use in passenger service steel wheels from a variety of sources on the

manufacturer’s guarantees without specificatiton to insure uniformity.

All manufacturers have not had the direct service

experience so essential to safety and economy in

wheel operation. Only when the cumulative experience of wheel makers and wheel users is embodied

in a specification can uniformity be insured among

wheels drawn from a variety of sources. To this end, of course, a specification fully outlining the requirements is essential. The user from his

experience with various grades is in excellent position

to tell what grade of material will answer his purpose. There comes a time when special analysis and

thought on the most economic use of materials is of

first importance.

Thus we may ask, “Are we getting all we can out

of carbon steel? Can or should alloy steel be substituted ? ” In asking these questions we may have in

mind considerations of strength, or safety, or of

econom5u

When it comes to the soundest economic use of materials the employment of specification in inquiries for

material not infrequently leads to helpful suggestions

from manufacturers. Their experience may have en- abled them to suggest certain changes in specifications

through which costs may be reduced. Thus the highest and best results economically will be obtained from

sheet steel when no useless finishing labor is expended

on it. A high degree of finish should be used only

where it is essential; plain rolled mill finish should be

used where it will answer as well. At times the highest and best use of sheet steel may

justify the employment of a costlier alloy product,

and the principle of best utilization is applicable to other varieties of steel. If it is true that competition is the life of trade, then

it seems equally true that only by the use of specifications can a fair competitive field be insured. How

else can a user make known his precise requirements

to competing manufacturers in such a way as to in- sure that they will all have precisely the same understanding of his needs? It simply can not be done.

To use steel wheels once more as an illustration, we

may note that wheels are a highly competitive product, but they are such only because of the use of

specifications. If any steel of special quality is needed, a specification showing the requirement immediately opens up a competitive field. MARKETING THE RADIO

Standards Needed to Guide the Public When It Buys Radio Sets

By Orestes H. Caldwell^

For the past year the radio business has been in utter confusion and the public has been mystified when

it came to buy a radio set. Confronted with all kinds of conflicting claims and

prices set up by manufacturers and dealers, the general

public has pretty nearly lost all sense of the values

involved in radiobroadcasting receivers, with the re- sult that “now no one knows what to pay for a good

radio set.” Externally sets look much alike, and without standards or ratings of performance by which to be guided

the layman is likely to buy a set far below the level of tone quality and sensitivity which he would have

otherwise demanded had he known how important

these three factors would be to his future enjoyment

of his purchase. As a residt, homes throughout the

land are full of poor tinny-sounding sets, the public’s

musical ear is being injured, and the radio industry can not understand why the level of price demand

keeps continually lowering.

The above conditions exist in spite of the fact that

the standards of broadcasting have been continually

rising and the service of the great stations has been

steadily improving in point of tone value, power, and

field strength to override static and interference, both

man made and natural.

During the past few years the leading broadcasters

have spent millions to improve the quality of their

^ Former Federal radio commissioner ; now editor of Electronics and

Radio Retailing.

transmitters; to enable the sounds delivered to the

microphone to go out on the air with the full range of

frequencies, high and low, which insure naturalness

and reality. Only high-quality receivers will respond

to this full range of tones, shown in the accompanying

diagram. The inadequate and obsolete receivers can reproduce only a few octaves out of all the musical

riches which are in the night air, free to everyone for

the mere picking up. Until recently the radio industry did, to some degree, meet the situation created by falling prices and

wavering specifications by “ selling up.” The time

has now arrived, however, when the industry needs

help from other directions if it would keep its business on a sound and profitable basis. The dealer particularly needs this outside help because he is all but con- quered by the following factors: (1) The public’s

“low price” complex, (2) its lack of confidence, (3)

its inability to judge true tonal and other quality

values, (4) the clealer’s own inability to demonstrate

convincingly the relationship of price to quality.

The time has arrived, therefore, for the industry to

set up some standards for the determination and pres- entation of comparative values. It should not be hard

to fix scales of tone fidelit}^ sensitivity, and selectivity on which each radio set could be rated with some

rough attempt at comparative valuation.

We must, in other words, set up a yardstick or set of standards by which radio sets can be simply and

clearly rated in terms of performance and tone qual-
154 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1931

Electronics’ Chart of

Sound Frequency Characteristics

A BC D EF G A BC D EF G A BC D EF G A BC D EF G A BC D EF G A BC D EF G A BC D EF 6 A BC

DO CO O ^ CM O O r- oo CYCLES PER SECOND 'OOO 'St- OCMasO •lOcOCM iCMcMro cO eo— r— ^ rO Tfintoo

'"-MIDDLE C

O-^CMO O 0c0«*-0 ^DCMLOCO K> r^^OvD O'O — o^ot-^i-o

I

I I

I I I

I I I

c

4> c

s: <u 5 k

<-

WIRE TRANSMISSION CIRCUITS

„ .

, Television wire circuit (70 to 18,000 cycles per second ) < Highest-class wire line for broc»dcastin 0 ( 50 to 8,000) Ordinary wire circuit for broadcasting (50 to 5,000) Ordinary telephone talking circuit (750 to 7,750) -^Trans-oceanic telephonic cable (500 to 7,500) -

'* Standard telephone instrument (300 to l.SOO)'^

Early telephone lines(500 tol,fl00)

RADIO BROADCASTING AND RECEPTION

Modern broadcasting transmitter (30 to 7,500) < Broadcasting station transmitting chain program (90 to 5,000) • -< High*guality radio set (50 to 5,500 ) •^Obsolete or poor radio Set (756 to 7,700) ^ SOUND REPRODUCERS

Public- address system (60 to 5,500) Dynamic loud-speaker (40 to 5,500 ) ^ E)cnor.ential loud-speaker ( 70 to 5,500 ) Electro -magnetic pickup (60 to 5,500)

->

tsD

in

ooo

aV- X

CJ

SOUND RECORDINGS FOR RADIO AND FILMS

Highest type electrical trancnptions for radio (‘‘Hill & dale’cut ) 30 to 10,000) — Sound- picture film sound track recordlrg ( 0 to 8,500)

Sound'picture disc record 33'/s r. p.m. lateral cut ( 60 to 6,000 ) HOME PHONOGRAPHS

Modern electric recorded home phonograph ( 60 to 5,000 ) 3 - Recent acoustic phonograph ( 90 to 4,500 ) - >- Old fashioned phonograph ( 756 to 3,000 ) ^

Office dictating machines ( 350 to 2.000)"^

Niagara

Falls

to to 50 Thundtr70to40 **—

Distant

gunfire o

Average man’s

Speakinq voice Av 17 8

MISCELLANEOUS

Average woman’s

speakinq voice Av 756

ity. This would be analogous to the ways of rating

automobiles in performance or horsepower. In the

early days of the automobile industry, nothing of this

kind was available, and the public was not able to judge the real character or merit of a car. Nowadays

all this is standardized, to-fhe benefit of the public.

the automobile manufacturer, and the automobile

trade.

Such a plan of rating radios in terms of standards

woidd stabilize this overwrought business of radio by

revealing clearly to each buyer just what he is getting

for the price he pays.
NOVEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 155

STANDARDIZING ACTIVITIES OF THE PAN AMERICAN SANITARY BUREAU

By Dr. Bolivar J. Lloyd, M. Dl

The Pan American Sanitary Bureau is an international health organization, all-American in character,

created in 1902, for the purpose of iireventing the

spread of communicable diseases in international commerce and of rendering such cooperative assistance to individual American republics as may be mutually

agreed upon. By virtue of his election, Surg. Gen.

Hugh S. Gumming is the director of the bureau. An

office with the necessary scientific and other personnel

is maintained in the building of the Pan American

Union in Washington, and field workers are detailed

for duty to different republics as occasion may require.

Members of the directing council, chosen by the Pan

American Conference, of which the bureau is the

executive organ, meet in Washington from time to time to aid in determining its policies. Under the

auspices of the Pan American Sanitary Bureau the

directing heads of the departments of public health of

the 21 American republics meet also in Washington

once in five years to discuss their manifold problems.

The activities of the Pan American Sanitary Bureau are varied in character, the bureau having been

granted broad general jiowers when it was created and

also by the various Pan American Sanitary Conferences held subsequently.

Standardization of sanitary measures is one of the

achievements of the many activities of the bureau, but an account of its operations, written solely from the

viewpoint of standardization, can give only an inadequate picture of its work. However, it is believed

worth while to give a brief account of these standardizing activities. In cooperation with the Office International d’Hygiene Publique, of Paris, the Pan American Sanitary

Bureau maintains a system for the collection and periodic distribution of reports of the presence of plague,

cholera, and yellow fever should these diseases exist in

any of the countries of the Western Hemisphere, and

of smallpox and typhus fever when these diseases exist

in epidemic form. All countries affiliated with the bureau are encouraged to submit these reports promptly,

together with an account of the measures adopted for

the control of the spread of these diseases which

should be as nearly uniform in character as individual

criterion and local circumstances will permit.

There has been translated, published, and distributed a report prepared by the American Public Health

^ Doctor Lloyd is assistant to the director, Pan American Sanitary

Bureau.

Association, in cooperation with the United States

Public Health Service, embodying the principles of

public-health administration as applicable to large

and small cities. This publication was issued in the

hope of assisting in the standardization of all health

activities in cities in so far as this may be feasible or

desirable.

Further effort has been made to secure the ratifica- tion of the Pan American Sanitary Code, which was

prepared by the Seventh Pan American Sanitary Conference at Habana, Cuba, in 1924, with the object of

standardizing international quarantine procedures,

particularly with regard to vessels. Eighteen American republics to date have ratified this code.

A detailed .study of jiroposed regulations for the

prevention of the spread of communicable disease by

airplane was made by the bureau and also by the

Second Pan American Conference of Directors of

Health in joint session with the members of the directing council. The purpose of these regulations, in addition to preventing the spread of disease, i^ to facili- tate international commerce by airplane by adopting

uniform measures, embodying a maximum of protection with a minimum of restriction on intercommunication.

A standard milk ordinance which has been adopted

by many communities in the United States ^ was published and distributed to all directors of health of the

Latin American republics and to others concerned in an effort to secure a uniformly safe product under

reasonable regulation.

Effort is being made to secure international agreements with regard to the production and sale of biologic products.

Concerted effort is being made to standardize procedures for the prevention of the spread of yellow

fever from present foci and also to institute measures

looking to the final eradication of this disease from

the American Continent.

Standard methods for the fumigation of vessels for

the destruction of disease-bearing rodents and insects on board have been adopted.

Translation has been made of the report of the

work of the United States Public Health Service done

in connection with the rat proofing of vessels, and

these publications have been suitably distributed in an

effort to have these measures universally adopted.

= standard Milk Ordinance and Code, by Leslie C. Frank, of the

U. S. Bureau of Public Health Service, appeared in the December, 1930,

issue of Co.mmf.rcial Standards Monthly.

CONFERENCE APPROVES RECOMMENDATION

FOR SURGICAL DRESSINGS

Approval of a simplified practice recommendation

covering the sizes and descriptions of surgical dressings was given by the general conference of representatives of the trade, held September 28, 1931, in

Toronto, Ontario, Canada. This conference was held

in conjunction with the annual meeting of the American Hospital Association.

The recommendation provides for 22 sizes of dressings, which were developed from a stud}^ made of the

problem by the American College of Surgeons, in cooperation with hospitals and manufacturers. They include

sponges, abdominal packs, and sterile gauze di’essings.

The jirogram will become effective one month after

the Bureau of Standards’ announcement that sufficient siqiport has been received through the medium of

signed acceptances to insure the initial success of the

recommendation.
156 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

REDUCING COSTS OF OPERATION

Standardized Method of Operation Eliminates Unnecessary Costs

By J. Don Alexander, President Alexander Industries {Inc.)

NOVEMBER, 1931 i

i

The last two years has been the “ open season ” on

airplane production costs, with manufacturers gunning hot and craftily after every saving they can

realize. Ability to meet competitive price cutting and still maintain the quality of a product calls .for the most

exacting study of the entire production process. As

with most industrial problems the answer usually is capital—capital with which to buy labor-saving machinery; capital for the salaries of expert engineers

and veteran craftsmen. As in most business, capital

explains why the larger airplane companies may undersell their smaller relations while producing better

planes.

But capital without ingenuity is just so much credit

at the bank. Since many labor-saving machines are developed during the course of time in the factory

itself it requires a number of keen minds casting about

for fertile ideas. Their success usually decides

whether a new company will make a profit, or join the

crowded “ bone yard ” behind aviation’s hangar.

Large turnover is the secret of inexpensive manufacturing. During 1927, 1928, and 1929 the big fac- tories enjoj^^ed a fair rate of production. Since then

the market has made it hard to cut costs. Business

is being developed by making planes that suit the

times. Either faster planes, cruising at 150 to 225

miles per hour, or small “ mosquito ” planes, inexpensive to buy, easy to fly, and economical to operate.

Naturally, the best example of such a plane that I can think of at this minute is the new Alexander

“ Flyabout,” a 2-place cabin plane equipped with lots of wing for quick takeoffs and slow landings, a 35-horsepower air-cooled motor, a top speed of 85

miles per hour, and a landing speed of 20 miles per

hour. This type of plane is in demand among private

and commercial flyers who want a low-priced sport or training ship that will average 30 miles or more to a gallon of gasoline.

Airplane production will have to grow into five or

six figures yearly before the makers can achieve the

low unit costs of the automobile industries. Even

with the present low output there have been many

savings which cut the price to the consumer. Efficient

factory planning, modem machinery, and plain hard

thinking all have helped slash the price of many

planes almost in half within the last four years. Inexpensive production in the manufacture of any

product lies in the duplication of every part so that it

is interchangeable with every similar part in each

unit. The more duplication the cheaper the composite whole. Every effort is made to achieve this end

on present planes. Labor-saving machinery is used

wherever practical, but many expensive but valuable

machine methods will not pay on the investment until

airplane sales mount into the tens of thousands every

year. In order to gain both strength and lightness in an

airplane member the engineer has developed stmctural design to a high degree. In making single units

factory craftsmen must take great pains to insure

j accuracy without making the parts overweight or

| underweight. | Such craftsmanship entails costs that can only be

j cut down by the use of precise machine methods, which

have the added advantage of producing a more j nearly perfect and interchangeable part. j Let me cite a few instances of machine-made savings

j in the factory at Colorado Springs, Colo., with which

I am more familiar. Before a molder was installed

j in the wood shop, the handling of spars for a plane : required 16 man-hours on the shaper. The front spar was run through the shaper five times and the rear spar three times. Now the front and rear spars are each shaped with a single operation of a motor-driven

molder. Under the old process they were approximate

in shape, now they are of exact size. They fit more

easily into place in the jigged wing skeleton.

Instead of producing one cap strip in five operations

as under the old method, five cap strips are now turned

out in one operation. Spar and cap strip shaping

that formerly required 16 man-hours now takes only 4. Proceeding to the covering department, where

fabric is cut and sewed to the wings, control surfaces,

and fuselage, use is made of an electric machine which

cuts sufficient cloth at one time to cover 10% biplane

wings. One hundred layers of fabric can be placed on the table and cut to proper pattern in one operation

with minimum waste. The various shapes of fabric are so carefully patterned on the sheet that the waste

never exceeds 5 yards per 100 planes. Electric machines capable of 3,300 stitches per minute double

stitch the fabric.

Covers for wings are sewed into a 1-piece bag, like a pillow slip, pulled over the wing, fuselage, or rudder, etc., and stitched securely in place. Sewing as an envelope does a better covering job and saves many

man or woman hours. One machine operator can

turn out 32 wing covers every 8-hour day. Sixteen : workers can cover parts for eight 3-piece biplanes t every eight hours.

An example of a simple yet valuable device which was developed during the first few years of production is the thread-making machine. The raw thread

is reeled through a pan of molten wax by an electric

motor. A “ wiper ” regulates the proper coating.

An overhead track system connects all departments.

Over it parts are conveyed rapidly from the main ; plant to the protective oil and dope rooms, which are located some distance away as a fire protection. In

the old Denver factory two men used to carry a wing . from one building to another and back. Now one • man uses less time to transport 12 wings over the trol- ley system. The trolley also makes it easy to install motors in fuselages wherever they are in the production line. At one time the workmen spent three hours hand

painting a single wing skeleton with protective oil. About 85 per cent of the oil went into the air as waste.
NOVEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 157

By dipping the wing in a vat of protective oil, two men now process a dozen wings in half an hour.

Jigs are now in almost universal use in large factories. Koughly described, these devices are a simple

framework for holding the members of a fuselage or wing into place while being joined together. They

speed production and result in exact duplication. They

are particularly handy in fuselage welding. The

welder selects the correct piece of tubing from its bin

in the rack and welds it into position without the

filing and fitting often required with unjigged

fuselages.

Moreover, a jig is more than a mere framework for

the fitting of structures. It should embody requirements familiar to every veteran aircraftsman. It must be so designed that every joint is easily accessible

to the welder. The tube must be held in place with

little attention from the welder, and the finished fuselage must be easily removable from the jig.

When a new design calls for a large number of identical parts it is economical to make dies for cutting

with a punch press. Employment is given to two or three die makers and it is practical to invest thousands

of dollars in dies. Two thousand jigs, dies, and fix- tures is a low estimate of the number required for

manufacturing on a large scale. Craftsmen are encouraged to work out more efficient methods, cash prizes being offered for the most practical ideas of the month. This little stimulation works

wonders.

One element in the cost of airplanes which is rarely

considered by the customer is that of research and

engineering. It runs into an enormous figure on each

new model. A successful manufacturer will try to spread this cost over as many units as possible in order to lower the fly-away price of his plane.

Manufacturers are doing all they can to bring good

airplanes within the reach of more buyers, and better

planes are appearing every year at lower prices.

PAST YEAR AN ACTIVE ONE FOR BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Annual Report of Bureau of Standards Decribes Many Notable Achievements in Science and Technology

One of the most interesting facts brought out in the

1931 annual report of the Director of the Bureau of

Standards to the Secretary of Commerce is that present business conditions have brought no reduction in

requests for the bureau’s services. Apparently far- sighted executives are striving to obtain all essential

data concerning their industries, and this should prove

a good investment under neAv conditions of intense

competition and smaller margins of profit.

The year has been particularly satisfactory in the

matter of international cooperation. The bureau has

maintained its close relations Avith the national laboratories abroad, and progress has been made in the

standardization of electrical, temperature and photometric measurements, industrial length measurements,

and X rays. The International Committee on Weights

and Measures has agreed upon 68° F. as an international standard temperature for making all industrial

length measurements; a most important step in the

standardization of shop procedure.

The standardization of Lovibond Glasses for color

grading of commodities has been continued and 1,696

have now been accepted. Under an arrangement Avith

the American Raihvay Association the bureau has been

made the custodian of the standard color glasses for

railroad signals.

Standards have been established for the light fast- ness of dyed textiles based upon the amount of fading

AAffiich takes place under definite conditions of exposure. Standard sizes have been agreed upon for

knit underwear. These have been set up through the

cooperation of all interested groups and Avill be published as a commercial standard.

A special cotton cloth, which in an emergency can

be substituted for silk in making parachutes, was de- veloped in cooperation with the National Advisory

Committee for Aeronautics, and has passed the, military tests.

A study of vapor lock has shown that most automobile fuel systems are poorly designed and are likely to give trouble in hot weather because of boiling of the

gasoline. On the basis of the bureau’s findings considerable improvements will be incorporated in the

1932 cars. The standard brake code for motor vehicles

is being revised to bring it up to date Avith the almost

universal use of 4-wheel brakes.

One of the most unusual laboratories ever con- structed at the bureau has just been completed. It is a square wooden tower 100 feet high, with a water

tank on top, and will be used to study the operation of

plumbing systems as used in tall buildings. Street-car efficiency will be increased and noise re- duced as the result of a study of gearing and other

parts of the driving mechanism, which is being con- ducted in cooperation with the American Electric

Railway Engineering Association.

A report has been prepared which outlines the manufacturing procedure to be followed in the production

of chinaware which will resist cutlery marking.

A neAv process, Avhich may prove of great commercial importance, was worked out for manufacturing

sugar acids and their salts. Portions of the semicommercial plant for the production of levulose were

operated Avith success. Insulating board from cornstalks is now an accepted article of commerce, but

laboratory experiments are being continued to improve the production method and to render the product more resistant to fire and Avater. The use of

the SAveetpotato as a source of starch in the southern

textile industries is under investigation in cooperation Avith the Alabama Polytechnical Institute, and

the University of Alabama is assisting in a study of

the manufacture of kraft paper from southern Avoods.

The use of specifications by private purchasers is being facilitated by the preparation of lists of Avillingto-certify , manufacturers and by giving every en- couragement to the use of quality-guaranteeing labels.
158 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1931

Twenty new simplified practice recommendations

were developed, covering a wide variety of commodities. The total number of recommendations is 149,

and the average adherence of the manufacturers re- porting is about 90 per cent, as compared with 87 last year. Sixty-two commercial standards projects are now active, 12 having been printed during the year. In conclusion Director George K. Burgess recom- mended the adoption of a uniform patent policy by

the Government covering patents on inventions made

by Government employees in the line of duty, the

bureau having always held that all such inventions

belong to the public. He also asked for a new administration building to house the bureau’s nonlaboratory facilities ancl to relieve congestion in other buildings. Additional equipment in the branch laboratories, and particularly that in San Francisco, may be

needed to care for testing on the Pacific coast.

SPECIFICATIONS IN GOVERNMENTAL BUYING

Without Definite Specifications Government Purchasing Agencies Resort to Buying on “ Brand Name ” or

Its Equivalent, Which Often Leads to Substitution of Inferior Quality

By RussEix Fokbes ^

Without standardization, which involves the reduction of the kinds of commodities used by a government

to the smallest number consistent with the needs of

the using agencies, centralized purchasing falls short

of its real function. If each branch of the government is allowed to demand its own particular choice

of brand or quality, it is impossible to consolidate re- quirements into bulk orders. In that case the advantages of price reduction through bulk buying will be

lost.Admittedly, all articles used by a government can

not be standardized. Nor can all using agencies be

expected to use the same quality of a commodity. One

or more departments may require a higher quality or a different style of article than will serve the needs of

other departments. But almost any government buys

scores of articles which are used in common by the

various departments and institutions; among these

may be mentioned coal, paper, stationery, fui’niture,

motor equipment, automotive accessories, gasoline,

motor oil, and textiles. If the needs of all the using

agencies in such staple commodities can be consolidated into bulk orders, the unit prices are likely to be

considerably reduced.

Standardization has many other advantages besides

price reduction. Better delivery service is likely to be

secured on large orders. If the sujiplier will provide

prompt delivery the Government need not carry large

stocks on hand, and therefore can reduce the overhead

carrying charges. Transfers of stock between departments can be more easily effected if the items of supply are of a standard make or quality.

Within the compass of this article it is impossible to discuss the most acceptable methods of standardization which have been developed in various governments. It should be pointed out, however, that to be

successful a standardization program should be based on consultation with the using officials. No purchasing official should be given blanket authority to establish standards according to his own personal beliefs

Standardization, to be satisfactory, must be based on

accurate and complete information on the needs of the

using agencies and should be made to conform to the

1 Secretary, National Municipal League ; director, Municipal Administration Service ; associate professor of government. New York

University ; and consultant on governmental purchasing of the National Association of Purchasing Agents.

economic rule of the “ greatest good to the greatest

number.”

Ancillary to the adoption of standards is their ex- pression in written specifications. Specifications make

real competition possible. If the needs of the government are expressed in clear and unmistakable language the bidder can submit a more intelligent price

quotation; the purchaser can make a more accurate comparison of the bids received from various sources

to determine which is best; and the inspector can determine whether or not the government is receiving

what it ordered.

Without definite written specifications most governments are compelled to ask for prices and to award

orders on the basis of trade-marks, by citing a wellknown brand “ or its equivalent.” Quite naturally,

indefinite language of this sort often leads to substitution of inferior quality and to litigation over disputes on deliveries. Wherever possible, written specifications should be prepared, including definite quality

and performance tests as the basis for acceptance and

payment of the delivery.

The preparation of specifications is a technical task

requiring the combined services of the engineer, the

chemist, the lawyer, the buyer, and the user. Consultation with the seller, too, is frequently helpful,

especially in determining whether the proposed specification is practicable from the producer’s standpoint.

The specification should not be too drastic and rigid,

lest it increase the cost by interfering with normal

production methods.

Abundant proof of the advantages of standardization is found in the experience of many governments

Federal, State, and local. By reducing the varieties

and increasing the volume, the State purchasing office of Maryland has been able to secure the lowest possible prices. Under decentralized purchasing in

Maryland, 17 different brands of toilet soap and 15

different brands of scrubbing soap were used by the

various State departments and institutions, so diverse was their individual preferment. Through standardization, the imrchases of the State are now limited to three kinds of toilet soap and two kinds of scrubbing

soap. New standardization projects are initiated from time

to time in Maryland. Recentl}'^ a conference between

the purchasing agent, the heads of the different State
NOVEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 159

institutions, and representatives of the manufacturers

resulted in the reduction of the different kinds of mattresses used by the State from 8 to 4 and of pillows

from 8 to 3 different kinds. Specifications have been

prepared so that in the future all manufacturers will

be able to bid on the same articles and will not be

required to submit samples with their bids.

Before the purchasing department was established

for the city of Los Angeles, the individual departments paid from 75 cents to $1 each for high quality

typewriter ribbons. By standardizing on one grade,

and by contracting for a 6-month supply, the jirice was reduced to $4 per dozen. By the adoption of

standard specifications and by broadening the field of competition, the city now pays $2.41 per dozen for

precisely the same grade of ribbon which previously

cost $4 per dozen.

In Detroit, prior to 1918, approximately 80 differ- ent types of oils and greases were used by the city

government. As a result of careful chemical tests, the

number of types used was reduced to 10, and definite

specifications were prepared to describe the standards.

It is estimated that the city saves $25,000 per year

through the standardization of this commodity.

The city of Milwaukee has gone a long way in

standardization of its materi^el requirements. RePUBLICATIONS

Circular on reclaimed rubber. —Circular No. 393 on

reclaimed rubber has just been issued by the Bureau

of Standards, and will be found of value to all those

interested in the utilization of waste products.

While reclaimed rubber is not equal to new rubber

in strength, stretch, and resistance to abrasion, it may

be used successfully for many products in which soft- ness and flexibility are important.

In manufacturing operations reclaimed rubber can

be processed more readily and at less cost than crude

rubber, but present reclaiming processes are not so well

adapted to small-scale operations as are direct means

of utilizing discarded rubber products. As is to be

expected, the consumption of reclaimed rubber fluctu- ates with the price of crude rubber, being high when

the price is high and at a minimum when the price

is low.

Copies of this circular may be obtained from the

Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing

Office, Washington, D. C., at 10 cents each.

Staple seats for water-closet bowls. —The printed

pamphlet entitled “Staple Seats for Water-Closet

Bowls, CS 29-31 ” has been released and was distributed on October 1, 1931, to acceptors of record and

others interested.

The standard as established by the industry recom- mends definite specifications for nomenclature, type,

shapes, materials, construction, dimensions, colors, and

finishes of staple seats, and covers, types, and weights

of hinges, as well as the wording of labels and guaranties.

cently the city purchasing agent prepared specifications for the purchase of fireworks for the annual

Fourth of July celebration. These specifications, believed to be the first of their kind, enabled the city to compel suppliers to furnish what was ordered. Another progressive step in Milwaukee was the recent adoption of specifications covering the removal of

metals sold by the city to scrap dealers. The new

requirements are believed to give a most accurate check on the buyer and to insure the city’s receiving

full payment for the scrap sold. In Cincinnati, too, standardization is progressing

steadily. In 1929, a total of 92 new specifications were

prepared, tried out, and finally adopted for city use. One of these covered surgical soap. By a 6-month

contract and the use of the new specification the competition was widened and the price was reduced from

9.25 to 7.85 cents per pound. The standard specifications for chipped soap brought a reduction of 17 cents per hundred pounds over the 1928 price, in the face

of a rising market. During 1928 the city paid $3.49

per hundred pounds for soap powder of a certain

trade brand. After the adoption of the standard

specification the same powder was purchased without

trade label for $2.74 per pound.

Important recommendations included in the commercial standard are as follows:

Seats shall be classified according to finish as: Varnished, sprayed (white or colored), sheet covered, hard

rubber, and molded composition seats. The types shall be designated as staple ring seat, staple open-front seat, and staple open front and back

seat, all with or without cover. The shape of plain rim, staple ring seats shall be

designated as for staple bowls. Semi and full saddle

patterns shall be considered as special. Shapes of open

front or open front and back seats shall be designated

as for staple bowls (round front) for staple extended

lip and staple elongated bowls.

Types and finishes above the minimum requirements

not specifically mentioned shall be considered as special and may be so labeled.

The standard further includes a list of the official acceptors, a condensed report of the general conference, and the membership of the representative standing committee of manufacturers, distributors, and

users appointed to review suggestions and effect a

revision of the standard when necessary to keep it abreast with progress in the industry.

The chief aims of the industry in the voluntary

establishment of this commercial standard are to improve conditions in the industry by providing an authoritative basis for determining and checking the

quality of its product, and to protect the purchaser

against fraudulent practices by unscrupulous producers and distributors.

The commercial standard became effective for new

production, and clearance of existing stocks on October 1, 1931.
160 COMMEKCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1931 STANDARDIZATION BRIEFS

Turkey adopts metric system.—Following the ex- ample of Persia, the Turkish National Assembly has

resolved to enact a law to enforce the metric system

as of January 1, 1933.

Standardization in housekeeping.—The Association

of Norwegian Engineers, Association of Norwegian

Architects, and the Norwegian Association of Housekeepers have organized a committee for the purpose of

carrying out standardization of all kitchen equijiment. The plan of these associations is to include

suggestions for proper kitchen designs as well as proposals for standardized cupboards, tables, etc.

Antiaircraft equipment standardized.—During the

past sevferal years antiaircraft exercises were con- ducted at Aberdeen Proving Grounds, Md., for the

purpose of testing newly designed antiaircraft equipment. As a result of these annual exercises, which

were conducted under the joint supervision of the

Chief of Ordnance and the Chief of Coast Artillery,

practically all items of equipment necessary for an

antiaircraft regiment have been standardized, with the

exception of the height finder.

Standard apple and pear containers.—An Argentine decree, officially published October 6, 1931, re- quires the use of units of the metric system in marking

weights and measures on standard apple and pear containers, according to a cable, dated October 9, re- ceived by the Department of Commerce. This decree

amplifies the previous requirement that fruit containers bear an indication of the nature of the contents, class or variety, net weight or number of units,

the name and address of the producer, and the country

of origin.

Use of ^''marked'’'’ lumber increases.—In reply to a

follow-up inquiry of the National Lumber Manufacturers Association for the prevailing attitude of deal- ers in New Jersey toward grade and trade-marked

lumber following an intensive campaign in 1930 by

the association to stock marked lumber, the secretary

of the New Jersey Lumbermen’s Association says:

“ Our members are becoming increasingly interested

in backing grade-marked and trade-marked lumber.

As you perhaps know, we have worked on the State

purchasing department in New Jersey, and have

finally succeeded in getting them to specify grademarked lumber as one of the qualifications in furnishing estimates on their requirements.”

Oil storage tanks.—The American Oil Burner Association (Inc.) has requested the cooperation of the

Bureau of Standards in the establishment of a commercial standard to cover specifications for fuel oil storage tanks.

It is expected that this specification will cover the

character of material from which the tanks are made,

thickness, method of jointing, standard sizes, openings, coating, labeling, and possibly other details of

general interest to the producers and users.

Textile sta/ndofrds to reduce costs.—To reduce the

manufacturing costs, and to simplify production in

the textile industry, the Czechoslovak Ministry of

Commerce has developed a program which will re- duce the number of and standardize fabrics of the

textile industry which are to be used for Government

purposes. The standardized quality samples of the

individual fabrics will then be put at the disposal, by

the various Government offices, of all technical bodies,

parties interested in the production, and trade circles

for submission of their bids.

Federal grades specify dressed-turkey styles—'SVhdut the well-dressed Thanksgiving or Christmas turkey

will wear this year as it comes from the market ready

for final preparation in the kitchen is indicated in the

schedule of Tentative United States Standards and

Grades for Dressed Turkeys, a style sheet which the

Bureau of Agricultural Economics has issued to guide

the work of the Federal turkey graders this fall. These turkey graders are the men who are authorized

to affix grade tags to the birds. The four grades are

U. S. Special, U. S. Prime, U. S. Choice, and U. S. Commercial. The birds are also classified as young or old turkeys. '

Electrical supply apparatus.—A specification of in- i

i terest to manufacturers and users of battery eliminators, trickle chargers, mains-operated radio sets and ,a|'

radio gramophones has recently been issued by the

British Engineering Standards Association. This

specification applies to devices intended for supplying ®I current at voltages not exceeding 500 volts to appara- jjj| tus employing thermionic tubes for radio or acoustic

reproduction, etc., where the power is derived from ;

ii alternating-current mains. The specification, after ex- ' plaining its scope, gives definitions, and deals with ) electrical characteristics, markings, design and con-

|

' struction, flexible cords and cables, the measurement

] of “ hum ” and the definition of quality. The ques- . tion of voltage regulation is also dealt with. J

:

Air screw hubs.—The British Engineering Stand- |

ards Association has issued a revision of its specification dealing with air screw hubs. The new publication is divided into two parts. Part 1 deals only with

the fixing of the air screw to the hub and part 2 contains recommendations for the standard engine flange

fixings for air screw hubs, rendered necessary by the , rapid development of detachable bladed air screws,

‘ metal air screws, and gear-box transmission to the mul- i tiple-air screw machines. It is recognized that air \ screws are not required to be interchangeable between 1

existing types of aircraft engines, and that each new ,1

design of engine has its own particular type of hub. S

At the same time it is felt that there is a need for in- M

formation regarding the basis for the design of these 9

fittings. ' M
scientific, technical, and commercial

PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY

THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH

The new Journal describes the bureau’s re- search results in science and technology. The

union of science and its applications in one

journal shortens the lag between discovery

and application.

All engaged in industry and commerce should

have available for current use and permanent

reference the Bureau of Standards Journal of

Research.

Early in its fir^t year the Journal developed a

liil of paid subscribers double the anticipated

maximum.

This Journal is full of interest to executives

and technicians controlling industries and

commercial enterprises. It enables them bet- ter to promote efficiency by determining the

scientific measured controls ofprocess through

experimental and theoretical research.

Issued monthly

Subscription price, $2.75 per year

TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN

The Bureau of Standards periodical with a WAR RECORD! Started during the dark

days of 1917 to keep the Army and Navy and

other branches of the Government informed

of progress in scientific war research at the

bureau. Upon urgent request this publication was continued and expanded to serve the

Government, science, and industry.

The TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN will

keep you informed of current progress in the

scientific and technical work of the bureau’s

laboratories, and gives each month a liil of

the publications of the bureau. A complete

cross index is published with the December

issue.

You can not afford to be without the TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN. Every article is short and to the point. The busieff executive can afford the time to read it.

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS

MONTHLY

Issued monthly

Subscription price, 25 cents per year

STANDARDS YEARBOOK

FOR 1931

This new governmental periodical is a review

of progress in commercial simplification and

ffandardization. It is the only journal of its kind. It covers the national movement ini- tiated by President Hoover for the reduction

of needless siz,es and varieties of products and

the promotion of voluntary commercial

^andardization by industry

.

The Secretary of Commerce in the firff issue

of this new journal said: “Certain standards,

such as those used for weights and measures,

* * * have been fixed by legislative enacft- ment. Mandatory standards of this character, however, are few in number when compared with the large and steadily growing

volume of standards developed by industry

and commerce and voluntarily maintained.

* * * The activities of the Commercial

Standardization Group of the Bureau of

Standards are concerned with standards

adopted by voluntary agreement.’’

Subscription price, $1 per year

The new Standards Yearbook for 1931 is the

fifth annual issue of a publication devoted

to the great and growing field of standardization in its broad aspeCts. It gives a summary

of progress.

Standardization is a world-wide movement.

It covers all industries. It is part of the application of scientific methods to induSlry. Its achievements are of intereSt and concern to

business men and manufacturers as well as to engineers. To the technician it is full of

example of methods and results of suggeStive

and Stimulating value. To business men it discloses trends which deeply concern their

interest.

NOW READY Price, $1 ORDER AT ONCE

“Standardization is becoming an aspect of all well- ordered activity rather than an incidental

activity supplemental to others.”

To obtain regularly the above-described monthly Periodicals send your order, with remittance, addressed: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Foreign prices (countries other

than the United States and its possessions, Canada, Mexico, Newfoundland, Cuba, and Republic of Panama) are: Journal, $3.50; Bulletin, $0.40; Monthly, $1.25; Yearbook, $1.20
THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary of Commerce

" * * * this department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * * its ideals are clear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field.” —President Hoover, at the laying of the corner stone of the new building

of the U. S. De{:>artment of Commerce, June 10^ 1929,

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal air ports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, William M. Steuart, Director. Taking censuses of population, mines, and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a census of manufactures every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments.

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products.

BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

F. M. Feiker, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attaches, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, the monthly Survey of Current Business, and district and

cooperative offices in 65 cities. The maintenance of commodity,

technical, and regional divisions to afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, George K. Burgess, Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards, and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals. Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operation of plants producing it.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish, in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods,

improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and the

protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam,

Commissioner.

Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director. Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic

surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, Arthur J. Tyrer, Commissioner.

Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamen.

Supervision of registering, enrolling, licensing, numbering,

etc., of vessels under the United States flag, and the annual

publication of a list of such vessels. Enforcement of the navigation and steamboat inspection laws,

including imposition of fees, fines, tonnage taxes, etc. STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE, Dickerson N. Hoover,

Supervising Inspector General. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certifi- cation of able seamen and lifeboat men, and the investigation of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks,

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents, and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued RADIO DIVISION, W. D. Terrell, Chief. Inspection of radio stations on ships; inspection of radio

stations on shore, including broadcasting stations; licensing radio operators; assigning station call letters; enforcing the terms of the International Radiotelegraphic Convention; and

examining and settling international radio accounts.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE; 19 51