r may 5 1933

COMMERCIAL

STANDARDS

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MONTHLY

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A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Photographed by Army Air Corps AIRPLANE VIEW OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS (LOOKING SOUTH)

ISSUED BY THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE UNITED

STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D. C., U. S. A.

Vol. 9, No. 10

!

April, 1933

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. $1.00 annually ($1.60 foreign); single copy, 10 cents
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

DANIEL C. ROPER, Secretary

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

LYMAN J. BRIGGS, Acting Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY, S. F. Tillman, Editor

The Commercial Standardization Group

A. S. McAllister, Assistant Director

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE

Edwiyi W. Ely

The division of simplified pradfice cooperates with industrial and commercial groups to reduce wa^te, usually through

eliminating unnecessary variety of produdf, method, or

pradfice. Its fundtion is to bring together all parties interested in a projedt of this charadler, and to coordinate their

work in developing a simplified pradlice recommendation.

Such work includes surveys of current pradlice, formulation of a simplified pradlice program, and presentation of

that program for adlion by a general conference representing

all interests. The division then transmits to all concerned

a full report of the general conference, with a requeSl for written acceptance of the adtion taken. When the volume

of acceptances is sufficient to indicate initial success, the

Department of Commerce indorses the program and publishes

the recommendation. The division thereafter cooperates

with a Standing committee appointed by the induSlry concerned, in condudling periodic surveys to determine the

degree of adherence, to maintain and extend support of the

recommendation, and to secure data for reaffirmation or

revision. Simplified pradlice may be applied to any com- modity or adlivity in which it will reduce

waSle. The division Stands ready to render

service in developing and making effedtive any application of simplified pradlice which

will reduce waSle, Stabilize business, or extend commerce.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION

J. S. Taylor

The division of building and housing,

formed in 1921, cooperates with business,

technical, and professional groups in furthering conSlrudtion adlivities. It works to modernize building codes and to encourage improved Standards for the quality of building conSlrudtion, and the practical application of the lateSl development in design and use of building materials.

It encourages home ownership through the development

of an enlarged. Steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating demand for dwellings—the largeSl single class of

buildings which the construction industries provide.

The division also cooperates with other governmental

agencies and with many private business and professional groups in efforts to distribute building adlivity more evenly

throughout the year and to secure less fludluation from

year to year. The work on city planning and zoning has the broad

objedlive of making buildings more useful through proper

location with respedl to other Slrudlures, Stabilizing of land

values and property uses, well coordinated thoroughfare

systems, and well laid out public works.

STANDARDIZATION

..IS.. A CONTINUING PROCESS

ITS AIM IS NOT FIXITY OR STAGNATION

..BUT.. TO ADD SERVICEABILITY

AS OFTEN AS THE

POTENTIAL GAIN

MAKES IT WORTH WHILE

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS

A. S. McAiZiSier

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote

and facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so it carries on adlivities involving cooperation with

technical societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and

municipal Government specifications making and using

agencies; producers, distributors, and consumers; and teSling

and research laboratories. It ascertains the standardization

and specifications promoting adlivities of the associations and societies, and brings to their attention the work being

done by the commercial Standardization group. It brings the

Federal specifications and commercial Standards to the atten- tion of the maximum number of producers and users of commodities complying with these Standards and specifications.

It compiles and distributes liSts of sources of supply of materials guaranteed to comply with the Standards and specifi- cations. It shows both buyers and sellers the benefits from

handling nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The division prepares diredlories of governmental and

nongovernmental teSting laboratories and the DireSlory of

Specifications, and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the firSl two volumes of which

have been issued, namely, “Standards and

Specifications in the Wood-Using Industries”

and “Standards and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and their Products. ” It also

aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook.

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS

I. J. Fairchild

The division of trade Standards, on requeSl,

assists industrial and commercial groups in the voluntary establishment of Standards

covering grades, quality, dimensional interchangeability, or other acceptance criteria as a national

basis for marketing manufadlured commodities.

The detail criteria are seleSled or determined voluntarily

by interested buyers or sellers, without any Government

diiflation or domination, and adjusted at a general confer- ence of producers, distributors, and users so as to represent

the composite views of all branches. The division fundtions

chiefly as a neutral agency to see that all interested elements

are given full opportunity to be heard and satisfied; to

solicit and record acceptances; and to publish and promulgate

the Standard when a satisfadlory majority of acceptances is obtained and provided there is no adtive opposition.

Industries are encouraged to apply self-certifying labels to produdls meeting the commercial Standard requirements, as a means of protedling the consumer and the scrupulous seller from misrepresentation or unfair methods of marketing.

Provision is made for regular revision of the Standard

through the appointment of a Standing committee to consider periodically any necessity for revision of the Standard,

in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with

progress in the induSlry.

Address BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Washington, D. C., for further information
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 9 WASHINGTON, D.C., APRIL 1933 Number 10

SUBJECT

BUILDING AND HOUSING

Page

Aids to the construction industry 231

Color for school furniture 228

Douglas-fir plywood 239

Fire-clay brick 238

Protection against lightning 236

Shingle manufacturer’s report on adherence 234

Standardization briefs 240

FUELS

A.S.T.M. adopts knock test for motor fuels 239

Fuel oils 235

Grading sulphonated oils 235 Kansas proposes oil specification marking on containers. 237

New letter circulars announced 235

Sulphonated oils 239

GROUP ACTIVITIES

Activities of the American Standards Association 225 A.S.T.M. adopts knock test for motor fuels 239

European conference on standardization 218

Fire-clay brick 238

Grading sulphonated oils 235

How are commercial standards enforced? 219

New Federal specifications 234

Noise-measurement standards 226

N.P.A. department of standards plan busy year 238

Revised recommendations for ship regulation 236

Selecting tne refrigerator 227

Standardization activities of S.A.E 229

Standardization briefs 240

What is pure water? 221 METALS

European conference on standardization 218

Fourdrinier wire cloth 237

Packaging of electric railway motor parts 238

Standardization briefs 240

Woven wire fencing 239

MISCELLANEOUS

Effects of standardization on production and marketing. 233

Recomparison of primary standards of thermal radiation 222

ANALYSIS

MISCELLANEOUS—Continued Page

Sieve sizes of canned peas 228

Standardization saves millions for State of Washington.. 224

Virginia establishes grades for fish 239

Writing materials—ancient and modern 223

PAPER

Corrugated and solid fiber boxes 230

Innovations in packaging 222

Kraft paper sealing tape 238

PUBLICATIONS

Coverings for line wires 236

Douglas-fir plywood 239

New letter circulars announced 235

New list of standard samples 230

Protection against lightning 236

Standardization of consumers’ goods 226

Standards Yearbook for 1933 237

Sulphonated oils 239

QUALITY MARKS AND LABELS

Color for school furniture 228 Kansas proposes oil specification marking on containers.. 237

Shingle manufacturer’s report on adherence 234

Standardization briefs 240

TEXTILES

Color of manila rope 230

Corrugated and solid fiber boxes 230 Cotton standards approved 238

PoUshed cotton twine 220

Standardization briefs 240

Surgical gauze 237

Wool and part-wool blankets 239

WOOD

Color for school furniture 228

Corrugated and solid fiber boxes 230

Douglas-fir plywood 239

Innovations in packaging 222

Shingle manufacturer’s report on adherence 234

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A cordial invitation is extended to all interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories of

the Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is ox'ganized at 2:15 p.m.

daily excej)t on holidays. Special trips tor groups may be arranged at other times Ixy writing to the

Bureau in advance. The Bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s Manual may be had for the asking. This lists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of typical dis- coveries and inventions which have been notable, basic contributions to radio, aviation, and other

modem arts and industries.

168946—33 1 217
European Conference on

Standardization

Forty-five delegates representing the national ^andardiZfing associations of 11 countries, attended the conference of

the International Federation of National Standardiz;ing

Associations, held January 9 to 14 at Dusseldorf. The

countries represented were: Austria, Belgium, CTiechoslovakia, Denmark, France, Germany, Holland, Italy, Poland,

Sweden, and Switzerland.

The Swiss Standardizing Association, which forms the

secretariat of the technical committee of the international

federation which deals with iron and ^eel, brought forward a number of proposals relating to standardization,

which were based on resolutions passed at a conference

held in Prague in Odtober, 1928. These covered: classification and marking of iron and Steel; symbols and definitions

of the marks used in the proving of secftions, rod and sheet;

testing and acceptance, including the method of carrying

out teSts, the shape of the teSt pieces, samples, tensile

teSts, yield point, elongation, limits of compressibility,

Brinell hardness, bending and notched-bar teSts, and specifications for machines and apparatus used in carrying out

acceptance teSts; structural Steel, sections, rods and flat billets; material for screws and rivets; unalloyed Steels for use

in machine construction, both with and without restrictions as to purity, and including case-hardened materials;

and alloyed Steels.

The next conference is to be held within the next 12

months, when draft regulations relating to delivery and

acceptance, which have already been tentatively prepared, will be discussed.

218
APRIL 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 219

HOW ARE COMMERCIAL STANDARDS ENFORCED?

Review of Methods Used to Enforce Voluntary Standards

By I. J. Faiechild, Bureau of Standards

One of the most frequent questions regarding commercial standards is, How are commercial standards

enforced? Since commercial standards do not fall into the category of compulsory standards, but are purely voluntary standards, it is necessary to understand how they are used before the manner of en- forcement can be properly clarified for the reader. It will be recalled that commercial standards are

specifications voluntarily proposed and adjusted

through the joint cooperation of producers, distributors, and users; are accepted in writing by a majority

of production by volume, and are published by the

Bureau of Standards of

the Department of Commerce in the absence of

active opposition. They

cover the essential criteria

of staple manufactured

commodities as a basis for

guaranties, tests, sale, or acceptance of these commodities in daily trade.

Commercial standards

are identified by exclusive numbers which are not used

for other Federal publications. For example. Surgeons’ Rubber Gloves, Commercial Standard CS40-32

is fully identified by the number CS40-32. The let- ters CS signify “ Commercial Standards ”, the nu- meral 40 stands for the serial number of the standard,

and the last two digits 32, indicate the year in which

it was made effective by the industry.

The manufacturers who are producing gloves in

conformity with the standard and who are cooperating in this method of marketing, apply the following

label to each package of gloves conforming to the

standard

These gloves are certified to conform to all require- ments of the Commercial Standard for Surgeons’ Eubber Gloves, CS40-32, (Signed)

Company.

The requirements of the commercial standard cover

tensile strength, elongation, resistance to sterilization,

composition, measurements, and minimum weight of

the various sizes. It seems reasonable to suppose that some of the larger hospitals will purchase surgeons’

rubber gloves in sufficient quantities to justify their

purchasing agents in becoming familiar with the detail requirements and in making the prescribed tests prior to acceptance and payment for the shipment.

It is expected, therefore, that where quantities purchased are very large, some tests may be made on the

basis of the commercial standard prior to acceptance, even though the goods be guaranteed liy the manufacturer to comply therewith.

However, it is reasonable to suppose that the aver- age individual surgeon and the small hospital insti- tution will not be sufficiently interested to become fa- miliar eitlier with the minimum requirements or methods of test, probably not even to the extent of reading

the commercial standard. For these surgeons and the

smaller hospitals, the guaranty label will be relied

upon in making the purchase.

The same holds true of the majority of commercial

standards since it is not expected that the individual consumer or smaller distributor will become familiar

with the requirements or tests. It will be clear, of

course, that the sales contract may be either verbal or written and that the guaranty statement may be of

such character as to form a binding part of either form

of sales contract. Therefore, it will behoove such consumers and distributors to examine the guaranty

statement carefully to see whether it is worded in a way so as to constitute a binding part of the sales contract. For example. Does it identify the guarantor ? Does it identify the product ? Does it identify the

specification or standard on which the guaranty is based ? Unless it does

identify each of these

essential elements in a perfectly definite way there may

well be some question as to the validity of the guaranty.

It is obvious that if the statement does not identify

the organization making the guaranty, the question of

responsibility therefor, is subject to doubt. If the

product is not identified (as accomplished by the

words “ these gloves ” in the guaranty of above refer- ence) the seller may claim that the guaranty was not

intended to apply to the article in question, but was

placed thereby error and was really intended to apply

to some other item regularly manufactured.

Again if the specification or standard on which the

guaranty is based is not specifically mentioned the

buyer has little or no redress since no specific quality or grade is certified and there is no recognized test which the buyer may use to demonstrate whether or not the goods comply with the guaranty.

The associations which are sponsoring commercial standards as a means of restoring confidence, particularly the consumer groups, are convinced that consumers can readily be taught to distinguish between bona fide guaranty labels which are binding on the seller and the bogus ones which merely appear

to do so. Honest, straiglit-from-the-shoulder guaranty labels

which embody the three essentials mentioned above

reflect the character of the producer, or the seller, or the association standing back of the merchandise

as the case may be. Whereas, dishonest labels at- tempt to create an illusion of a binding guaranty but

omit one or more of the prime essentials, and a care

ful examination leaves the reader in a hazy state of

mind as regards the responsibility of the seller. At first though it may seem that manufacturers may

regard such guaranties lightly and may issue them

freely without regard to consequences. My own observation, however, is that manufacturers who have been

This is the fourth of a series of articles by

Mr. Fairchild, Chief, Division of Trade Standards, Bureau of Standards, on the fundamental

whys and wherefores of commercial standards.

It responds to the questions, How are they

used? and How enforced?
220 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL 1933

inclined toward sharp practices tend to continue such

tactics by omitting essential elements of the guaranty

so as to leave themselves with no legal responsibility or with at least a good-sized loophole through which

to dodge the issues if apprehended. Even the shyster

groups are loath to apply a guaranty label which will

hold them completely responsible both morally and

legally to the distributor and the consumer for supplying a specific grade or quality, since their chances of

getting by on this basis are exceedingly slim and must

of necessity be confined to short periods of time.

Of course the above statements apply only to commodities for which a commercial standard has been

established or where a Federal specification or other

nationally recognized specification is used as a basis

for the guaranty. There are still great numbers of

commodities for which no nationally recognized standards or specifications exist and where a guaranty of

the above kind is not practicable at the present time.

The chief use for commercial standards then is as a nationally recognized basis for binding guaranties

from the seller to the buyer either as a part of the

label attached directly to the goods, to the container

or carton, or printed on the invoice, or made a part

of the significance of an association grade mark or brand by means of national advertising.

At this point it may be well to examine a few of the

various types of guaranty labels. The most common

perhaps is the one sponsored by the manufacturer, for

example

— Oil Corporation certifies this stoddarfi sol- vent to comply with the requirements of Commercial

Standard CS3-28 as issued by the United States De- partment of Commerce.

Some such labels constitute a guaranty by the

trade association as well as by the manufacturer, for

example, the following:

We guarantee this mirror AA quality as specified in Commercial Standard CS27-30 issued hy the United

States Department of Commerce. John Doe & Co. and

the Mirror Manufacturers Association. Likewise, the guaranty label or certificate may represent an inspection bureau operating as a part of the

trade association for the specific purpose of inspection,

for example

These shingles are guaranteed by the manufacturer

inspected for-—certified by Red Cedar Shingle Bureau

to meet all the quality requirements of Commercial

Standard CS31-31 for red cedar shingles as issued by

United States Department of Commerce.

Or it may represent an independent inspection and

labeling agency which assumes full responsibility for

the integrity of the label and for the detection of

bogus labels on similar goods as

National Standards Council, Inc., certifies that this broom is correctly graded and marked to comply with

The Broom Institute Standard. Of course labels may also be the certificate of a test- ing laboratory employed for the specific purpose of

testing and certifying the quality as conforming to the

requirements of a certain definite specification. It will be evident from the above that, in general,

there are at least three organizations or individuals

directly interested in the integrity of the guaranty

label. These are the manufacturer, the distributor,

and the user, and in addition in many instances there

will also be the trade association_or the testing laboratory or the labeling agency. Each of these are concerned in seeing that the integvity of the label is maintained. Our experience indicates that the manufacturers and their trade associations are among the first to learn of any shady practices on the part of their

competitors. Retailers are increasingly on the lookout

for false claims and when suspicions are aroused, the

most natural step is to have the shipment inspected

and return the goods or refuse payment in the event they are below standard. The consumer too plays his

part in enforcing such standards since having noted

the specific guaranty, he will be inclined to complain

to the seller in the event the quality of the goods does

not come up to his expectations and in the event his

complaint is justified by the facts and by the specification he will demand some adjustment or replacement on the part of the seller. In most States there is no compulsory labeling but

it seems reasonable to suppose that for commodities

covered by commercial standards where labeling has

become the accepted rule of the industry, the product

of the noncooperating manufacturer will be conspicu- ous by the absence of guaranty labels and that the ab- sence of such guaranty will Idc reflected in the price

which he may expect to obtain. In fact, comparatively

little difficulty is anticipated from the lack of direct

enforcement on labeling, since guaranty labeling is coming to be regarded as an essential part of the marketing of staple commodities, in order to really con- vince an increasingly skej)tical public as to the actual

grade or quality of the goods offered. It may be said then in conclusion that the guaranty

label is the hub around which the wheel of use and

enforcement of commercial standards revolves; that if a guaranty label or certificate is so worded as to consti- tute a bona fide guaranty forming a part of the sales contract, it will, in the event of misrepresentation (1)

form the basis for rejection or nonpayment for the

goods on the part of the retailer; (2) form a basis for

complaint on the part of competitors through their

trade association; (3) form a basis for action through

the Federal Trade Commission or through the courts;

(4) form a basis for complaint and return of goods

by the consumer; and (5) form a basis for complaint

by better business bureaus. Also (6) sellers will be

inhibited from direct misrepresentation by fear of

unfavorable publicity and loss of reputation.

The hubs of the wheels which support the enforcement of commercial standards and on which the car

of commerce may move forward in the restoration of consumer confidence are the guaranty labels or certifi- cates, and the axles on which these wheels turn are the

ability of the buyer to distinguish between bogus and

bona fide guarantees, and the persistence with which

sellers and trade associations maintain the integrity of

guaranty labels and certificates.

POLISHED COTTON TWINE

Simplified practice recommendation R124—31, cov- ering polished cotton twine, has been reaffirmed without change by the standing committee of the industry.

This recommendation, which was proposed and developed by the industry, provides for twine sizes, yarn

sizes, number of feet per pound, put-ups, and packaging of plain and surface colored polished cotton twine.

It has been in effect since November 1, 1931.
APEIL 1933 COMMEKOIAL STANDAEDS MONTHLY 221

WHAT IS PURE WATER?

Standards as to Source and Protection Adopted by the United States Public Health Service

By Chakles H. Eastwood, Newark, N.J.

What is pure water? Actually of course, outside

of the laboratory, there is no such thing as pure water. What we mean when we say pure water, is a safe

Avater—a water safe for human consumption. Since

it has been amply demonstrated that drinking water

has been responsible for innumerable typhoid fever

and other intestinal disease outbreaks, the sanitarian

and XDublic health authority is concerned largely with

the epidemiologically demonstrable safety of a public

water supply, leaiung the accej)tability of the water

from the idewpoint of

chemical and physical

characteristics largely in

the hands of the consulting engineer responsible

for the original selection

of the source. In submitting recoin^

mendations for drinking

water standards as subsequently adopted by the

United States Treasury

Department, for the control of Drinking and Culinary Water Supplied by

Common Carriers in Interstate Commerce, the advisory committee appointed

by the Surgeon General

of the United States Public Health Service, says

in part

The first step toward the establishment of standards which

Avill insure the safety of water supplies conforming to them

is to agree upon some criterion of safety. This is necessary because safety does not necessarily signify that absolutely no

risk is ever incurred in drinking it. AVhat is usually meant,

and all that can be asserted from any evidence at hand,

is that the danger, if any, is so small that it cannot be dis- covered by available means of observation. Nevertheless,

while it is impossible to demonstrate the absolute safety of the water supply, it is well established that the water supplies

of many of our largest cities are safe in the sense stated above,

since the large population using them continuously have, in recent years, suffered only a minimal incidence of typhoid

fever and other potential water-borne infections. Tlie standards recommended were intended only

to apply to the particular purpose outlined in the title of the report, but in lieu of any others and because

they constitute a fair interpretation of the essential

requirements for the safety of drinking water, have

been generally adopted by State and local health

authorities exercising control over public drinking

water supplies.

These standards say: “As to source and protection”—“The Avater shall be (a) obtained from a source free from pollution, or (&) obtained from a source adequately protected by natural agencies from

the effects of pollution, or (c) adequately protected by

artificial treatment.” The report then goes on to lay

doAvn certain standards as to the physical characteristics of the plant and as to the physical and chemical characteristics of the water. In section II, “As

to Bacterial Quality ”, these bacteriological standards

are laid down: (1) Of all standard (10ml) portions

examined in accordance with the procedure specified

below,^ not more than 10 percent shall show the

presence of organisms of the B. Coli group; (2) occa- sionally three or more of the five equal (10ml) portions constituting a single standard sample may show

the presence of B. Coli. This shall not be allowable,

however, if it occurs in more than (a) 5 percent

of the standard samples

when 20 or more samples

have been examined, (&)

1 standard sample when

less than 20 samples have

been examined.

Having determined

from a preliminary examination of the source of

supply that the water is chemically and physically

suitable or with proper

treatment can be made so, periodic checks to determine that, as supplied to the consumer, it meets

s t a n d a r d s of “ safety ” must consist, in the main,

of these bacterio-logical

examinations. The pres- ence of B. Coli, as determined in the manner indicated,

is generally accepted as evidence of sewage contamination and the water is classified as potentially unsafe

for drinking purposes. The inability to find B. Coli

is generally accepted as eAudence that the water is safe

for human consumption.

As population grows, as demands increase, it be- comes more and more difficult to locate a water supply

source free from contamination and one that will continue to remain so, and the difficulty in meeting re- quirements (a) and (d) become increasingl^y greater.

Hoav then is the term “ adequately protected by artificial treatment ’’—requirement (e) to be interpreted?

To most sanitarians and public health authorities this

implies sterilization, irrespective of what other treat- ment may be considered advisable to correct other undesirable characteristics. And sterilization means

chlorination.

Since its inception in the United States, when chlorine in the form of hypochlorite of lime Avas first used

by Col. George A. Johnson at the Bubbly Creek Filtration Plant in 1908, through the development, by

Darnall in 1912 and Ornstein in 1915, of practical means to meter and apply the compressed gas, chlorination has progressed to a point where today some

^ standard Methods of Water Analysis. American Public Health

Association, New York, 1923.
222 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL 1933

6,000 American municipalities are sterilizing 80 percent of the country’s domestic supplies (6,000,000,000

gallons daily) with chlorine.

How important a part this has plaj^ed in the reduction of the Nation’s typhoid death rate is shown by

the accompanying chart and adequately expressed by

the Journal of the American Medical Association,

which, speaking editorially, says in part

Chlorination of water supplies is probably the most im- portant contribution made by this country to the art of water

purification. In fact, this process stands out as the most

useful procedure yet devised for insuring the safety of a municipal water supply * * * chlorination is almost indis- pensable for many supplies. The expense is low and amounts

to only about 40 cents per million gallons of water treated. Even, however, if it is impossible to ascribe all credit for typhoid diminution to water chlorination, it is enough to say

that this procedure has had a large share in the improvement effected. If it were still more widely used, especially

in the smaller towns and cities using surface water without

filtration, there is no question that further impetus would be

given to the work of typhoid prevention in the United States.

RECOMPARISON OF PRIMARY STANDARDS

OF THERMAL RADIATION

Numerous investigations are being conducted on the

effect of radiation of various wave lengths (ultraviolet, visible and infra-red rays) u]Don matter. Prominent among such investigations are (1) the re- sponse of the eye, and of photoelectric cells to l^ht

of different wave lengths or “colors”; (2) the effect of different wave lengths of ultraviolet radiation in

producing an eythema (reddening) of the skin; and

(3) the wave lengths and the amount of radiation

required to cure rickets, etc. The intensities of these radiation stimuli are measured with some form of radiometer, such as, for example, a thermopile, which, for uniformity of comparison, is calibrated in absolute value (microwatts per

square centimeter). This is most conveniently accomplished by the calibration of the thermopile against a standard of thermal radiation (an incandescent lamp

of known radiation), similar to a standard of luminous intensity (an incandescent lamp of known candlejDOwer).

An examination has recently been made into the

status of the primary standards of radiation maintained by the Bureau of Standards, reproductions of

which standards during the past 2 decades have

been issued to biologists, botanists, photochemists,

physicists, physiologists, etc., who desire to measure

their radiation stimuli in absolute value. These

standards of radiation consist of 50-watt, 115-volt,

anchored carbon-filament incandescent lamps which

have been seasoned and calibrated as radiation standards at definite voltages and currents, in accordance

with the accepted procedure in preparing similar

standards of luminous intensity (candlepower standards). The first standards of radiation were obtained

in 1913 by direct comparison of a group of lamps

against a black body, and subsequent standards were

obtained by comparison with this first group of lamps.

The present inquiry was jirompted by a published

report that three such standards supplied to users deteriorated in radiant flux at the rate of 0.5 percent

per hour of use. This is contrary to all previous ex- perience in the use of such lamps as standards of lumi- nous intensity or as standards of radiation.

In 1918 an intercomparison of six of these radiation

standards showed a deviation of from 0 to 3 parts in

1,000 from the values of the radiant flux assigned to each lamp in 1913, which deviation is entirely within

experimental errors. In 1930 an intercomparison of

nine primary standards of radiation, including three

of the originals (1913) which had not been used for

12 years, showed a maximuinjieviation of 3 parts in

1,000; again entirely within experimental errors, and

none differing systematically from the intercompari- son of 1918.

On recalling the three lamps that were reported to be deteriorating in radiant flux, one was reported destroyed by arcing in the socket. The second lamp,

Avhich was reported to have deteriorated in radiant

flux to the extent of 3.1 percent in 9 hours, was found

unchanged to less than 3 parts in 1,000. Similarly,

tests with a potentiometer showed no changes in the

volt-ampere calibration. The third lamp of this

group was found to have increased (instead of having decreased) in radiant flux by almost 1 percent,

caused by a hot spot in the filament, which appeared

much brighter (hotter) than the rest of the filament, on continuous operation. On closing the circuit momentarily this spot became red hot before the rest of

the filament began to glow. Whether this injury in

the filament occurred in shipment is unknown. The

lamp is obviously defective, and unfit for use as a standard of radiation.

The conclusion from this inquiry is that there is no

appreciable deterioration in the standards of thermal

radiation issued by the Bureau of Standards, though

unavoidably some may become defecth^e. In a life test of a standard of radiation, after operating the

lamps for 176 hours, it was found that the radiant

flux had changed by less than 3 parts in 1,000 from

the value observed at the beginning.

INNOVATIONS IN PACKING

Innovations in packaging fruits and vegetables have

been developed during the past winter. Strawberries

are packed in cellophane ; celery is appearing in colorful cartons having a front window; many fruits and

vegetables customarily sold in bulk are being retailed

in mesh bags.

Container manufacturers report to the Bureau of

Agricultural Economics of the United States Department of Agriculture that they have developed con- sumer cartons for practically all kinds of fruits and

vegetables. Most of these cartons feature a front windoAv. A neAv tomato package is a 2-pound carton with

the window, feature. Paper baskets and paper hampers are replacing some of the customary wood containers used in shipping. Apples are being shipped

from the Paciflc Northwest in paper bushel baskets

that are said to permit of a

“ tight pack ” and to preA^ent bruises and rim cuts. Grape baskets and berry

boxes are being made of paper.

Officials of the Department of Agriculture express

the belief that consumers have been pleased Avith the new consumer packages principally on account of

sanitary features.
APRIL 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 223

WRITING MATERIALS—ANCIENT AND MODERN

Describing the Development from India Ink Invented by Chinese More Than 3,000 Years Ago to Present Gallotannate Types

By C. E. Waters, Bureau, of Stamlarcls

Nobody can say how early in his long history man

began to use signs and symbols to serve as reminders

to himself, and convey information to his fellows. No

doubt the earliest of such signs were piles of stone, and

the broken twigs we still use to mark an unfamiliar

trail. The spirited though crude drawings left on the

walls of European caves by the men of earlier cultures

than ours show that primitive man was akin to us. Worse art is to be seen today on walls in public

waiting rooms. The walls of caves, flat rocks on the faces of cliffs, clay tablets, sheets of wax, and pieces of ivory, bone,

and skin have all been used for writing upon. Even

today a college diploma is a sheepskin in name if not

in fact, and tattooing has not died out. For centuries parchment was the material on which

many books were written, but the papyrus roll was common enough to have given us the word “ paper ”. These materials were expensive and could not be obtained in large quantities, and there could have been no great development of printing, or much letter

Avriting, if paper had not been invented.

We may never know what was first used for Avrit- ing ink. It may have been the juices of berries, or perhaps the colored earths that were stirred up Avith

water and used as war paint. About 1,200 years before the Christian era the Chinese are said to have

begun to make what is usually called India ink, by

mixing soot Avith a solution of glue or of a plant gum.

This pasty mixture Avas made into cakes which Avere dried. "WTien some ink was needed for writing, the

end of the cake was rubbed with water in a shallow

dish. The nature of this ink made it necessary to write with a brush. Leather tanned with bark was known before the Christian era, and the staining of

Avet leather by contact with iron must have been

noticed often. Yet the world waited for more than

2,000 years after the discovery of india ink, or until

about 1126 A.D., before tannin and iron Avere combined to make writing ink. This kind of ink is still used in larger quantities than any other. The ink was made by dissolving ferrous sulphate—copperas or green vitriol—and glue in an infusion of nutgalls,

which contains a kind of tannin that is especially

suitable for making ink.

The infusion of nutgalls was allowed to ferment,

the other materials were added, and the mixture al- lowed to stand for a time. When it was quite black,

it was used as ink. The change in color Avas caused

by the action of oxygen from the air upon the iron

salt. Ferrous iron forms Avith tannin an easily soluble compound that is not intensely colored, but the

ferric compound formed by the oxidation is black and

nearly insoluble in water. Ink made by this process

Avas a muddy fluid in which floated iiinumerable

microscopic particles of the black ferric compounds.

The glue, or the plant gum if it were used instead,

lielped to keep the particles from settling to the bottom of the fluid, and later served to fasten them to the paper or parchment.

In those days there Avas no thought of chemical control of the manufacturing process, nor any chemist

who could have supervised it. Not until 1748, when

William LeAvis began to experiment, Avas any attempt

made to produce a balanced ink, Avith neacl}^ correct proportions of iron and nutgalls ; and even in his time

there Avere no analjdical methods to help him.

Though he had to work by the cut-and-dry method,

he tried. As each ink maker used the formula he considered

the best, but had no idea of the amount of tannin in

the galls, or of the purity of his ferrous sulphate,

many a batch of inlc must haA^e been far from balanced in composition. This state of affairs is re- flected by the condition of various old documents preserved in European libraries and elsewhere. The

Avriting of some is still legible, and the parchment

or paper in good condition. In others the paper is more or less eaten through by the ink, which, it is generally belieA^ed, contained too much sulphuric acid,

Avhich does not evaiDorate, and which has a sort of

charring effect upon paper. Another explanation is that iron oxide formed from the ink destroyed the

paper in the same Avay as a rusty nail attacks a piece

of Avood. Whatever the real cause, it is said that in

extreme cases only the uriAvritten margins of the pages

are left, for the rest of the paper has crumbled away.

Early in the nineteenth century a change was made

in the manufacture of writing ink. Instead of deliberately allowing it to oxidize and be turned into a muddy fluid, it was guarded from the action of the

air and kept clear as long as possible. When a batch

is made nowadays it is allowed to remain undistui'bed for a time so that solid impurities will settle to the bottom, but only a small part of the iron salts in a vat containing some hundreds of gallons of ink

will become oxidized.

The coloring matter in the older inks consisted of

black particles that remained to a great extent upon

the surface of the paper. The clear inks soak into the

fibers of the paper, or betAveen them, and then become

oxidized. For this reason it can be argued that the

clear inks should be the more permanent, because so

little of the Avriting is on the surface where it can be

I'ubbed off. To keep the ink clear as long as possible

it must be kept from oxidation, and must also contain

a small quantity of free hydrochloric or sulphuric

acid. The more free acid the ink contains, the longer

Avill it remain clear, but the greater Avill be its destructiA^e effect upon paper, and its corrosive action on

.steel pens. There must be some sort of compromise if the use of iron gallotannate (or iron-gall) ink is not to be abandoned.

Our ancestors a feAv generations back AAcre not con- cerned AA'ith the acidity of their ink. It Avas muddy

anyhow, and they had no steel pens to be corroded.

Tlie fountain ]jen with its noncorrodible point puts a
224 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL 1933

temptation in the path of the ink maker, who knows

what an extra amount of acid will do for him in keeping the ink clear. Ink which has undergone but little oxidation does not look intensely black in the bottle,

and makes such pale marks on paper that it is neces- sary to give it a stronger color by the addition of a

dye. The dye would not be needed if the writer could

keep his letters for a day or two for them to beconie

easy to read. When clear gallotannate inks began to be made, synthetic or so-called “ aniline dyes ” were something yet to be discovered. Of the comparatively

few available dyes in those days, it is probable that

only indigo could be used without causing the precipitation of solid matter in the ink. Indigo itself is not

soluble, but by suitable treatment with strong sul- phuric acid it is converted into the disulphonic acid,

which dissolves readily and forms no precipitate by

combining with the other ingredients of the ink.

In 1890 Schluttig and Neumann, ink chemists of

Dresden, Germany, wrote Avhat is in many respects

the most important book on iron gallotannate inks,

because of its far-reaching and lasting influence.

Their definition of ink, their explicit recommendations

for making record ink, and the whole tone and spirit

of the book set a new mark for the ink manufacturer

to aim at. Taking it for granted that the ink should

contain iron, they first studied the effect of using different amounts of that metal and of gallic and tannic

acids in the solution. Having done their best Avith

these materials, they extended their investigation to include inks made with iron and substances that are

closely related to gallic acid in their chemical struc.- ture. The tannins are a grou]D of more or less closely re- lated substances that are found in many different kinds

of plants. Their name comes from their use for tan- ning the hides of animals to make leather. The chemistry of this group of substances is quite complicated,

and only a start has been made in determining the

STANDARDIZATION SAVES MILLIONS FOR

STATE OF WASHINGTON

In the last biennial report of the Department of

Business Control of the State of Washington, which

points out that more than $4,000,000 have been have the

State’s taxpayers during the last 8 years through cen- tralized purchasing, the significant facts is emphasized

that “ no small part of the present splendid financial

condition of the State treasury is due to the enormous

saving made possible through standardization and

truly competitive buying of the State’s requirements.”

Briefly, specifications for the material requirements

of the using agencies of the State are formulated by

the purchasing officer, or by the departmental engi- neers subject to the approval of the purchasing officer. Although the principal requirements of the State are purchased on its own government specifications, nationally recognized trade-association specifications

and some Federal Government specifications have

been adopted. Certain bids are called for on the

basis of trade brands or equivalents.

Coal, grader blade steel, and soap, for example,

are purchased on specifications indicating maximum

and minimum limits of certaiji^ements or ingredients. Bulk grains, such as cbm, wheat, oats, etc..

molecular structures of the different tannins. It has

been shown that at least some of them are glucosides, or compounds of the familiar sugar, glucose (dextrose), with varying amounts of gallic acid, digallic or tannic acid, and possibly some trigallic acid. Chemicalljq glucose is an alcohol, and its compounds with

these acids are esters, or salts, as truly as ethyl acetate as the ester or salt of ethyl alcohol and acetic acid.

The sugar and the acids can be separated by the same

type of reaction that splits apart ethyl alcohol and

acetic acid from ethyl acetate. Their final conclusion was that in order to be suit- able for making ink of good color and permanence,

the tannin must contain three adjacent, free hydroxyl

groups. This condition is satisfied by tannic and gallic

acids, and these of all tlie substances studied were found to be the best for making ink. Thus a formula,

l^robably discovered by accident, and improved empirically during the centuries, is shown to be scientifi- cally correct. There are tAvo Federal specifications for blue-black

iron gallotannate ink. The first is TT-I-521, Ink,

Copying and Record. This is primarily a record ink

based on the Schluttig and Neumann formula. Almost identical ink must be used in Massachusetts and

Connecticut for all official records.

The second specification, TT-I-563, was originally

Avritten for the Post Office Department, for buying

ink to be used in the lobbies. It was hoped to gain some relief from the conditions that produced the

much maligned post office pen. The ink of this specification is about half as concentrated as the copying

and record ink.

There are Federal specifications for black waterproof drawing, indelible marking, red, and stamp-pad

inks, and a specification for colored waterproof drawing ink is in course of preparation. These inks are entirely different in composition from the blue-black

inks.

are purchased on specifications calling for standard

grades; and the contractor is required to furnish

either a United States Government or State department of agriculture certificate as to grade and Aveight

of contents of each car. Lumber is purchased on bids

calling for specified grades, and the contractor may be

required to furnish a Pacific Lumber Inspection Bureau certificate as to grade. Inspection in many in- stances is made by a qualified departmental inspector

at the time of shipment.

It is interesting to note that the total purchases

made by the Washington procurement diAUsion from

1925 to 1932, inclusive, amounted to $25,373,371.51, at

a monthly cost of $1,517.62; as compared with a monthly cost of $1,601.79, from 1923 to 1924, inclusive,

and despite the greater volume handled as a result

of bringing all departments and institutions under

centralized control. Whereas purchases made during

the biennium prior to 1925 amounted to $4,578,116.26,

the average per biennium for the past 8 years was

$6,343,342.87. Reduced to percentages, the cost of the

1923-24 biennium was 0.0084 percent, while the aver- age cost of operation for the past 8 years Avas 0.0057

percent. According to the figures given in the biennial report, as recorded above, the savings to the tax- payer amounted to approximately 14 percent.
APRIL 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 225

ACTIVITIES OF THE AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

Current developments of the following standardization projects under the auspices and procedures of the

American Standards Association have been reported

by that association

Safety glass.—The request of the National Bureau

of Casualty and Surety Underwriters that the American Standards Association initiate a project looking

to the development of specifications and methods of

test for safety glass, used chiefly for the prevention of

accidents in connection with the operation of motor

vehicles, and also of the type used in the manufacture

of industrial goggles for the protection of the eyes

of workmen, has been formally acted upon by the

standards council of the A.S.A., and the initiation of

the project has been approved. The sponsorship has

been assigned to the National Bureau of Casualt}^ and

Surety Underwriters and the Bureau of Standards.

These two organizations are now engaged in the development of a sectional committee and the collection of

materials and informaflion for the use of the committee.

Industnal inch-millimeter ratio.— value 25.4 has

been approved by the American Standards Association

as the American standard inch-millimeter conversion

ratio for industrial use. This ratio, with three con- version tallies based on it, and recommendations for

the rounding of converted values, are included in the

American standard B48. 1-1933. This standard, the

first one to be established by the general acceptance

method, has passed through all the phases of its development by unanimous decision. The general con- ference of industry held on October 21, 1932, under

the auspices of the A.S.A., made the recommendation

that the proiiosed standard be submitted to American

industry for acceptance. Accordingly, more than 100

organizations were canvassed by the A.S.A. office and

a large number of acceptances were received, no objection to the proposed standard being made.

Bolts and tmts.—A revision of the American tentative standard for wrench-head bolts and nuts and

wrench openings has been approved by the American

Standards Association as an American standard.

This revision differs from the 1927 edition mainly in

that tables for “ heavy ” bolt heads and nuts have

been added to the original smaller “ regular ” series. The addition of the heavy series was requested by the

manufacturers of valves and fittings and the users of

pipe lines in connection with the relatively large

clearance that must be left between the bolt shank and

the hole, in making flanged pipe connections. The

new standard contains eight tables covering the fol- lowing subjects:

Square and hexagon bolt heads (unfinished, semifinished, and finished), in the regular series (sizes one

fourth to 3 inches), and the heavy series (sizes one

half to 3 inches) ; square and hexagon nuts and jam

nuts (unfinished, semifinished, and finished), in the

regular series (sizes one fourth to 3 inches), and the

heavy series (sizes one half to 4 inches) ; light nuts (hexagon, semifinished), in sizes one fourth to II/2 inches; caj) screw heads (hexagon), sizes one fourth

to 114 iuclies; light castle nuts (hexagon), sizes om;

fourth to 11/2 inches; machine screw and stove-bolt nuts (square and hexagon) in numbered sizes (0 to

12), and one fourth, five sixteenths, and three eighths

108046—33 2

inch; set screw heads (square), sizes one fourth to II/2 inches; and open-end wrench openings for regular,

heavy, and light series of bolt heads and nuts. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers

and the Society of Automotive Engineers are sponsors for the project. The standard is being published

by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

Ball-hearing standards.—It will be of interest to the usei's of ball-bearing standards that the types so far approved by the American Standards Association

are expected to appear in three separate pamphlets,

as follows

American Standard for Radial Ball Bearings, Single Row Type and Separable (Open) Type.

American Recommended Practice for Annular Ball

Bearings, Wide Tjqie.

American Standard for Annular Ball Bearings,

Angular Contact Type.

An extension of the series of angular contact bearings is expected to be submitted to the A.S.A. for

approval shortly and, if approved, will be printed,

together with the series which has been already approved in the American standard B3.3—1933 (American Standard for Annular Ball Bearings, Angular

Contact Type).

Goal-mine tracks.—A revised standard, “Frogs,

Switches, and Turnouts for Coal-Mine Tracks ”, has

been approved as American recommended practice.

The revised document covers part of the scope for

the project on coal-mine tracks, signals, and switches

and presents a more comprehensive treatment than

the former standard, which was approved in 1927. Under the sponsorship of the American Mining Congress the sectional committee through an active subcommittee canvassed the indu-str}^ on several occa- sions and considered a number of drafts in order to develop satisfactoiy designs of these im})ortant ])arts

of coal-mine tracks.

Glassification of coal.—The annual meeting of the

sectional committee on classification of coal was held

in New York on February 22. The meeting consisted

of successive sessions of the three technical committees, on “ use classification ”, on “ scientific classifica- tion of coal ”, and on “ marketing practice ”, in which

the entire sectional committee participated.

Consideration of a recently proposed tentative

classification of coal indicated that the fixing of defi- nite boundary lines between different classes of coal

required intensive study. From discussion it became

evident that no further jirogress could be made in the classification of coal unless governmental agencies,

botli State and national, could be induced to make it their official duty to assign a part of their staff to the actual Avork of making the necessary study whereby exact boundary lines for classification of coal could

be set up. Accordingly, a ncAV subcommittee consisting of representatiA'es of goA’ornmental agencies in the

United States and Canada, Avas set up to giA^e atten- tion to this problem. It Avas also decided by the

sectional committee to organize a technical committee

on nomenclature, in view of the u.se of various names

ill classifying coal for commercial purjmses.

To facilitate early action in the formulation of ten- tative classification of coal (by type and rank) for
226 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL 1933

presentation at the fall meeting of the committee,

W. A. Selvig, of the Pittsburgh Experiment Station

of the United States Bureau of Mines, was appointed

secretary of the technical committee on scientific classification of coal. A key symbol for coal, which is being developed

by the technical committee on scientific classification,

and which will place a coal in its proper position

both as to scientific classification and as to its most

STANDARDIZATION OF CONSUMERS’ GOODS

“ Let the buyer beware ” has long been an accepted

principle of trading. It places at a distinct disadvantage small-scale, unspecialized consumer-bu3^ers. They are unfamiliar with the processes through which

goods passed in their manufacture and distribution.

Their only contact with the present complex marketing system is with the retailer, the final link in the

chain of distribution. Little attention has been given

to their difficulties and they have not been trained to recognize and meet their problems as buyers. The

unsatisfactory position of the consumer-buyer is dis- advantageous to the seller as well as to the buyer and

becomes a barrier to the effective distribution of goods.

Standardization is coming to be regarded as an important and effective means of aiding both consumer and producer and hence in promoting manufacture

and distribution of goods.

In her book Standardization of Consumers’ Goods

(The Ronald Press Co., New York, N.Y.) Dr. Jessie

V. Coles, associate professor of home economics,

University of Missouri, makes the observation that in

the field of consumers’ goods, standardization may be

described as the process of making available in com- monly understood terms such information concerning

characteristics of goods as will permit their identification and comparison in the market. Such identification and comparison make it possible for the con- sumer-buyer to secure the goods best suited to a particular use with a minimum expenditure of time, ef- fort, and money. The common use of standards which

aid the consumer-buyer has an important bearing on

the production and purchase of consumers’ goods. It

is of benefit to consumers and producers, to sellers as well as to buyers.

The application of standards to consumers’ goods is only one type of standardization and their use in this

field is of comparatively recent origin. As a result,

much confusion has arisen in regard to this phase of

standardization. The purpose of this book. Standardization of Consumers’ Goods, is to contribute to a more definite understanding of standardization as a device for describing consumers’ goods. This type of

standardization is differentiated from other uses of

standards, and the process necessary to bring it about

as a functioning device is designated. The problems

involved, the difficulties encountered, and benefits to be gained are indicated.

The discussion is presented in four parts. Part I points out the need for standardization as indicated

by the present unsatisfactory position of the con- sumer-buyer. Part II explains the nature of standards and standardization, while part III traces the

steps in the development, estahliahment, and effective use of standards and discusses the agencies for carrypractical factor in use—its B.t.u. value as purchased

was suggested by Dr. H. J. Rose, of the Mellon

Institute. It was decided to appoint a subcommittee of the

technical committee on scientific classification to cor- relate the requirements of coal for various uses with

the classes of coal outlined by the technical committee; in other words, to fit the uses of coal into the

scientific classification system.

ing out standardization. Part IV considers the pres- ent status of standardization in its application to specific consumers’ goods.

Concrete examples of the various types of standards

in different stages of progress are provided and atten- tion has been called to specific agencies interested in

promulgating standards.

NOISE MEASUREMENT STANDARDS

As one of the steps in the program of the American

Institute of Electrical Engineers to develop standards

for noise measurements. Dr. Harvey Fletcher, of the

Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., recentlj^ spoke before the institute’s session on sound measurement.

Dr. Fletcher described in detail the researches that

have been carried on during the last few years in

this field, explaining the many difficulties that have

been overcome, and the methods followed in arriving

at an understanding of the way the human ear registers sound. The most important problems have been

the determination of reference levels and audibility

ratios for measuring pure notes of different frequencies and means of expressing the total loudness of

complex sounds.

Research has shown that the threshold of hearing

of a 1,000-cycle tone for the average person occurs at a sound energy level of approximately watts per

square centimeter and that this level is of the same

order of magnitude as the limit of audibility established by the irregularities of sound due to thermal

motion of the air. Thermal agitation of the air acts in much the same way on sound as thermal effects in

resistors do on radio transmission, so that in each case there is a definite lower limit to transmission. Careful measurements have been made, determining this

threshold of hearing for all audible frequencies, and

curves expressing loudness in terms of an equivalent,

1,000-cycle frequency have been established. It has

also been found that the nerves of the human ear which transmit sound to the brain are arranged in a manner similar to that of the keyboard of a piano,

giving rise to a masking effect when notes of different

frequencies exist simultaneously. Two notes of equal

loudness and with frequencies close together give the

impression of a much lower intensity than two similar notes with frequencies widely separated. This effect cannot as yet be imitated by any noise meter. Dr. Fletcher, therefore, has developed a system of

analyzing a complex sound into its component fre- quencies, expressing these in terms of a reference note of 1,000 cycles, and combining them by means of

frequency masking factors into a single value repreI senting the total loudness.
APRIL 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 227

SELECTING THE REFRIGERATOR

Report of Standardization Committee of American Home Economics Association Intended to Aid

Housewife in Her Selection of an Adequate Refrigerator^

Before selecting a refrigerator one of the first questions to be decided is whether an ice refrigerator or a mechanical type, operated by electricity, gas, or kerosene will be most satisfactory. This must be

determined in the light of

1. The amount to be spent for the refrigerator.

2. The extent to which it will be used.

3. The temperature conditions under which it will

be used.

4. The availability of ice, electricity, gas, kerosene,

and water. Gas and some kerosene refrigerators call for a supply of flowing water when in operation, hence

information should be obtained as to the maximum

amount and the temperature of water required and as

to whether adequate drainage facilities are available.

In choosing any refrigerator, most carefid consid-’

eration should be given to

1. The temperature it will maintain.

2. The cost of operation.

3. The durability or probable length of satisfactory

service.

4. A suitable size.

5. Adequate insulation. This is of first importance

in the case of an ice refrigerator and affects economy

of operation in a mechanical one,

6. In a mechanical refrigerator, further significant

facts are: (a) The econom}'^ and quietness of operation; (&) the assurance of prompt, adequate, and inexpensive servicing. This will depend upon the standing and reliability of both the manufacturer and local distributor.

Whichever type is chosen, before selecting the re- frigerator to be purchased, answers should be obtained, if possible, to each of the following questions

Will it maintain a satisfactory temperature? The

function of a refrigerator is to keep perishable foods

at a temperature low enough to prevent or retard the

growth of the bacteria which cause spoilage. To do

this adequately, the refrigerator must maintain over

the 24-hour period an average temperature of not more than 45° F. in the milk compartment, and an

average of not more than 50° F. in the food compartment. Both ice and mechanical refrigerators ma}''

be purchased which will maintain these desired

temperatures.

Careful consideration should always be given to the

insulation. This is of added importance when the

refrigerator is to be kept in a warm room or is to be

used in a locality where the humidity is high and

combined with summer temperatures which average more than 80° F. with occasional periods of contin- uous 90° F. or higher. Under these conditions an ice refrigerator requires at least 2 inches of a good insulator well-installed in a cabinet designed so that the aiz' circulates readily to maintain the desired inside

temperature. Similar construction is essential for

inexpensive operation in a mechanical refrigerator.

^ Consumer purchasing leaflet no. 3, entitled “ When You Buy a

Refrigerator ”, prepared by the committee on standardization of con- sumers’ goods, American Home Economics Association, C20 Mills Building, Washington, D.C. Copies are obtainable direct at prices approximately equivalent to postage.

American standard tests are being developed for

household refrigerators. Within a short time, if con- sumers ask for it, retailers should be able to obtain

information from manufacturers as to the temperatures a refrigerator will maintain under standard test conditions. This information should be given on the

name plate of the refrigerator.

Will it be durable and economical to operate ? This

depends upon a number of factors, the most important

being—

1. Adequate insulation. If moisture accumulates on the outside of the cabinet, this is evidence of

inadequate insulation.

2. Closely fitting doors with catches which hold

them tightly closed.

3. In an ice refrigerator, an ice compartment

adapted to the size of ice cake required to cool the

cabinet. (An ice compartment which holds 75 pounds

of ice will be adequate in a well-constructed and wellinsulated refrigerator which provides 5 cubic feet of

food storage space. A compartment to hold 100

pounds of ice will be required by a less efficient one.)

In an electric, gas, or kerosene refrigerator, a cooling

unit of the proper size for the cabinet. (Usually this

needs consideration only when a unit is being installed

in a refrigerator originally built to use ice.)

4. Durable construction which is chiefly dependent

on

(a) A strong, rigid frame.

(b) Insulating material which caimot warp, slip, or settle. (c) Adequate protection of insulating material

from moisture.

(d) An inside lining which will prevent the penetration of odors and moisture.

(e) Strong hardware, which does not rust or tarnish

easily.

In warm, humid climates, refrigerators with enameled or lacquered metal exterior surfaces should be

accompanied by a durability guaranty against rusting

of the metal sheet. A fused enamel lining should be

selected if it can be afforded. Many refrigerators are now lined with such floors and baked enameled walls

and ceiling, which is relatively satisfactory, as most

of the wear comes on the floor. If refrigerator space

must be obtained at the least possible cost, the ice chest holding 25 iiounds of ice should be chosen. This

chest should have a lid which is lifted up when food

or ice is placed in it. When more storage space is needed at low cost, a larger chest of the same type

which holds 50 pounds of ice is practicable. The con- sumer should learn, if possible, the amount of ice, electricity, gas and water, or kerosene and water re- quired to maintain the desired temperature in a re- frigerator for a 24-hour period. The operating

expense, exclusive of servicing and repair, may then

be readil}'^ estimated.

Although the first cost of a well-made refrigerator

may be much higher than that of a poor one, it will

in time more than make up the difference in the original price through its longer serviceability and its sav-
228 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY" APRIL 1933

ing of ice, electricity, gas, or kerosene. A refrigerator

Avliich does not maintain reasonably low temperatures

is both expensive and dangerous to health because of

the spoilage of food.

Is it the right size? The size of a cabinet required

varies with the number in the family, the kinds and

quantities of foods used, and the methods of purchasing. A family of 5 with convenient markets ordinarily needs about 6 cubic feet of refrigerated space

for food storage ; more is desirable, and less ivill serve

if there is supplementary cool storage for less jierishable products. Where funds are limited, preference

should be given to a smaller refrigerator or chest

which Avill maintain the low temperature necessary to preserve milk and meat, rather than to a larger and

less efficient cabinet. If space for the refrigerator is limited, the purchaser should be sure there is room for

the one selected before the purchase is finally made.

Is it convenient!}^ constructed ? Ordinarily the cabinet should rest on a sanitary base, and this should be not less than 8 inches high so that the lowest shelf will

be easy to reach. The shelves should be spaced so that

the desired containers can be stored in them without

undue waste of room. The space for milk should be

in the coldest part of the cabinet and not less than 9%

inches high.

COLOR FOR SCHOOL FURNITURE

The majority of producers of school furniture who

have accepted simplified practice recommendation

Rlll-30 have expressed their intention to extend their

present methods of identifying the simplified lines by

including statements in catalogs and other trade

literature.

This recommendation, ivliich Avas formulated and

approved by the industry, applies to school seating

(pupils’ desks), teachers’ desks, movable desks, recitation seats, chairs, tablet armchairs, tables, typewriter

tables, library furniture, filing cabinets, bookcases,

kindergarten tables and chairs, and laboratory furniture. The color for stock varieties of school furniture

is known as school furniture broAvn. The industry has

fixed light and dark limits of shades Avithin this color. While any shade Avithin these limits will be considered

as conforming with the requirements, for school furni- ture brown, it is understood that every effort Avill be

made to conform as nearly as possible to the selected median shade.

The National School Supply Association has issued

a pamphlet entitled “ Harmony in Color Finish of

School Equipment ”, which describes this recommendation. Some manufacturers are supplying color

panels to their customers. Others are using labels to identify the conformance of their products to the

recommended color. A number of national associations representing

users of simplified commodities have for some time

strongly urged the identification of products by manufacturers who have accepted the various simplified

practice recommendations. The general adoption of

the identification plan should assist the school furni- ture industry in maintaining closer adherence to the

waste-elimination program. Cooperation by distributors, buyers, and others will greatly increase the

benefits and economies possihle” through simplified

Will it be easy to care for? The exterior and in- terior finish should not absorb moisture, should be

smooth and easy to clean and keep clean; the lining

should have rounded corners; all sheHes should be

easy to remoA^e and replace ; and the space underneath

the refrigerator should be easily accessible for

cleaning.

Name flates recommended for refrigerators. —^A name plate attached to the refrigerator provides the

best method of conveying accurate information from

manufacturer to purchaser. A movement is under

Avay to give consumers such information. It is rec- ommended that purchasers ask for a name plate which

gives these data

1. Name of the manufacturer.

2. Usable storage space (stated in cubic feet).

3. Ice capacity stated in pounds (if ice refrigerator) . 4. AA’erage temperature maintained under American Standard test conditions in the milk compartment

and in the food compartment.

5. Amount of ice, -electricity, gas, or kerosene re- quired to maintain the temperature under American

Standard test conditions over a 24-hour period.

6. Statement that the refrigerator meets American

Standard tests for durability.

practice. When the simplified lines are so identified

in trade literature their selection can be made without difficulty and much Avaste now incurred in checking files and auxiliary records for these data is eliminated.

Manufacturers of other of the 140 commodities for

Avhich simplified practice recommendations have been

developed have recently commenced identifying in

their catalogs those products which conform to the

simplified line. The identification plan, as applying to simplified

practice recommendations, is described and illus- trated in a mimeographed report, copies of which

may be had on request to the Division of Simplified

Practice, Bureau of Standards.

SIEVE SIZES OF CANNED PEAS

A summary report of the general conference on the

simplification of sieA^e (screen) sizes of canned peas

has been mailed by the diAusion of simplified practice

of the Bureau of Standards, to all interests in the in- dustry for their consideration and written approval.

This recommendation, which was proposed and formulated by the industry, lists the screen opening sizes to be used in separating peas into three size groups,

designated, respectively, as small, medium, and large.

The neAv “ small ” size combines the old size nos. 1 and

2 in both the Alaska type and sweet varieties of peas. The “ medium ” size replaces the old size no. 3 of

the Alaska type, and the combined size nos. 3 and 4

of the sweet varieties. The combined old size nos. 4

and 5 of the Alaska type, and 5 and 6 of the SAveet varieties are designated as

“ large ” in the new

schedule.

The recommendation, subject to the written approval by the industry, is to be effective as of May 1, 1933.
APRIL 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 229

STANDARDIZATION ACTIVITIES OF S.A.E.

Standards Committee of S.A.E. Formulate Plans for 1933

Scores of neiv stanclardization projects, practical

and vital to progress in every phase of motor-vehicle

design and ojieration, are being undertaken by various

divisions of the standards committee of the Societj'^ of

Automotive Engineers. New objectives have been

outlined also for development of other standards activities which already have been in process for many

months, Avhile final action on a number of important

items is scheduled for 1933.

Most of the 19 divisions of the standards committee are concerned more or less with parts standardization. In the aircraft division a study has been started

of the relation betAveen the tolerances of the bolt di- ameter and the hole diameter. Dimensional standardization for aircraft bushings, cables, electrical

equipment, brakes, tires, rims, and Avheels is also

scheduled, largely in conjunction with the Army-NaA^3^ Standards Conferences. The aircraft engine projects

include spark plugs, fuel pump mountings, and the

standardization of both . splined and taper types of

propeller hubs and shaft ends, the latter being con- templated revisions of present standards.

The work of other divisions includes such dimensional projects as square keys, a narrow, light series of

ball bearings and inclosed thrust ball bearings

flanged fittings, fuel nozzle connections, poppet vaDes

and fuel line tubing for Diesel engines ; a revision of

the standard ignition distributor mountings and a neAv standard for 14 mm spark plugs for gasoline

engines.

Fan-belt manufacturers have a committee studying

standardization of fan belts and pulleys whose report

is to be submitted to the gasoline engine division. The

industiy has been surveyed as the basis for standardization of replaceable valve seat rings and the mountings and connections of transmission gear boxes to the clutch housing.

In the motor boat field, the most recent development

is a critical review of the shaft and propeller Avheel mounting standards b}'^ the manufacturers, to bring

these standards into line Avith present practice for

both gasoline and Diesel power plants.

Another important project is the modernizing of

the S.A.E siiline fitting standard, the probable inclusion of the side bearing type and the possible coordination of the entire standard in a national program

for all mechanical industries. Possibl}^ three of the

most important projects noAV being completed which

afi'ect the automotive industrA' are the I’efinement of

the standards for screw threads and the adoption on

a national basis of a definite standard for Avrench head

bolts and nuts. In international standardization, the principal

projects in progress relate to antifriction bearings

and tires and rims. Other projects in progress for

dimensional standardization include machine pins and

plain and lock Avashers. These are handled by sec- tional committees for which the society is a sponsor

under American Standards Association procedure.

In the nonferrous metals field, the society has just

adopted the revised specifications for aluminum alloys

and for brass and bronze alloys, together Avith neAV

specifications for aluminum and zinc base die castingmetals. Work is in progress on specifications for

magnesium alloys and nickel bronzes and on general

introductory notes and information bearing on the

several nonferrous metal specifications. In the field of ferrous metals, the iron and steel diAUsion is sur- veying the use of chrome-nickel molybdenum and 3^/2 percent nickel-molybdenum steels and will consider

specifications for cast irons and possibly special steels for aircraft use. The results of some Avork on the

so-called “ probablity method ” of indicating physical

properties of steels have been published in the society’s

handbook. This method is likely to be further developed by the diAusion, as conditions j)ermit, to re- place the present physical propert}' charts for these

steels in the handbook.

Committees are being organized for, or are now en- gaged in, the study of improved standards for

brake linings and felts. The principal activity in the

petroleum field is toward establishing definite classifi- cations for greases and lubricants for motor-A^ehicle

chassis.

The standard engine-testing forms are being studied

Avith a vieAv to including more accurate barometric and

temperature correction formulas for use in testing

airplane engines. Important deA'elopments are beingmade in improved laboratory testing specifications for

automobile head lamps to spersede those in use for

several years. In this connection, plans are in progress for cleA’eloping suitable means on a national

scale to bring about greater safety in night driving

as affected by headlighting and to encourage better

maintenance of automobile headlighting equipment in

the hands of vehicle operators. Another important

project in the A^ehicle operating field is development

of cost record forms for motor-vehicle fleet operation,

the intention being to incorporate these in the present,

Avidely used S.A.E. Eecommended Practice for uniform motor-vehicle operating- cost classification. In the motor-boat field, consideration probably will

be given to endorsement of a code for fuel installation

and safet}^ systems that has been drafted by the

motor-boat industry.

A telegraphic code for iron and steel specifications

and a code for color marking of standard steel bars

are scheduled for earlj'^ consideration. Some study

has already been given to a code for the design and

testing- of shock absorbers. The society is also co- operating- in the preparation of standard codes for

automobile brakes and brake testing, drafting-room

practice, foundry equipment and supplies, and acoustical measurements and terms by means of sectional

committees functioning under American Standards

Association jirocedure.

Special committees of the society are preparing to issue i-ecommendations, one Avith regard to dimensional and Aveight limitations for motor trucks in connection Avitli their regulation by States, and the others on rating motor trucks by a standard method to be

tried out by the truck manufacturers.

The society’s activities in the field of manufacturing

practices are at present mostl}’ directed to projects for
230 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL 1933

the standardization of tools, machine-tool elements,

fixtures, and similar types of maiutfacturing equipment. This work is being carried forward by a sec- tional committee under the procedure of the American Standards Association on a national basis. A new

project on a similar basis is that for definition and

classification of surface finishes on different materials

obtained by different methods of work, such as surface

removal, plastic operations, coating, and plating.

An important project, plans for which are now

being formulated, looks toward standardization of

gasoline tanks and tank trucks in cooperation with

the American Petroleum Institute, with regard to both

the present type of motor trucks and new types that

may be developed as the result of new motor-vehicle

regulations enacted by the several States. Definite progress in standardization is hoped for

this year as regards interchangeability between different makes of tractor semitrailer couplings. A sur- vey is to be made of the use of the society’s present

chassis record form, which is a service record for fleet operators, and a definition of what constitutes a standard-truck chassis will probably be adopted soon. Last fall the society entered into a new field of

standardization activity by a cooperative program

with the Radio Manufacturers Association for the

standardization of radio equipment for automotive

installation. This work is progressing rapidly, and

definite recommendations will probably be approved

before long.

The only work in progress in nomenclature is for

Diesel engines, for which it was felt there is a distinct

need for the establishment of definite descriptive terms. The present automobile nomenclature is re- vised from time to time where it relates to groups of

terms, such as electrical equipment, and it is possible

that a general review of the entire standard may be

made this year to bring it up to date and to include

terms for new developments, such as 4-wheel brakes,

free-wheeling devices, superchargers, and so on. A recommended practice which is nearing completion in the lighting division covers the location of the

various types of lamps used in automobile construction, the voltage and candlepower of incandescent

lamps used in each location, and general notes relative

to the installations. In sectional committees on which

the society is rejiresented work is also in progress on

definitions of technical terms, electric welding, machine tool safety code, geometric series of preferred

numbers, such as those for use in determining the progression of sizes, scientific and engineering symbols

and abbreviations, and the use, care, and protection of

abrasive wheels.

For a number of years S.A.E. specifications have

been designated as S.A.E. standard or S.A.E. recom- mended practice. The standardization policy committee is considering the simplification of the method

of designating specifications in view of the real intent

of some of the standards as distinguished from that

indicated by the status designation.

COLOR OF MANILA ROPE

A good rope must be not only good when new, but

must also be reasonably durable in service. There is no known test method for estimating this durability,

although the Navy is now attempting to develop one. To protect itself, therefore, the United States Government requires that the rojie which it buys shall be

made of certain specified grades of manila fiber, on

the basis of the trade’s experience that the higher

grades of fiber produce ropes of greater durability.

Manila fiber is graded in the Philippines by visual

inspection and passes through many hands before the

finished rope reaches the ultimate consumer. It would

obviously be worth while to develop a test method

which could be used to grade the fiber in a sample of

rope, and which would be sufficiently mechanical to be

used by persons other than the expert Philippine

graders.

Since the interests of the Government and of the

industry run parallel in this matter, the Bureau of

Standards accepted a research associate from the

Cordage Institute, to develop such a test method. As

a result of this work, which has been in progTess for

about a year, a quantitative method for the evaluation of the color of rope fiber has been established.

Equipment for use in applying this method has be- come available commercially and several rope manufacturers are using it. During the month of January

1933, the Federal specification for manila rope was

revised by the cordage committee of the Federal Specifications Board, to provide for the use of the new

method, and the revised specification has been submitted to the Federal Specifications Board for promulgation.

NEW LIST OF STANDARD SAMPLES

A new list of standard samples for use in chemical

analyses has just been published by the Bureau of

Standards as a supplement to Circular No. 398. This

replaces the former list knoAvn as “ Supplement to Circular No. 25.”

The samples are listed by groups, such as irons and

steels, ferro-alloys, sheet brass, bronzes, bearing

metals, die-casting alloys, limestone, clays, glass sand,

various kinds of glasses and ores; sugar, naphthalene

and benzoic acid for determining heats of combustion ; cement for testing the fineness of sieves ; and pure

chemicals, such as sodium oxalate, arsenic trioxide,

and acid potassium phthalate.

Directions are given for ordering, and the methods

of shipment to addresses in the United States and

foreign countries are described. Copies of this pamphlet are obtainable Avithout charge from the Bureau

of Standards.

CORRUGATED AND SOLID FIBER BOXES

Simplified practice recommendation R146-33, cover- ing corrugated and solid fiber boxes for canned fruits

and vegetables, having been accorded the required degree of acceptance by the industry, is to be considered

effectAe as of January 1, 1933.

This recommendation, which Avas formulated and

developed by the industry, provides a simplified list of 41 different sizes of corrugated and solid fiber

l^oxes. The sizes of these shipping boxes are based on standard units of pack for the 27 simplified sizes of fruit and vegetable cans as approved by a general

conference of the industry on January 20, 1931.
APRIL 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 231

AIDS TO THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

Research in Natural and Manufactured Structural Materials Conducted by Bureau of Standards

By Henry D. Hubbard, Bureau of Standards

Cement enters into the making of practically everj'^

modern structure. The astonishing amount now being used stirs the imagination—approximately 5,000,-

000 barrels, for example, will be required in construct- ing the Hoover Dam alone. In close cooperation with

the technicians of the cement industrj'^ the Bureau

of Standards has been conducting an extensive program of research on fundamental problems concern- ing cements and concrete. The constitution of ce- ments, their properties, and uses; the processing and

especially the measured control of the conditions of

manufacture are being studied. An experimental mill

for the production of ce- ment under precise laboratory control, a 10,000,000-

pound capacity compression machine capable of

testing concrete specimens

weighing more than 3 tons form important q)arts

of the equipment used in

these studies.

Studies of steam curing

to enhancethe useful properties of Portland cement

concrete showed generally an increase in strength with

increase in steam pressure as well as decrease in subsequent shrinkage. In the studies of the causes of craz- ing of concretes, specimens exposed on the roof were found to be nearly all crazed but specimens could be

made that would not craze in the laboratory. Studies

of the effect of sea water on cement and concrete showed that a properly made Portland cement concrete when totally immersed in sea Avater Avill apparently

not decompose. The published report of this study

gives conclusions of A’alue to structural engineers.

In the study of the resistance of concrete aggregates

to disintegration, materials were ranged in their order

of resistance to disintegration when subjected to

cycles of boiling and drying, freezing and thawing,

and to sodium-sulphate and sodium-chloride treat- ments. A study of some 40 commercial brands of

masonry cements is now being made. Some of these

cements showed no signs of failure after 50 cycles of

freezing and thawing, whereas others failed after a few cycles.

A series of concrete beams was studied as to behavior under load, according to arrangement and per- centage of reinforcement. Shear tests of reinforced- concretc beams deA'eloped data of A'^alue in fixing

standards of design in general practice fort reinforcing concrete. Stresses in the shearing reinforcement

Avere found to be independent of the strength of the

concrete and to depend upon the amount and arrangement of the reinforcement. An im-estigative test of

42 beams made up of holloAv tde and conc;'ete slabs

showed that hollow tile increases resistance to bending and shearing stresses. The increasing use of cast stone led to the demand

for direct knoAA’ledge of its properties. The bureau’s

investigation of the cast stone brought out interesting

properties of the material. One specimen showed a compressive strength of 21,000 pounds per square

inch. The freezing tests show results from complete

destruction in 25 cycles to first signs of failure in

1,450 cycles.

A special committee, of Avhich tAvo Avere bureau specialists, selected 14 proposed standard cast-stone samples for matching color and texture. Present plans

call for the supplying of a standard sample to the contractor and the second to the building inspector,

for comparison with delivered materials. The group

believe that standards of

color and texture will facilitate procurement of

the desired material and

clarify misunderstandings that have often oc- curred between the architect and the manufacturer

of the cast stone. In a bureau research on damp proofing and waterproofing compounds and

void-filling materials rec- ommended or adA'ertised as damp proofing, 50 integral

and 50 surface Avaterproofings were tested. The test results, with conclusions invaluable to the engineer

haA^e been published.

The foregoing is but a brief outline of some of the more important iiiA-estigations undertaken by the bu- reau in the field of cement and concrete. The bureau

furnishes a pragmatic service in the ins])ection and

testing of Portland cement for use by the Government.

Some 3,000,000 barrels were tested during the past

fiscal year in the Washington Laboratory and in the

bureau’s branch laboratories in Pennsylvania, Colorado, and California.

Important as lime is as a structural material, Avhen

the Bureau of Standards first began its researches on

lime, scientific methods were not in practice in the

lime industry. In a sui'A^ey of the industr}", 19 plants were Ausited and inspected. At 6 plants, kiln tests and heat balances were Avorked out. The introduction of heat-measuring devices and scientific methods

in standardizing the process of lime making Avas credited to the cooperation of the bureau specialists

by formal vote of the industry. The surA^ey is described in detail in “Manufacture of Lime” (C337),

AAdiich contains an account of modern methods of lime

making and a technical description of the plants.

This publication played its part in the scientific re- organization and modernization of the industry from

its rule-of-thumb methods then current. Another Bureau’s publication (C30) describes briefly the manufacture and properties of lime and a score of its practical u.ses. Recent Avork on lime includes a study of particle

size distribution in hydrated lime, correlation of autoclaA'e test residts witb results of tests of lime in plasThis is the fourth of a series of articles by

Mr. Hubbard, Assistant to the Acting Director

of the Bureau of Standards, outlining the work

of the Bureau as it concerns the construction

industry. These articles will cover research,

testing, simplified practice recommendations,

commercial standards, and the certification and

labeling plan.
232 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL 1933

terecl panels, a study of the pi’operties of commercial

sand-lime brick, investigation of hydraulic lime, and

collaboration on the revision of specifications for

quicklime and hydrated lime for structural purposes.

A plasticimeter was devised for measuring the rela- tive working properties of plaster finishes when applied to an absorbent base. This apparatus is now

widely used in making specification tests and by the

industry in judging the plasticity of finishing limes.

Commercial limestones available for building construction in the United States were investigated in

the Bureau of Standards laboratories, and the results were published (T349) under the title “ Physical

Properties of the Principal Commercial Limestones

Used for Building Construction in the United States The survey covered 130 samples from 7 States and 42

quarries. Measurements were made of strength in

compression, tension, flexure, and shear ; the elasticity,

absorption, specific gravity, porosity, permeability,

thermal expansion, discoloration, weathering, and ef- florescence. Thirteen practical conclusions were drawn from the laboratory results in addition to a large amount of tabulated technical data on the limestones. The September 1932 issue of the Bureau of Standards Journal of Kesearch gave the results of its slate investigations, under the title “ Study of the Physical

Properties and Weathering Characteristics of Slate.”

This jiaper will be printed separately for sale to the

general public and industry. Tests were made on 343

samiiles of slate. It gives the physical properties and

weathering characteristics of slate from the various

regional sources along the Atlantic seaboard where

quarries are now in active operation. Slate is used

primarily as a roofing material. However, it has a number of other applications in the industries, as, for

example, laboratory sinks, laundry tubs, electrical

switchboards, etc. If care is used in selecting this

material it provides a very durable roof. By combing slates of various colors pleasing decorative effects may be obtained. Twelve definite conclusions are of

interest to the producer and the user, and photomicrographs, charts, and tables give man}’’ usefid details of

interest to the construction technologist.

Structural materials are exposed to unfavorable conditions—Aveather, wear, stress, vibration, rain, and the

like. The “ saA^e the surface and saA^e all ” philosophy

holds with special force for materials of construction.

The Bureau of Standards has conducted many lines of

research on protective coatings, such as the investigation of accelerated corrosion, absorbing and insulating

value of paints, and electroplated metal coatings. The

effective life of these coatings is measured in artificial weather cycles produced in the laboratory to simulate

natural weathering.

UltraAuolet of sunlight is duplicated by arc light;

water spray serves as rainfall, and freezing plays its part in the experimental Aveather exposure of protectiA^e coatings. The disintegrating effects of these

treatments are measured, liy experts, for example in

the case of paint films by the permeability to water

vapor, and air, the electrical conductivity, and the

presence of pinholes. Tlie results agree remarkably

well with natural weathering. Weathering tests on

asplialts similar to those on paints show that the accelerated cycle produces effects similar to actual

weather. SerAuce is the ultimate test of structural

materials, but accelerated tests enable one to duplicate

the weathering effects of a lifetime in a period suitable

for test. Studies in soil corrosivity and the performance of

protectiA^e coatings have been made by the Bureau.

Underground metal structures are subject to corrosion

or electrolysis. The metallurgical diAusion of the

Bureau suggested an aluminum coating for duralumin

and this has proA^en effective in commercial practice

AAdiei’e it is noAv established.

Advice to the Government on construction enter- prises has spelled economies. An ultraviolet absorbing varnish was suggested for hangars as a substitute

for expensive colored glass installations. Experiments

showed that painting Army tents white on the outside

and with aluminum paint on the inside was effective

in reducing by 80 percent the heat entering them. The

Bureau’s radiation sjiecialist also found that metallic

paints for radiators required more radiating surface

Avhile earth paints gaA'e better radiation. This also

suggested the use of aluminum paint for steam piping

where radiation avouIcI be Avasteful of heat energy.

The use of aluminum paint on the inner surface of

attic roofs reduced the reradiation of the heat energy

coming through the roof and thus tended to make

more habitable attics Avhich before had been too hot. The saving of heat losses by the same means in industrial plants was also possible Avherever heat radiation

carried Avith it Avasted energy.

In an important service to science and industry the

Bureau helps to standardize methods of chemical

analysis and to check the accuracy of the results by means of selected and typical analyzed and certified materials. They also serve to study the accuracy of

the analysts and of the analyses they make. These

“ standard samples ” form an important item in the

technical control of the manufacture of construction

and other materials. The work began in 1905 Avhen

the American Foundrymen’s Association turned over

to the Bureau of Standards its standardized pig-iron

samples and their distribution, urging that the Bureau

conduct it for the industry as a standardization enterprise. Nearly 100 standard samples are now handled

by the Bureau. Through their use an analyst can ac- curately check his methods by means of these samples

of known and certified composition. These include

steels, irons, ferro-alloys, brasses, bronzes, bearing

metals, light aluminum alloys, ceramic materials, such

as limestones, cla5^s, feldspars, refractories, and

glasses.

The utility of this service is illustrated by citing a fcAv of their uses; for example, checking the accuracy

of methods of analj^sis; settling and avoiding disputes

arising from faulty analytical methods in standardizing calorimeters to measure fuel value, and polarimeters for sugar tests ; standardizing pyrometers for use

in annealing steels, alloy steels, and other metal products ; checking the sieving A^alues of sieA^es used in the

cement industry, the study of improA^ed and more

rapid methods of analysis, and in research work in

educational institutions. The number of certified standard samples distributed during the year was

5,215.
APRIL 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 233

EFFECTS OF STANDARDIZATION ON PRODUCTION AND MARKETING

Outlines of Certain Phases of Industrial Economy as Affected by the Standardization Movement

By Paul L. Dzldine*

The term “ standardized goods ” suggests to the layman’s mind commodities which are manufactured in

fair-sized quantities according to rather rigidly fixed

procedures. The term precludes that there should be

few variations from these fixed procedures. There

is the idea of “ sameness ” about the product. The

manufacturing procedures lend themselves to a high

degree of mechanization. The employment of labor

is largely confined to “ machine tending.” The work

performed by human hands is very simple and re- quires very little training or skill. This description fits most aptly the ultimate in

standardized production. There are comparatively

few commodities which will fall completely within

this classification, because there are varying degrees

to which commodities are standardized. Many manufacturers of automobiles regard their line of products as being standardized, although the factory in

which they are produced may turn out as high as a dozen or more models. Many manufacturers have

only within recent years started to reduce their line

of products to fixed types, sizes, and characteristics.

They have considerable simplification yet to accomplish before their products can be considered completely standardized. Indeed, their purposes may be

accomplished without further efforts in this connection. In the final analysis, standardization is not an end in itself but only a means to an end. Its purpose

primarily is to supplv human wants at a lower cost. It is not unusual in any movement, such as the

standardization movement, that various other phases

of industrial economy are affected. It is for the purpose of considering some aspects of the standardization movement that this article has been prepared.

The following are considered: (1) The market demand for the product, (2) the seasonality of production, (3) the development of machines, (4) the adoption of changes in production, and (5) the competition in the field. The marhet demand for the product.—^IVIarket demand is governed by many factors. A very important factor is that of price. Insofar as the demand

for a commodity is elastic, price exerts a verv material influence on the volume of market demand. In- sofar as the demand for a commodit}'^ is inelastic, the

matter of price is of lesser importance. The prices of

manufactured commodities fluctuate closely over a period of time with the cost trends of these same

commodities.

Standardization reduces the costs of production. It should, therefore, follow that the market demand for

standardized products should increase within the

limits of the elementary economic principles noted

above. Standardization undoubtedly does contribute

to increased market demand. The contribution is handicapped by reason of the fact that many of the

everyday commodities of commerce are intricately connected, so as to offset the selling power of low prices.

The elastic demand for commodities is limited. The

demand for automobile tires is so definitely interlinked

with the manufacture of automobiles that it is doubtful Avhether or not the standardization of tire sizes and types contributes materially to the market demand for the product. Indeed, the market demand is increased only insofar as the low cost of tires contributes to the low cost of jiurchasing and operating an automobile. Market demand is definitely inter- woven with the entire economic fabric. Standardization is only one of many factors.

The contribution of standardization to increased

market demand is measured b}' the extent to which

low prices effected through standardization enable

ultimate consumers to increase their purchases of

luxuries and improve their standards of living.

Seasonality of production.—The greatest benefits of

standardization are enjoyed when production of commodities is carried on at a uniform rate throughout

the seasons of the year. The conditions surrounding

production remain fixed. Changes in rates of production are costly. Hiring and training new employees

are costly. The standardization of products does per- mit of more uniform jiroduction. The manufacturer comes nearer knowing what future demands will be

and can plan inventory production during dull

periods. The experienced manufacturer is not, however, unaware of the hidden dangers accruing from the

pursuit too far of such policies. The lesson of building up unduly large inventories of slow moving stocks

has been well learned. Pretty definite knowledge of

future demands must be available in order that the

peaks and valleys of production may be smoothed out. This knowledge is usually more accessible in the case of standardized products than unstandardized products, although the limitations expedient in long time

planning must be respected.

The development of machines.—The highly mechanized equipment now in industry is justified largely by

the reduced costs of production effected through its uses. The mass production Avhich accompanies standardization of product shortens the time period in

which the reduced costs will justifj^ the capital in- vestment. This is assuming, of course, that mass production will accompany the standardization process. Standardization renders it very worth while to develop cost-saving equipment.

Foresight is here again necessary lest the capital

investment in machinery become obsolete and worthless before the monetary benefits equal the cost of the

machine. The constantly changing consumer demands, competitors’ activities in developing new products, and other factors cast a speculative flavor around

any new machine development. Standardization of

product lessens this risk but does not entirel}" elimi- nate it. The adoption of changes in production.—The out- standing features of economic life during the past dec1 Manager, factory standards, The ade have been change.s—rapidly accelerating changes. B. F. Goodrich Co., Akron, Ohio.
234 commercial standards monthly APRIL 1933

There is no counteracting economic force sufficiently

strong to resist change. The standardization of goods, once accomplished, is opposed to change. When

viewed from a close-up period of time, many changes

are uneconomical. Thus viewed, changes in the production of standardized goods are particularly wasteful. (The change in the Ford Model “ T ” to Model

“A” is a notable example.) Workers are thrown out

of work. All business is disrupted. Seasonal rather

than long-range planning of production is encouraged.

This is emphasized more strongly in the production of

standardized goods than nonstandardized goods. In

the latter case the transition from one line or type of

production to another is made so gradually that no

serious upheaval occurs. In the case of standardized

products a lapse of time occurs until production of the new line of products gets under way.

Nevertheless, consumer demand must constantly be

stimulated and satisfied. Industrial progress re- quired evolution of this sort. During the period of

transition the industrial community suffers maladjustment. Over a period of time the industrial com- munity and consuming public benefits through the use of a superior product. This results in continued or increased demand. The transitional hardships repre- sent the pains of progress which are soon forgotten

long after the benefits continue to be enjoyed. This

describes briefly the effect of standardized goods upon

the adoption of changes.

The competition in the -field. —The mass production

of standardized goods has completely changed many

of the aspects of competition and market distribution. It is possible in this brief space only to sketch

briefly the results. Competition becomes very keen.

It becomes a comparatively easy matter for prospective customers to compare values on a dollar basis of

competing brands of standardized goods. It becomes

difficult for the seller to establish the superiority of

his merchandise as compared with that of his competitor. The selling problem is complicated. Sell- ing prices are established so as to furnish the seller a very close margin of profit. Both factory and dis- tribution costs become doubly important. This may

reflect back on the wages paid to workers in some

instances, depending upon the importance of the labor

cost factor. Wages paid in different communities

tend to be equalized for the manufacture of the same

products.

In order to render the selling job easier, national

advertising is utilized. Attempts are made through

the media of widely read magazines, billboards, radio

broadcasting, and other means to educate the public

regarding the particularly fitting qualifications of one brand of products compared with all others.

The outstanding results in this connection, as in

many other connections, has been to furnish the con- suming public better products at lower prices. The

standards of living have been raised without a materially increased dollar cost. There are times that the

development and production of standardized goods

engender hardship upon certain portions of the working population for limited periods of time. Noteworthy attempts are being made and will no doubt

continue to be made to overcome these hardships. It

is the hope of all public-minded industrial statesmen

that a happy solution may be found. But the experi- ence of the past indicates that whatever solution is found must be in harmony with industrial progress.

The solution must contribute to the lasting happiness

of the population in order to be enduring.

SHINGLE MANUFACTURERS REPORT ON

ADHERENCE

A report of adherence to the Commercial Standard

for Red Cedar Shingles, CS31-31, indicates that the

commercial standard specifications have been followed

very closely by manufacturers of that commodity.

Of the 69 manufacturers responding to the questionnaire, 60 reported that they were manufacturing

and labeling all of their first-grade shingles according

to the standard and the general unweighted average

for the industry was 97.5 percent of individual production for the first 9 months of the year 1932. Most

of the companies resorted to advertising commercial

standard quality shingles through pamphlets and

other sales literature and have instructed their sales- men to advocate the use of the commercial standard

grade when possible. Thirteen companies used magazine and newspaper advertising to indicate conformance to the standard.

Numerous complimentary remarks were made re- garding the program on shingle standardization,

common among which were the following

We think this the most progi'essive and important step ever taken by the shingle industry.

The standard lias created an additional interest in high-class

shingles.

The movement has been a general lienefit to the indusiry by

bringing up the standard and by distinctly marking shingles so that the users of our product-van know what they are

getting.

NEW FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS

Eighteen specifications were acted on by the Federal Specifications Board during March. Of this number, 10 proposed specifications and 8 revisions have

been sent out for official comment and criticism.

Copies of these specifications are available in mimeographed form, and further information can he obtained from the Federal Specifications Board, Bureau

of Standards, W^ashington, D.C.

New designation

Specifications Old

F.S.B. No.

C-F-201a V-T-291a HH-T-111

RR-R-571 WW-C-571

CCC-D-771a DDD-B-421a

LLL-T-791b

PROPOSED

Colors of the American flag - Mallets and mauls, wood

Punches; bag, center, coopers’, coppering, cutting, and

Turpentine (for) paint, type 2

Bronze, copper-silicon, bars, plates, rods, shapes, sheets,

TO BE REVISED

292

297

311 Duck, cotton (canvas), plied yarns (Army, numbered,
APRIL 1933 C0MMERCL4.L STAITDAEDS MONTHLY 235

GRADING SULPHONATED OILS

Recommended Modifications of Distillation Method for Determining Moisture Outlined

By Ealph Hart ^

The establishment of a commercial standard for

the grading of sulphonated oils has done much to

crystallize current opinion concerning methods of

testing and grading sulphonated oil. Confusion surrounding particularly the method of

grading has been recognized for several years. The

writer has in the past

proposed methods for

the determination of the

various components of

sulphonated oils, some of

which have been adopted

by the American Leather

Chemists Association. In

foreign countries methods

of testing have been proposed by the Wissenschaft- liche Zentralstelle fur G1 und Fettforschung and by

the International Society of Leather Trade Chemists.

At the 1931 annual convention of the American

Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists at Boston, Prof. A. H. Crimshaw called attention to the

existing confusion and there resulted the appointment

of a subcommittee of the research committee, which was instructed to conduct investigations and recom- mended improved testing methods. This subcommittee is composed of 11 members representing the technical, manufacturing, and consuming branches of the

industry under the chairmanship of the writer. -In- vestigations so far have been confined to the method

for moisture determination.

Of the various existing methods for moisture determination, the distillation method was selected as being

the most widely used, least subject to theoretical error, and at the same time comparatively rapid and precise.

1 Chairman of the standing committee for Commercial Standard on Sulphonated (Sulphated) Oils—Saponifiable Types; chairman of sub- committee on sulphonated oils of the research committee of the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists.

It was recognized, however, that as conducted at pres- ent there are several modifications needed to adapt the

method to the conditions peculiar to sulphonated oil. Samples of three lots of oil were analyzed by each

member of the committee, and on the basis of data

obtained and the experiences of the analysts, a method is proposed which includes

the following features not

usually specified in other

procedures: (1) Ground

glass connections for the

apparatus, (2) thorough

cleaning of the apparatus

with soap and water before treating with chromic

acid, (3) specifications for

calibrating the apparatus.

(4) a more accurate method of weighing the sample to be taken for analysis, (5) the addition of oleic acid and

the amount, (6) a different and more convenient crite- rion for controlling the rate of distillation, (7) definite

end-point when the distillation may be considered

complete, and (8) more precise method for measuring

the condensed water and calculating the final result. Details of the proposed method are included in the

proceedings of the American Association of Textile

Chemists and Colorists as published in the American

Dyestuff Reporter for November 21, 1932. Reprints

are available to interested individuals on application

to the writer, 1440 Broadway, New York, N.Y. This

report also includes results of the experiments by the

membership of the subcommittee, together with their

comments.

Methods for the determination of other components

of sulphonated oil are to be investigated in a similar

way. The results of these investigations will be available to the standing committee for the commercial

standard in considering proposals for revision.

This paper comprises a brief summary of the

first report to the American Association of

Textile Chemists and Colorists by the subcommittee on sulphonated oils, and includes recom- mended modifications of the usual distillation

method for the determination of moisture.

NEW LETTER CIRCULARS ANNOUNCED

Announcement of the availabity of three new let- ter circulars, in mimeographed form, has just been

made by the Bureau of Standards. The Bureau ]9re- pares these circulars in mimeographed form in order

to expedite answers to numerous inquiries on a given

subject, and issues them on specific request, to those

persons having a special interest in the respective subject matter. Requests for the circulars listed herein

below should be addressed to the Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.

LC358. Color Charts. (List and description of

color charts issued or used by branches of the United

States Government; also list and description of color

charts used for general purposes.)

LC359. Sound xVbsorption Coefficients of the More

Common Materials (supersedes LC344).

LC360. Rerefining Used Crank-case Oil.

FUEL OILS

The recommended revision of the commercial standard for fuel oils having been accepted by a large majority of the refiners of fuel oil, practical!}' all of the

oil burner manufacturers and numerous distributors

and organized consumers, an announcement of the

success of the revision was made to the industiy on March 1, 1933. The revision will become effective

May 1, 1933.

Minor changes were incorporated in the revision

of this standard including a footnote and table of

maximum sulphur content for those oils used for special purposes such as heat treating of metals and in

ceramic furnaces.

ISIimeograiDhed copies of the standard designated as

“ Commercial Standard, CS12-33, Fuel Oils ” ai-e obtainable from the division of trade standards, Bureau

of Standards, until the printed copies are available.
236 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL 1933 COVERINGS FOR LINE WIRES

Throughout the past 2 years investigations have

been carried on by the electrical and chemical divisions of the engineering experiment station at Purdue

University, in cooperation with the Utilities Research

Commission of Chicago, leading to the development

of improved weather-resistant coverings for overhead

electric light and power Avires, and the establishment

of accelerated Aveathering and other tests for determining the comparative merits of such coverings.

These investigations are described and summarized

in a bulletin entitled “ Improved Weather-Resistant

Coverings for Overhead Line Wires ”, which may be

secured from the Purdue University, free to residents

of Indiana, and at a cost of 50 cents to nonresidents

of Indiana.

In this bulletin a brief comment is made upon the

changes in methods of producing weatherproof wire,

the forces that have been at Avork to lower the quality of the coA^erings on such Avires, and the economic

justification for improA^ed coverings, even at a slightly

higher first cost. The equipment deA^eloped and consti’ucted and the test methods utilized in this work are described. The reasons for the variable life, often

very short life of weather-resistant coverings, together

with illustrations showing test results, are summarized. The development work leading to the final se- lection of a class of asphaltic saturating materials

providing consistently long-lived coverings is traced.

Chemical analyses of asphalts are described and the

lack of correlations with weather resistance shown.

Finishing materials and possible future improvements in weather-resistant coA^erings are discussed.

The specifications, proved by this work to provide improved weather-resistant coverings, are given in detail, as are also the details of the accelerated Aveathering test which has been deA^eloped to a point of ex- treme usefulness in testing weather-resistant wire

coverings.

The conclusions, specifications, and tests resulting

from the work described in this bulletin should prove

of aid to both the manufacturer and the purchaser of

weatherproof wire, in increasing the length of life of overhead electric light and poAver wires, and in

reducing the expenditure for replacement of wires

still capable of rendering adequate electric service

except for the shedding of the coverings.

REVISED RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SHIP

REGULATION

Six recommendations by the Board of SupervisingInspectors of the Department of Commerce Bureau of

Navigation and Steamboat Inspection, for the protection of life at sea and shipping generally have now

been approved. These recommendations have the

force of law.

Among the approvals is a new spring loaded safety

valve. Other valves operating on this principle have

been approved in the jDast. Detailed specifications

Vv-ere approved for the construction of wooden life floats for river steamers. The specifications cover the

method of construction and materials used. The

Board also amended the specifications for fire-detect- ing systems by making them more rigid. The Board

amended the rules in regard to lights for barges, canal

boats, and nondescript vessels in tow on the Hudson

River and adjacent waters, and on Lake Champlain.

This action not only simplified the rules, but makes

the lights more effective. The Board also approved a new water-tube boiler and a child’s kapok life preserver. Other life preservers of similar materials have

been approved in the past.

One of the most important of the new regulations is that regarding the use of detectors (thermostats) in

fire-detecting systems on vessels. This regulation provides that “ detectors shall not be approved for use in

cargo compartments or other inaccessible places after

June 30, 1933, unless satisfactory provision is made to replace them without ingress to the compartment in

Avhich they are located.” The enforcement of this

provision Avill eliminate one source of fire hazard.

Regulations of the Bureau of Navigation and Steamboat Inspection have already serA’ed to reduce fire loss to shipping.

The regulation concerning Avooden life floats, which

are sometimes used on river steamers in place of life preservers, provides that floats made of balsa shall not

be less than 3 feet in length, 11% inches in width, and

2 inches in thiclaiess. The use of balsa in floats is increasing. An additional factor of safety in the new

ruling is the prOAUsion that the balsa floats shall be

made of not more than two pieces and in addition to being securely glued shall be made with four dowels,

driven through and entirely across the float. The method of publishing the rules regarding the

changes in regulations for the use of lights on vessels in toAY on the Hudson RiA^er and adjacent waters and

Lake Champlain is expected to simplify their interpretation. Diagrams are printed along with the text of the rules which are mainly provisions for more advantageous placing of the lights than is now common.

PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTNING

A revised edition of the Code for Protection Against

Lightning has been issued by the Bureau of Standards

as Handbook No. 17. An earlier edition of this code

Avas issued as Miscellaneous Publication No. 92. In the new publication, parts I and II of the code

have been reAused. The first deals with the protection of persons; the second deals with the protection

of buildings and miscellaneous property including

flagpoles, water towers, smokestacks, aircraft, ships,

trees, and liA^estoclc. The changes in these two q>arts are rather minor in nature, but have been made further to perfect the code by the national committee

Avhich reviewed the subject last year. Handbook No. 17 includes also part III of the code

dealing Avith the protection of structures containing

inflammable liquids and gases. This part of the code

has not been revised at this time, but is expected to undergo revision at some future date. It was approved by the American Standards Association as American tentative standard when first published.

Parts I and II were approved as American standards

in the first edition, and approval of the revised text

is noAV pending before the standards council of the

association.

Copies of this publication may be obtained from the

Su]Aerintendent of Documents, Government PrintingOffice, Washington, D.C., at 16 cents each.
APRIL 1933 COMMERCIAL STAIsTDAEDS MONTHLY 237

FOURDRINIER WIRE CLOTH

A revision of the commercial standard for Fourdrinier wire cloth, approved by the standing committee,

has been accepted by the industry. The changes re- sulted from a survey conducted at the request of the

general conference to determine the degree of adherence and the benefits arising from the use of the

standard.

This survey indicated that production of Fourdrinier wire cloth for six months ended June 30, 1932, con- forming to the requirements of the standard, averaged

85 percent of individual production. (Average of 17

replies not weighted according to individual production.) Deviations from the requirements of the standard were attributed to demands from purchasers, and

to the fact that some of the tolerances were too close

for practical use. The revision as accepted by the industry includes an increase of 0.0003 inch in the maximum diameter of

the shoot wire before weaving for the 05, 75, and 80

mesh wire cloth and decreases by 2 the number of beats

of the shoot wires per inch for the 70, 75, and 80 mesh

wire cloth. Special grades and meshes of Fourdrinier wire cloth are not covered by the revised standard and will con- tinue to be furnished by the manufacturers as heretofore. The commercial standard continues to require

high-grade workmanship and material in order that

maximum service and satisfaction in use may be

provided.

Tlie revised commercial standard will be designated

hereafter as CS36-33, and the changes are to be effec- tive immediately.

Mimeographed copies of this revision are available

from the Division of Trade Standards, Bureau of

Standards, Washington, D.C.

STANDARDS YEARBOOK FOR 1933

The Standards Yeai’book for 1933, outlining the

activities and accomplishments in standardization of

not only the Federal Government but also those of

States, municipalities, and trade associations, is just

off the press, the seventh volume of the series. The

book is compiled by the Bureau of Standards of the

United States Department of Commerce, and is procurable from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., at $1 per

copy.

One chapter is devoted to the work of the Bureau

of Standards. However, the book is in no sense confined to the activities of the Bureau. It contains re- ports from the principal standardizing bodies all over

the world, both governmental and private, lists all American organizations in this field, and ends with

a bibliography of standardization literature. This was prepared under the direction of the Library of

Congress, and contains references to literature not

previously cited. It is interesting to note the important progress re- ported in the Standards Yearbook for 1933 concern- ing world standardization in spite of adverse business

conditions. In many nations, including our own,

emphasis is being placed more and more on improvement in the accuracy of the basic standards and in

the promotion of international uniformity. Notable

examples are the redetermination of the values of the

electrical units and the tentative adoption by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, of the

new radiation standard of candlepower first suggested

by the Bureau of Standards.

The methods of establishing and maintaining the

standards of measurement in the United States are explained in the first section of the book, which serves

as a ver}^ satisfactory introduction to the succeeding

sections.

Well may it be said that the 1933 Standards Yearbook is the standardization reference book, summarizing and bringing up to date, under one cover, the re- ports of current standardization activity and accomplishments of hundreds of technical organizations

in the United States and around the world. It is designed to keep all interested in standardization well

informed and in touch with all the important developments in America and the Nation-wide developments

in standardization in other countries. Thus, the sev- enth volume will be found of real value to purchasing

officials, engineers, scientific men, economists, teachers,

and to all those who wish to keejD abreast of developments in standardization.

SURGICAL GAUZE

Simplified practice recommendation R86-28, cover- ing surgical gauze has been reaffirmed without change

by the standing committee of the industry. A recent survey of production of the various items covered by

the recommendation for the year 1931 showed that the

average degree of adherence for those reporting to be

98.8 percent.

The recommendation, which has been in effect since

June 1, 1928, was proposed and formulated by the in- dustry. It is concerned with constructions and widths,

in 100-yard bolts, of surgical gauze and crinoline;

constructions, widths and lengths of bandages and

bandage rolls ; and constructions and lengths of package goods.

KANSAS PROPOSES OIL SPECIFICATION

MARKING ON CONTAINERS

A complete laboratory inspection report on the contents must be shown on all filled lubricating oil containers used for handling or sale of lubricants in Kansas, if house bill no. 429, recently introduced in

the Kansas State Legislature, becomes a law.

According to this bill, no “ automotive lubricating

oil” may be offered for sale in that State unless and

until the container, or tags attached to the container,

is marked with the inspection results, obtained by

A.S.T.M. standard test methods, the S.A.E. viscosity

number, flash point, A.P.I. gravity, pour point, carbon

residue, and volume percentage of nonpetroleum material incorporated in the oil. Flash point tolerance

permitted is 10° F.; gravity, 0.5° A.P.I. ; pour point,

5° F. ; and carbon residue, iO percent.

A fine of not more than $100 and costs is proposed

for violation of this statue; the term “automotive lu- bricating oil ” is indicated as including oils sold or

offered for sale for “ crank-case lubrication ” of auto- mobiles, trucks, and tractors.
238 COMMEEOIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY APRIL 1933 N.P.A. DEPARTMENT OF STANDARDS PLAN

BUSY YEAR

The Department of Standards and Tests of the National Petroleum Association has outlined an active

program of work for the year 1933. Trustees of the

association have approved the program, which

includes

1. Interchange of samples between various company

laboratories for camparative tests to check the ac- curacy of laboratory procedure.

2. Visit of chemists and other technologists of the

department to laboratories of the Bureau of Standards, or a visit to some refinery laboratory.

3. Grouji meetings of technical men at convenient

locations throughout the year.

4. Maintaining liaisons with committee D-2 of the

American Society for Testing Materials, the American Petroleum Institute technical committee, and the

Federal Specifications Board.

During the 15 years that the department has been

functioning actively it has done a great deal of constructive work. Early sample exchanges, for example,

showed a wide variation in test results. Since then

succeeding exchanges have shown closer and closer

agreement.

COTTON STANDARDS APPROVED

European and American delegates to the Universal

Cotton Standards Conference, which convened at the

Department of Agriculture on March 13, have completed examination and approval of 65 sets of copies

of the standards for use during the next 2 years by

the United States Department of Agriculture and by

the arbitration appeal committees of the principal cot- ton associations of the world. Conforming to the provisions of the agreements under which the biennial

conferences are held, no changes were made in the

standards.

Several weeks ago, some of the European cotton

associations asked the Department of Agriculture to

call a special meeting under the cotton standards

agreement to consider certain revisions of the grades

with respect to color. This meeting was held by the

Department on March 16. The views of the delegates

differed as to the need of changes in the standards.

The European associations withdrew their request

and no revisions were agreed upon.

The Department of Agriculture announced, however, that it would make a comprehensive study of the

standards situation with a view of determining

whether and to what extent revisions of the standards

may be desirable. Users of the standards promised

to cooperate in this study, the results of which, it is contemplated, will be presented to interested groups

before further action is taken.

Since the Department of Agriculture and the representatives of the American industry considered the

proposal undesirable at this time, no action was taken on the request by the European associations that the cotton standards conference be held, and copies of the

standards, drawn once every 3 years instead of biennially as now provided by the agreements.

Attention was directed to the Department’s technological work at the experimental cotton gin at Stoneville, Miss., which seeks to develop better ginning methods that will improve cotton quality with

respect to eliminating dust and other foreign substances. European delegates voiced objection to the use of sisal bagging on baled cotton, asserting that

the wrapper has no reuse value, ancl that the sisal fibers impair the quality of the cotton yarn and are

the cause of difficulties in manufacture.

Representatives of 9 associations in 7 European

countries and of 2 Japanese associations were in

attendance.

FIRE-CLAY BRICK

Several changes have been made in Federal specification HII-B-671 for fire-clay brick. The provisions

in the revised specification (HH-B-67la) will be- come mandatory, not later than April 15, 1933, for

all departments of the Federal Government in the

purchase of fire brick. The following changes have

been made in revising the specification.

The number of classes of bricks have been reduced

from 6 to 4 (designated as MT3, H57, H75, and

SH75), and siliceous brick (more than 65 percent

silica) is now included in class H75. However, the

requirements for the siliceous type of brick apply

only when specified in the invitations for bids.

The softening point or pyrometric cone equivalent

requirement of bricks in class SH75 has been in- creased from 31 to 32. The requirements of the quenching test for bricks

of class SH75 now specify 18 cycles without failure

instead of 15. PACKAGING OF ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTOR

PARTS

Simplified Practice Recommendation, R146-33, cov- ering the' packaging of electric railway motor and

controller parts, has been accorded the required degree

of written approval by the industry, and may be

considered effective as of March 15, 1933.

This recommendation, which was proposed and for- mulated by the industry, is the direct result of studies

made during the past several years by committee no. 2 of the American Transit Association. The simplified schedule is concerned solely with the number of

units of the various parts of electric railway motors

and controllers which are contained in each package.

KRAFT PAPER SEALING TAPE

The standing committee of the industry in charge of

simplified-practice recommendation R114—30, covering

no. 1 kraft paper sealing tape has reaffirmed the exist- ing schedule for another year, without change.

This recommendation, which was suggested and

formulated by the industry, provides a simplified

schedule of widths and lengths of rolls of plain and

printed tape made from 35-, 60-, and 90-pound basic

paper, together with tensile and tear requirements for

60-pound tape which is commonly used for sealing

fiber and corrugated shipping containers. It also provides for testing methods, packaging, and marking of

this commodity.

The recommendation has been in effect since February 1, 1930.
APRIL 1933 COMMERCIAL STAUDARDS MONTHLY 239

SULPHONATED OILS

The Commercial Standard, CS43-32, Standard

Grading of Sulphonated (Sulpliated) Oils, Saponifiable Types, is now available in printed form and is obtainable from the Superintendent of Documents,

Government Printing Office, at 5 cents per copy.

This standard defines the term “ sulphonated oil ” and covers the method of grading the types that split

off their organically combined SO3 upon boiling with

mineral acids. It also includes nomenclature and

method of expressing strength or concentration, to- gether with methods of analyses for determining the

percentage of weight of the various ingredients.

DOUGLAS-FIR PLYWOOD

Copies of Commercial Standard, CS45-33, Douglas

Fir Plywood, which became effective on February 15,

1933, may now be secured from the Superintendent of

Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington,

D.C., at 5 cents each.

Because of the extended application of Douglas-fir

plywood to a wide number of new uses, a general con- ference of all interests approved certain standard

grading rules as a universal basis of understanding

in the industry. It is the belief of the industry that

the general adoption and use of this standard will

facilitate procurement of the proper grade of material for the varied uses and provide a better understanding between buyer and seller. Architects, engineers, contractors, industrial users, and home owners

will thus be able to specify their needs from nationally

recognized grades. In addition, the standard contains

grade specifications for door panels and concrete-form

material, together with export designations and a

glossary of terms. Douglas-fir plywood is a laminated board for paneling, sheathing, concrete forms, cabinetwork, and in- dustrial uses.

VIRGINIA ESTABLISHES GRADES FOR FISH

The Bureau of Fisheries of the Department of Commerce is cooperating with State officials of Virginia

in establishing State grades for fresh and cured fish,

which is the first attempt by this State to establish

uniform grades for the benefit of the fishing industry.

The grading of agricultural products has been car- ried out in virtually all States with considerable success. Virginia officials decided to tr}^ to give similar

assistance to those engaged in buying and selling fish and fishery products. Hotel and restaurant owners

were among the first to advocate such a development.

WOVEN WIRE FENCING

Simplified practice recommendation R9-28, cover- ing woven wire fencing, has been reaffirmed without

change by the standing committee of the industry.

This recommendation, which was suggested and approved by the industry, has been instrumental in ef- fecting a reduction in the number of stock varieties of woven wire fencing from 552 to 69, or approximately

88.7 percent; and in the number of woven wire fence

packages from 2,072 to 138, or approximately 93.4 percent.

WOOL AND PART WOOL BLANKETS

The Federal Trade Commission on February 17,

1933, dismissed six complaints that were awaiting dis- position in regard to the wool content of part wool

blankets. This action was taken in view of an at- tempt of the industry to put its own house in order

through the establishment of Commercial Standard

CS39-32 for Wool and Part Wool Blankets and the

ado]ition of labels guaranteeing conformity to the

standard.

The chief requirements of the commercial standard

are as follows:

Standard percentages of wool content. —No finished blanket containing less than 0 percent wool shall carry the word

“ wool ” in any form. Blankets labeled with the word “ wool ” in any form and

containing—

{a) Between 5 and 25 percent wool shall be labeled “Part

wool not less than 5 percent wool."

(6) More than 25 percent wool shall be labeled with the guaranteed (minimum) wool content in percentage.

(c) Above 98 percent wool shall be labeled “All wool.”

A.S.T.M. ADOPTS KNOCK TEST FOR MOTOR

FUELS

The Cooperative Fuel Research Committee’s “ motor

method ” for antiknock testing has been adopted as a tentative standard of the American Society for Test- ing Materials. This method was adopted after a very

comprehensive series of cooperative road and laboratory tests had shown satisfactory agreement between

the test results and average performance in cars on

the road.

The new motor method provides for operating the

test engine at 900 r.p.m., a jacket-water temperature

of 212° F.. and one inlet charge heated to 300° F. The former method now to be known as the research

method, provided for motor operation at 600 r.p.m. and a jacket-water temperature of 212 ° F. with the

charge unheated.
240 commeecial standards monthly APRIL 1933 STANDARDIZATION BRIEFS

The American Hospital Association has begun work

on the standardization of material for mattresses and

pillows.

The subject of certification and specifications will

be considered at the June meeting of the Pacific divi- sion, National Association of Wooden Box Manufacturers, which Avill be held in Klamath Falls, Oreg., on June 23-24, 1933.

The American Association of Textile Chemists and

Colorists is continuing the development of standard

methods for determining fastness of dyed textile materials to all important color- destroying agencies, such

as light, domestic washing, laundering, fulling, perspiration, acids, alkalies, sea water, and crocking. It

is also developing standard methods for measuring

shrinkage, and is studying the effects of carbonizing on the properties of avooI.

The metric system Avill be in use in the Dutch East

Indies after January 1934, under present plans, ac- cording to a report received from Assistant Trade

Commissioner C. H. Boehringer at Batavia. The question has been raised in the Volksraad, or Peoples’

Council, in Batavia, whether the Government maj'- not

postpone the period of grace in vieAV of the fact that

the native traders and dealers will find it difficult to purchase neAv sets of weights and measures before the

end of 1933 because of the present unsettled period in

Java.

A revision of the specification dealing with tungsten-filament electric lamps, has been issued by the

British Standards Institution. The most important

respect in which the present specification differs from

previous editions is in connection with the table re- ferring to dimensions of lamps for general service.

The valuable work done prior to the issue of the 1930

specification, which included exact dimensions,

namely, over-all length, diameter of the bulb, neck

dimensions and filament center, for lamps up to and

including the 100-watt size, has now been completed

by specifying similar dimensions for the larger lamps

from 150 to 1,500 watts.

A specification dealing with electric overhead traveling cranes has been issued by the British Standards

Institution. The specification provides for cranes, power-driven in all motions, of spans up to 80 feet,

and load capacities up to 70 tons, for general use in

factories and workshops. In general, a factor of

safety of 5 has been adopted, but higher factors of

safety are recommended with proportionately lower

Avorking stresses for cranes intended for duty of great

severity. No attempt has been made to deal with

cranes from the dimensional or size standpoint, al- though, in other respects, the specification is draAvn on very comprehensive lines.

The raw-silk-classification committee of the Silk

Association of America is revising standard photographs for eA^enness, neatness, and cleanness, and is cooperating with Japan toward international standards. It has also approved standards for examination

and grading of finished broad silks.

The National Association of Hosiery and UnderAvear Manufacturers has conducted tests toward a standard method for eA^aluating colors of raw silk. It has also made more than 29,000 measurements for

width and length of welt, leg, high heel, heel, sole, in- step, and toe of men’s and women’s full-fashioned and

circular hosiery, tabulating them and plotting graphs

for further study.

A feature of the British refuse collection is the

standardization of dust bins. Unsightly ash pits,

boxes, barrels, and other crude containers are almost

a thing of the past. In their place, uniform galvanized iron dust bins are employed. These are fre- quently purchased in large quantities by the city and

sold or rented to the householder. In other cases the

standard specifications are established and the householder may purchase his own.

Since May 1 the sale of substandard electric light

bulbs have been prohibited in Ontario, Canada, ac- cording to a report receiA^ed from Trade Commissioner

L. A. France at Toronto. The Ontario Hydro-Electric Power Commission has advised retailers throughout the Province that the substandard bulbs must be

discontinued as soon as present stocks have been ex- hausted. Merchants Avill not be permitted to purchase new supplies of lamp bulbs unless the bulbs

conform to the Commission’s standards, and have obtained approval certificates. Stringent penalties are provided for violation of the new regulations.

Culminating more than 2 years of negotiations betAveen the standards commissions of Sweden, Norway,

and Finland there has been adopted a standard of uniform jiatterns and sizes for dressed lumber produced

in the three Scandinavian countries. Items included

in the standards are tongued and grooved V-jointed

flooring; tongued, grooved, and beaded flooring; shiplap ; V-shajied tongued and grooved flooring; V-shaped

double tongned and grooved flooring; tongued and

grooved V-jointed ceiling two sides; tongued, grooved,

and beaded ceiling two sides; beveled siding, round

edge siding, and rustic. The patterns are very similar

to those which have been used by Swedish lumber

manufacturers, but differ considerably from former

Norwegian and Finnish planing mill practice. The

Swedish mills, therefore, are exjiected to put themselves in position quickly to produce the patterns,

while the change will be somewhat slower in coming

about in Noi’Avay and Finland.

o
Announcing the 7S[ew

STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1933

Prepared annually by the BUREAU OF STANDARDS, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

THE STANDARDS YEARBOOK for 1933 is full of suggestion and data for all engaged

in standardization. The many aspects of the subject call for a concise summary for busy

men who need to keep in touch with the latest advances in the standards field. The

Standards Yearbook is designed to meet this need.

To the interest taken by several departments of the Federal Government in simplification and standardization, a special chapter is devoted.

The Yearbook includes summaries of important national and international standardization activities and accomplishments of the Government standardizing laboratories of

England, France, Germany, Canada, Japan, and of the Bureau of Standards of the

United States.

Another chapter is devoted to the standardization activities of American technical

societies and trade associations.

An abstract of the work in standardization conducted by national standards associations

throughout the world is another feature of the Standards Yearbook.

There is also given a brief account of international cooperation in standardization.

The Standards Yearbook should be in the personal library of all engaged in work on

standards, or concerned with its application.

CONTENTS

Chapter

I. Establishing and maintaining standards.

II. International standardizing agencies.

III. National standardizing laboratories.

IV. National industrial standardizing bodies.

V. Federal standardizing agencies (U. S. A.)

Chapter VI. Bureau of Standards.

VII. County and State purchasing agencies.

VIII. General standardizing agencies (U. S. A.). IX. Standardizing activities of technical societies and trade associations. X. Bibliography on standardization.

Price $1

Cloth bound

Compiled by Bureau of Standards

Miscellaneous Publication No. 139

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

DANIEL C. ROPER, Secretary of Commerce

“ * * * this department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * * its ideals are clear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field.” —President Hoover, at the laying of the corner stone of the new building

of the U. S. Department of Commerce, June 10, 1929.

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air trafhc rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal airports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, W. L. Austin, Director. Taking censuses of population, mines, and cpiarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 6 years; and a census of manufactui'es every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt, and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of

financial statistics of State and municipal governments.

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation cjuarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products.

BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

F. M. Feiker, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attaches, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, the monthly Survey of Current Business, and district and

cooperative offices in 65 cities. The maintenance of commodity,

technical, and regional divisions to afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Lyman J. Briggs, Acting Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operation of plants producing it. Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish, in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods,

improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and the

protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam,

Commissioner.

Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S, Patten, Director. Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic

surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION AND STEAMBOAT INSPECTION, Arthur J. Tyrer and Dickerson N. Hoover,

Assistant Directors. Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamen.

Construction and administration of navigation laws covering

documentation, ship mortgage act, entry and clearance, move- ment of vessels, welfare of seamen, admeasurement, load line, adjudication of fines, collection of fees, tonnage tax, etc. Compilation of Federal statistics of tonnage and merchant seamen. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certi- fication of able seamen and lifeboatmen, and the investigation

of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks,

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents. Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued.

U. S. GOVERNMFNT PRINTING OFFICE: I93S