ANDSCAPE L INES

INTRODUCTION

Line drawing, photography, and videography are techniques for

graphically documenting cultural landscapes. Line drawings, such as

measured plans, sections, and elevations, and black and white photographs are the types of graphics used in a Cultural Landscape Report

(CLR) to accurately record the appearance of a landscape at a particular time. Other graphics, such as diagrams, sketches, perspectives,

maps and charts—reproduced from contemporary or historic materials—may also be used in a CLR. Additional forms of graphic documentation, such as color slides and video, are also valuable tools for

recording the landscape and may be used to supplement other

documentation.

Throughout a CLR, different formats and various scales of graphics

are used to supplement narrative descriptions and documentation of

the landscape. In the site history, period plans are used to illustrate

landscape change through every relevant historic period. (See Figure

1.) These graphics are created by analyzing historic materials or

reproduced from existing historical documents. In the existing

conditions, an existing conditions plan is generated based on site

research and investigations. This drawing, in addition to photographs, provides a contemporary record of a landscape’s appearance and the condition of landscape characteristics and associated

features. In the analysis and evaluation, elevations, plans, and schematic diagrams are used to show the relationship between historical

research and the findings of existing conditions investigations. In the

treatment section, a diagram, schematic, or detailed treatment plan

illustrates a proposed treatment as it relates to a whole site, character areas, or management zones.

5

Graphic Documentation
2 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

Figure 1. Diagrams are useful for quickly conveying certain types of information. These serial diagrams convey changes in spatial

organization from 1919 through 1993. Sagamore Hill National Historic Site. (NPS, 1993)

1993

1963

1948

1919
G R A P H I C D O C U M E N T A T I O N 3

LINE DRAWING DOCUMENTATION

Line drawings, particularly measured plan drawings, are a primary graphic technique used to

accurately record the appearance of a landscape at

a particular time. Line drawings may be handdrawn or computer-generated, and in all cases

must be accurate, clear, consistent in style, reproducible, and durable.

Accuracy

The purpose of line drawings is to objectively

record in a durable medium the appearance of a

landscape, and the landscape characteristics and

associated features. It is important that line drawings accurately depict cultural landscapes because

each graphic will become a historical record and a

primary source of information. Accuracy is not,

however, absolute; some inaccuracy results from

graphically representing three-dimensional spaces.

Although line drawings should be as accurate as

possible, their accuracy is influenced by the

following:

• management objectives for the CLR

• level of investigation required by the project

agreement

• proposed treatment of the landscape

• accuracy of available site data, field surveys, and

other sources used to prepare the line drawings

Depending on management objectives, park and

technical staff should define the acceptable degree

of accuracy in line drawings in the project agreement for a CLR.

Clarity

The clarity of a graphic refers to its legibility;

that is, how easy it is to see the information

presented in the graphic. All plans representing

an entire landscape should have the same scale

and use the same base map or base plan layer

for clarity. (See Figure 2.) For example, a

period plan and an existing conditions plan

drawing should be generated from the same

base plan and at the same scale to allow direct

comparison. If a plan represents only an area

of a landscape (such as landscape character

areas or management zones), it should be

clearly referenced to a base map of the entire

landscape to indicate its specific location. A

diagram key may appear on the drawing to

indicate the location of the area represented

by the larger plan.

Plans belonging to a series should have the

same sheet size, title block, orientation, and

scale. To determine the sheet size for a plan,

consider the following:

• management objectives for the CLR

• the size and character of the landscape

• the final page size of the plan reproduced in

the formatted CLR

For documentation and analysis purposes, a

landscape may need to be represented at

multiple scales. The following table suggests

scales for various uses.
4 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

SCALES USE

1" = 200' Landscape plans depicting an

entire landscape

1" = 400', Large landscapes

1" = 500', or

1" = 1,000'

A series of 1" = 200' If a landscape is too large to be

plans with match-lines represented on one sheet using

show connectivity a 1" = 200' scale

between plans

1" = 100' and Small landscapes

1" = 50'

1" = 20' Tree and shrub identification and

small landscapes (about two acres).

1" = 10' or Planting plans and construction

1/4" = 1' drawings

Current National Park Service (NPS) policy

regarding the use of metric or English scales is

given by Preparation of Design and Construction

Drawings, NPS-10. It requires only that metric

and English scale conversions are indicated on a

cover sheet to a set of drawings. Either metric or

English scales can be used for individual drawings,

but only one scale convention should be used

throughout a CLR.

Contours should appear on all plans. A contour

interval that clearly depicts the landscape topography and serves the CLR’s management objectives

should be used. The desired contour interval may

vary in different areas of the landscape, depending

Figure 2. This 1926 period plan is one of a set of five. The plan has clarity and consistency with the other plans so direct

comparisons can be made. Saint-Gaudens National Historic Site. (NPS, 1993)

printer to

shoot

neg
G R A P H I C D O C U M E N T A T I O N 5

on the range of topographic relief, the complexity of landscape characteristics and associated features, or specific management objectives in different areas. The contour interval

used on line drawings may be increased or

decreased in particular areas of the landscape

as long as the change makes the plan more

readable or enhances the information. (See

Landscape Lines 9: Surveys.) For information

on contracting computer-generated topographic plans from aerial photographs, see the

section titled “Photogrammetry,” later in this

document.

Consistency

Numerous references exist for landscape

architectural graphic standards, many of which

are identified in the reference section of this

text. Preferably, one graphic standard should be

used throughout a CLR, but it may be necessary

to use more than one standard where omissions exist. For example, Preparation of Design

and Construction Drawings, NPS-10 does not

have a symbol for a property line. For consistency and clarity, all symbols should be identified

in a legend on each drawing. The legend should

show the symbol and define its meaning.

Figure 3. Loose sketches are useful for quickly recording field observations or conceptual ideas. This perspective sketch of Alcatraz Island

conveys a concept plan for the future use of this historic site. Golden Gate National Recreation Area. (Sketch by Lawrence Halprin, NPS,

1988)
6 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

1897 1905–1907

1922–1923 1981

Figure 4. These serial axonometric perspective drawings were useful in documenting the evolution of the formal gardens from 1897

through 1981. Vanderbilt Mansion National Historic Site. (NPS, 1981)
G R A P H I C D O C U M E N T A T I O N 7

The following list of standards and guidelines is

arranged in descending order of comprehension

and refinement:

• The American Institute of Architects’ Architectural Graphic Standards and Guidelines

• Historic American Building Survey and Historic

American Engineering Record Standards and

Guidelines

• NPS Design and Construction Documents

Guideline

• National Register Documentation Guidelines

• United States Geological Survey, Topographic

Map Symbols

For computer aided design (CAD) drawings

it may be necessary to use graphic standards

established by an NPS Region or Support

office. Regardless of the level of refinement,

acceptable degree of accuracy, or graphic

conventions used for line drawings, the style

of each CLR drawing should be consistent.

The following list gives the information required to appear on each plan. Examples are

given in parenthesis.

• project title (“Cultural Landscape Report:

Lower Town, Harper’s Ferry National Historic

Park”)

• project location (“Harper’s Ferry National

Historical Park, West Virginia”)

• drawing title (“Period Plan: 1815-1865”)

• NPS drawing number: numbers are used and

controlled by designated offices, and consist of

the park code plus a number assigned by a NPS

Region or Support office (see Drawing and Map

Numbers Guideline, NPS 29, revised edition)

• graphic bar scale and statement of scale

• north arrow oriented towards the top of the

sheet

• date of drawing

• illustrator’s name and title

• legend of symbols

• sources of information (metadata) used to

prepare drawing (“Based on CLI field survey,

3/4/96, not a measured drawing”)

Computer-generated drawings should include all

the above information. If multiple layers are used

(such as topography, boundaries, and structures),

they should be individually classified within the

drawings. Standards for graphic file formats may

exist within an NPS Region or Support office, and

these should be used when naming and saving

computer-generated graphics files.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) may be an

alternative computer technology to computer

graphic programs (such as CAD). For many years

the quality of cartographic output available

through GIS software could not equal that

achieved with manual methods or computer

graphic programs. But this is no longer the case.

Numerous mapping tools are now available in

most GIS packages, including desktop systems,

which offer the added benefit of being easy

enough to learn and use for novice GIS users.

(See Landscape Lines 10: Geographic Information

Systems.)
8 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

Reproducibility

The preferred media for hand-generated drawings is waterproof black ink on 3mm or 4mm

polyester film, such as mylar. Double-sided,

rather than single-sided film, with texture on both

sides of the sheet, may be useful for particular

visual effects, such as shading on the back side.

Pin-bar registered multiple sheets of film may be

used to separate layers of information. Film

sheets can be obtained in the following precut

sizes: 18" x 24", 24" x 36", and 34" x 44".

When deciding what film sheet size to use,

consider both the final image size of the reduced

original in the CLR and the preferred scale of

the plan. An early decision (preferably during the

project agreement phase) should be made about

whether 81⁄2" x 11,” or 11" x 17" pages of

reduced drawings will be placed within the body

of the CLR or whether full-sized drawings will

be folded into a pocket at the back. The page

size of graphic images depends on the scale or

complexity of site information to be conveyed.

Greater landscape scale and greater complexity

of information (such as close contour intervals

and dense or diverse plantings) limits the extent

to which an image can be reduced and still be

legible. Full-size, folded drawings have the

disadvantage of being bulky at the back of the

document and the possibility of being lost, but

have the advantage of being useful for easy

access and reference alongside the CLR text.

The printing cost of a CLR with a back pocket for

folded plans tends to be more expensive than a

CLR with reduced plans integrated within the body

of the document. Pages that are 11" x 17" can be

folded to create a pull-out page with a larger image

size than the 81⁄2" x 11" page.

A graphic bar scale is required on any plan or

section drawing so that the scale of the plan can

be understood regardless of the percent reduction. The following guidelines apply to legibility of

text for reduced plans.

• For a 34" x 44" original plan to be reduced to

an 81⁄2" x 11" page, the minimum font size on

the original plan should be no less than 18

point (3/16" high).

• For an 18" x 24" or 24" x 36" original plan to

be reduced to a 81⁄2" x 11" page, the minimum

font size on the original plan should be no less

than 14 point (1/8" high).

• The minimum font size on any reduced plan

(81⁄2" x 11" or 11" x 17") should be no less than

9 point.

Computer drawing programs allow for excellent

line quality at almost any scale on many types of

paper (limited by the capability of the printer).

The preferred paper for computer-generated,

line drawing originals is acid-free bond paper. The

legibility of the text needs to be considered when

reducing computer-generated drawings. Consideration should be given to preparing two sets of

computer-generated drawings: one for full-scale

and one for reduced-scale production.

Durability

Waterproof, black ink on polyester film is the

most durable media for hand-generated drawings. Other media, such as graphite pencil or ink
G R A P H I C D O C U M E N T A T I O N 9

pen on vellum, reproduce well, but are less

durable. All graphic images used in a CLR—

whether line drawings, diagrams, or charts—

should be equally durable. The use of sticky-back

or adhesive lettering is not recommended on

hand-generated drawings; these media tend to

bubble up or flake off over time. (Where stickybacks are used, photomylars of the originals

should be created to insure durability of text in

archival conditions.) Drawing text is most durable

as ink on film, hand lettered, or traced with a

Leroy template.

In processing a camera-ready copy of a CLR,

the United States Government Printing Office

(GPO) or printer may photograph each page of

the document to create proofs from which the

document will be printed. Ideally, all line

drawings that are part of a CLR should be

supplied to the printer as photometallic transfers or PMTs (a photographic reduction process). PMTs are highly durable and are produced on 81⁄2" x 11" or 11" x 17" size paper.

Copies of full-size line drawings can be supplied to the printer as original artwork with

special instructions, such as location, position,

and percent reduction.

Full-size drawings larger than 11" x 17", which

are to be folded into a pocket at the back of the

document, are directly photocopied onto acidfree bond paper by the printer. Blueprints,

which are created through the diazo process,

are not recommended for full-size drawings

because they become unstable with prolonged

light exposure.

Figure 5. These section drawings show the existing topography, vegetation, circulation, and character of buildings and structures in

Lower Town. Harpers Ferry National Historical Park. (NPS, 1991)
10 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

Computer-generated drawings can be archived

as electronic files on disks, compact disks (CDs)

and tapes. Since the durability of these storage

media has yet to be established, some archivists

believe acid-free paper is still the most durable

medium for storing information. Other archivists

believe electronic files on disks, CDs, and tapes

are durable for 100 years, under climate-controlled conditions.

Upon completing a CLR project, original line

drawings, other graphic materials, including electronic files, and film negatives and positives, should

be submitted to the park for inclusion in park

archives. (See Landscape Lines 14: Preparing,

Cataloging, Printing, and Distribution.)

REFERENCES

Annotated Graphic

Documentation References

Anderson, Richard K. December 1994. Handbook for Recording Historic Structures and Sites

for the Historic American Engineering Record.

Washington, DC.: USDI NPS, Cultural Resources, Historic American Engineering Record,

Draft. Pages 77-87 are a good reference for field

photography.

Balachowski, Joseph D. December 1993. Handbook for Recording Structures with Measured

Drawings. Washington, DC.: USDI NPS, Cultural Resources, Historic American Buildings

Survey and Historic American Engineering

Record, Draft. Pages 58-63 offer procedural

guidance on landscape documentation with

sections on research, measuring and drawing.

Figure 6. This illustrative section drawing of the historic roadbed at Ocean Drive illustrates a typical construction detail of the road in

1934. Arcadia National Park. (NPS, 1993)
G R A P H I C D O C U M E N T A T I O N 11

Burns, John A. 1989. Historic American Buildings

Survey and Historic American Engineering

Record. Recording Historic Structures. Washington, DC.: The American Institute of Architects

Press. Pages 206-219 include a case study of

Meridian Hill Park in Washington, DC., to illustrate a section on “Recording Historic Landscapes.”

McClelland, Linda F. 1991. National Register

Bulletin 16A: How to Complete the National

Register Registration Form. Washington, DC.:

USDI NPS, Interagency Resources Division.

Pages 60-67 offer preliminary guidance on

graphic documentation: geographical and sketch

maps and photographs.

National Park Service. 1980. Drawing and Map

Numbers Guideline, NPS-29, no.1. Denver:

USDI NPS, Technical Information Center. This is

the guideline for assigning NPS numbers to

drawings and maps. Revised edition in progress

that incorporates changes due to restructuring.

For further information call TIC 303-969-2130.

National Park Service. 1991. CAD System Manual.

3rd ed. Washington, DC: USDI NPS, National

Capital Region, Design Services Division. This is an

example of a regional CAD Manual, which establishes standards for consistent and compatible files

within a NPS region. The standards apply to

internal graphic documents as well as those

created by contractors.

National Park Service. 1995. Preparation of Design

and Construction Drawings, NPS-10, no. 3.

Revised ed. Denver: USDI NPS, Graphic Systems

Division, Denver Service Center. The emphasis is

on architectural construction drawings, small-scale

construction projects, with landscape documentation at the low level of resolution of mapping.

Ramsey, Charles G. 1994. The American

Institute of Architects,’ Architectural Graphic

Standards. 9th ed. Edited by John Ray Hoke, Jr.

New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons. Pages 749-

778 make specific reference to Historic Preservation, and include the section titled, “Preservation of Historic Landscapes.” Other sections

relevant to landscape architecture are: Sitework,

Concrete, Masonry, Metal, Wood and Plastics,

and the section on Universal Design in General

Planning.

Supplementary Architectural

Drawing References

Ambrose, James. 1993. Construction Revisited:

An Illustrated Guide to the Construction Details

of the Early 20th Century. New York: John

Wiley and Sons.

Callendar, John. 1982. Time-Saver Standards for

Architectural Design Data. McGraw-Hill.

Ching, Frank. 1985. Architectural Graphics. 2nd

ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Cullinane, John J., AIA. 1993. Understanding

Architectural Drawings: A Guide for NonArchitects. Washington, DC: Preservation

Press.
12 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

Kliment, Stephen, ed. 1984. Architectural Sketching and Rendering: Techniques for Designers and

Artists. New Jersey: Whitney Library of Design.

Lorenz, Albert, and Stanley Salzman. 1991.

Drawing in Color: Rendering Techniques for

Architects and Illustrators. New Jersey: Whitney

Library of Design.

Nashed, Fred. 1993. Time-Saving Techniques

for Architectural Construction Drawings. Van

Nostrand Reinhold.

Ramsey, Charles G., and Harold R. Sleeper. 1991.

Architectural Graphic Standards for Construction

Details. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Reid, Grant W., ASLA. 1987. Landscape Graphics. New Jersey: Whitney Library of Design.

Walker, Theodore D., and David Davis. 1990.

Plan Graphics. 4th ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Wiggins, Glenn E. 1989. A Manual of Construction Documentation. New Jersey: WhitneyLibrary of Design.
G R A P H I C D O C U M E N T A T I O N 13

PHOTOGRAPHIC DOCUMENTATION

AND ANALYSIS

Contemporary and historical photographs and

slides are used in preparing a CLR. Photographs

are graphic documents used to:

• document a landscape at a particular time

• analyze and evaluate the chronological development of a landscape

The technical considerations for using photography

for the above purposes are described in the

following text.

Photographic Documentation

Photography is a rapid technique for graphically

documenting a cultural landscape. Black and white

photographs are used to illustrate the appearance

of a cultural landscape over time, to update the

graphic documentation of a landscape, and to

record treatment activities in the landscape.

Because photographs can capture fine textures

and realistic contexts, photographs have an

advantage over line drawings of conveying an

experiential understanding of a landscape. However, photographs also have the potential to

portray a landscape with greater subjectivity than

line drawings. This subjectivity may be exploited

to convey experiential qualities (such as those

conferred by diurnal, seasonal, or climatic

changes), to describe the articulation and quality

of space (such as complexity, density, or vacancy)

and to emphasize the current state of condition

(from well maintained to derelict). Without a clear

understanding of the primary intent of a photograph, the subjectivity inherent in the process of

making the photograph may lead to inaccurate,

misleading, or unrepresentational photographs.

The Purpose

The art and science of photography involves

many variables, including cameras, lenses, filters,

lighting, film, camera position, and the creativity of

the photographer. For cultural landscape research, the purpose of photography is to objectively record, in a durable medium, the physical

and visual qualities of a landscape. Photography

should not try to evoke emotional reaction

through special effects; this may lead to misinterpretation.

The value of photographic documentation

depends largely on how well informed the

photographer is about the subject and purpose of

the project. Additionally, photographic documentation is made more meaningful if the photographer keeps an accurate record of subject, location, and vantage points. Photographs used in a

CLR should have captions and both should be

included in the park archives.

Durability

Black and white photography (small, medium,

or large format) is the most durable medium

for photographic documentation in a CLR.

Color film is less stable photochemically over

time. Due to the visual limitation of black and

white images, color slides are often taken to

supplement the data provided by black and

white photographs (Kodachrome is the most

stable color film). Black and white infrared, and
14 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

color infrared films are very useful for analysis

and evaluation because these films reveal

information beyond the surficial appearance of

landscape characteristics.

Color image processing has been advanced

through photo-CD technology to allow color

slides to be digitally incorporated into desktop

publishing. Although not definite, color photographic images may be more durable as digital

files on photo-CDs or disks than as color film

negatives or positives. The color hard copy

(paper printout) produced by color printers is

currently not as durable as archival quality black

and white photographs.

Archival quality photographic negatives are those

that have undergone an extended washing

process to completely remove processing

chemicals. The addition of Selenium toner to

the rinse solution allows complete removal of

processing chemicals. Archival quality prints are

also printed on fibrous contact paper rather than

resin-coated paper. Giving negatives and prints

archival quality increases developing and printing

costs by about 25 percent. (See “Archiving

Photographs” later in this section for more

information on storage.)

Forms of Photography

Landscape photography may be broadly divided

into two categories: aerial and field (terrestrial).

For both aerial and field photography, the

orientation of the camera can be perpendicular

or oblique.

Perpendicular orientation achieves orthographic

elevation in field photography and plan shots in

aerial photography. Perpendicular field photography is used to record structures, objects, and

landscapes with axial arrangements of spaces or

formal geometry (for example, bilateral or radial

symmetry). (See Figure 7.)

Oblique orientation achieves perspective shots in

both aerial and field photography. Oblique field

photography and perpendicular aerial photography

are most commonly used in the graphic documentation of cultural landscapes. (See Figures 8, 9, and 10.)

Small, Medium and Large Format Cameras

Oblique and perpendicular field photography can

be performed using small, medium, or large

format cameras. Generally speaking, small format

cameras use 35mm wide film, medium format

cameras use 220-size (6cm x 7cm) or 120-size

(6cm x 6cm, or 21⁄4" x 21⁄4") film, and large format

cameras use 4" x 5,” 5" x 7,” and 8" x 10" size

negatives. The cost of these various sizes of film is

directly proportional to a unit price of film. A

single 5" x 7" exposure of film within a large

format camera is approximately equivalent in

price to a 36 exposure roll of 35mm film.

Small format, 35mm cameras are the least

expensive and most portable cameras to operate.

They are particularly useful in capturing multiple

black and white photographs and color slides of

cultural landscapes for reference material. Once

enlarged, 35mm negatives can become grainy,

and as a consequence may have inadequate

clarity for use in a publication.
G R A P H I C D O C U M E N T A T I O N 15

Figure 7. A perpendicular field photograph of a curb and retaining wall. Blue Ridge Parkway. (NPS, n.d.)

Figure 8. An oblique field photograph. Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site. (NPS, 1995)
16 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

Figure 9. A perpendicular aerial photograph. Vanderbilt Mansion National Historic Site. (Photograph courtesy of Dutchess County

Offices, 1990)

Figure 10. An oblique aerial photograph. Perry's Victory and International Peace Memorial. (NPS, c. 1925)
G R A P H I C D O C U M E N T A T I O N 17

Medium format cameras have greater portability

and are less expensive to use than large format

cameras. They also provide a large negative

(6cm x 7cm) that can be proportionately enlarged from a contact print directly to a 8" x 10"

image without cropping.

Large format cameras record images in much

greater detail and their photographs are well

suited for publication because they can be

enlarged without clarity degradation. (See

Figures 11 and 12.) Large format cameras also

allow for parallax adjustment because the lens

can be tilted to correct for perspective. On the

down side, large format cameras are bulky and

heavy to transport and require considerable

expertise to operate. In most cases, contracting

Figure 11. Large format photograph showing Sherrick Farm. Note the high resolution of detail in the photograph. Antietam National

Battlefield. ( Jack Boucher, HABS, NPS, 1992)

Figure 12. Small format photograph of Ebey's Landing National

Historical Reserve. Note the lower resolution of detail in the

photograph. (NPS, 1983)
18 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

the services of a professional photographer is

recommended for large format photographic

documentation.

Digital Cameras

Digital cameras are a recent photographic technology. A digital camera can produce color and

black and white digital images. One advantage to

using a digital camera is that the photographs can

be more easily integrated into desktop publishing.

The images are screened (composed of dots, like

a newsprint photograph) and can be transferred

via cable from the camera to a computer. There

is no need to scan the photographic image before

moving it to the computer. Using image processing software, the photographic images can be

manipulated and inserted into a document.

Digital cameras are compact and convenient to

use, but they have the following disadvantages,

which should be considered when preparing to

use a digital camera for field survey:

• The photographic quality produced by a digital

camera may be lower than a 35mm camera

and the images may not be clear enough to

convey details well.

• Some digital cameras may not accept as many

lenses or filters as a 35mm camera.

• There is a limit to the number of photographs

that can be stored in a digital camera before

they must be downloaded to a computer.

Typically, digital cameras can store 36 photographs at a lower level of resolution (that is,

fewer dots per inch) or 18 photographs at a

higher level of resolution (more dots per inch).

Digital images must be archived as electronic files

on computer disks, photo-CDs, or tapes. The

durability of these media is undetermined.

Lenses, Filters, and Tripods

The standard lens on a 35mm camera is 50mm.

The focal length (the magnification) of a 50mm

lens is approximately the same as the human eye

and is suitable for graphic documentation of

cultural landscapes. In addition to the standard

50mm lens, wide-angle lenses, telephoto and

zoom lenses, and filters can be used for specific

purposes.

Wide-angle Lenses

A wide-angle lens with a 24mm-35mm focal

length is less magnifying than a 50mm lens and

provides the photographer a broader view of

the landscape from a given vantage point. Wideangle lenses are particularly useful when space is

limited and the photographer must position the

camera close to the subject of the photograph.

However, wide-angle lenses cause distortion,

and the wider the angle the greater the distortion (straight lines tend to curve, and parallel

lines converge). Perspective-correcting lenses

(PC lenses), also called architectural lenses, can

be used to remedy the parallax distortion of

wide-angle lenses. PC lenses are moderate

wide-angle lenses (28mm or 35mm) that shift

side to side or up and down. Some perspective

correcting lenses also tilt, like a large format

camera. PC lenses are available for small and

medium format cameras and should be used

with a tripod for best results.
G R A P H I C D O C U M E N T A T I O N 19

Telephoto and Zoom Lenses

A moderate to long telephoto or zoom lens is

useful for photographic documentation of landscapes when access near the subject is restricted

or limited by physical obstacles. Telephoto lenses

with a focal length between 100mm-400mm are

more magnifying than a 50mm lens. Telephoto

lenses have minimal distortion, yet their depth of

field is small (that is, telephoto lenses tend to

flatten the resultant image). Telephoto lenses also

reduce light interception through the lens. To

compensate for the lower light level, the f/stop

may need to be manually adjusted (some cameras automatically make this adjustment). Zoom

lenses are a common feature on 35mm cameras,

and have focal length that can be adjusted from

20-60mm through 200-500mm. (The most

common are 35-70mm and 70-200mm.) The

versatility of zoom lenses makes them convenient

for field photography.

Filters

High quality filters improve black and white

photographic documentation by enhancing

details that may otherwise be undiscernible.

One of the most useful filters for black and white

photography is a medium yellow. This filter

eliminates the presence of blue in natural light

and enhances contrasting values of grey tones,

black and white. Orange and deep yellow filters

enhance contrast and differentiate textures even

more. Green filters emphasize foliage, while a

red filter dramatically enhances the contrast

between dark and light areas. A polarizing filter

reduces or eliminates refraction of light in

situations of considerable glare, which may be

encountered in photographing water features on

a sunny day, or shooting through the windows

of a car or light aircraft. A polarizing filter increases contrast and can darken blue skies in

black and white photography.

Filters are mounted over the camera lens, reducing light interception through the lens. Better

quality filters cause less light reduction, but all

filters require exposure compensation. Cameras

with built-in light meters automatically make

aperture adjustments for a filter. Cameras with

hand-held light meters must be manually adjusted

to compensate for light reduction. The “filter

factor” (light reduction factor of a filter) is usually

engraved on the metal filter ring. A filter factor of

2X (such as that of a medium yellow filter) means

the f/stop must be increased by two stops, from 

f/8 to f/4 (that is, the aperture size and shutter

speed are increased).

Tripods

A tripod stabilizes the camera, allowing a

sharper image to be captured. It also enables

the photographer to create a variety of stable

camera orientations and carefully plan the

composition before taking the shot. Tripods are

useful in the following situations:

• When photographing with a telephoto lens of

focal length greater than 135mm. The tripod

will reduce camera shake and produce a

clearer photograph.

• To correct for image distortion from a tilting

camera plane taking a perpendicular shot. A

trapezoid is one result of a perpendicular shot

of a structure taken with an upwardly tilting
20 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

camera (perspective correcting lenses, as

formerly mentioned, make a similar adjustment).

• When photographing historic maps, photos,

and other historic documents. The camera

lens needs to be positioned parallel to the

plane of the document to avoid image distortion. A light standard can also be used to

position a camera lens in parallel alignment to a

historic document (a magnifying lens should be

used when photographing historic documents).

A tripod is essential to the technique of repeat field

photography, where an earlier or historic photograph is re-shot from the same vantage point.

(See “Repeat Photography” later in this section for

further information on this analytical technique.)

Further Considerations

Field photography should be timed with respect

to the altitude (elevation above the horizon) and

azimuth (cardinal position) of the sun to avoid

deep, obscuring shadows. A light meter is essential for accurate exposures. Large format cameras

require the use of a hand-held light meter. If the

scale of the subject in the photograph is important, a scale-stick painted with alternating black

and white foot increments may be positioned

within the frame. A more refined method for

scaling the subject of a photograph is to use a

scaled grid situated in front of the camera lens.

This is particularly useful for planar features

(without using photogrammetry). Regardless of

how much the image size of the photograph is

subsequently enlarged or reduced, the scale of

the subject can be calculated from the imposed

grid. (See A Guide to Cultural Landscape Reports: Appendices, "Appendix C: National Register Bulletins.“)

Archiving Photographs

Photographs provide a record of a cultural

landscape’s appearance at a particular moment in

time and they become primary sources for future

reference and historical research. It is important,

therefore, to ensure the longevity of photographs

by archiving them properly.

All photographs printed in a CLR should be

archived, but not all photographs taken during

CLR preparation need to be archived. The

expense of archival materials and equipment may

preclude all photographs being archived, and it

may not be necessary to archive the photographs

taken as supplemental records. The decision to

render certain film and prints archival quality can

be made at the time of film processing. Contact

sheets are a useful tool for reviewing all the

photographs and selecting which ones to be

developed as archival quality.

Special processing techniques are applied to

photographs selected for archiving. The negatives and prints are washed for a longer period

of time to ensure that the chemicals that develop and fix the image are completely removed

so that the image does not continue to develop.

Negatives and fiber-based contact prints (as

opposed to resin-coated prints) are washed with

hyporemover as one of the last steps in darkroom processing. Selenium toner is added to

the hyporemover to increase archival stability.
G R A P H I C D O C U M E N T A T I O N 21

Archival quality negatives and prints should be

deposited with the park upon completion of a

CLR. Negatives should be stored in archival

plastic sleeves and clearly labeled with location

name and the date shot. Field records are used

to create a descriptive caption list, classified

according to the numbers on the negatives. The

caption list should be printed on acid-free bond

paper and attached to the negative sleeve for

storage. Large and medium format negative

sleeves are large enough to be captioned directly

on the sleeve. The Library of Congress’ standards

for archiving contact prints require prints to be

inserted into photo mount cards, which are

labeled and captioned. Each photo mount card is

separated from its neighbor by a sheet of acidfree (neutral pH) bond paper. They are then

housed in acid-free, lignin-free, high alpha cellulose folders stored horizontally inside map

cases or flat file boxes. Vertical storage is not

Figure 13. High-altitude, oblique aerial photograph of Fort Scott in the Presidio, indicating broad patterns of spatial organization,

topography, land use, and vegetation. Golden Gate National Recreation Area. (NPS, 1993)

recommended, as this may lead to curling. The

archival storage containers are then kept in a

climate-controlled environment.

Aerial Photographs

Aerial photographs are used for graphic documentation

and analysis and evaluation of cultural landscapes. (See

Figure 13.) Aerial photography makes use of large lens

cameras mounted on aircraft or orbiting satellites to

shoot images of the earth surface. If aerial photography

is used in the analysis and evaluation of a landscape,

black and white and color infrared films may be used to

elicit more information from the photograph. As a

graphic documentation tool, aerial photographs

provide objective records of the appearance of a

landscape at a specific moment. Aerial photographs are

particularly effective in documenting broad landscape

patterns, such as land use, spacial organization, settlement, vegetation, and circulation networks.
22 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

The graphic record of aerial photographs may be

important in the documentation of landscapes for

which a topographic survey is not available.

Graphic information from an aerial photograph

may be transferred by hand to a plan drawing of

the landscape or captured digitally by using computer aerial photogrammetry to produce a computer-generated plan. Relatively low altitude, aerial

photographs can be flown and shot at a scale as

detailed as 1 inch = 200 feet, depending upon the

scale of the landscape and the type of information

to be recorded. Clear skies are essential for

shooting effective aerial photographs. Depending

on documentation objectives, other factors may be

important in scheduling aerial photography services, such as the amount of leaf coverage on

vegetation and minimal shadow length. Exact

location and timing may be important where an

aerial photograph is taken as a repeat photograph;

that is, to serve as a matched pair with a historic

photograph for direct comparison of landscape

characteristics and associated features.

See “Aerial Photography Analysis” later in this

text for more information on aerial photography.

For more information on computer-generated

plans from aerial photographs, see “Computer

Aerial Photogrammetry.” For more information

on taking a contemporary photograph to match a

historic photograph for analysis and evaluation of

landscape change, see “Repeat Photography.”

Photogrammetry

Photogrammetry combines perpendicular photography, either field or aerial, with geometry.

Photogrammetry makes use of stereophotograph

pairs to create orthographically rectified, measured drawings (perpendicular to the plane of the

subject). These drawings may be in the form of

elevations (terrestrial) or plans (aerial).

Traditional drawings are created by hand-tracing

the “optical model” produced by overlapping

paired stereophotographs within a plotting

instrument. These stereophotographs are developed from plate glass negatives and printed on

resin-coated contact paper. The durability of

fibrous contact paper is substituted for measurable accuracy (resin-coated contact paper is not

subject to the stretching or distortion possible

with fibrous paper). However, plate glass negatives, especially when prepared with extra washing, are the most durable photographic media.

Photogrammetry can now be performed by

computer technology using digitizing equipment

and CAD. Photogrammetric stereophotographs

can be archived as digital files on disks, photoCDs, or tapes. The durability of these storage

media is yet to be established.

Computer Aerial Photogrammetry

Perpendicular aerial photographs can be transformed into accurately georeferenced base maps

using photogrammetry. A photogrammetric

camera lens corrects radial distortion to produce

an orthographically rectified photograph. Traditionally, photogrammetry involved tracing an

ortho-rectified photograph to obtain a scaled

drawing. Current photogrammetric technology

consists of digitizing equipment and CAD software that turns photographic images into CAD

drawings. (See Figure 14.)
G R A P H I C D O C U M E N T A T I O N 23

In geographic regions with predominantly deciduous vegetation, the most revealing time of the year

to perform aerial photogrammetry is during the

dormant season. At this time more of the earth’s

surface is exposed due to the absence of vegetation canopies and a higher resolution is possible.

Generally, the window of opportunity is from early

December to early April, with mid-March often

being the optimal time for clarity. In March,

shadows are smaller and dead leaves are no

longer clinging to trees. A quality photogrammetry product is also dependent on clear, sunny

weather conditions.

Contracting Computer Aerial

Photogrammetry Services

Commercial photogrammetry services can be

contracted. The end product is delivered in the

form of a digital file on disk or as a hard copy on

paper or other media. Preparing a project

agreement (scope of work) for contracting aerial

photogrammetry services to create a base map

may require knowledge of the following:

• Location of base map. The location is preferably given by Universal Transerve Mercator

(UTM) coordinates or latitude and longitude

Figure 14. Topographic survey map generated by computer aerial photogrammetry. Weir Farm National Historic Site. (NPS, 1992)
24 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

coordinates with a vertical reference point (that

is, a control point of known elevation). The

requirement for a vertical reference point may

not be necessary for aerial photography, but is

essential to photogrammetry. Vertical reference points can be white crosses painted on

the ground, utility poles, or even traffic arrows

on roads of known elevation.

• Scale of base map. It may not be necessary to

specify the scale of the aerial photograph for the

base map, or the flight altitude to the contractor.

The contractor should have the expertise to

determine the most efficient method to produce a base map of the desired scale.

• Contour interval. This is determined according

to the scale and extent of topographic relief of

a landscape and the potential use of the information (for example, the management objectives of a CLR).

• Additional information to be mapped. Additional information required, such as property

boundaries, structure footprints, roads, drives

and footpaths, hydrologic features, vegetation

types, trees over 6-inch caliper, and major

shrubs may be indicated.

• Product format. The base map-product should

be in hard copy form or as a digital file on

CAD. If CAD is used, the contractor will need

further information about the configuration of

layers and layer classification (for example,

vegetation, topography, hydrology, boundaries, and structures may be organized as

different CAD layers). In either case, the

degree of vertical and horizontal accuracy

should be specified.

Photographic Analysis and Evaluation

Photographs are used in cultural landscape

research to analyze and evaluate a cultural

landscape’s chronological development and to

graphically document its appearance. (See

Figure 15.) In analysis and evaluation, photographs are used for comparison, to verify other

data, to understand the influences that have

shaped a landscape, and to measure the extent

to which change has taken place. Other

sources of data, such as historic records, maps,

and other photographs, are used with contemporary or historic photographs to interpret the

history of a landscape.

Both field and aerial photographs are useful in

photographic analysis and evaluation. Contemporary aerial and field photographs can be shot from

the same vantage point as a dated historic photograph, thereby serving as a matched pair of repeat

photographs for direct comparison of changes

since a known period.

Figure 15. National Park Service staff person, Troy Siefert,

examining an aerial photograph. (NPS, 1993)
G R A P H I C D O C U M E N T A T I O N 25

Repeat Photography

Repeat photography is the technique of locating

the site of a dated, historic photograph, reoccupying

the original camera position, and shooting a

contemporary photograph of the landscape,

landscape characteristics and associated features

from the same vantage point. Preferably, the

photographer uses the same focal length camera

lens and shoots the photo at the same time of

day as the original photograph. This provides

the best conditions for comparing the contemporary and historic photographs.

The pair of photographs is referred to as a

matched pair of repeat photographs. Depending

on the objectives of the analysis and evaluation, the

time interval between matched photographs may

be decades, seasons, or even seconds (as in the

case of photographing landscape change during a

volcanic eruption). Matched pairs of photographs

are more directly comparable when the direction

and length of shadows in each photograph is

similar, though valid interpretations can be made

from photographs that are matched less closely.

(See Figures 16 and 17.)

Repeat photographs can be used to interpret the

nature, rate, and direction of change in a cultural

landscape, to evaluate the cause(s) of perceived

change, and to establish new photographic

records for future analysis of change.

Sources of Inaccuracy

Old photographs can be misleading and should

be used cautiously for analysis and evaluation.

Photographs taken before the advent of panchromatic film in the 1930s can be unrealistic in

depicting the conditions of the time. Early films

were not sensitive to red light and overly sensitive to blue light. As a result, red is not distinguished from black, and the sky in historic

photographs may appear white, with the distant

landscape appearing faint, or not being represented at all.

Historic photographs taken with artistic motives

may also be misleading due to tricks in the use of

perspective or depth of field, or the creative use of

lighting. Historic photographs may also be unrepresentative of the typical condition of the time, which

may have been the photographer’s motive in

taking the photograph. To counter the effects of

inaccuracy due to the personal biases of photographers, it is best to use historic photographs from a

variety of sources.

Performing the Technique

Matched pairs of repeat photographs are most

directly comparable if they are taken at the same

time of year, at the same time of day, are the

same size photograph, and encompass the same

area. Matched photographs taken with the same

focal length of lenses will encompass the same

area with the same resolution. If a different focal

length lens is used for the contemporary photograph, the photographs may be rendered similar

by enlarging or reducing and cropping during the

printing process.

To repeat a historic photograph, position the

camera lens at the same location as the historic lens

and aim the lens at the same subject. (See Figures
26 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

Figure 16. A nineteenth century photograph. John Day Fossil Beds National Monument. (NPS, 1893)

Figure 17. A repeat photograph of the landscape shown in Figure 16. John Day Fossil Beds National Monument. (NPS, 1992)
G R A P H I C D O C U M E N T A T I O N 27

18 and 19.) Do not attempt to frame the new

photograph to match the outline of the old; this will

result in error in the position of the camera lens.

The correct position and aim of the camera lens is

found by using the parallax apparent in the historic

photograph (that is, the apparent distortion due to

the effect of perspective). A copy of the historic

photograph must be taken into the field. The

foreground features that exist in the center of the

field of view of the historic photograph can be used

to align the camera. Near and distant features in the

center of the field of view are aligned through the

camera as in the historic photograph. The photographer then moves the camera toward or away from

the field of view, so that peripheral features are

aligned and parallax is correct with their appearance

in the historic photograph. If no foreground features

exist or none are close enough to use the parallax

method, the historic camera position must be found

by comparing the ratios of horizontal and vertical

distances in the historic photograph with the image

through the camera lens. To make the comparison

more direct, a negative of the historic photograph

may be placed beneath the mirror of a 35mm

camera so that the historic image can be seen

through the viewfinder.

If it is important to reproduce the historic conditions as closely as possible, astronomical tables

can be used to estimate the altitude and azimuth

of the sun in historic photographs. The altitude

and azimuth of the sun affect the character of

shadows and highlights in historic photographs.

Therefore, when taking repeat photographs of

structures, geologic formations, landscape architectural details, and topographic relief, it may be

important to match the length and direction of

shadows in the historic image. This may be

unimportant for historic photographs taken on a

cloudy day, or at noon on a sunny day.

It is useful to create a permanent record of the

camera station for future repeat photograph

analysis. The camera station is directly below

Figure 19. A repeat photograph of the landscape in shown

Figure 18. This later photograph indicates some encroachment

of woody growth into the meadow. Vanderbilt Mansion

National Historic Site. (NPS, 1991)

Figure 18. A photograph of the lower meadows of Vanderbilt

Mansion National Historic Site. (NPS, c. 1950s)
28 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

the camera lens and is determined by suspending a plumb bob beneath the camera tripod.

Photographers use steel rods driven into the

ground, or star-shaped drill holes in rocks to

mark camera stations. A record of the camera

station should be noted on the archival sleeve

of the negatives of repeat photographs, along

with captions. This should include the angle and

inclination of the camera lens at the camera

station.

Aerial Photograph Analysis

Aerial photograph analysis is a well-developed

discipline. Experts can be found in the professions

of landscape architecture, geography, forestry,

anthropology, and archeology. Aerial photography

has been used for observation of earth processes

and environmental analysis for more than 60 years.

It is a technologically advanced form of photography that uses large-lens cameras mounted on

either low or high altitude aircraft or orbiting

satellites to shoot images of the earth surface.

Aerial photography analysis is a form of remote

sensing, examining earth features from a distant

platform situated above a target area. Aerial photographs are also valuable research tools for providing

a graphic record of the appearance of a cultural

landscape during a particular period. In analysis and

evaluation, aerial photographs from known, successive periods can be compared and interpreted to

verify and expand on the historical record.

An expert in aerial photograph analysis can derive

highly refined information on natural resources

(such as soils, geology, geomorphology, hydrologic

patterns, climate, and vegetation), as well as

cultural resources. (See Figure 20.) Current aerial

photographs may be used to create a base map

of existing conditions. (See Figures 21 and 22.) If

an aerial photograph is used to create a base

map, a lower altitude photograph (that is, larger

scale, such as 1 inch = 200 feet) is usually flown.

If aerial photographs are used to analyze changing

physical conditions over time, higher altitude,

archival photographs obtained from the United

States Geological Survey Earth Resource Observation Systems (EROS) Data Center may be

useful.

Computer aided technologies that build on

traditional aerial photography include computer

aerial photogrammetry and geographic information systems (GIS). Computer aerial photogrammetry represents the most current technology in deriving base maps from aerial photographs. (Refer to “Computer Aerial Photogrammetry” earlier in this text for more information). As a form of spatial data, aerial photographs are now implicitly related to the development of geographic information systems. GIS

takes aerial photograph analysis to a new level

of resolution in which aerial photographs are

scanned into a computer and georeferenced

with other layers of data sources, such as

traditional cartographic maps, geology maps,

soil surveys, and historic property maps. Direct comparison of multiple spatial data layers

enables a more comprehensive understanding

of the physical nature of cultural landscapes and

the change that has occurred over time. (See

Landscape Lines 10: Geographic Information

Systems.)
G R A P H I C D O C U M E N T A T I O N 29

Figure 20. Aerial photograph of land near the Black Hills, South Dakota. Analysis of the photograph reveals information about drainage

patterns, geology, geomorphology and climate. (NPS)

Aerial photographs may reveal the dynamics of

change in landscape characteristics, such as the

manipulation of topography, change in hydrologic

patterns, the introduction of a particular land

use, the settlement and development of a

landscape, and modifications to a historic designed landscape throughout the twentieth

century. Aerial photographs can also reveal

patterns of physical disturbance and evidence of

former human occupation that may not be

apparent in the field, such as road traces, tree

locations, and field patterns. Information derived

from the analysis and evaluation of historic aerial

photographs may be transcribed on a base map

to create a sequence of period plans. (Refer to

“Line Drawing Documentation” earlier in this text

for guidelines on plan drawing.)

Obtaining Archival Aerial

Photographs for Cultural

Landscape Analysis and Evaluation

The Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS)

Data Center in Sioux Falls, South Dakota, is the

United States Geological Survey (USGS) archive

center for federal agency aerial photographs. The

photographs, dating from 1940, represent the

collection of twenty federal agencies and programs.
30 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

Figure 21. Aerial photograph documenting President Theodore Roosevelt’s home in 1992 during leaf-off conditions. Sagamore Hill

National Historic Site. (NPS, 1992)

Figure 22. Existing conditions plan (1 inch = 200 feet scale) generated in AutoCAD using the 1992 aerial photograph of the property.

Sagamore Hill National Historic Site. (NPS, 1993)
G R A P H I C D O C U M E N T A T I O N 31

The photographs range in film type from colorinfrared, black and white, and natural color, to

black and white infrared. The federal government

recently standardized aerial surveys to avoid

repetition and achieve uniform quality and

coverage. Before federal aerial surveys were

standardized, photographs were shot in geographic locations where studies were being

conducted. Photographs were taken from different

altitudes using various types of film. As a result,

coverage of the states is uneven among the older

acquisitions in the collection.

The 1987-1991 National Aerial Photography

Program (NAPP) produced cloud-free aerial

photographs with color infrared film of the 48

contiguous states at a scale of 1:40,000 (1 inch

= 0.6 miles). Each photograph shows an area of

5 x 5 miles. Black and white photographs,

derived from the color-infrared film, can be

ordered. Prior to the NAPP program, between

1981 and 1987, the National High Altitude

Photography Program (NHAP) generated most

aerial photographs for the USGS. The NHAP

program shot black and white aerial photographs at a scale of 1:80,000 (1 inch = 1.26

miles), with each photograph showing an area of

11 x 11 miles. The NHAP program also shot

color-infrared film with a scale of 1:58,000 (1

inch = 0.9 miles). Each photograph shows an

area of 8 x 8 miles.

The EROS Data Center also receives, processes,

and distributes data images from the National

Atmospheric and Space Administration (NASA)

Landsat satellites. These data include aerial photos

in the scale range of 1:30,000 to 1:120,000. The

film coverage varies from color-infrared to black

and white. These Landsat photographs can also be

purchased from the center.

The availability of specific NAPP and NHAP photography can be determined using a microfiche-based

indexing system keyed to areas of USGS

1:250,000-scale maps. Either microfiche or enlarged paper copies of the microfiche are available

for the particular geographic area of interest.

Sources of Archival Aerial Photographs

Customer Services - NAPP

USGS - EROS Data Center

Sioux Falls, SD 57198

Aerial Photography Division (East)

U.S. Department of Agriculture

45 French Broad Avenue

Asheville, NC 28802

Aerial Photography Division (West)

U.S. Department of Agriculture

2505 Parley’s Way

Salt Lake City, UT 84102

Aerial Photography Field Office

Agricultural Stabilization and

Conservation Service

U.S. Department of Agriculture

2222 West 2300 South

Salt Lake City, UT 84125

Cartographic Archives Division

National Archives

Washington, DC 20408
32 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

The National Archives contains federal aerial

surveys conducted by the Agricultural Stabilization

and Conservation Service, Soil Conservation

Service, Forest Service, Geological Survey, and

Bureau of Reclamation between 1935 and 1942.

The guide, titled Aerial Photographs in the

National Archives (Special List No. 25). 1973, is

available from the National Archives.

Contracting Aerial Photography

Services

In preparing a project agreement (scope of work)

for contracting aerial photography services, the

following information may be required.

• Scale of aerial photograph. 1" = 200' is approximately the largest scale—the lowest

altitude—that an aircraft can fly (due to aviation

law). Although the level of resolution of the

image is set by the scale at which the original

photograph is taken, the scale of the image can

be subsequently enlarged.

• Location of the aerial photograph. The location

is most accurately denoted by UTM boundary

coordinates. A contractor may accept boundaries drawn on a USGS 7.5 minute topographic

quadrangle as an adequate guide to location.

• Lens size. The frame size of the photograph is

determined by the camera lens size. Lens sizes

in common use range from 6 to 12 inches,

with 12 inches producing the larger frame. A

12-inch lens may be more appropriate for a

large scale photograph.

• Type of film. Aerial photography film ranges

from color-infrared, black and white, and

natural color, to black and white-infrared.

Natural color photographs are grayer than

natural color is ordinarily perceived. Color

infrared and black and white infrared photos

may be more revealing for environmental

analyses than natural color. Infrared photographs may reveal different ecosystem or

vegetation types more clearly than natural color

photographs, and infrared can provide additional information on biomass production and

ecosystem health.

• Type of shot—stereo or spot shot. If a relatively small landscape or area of a landscape

can fit within a single aerial photograph frame, a

spot shot may be most appropriate. However,

for large landscapes, a series of photographs

may be taken. A series of stereophotographs

have the additional benefit of being useful for

analysis purposes. Stereophotographs have 58-

65 percent overlap between frames. Consequently, paired stereo frames can be observed

through stereo glasses for three-dimensional

analysis of the aerial photographs.

• Orientation of shot—vertical or oblique. It is

assumed that aerial photographs are taken

vertically (that is, oriented perpendicular to the

earth’s surface) unless otherwise specified.

Vertical shots have the least horizontal distortion of the earth’s surface. Oblique shots are

taken for illustrative effects to expose the

verticality of such elements as building facades

and trees.

• Product format. Aerial photographs can be

delivered as film negatives, film positives,

contact prints, or as electronic files on computer disk or photo CD, and reproduced or

enlarged onto mylar, blueprint, or bond paper
G R A P H I C D O C U M E N T A T I O N 33

media. The form of product may depend on

management objectives (that is, how the

aerial photograph will be used) and archive

considerations.

REFERENCES

Photographic Documentation and

Analysis References

Adams, Ansel. 1983. The New Ansel Adams

Photography Series. Vols. 1-4. Massachusetts:

New York Graphic Society.

________. 1983. Examples: The Making of 40

Photographs. Massachusetts: Little, Brown.

________. 1995. Ansel Adams: The National

Park Service Photographs. New York: Artabras.

Athearn, Frederic J. 1994. A Window to the

Past—A View to the Future: A guide to

Photodocumenting Historic Places. Denver:

Bureau of Land Management.

________. 1996. National Register Bulletin 23:

How to Improve the Quality of Photographs for

National Register Nominations. Denver, Colorado: Bureau of Land Management.

Borchers, Perry, E. 1977. Photogrammetric

Recording of Cultural Resources. Washington,

DC: USDI, NPS.

Boucher, Jack, E. Suggestions for Producing

Publishable Photographs. Washington, DC:

National Trust for Historic Preservation.

________. 1988. A Record in Detail: The

Architectural Photographs of Jack E. Boucher.

Missouri: University of Missouri Press. (Available

from University of Missouri Press, 200 Lewis

Hall, Columbia, MD 65211.)

Burns, John A. 1989. Recording Historic Structures. Historic American Buildings Survey and

Historic American Engineering Record. Washington, DC: The American Institute of Architects

Press. (Available from AIA Order Department, 9

Jay Gould Court, P.O. Box 753, Waldorf, MD

20601.)

Chambers, H., AIA. 1973. Rectified Photography and Photo Drawing for Historic Preservation. Washington, DC: USDI, NPS.

Dean, Jeff. 1981. Architectural Photography,

Techniques for Architects, Preservationists,

Historians, Photographers and Urban Planners.

Nashville: American Association of State and

Local History.

Drager, D.L., and T.R. Lyons. 1985. Remote

Sensing: Photogrammetry in Archeology: The

Chaco Mapping Project, Supplement No. 10.

Supplement to “Remote Sensing: A Handbook

for Archeologists and Cultural Resource Managers.” New Mexico: USDI, NPS, Cultural Resources Management Division.

Eastman Kodak Company. 1985. Conservation of

Photographs. New York: Kodak.
34 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

Historic American Buildings Survey/ Historic

American Engineering Record. 1984. Specifications for the Production of Photographs (for the

use and guidance of contract photographers).

Washington, DC: USDI, NPS, Cultural Resources, HABS/ HAER.

Lowe, John “Jet.” 1987. Industrial Eye. Photographs by Jet Lowe from the Historic American

Engineering Record. Washington, DC: National

Trust for Historic Preservation. (Available from

Decatur House Museum Shop, 1600 H Street

NW, Washington, DC 20006. Publication #ISBN

0-89133-124-7.)

May, Linda L. 1993. History Through the

Camera’s Eye: Preserving America’s Architectural

and Engineering Heritage. Photo Electronic

Imaging 36 (6).

Rogers, G., Malde, H., and R. Turner. 1984.

Bibliography of Repeat Photography for Evaluating

Landscape Change. Utah: University of Utah Press.

Rothenberg, Jeff. 1995. Ensuring the Longevity of

Digital Documents. Scientific American (January):

42-47.

Schaefer, John Paul. 1992. Basic Technique of

Photography: An Ansel Adams Guide. 1st ed.

Massachusetts: Little, Brown.

Wilhelm, Henry. 1993. The Permanence and

Care of Color Photographs. Iowa: Preservation

Publishers.

Aerial Photography References

Avery, Thomas Eugene. 1985. Interpretation of

Aerial Photographs. 4th ed. Minnesota: Burgess

Pub.

________. 1992. Fundamentals of Remote

Sensing and Airphoto Interpretation. 5th ed.

New York: Macmillan.

Blan, J. 1985. An Aerial Photogrammetrical

Analysis of the Hopeton National Historic

Landmark, Ross County, Ohio. Cultural Resources Research Laboratory, Cleveland, Ohio.

Prepared for the Archeological Services Department, Ohio Historic Preservation Office, Columbus and the Midwest Archeological Center.

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The mission of the Department of the Interior is to protect

and provide access to our Nation’s natural and cultural

heritage and honor our trust responsibilities to tribes.

U.S. Department of the Interior

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