NREL is a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy

Operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy

Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308

Siting Solar Photovoltaics at 

Airports

Preprint

Alicen Kandt and Rachel Romero

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

To be presented at Solar 2014

San Francisco, California

July 6–10, 2014

Conference Paper

NREL/CP-7A40-62304

June 2014
NOTICE

The submitted manuscript has been offered by an employee of the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC 

(Alliance), a contractor of the US Government under Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308. Accordingly, the US 

Government and Alliance retain a nonexclusive royalty-free license to publish or reproduce the published form of 

this contribution, or allow others to do so, for US Government purposes.

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States government. 

Neither the United States government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, 

express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of 

any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately 

owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, 

trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, 

or favoring by the United States government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors 

expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States government or any agency thereof.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy

Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications. 

Available electronically at http://www.osti.gov/scitech

Available for a processing fee to U.S. Department of Energy

and its contractors, in paper, from:

U.S. Department of Energy

Office of Scientific and Technical Information

P.O. Box 62

Oak Ridge, TN 37831-0062

phone: 865.576.8401

fax: 865.576.5728

email: mailto:reports@adonis.osti.gov

Available for sale to the public, in paper, from:

U.S. Department of Commerce

National Technical Information Service

5285 Port Royal Road

Springfield, VA 22161

phone: 800.553.6847

fax: 703.605.6900

email: orders@ntis.fedworld.gov

online ordering: http://www.ntis.gov/help/ordermethods.aspx

Cover Photos: (left to right) photo by Pat Corkery, NREL 16416, photo from SunEdison, NREL 17423, photo by Pat Corkery, NREL 

16560, photo by Dennis Schroeder, NREL 17613, photo by Dean Armstrong, NREL 17436, photo by Pat Corkery, NREL 17721.
1

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

SITING SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS AT AIRPORTS

Alicen Kandt, Rachel Romero

National Renewable Energy Laboratory 

15013 Denver West Parkway 

Golden, CO 80401 

Alicen.kandt@nrel.gov

Rachel.romero@nrel.gov

ABSTRACT

Airports present a significant opportunity for hosting solar 

technologies due to their open land; based on a 2010 

Federal Aviation Administration study1

, the US 

Department of Agriculture, and the US Fish and Wildlife 

Service, there’s potential for 116,704 MW of solar 

photovoltaics (PV) on idle lands at US airports.2 PV has a 

low profile and likely low to no impact on flight 

operations. 

This paper outlines guidance for implementing solar 

technologies at airports and airfields, focusing largely on 

the Federal Aviation Administration’s policies. The paper 

also details best practices for siting solar at airports, 

provides information on the Solar Glare Hazard Analysis 

Tool3

, and highlights a case study example where solar 

has been installed at an airport. 

1. BACKGROUND

Airports and airfields present a significant opportunity for 

hosting solar technologies due to large amounts of open 

land. A study conducted by the Federal Aviation 

Administration (FAA), U.S. Department of Agriculture 

(USDA), and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) 

stated that in 2010 there were approximately 15,000 

airports in the United States.4 Of those, 2,915 were 

considered significant to national air transportation and 

are included in the National Plan of Integrated Airport 

Systems. The authors estimated there are approximately 

3,306 square kilometers (816,930 acres) of grassland 

within the 2,915 significant airport properties in the 

contiguous United States.5 The authors contend that 

grasslands are representative of idle lands at airports. 

Assuming that 7 acres of grassland could host 1 MW of 

fixed-axis (non-tracking) photovoltaics (PV), there’s 

potential for 116,704 MW of PV on idle lands at airports 

in the United States. These calculations exclude small and 

military airfields, and thus are conservative. 

2. SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS

PV arrays convert sunlight to electricity. The systems 

require very little maintenance, make no noise, and 

operate without moving parts and without producing air 

pollution or greenhouse gases. Arrays can be mounted on 

buildings and structures (such as parking garages) or 

ground-mounted on supporting poles or racks. The arrays 

produce direct current (DC), which can be conditioned 

into grid-quality alternating current (AC) electricity or 

used to charge batteries. A typical PV cell converts 

approximately 14% of the solar energy striking its surface 

into usable electricity.6

The amount of electricity a system produces depends on 

the system type, orientation, and the available solar 

resource (the amount of the sun’s energy reaching the 

earth’s surface, which varies across the United States). A 

higher solar resource means more of the sun’s energy is 

reaching the surface, which is optimal for PV system 

performance. Resources are highest in the Southwest, and 

fairly high in the western states, Texas, and Florida.

The cost of PV-generated electricity has dropped 15- to 

20-fold in the last 40 years. Grid-connected PV systems 

sell for $0.20/kWh–$0.32/kWh in 2011, or about $5/Wp

$8/Wp, including support structures and power 

conditioning equipment. Costs reported for PV projects 

are decreasing rapidly, so a local solar installer may be 

the best source of current cost information. Operation and 

maintenance costs are reported at $0.008/kWh produced, 
2

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

or at 0.17% of capital cost without tracking and 0.35% 

with tracking.7 The systems are very reliable and last 20 

years or longer.8

PV system installations at airports cost marginally more 

than those for systems sited in other locations. Additional 

costs could be incurred for project planning and 

coordination with FAA and related glare/glint studies.

A variety of financing mechanisms help facilitate PV 

system installations. Third-party financing, in which an 

entity finances, owns, and operates the system, is a 

mechanism for installing a PV system for little or no 

capital and is most often utilized for commercial- or 

utility-scale systems. These include power purchase 

agreements, energy savings performance contracts, and 

utility energy services contracts.9 The FAA also operates 

the Voluntary Airport Low Emissions (VALE) program, 

which helps airport sponsors meet their state-related air 

quality responsibilities under the Clean Air Act.10

Through VALE, airport sponsors can be eligible for funds 

to help support the procurement and installation of PV 

systems. 

3. GUIDANCE FOR INSTALLING PV AT 

AIRPORTS

The FAA regulates and oversees all aspects of American 

civil aviation.11 Generally, solar projects are reviewed at 

the regional level; FAA Headquarters becomes involved 

only if a project requires additional resources or presents 

a complex problem.12 

The FAA has an interest in solar energy for many reasons. 

It supports modernization and improved efficiency, and as 

such, supports appropriate solar projects. The FAA is 

sometimes a PV operator, generally at remote or off-grid 

facilities. It ensures solar projects are sited properly and 

do not cause safety problems for aviation or interfere with 

aeronautical and airport activities. Specifically, the FAA 

wants to ensure solar systems do not create glint (a 

momentary flash of bright light) or glare (a continuous 

source of bright light). The FAA has determined that glint 

and glare from typical ground-mounted solar energy 

systems could have an ocular impact to pilots and/or air 

traffic control facilities and compromise the safety of the 

air transportation system.13 

3.1 Technical Guidance for Evaluating Selected 

Solar Technologies on Airports

In November 2010, the FAA released a document titled 

Technical Guidance for Evaluating Selected Solar 

Technologies on Airports.

14 The FAA created this 

document to provide a readily usable reference for FAA 

technical staff who review proposed airport solar projects 

and for airport sponsors that may be considering solar 

installations. It addresses solar technology, electricity grid 

infrastructure, FAA safety regulations, financing 

alternatives, incentives, case studies, etc.15 

This is currently the only publically available and 

federally issued guidance for installing solar technologies 

at airports; it is a good reference for all relevant 

stakeholders. It includes a checklist of FAA procedures to 

ensure the systems are safe and pose no risk to pilots, air 

traffic controllers, or airport operations. 

A note on the initial page of the report reads: 

As of October 23, 2013, the FAA is reviewing 

multiple sections of the Technical Guidance for 

Evaluating Selected Solar Technologies on 

Airports based on new information and field 

experience, particularly with respect to 

compatibility and glare. All users of this 

guidance are hereby notified that significant 

content in this document may be subject to 

change, and the FAA cautions users against 

relying solely on this document at this time. 

Users should refer instead to the interim policy 

(http://federalregister.gov/a/2013-24729).

The interim policy is detailed below; however, it states 

that in late 2013 the FAA planned to publish an update to 

the November 2010 Technical Guidance for Evaluating 

Selected Solar Technologies on Airports. This update will 

include the standards for measuring glint and glare 

outlined in the interim policy. It will also provide 

enhanced criteria to ensure the proper siting of a solar 

energy installation to eliminate the potential for harmful 

glare to pilots or air traffic control facilities.16 As of May 

27, 2014, the FAA has not yet issued an update to the 

technical guidance. 

3.2 Interim Policy, FAA Review of Solar Energy 

System Projects on Federally Obligated Airports

On Oct. 23, 2013, the FAA posted a notice on the Federal 

Register, titled Interim Policy, FAA Review of Solar 

Energy System Projects on Federally Obligated Airports. 

The notice states that in 2012, the FAA partnered with the 

US Department of Energy “to establish a standard for 

measuring glint and glare, and clear thresholds for when 

glint and glare would impact aviation safety. The 

standards that this working group developed are set forth 

in this notice.”17 The notice also reads: 

The FAA is adopting an interim policy because it 

is in the public interest to enhance safety by 

clarifying and adding standards for measuring 

ocular impact of proposed solar energy systems. 

FAA will consider comments and make 
3

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

appropriate modifications before issuing a final 

policy in a future Federal Register Notice. The 

policy applies to any proposed solar energy 

system that has not received unconditional 

airport layout plan (ALP) approval or a “no 

objection” from the FAA on a filed 7460-1, 

Notice of Proposed Construction or Alteration. 

The FAA expects to continue to update these 

policies and procedures as part of an iterative 

process as new information and technologies 

become available.18

A solar energy system located on an airport that is not 

federally obligated or located outside the property of a 

federally obligated airport is not subject to this policy. 

Proponents of solar energy systems located off airport 

property or on nonfederally obligated airports are strongly 

encouraged to consider the requirements of this policy 

when siting such systems.

Considerations outlined in the notice include sponsor 

requirements to:

• Notify the FAA of its intent to construct any solar 

installation, including the intent to permit airport 

tenants, such as federal agencies, to build such 

installations.19 

o Request FAA review and approval to depict 

proposed solar installations that will either be 

ground-based installations or that are not groundbased but substantially change the footprint of a 

colocated building or structure (i.e., a roofmounted system that increases the footprint of an 

existing building or structure) on its ALP, before 

construction begins.

o Comply with the policies and procedures outlined 

in the Interim Policy to demonstrate to the FAA 

that a proposed solar energy system will not have 

an ocular impact that compromises the safety of the 

air transportation system.20 

o When siting a proposed solar energy system, limit 

the potential for inference with communication, 

navigation, and surveillance (CNS) facilities by 

ensuring that solar energy systems remain clear of 

the critical areas surrounding CNS facilities. 

3.2.1 Standards for Measuring Ocular Impact

The FAA prescribes the solar glare hazard analysis plot as 

the standard for measuring the potential ocular impact of 

any proposed solar energy system on a federally obligated 

airport. The airport sponsor must reference Solar Glare 

Ocular Hazard Plot and utilize the associated Solar Glare 

Hazard Analysis Tool (SGHAT)21 to demonstrate the 

potential for glare and glint resulting from a proposed 

solar project. Nonfederally obligated airports or solar 

systems adjacent to airports are also encouraged (but not 

required) to utilize this tool. The FAA will consider the 

use of alternative tools or methods case-by-case. 22

For an airport sponsor to obtain FAA approval to revise 

an ALP to depict a solar installation and/or a “no 

objection” to a Notice of Proposed Construction Form 

7460-1, the sponsor must demonstrate the proposed solar 

energy system meets the following standards:23

• No potential for glint or glare in the existing or 

planned airport traffic control tower (ATCT) cab

• No potential for glare or “low potential for afterimage” along the final approach path for any existing 

or future landing thresholds (including any planned 

interim phases), as shown on the current FAAapproved ALP. The final approach path is defined as 

2 miles from 50 feet above the landing threshold 

using a standard 3° glide path.

As part of the analysis, ocular impact must be examined 

over the entire calendar year in 1-minute intervals, from 

when the sun rises above the horizon until the sun sets 

below the horizon.24

SGHAT was designed to determine whether a proposed 

solar energy project would have the potential for ocular 

impact. The tool was developed by the FAA and Sandia 

National Laboratories (SNL) to provide a quantified 

assessment of (1) when and where glare will occur 

throughout the year for a prescribed solar installation and 

(2) potential effects on the human eye at locations where 

glare occurs.25 This free, web-based tool uses a Google 

map interface and requires a user to register. 

The user inputs the location of the proposed site, draws an 

outline of the proposed solar array, and provides 

additional information about the solar system, including 

height and reflectance. The user specifies observer 

locations (usually the ATCT) or flight paths. A screenshot 

of the input page is shown in Fig. 1.

If the tool finds glare, it calculates the retinal irradiance 

and subtended angle (size/distance) of the glare source to 

predict potential ocular hazards ranging from temporary 

after-image to retinal burn. The results are presented in a 

plot that specifies when glare will occur throughout the 

year; color codes indicate the potential ocular hazard. The 

tool can also predict relative energy production and 

evaluate alternative designs, layouts, and locations to 

identify configurations that maximize energy production 

and mitigate glare impacts.26
4

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Fig. 1: Input page of SGHAT. Source: SGHAT

The SGHAT user’s manual provides detailed information 

about the needed inputs, assumptions used in calculations, 

and interpreting outputs. A few important assumptions 

and limitations are outlined here:

• The software is applicable to flat reflective surfaces 

only. Focused mirrors, such as parabolic troughs or 

dishes, cannot be simulated in SGHAT.

• SGHAT simulates fixed systems only; it does not 

currently apply to tracking systems. 

• The software assumes the PV array is aligned with a 

plane defined by the total heights of the coordinates 

outlined in the Google map. 

• SGHAT does not consider manmade or natural 

obstacles such as trees, hills, and buildings between 

the observation points and the prescribed solar 

installation that may obstruct observed glare.

• The software currently uses a user-prescribed 

constant reflectance for the solar modules. The 

reflectance increases with increasing incidence 

angle.27

3.3 Siting Considerations for Airports

In addition to the aforementioned requirements, other 

considerations need to be taken into account when siting 

solar systems at or near airports. Systems should also be 

placed an appropriate distance from the runway and 

adhere to relevant safety and fire measures.

3.3.1 System Performance

An ideal solar installation would be situated in an 

unshaded, south-facing location with an optimum tilt 

angle (generally equal to latitude; see third bullet for more 

information). Not all sites are suitable for solar 

technologies. A few rules of thumb are helpful in 

determining when solar technologies are appropriate.

• Identify an unshaded area for solar PV installation, 

particularly during the peak sun hours of 9 a.m.–3 

p.m. Shade caused by trees, nearby buildings, and 

roof equipment or features such as chimneys will 

reduce the output of a solar panel.

• It is best to orient fixed-mount panels due south in 

the northern hemisphere. Siting panels so they face 

east or west of due south will decrease energy 

production. However, that effect varies by location 

and could be minimal. 

• In the area of Boulder, Colorado, for example, the 

losses due to orientation are about 4% for a panel 

facing 45° east of south and about 10% for one facing 

45° west of south (due to the mountains to the 

west).28 Such an orientation is not ideal because it 

reduces energy production; however, it may be 

necessary due to land availability constraints or to 

minimize or alleviate glint or glare.

• For locations in latitudes less than 20o, the optimal tilt 

angle for achieving the highest performance from a 

fixed-mount PV panel is equal to the latitude of a 

location. At higher latitudes, the correlation is not 

valid. A previous study analyzed the annual solar 

resource data for different latitudes.29 At a location of 

40° north latitude, an optimal tilt varies from 30° to 

35° to maximize the annual energy production. 

Fixed-mount solar panels can be flush- or tiltmounted on roofs, pole mounted on the ground, or 

integrated into building materials, such as roofs, 

windows, and awnings. However, a tilt angle equal to 

latitude is not always feasible because of factors such 

as roof pitch, wind or snow loading, or a need to 

minimize or alleviate glint and glare. The impact of a 

nonideal tilt angle varies by location and could be 

minimal. The energy production of PV systems at 

various orientation and tilt angles can be calculated 

by tools such as PVWatts.30

3.3.2 Minimizing Glare and Glint

Aside from these strategies, physical methods may reduce 

reflection from panels and the associated glare and glint. 

These include the application of antireflective coatings31

and/or texturing32 to the panels. Neither has discernable

effects on system performance but could help minimize 

reflection. 

3.3.3 Wildlife Impact

Very little information is available quantifying the 

potential impact of solar systems on wildlife, or of 

wildlife on solar system installations, at airports. The 

previously referenced study conducted by the FAA, 

USDA, and USFWS states “airports offer one of the few 

land uses where reductions in wildlife, abundance, and 

habitat quality are necessary and socially acceptable, due 

to risk of wildlife collisions with aircraft.”33 However, 
5

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

when siting solar systems at airports, it is important to 

mitigate wildlife attractants, such as perches or shade. A 

study by the USDA National Wildlife Research Center 

(NWRC) aimed to evaluate the hazard level posed by PV 

facilities to aircraft, compare bird and mammal use of the 

two land cover types (PV and open land), and provides 

findings and guidance to the FAA.34 FAA guidance does 

not yet touch on wildlife impact or mitigation strategies. 

The NWRC study compared open land with PV-covered 

land at airports in five US locations. The results indicated 

most observations at PV arrays were of perched birds. 

Birds do not present risk to aircraft when they are 

perched, either on or under panels. However, it is unclear 

if the PV arrays are drawing birds from outside the airport 

or if the observations were simply local birds that would 

be present regardless of the PV. Very little information is 

available on the effects of solar energy development on 

wildlife, which are generally assumed to be negative due 

to habitat destruction and modification. This is in contrast 

to the FAA, USDA, and USFWS study, which indicated 

solar system development is compatible with airports due 

to the need to reduce wildlife abundance and habitat 

quality. The USDA NWRC study noted that the observed 

low use of PV arrays by birds for perching or sheltering 

should facilitate solar development at airports, especially 

in regions where solar development is most promising. 

Furthermore, the study stated that “establishment of PV 

arrays could play a major role in efforts to design and 

operate “greener” airports.”35

Strategies can be used to minimize the potential for birds 

being drawn to the solar system for perching or sheltering. 

These could include spikes or other such systems on top 

of each panel to limit birds’ ability to perch, and potential 

closures or barriers behind panels to decrease the ability 

of birds or wildlife to shelter there. 

4 INSTALLATIONS

Airport lands are a relatively new application of solar PV; 

however, PV has been implemented successfully in 

dozens of airports worldwide; for example: 

• Denver International Airport (DIA): DIA, located 

in Denver, Colorado, has installed approximately 8 

MW of solar PV on its property. In 2012, DIA was 

the 11th busiest airport in the world as designated by 

passenger traffic. The solar PV installed on the 

airport land meets approximately 6% of the annual 

electricity consumption of the airport overall. 

• Indianapolis International Airport in 

Indianapolis, Indiana:36 Operating as of 2013, the 

12.5-MW system sits at the main airport exit. 

• Fresno Yosemite Airport in Fresno, California:37

The 2-MW system was constructed in 2008, and 

energy production meets approximately 60% of the 

airport’s energy demand. 

• Gatwick Airport in London, England:38 The 50-

kW system was installed in 2012 just 150 meters 

from the main runway. The installation company 

spent about six months negotiating the siting with the 

United Kingdom National Air Traffic Service and the 

Civil Aviation Authority to ensure the solar panels 

were not disruptive to the airport.

• Birmingham Airport in Birmingham, England:39

Installed in 2011, the 50-kW system was installed on 

the roof of the terminal.

• Athens International in Athens, Greece:40 In 

October 2012, the Athens airport completed 

installation of an 8-MW system on site. To ensure 

safe operation, a pilot PV unit was installed at the 

airport’s train station in 2004 to provide data for the 

newest installation.

• Ancona Falconara Airport in Falconara 

Marittima, Italy:41 The buildings surrounding the 

airport control tower have 45 kW of solar PV 

installed. Prior to the project, an analytic study was 

completed that looked at the sun and landing aircraft 

positions to ensure comfort of pilots and staff in the 

control tower.

4.1 Case Study Example

The Manchester-Boston Regional Airport in Manchester, 

New Hampshire, installed a solar 530 kW DC PV system 

on the roof of an existing six-story parking garage in 

August 2012. The system was designed to save about 

$100,000 in electric utility costs annually and more than 

$2,000,000 over the 25-year life of the project.42 The 

$3.5-million project was funded under the FAA’s VALE 

program, which covered 95% of the costs.43,44

Within the first month of installation, air traffic 

controllers started complaining about glare from the 

system (Fig. 2). The glare occurred for approximately 45 

minutes each morning, as seen from the tower, which was 

located just west of the parking garage.45 Neither aircraft 

pilots nor any airlines commented on glare issues. While 

the airport, contractor, FAA, and others sought a solution, 

approximately 25% of the system was covered with tarps. 
6

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Fig. 2: Solar PV at MHT. Source: SNL

Clifford K. Ho, Cianan A. Sims, and Julius E. Yellowhair 

from SNL used the SGHAT tool in 2012 to investigate 

possible solutions, and the results were published in the 

Solar Glare Hazard Analysis Tool (SGHAT) User’s 

Manual v. 2.0.

46 The study recommended a less reflective 

PV panel to create a perceptible glare decrease. The report 

also recommended the panels be rotated 90° to the east, 

which would point away from the air traffic control tower. 

Additional possible solutions investigated for the southfacing problem panels included:

• Moving panels

• Altering the tilt

• Adding blinds to the tower.

Based on recommendations from SNL and a separate 

study by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and 

the Volpe Center, the array is currently being 

reconstructed at 90° rotation from the current position, 

facing the east, to eliminate the glare problems. The 

rotation solution was verified with the SGHAT tool. 

Completion of the solar PV array facing east is expected 

in summer 2014 with an estimated decrease of efficiency 

by 10% for the new orientation. 

4.2 Unique Airport Applications

Solar has several unique applications at airports; for 

example:

• PV for runway deicing: The University of Arkansas 

is developing a system that utilizes PV as the energy 

source for deicing runways instead of plowing or 

applying chemicals. The solar panels convert the 

sunlight into energy, which is then stored in a battery 

bank. Energy is then sent to electrodes imbedded in 

the cement to melt the ice to keep the slab above 

freezing temperatures. Because snow and ice removal 

requires expensive equipment, large quantities of 

energy, and a high number of personnel, the 

economics of solar PV for ice melt are promising.47 

• PV in building façades: The Geneva airport recently 

installed solar PV in the balustrade in the main 

terminal. The panels are dye-sensitized solar cells 

encapsulated in glass, which were incorporated into 

the façade of the terminal. This unique application 

generates electricity, and the new windows can 

improve the energy efficiency of the space without 

sacrificing daylighting to the interior space.48 

• PV for airport lighting: The US Department of 

Defense is utilizing solar-powered obstruction lights 

at forward-operating bases. The installation of these 

lights is fast and easy; trenching, wiring, and 

disruptions in aviation operations are unnecessary. 

Solar-powered lights can be used for approach, 

runway, and taxiway lights; wind cones; precision 

approach path indicators; approach lights; and 

elevated runway guard lights.49 

5. CONCLUSIONS

Airports present a significant opportunity for hosting solar 

technologies due to large amounts of open land. In 

particular, solar PV has a low profile and the potential to 

have low to no impact on flight operations. 

Solar systems have successfully been implemented at 

dozens of airports worldwide. There have also been less 

successful installations where inadequate planning and 

analysis led to insurmountable glint and glare issues. It is 

clear successful implementation of solar systems depends 

on detailed planning and siting studies, including 

considerations for glint and glare potential, wildlife 

impacts, system performance, and safety. With sufficient 

analysis in the planning stages, solar systems should 

continue to be synergistic with airport operations. 

 

6. REFERENCES

(1) Central Intelligence Agency [CIA] (2010) The world 

factbook. Accessed online September 8, 2010. 

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/geos/us.html

(2) Assuming 7 acres of grassland could host 1 MW of 

fixed-axis (non-tracking) PV

(3) https://share.sandia.gov/phlux 

(4) “The World Factbook.” Central Intelligence Agency, 

2010. Accessed Sept. 8, 2010. 

www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/geos/us.html 
7

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

 

(5) DeVault, T.; Belant, J.; Blackwell B.; Martin, J.; 

Schmidt, J.; Burger Jr., L.; Patterson Jr., J. “Airports 

Offer Unrealized Potential for Alternative Energy 

Production.” Environmental Management (49), 2012; pp. 

517-522. www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlife_damage/ 

nwrc/publications/12pubs/devault123.pdf 

(6) “Photovoltaics Resources and Technologies.” U.S. 

Department of Energy, Office of Renewable Energy & 

Energy Efficiency, 2013. http://energy.gov/eere/femp/ 

articles/photovoltaic-resources-and-technologies 

(7) Mortensen, J. Factors Associated with Photovoltaic 

System Costs. NREL/TP-620-29649. Golden, CO: 

National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2001

(8) Guey-Lee, L. “Forces Behind Wind Power.” 

Renewable Energy 2000 (73), February 2001

(9) “Project Funding.” U.S. Department of Energy, Office 

of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, undated. 

Accessed June 2011: http://energy.gov/eere/femp/projectfunding 

(10) “Voluntary Airport Low Emissions Program 

(VALE): Airports.” Federal Aviation Administration, 

2014. www.faa.gov/airports/environmental/vale/ 

(11) “Safety: The Foundation of Everything We Do.” 

Federal Aviation Administration, 2014. 

www.faa.gov/about/safety_efficiency/. 

(12) Technical Guidance for Evaluating Selected Solar 

Technologies on Airports. Washington, D.C.: Federal 

Aviation Administration, November 2010. 

www.faa.gov/airports/environmental/policy_guidance/me

dia/airport_solar_guide_print.pdf

(13) “Interim Policy, FAA Review of Solar Energy 

System Projects on Federally Obligated Airports.” 

Federal Register, Oct. 23, 2013, 

www.federalregister.gov/articles/2013/10/23/2013-

24729/interim-policy-faa-review-of-solar-energy-systemprojects-on-federally-obligated-airports

(14) Technical Guidance for Evaluating Selected Solar 

Technologies on Airports. Washington, D.C.: Federal 

Aviation Administration, November 2010. 

www.faa.gov/airports/environmental/policy_guidance/me

dia/airport_solar_guide_print.pdf. 

(15) Technical Guidance for Evaluating Selected Solar 

Technologies on Airports. Washington, D.C.: Federal 

Aviation Administration, November 2010. 

www.faa.gov/airports/environmental/policy_guidance/me

dia/airport_solar_guide_print.pdf

(16) “Interim Policy, FAA Review of Solar Energy 

System Projects on Federally Obligated Airports.” 

Federal Register, Oct. 23, 2013. 

www.federalregister.gov/articles/2013/10/23/2013-

24729/interim-policy-faa-review-of-solar-energy-systemprojects-on-federally-obligated-airports

 

(17) “Interim Policy, FAA Review of Solar Energy 

System Projects on Federally Obligated Airports.” 

Federal Register, Oct. 23, 2013. 

www.federalregister.gov/articles/2013/10/23/2013-

24729/interim-policy-faa-review-of-solar-energy-systemprojects-on-federally-obligated-airports

(18) “Interim Policy, FAA Review of Solar Energy 

System Projects on Federally Obligated Airports.” 

Federal Register, Oct. 23, 2013. 

www.federalregister.gov/articles/2013/10/23/2013-

24729/interim-policy-faa-review-of-solar-energy-systemprojects-on-federally-obligated-airports. 

(19) The sponsor must notify FAA by filing FAA Form 

7460-1, “Notice of Proposed Construction or Alteration,” 

under 14 CFR Part 77 for a nonrulemaking case

(20) This process enables the FAA to approve amendment 

of the ALP to depict certain solar energy projects or issue 

a “no objection” finding to a filed 7460-1 form

(21) The Solar Glare Hazard Analysis Tool is available at: 

https://share.sandia.gov/phlux

(22) “Interim Policy, FAA Review of Solar Energy 

System Projects on Federally Obligated Airports.” 

Federal Register, Oct. 23, 2013. 

www.federalregister.gov/articles/2013/10/23/2013-

24729/interim-policy-faa-review-of-solar-energy-systemprojects-on-federally-obligated-airports

(23) The standards are taken verbatim from the: “Interim 

Policy, FAA Review of Solar Energy System Projects on 

Federally Obligated Airports.” Federal Register, Oct. 23, 

2013. www.federalregister.gov/articles/2013/10/23/2013-

24729/interim-policy-faa-review-of-solar-energy-systemprojects-on-federally-obligated-airports

(24) “Interim Policy, FAA Review of Solar Energy 

System Projects on Federally Obligated Airports.” 

Federal Register, Oct. 23, 2013. 

www.federalregister.gov/articles/2013/10/23/2013-

24729/interim-policy-faa-review-of-solar-energy-systemprojects-on-federally-obligated-airports

(25) Ho, C. and Sims, C. Solar Glare Hazard Analysis 

Tool (SGHAT) User’s Manual v2.0. Albuquerque, NM: 

Sandia National Laboratories, Aug. 23, 2013. 

https://share.sandia.gov/phlux/static/references/glintglare/SGHAT_Users_Manual_v2-0_final.pdf

(26) Ho, C. and Sims, C. Solar Glare Hazard Analysis 

Tool (SGHAT) User’s Manual v2.0. Albuquerque, NM: 

Sandia National Laboratories, Aug. 23, 2013. 

https://share.sandia.gov/phlux/static/references/glintglare/SGHAT_Users_Manual_v2-0_final.pdf

(27) Ho, C. and Sims, C. Solar Glare Hazard Analysis 

Tool (SGHAT) User’s Manual v2.0. Albuquerque, NM: 

Sandia National Laboratories, Aug. 23, 2013. 

https://share.sandia.gov/phlux/static/references/glintglare/SGHAT_Users_Manual_v2-0_final.pdf
8

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

 

(28) Analysis in PVWatts makes the following 

assumptions: location = Boulder, CO; tilt = latitude (40°); 

DC to AC derate factor = 0.77. Analysis was performed 

in: Kandt, A. et al. Implementing Solar PV Projects on 

Historic Buildings and in Historic Districts. NREL/TP7A40-51297. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy 

Laboratory, 2011. www.nrel.gov/docs/fy11osti/51297.pdf 

(29) Christensen, C. and Barker, G. “Effects of Tilt and 

Azimuth on Annual Incident Solar Radiation for United 

States Locations.” Presented at 2001 Solar Energy Forum, 

Washington, D.C., 2001 

(30) For more information, see: 

www.nrel.gov/rredc/pvwatts/

(31) “Anti-Reflection Coatings.” PVEducation.org, 

undated. http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/design/antireflection-coatings 

(32) “Surface Texturing,” PVEducation.org, undated, 

http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/design/surface-texturing 

(33) DeVault, T. et al. “Airports Offer Unrealized 

Potential for Alternative Energy Production.” 

Environmental Management (49), 2012; pp. 517-522. 

www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlife_damage/nwrc/publications/

12pubs/devault123.pdf 

(34) DeVault, T. et al. “Wildlife Use of Solar Facilities 

On and Near Airports.” National Wildlife Research 

Center, undated, 

www.aaae.org/?e=showFile&l=HZMIYX

(35) DeVault, T. et al. “Wildlife Use of Solar Facilities 

On and Near Airports,” National Wildlife Research 

Center, undated. 

www.aaae.org/?e=showFile&l=HZMIYX 

(36) “The Solar Farm,” Telamon, Johnson Melloh 

Solutions and Brandrenew, 2013. 

http://indsolarfarm.com/the-solar-farm/

(37) Mick, J. “Fresno-Yosemite International Leads 

Green Airport Movement.” Daily Tech, July 21, 2008. 

www.dailytech.com/FresnoYosemite+International+Lead

s+Green+Airport+Movement/article12417.htm 

(38) “Gatwick solar system hailed a runway success.” 

BusinessGreen, undated. www.businessgreen.com/ 

bg/news/2156392/gatwick-solar-cleared. 

(39) “Birmingham Airport Invests in Solar Power.” 

Birmingham Airport, Feb. 6, 2012. 

www.birminghamairport.co.uk/meta/news/2012/02/solarp

anels-news-article.aspx

(40) “Athens International begins operation of the world’s 

largest airport photovoltaic installation.” GreenAir 

Online, Oct. 12, 2012. 

www.greenaironline.com/news.php?viewStory=1350

(41) “Falconara Airport Photovoltaic System.” Convert 

Italia, 2013. http://trj.convertitalia.com/en/sucopertura/impianto-fotovoltaico-aeroporto-di-falconara/

 

(42) “Solar Project.” Manchester-Boston Regional Airport 

newsletter, Holiday 2012. www.flymanchester.com/ 

newsletters/holiday-2012/solar-project

(43) Hayward, M. “Airport controllers complain of solar 

panels’ glare.” New Hampshire Union Leader, Aug. 30, 

2012. 

www.unionleader.com/article/20120830/NEWS02/70830

9966

(44) “Solar Project.” Manchester-Boston Regional Airport 

newsletter, Holiday 2012. www.flymanchester.com/ 

newsletters/holiday-2012/solar-project

(45) Hayward, M. “Airport controllers complain of solar 

panels' glare.” New Hampshire Union Leader, Aug. 30, 

2012. www.unionleader.com/ 

article/20120830/NEWS02/708309966

(46) Ho, C. and Sims, C. Solar Glare Hazard Analysis 

Tool (SGHAT) User’s Manual v2.0. Albuquerque, NM: 

Sandia National Laboratories, Aug. 23, 2013.

https://share.sandia.gov/phlux/static/references/glintglare/SGHAT_Users_Manual_v2-0_final.pdf

(47) “Researchers Develop Runway Anti-Icing System.” 

Arkansas Newswire. University of Arkansas, Nov. 15, 

2011. http://newswire.uark.edu/articles/ 

17228/researchers-develop-runway-anti-icing-system.

(48) “g2e launches first installation at Geneva 

International Airport.” Glass 2 energy, April 4, 2013. 

http://g2e.ch/views/media_newsletter/pdf/cp_g2e_04_201

3_en.pdf

(49) “Obstruction Lighting Solutions.” Carmanah, 2014. 

http://obstructionlights.com/news/us-dod-obstructionlights/