COMMERCIAL

STANDARDS

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Photographed by Army Air Corps AIRPLANE VIEW OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS (LOOKING SOUTH)

ISSUED BY THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE UNITED

STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D. C., U. S. A.

Vol. 9, No. 5 November, 1932

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. $1.00 annually ($1 .60 foreign) ; single copy, 10 cents
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

ROY D. CHAPIN, Secretary

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

LYMAN J. BRIGGS, Acting Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY. S. F. Tillman, Editor

The Commercial Standardization Group

A. S. McAllister., Assistant Director

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE

Edwin W. Ely

The division of simplified practice cooperates with industrial and commercial groups to reduce wa^le, usually through

eliminating unnecessary variety of product, method, or

pra<fiice. Its fundfion is to bring together all parties inter- ested in a projedt of this charadter, and to coordinate their

work in developing a simplified pradlice recommendation.

Such work includes surveys of current pradtice, formulation of a simplified pradtice program, and presentation of

that program for adtion by a general conference representing

all interests. The division then transmits to all concerned

a full report of the general conference, with a requeSt for written acceptance of the adtion taken. When the volume

of acceptances is sufficient to indicate initial success, the

Department ofCommerce indorses the program and publishes

the recommendation. The division thereafter cooperates

with a Standing committee appointed by the industry concerned, in condudting periodic surveys to determine the

degree of adherence, to maintain and extend support of the

recommendation, and to secure data for reaffirmation or

revision. Simplified pradtice may be applied to any com- modity or adtivity in which it will reduce

waSte. The division Stands ready to render

service in developing and making effedtive any application of simplified pradtice which

will reduce waSte, Stabilize business, or extend commerce.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION

J. S. Taylor

The division of building and housing,

formed in 1921, cooperates with business,

technical, and professional groups in furthering conStrudtion adtivities. It works to modernize building codes and to encourage improved Standards for the quality of building conStrudtion, and the practical application of the lateSt development in design and use of building materials.

It encourages home ownership through the development

of an enlarged, Steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating demand for dwellings—the largeSt single class of

buildings which the construction industries provide.

The division also cooperates with other governmental

agencies and with many private business and professional

groups in efforts to distribute building adtivity more evenly

throughout the year and to secure less fludtuation from

year to year. The work on city planning and zoning has the broad

objedtive of making buildings more useful through proper

location with respedt to other Strudtures, Stabilizing of land

values and property uses, well coordinated thoroughfare

systems, and well laid out public works.

STANDARDIZATION

..IS.. A CONTINUING PROCESS

ITS AIM IS NOT FIXITY OR STAGNATION

..BUT.. TO ADD SERVICEABILITY

AS OFTEN AS THE

POTENTIAL GAIN

MAKES IT WORTH WHILE

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS

A. S. 'McAlliHer

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote

and facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so it carries on adtivities involving cooperation with

technical societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and

municipal Government specifications making and using

agencies; producers, distributors, and consumers; and teSting

and research laboratories. It ascertains the standardization

and specifications promoting adtivities of the associations and societies, and brings to their attention the work being

done by the commercial Standardization group. It brings the

Federal specifications and commercial Standards to the atten- tion of the maximum number of producers and users of commodities complying with these Standards and specifications.

It compiles and distributes liSts of sources of supply of materials guaranteed to comply with the Standards and specifi- cations. It shows both buyers and sellers the benefits from

handling nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The division prepares directories of governmental and

nongovernmental teSting laboratories and the Directory of

Specifications, and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the firSt two volumes of which

have been issued, namely, “Standards and

Specifications in the Wood-Using Industries”

and “Standards and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and their ProduCts.” It also

aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook.

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS

I. J. Fairchild

The division of trade Standards, on requeSt,

assists industrial and commercial groups in

the voluntary establishment of Standards

covering grades, quality, dimensional interchangeability, or other acceptance criteria as a national

basis for marketing manufactured commodities.

The detail criteria are selected or determined voluntarily

by interested buyers or sellers, without any Government

dictation or domination, and adjusted at a general confer- ence of producers, distributors, and users so as to represent

the composite views of all branches. The division functions

chiefly as a neutral agency to see that all interested elements

are given full opportunity to be heard and satisfied; to

solicit and record acceptances; and to publish and promulgate

the Standard when a satisfactory majority of acceptances is obtained and provided there is no aCtive opposition.

Industries are encouraged to apply self-certifying labels to products meeting the commercial Standard requirements, as a means of protecting the consumer and the scrupulous seller from misrepresentation or unfair methods of marketing.

Provision is made for regular revision of the Standard

through the appointment of a Standing committee to consider periodically any necessity for revision of the Standard,

in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with

progress in the industry.

Address BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Washington, D. C.. for further information
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 9 WASHINGTON, D. C., NOVEMBEE, 1932 Number 5

SUBJECT

BUILDING AND HOUSING

Page

Bedsteads, springs, and mattresses specification 103

British standard for steelwork in buildings 103 Bureau of Standards has aided lumber industry 115 Bureau publication on paint 122 Improving specifications for deformed concrete rein- forcement bars 108

Paints, varnishes, and containers 122

Prison plumbing fixtures 108

Quality control of nonferrous metals 109 Red cedar shingles 120 Studying the properties of floor covering 113 Walnut veneers 122 TEXTILES

Bedsteads, springs, and mattresses 103 Bringing the consumer and producer closer together 105

Identification of cotton duck in trade literature 121 Standard method for analysis of weighted silk 103 GROUP ACTIVITIES American Standards Association 112 Annual meeting of the A. P. I. held in Houston, Tex 122

Federal specifications 117

Oil refining heat exchange equipment 114

Standardization of shoes for trucks and tractor snow

plows 121 Uniform State laws recommended by Conference 110 HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

Portland blast-furnace cement specification 106 Shovel and crane manufacturers adopt standards 121 Standardizing concrete materials weighing devices 104 Standard specifications for road construction 119 INTERNATIONAL AND FOREIGN

British standard for machine-cut gears 110

British standard for steelwork in buildings 103

British standard for xylols 122

Glossary of terms used in illumination and photometry.. 106

International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis 117 Second International Congress on Light 114 Portland blast-furnace cement specification 106

ANALYSIS

MEASUREMENT

Page Bureau of Standards of the United States Department

of Commerce lOO Standardizing concrete materials weighing devices 104 The United States inch m

METAL

Bedsteads, springs, and mattresses specification 103

British standard for machine-cut gears 110 Improving specifications for deformed concrete rein- forcement bars 108

Prison plumbing fixtures 108

Standardization of shoes for trucks and tractor snow

plows 121 PUBLICATIONS

Bureau publication on paint 122

Electrical definitions available 121 Standard method for analysis of weighted silk 103

Surgeons’ gloves 106 RUBBER

Research on rubber 118 Studying the properties of floor covering 113

Surgeons’ gloves 106 TECHNICAL RESEARCH

Activities of the Bureau of Standards 101 Bringing the consumer and producer closer together 105 Bureau of Standards has aided lumber industry 115 Research on rubber 118 Standards common to production control 107 Studying the properties of floor covering 113 ELECTRICAL

Electrical definitions available 121 Glossary of terms used in illumination and photometry. 106 WOOD

Bureau of Standards has aided lumber industry 115 Red cedar shingles 120 Walnut veneers 122

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A cordial invitation is extended to all interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories of

the Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at 2.15 p. in. daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may be arranged at other times by writing to the

bui’eau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s jilanual may be had for the asking. This lists the work in proguess and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of typical dis- coveries and inventions which have been notable, basic contributions to radio, aviation, and other

modern arts and industries.

146165 32 1 99
BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D. C. FUNCTIONS

Development, Conitrudion, Cudody, and Maintenance of Reference and Wording Standards

and Their Intercomparison, Improvement, and Application in Science Engineering, Industry, and Commerce

STANDARDS

1

STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT

Reference and working ^andards for measurements of all kinds, including fundamental and derived Standards of Measure- MENT for expressing the quantitative aspects of space, time, matter, energy, and motion, and of their interrelations. By definition, specification, or material ^andard, covering, for example, length,

area, and volume; mass, weight, density, and pressure; heat, light, elec^icity, and

radioactivity, including for each the quantity, flux, intensity, density, etc. 2

STANDARD CONSTANTS

Natural ^andards or the measured numerical data as to mate^

rials and energy, known as physical or Standard Constants

the fixed points or quantities which underlie scientific research and industrial processes when scientifically organised.

Mechanical equivalent of heat, light, electricity, and gravitation; specific densi'

ties; viscosities; melting and boiling points; heat capacity; heats of combustion;

velocity of propagation of light; conductivities of materials to heat and light; electrochemical and atomic weights; and many similar magnitudes determined

experimentally with maximum precision and referred to fundamental Standards of measure. 3

STANDARDS OF QUALITY

Specifications for material (by description, sample, or both), known as Standards of Quality, fixing in measurable terms a property or group of properties which determine the quaUty.

The numerical magnitude of each constituent property pertinent to the quality involved, and specific magnitude in units of measure of such significant fadors as uniformity, composition, form, Strudure, and others. 4

STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE

Specification of operative eflSciency or adlion for machines and

devices, known as Standards of Performance, specifying the

faeftors involved in terms susceptible of measurement.

Numerical Statement of speed, uniformity, output, economy, durability, and

other fadors which together define the net efficiency of an appliance or machine. 5

STANDARDS OF PRACTICE

Codes and regulations impartially analyzed and formulated after ^udy and experiment into Standards of Practice for technical regulation of con^ueftion, installation, and operation, and based upon Standards of measurement, quality, and performance.

Collation of standard data, numerical magnitudes, and ranges of the pertinent fadors defining quality, safety, economy, convenience, and efficiency.

PURPOSE

To Aid Accuracy in Industry through uniform and corred; measures; To Assist Commerce in Size Standardization of containers and

produefts; To Promote Justice in Daily Trade through syd:ematic inspedtion and regulation; To Facilitate Precision in Science and Technologic Research

through calibration of units, measures, and ind:ruments involved.

To Serve as an Exact Basis for scientific Auay, experiment, computation, and design; To Furnish an Efficient Control for industrial processes in secur- ing reproducible and uniformly high quality in output; To Secure Uniformity of Practice in graduating measuring instru- ments, or in compiling tables for Standards of quality and per- formance, and wherever such uniformity is desirable; To Aid Laboratory Research by Reducing Errors ano uncertainty caused by use of data of doubtful accuracy.

To Secure High Utility in the Products of industry by setting an

attainable Standard of quaHty; To Furnish a Scientific Basis for Fair Dealing to avoid disputes

or settle differences; To Promote Truthful Branding and Advertising by suitable Standards and methods of teSt To Promote Precision and Avoid Waste in science and industry by affording quality Standards by which materials may be made,

sold, and tested.

To Clarify the Understanding between maker, seller, buyer, and

user as to operative efficiency of appliances and machines; To Make Exact Knowledge the Basis of the buyer’s choice; To Stimulate and Measure Mechanical Progress.

To Furnish for each utility a single Impersonal Standard of practice as a Basis for Agreement of all interests, clearly defined in measurable terms. To Insure Effective Design and Installation of utilities of all kinds; To Promote Safety, Efficiency, and Convenience in the Maintenance and Operation of such utilities; To Secure Uniformity of Practice where such is practicable, and

Effective Alternates in other cases.

100
NOVEMBER, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 101

ACTIVITIES OF THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Research and Testing Conducted for the Government, Industry, and the Public

(See facing page for descriptive chart of functions)

By H. D. Hubbard, Bureau of StoMdards

The Bureau of Standards is a technical service lab- oratory for the Federal Government, but is serving all the State governments as well, directly or indirectly. It serves as scientific research and technical adviser for

the Government departments. Its research and test- ing are of value both to the Government and to in- dustry. The testing adds effectiveness to the work of

practically every Government unit.

Congress gave the Bureau of Standards the custody

of the standards, the authority to construct standards,

and to compare these with the standards used in the

measured control of the coinage, in the precise surveys

of our domain and coast, in the local inspection of

trade weights and measures, in the measurements of

modern industry, and in experimental research both in

the Government and industry.

Congress specifically authorized the bureau to co- operate with State and local officials in the technical

details of inspection service. This helps to assure the

American people full measure in the countless transactions of daily trade. This aid the bureau renders

by tests of the State standards, by personal consultations with local officials, by formulating model laws,

regulations, and practice, inspectors’ manuals, and by

the national annual conferences at the bureau, at which State governments are officially represented, to discuss problems vital to their nation-wide service to the public. Through these activities a notable improvement is evident in the local inspection, resulting- in increased assurance of justice in daily trade.

Bureau test cars travel on a nation-wide mission of

standardization, examining, testing, and certifying the

master track scales, mine scales, and commercial track

scales of State governments, railroads, and industry.

Upon the indication of such scales approximately

$4,000,000,000 of freight charges are annually collected,

and most of the output of field, mine, and factory are weighed. The bureau’s tests of such scales assures all interests that the weighings will furnish a fair and

just basis for the charges. This service is continuous

throughout the year, disclosing an ever-increasing ac- curary in such scales. To set up standards for the ever-increasing number

of new kinds of measurements is difficult ancl calls for

the utmost in science, technique, and ingenuity. The

test is made more complex by the growing demands

for higher precision, for wider ranges, for automatic

and quick action, and for unnumbered special uses, each calling for some unusual research.

Besides the primary function of maintaining standards, Congress authorized the bureau to solve problems arising in connection with standards, to test apparatus, to determine physical constants and the

properties of materials. Congress has interpreted

these functions by special provision for many definite

lines of research within the bureau’s field. The five kinds of standards—measurement, constants, quality, performance, and practice—may be

illustrated by examples. The National Prototype

Meter No. 27, our standard of length, is an examjfie

of a national standai’d of measurement, well established and efficient. A proposed standard now under

consideration for world adoption is the standard of

light constructed at the bureau. It makes use of the

radiation from a hollow inclosure at the temperature

of melting platinum—a reproducible, accurate, scientific standard.

Standards of nature, measured values of characteristics of matter and energy, are the basis of physical science. The bureau has determined many such

data, and in turn uses them in establishing standards.

For example, the ice and steam points of water define

the fundamental interval on the temperature scale

the 0° and the 100° points on the centigrade scale. Standards of performance are illustrated by the

measured values assigned to the pertinent factors

affecting the efficiency of a machine or other device

an aircraft engine for example, as mentioned below.

Standards of practice involve the measured values

of pertinent factors in a process or procedure—safe

voltages, effective insulation, and the like. A typical

standard of practice is the national safety code for

electrical practice, prepared under the auspices of the

bureau and now adopted as an American standard.

It is too little realized that precise measurements

and standards are an important means for the advancement of science and technology. Two examples

will illustrate. Radio and aviation are based on standard measurements, and it is the bureau’s task to maintain these standards and compare them with the standards used in private enterprise. Safet)^ in aircraft is a

basic requisite. All new types of commercial aircraft

engines before being put into interstate service must

pass the tests of the Aeronautics Branch of the

United States Department of Commerce, and these

tests are made at the Bureau of Standards. In radio

the standardization service is important. Precisely

timed frequencies are broadcast by the bureau to aid

the broadcasting industry in the rating and adjustment of their equipment. The bureau has recently

maintained a constancy in radio-frequency (waves per

second) nearly a thousand times better than attainable a few years ago. These standard frequencies

afford the broadcasting stations a means of keeping

well within the very narrow frequency range recently

set up by the Federal Radio Commission. This means

better control, less interferences, and better reception.

Research for the Government yields important results. Without increase in cost, the durability of cur- rency paper was doubled by methods devised and

applied by the Bureau of Standards in test runs. The

same methods may be useful by the paper industry in

making high-gTade bond and ledger papers. A parallel investigation of the permanence of papers demonstrated to bureau experts that the control of acidity was the vital factor in permanence, even when pure
102 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1932

rag stock is used. Without acidity control within

measured limits, the paper (even pure rag stock) would

unduly deteriorate. An important laboratory research

resulted in a new type of paper from three to five times

as strong as the paper hitherto furnished for United

States securities. The bureau’s process is now in- cluded in the Government’s specification for distinctive

paper.

The strength of the Bureau of Standards as a re- search organization is in its unique union of some hundred specialized sections, each with an expert staff co- operating, where joint action is helpful, on research

problems. This combination has been built up through

years of conscientious planning and effort. Industrial

problems are best solved by cooperation. This is an

era of cooperative research. Scores of cooperating

committees of the technical and industrial interests

work with the bureau in planning its research activities. Such researches are directed to problems of con- cern to entire industries and to the public. Always

they are of interest and concern to the Government.

Much testing has been done on structural materials

(cement, concrete aggregate, brick, stone, and other

materials) for Government building projects throughout the country. The present peak of bureau work

of this kind has not been equaled since the war. The

bureau gave expert advice on the character of cement

for the Hoover Dam and other massive concrete work

of the Government. A cement which evolved the

least heat in reaction with water was found desirable.

Fifty specimens were studied by the bureau, and

several superior brands were selected for further

study, in part at the Denver laboratory of the Bureau

of Standards.

The United States Bureau of Public Roads will not

hereafter approve the use of any cement on any

Federal-aid highways or other projects unless it has

been tested in a laboratory inspected by a representative of the bureau’s cement reference laboratory, and

the equipment and operation of the former duly certified. The cement reference laboratory is maintained

jointly by the American Society for Testing Materials

and the Bureau of Standards.

Another example of technical service is for the

Federal Specifications Board, of which the director of

the bureau is chairman. Members of the bureau’s

staff hold 27 chairmanships of the board’s technical

committees and are officially represented on 65 of these

committees. The bureau actively heads up the work

of the National Screw Thread Commission established

by Congress. The director is ex officio chairman of

the commission, and the active experimental work is conducted by the bureau on this important and technical subject.

The bureau cooperates in many ways with the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, through

experimental research in the interest of aeronautics,

involving the use of its wind tunnels, dynamometer

laboratory, aeronautic instruments section, and its radio laboratories.

For the Post Office Department the bureau furnishes

technical advice, especially on labor-saving devices

(stamp-vending machines, mail-metering devices, and

the like). On request it rates stream-speed meters for

the Geological Survey, the Reclamation Service, the

Mississippi River Commission, and the United States

Engineer’s Office. These meters are rated in the bureau’s tank (400 feet long) and are recalibrated periodically to insure the high accuracy required in the

forecast of water supply, flood, drought, and height

of rivers. The bureau’s experts aided the Bureau of Engraving and Printing in the design, installation, and operation of a plant for producing paper money printing

plates from the master plates by a new electrolytic process, adding service life by a chromium coating.

Reports show that marked economies resulted from

the installation.

Much consulting and expert work has been done for

the Supervising Architect of the Treasury, Post Office,

and for the Architect of the Capitol, on standardizing

heating equipment, the certification of steam radiators

and heat insulating materials. It has also rendered

expert advice on installations of air conditioning and

ventilating equipment.

Aid was given the Government departments by tests of ball bearings, lubricants, gasolines, and automotive

equipment, including ambulances. An experimental

basis was reached through bureau researches, for the

control of all purchases of gasoline for civil and military purposes of the Federal Government. Tests of

gasoline are made to aid the Bureau of Mines in the

compilation of its annual survey of gasoline.

An important service is being rendered by bureau

experts in reducing fire hazards in prisons and in the

vessels inspected by the Steamboat Inspection Service,

through tests of fire extinguishers and fusible plugs for

boilers. Aid was given in connection with tests of fire- proof safes, in the protection of aircraft hangars, and

in fire protection of Government records. The work

of the Federal Fire Council heads up at the bureau,

the director being chairman of the council, and the

bureau’s fire expert being the active executive who

surveys the occupancies of Government and makes

recommendations for reducing fire hazards.

Some 6,000 clinical thermometers, on the accuracy of

which diagnosis depends, are tested each month for

the United States Public Health Service and the

Veterans’ Administration. The radium of the country

is bought, sold, and used on the basis of the Bureau of

Standards tests and certified values of the radioactive

strength of each specimen.

These few examples might be multiplied and would

still be an inadequate picture of the service of the

bureau to the Government, and in fundamental ways

to the people of the nation.

Space fails to even mention all important lines. Some 2,000 bureau publications, however, report its activities in research and standardization. Four periodical publications are issued: The Journal of Research, the Technical News Bulletin, the Commercial

Standards Monthly, and the Standards Yearbook.

Besides these, research papers, circulars, and miscellaneous publications are sold as separates by the Superintendent of Documents, as are the Commercial Standards and the Simplified Practice Recommendations.

The commercial standards group is active in projects for reducing the needless sizes and varieties of

products, for establishing standards for industry, and

for aiding in the solution of fundamental problems of

building and housing. In general, the Government

lends its assistance, but the actions are taken by in- dustry itself. The bureau is the service institution
NOVEMBER, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 103

for the Government and the public. The consumer

is represented by the work on the certification plan,

imder which firms agree to furnish, on request, commodities meeting the Government specifications, and'

by the work on the labeling plan which supplements

the certification. These aid the consumer by assuring

him that the goods he buys are equal to Government

standard quality. Closely related is the work of pre- paring building codes, promoting city zoning, and

issuing information of concern to the housingindustry.

The Bureau of Standards touches American life at vital points, affecting justice in trade, efficiency in

industry, accuracy in science, effectiveness in process

and practice. Its apparently diversified functions

are unified by the unity of method—research and

standardization through precise measurements and

standards.

It helps to assure due quality in materials, satis- factory performance of mechanical devices, and effi- ciency in technical operations and practices. It is recognized that standardization is an essential part

of every well-ordered enterprise and is a continuing

enterprise—the modern means of applying new science

to industry and through industry to human service. It is even more fundamentally true that all standardization to be effective or enduring must rest on re- search foundation.

STANDARD METHOD FOR ANALYSIS OF

WEIGHTED SILK

Raw silk, as it comes to the manufacturer, contains

about 75 per cent of fiber (fibroin) and about 25 per

cent of gum (sericin), exclusive of moisture. At

some stage of the processing the gum is removed by

“ boiling off ” in a soap solution. The silk may then

be “ weighted ” by the addition of various metallic

salts or other substances, the amount of the weightingbeing determined by the purposes for which th^e silk

is intended, the selling price, and similar considerations. The amount of weighting added seldom is less than the amount of the gum removed, and it may

exceed the amount of the silk fibroin. The claim is made that weighted silk has a better “ hand ” or

“

feel ” than unweighted silk, that it drapes better

and that its lower cost makes possible the use of silk

by persons who otherwise could not afford it. The need for a standard method of analysis for

weighted silk arose several years ago when special

attention was given to the problem of overweighting.

There was an insistent demand from numerous manufacturers, distributors, and consumers for definite

limits on the amount of weighting to be allowed on

different types of silk fabrics. This led to the tentative designation of limits by the Silk Association of

America in January, 1929. The existing methods of

chemical tests were considered by the technical committee and the conclusions reached that they were

inadequate for the purpose intended. A method

which has been found generally applicable, rapid, and

convenient, is described in Research Paper No. 498,

in the November issue of the Bureau of Standards

Journal of Research.

By this method, weighting and finishing materials

are removed by repeated extractions first with hot

water, then with a 2 per cent solution of sodium

carbonate, and finally with a solution containing 2 per

cent of hydrochloric and 2 per cent of hydrofluoric

acids. Results of analyses of samples of known composition are presented which indicate that the results are correct to within 1 per cent of the weight of the

dried finished material. Results obtained by inexperienced analysts, working in different laboratories,

have been in good agreement when samples of the same silk were analyzed. Qualitative methods for

the identification of the following weighting materials

are given : Aluminum, lead, phosphate, silica, tin, and

zinc.

BRITISH STANDARD FOR STEELWORK IN

BUILDINGS

The British Standards Institution has issued a specification dealing with the use of structural steel in

buildings. The issue of this specification is of great

importance to the building industry in formulating

a standard upon which practice may be based in ac- cordance with the most modern developments in the

application of steelwork.

The specification is based upon the work carried out

by the steel structures research committee of the

Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and

by the British Steelwork Association, on behalf of the

steel and structural engineering industries. Approval

of the specification has already been given by the

Ministry of Health and H. M. Office of Works has

indicated its intention of using the new specification.

The official recognition given by the Ministry of

Health will have the greatest effect in establishing,

with the friendly coojieration of local authorities,

the specification as the basis of a national building

code.

The building division of the institution is continuing its work, and a series of specifications for building materials, other than steel, is being prepared.

BEDSTEADS, SPRINGS, AND MATTRESSES

SPECIFICATION

The revision of simplified practice recommendation

covering bedsteads, springs, and mattresses has been

accepted by all interests in the industry and is to be

effective as of November 1, 1932.

This recommendation, which was proposed and developed by the industry, is concerned with the size,

length, and width of straight foot wood beds having

wood or steel angle side rails; the size, length, and

width of straight foot metal beds having steel angle

side rails, and the class, type, size, length, and width

of bed springs.

Heretofore it was recommended that mattresses be

made to conform to the bed dimensions. There is now before the industry for approval a proposal to specify definitely the sizes of mattresses as 6 feet 1 inch long by 4 feet 4 inches; 3 feet 10 inches; 3 feet

1 inch ; or 2 feet 10 inches. These widths are the same

as those already selected for the top widths of the

spiral or coil wire springs.
104 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1932 STANDARDIZING CONCRETE MATERIALS WEIGHING DEVICES

By P. M. Tebbs ^

Standardization in the construction of concrete roads has been the result of efforts to increase effi- ciency, reduce cost, and attain a more durable concrete. The strides that have been made in the improvement

and development of grading machinery, mixers, road

forms, finishing machines, hauling, and batching equipment, have been very rapid during the past several

years. This change in methods of operation has done

much to standardize this type of construction, and the

engineer looks with confidence at any change which

will improve the quality, increase the efficiency, and

decrease the cost. The need for standardization i/n weighing equipment.—The quality of concrete is in part predicated on its uniformity and workability; and variations in

uniformity and workability will result when the water

content, variations in the aggregate gradings, lack of

proper mixing, and the accuracy of measurements of

the various ingredients are not reliable. Measurement of aggregate by volume is not accurate on account of the wide variation in bulking due

to moisture content, and the manner in which the

measuring unit is filled. It is possible to vary the

amount of fine aggregate by as much as 20 per cent due to the bulking of the material. The variation in

the volume of coarse aggregates may be as much as 5 per cent due to variations in the grading of the

material.

To secure uniformity it is undoubtedly necessary to secure a method of measurement that will minimize

these conditions. Aggregates can be readily weighed

to a high degree of accuracy, and the resulting proportions will insure greater uniformity, better workability, and more uniform strength when combined

by mixing to make concrete. Procedure employed to develop standardization. —

Many States, cities, and subdivision of States, require

the proportioning of aggregates by weight, and the

United States Bureau of Public Roads require that

all aggregates for concrete pavements used in Federalaid projects must be proportioned by weight. Committees of the American Association of State Highway Officials and the American Road Builders’ Association, working independently, developed specifications for the standardization of Aveighing devices for concrete aggregates. In order to correlate fully the

work of the two associations, they agreed upon the

formation of a joint committee. The results of this

committee’s work were submitted to the American Association of State Highway Officials at its 1931 con- vention in Salt Lake City and to the American Road

Builders’ Convention at Detroit in January, 1932.

This proposed specification was adopted by the joint

committee after numerous conferences, attended by

representatives of various State highway departments,

the American Road Builders’ Association, and the

equipment manufacturers. The proposed specifications cover:

^ Assistant chief engineer, department of highways, Harrisburg, Pa.

;

chairman, joint committee, American Association of State Highway

Officials and the American Road Builders’ Association.

Part 1. Bin batcher type of equipment for weighing aggregates, which includes definitions covering

the various terms and the requirements of the various

parts of the equipment, such as bins, hoppers, scales,

arrangement of parts, and operation.

Part 2. Specifications for weight-proportioning

equipment for mixers of one-half cubic yard capacity

(14S), or smaller, where bin batcher type equipment

is not used. This covers the weighing container,

scales, and the tolerances in accuracy which will be

allowed in the weight of the aggregates.

Part 3. Specifications for the bin batcher type of

equipment for weighing cement, giving the requirements for the bin, batcher, hoppers, scales, arrangement, and operation of the equipment.

Part 4. Specification for bulk cement weighing

equipment, utilizing a mobile batch container. The

main difference between this type of equipment and

that as outlined in part 3, is that the mobile batch

container is so designed that the container, after being

properly weighed, may be placed directly on the hauling equipment and transported to the mixer.

Part 6. Specifications for a separate container for

transporting the cement from the proportioning plant

to the mixer, to be so designed as to insure the complete discharge of the entire batch of cement, and

constructed so as to protect the cement from damage

in transit.

Part 6. Discusses equipment for volume proportioning of aggregate. The recommendations of the committee discourage the use of volume proportioning

except on small projects of minor importance.

Part 7. No specifications have been developed for

the measuring of water, in that the committee feels that accurate measurements may be satisfactorily ac- complished either by volume or weight.

Benefits to he derived from standcordization. —^As early as 1924, R. W. Crum, then of the University of

Iowa, now Director of the Highway Research Board,

National Research Council, in a series of tests con- ducted on actual construction projects determined that

the percentage of variation in the cement content of

mixed concrete was as high as 11 per cent where volume proportioning was used, while the maximum

variation was 3 per cent on jobs where weight proportioning was used.

The uniformity and workability of the concrete have

been improved.

Better riding surfaces have resulted due to greater

ease in finishing.

A greater yield of concrete which is reflected in

lower bid prices with no sacrifice of quality, has

resulted.

The standard specifications developed by the joint

committee should result in simplified manufacturing

procedure, in that the contractor, the engineer, and the

manufacturers are in accord on the requirements for

such equipment.
NOVEMBER, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 105

BRINGING THE CONSUMER AND PRODUCER CLOSER TOGETHER

Textile Section of the Bureau of Standards Cooperates with Industry in Aiding Consumer and Producer to Reach a Common Understanding of Textiles

By Miss R. K. Woenee, Bureau of Standards

The textile section of the Bureau of Standards

actively cooperates with industry through the research

associate plan; through close contact with the commercial standards group of the bureau and the Federal Specifications Board ; and through correspondence

and conferences with individuals and organizations

seeking technical information relating to textiles. The research associate plan permits industrial

groups to maintain research men at the bureau to work

on problems of mutual interest. The bureau provides

facilities for the work and assumes responsibility for

it. The associate is subject to the same regulations

and privileges as other members of the bureau staff,

and the results of his work are available to the entire

industry. The following

organizations have had

or now have research associates in the textile sec- tion of the bureau : American Association of Textile

Chemists and Colorists,

Associated Knit Underwear Manufacturers of

America, Cordage Institute, Cotton Textile Institute, National Association

of Dyers and Cleaners,

and National Association

of Hosiery and underwear manufacturers. Some of

the accomplishments of the cooperative work made possible by the research associate plan will be described.

The color of textiles may be relatively fast or fugitive with reference to light, laundering, perspiration,

and numerous other agencies, depending upon the dyestuff and the way it has been applied. In order to specify the color fastness required of cloth for a given

use or to evaluate the degree of fastness of cloths,

standard test methods are necessary. The American

Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists has been

actively engaged in the development of adequate test methods for this purpose for nearly 10 years, and much

of the experimental work has been carried out by a research associate at the bureau. The methods which

have resulted are widely used throughout the textile

industry and are taught in many' of the colleges and

textile schools. The limited income of the association

and the limited personnel of the bureau would have

delayed this undertaking. Working together, the asso- ciation and the bureau have provided a much needed

basis for a common understanding of color fastness

by manufacturers, distributors, and users of textiles. A few years ago the designated sizes of knit under- wear and hosiery made by different manufacturers were not the same, since each manufacturer had his

own system of numbering. The fact that a certain size

from one manufacturer would fit a user did not mean

that the size of the same designation from another one would fit. The Associated Knit Underwear Manufacturers of America sought to correct this situation

with respect to underwear and the National Association of Hosiery and Underwear Manufacturei’s sought

to correct it with respect to hosiery.

The research associates employed to work on these

problems at the bureau were the first in the textile sec- tion. Not only have the standard methods of measuring and designating sizes which have been developed

been generally adopted by the industries concerned,

but they have recently been promulgated as “ Commercial Standards ” having the written approval of con- sumers and I’etailers as well as manufacturers.

Work on new and extended uses for cotton has been

carried out at the bureau by a research associate for

the Cotton Textile Institute. A systematic study

of'the pnopertied of cotton yarns and fabrics planned

of the properties of cotton ning to bear fruit in the

form of basic data relat- ing the type of construction to characteristics re- lated to appearance, feel, or serviceability of cotton

cloth. The recent introduction

of noninflammable sol- vents in the dry-cleaning industry, together with machinery especially designed for their use in large and

small dry-cleaning plants and in the home, aroused

considerable concern as to the relative merits and safety

of the newer solvents. The results of an unbiased study

of the new and old types of solvents were needed.

The National Association of Dyers and Cleaners re- quested the cooperation of the bureau in this study

and placed a research associate at the bureau to assist in carrying out the work. A study was made of the

effect of the solvents upon typical fabrics and the abil- ity of the solvents to remove soil and stains. In order

to do this, it was necessary to develop standard procedures for soiling and cleaning samples of the cloth

under strictly controlled conditions. Rapid progress was possible because the bureau had previously Avorked on the development of detergency tests with the detergents committee of the American Oil Chemists Society and was thoroughly familiar with the difficul- ties to be overcome. As a result of the work, the

value of the newer solvents was clearly shown and

the precautions necessary in using them developed.

The experimental methods have proved to be useful

in the control of commercial dry-cleaning plants. The

general quality of dry-cleaning work may be expected

to be raised as these methods of control are applied

throughout the country.

Numerous textile standardization projects are brought by manufacturers or consumers to the commercial-standards group of the bureau. This group

This is the second of a series of articles describing the work of the textile section of the

Bureau of Standards. Readers of Commercial

Standards Monthly desirous of obtaining more

information on the subject reviewed should

communicate directly with the Bureau of Standards. Another article by the same writer will

appear in the next issue of Commercial Standards Monthly.
106 COMMEBCIAL. STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1932

includes the divisions of simplified practice, trade

standards, and specifications. It offers the textile in- dustry means for the establishment of commercial

standards which provide essentially for a better understanding between buyer and seller. The service of the

textile section on technical questions involved in these

standards are in constant demand. Frequently, the

proposed standards result from the work of the re- search associates. This is true of the commercial

standards for knit underwear and for hosiery.

Simplified practice recommendations are concerned

with the reduction of waste through elimination of

unnecessary varieties of a product, method, or practice. A number of recommendations of interest to the textile industry have been promulgated. They

include recommendations for the reduction in number

of sizes of bed blankets, cotton duck, paint and var- nish brushes, hospital and institutional textiles, adhesive plaster, fioor sweeps, hard fiber twines, soft

fiber (jute) twine, fast selvage terry towels, and polished cotton twine.

The division of trade standards assists industry in

the voluntary establishment of commodity standards

covering grade, quality, dimensions, or tolerances for

a product. Among the commercial standards of particular concern to the textile industry are those for

Stoddard solvent (dry-cleaning solvent) ; regain of

mercerized cotton yarns ; measurements for dress patterns, boys’ blouses and shirts, men’s pajamas, and knit

underwear; construction and quality of cotton cloth

for rubber and pyroxylin coating ; and basis for marking cotton fabric tents, tarpaulins, and covers. The textile section is represented on no less than

nine technical committees of the Federal Specifications Board which are engaged in the preparation of

specifications for textiles or related commodities purchased by the Government. In this capacity, the sec- tion endeavors to promote specifications calling for

commodities that are not only adequate for the service

required by the Government departments, but that can

be produced in the ordinary course of business. The

chemical and physical methods used for testing textiles for conformance to Government specifications are usually developed in the textile section. The value

of the Federal specifications is indicated by the fact

that some of the States and numerous private organizations use them in purchasing textiles.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN ILLUMINATION AND PHOTOMETRY

A revised edition of the British standard glossary of

terms used in illumination and photometry, which was

first issued in 1925, has recently been published by the

British Standards Institution, and incorporates the

decisions reached at the meetings of the International

Commission on Illumination last year. The principal changes are that new definitions for

regular and diffuse reflection, regular and diffuse reflec- tion factors, regular and diffuse transmission, regular

and diffuse transmission factors, curve of light dis- tribution, polar curve of light distribution, solid of

light distribution, and symmetrical and asymmetrical

light distribution have been included, while photometric surface with its appropriate definitions has been

substituted for comparison surface and uniformity

ratio and diversity ratio for variation factor and

variation range.

The definitions of direct lighting, semi-direct lighting, semi-indirect lighting and indirect lighting have

been revised and a new term and definition for general

lighting added.

Uniformity of nomenclature in the field of lighting

is promoted by the activities of the International Commission on Illumination, and to a large extent the terms

and definitions in the British standard glossary are

essentially the same as those established in American

practice. Not all of the new British definitions have

Ijeen accepted in America, but some of those listed

above are included in the revised American Standard

Illuminating Engineering Nomenclature and Photometric Standards which is now before the American

Standards Association for approval. The revised

American definitions have also been included (as

Group 55, Illumination) in the Report on Proposed

American Standard Definitions of Electrical Terms

recently published by the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.

SURGEONS’ GLOVES

Printed pamphlets for Surgeons’ Rubber Gloves,

Commercial Standard CS40-32 and Surgeons’ Latex

Gloves, Commercial Standard CS41-32 by the Bureau

of Standards are now available through sale by the

Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing

Office, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents per copy.

These standards cover the chemical and physical re- quirements for surgeons’ gloves, together with provisions for identification and certification to buyers.

The standard for rubber gloves follows very closely

the Federal specification for surgeons’ rubber gloves,

ZZ-G-421. The requirements for latex gloves are somewhat higher with respect to tensile strength and

resistance to steam sterilization, and include a standard Geer oven aging test. Both standards became effective July 6, 1932.

PORTLAND BLAST-FURNACE CEMENT

The British Standards Institution has issued a specification for Portland blast-furnace cement. This

takes the place of an earlier edition, which appeared

in 1926, and is required owing to the revision of the

specification for Portland cement.

The changes introduced, which bring the physical tests in the two specifications into exact agreement,

include a clause which no longer makes the neat ce- ment test obligatory. The 28-day mortar test has also been replaced by a 3-day test, so that the' periods for

the tensile tests on mortar are 3 and 7 days, respectively. The quantity of water required for preparing

the neat cement paste or cement and sand mortar is now to be determined by a modification of the Vicat

plunger method.

The appropriate British standard wire cloths for

test sieves are substituted for those previously

specified.
NOVEMBER, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 107

STANDARDS COMMON TO PRODUCTION CONTROL

By James J. Phaben *

While the teeth of depression have been teai'ing

apart the manufacturing companies of our country for

the past few years, we should not lose sight of the fact

that prosperity must return again. In the meanwhile,

diligent study of industry will bring one face to face

with the fact that a great manufacturing problem of

to-day is production. And a comprehensive solution

will be found in the word “ control.” The definition

for control reads : “A check, restraint, superintendence,

authority ; controlled, to restrain, govern, regulate.”

All of these have a direct bearing on production, but

the one definition that stands out foremost and produces the best results is, “ a check.”

To get down to real requirements of production

control, the organization must adopt such simple

methods as will give first-hand control of all activities. No company can obtain real control of production and

cost until the organization is so arranged that definite

responsibility for every activity and operation required can be placed. It makes no difference what a com- pany manufactures, the prime elements of production

and costs are the same; that is, labor, material, ex- pense ; and they constitute the unit of measure for cost of production.

To control these prime elements through the various

divisions and check each activity, there must be a

straight line movement of material, from vendor to the finished product. The real purpose of any manufacturing company should be to get out of labor, material, and expense, all that can be obtained in the

shape of finished product, at a minimum cost. Before undertaking to describe standards common

to production control, the first essential step is to es- tablish the various divisions necessary to regulate the

activities of any manufacturing company. These

major departments all come under the direct responsibility of the production engineer—engineering department, purchasing department, general stores, part

stores, finished stores, production department, shipping department, and cost department. The following sequence is considered a standard order of ar- rangement for production control, from the lay-out

of material required, by engineers, and its progress

from vendor to the finished product.

Engineering department.—This department is re- sponsible for the following subdivisions: Drawing

room, time study, tool rooms, tool design, tool inspection, patternmaking, apprentice, new equipment,

equipment maintenance, and is organized for the purpose of supervising and improving details of manufacture, to secure maximum production at minimum

cost, by systematic control and use of modern methods,

to eliminate unnecessary handling and lost motion.

The engineering department must be composed of

personnel having practical knowledge of metal-trades

manufacture, and make careful study of machines and

machine tools, recommending changes and improvements to obtain gi’eater efficiency and decreased costs. The engineers prepare all data on tools and gages to provide best methods for inspection of the product, so

' Industrial engineer, Mergenthaler Linotype Co. 146165—32 2

that the highest quality of manufacture will be maintained at all times. They also plan sequence of all operations in the manufacture of the product; assign

machine and departments where the operation is to be performed; arrange and take time studies to set piece rates on all operations possible; and prepare es- timates for cost comparison on all new products.

They will also calculate material specifications and

prepare master record cards for each and every part

to be manufactured; also machine study cards, from

inventory of machines. These are the foundation of

production control, and all planning and scheduling

are determined on these cards, in the utilizing of plant

capacity.

Purchasing department. —To make intelligent and

satisfactory purchases, the purchasing department

should be guided and directed in every instance by

specifications and blue prints for everji;hing that is bought. The production department must prepare

and furnish the raw-material stores with detailed

specifications for all raw materials, which embody the

amount required each month for a given year. The

general stores prepare detailed specifications for operating and general factory supply items that are car- ried on the maximum and minimum basis.

With requisitions for purchasing thus prepared by

departments familiar with what is required, as to character, quantity, quality, and date to be delivered,

the purchasing department can devote its energies to obtaining materials when required, and avoid the delay incid^ent to drawing specifications, and securing

information which is furnished automatically. When

stores departments require material they issue a purchase requisition, in triplicate. The original and

duplicate are forwarded to the purchasing department

and the triplicate remains in the stores department.

When the purchase order is issued, the duplicate requisition is forwarded to the cost department. Purchase

requisitions for materials when furnished by the production department, on a schedule basis and materials

carried on a maximum and minimum basis, will re- quire the signature of the foreman of the stores department. Requisitions for special material must be

approved by the production engineer. Purchase

requisitions must be issued by the stores ledger clerk,

from the stores ledger, and in every case checked by

the stores foreman, before being forwarded to the purchase department, so that material on hand can be

checked and substitution made if possible. No materials can be ordered direct from the purchasing department, all requests must first pass through the

stores ledger. The stores foreman must assume aU

responsibility for all materials requisitioned to be

purchased.

In this connection it must be borne in mind that

the stores foreman is a custodian of the company’s

property. He is accountable for its disposition, just as a cashier is responsible for the disposition of

money. A proper system of recording materials demands just as close a record of storekeeping, as it does of actual money. This plan will not only prevent overbuying, but keep material at a low inventory.
108 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER. 1932 From the purchase requisition, the purchase order is issued, and forwarded by the purchasing department

to the outside supplier.

Production department. —This department is re- sponsible for the following subdivisions: Planning

and scheduling, machine planning, order division, dis- patchers, and timekeeping. The personnel of the department consists of foreman, clerks, and typists. To

control production in any factory it is most economical to process parts on a schedule basis. Plan and

schedule the manufacture from raw material to the

finished product. To accomplish this, a master schedule of machines or units, must cover one year. The

production department can then subdivide the schedule into different periods, most fitted to the product.

The master schedule must be given to the production

department at least three months in advance of the

final assembly, to allow for the time lag in securing

material and iirocessing the parts. As previously

explained, the foundation for production control is based on standards prepared by the engineering, purchasing, and stores departments. This information

and data enable the production department to start scheduling and planning the purchase of raw material

and processing the parts.

Standards comm.on to stores control.—l^o department in any manufacturing business contributes more

to inventory control than do the stores departments,

which are three in number. These are, namely, general stores, which cover all purchases of any kind;

part stores, which cover all pieces and parts; and fin- ished stores, which cover all completed units for

shipment.

These items are controlled through the medium of

stock ledgers, which have many functions. They

record the receipt of material, and issue, and the purpose for which issued; a perpetual inventory of the

quantity on hand at all times; and the quantity of

parts consumed for any given time. The ledger sheets

also show the following information: Part number,

part name, maximum and minimum, quantity due on

open order, order number, and balance on hand. The

particular need in connection with the keeping of

stores and ledgers is the importance of these records

being kept up to the minute. The value of this need

can not be overestimated, as the ledgers become a bureau of information, so that the stores employee will

have absolute information as to the location of any

and all kinds of material. Also, this gives them com- mand of all parts, by record, and will enable them to show location on requisition, so that the stores keeper can send stores clei’ks, or truckmen, to the proper

point for drawing material to be delivered.

IMPROVING SPECIFICATIONS FOR DEFORMED

CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT BARS

Specifications are often made a part of the contract between a vendor and a purchaser so that the vendor

Avill know what quality is expected and the purchaser

may have tests made to determine Avhether he is getting what he wants. When these specifications are not

definite in all respects, disagreements are likely to

arise as to interpretation and methods of test. In the past, most of the specifications for deformed

concrete-reinforcement bars have not defined clearly

the method of determining the area of the bar. The

value for this area is used for computing the tensile

properties from the load values obsein^ed during the

tensile test of the bar. A study has been made at the

Bureau of Standards of four methods of area determinations now in more or less general use, to find out

Avhich method is most suitable. The results showed

that the nominal area was most convenient for specification work and should be used if it were considered

sufficiently accurate. Further, the weight-leng-th

method was more suitable for this use than either the

immersion, micrometer, or planimeter method.

These specifications also haA^e alloAved the testing

of machined bars in place of the bars Avith the original deformations. Data were lacking as to the

difference in tensile properties due to these differences

in the form of the test specimen. Tests were therefore

made on bars having the original lugs, bars fi’om

which the lugs have been filed, and bars which had

been machined to a cylindrical cross section.

The results of the tensile tests of different sizes and

shapes of deformed bars, Avhich is revieAved in Bureau

of Standards research paper No. 486, showed that the

lugs were effective to some extent in resisting tensile stresses; that machining the deformed bars to a

cylindrical cross section increased the tensile strength

and the yield point of the material, but only to a small

degree, and that this machining did not appreciably

affect the elongation of the tensile specimens. The

differences in all cases Avere too small to Avarrant the

expense of machining the bars.

PRISON PLUMBING FIXTURES

The division of trade standards of the Bureau of

Standards is cooperating with the manufacturers of

prison plumbing fixtures, and companies that build

jails, upon their request, toward the establishment of

a commercial standard to coA^er plumbing fixtures for

jails, prisons, reform schools, and similar institutions.

In order to expedite the Avork a committee has been

formed to collect data and suggestions to be used in

the preparation of the proposed standard. The committee is composed of 7 members, 3 of whom are representatives of the Manufacturers Advisory Committee on Vitreous China Plumbing Fixtures, 3 representatives of jail building supply companies, and

1 representative of the Bureau of Standards.

The industry believes that the establishment of a commercial standard for these types of plumbing fix- tures Avill result in Avorthwhile economies to both manufacturers and taxpayers. Dimensional variations

add materially to the cost- of designing and construction of penal institutions. Nonstandard fixtures in- crease the cost of jiroduction and distribution because

of the large stocks that must be carried by the manufacturer and jobber, thereby increasing the overhead.

Standardization of such fixtures should simplify their

installation and maintenance, should improA^e the liv- ing conditions in such institutions, and should create

a better understanding between buyer and seller, thus

reducing possibilities for error and misunderstanding.
XOVEMBER, 1932 COMMERCIAL, STAN-DAEDS MONTHLY 109

QUALITY CONTROL OF NONFERROUS METALS

Laboratory Studies by Bureau of Standards to Determine Commercial Adaptability of Mine Products

By H. S. Rawdon, Bureau of Standards

The term “ nonferrous ” has become conventional in

metallurgical parlance in referring to metals other

than iron and to alloys which do not contain iron as an essential constituent. This usage has come about

naturally as a result of the preponderating commercial importance of iron and its alloys—the steels. The

class of nonferrous metals is, in conseipience, a veiy

broad one in which are included many unrelaterl

members ranging from the common familiar metals,

such as lead, tin, aluminum, copper, and zinc to the

rare and precious metals.

Metallurgical investigative work, in general, is con- cerned with two broad aspects of the subject of metallurgy ; the jirocesses by which the metals are recovered

from the ores in which

they occur in nature and

the putting of the crude

metal thus obtained into

useful form for practical

utilization. It is the sec- ond phase which receives

attention at the Bureau

of Standards. The uti- lizing of any metal to best

advantage is predicated

upon a knowledge of the

characteristic properties

and fundamental constants of the pure metal. This

necessitates a knowledge of the naturally occurring

impurities in such metals, together with the development of methods for their removal. Most metals find

their greatest sphere of usefulness as alloys, hence the

necessity of the study of the mixing or alloying

processes. In short, all those factors which underlie

the commercial utilization of metals form the basis of

the metallurgical studies carried out. Practically all of the divisions of the Bureau of Standards are carry- ing out work of interest to some branch of the nonferrous metallurgical industry.

A great deal of the work on nonferrous metals is planned with a view to its immediate commercial

application as is illustrated b}^ the typical examples

discussed below:

Accurate determinations of the chemical composition

of nonferrous materials, such as metals and ceramic

products, must usually be made for the purpose of controlling manufacturing processes or of determining

whether the manufactured product meets specifications. Some years ago inaccurate analyses were com- mon and led not only to the production of faulty

material, but also to disputes concerning the composition of good material. One of the outstanding factors

in correcting this situation has been the bureau’s dis- tribution of samples of certified composition. To-day

an analyst can quickly check his methods against these

samples, which include brasses, bronzes, bearing metals, light aluminum alloys, die-casting alloys, and

ceramic materials, such as limestones, clays, feldspars,

. refractories, and glasses.

In connection with the preparation of these- samples

it often hapiiens that improved methods of analysis are developed, or unsuspected sources of error in the

old methods are uncovei’ed. These are embodied in numerous publications which have been distributed by

the bureau, or published in outside journals. A very

practical illustration of the need of knowing the composition of a metal before attempting to use it is afforded in the testing of fusible boiler plugs for the

Steamboat Inspection Service. The filling of these

plugs is high-grade tin, and samples of all heats furnished by the manufacturer must be approved by the

Bureau of Standards. It has been found by experi- ence that tin containing appreciable amounts of impurities oxidizes readily

under the action of steam

and thus defeats the purpose of the plug as a safety device.

In this country the Bureau of Standards was

probably the pioneer in

applying the spectrograph to commercial test- ing, since for 18 years its spectroscopy section has

been making practical use

of the spectrograj)h for chemical analysis. In the

meantime many industrial laboratories and research in- stitutions have acquired equipment for this purpose,

and in many instances this method of testing now supplements or even displaces the ordinary chemical

methods. The spectrochemical method has been found

useful not only in qualitative analysis (identification

of chemical elements) but also in quantitative determinations. It is based upon the fact that the chemical

elements when luminous emit characteristic spectra of

bright lines which uniquely identify the elements, and

the relative intensities of lines due to different elements

change with different proportions of the elements.

A speck of the material to be analyzed is vaporized

by electric means, the light produced is dispersed into a spectrum which is photographed, and the analysis is read from the y>hotographic plate. This optical

method has several obvious advantages—only small

samples are required, less time is consumed, and for

man}^ elements it is more sensitive than ordinary

chemical procedure. It is especially efficient for the

detection of “ impurities ” and is easilj'^ made quantitative in the range of 0.0001 per cent to several per cent by comparison with standards of known composition.

It is only since the spectrograph has been consulted

in the preparation of pure materials that really

“ pure ” metals have become available. As examples

of the application of spectrographic analysis to nonferrous metals mention may be made of the preparation of siiectroscopically pure platinum, rhodium, and

iridium and the annual check up on the purity of proof

gold for the Treasury Department.

In this article, the first of two. Dr. H. S. Eawdon, chief, division of metallurgy. Bureau

of Standards, shows the relationship of this

bureau to the nonferrous metals and minerals

industry. In the second article, which will

appear in the next issue of the Commercial

Standards Monthly, the author will continue

his discussion.
110 COMMERCIAL. STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1932

Precise determinations of the linear thermal ex- pansion of numerous nonferrous metals and alloys

have been made by the Bureau of Standards. Some

of the metals and alloys which have been investigated

are as follows: Aluminum and various important

aluminum alloys, beryllium and aluminum-beryllium

alloys, brasses, bronzes, copper, lead, magnesium,

nickel, stellite, tantalum, tungsten, tungsten carbide,

and zinc. Data on these and other materials have been

published. This information will assist manufacturers to select component parts of apparatus Avhich

may compensate for variations with changes in temperature. These parts, if not properly selected, would

cause difficulties as temperature changes are encountered. A research is now in progress to determine

the accuracy of different types of thermal expansion

equipment and the proper basis of selection to meet

the numerous requirements of industry.

The freezing or melting points of pure metals are constants which may be used as thermometric fixed

points on a practical scale for the measurement of

temperatures. Consequently, it is desirable that the

location of these points on the scale be determined

as accurately as possible. Silver and gold are the two

metals whose freezing points are included in the six

basic points upon which the international temperature

scale, adopted in 1927, was established. The numerical values assigned on this scale are 960.5° C. (1,760.9°

F.) for the freezing point of silver and 1,063° C.

(1,945° F.) for that of gold. Accurate determinations

BRITISH STANDARD FOR MACHINE-CUT

GEARS

A specification for helical and straight spur machine-cut gears has recently been issued by the British

Standards Institution, which contains a great deal of

information on the design and strength of industrial

gears. Hitherto reliance has had to be placed on one

or other of several formulas, and on this account no

simple and reliable system of checking could be applied, such as can be used with certainty in other

branches of engineering. Another practical point, to which attention has been given, is that of intermittent

rating of gears which, in normal operation, are subjected to varying loads, overloads, and periods of rest. The specification deals with machine-cut gears con- necting parallel shafts, the teeth being either straight,

single-helical, or double-helical, and of the 20° full- depth involute system (with a working height of twice

the module), of the following three classes: Class A

covers precision-ground or cut gears, suitable for pe- ripheral speeds exceeding 2,000 feet per minute ; class B refers tOi high class cut gears, suitable for peripheral

speeds between 750 and 3,000 feet per minute; class C

concerns commercial cut gears suitable for peripheral

speeds below 1,200 feet per minute.

In addition to dealing with the form of gear teeth,

clearance, maximum permissible pitch errors and tol- erances, the specification lays down standard formulas

for the strength and rating of gears and includes a

series of charts showing at a glance, the proportions of

gear wheels of different materials. The next section

of the gearing specifications to be taken in hand will be

that dealing with bevel and spiral gearing.

of the freezing points of a considerable number of

other nonferrous metals have been made at the Bureau

of Standards to fix their location as secondary points on this scale. These determinations range from tin,

the temperature of freezing of which is 231.9° C. (449° F.), to platinum, 1,773.5° C. (3,224° F.), and

iridium 2,453° C. (4,447° F.).

The Bureau of Standards has prepared for dis- tribution samples of a number of metals of known

purity, the melting temperature of which can be certified. The melting points of these “ pyrometric

standards,” which include tin, lead, zinc, aluminum,

and copper, cover the temperature range from 231.9° C. (449° F.) to 1,080° C. (1,976° F.) and form a very

convenient means of calibrating various temperaturemeasuring devices in metallurgical and other industrial laboratories.

In addition to its use as a fixed point on the temperature scale, the freezing point of platinum was

accurately determined in connection with the bureau’s

proposal to adopt a reproducible standard of light

based on the temperature of freezing platinum.

For a similar standard of light at a still higher temperature the freezing point of iridium has been determined to be 2,453° C. As an intermediate point

between these two it is planned to determine accurately

the freezing point of rhodium, which, from a pre- liminary determination already made, has been ten- tatively set at 1,985° C. ± 10°,

UNIFORM STATE LAWS RECOMMENDED BY

CONFERENCE

Forty-second National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws Draft Proposals for Uniform Laws

The forty-second annual conference of the National

Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws,

held in Washington, D. C., October 4 to 10, inclusive,

considered proposed standardization of State laws on

15 subjects.

Outstanding among the many projects considered were the following : Standard or uniform statutes for

control of the manufacture, sale, or use of machine

guns and the sale of narcotic drugs, which were approved; proposed uniform State law on mechanics’

liens, which was approved. The subject matter of the

adopted uniform act has been before the conference for

approximately seven years. The act was drafted in

cooperation with a committee working with the Department of Commerce upon which were representatives of all of the interests of the construction industry.

This committee worked in conjunction with the di- vision of building and housing of the Bureau of

Standards.

The conference considered a second draft of a uniform automobile liability security act, requiring proof

of financial responsibility on the part of owners and

operators of motor vehicles whose licenses are revoked

for law violations, who have poor accident records or who fail to satisfy judgments arising out of motorvehicle accidents. Noi final conclusion on this subject was reached, however, but the draft was proposed for

later consideration with a view to adoption.
NOVEMBER, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 111

THE UNITED STATES INCH

By H. W. Bearce, Bureau of Standards

At times the impression exists in industry that there

is considerable uncertainty and variability in the

United States inch as used in American industry ; for

example, that important manufacturers of precision

tools, such as Brown & Sharpe, Pratt & Whitney,

Ford-Johansson, Starrett, and others, use different

inches, one from another.

That there is no ground whatever for such an impression is shown by the fact that tools and instruments from all of these fii'ms are sent to the Bureau

of Standards for certification, and all are certified on

the same basis. The only uncertainty or lack of agreement involved is that involved in any comparison,

namely, errors of equipment and errors of observation.

In general, these errors are so small as to be of no importance or concern to industry.

In the production and inspection of precision gage

blocks, measurements, in terms of light waves, that are accurate to 0.000005 inch or better, are the rule rather

than the exception. Accuracy on the order of one or two millionths of an inch is not uncommon in this

work. It can not, therefore, be said that there is any

great uncertainty or variability in the value of the

United States inch.

In connection with the definition of a unit of measurement, the embodiment of this unit in a standard

at one temperature, and the use of this standard at some other temperature, there are certain points that

appear not to be generally understood. For example,

it is sometimes implied that because inch standards

and metric standards are used at several different

temperatures it necessarily follows that there are

several different inches and several different meters in

use. It can readily be shown that such is not the case. As an example let us take the case of the British

yard and inch. The yard is defined as the length of a

certain bronze bar when at a temperature of 62° F.,

and the inch as one-thirty-sixth of this length. Suppose we have a standard. A, which is correct at 62°

F., and suppose we wish to express in terms of the

yard or the inch, as represented by A, the length of some other standard, B, at some temperature other

that 62° F., say at 68° F. An obvious procedure

would be to compare A and B, each standard being at

its own standard temperature; that is, A at 62° F,

and B at 68° F. The difference between the two

standards would represent the error in B at 68° F.

In actual practice, however, comparisons can not

usually be made in this way. Usually the comparison must be made with the two standards at the same

temperature, in this case, say at 68° F.; then the

actual length of standard A, at 68° F., must be calcui; lated from its length at 62° F., and its known coeffi- cient of thermal expansion. Obviously, if standard A

has a length of 1 yard at 62° F., then at 68° F. it will

have a length of 1 yard plus its expansion between 62°

, F. and 68° F. If standard B is to be correct at 68° F.

then when compared with standard A, at 68° F.,

standard B should be shorter than standard A by the

amount of expansion of standard A between 62° F.

and 68° F. The unit, that is, the yard, will be the

same at 68° as at 62°, but the standard, if correct at 62° F., will, at 68° F., be of a different length in terms

of that unit.

Similarly, the meter is defined as the length of a certain bar when at a temperature of 0° C. This fact,

however, does not preclude the possibility of having

standards that are 1 meter in length when at any

other desired temperature. Standards are, in fact,

made to be correct at 15° C., 20° C., 25° C., and

other temperatures as desired. The unit, that is, the

meter, is the same in all cases, but the standards, if

all were at the same temperature, would be of different

lengths depending upon the coefficient of thermal ex- pansion of each and upon the temperature at which

each was correct. From the foregoing it is evident that Gi’eat Britain

in changing the temperature basis of its industrial

measurements of length from 62° F. to 68° F. has not

thereby changed the length of the imperial yard in

any way. It simply means that industrial gages,

machine parts, etc., are now measured in terms of a standard which is correct at 68° F. ; that is, in terms

of a standard which at 68° F. has the same length as the imperial standard when at 62° F. Dimensions of

such gages, machine parts, etc., are still expressed in

terms of the imperial yard, or in terms of the inch

derived therefrom.

There is a notable example of the results of failure to appreciate the practical necessity of the above in- terpretation as to the variability of standards and the

invariability of units. France, the cradle and nursery

of the metric system, has always insisted upon the

advantage, and even the necessity, of defining the

basic unit of length, the meter, in terms of the length

of a certain standard when at a temperature of 0° C. This basic definition has been generally accepted

without objection.

There has been a tendency in France, however, to go a step farther and to hold that industrial standards of length should also have their correct nominal

length at 0° C. It is held by most metrologists outside of France, and by many in France, that this does

not necessarily follow, and that in view of the fact

that most industrial standards of length are used at temperatures not far from 20° C., it is more logical

and more convenient, to have them so constructed that

they are correct at 20° C. This becomes practically

imperative if gages and various interchangeable parts

have different coefficients of thermal expansion.

It has been proposed by certain European standardizing committees that a relation between the yard and

the meter be set up on a basis such that the dimensions of gages, parts, etc., can be converted from inches

to millimeters, or vice versa, and at the same time the

temperature of reference changed from one basis to another. For example, so that measurements of a part, in millimeters, at 20° C. (68° F.) can be con- verted to inches at 62° F. by the use of a single con- version factor. Such a conversion factor could, in fact, be set up

for a single set of conditions and materials; but this

factor would not apply to other conditions and other
112 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1932

materials. Because of this fact it is much simpler, in

the long run, to make the conversion in two steps,

the first step being based on the relation of the units

involved, and the second step being based on the temperature difference and the known or assumed coeffi- cient of thermal expansion of the material involved.

AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

Current developments of the following standardization projects under the auspices and procedures of the

American Standards Association have been reported

by that association.

Rotating air cylinders and adafters.—An important new American standard on rotating air cylinders

and adapters has been ap^iroved by the association. It

v/as developed by the technical committee on chucks

and chuck jaws of the sectional committee on small

tools and machine tool elements, working under the

sponsorship of the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers, the National Machine Tool Builders’ Association, and the Society of Automotive Engineers.

The standard has been developed to obtain interchangeability of different makes of air cylinders on

the spinclles of machine tools without changing the

adapter or drawrod.

Three sizes of standard adapters cover the range of

standard air cylinders from 3 to 18 inches, inclusive.

Adapter A fits the 3 and 41/2 inch cylinders ; adapter B

fits the 6 and 8 inch cylinders ; and adapter C fits all sizes of cylinders from the 10 to 18 inch, inclusive. A

fourth size, adapter D, is also included and is provided

to accommodate the 20-inch air cylinder or other poweroperated devices having a drawrod pull of 26,000

to 40,000 pounds. The length of stroke of the standard cylinclers, the position of the piston rod at the end

of the stroke, and the diameter of the tapped hole in

the piston rod have also been standardized so that air

cylinder drawrods do not have to be fitted to individual air cylinders.

In order to allow the use of air cylinders on spindles

with comparatively small holes, the diameters of the

piston rods are as small as is consistent Avith the requisite strength. The piston rods and adapters of this

standard have been designed to Avithstand stress resulting from air pressures up to 100 pounds per

square inch. It is intended, hoAvever, that these pis- tons and adapters may be applied to hydraulic cylinders or to other mechanical operating devices Avhich

do not develop Avorking stresses in excess of those

developed by the corresponding sizes of air cylinders.

Concrete joist construction. —A neAv American

standard on forms for concrete joist construction

floors has been approved by the association. It covers the main dimensions of removable and permanent

forms, pans, or domes made of wood, steel, or other

material used in concrete ribbed floor construction.

The standard is a revision of simplified practice .rec- ommendation E87-31, developed by the industiy un- der the auspices of the Bureau of Standards. The

neAv standard Avas submitted to the American Standards Association by the Concrete Reinforcing Steel

Institute and the Bux’eau of Standards as an existing

standard.

Testing methods for fetroleuni products.—The as- sociation has approved tAvo neAv American standards

and four American tentative standards for methods

of testing petroleum products and lubricants, and has

also approved the revision of an existing American

standard and the advancement of four American tentative standards to the status of American standard.

This recent action folloAved the endorsement and submittal to A. S. A. by the sponsor (the American Society for Testing Materials) of recommendations from

the sectional conmiittee on methods of testing petroleum products and lubricants concerning standards developed by A. S. T. M. committee. The following were approved as American standards

:

Carbon residue of petroleum products (Conradson carbon

residue )

.

Testing gas oils (gravity, distillation, sulfur, carbon residue, pour point, viscosity, A\mter).

The titles of the approved American tentative standards are

:

Expressible oil and moisture in paraffin Avaxes. Definitions of terms relating to petroleum.

Dilution of crankcase oils. Precipitation number of lubricating oils. The title of the American standard method of test for distillation of natural gas gasoline, has been re- vised to read : “ Method of test for distillation of nat- ural gasoline.” Other revisions in this standard are confined to certain changes in the text to clarify the

procedure and to> eliminate a form for recording data,

and to editorial changes in the text. The folloAving American tentative standards have

been advanced to the status of American standard

:

Method of test for cloud and pour points of petroleum

products.

Method of test for melting point of petrolatum.

Determination of autogenous ignition temperatures.

Flash point of volatile flammable liquids.

In connection with the adA^ancement of these standards to American standards, a minor revision, editorial

in character, has been made in one section of the standard, “ Method of test for cloud and pour points.”

Inch-millimeter conversion. —An American standard

value to be used by industry in coiiA^erting inches to millimeters was recommended by a general conference

held under the auspices of the American Standards

Association on October 21, folloAving a request of the

Ford Motor Co. (For details see October, 1932, issue

of Commercial Standards Monthly.) RepresentatiA^es of 18 industrial groups having an interest in precise measurements and methods of limit gaging were

present. The conference unanimously recommended

the conversion factor of 1 inch equals 25.4 millimeters

to become the American standard value for industrial

use, replacing for this purpose both the official ratio

25.40005 and the rounded value 25.4001 given in cei’tain handbooks and tables.
NOVEMBER, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 113

STUDYING THE PROPERTIES OF FLOOR COVERING

A Review of the Bureau’s Research on Floor Coverings, in Which Carpet, Rubber Tile, and Asphalt Tile are Considered

Bj" J. W. McBueney, Bureau of Standards

Barring bed-ridden invalids and people who spend

their entire time out of doors, the properties of floors and floor coverings should be of interest to everybody.

Therefore, the Bureau of Standards investigations of

floor coverings may be considered a typical example of consumer research. On account of limitations of

sjiace, the present discussion will be confined to an ac- count of the bureau’s work on three types of materials —rubber tile, carpet, and asphalt or mastic tile. Before going into the details of these investigations, some attention should be given to the why and how of

research on materials. The kind of investigation

made on a material depends largely on whether the

material is manufactured by man or by nature. Building stone is an example of a material which,

except for shaping, is used as nature made it. About

all that an investigator can do for the building stone industry is to measure and catalogue the various properties of stones as quarried and marketed, and con- clude that a particular kind of stone is or is not to be

recommended for a particular condition of service.

On the other hand, where a material is compounded

and fabricated and the resultant behavior can be

varied and controlled over a wide range, the question

to be answered by the investigator is not so much

“ What are the properties ? ” but “ What should they

be? ” Usually a question that must also be answered

is, “ By what processes of compounding and fabricating can certain desired properties be secured?”

A program of investigation is conducted somewhat

as follows : The first step is to locate and read what is already in print about the material. This includes

reference books and technical articles in the scientific and technical press, as well as any patents that may

have been granted. The next step is to secure samples and information from a representative list of

manufacturers. Characteristic installations, the

older the better, are inspected, with especial attention

to failures. On the basis of the information and

ideas accumulated, a testing program for the samples

is then laid out. In general, the tests would be of

two types—measurements of fundamental physical

properties and tests designed to imitate or accelerate

conditions met in service. Chemical analyses and

tests are frequently useful. The next step is to correlate the data obtained in the laboratory with field observations. Sometimes no correlation is found.

The remed^q in such a case, is to provide more and

better data. Assuming that a delnite relation were

found between the results of laboratory tests or meas- urements and the behavior of the material in service,

all that reinained would be to select the tests and set the proper limits for the test values, and the specification would be written. It should be remarked that,

in general, it is not advisable to have a specification

state both “ how ” and “ what.” In other words, the

best practice is either to give a manufacturer wide lee- way in the composition and fabrication of an article and specify that it meet definite performance tests.

or to provide that the article shall be made in such

and such a manner with such and such a composition

and expect that the performance Avill automaticallj^

follow.

It must not be supposed that a specification is the

only service rendered the consumer by such an investigation. It is true that many department stores, insti- tutions, and other large purchasers are to-day buying

goods on specifications modeled on those of the Federal

Specifications Board, and certain commodities can be

bought by the housewife under a label or certificate guaranteeing compliance with a Federal or American

Society for Testing Materials’ specification. But it is probable that the consumer’s greatest benefit is derived

from the improvement of the manufacturer’s product. Instances of this Avill be given in the description of the

bureau’s work on carpet, rubber tile, and asphalt tile. Still another benefit to the consumer can be found in

the guidance giA^en architects in the selection of the

most suitable material for a specific use. An illustra- tion of this is found in the question of an architect as

to which of two types of floor coverings was the more

suitable for a school for crippled children. A comparison of the coefficients of friction of rubber (the

rubber tips of crutches) on the two floorings in dispute

gave an emphatic answer to the question.

Rugs and carpets have been under investigation by

the Bureau of Standards for the past several years. The original purpose was the production of a specification. At the present time the effect of variation in

the height and density of pile and grade of avooI used on the life of the carpet is being studied. The natiu-e

of the underlay used in combination with carpets Avas found to be responsible for lengthened service up to 150 per cent. The first step in the investigation Avas the design of a machine for simulating wear due to

Avalking. Excellent relation Avas found betAveen the

laboratory results and behavior on the floor. With tlie cooperation of the manufacturers, the consumer can

expect materially longer life of rugs and carpets as a result of this work.

Compared with rugs and carpets, rubber tile is a relatively neAv material. Technical deA’elopment moves rapidly in the rubber industry, hence a surA’ey

based on “ the present state of the art ” is open to the same criticism as the young man of a generation

ago Avho had read laAv and presented himself before a judge in a certain Midwestern State for examination

for admission to the bar. The judffe asked the young

man, “What do you knoAv? ” The applicant ausAvered, “ I ha\’e memorized the reA'ised statutes of

this State.” “Young man,” said the judge, “the

State legislature some day is going to repeal CA'erything you knoAv.” The bureau’s iuA’estigation in- cluded, first, the determination of the fundamental

properties of the brands of all available makes of

rubber tile as received from manufacturers, and

second, the correlation of aging behavior with the
114 COMMEBCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1932

properties of the rubber compounds. The tests in- cluded measurements of hardness, bending, indentation, wear resistance, and staining. Some work was

done on ease and effect of cleaning. Sample floors were laid and are under observation for aging effects. The study of asphalt or mastic tile floor covering was started but a short time ago in cooperation with

the Asphalt and Mastic Tile Association. Asphalt tile represents a material whose properties can be varied

within a wide range. Take, for instance, the property

of resistance to indentation. Asphalt tile can be produced which is hard as the proverbial board, or quite

soft. The bureau’s interest is not in the fact that a

particular brand of tile has a certain indentation as received on a given date, but rather, first, in determining what method of indentation testing will give re- sults directly comparable with those resulting from

furniture, and second, what is the most desirable range

of indentation. It is of interest to note that quantitaSECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON

LIGHT

The Second International Congress on Light, dealing with all questions of biological and biophysical

researches in the fields of light and light therapy, was

held in Copenhagen, Denmark, August 15 to 18, 1932.

Dr. W. W. Coblentz of the Bureau of Standards,

attended the congress as the United States member of

the international committee on measurement and

standardization and as the representative of the council on physical therapy of the American Medical

Association.

Four principal subjects were considered by the

congress: (1) How can the effect of light baths on

tuberculosis be explained? (2) the basis and organization of helioclimatic researches in relation to public

hygiene; (3) the role of pigmentation in the biologic

action of light, and the therapeutic effect of light

baths ; and (4) the choice of a unit and a method of

measuring xdtra-violet radiation used in medicine.

Many other special papers were presented in the

fields of physics, biology, therapy, and biochemistry.

Considering only the results of the deliberations of

the committee on measurement and standardization,

these may be summarized as follows

:

It is recommended that ultra-violet radiation stimuli be evaluated upon a physical (radiometric) basis

in absolute units. The ultra-violet radiation from the source is to be separated into three components by means of a nonselective radiometer (thermopile) and

a series of three standard filters. The specifications

for these filters are provisional, and may undergo

slight changes with future developments. Doctor

Coblentz was assigned the task of preparing and

standardizing the filters, sets of which will be deposited at the following national research laboratories: Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.

;

Comitade Nazionale della Richerche de Rome; Institut d’Actinologie, Paris; Institut Finsen, Copenhagen; Institut fiir Strahlenforschung, Berlin; and

the National Physical Laboratory, Teddington. If

possible, these laboratories will deliver the filters to manufacturers, physicians, and meteorologists.

The committee recommends to physicians the use

of simple methods of measurement (biological, phototive relations have been found where time and load

are varied so that indentation at the end of several

hours can be quite accurately predicted where the

indentation after one or two minutes is known. Likewise regular relations exist between indentation and

load over a wide range.

Among the tests used to date are cross bending,

where both loads and deflections are measured ; resist- ance to abrasion by Kessler’s method ; softening point

;

impact; and indentation by several methods. Maintenance problems will be studied. The research has

been characterized to date by considerable study of

methods of test in themselves and by evaluation of

tests by comparison with field results. It should be emphasized that the important thing

in these investigations on flooring materials is not

the determination of the properties of given brands

but rather the development, study, and interpretation

of methods of test.

chemical, or photo-electrical) to control the constancy

of each lamp used, and emphasizes that at the present

time a comparison is only possible for the same lamp

and not between different lamp types.

The International Congress on Light will meet

again in 1936. The present indications are that, in the

meantime, there will be much greater international

cooperation, and when the committee on measurement

and standardization again meets, those present should

have ample information and data available upon the

questions now awaiting action.

OIL REFINING HEAT EXCHANGE

EQUIPMENT

A code of recommendations for oil refining heat

exchange equipment, worked out by a committee representing both refiners and manufacturers, has been

approved and published by the petroleum division of

the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

Included in the recommendations are data which

refiners should supply manufacturers when they ask

for proposals on heat exchange equipment, suggestions for shop inspection and shop tests of equipment

;

methods of making performance tests and an appendix discussing factors of design, cleaning methods, and fouling resistance. The code developed

for performance tests is expected to develop data on

heat transfer rates and fouling resistance which

should be of great value to the industry. Under the

code this data will be the exclusive property of the

manufacturer and refiner directly interested, but the

committee has expressed the hope that considerable

data may be released for the benefit of the industrj^ as a whole. A standard method of testing and reporting

is offered which should facilitate study of the subject.

Objects of the performance tests are to determine

capacity and efficiency of heat exchange equipment

for comparison with manufacturers’ guarantees and

to determine the effects of fouling on capacity and

efficiency. Within 48 hours after new equipment is installed the initial test is to be given under requirements of the code. In addition, a service test is to be

made, preferably not later than three months after

the equipment is installed.
NOVEMBER, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 115

BUREAU OF STANDARDS HAS AIDED LUMBER INDUSTRY

Safety Codes, Simplified-Practice Recommendations, Trade Standards, and Building Codes Useful to Industry

The interest of the Bureau of Standards in the

lumber industry extends as far back as the operation

involved in fashioning the raw products. One of

the series of the National Safety Code with which the

bureau has been identified is the American Logging

and Sawmill Safety Code. This is one of the codes

formulated under recommendations to the American

Standards Association, and developed under the plans

and rules of procedure of this body. That logging is one of our hazardous industries is shown by compensation records. The Pacific slope represents a loggingdistrict where all the States have compensation laws

and accidents are actually reported. Consistent applications of the safety rules contained in this code

should materially improve the records of the individual States. The American Logging and Sawmill Code applies

to all logging operations, including the transportation

of logs to the mill; to the ordinary sawmill operations, including lath and shingle manufacture but

excluding the manufacture of veneer and cooperage

stock; and to dry kilns and yard operations. The

purpose of this code is to provide reasonable safety

for life, limb, and health. Approval of specifications or methods should, when necessary, be based on tests made by an unprejudiced institution of recognized

standing with final appeal in such tests to the Bureau

of Standards or the United States Forest Service,

according to subject. A discussion of the rules which

is intended to assist the reader in understanding the reasons for them, is included with the code.

The lumber industry is one of the outstanding ex- amples of the application of the cooperative services

of the Bureau of Standards in aiding industry to promulgate simplified practice recommendations and commercial standards. The concerted action of the lumber industry resulted in the development of the American Lumber Standards, published as Simplified Practice Recommendation No. 16, Lumber. This recom- mendation provides the basic provision for grading

lumber, and includes the recognized classification,

nomenclature, basic grades, seasoning standards,

shipping provisions, grade marking, tally cards, and

inspection of lumber.

The problems of simplification of sizes, nemenclature, grades, and trade practices have been before the

lumber industry for many years, and it has been long

recognized that, even though cut from different species,

lumber of similar characteristics and intended for

similar purposes could be produced, merchandised,

and applied in accordance with fixed standards. It was also stated that the wide variation in regional

practices as to size, grading, and names reacted to the

disadvantage of the user, retailer, wholesaler, manufacturer, and, indeed, all groups interested in lumber,

and that sane standardization offered promise of in- creased economy, more profitable and stable business,

and markedly better service. The constnictiye ad- vance to solution may be dated from the convention

of the American Lumber Congress in 1919, when an

organized program was adopted looking to the simplification of lumber-grading standards, greater uniformity in the basis of similar grades of competing

species, and the standardization of yard and factory

lumber.

A sound basis was at hand in the work of the Forest

Products Laboratory of the United States Department

of Agriculture, which for many years had been studying, investigating, and urging national lumber standardization. Progress, though continuous, was some- what slow during 1920 and 1921, but early in 1922 the

Secretai'y of Commerce responded to the request of

the industry with suggestions for hastening results and an offer of cooperation along definite lines. Efforts were to be specifically directed toward simplification and standardization, and to the development of more adequate quality guarantees to the

lumber-using public. As a consequence of the efforts of the Secretary of Commerce and the discussions at previous meetings, a general conference was held in

1922 under the auspices of the division of simplified

practice of the Bureau of Standards. This conference

developed unanimous resolution of the industry to proceed with the formation and adoption of the necessary

standards in sizes and grades, together with methods

of interpreting and applying these standards.

A second general conference was held in 1922, at which a central committee was formed. This committee organized a larger group, the consulting committee on lumber standards, the members of which

were appointed from all interests to work out the detailed data and appropriate recommendations, which

were submitted to the third general conference, held

in 1923. This conference accomplished two great

objectives, namely: First, by the elimination of unnecessary and often wasteful sizes, the number of ac- tual finished yard lumber items were reduced nearly

60 per cent, and by fixing definitions of basic grades a firm foundation was established for grade equalization. Such simplification of business practice meant

economies of great magnitude. Second, and even more important through the operation of the recom- mendation, the home builders of America were assured

a supply of standard lumber and standard practices

maintained by the united forces of the industry.

This conference made full provision for the consideration of necessary details to complete the undertaking. These details were considered at the fourth,

fifth, sixth, and seventh conferences, the last held in 1928. The principal subjects considered and upon

which affirmative action was taken at this conference were: (1) Revisions in the structural material provisions, (2) drjmess of lumber as a basis for the

measurement of sizes, (3) classes of lumber dryness,

(4) uniform patterns for worked lumber, (5) representation of the illustrations of the 7,000 series of

moldings by showing them in full size and in perspective, (6) amplification of basic provisions for

factory and shop lumber, (7) clarification of tables
116 COMMEECIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1932

of sizes of worked lumber, (8) revision in the methods

of packing western red shingles, (9) nomenclature of

commercial softwoods, and (10) several minor matters relating to other features of the current

standards.

Following revision conferences at which constructive changes were made in the American Lumber

Standards, revised editions of Simplified Practice

Recommendation No. 16 were issued by the Bureau

of Standards. The present revised issue embodies all changes up to date. It has been accepted by producers, distributors, users, and other interested organizations, representing a substantial portion of the in- dustry. As a result of the high degree of acceptance,

the central committee on lumber standards, which represents the industry in respect to this movement, esti- mates that more than 90 per cent of softwood lumber

is manufactured to size, graded and shipped under

association gTading rules conforming to American

Lumber Standards.

The preparation of commercial standards for articles

made of wood, under the auspices of the Bureau of

Standards, has been of great importance to the lumber

industry. Of the 36 commercial standards developed

through the cooperation of the bureau’s division of

trade standards, there are 5 in the field of lumber

products, including Hickory Golf Shafts, Aromatic

Red Cedar Closet Lining, Mopsticks, Red Cedar

Shingles, and Plywood. The motivating infiuence

behind the standardization of quality grading of

hickory golf shafts was the trade organization formed

by the manufacturers of this commodity known as the

Hickory Golf Shaft Manufacturers Association—

a

small group of farseeing men who were firmly of tlie conclusion that inferior hickory shafts and not other

competing materials were the cause of their diminishing business. They regarded well-selected hickory as the proper and time-tested material for the superior

golf shaft. They claimed that hickory absorbed the

shock created by the impact of the club head with the

ball in the same manner that the wooden hammer

handle absorbs the shock imparted to the hammer head

with each blow. With the growing popularity of the

game they observed the increased use of poor quality,

soft, unresilient hickory shafts that came about chiefly

through inability on the part of new inspectors to recognize good golf shaft material.

Visual inspection, together with a flexing of the

shaft in the inspector’s hand, was the onl}?^ known

manner of arriving at an opinion as to the quality of a shaft and quite often differences of opinion were registered by qualified inspectors. The chief requisites of

a good hickory golf shaft are straight grain and

stiffness. It is obvious that straight grain is essential

because of the strength required to withstand the

strain imposed by the impact of the club head with the

ball, or perhaps with some more secure portions of the

landscape. The other cardinal requirement is not resilience, nor is it exactly summed up in the term “ stiff- ness,” but is a measure of this property, for what a golfer really needs is a shaft with the property of a sudden return to its normal form after being bent.

This characteristic is found in well-selected hickory

grown under favorable conditions, which incidentally

comprises only a rather small percentage of the total cut of the species. When the club is swung in the direction of the ball the force of the down swing causes a flexure of the shaft and the efficacy of the stroke

depends upon the speed with which it returns to normal position.

Manufacturers recognized the fallacy of manual tests and accordingly devised a testing machine by which

comparable results could be obtained by different manufacturers and by which golf-club makers could test the shafts they purchased. The shaft producers

in cooperation with club markers, professionals,

and others set up their own quality specifications in which all shafts are divided into four classes. The very finest can thus be selected for the top-flight

golfers, who demand a very stiff shaft. The next

grade is suitable for the player who prefers a shaft

Avith a little more flexibility, while the two lower

grades may be quite suitable for the clubs used by

beginners. ® . . Since lumber enters into construction to a very large

extent, the adequacy of existing local legislation affect- ing its use is of vital importance to the industry.

Many cities and towns have building codes which go

into more or less detail when stating how various

building materials may be used. The reason for doing

this, briefly, is to prevent people from getting hurt.

Experience has demonstrated that without such safe- guards, the ignorant, the careless, and unscrupulous

Avill erect, or will permit to remain, a certain proportion of unsafe structures whose collapse or destruction

by fire will inevitably bring about suffering or loss of

life. About 1,500 local codes now attempt to exercise

this police power through the medium of building

codes and with varying success. Some are based on

accurate information and express their intent clearly.

Others are well meant but fall short of handling the

subject as it should be treated.

In the Department of Commerce building code committee, which functions through the Bureau of Standards, there has existed for some years a body organized

for the expressed purpose of making available suggested minimum requirements based on the best in- formation to be had. In dealing with minimum

requirements for lumber, as in the case of other

materials, the building code committee has been

careful to scrutinize available test data, to collect the experience of architects and engineers, and to consult the representatives of the industry itself. It has issued a number of reports that have come to be

accepted as standard works of reference wherever local codes are being adopted or revised.

Safe working stresses for structural timber and the

relative fire hazard of frame construction as compared with other types are among the subjects that

have been considered. Small house construction in

particular has received attention and is the subject of a special report having the largest circulation of any

thus far issued by the committee. It is the hope of

the committee that its recommendations will tend

not only to insure safety for the occupants of buildings, but will also operate to insure the maximum use- fulness of various building materials, including lumber.Active consideration is being given by the fire re- sistance section of the Bureau of Standards to the

matter of increasing the fire resistance of constructions comprised wholly or partly of wood. Solid
NOVEMBER, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 117

partitions of wood 2i^inches thick, chemically treated

to reduce flammability, have been tested and found to withstand a severe furnace Are for one hour before

burning through. Wood frame partitions covered

with lath and plaster or other facings have withstood

similar tests for periods from a half hour to an hour

and a half. It has also been found in the tests made

that the Are resistance of wood-bearing members, such

as columns, can be greatly increased by relatively thin

protective coverings applied over the column shaft

and by metal caps connecting it to the floor members.

The cooperative services of the Bureau of Standards that have been extended to the lumber industry,

as partially reviewed in this article, have also been ex- tended to other industries in the controlled movement

to eliminate avoidable industrial and conunercial waste

through the application of the principles of simplified

practice and standardization.

INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION FOR UNIFORM

METHODS OF SUGAR ANALYSIS

The International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis deals with all matters of international importance relating to the scientific and technical aspects of the world’s sugar industry, including

standards, physical constants, and analytical methods.

It is especially concerned with those factors which

enter into the technical aspects of the determination

of value in the buying and selling of sugars. There

have been seven previous sessions of the commission,

the first being held in Hamburg in 1897, the last in

New York in 1912. Owing to conditions which developed following the World War it was found impossible, despite many urgent questions pressing for

solution, for the commission to be reconvened.

As a result of numerous requests, including an ur- gent one made shortly before his death by Dr. Alexander Herzfeld, president of the commission, the

Bureau of Standai'ds through Frederick Bates, chief

of the bureau’s polarimetric work, undertook the

rehabilitation and reorganization of the commission.

A comprehensive program was prepared covering 14

major subjects, and referees and associate referees

from the world’s leading authorities in each subject were appointed. After a year and a half of corre- spondence between these committees to eliminate

minor international disagreements, the bureau made

the ann ouncement that the eighth session of the commission would be held in Amsterdam, the Netherlands,

the week of September 5, 1932.

In order that the commission might function sys- tematically a constitution and bj^-laws had become of

fundamental importance, and especially was this the

fact to determine the voting power of each of the

nations in the commission. A suitable instrument was finally prepared at the bureau and Mr. Bates

visited the principal European countries in advance

of the session at Amsterdam and succeeded in eliminating practically all international objections. As a re- sult of this procedure the constitution and by-laws were adopted immediately the session convened, and

the commission for the first time in its history had a

definite rule of procedure. In the 20 years that had

passed since the seventh session many important

changes had taken place in the world’s sugar industries. New scientific methods had sj>rung into use

in the different countries and a great mass of new

information had been evolved as a result of intensive

research following the war. With the assembly of the

delegates at Amsterdam it became evident that the

elimination of differences and the adoption of international agreements on the principal subjects of the

agenda were imperative.

The sessions, lasting four days, were conducted in

English, French, and German, with a member of the

bureau’s staff presiding. Approximately 50 dele- gates assembled for the sessions, representing most of

the principal sugar-producing sections of the world

and included many of the principal organizations

from the different countries as well as representatives

from the Physikalisch-Technische-Reichsanstalt, the

National Physical Laboratory, the Czechoslovakian

Sugar Institute, the German Sugar Institute, the British Government’s chemical laboratories, and industries using sugar products.

In addition to the adoption of a constitution and

by-laws, the sessions adopted the Bureau of Standards

numerical values for the standardization of the

saccharimeter, the presence of the error in all instruments on which the world’s sugar is bought and sold

gives results more than one-tenth of 1 per cent lower

than they should be. Despite the fact that practically all buying and selling of sugars continued on the

old basis, the error was ordered corrected by the Secretary of the Treasury in all instruments used in the

United States customs laboratories for purposes of

collecting import duties. The increased revenue re- sulting from imported sugars as a result of the correc- tion of this error has been very large.

FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS

Ten specifications were acted on by the Federal

Specifications Board during the month of October.

Of this number two proposed specifications and eight

revisions have been sent out for official comment and

criticism. Copies of these specifications are available

in mimeographed form and further information can

be obtained from the Federal Specifications Board,

Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.

New designation Specifications proposed Old

F. S. B. No.

FF-H-lOla...

FF-P-lOla...

GG-E-671.... GG-K-791.... mi-I-531....

SS-C-571

SS-F-351

W\V-C-fi23a

.

ZZ-G-Mt!

Pipe, clay, sewer Dishwashing machines and dish racks or baskets

Specifications to be revised

Hardware, builders’ (nontemplate) Padlocks - Erasers, steel 539

3fi0 587 Rulers, desk

Insulation, rubber, for wire and cable for general purposes.

j.Yggregate for Portland cement concrete Couplings, hose, garden and water,

Catheters, rubber 222
118 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1932 RESEARCH ON RUBBER

Work of Bureau of Standards on Electrical Properties of Rubber Will Save Considerable Money on Cable

Purchases

By A. T. McPheeson, Bureau of Standards

Research on rubber conducted by the Bureau of

Standards has for its main purpose the development

of basic scientific knowledge of the material—such

knowledge as may come from preparing rubber of

very high purity, from crystallizing and distilling it, and from measuring mechanical, optical, and electrical

properties with high precision. Work of this character

is important because rubber, though used extensively,

is a material about which relatively little is known.

The unique property of rubber which virtually sets

it apart from all other known substances is its remarkable ability to stretch, yet the reason for its stretching

has not been fully or adequately explained. Even ta- bles of engineering properties which are so commonly

used for other materials

are not available for rubber. In consequence, new

uses and applications in

large measure have to be

developed by the tedious

and costly method of trial and error. Practical applications have so far

outstripped the progress

of scientific study that the

industry may derive a greater ultimate benefit

from an increase in the

store of basic knowledge about rubber than from di- rect assistance with practical technological problems.

A study of the electrical properties of rubber is an

investigation which has been in progress at the Bureau

of Standards for a dozen years. Rubber-sulphur com- pounds have been prepared in an unbroken series from

soft to hard rubber, and electrical properties, such as

dielectric constant, jDOwer factor, and conductivity,

have been charted on all these compounds at temperatures from —100° F. up to as high as 450° F. and at frequencies of 60 cycles per second to 300 kilocycles

per second.

Another investigation has for its purpose the purification of rubber. The highly purified rubber is a

clear, colorless, transparent elastic solid, as clear and

colorless, in fact, as the best plate glass. This pure

rubber can be repeatedly crystallized, thus opening

the possibility of successfully fractionating it into its constituent hydrocarbons and eventually of determining the formulas of their molecules.

The Bureau of Standards has also succeeded in dis- tilling the purified rubber by heating it in a high vacuum to the temperature of boiling water. The rate of distillation, however, is not sufficiently great to make this process of value for purifying rubber in any

quantity.

A study of the thermodynamic properties of rubber

is now in progress, the immediate concern of which is the precise measurement of the specific heat of rubber

from room temperature down to temperatures of liquid

hydrogen near the absolute zero. These researches are

typical of the fundamental work on rubber in which

the Bureau of Standards is engaged. The major in- vestigation frequently leads to many ramifications. For

instance, studies on photoelastic effects necessitated the

development of a gage by means of which sheets of

rubber could be measured to a ten-thousandth of an

inch without compressing them appreciably. The value

of fundamental research in connection with rubber may

be illustrated by reference to the work on the electrical

properties of rubber.

In 1930 the United States Coast Guard approached

the Bureau of Standards with a problem pertaining to telephone cables which were laid in shallow water to connect coast stations and lighthouses. Some of these

cables were giving poor

This is the first of a series of three articles by

Mr. McPherson showing the relation of certain

portions of the work of the Bureau of Standards to the rubber industry and how it benefits

not only the industry, but also the Government

and the public as consumers of rubber products.

In the December Commercial Standards

Monthly, the author will discuss specifications

and standards for rubber products.

service and required re- placing in the relatively

short period of 10 or 15

years. In many cases fail- ure was due to deterioration of the rubber, and in

other cases to mechanical wear on account of pounding by the surf on a shallow coral bottom. Communication on some of the

longer lines where failure

had not occurred was unsatisfactory on account of the electrical characteristics

of the rubber.

Some of the work which the Bureau of Standards

had been doing in the study of the electrical properties

of rubber was directly applicable to the problems in- volved, so that the Coast Guard engineers, together

with the manufacturers, and the bureau staff, were able

to design new types of cables having better and more

durable insulation. The problem of abrasive wear on

coral bottoms was solved by applying a tough rubber

jacket which was capable of outlasting several times its thickness of heavy steel armor wires. The new type

of cables have been in use now for two years and not

only show much improved electrical performance, but

give promise of long life as well. While no attempt will be made to assign a definite

value to this single application, it may be stated that

submarine telephone cables cost $1,000 to $2,000 per

mile, and annual purchases by the Coast Guard may j .mount to the order of $100,000. Consequently, if even

j only a small improvement is effected, the saving to the I Government will more than compensate for the entire t outlay for the investigation. ^ It is proper that the Bureau of Standards should | engage in the development of new knowledge about ; rubber because it can conduct thorough investigations j which are beyond the scope and facilities of most in-

‘

dustrial laboratories. The results of such work have^

such broad and far-reaching applicability that they

will be of ultimate benefit to producer, manufacturer,

and consumer, alike.
NOVEMBER, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 119

STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR ROAD CONSTRUCTION

American Association of State Highway Officials Has Developed Standards for Building and Marking Roads

By B. W. James ^

The American Association of State Highway

Officials is an organization composed of rejiresentatives of the State highway departments of the several

States. These groups of administratives and engineers

have many problems in common incident to operations under the Federal-aid highway act, and it was

early apparent in the course of their operations that

the adoption of standards established by this association would greatly facilitate the handling of plans

and specifications involved in Federal-aid projects.

The fact that the Secretary of Agriculture is specifically required by the act to approve specifications

for highways to which Federal aid is allotted makes

the use of standard specifications extraordinarily con- venient in the administration of the law, inasmuch as the use of standards once approved insures the expeditious approval of new projects.

Almost coincident with the organization of the as- sociation, a committee on standards was created and

has been active in developing and producing specifications which are now generally accepted throughout

the field of highway construction. Two volumes have

been issued, of 294 and 233 pages, respectively, entitled “ Tentative Standard Specifications for Highway Materials and Methods of Sampling and Test- ing ” and “ Standard Specifications for Highway

Bridges and Incidental Structures.”

The first volume contains tentative standards for 40

materials used in highway building. These specifications cover all of the common materials required for

building macadam, Portland cement concrete, bituminous, and brick road surfaces and, in addition,

many specifications for special materials, such as wire

fabric for reinforcement, premolded expansion joint

material, traffic paint; base metal for corrugated culverts, and asphalt emulsions.

The specifications for methods of sampling and

testing run parallel with the materials specifications

and include general methods for testing cement, stone,

gravel, and sand. Besides these general tests there

are many others, comprising 74 in all, which cover

special details, such as the quality of soft pebbles in

gravel destined for use as aggregate, the percentage

of shale in aggregate, surface moisture in fine aggregate, wire rope for guard rail, and methods of taking

samples of hardened concrete. The standard specifications for highway bridges

comprise a complete series of specifications for bridges

and incidental structures, including general provisions

of 21 materials ; general construction of 18 items ; special construction of 8 items; and a section on design

establishing standard requirements for highway

bridges. The design section of the bridge specifications provides for steel, timber, and reinforced concrete structures. The volume on materials and testing is the first of

its kind that has ever been issued to cover the highway

field exclusively, and the volumes together, which

Chairman, committee on standards, American Association of State Highway OflBcials.

were issued in 1931, constitute the most complete set of highway specifications so far produced.

The association has been active also in standardizing highway signs and markings, and has issued a manual covering the manufacture, display, and erec- tion of standard road markers and signs. This manual

is the outgrowth of an effort to systematize traffic control on rural highways, incident to the selection of a considerable mileage of interstate routes of primary

character.

On February 20, 1925, the then Secretary of Agriculture, Henry M. Gore, pursuant to a resolution

adopted by the American Association of State Highway Officials, appointed a joint board on interstate

highways “ to undertake immediately the selection and

designation of a comprehensive system of through

interstate routes and to devise a comprehensive and

uniform scheme for designating such routes in such a manner as to give them a conspicuous place among the

highwaj^s of the country as roads of interstate and

national significance.”

As the work devolving upon the board progressed,

the need of expanding the scheme of appropriately

designating the routes selected with identifying markers to include a series of standard warning, caution,

and directional signs became more and more apparent.

Keenly appreciating the opportunity afforded to promote safety on the highway by the adoption of signs

of standard design, the joint board appointed a subcommittee on signs to consider the matter. The subcommittee was charged with the responsibility of developing a comprehensive series of signs of this character such as might be adopted as standard by all the

States, and to replace as far as practicable the almost

countless signs of miscellaneous design then in use. Many of these were “ scare ” signs, which by their

legend, color, or shape induced reactions that defeated

their object. Many carried advertising matter in let- ters more conspicuous than their warning, and others were of “ freak ” outline, such as the “ skull and cross- bones ” or the outline of a coffin, more appalling than

arresting. In another category are the signs conforming to State standards, adopted in many States, and

the signs erected by well-intentioned safety organizations. These have had their part in promoting the safe use of the highways, but inasmuch as the design of the

former invariably changed at State lines and the latter had even more restricted application, they were lacking

in that coordination essential to efficient effort. In investigating the situation, the subcommittee re- ceived enthusiastic cooperation from the Bureau of

Standards, the National Conference on Street and

Highway Safety, the National Safetj^ Council, the

Council of National Research, the American Engineering Standards Committee (now the American

Standards Association), the Psychological Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University, the Bureau of

Public Roads, the Westinghouse Co., and the General

Electric Co.
120 COMMERCIAIj standards monthly NOVEMBER, 1932

The signs recommended by the subcommittee and

approved by the American Association of State Highway Officials are divided into three classes: (1) Route

markers, carrying the identifying road number and

State name; (2) caution and warning signs; and (3)

directional and informational signs.

In addition to the legend carried, the character of

information or warning is indicated by the shape

of the sign. The road number is carried on a shield.

For railroad grade intersections the circular disk

with its appropriate legend previously adopted by the

American Railroad Association is exclusively used to indicate approaches to the intersections. The “ Stop ” sign indicating the maximum degree of caution is octagonal. All legends for potential hazards exist- ing within the road limits are carried on a diamondshaped placque, and for those of more or less inter- mittent character attributable to sources outside the

actual road limits a square placque is used. Directional signs are all rectangular, the dimensions varying with the wording. There are also several supplementary signs, for example, the R and L used in con- nection with the shield marker to indicate respective

turns, and the directional, confirmational, and detour

arrows. All shield markers and their supplementary turn

indicators have a black legend on a white background.

Directional and informational signs are also of this

combination. All caution and warning signs, including the railroad disk, carry a black legend on the

“ Federal yellow ” ground color. This combination

is also used for the octagonal “ Stop ” sign, although

it is permissable to add a red band across the middle

third of the placque at the option of the State highway department.

When designed for strictly rural use, all caution and

warning signs are 24 by 24 inches over-all. When,

however, these are designed to be erected in congested

areas where there may be inherent objections to the

larger size, it is permissible to reduce the over-all di- mensions to 18 by 18 inches with a harmonious reduction in the size of the lettering. The railroad crossing

disk and octagonal “ Stop ” sign are also 24 inches in

diameter, but it is entirely permissible to increase the

size at points where it is necessary to emphasize the

hazard. These signs are all nonluminous, although

the yellow background which conforms to rule 53 of

the sectional committee on color code of the American

Standards Association seems to have a high degree of

reflecting of efficiency under automobile headlights.

The final I’ecommendations of the joint board embodied the best thought on the subject, and its recom- mendations have been accepted by all the State highway departments. Obviously the erection of the

standard road markers is restricted to the system of

United States highways selected by the American

Association of State Highway Officials to be systematically numbered. The caution and warning signs, however, are essentially safety devices of great value, and

as such can and should be displayed at all hazardous

points, whether on United States routes, State highways, local roads, or for that matter, in city streets. A surprising degree of progress has been made in the

erection of the signs not only by State highway departments, but also by counties and other political

subdivisions, and the traveling public is rapidly being

educated to recognize their purpose and utility. The

experience of the past four years or since the work

was actively inaugurated warrants the opinion that in

a relatively short time practically all highways will

be adequately signed with standard signs to the exclusion of the advertising media or other undesirable

displays.

Efforts along this line have been greatly enhanced

and encouraged by the publication by the American

Association of State Highway Officials of a manual

of specifications for the manufacture, display, and

erection of United States standard road markers and

signs. A great many copies of this manual have been

distributed gratuitously to State highway departments, county engineers, sign manufacturers, unofficial local safety committees, and city engineers or municipal authorities charged with the regulation of

urban traffic. The manual has also been accepted for

suburban use, and as far as applicable for city use by

the National Conference on Street and Highway

Safety and the American Engineering Council.

As the title indicates, the manual also sets forth

and illustrates by numerous diagrams the manner in

which the signs should be erected at critical jooints so that the road user is not only educated to a quick re- cognition of the warning or direction, but also to a realization of the location of the hazard or directional

change with respect to the indicating sign. The

manual was made the basis of a similar handbook for

municipal use which has been published by the

National Conference on Street and Highway Safety.

In 1931, it became evident that a sharp distinction

coidd not wisely be draAvn between a code of signs

used for rural highways and a corresponding code for

municipal use. In consequence, a movement was set on foot to combine the two existing manuals into a single standard.

A joint committee composed of representatives of

the American Association of State Highway Officials and the National Conference on Street and Highway

Safety is now engaged on this work.

RED CEDAR SHINGLES

In a recent visit, Arthur Bevan, secretary-manager

of the Red Cedar Shingle Bureau, stated that as of

September 15, the red cedar shingle industry was

oversold to the extent of 226 carloads after clearing

all stocks on hand. The mills are now operating at about 50 to 55 per cent of their full capacity and are

realizing a profit. During the past three months

employment in the shingle industry has almost doubled, the Red Cedar Shingle Bureau itself having

added six new employees to its pay roll in the past

two months.

Mr. Bevan indicated that the establishment of the

Commercial Standard for Red Cedar Shingles, CS31-

31, with the cooperation of the division of trade

standards of the Bureau of Standards, together with

the use of a certification label based on rigid inspection

and backed by the Red Cedar Shingle Bureau, has

been largely responsible for increased public confi- dence in the top-grade shingles and for the present

improved condition of the industry.
NOVEMBER, 1932 COMMEKCIAIi STANDARDS MONTHLY 121

STANDARDIZATION OF SHOES FOR TRUCKS

AND TRACTOR SNOW PLOWS

The possibility of standardizing shoes or rollers for

truck and tractor snow plows has been under study by

a joint committee representing the American Association of State Highway Officials, and the American

Road Builders Association. W. F. Rosenwald, maintenance engineer of the Minnesota department of highways, is chairman of this committee.

After studying the practice and equipment of the

various highway departments and manufacturers of snow removal equipment, the committee has announced

that it feels the time has not arrived to attempt a standardization recommendation of shoes or rollers. The committee, through its chairman, points out that

there is absolutely no uniformity among the manufacturers and but very little among the States. There appears to be a tendency to use rollers or short

broad shoes on slow moving snow plows, but where the

normal operating speeds are fast, to use longer shoes

;

the shoes being longer and narrower with the higher

operating speeds. The longest and narrowest shoes are found in the West Central States, where apparently

the highest operating speeds prevail. From this, states Mr. Rosenwald, it would seem that until more uniform

operating speeds are possible, the standardization of

shoes is probably out of the question; and operating

speeds are largely governed by the physical nature of

the highway, as to cross section, alignment, and drift

forming obstructions at the roadside.

There is a feeling on the part of some of the members of the committee that it would be practical to standardize the hitch or method of hitching truck snow plows, particular!}^ with a view to having blade

and V plows quickly interchangeable and applicable

to all truck units of a comparable capacity. This same view was expressed last winter by the Mississippi

Valley Conference of State Highway Departments,

and this matter is now being considered by the American Association of State Highway OlRcials and the

American Road Builders Association, with the possiI bility of adding it to the program of the existing

joint committee of these two organizations on the

standardization of snowplow shoes.

! SHOVEL AND CRANE MANUFACTURERS

ADOPT STANDARDS

! The Shovel and Crane Manufacturers Association

( recently adopted a set of standards, which became ef-

( fective October 1, 1932, applying to the manufacture

and sale of full-revolving crawler mounted types of

,| shovels and drag-line excavators up to and including

1 two cubic yard capacity and to full-revolving crawler

I mounted cranes up to and including a designated size

j| of 50 tons.

I These standards contain a guaranty clause which

II states that members of this association shall attach to

their machines, in a conspicuous place inside the cab, a guarantee plate reading, as follows:

This machine with its rating is guaranteed by the manufacturer to conform to the standards adopted by the Shovel and

Crane Manufacturers’ Association and in effect at the time of

1 manufacture. These standards are a matter of record and are

on file with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and

the Associated General Contractors of America.

ELECTRICAL DEFINITIONS AVAILABLE

The report on the proposed American standard

Definitions of Electrical Terms upon which the sec- tional committee on electrical definitions has been

working for more than three years, is now available in

pamphlet form (208 pages) from the headquarters of

the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, 33

West Thirty-ninth Street, New York, N. Y., at $1 a The primary aim in compiling this glossary has

been to express for each term the meaning which is generally associated with it in electrical engineering

work in this country. Wlaen possible, the defini- tions have been generalized so as not to preclude the

different specific interpretations which may be at- tached to the term in particular applications, the

greatest weight naturally being given to the strictly

engineering applications. In this glossary the field of

electrical engineering is divided into various groups

and subsidiary sections, and the terms arranged ac- cordingly so as to permit ready comparison of closely

related terrns. A unique feature of this glossary is a system of

numbering which identifies each term. Similar glossaries in other languages are in preparation under

the auspices of the International Electrotechnical

Commission, and it is contemplated that the number

assigned to each term will be the same in all languages.

IDENTIFICATION OF COTTON DUCK IN

TRADE LITERATURE

All of the manufacturers that have accepted simplified i^ractice recommendation No. 27, covering cotton duck (first revision), have expressed their intention to identify the simplified lines in new catalogue and

trade lists. Many national associations representing users of

simplified commodities have for some time strongly

urged that this policy be adopted by manufacturers

who have accepted the various simplified practice

recommendations. The general adoption of the identification plan will assist this industry in maintaining

close adherence to the waste elimination program. Cooperation by purchasing agents, fabricators, and

others will greatly increase the benefits and economies

possible through simplified practice.

The cotton-duck recommendation, which was proposed and developed by the industry in 1924, and

subsequently revised in 1927, has been instrumental in reducing the number of varieties of this commodity

from 460 to 90, or an 80 per cent elimination.

This is the fifth simplified practice recommendation

wherein all manufacturer acceptors have decided to identify their commodity as being in accordance with

the industry’s recommendation. In Receipting others

of the more than 130 programs, an increasing number

of manufacturers are identifying their commodities

as conforming to specific simplified practice recommendations. When the simplified lines are so identified in trade literature their selection can be made

without difficulty and often much waste now incurred

in checking files and auxiliary records for these data

is eliminated.
122 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1932 BRITISH STANDARD FOR XYLOLS

One of the functions of the chemical section which

has been formed in the reorganized British Standards

Institution, has been to take over standard specifications which had been previously prepared by various

sections of the chemical industry, and having con- sidered them fully, from the point of view of users and

manufacturers, to issue them as British standard

specifications.

Under this scheme, the standard series of specifications prepared by the National Benzole Association

are being reviewed by a representative committee of

the institution. The first specification of the series is that (designated 458-1932) which lays down the composition and properties of xylol, a constituent hydrocarbon of coal naphtha which forms an important

proportion of so-called solvent naphtha.

Copies of the specification may be obtained from

the publications department of the British Standards

Institution, 28, Victoria-Street, London, S. W. I.

ANNUAL MEETING OF THE A. P. I. HELD

IN HOUSTON, TEX.

Tire annual sessions of the American Petroleum

Institute are being held November 15, 16, and 17, in

Houston, Tex. Forty working committees of the

institute are holding meetings preliminary to the general sessions to consider a large range of diversified

subjects.

The subjects being considered by these committees

include uniform laws, testing methods, fundamental

research on occurrence and recovery of oil, refinery

technology, specifications and standardization, production records and nomenclature, fire prevention, car

service and freight classification, etc.

WALNUT VENEERS

The American Walnut Manufacturers Association

has requested the cooperation of the Bureau of Standards in the establishment of commercial standard

grading rules for walnut veneers. The rules will cover the minimum sizes of flitches in the several

grades, the percentage of clear cuttings and the size of

the pieces, together with the defects that will be tol- erated in each grade. The system will make it possible

to sell veneers on the basis of grade rules and small

swatches in place of the large expensive and cumber- some full-length samples as now used. A proposed

commercial standard was developed by the association

and was submitted on October 20 for consideration at a general conference. The action taken by that conference will be reported later.

BUREAU PUBLICATION ON PAINT

In response to demands from several branches of

the Government service for information and specifications for priming paints for plaster surfaces, a number of commercial and experimental paints have been

tested by the Bureau of Standards on plaster, concrete,

and other porous surfaces.

The results of these tests are contained in Bureau of

Standards Miscellaneous Publication No. 137, Paint

for Priming Plaster Surfaces, which has just been

made available to the public through the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents a copy. Several novel methods of test are described,

and results obtained with 40 priming paints are re- corded in this new pamphlet. It is found that a number of primers are commercially available which sat- isfactorily meet the requirements for a good material

for this purpose with respect to hiding power, ability to so effectively seal a porous surface with one coat that the appearance of a second (finishing coat) of

either flat or glossy oil or varnish paint will after

drying have the same appearance as when applied to an impervious surface. It was found in the experimental work that the appearance or adherence of

paint applied to any of the primers was materially

affected by excessive moisture. A suggested specification based upon physical tests and comparison with

a primer that can be readily mixed from specified

materials is given in an appendix.

PAINTS, VARNISHES, AND CONTAINERS

Simplified practice recommendation 144^32 cover- ing paints, varnishes, and containers has been ac- corded the required degree of written approval by

all elements in the industry, and is to be effective from

November 1, 1932.

This simplification program is the outgrowth of

simplified practice limitation of variety recommendation No. 1, paints and varnishes, in which a definite

maximum number of colors of paints and sizes of

containers were recommended. Such maxima were

recognized as limitations against further diversifi- cation, thus furnishing a basis from which the present

simplified practice recommendation has been developed. The new schedule recommends several further

reductions in the number of sizes and varieties of

containers used in packing various kinds of paints

and varnishes.

The table which provides for a maximum number

of shades or tints to be produced or stocked by any

one concern in the limitation of variety recommendation remains unchanged, and is included as a part of

the present simplified practice recommendation.

o
To determine whether an applicable specification exists for any

commodity—consult—

National Directory of

Commodity Specifications, 1932

which indexes the standards and specifications of trade associations, technical societies,

and other organizations nationally representative of some branch of American industry,

as well as those of governmental agencies that represent the Federal Government.

Uses the decimal system. Cross-references related specifcations. Defnes uses

of commodities, if known, when not self-evident from the title. Contains

comprehensive index.

The direct purpose of any wise cooperative effort in the adoption of specifications is to secure constructive application of scientific knowledge to service requirements; to co- ordinate similar demands and eliminate unessential differences; to balance increases

in cost against probable service improvements, taking full advantage of existing commercial varieties; and to formulate adequate test or inspection methods—all this result- ing in the development of greatly improved products, vital support to the national

movement toward simplification of lines, processes, and business practices, and marked

lowering of costs and prices. —Herbert Hoover.

Compiled by Bureau of Standards

Miscellaneous Publication No. 130

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

Price $1.75

Cloth bound

554 pages
THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

ROY D. CHAPIN, Secretary of Commerce

“ * * * this department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * * its ideals are clear; That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field.” —President Hoover^ at the laying of the corner stone of the new building

of the U. S. Def:)artment of Commerce, June 10, 1929.

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal airports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OP THE CENSUS, William M. Steuart, Director. Taking censuses of population, mines, and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 j'ears; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a census of manufactures every 2 years. Comiiilation of statistics of wealth, public debt, and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments.

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products.

BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

F. M. Feiker, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attaches, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, the monthly Survey of Current Business, and district and

cooperative offices in 65 cities. The maintenance of commodity,

technical, and regional divisions to afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buj^ers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opiiortunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Lyman J. Briggs, Acting Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used liy scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and jirocesses; and putjlication of scientific and technical bulletins rejiorting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial jiractices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Y"ard at Washington.

Research on helium and operation of plants producing it. Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical pa^iers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish, in order to prevent the dejiletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods,

improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and the

Iirotection of sjionges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam,

Commissioner.

Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director. Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic

surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION AND STEAMBOAT INSPECTION, Arthur ,1. Tyrer and Dickerson N. Hoover,

Assistant Directors. Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamen.

Construction and administration of navigation laws covering

documentation, ship mortgage act, entry and clearance, move- ment of vessels, welfare of seamen, admeasurement, load line, adjudication of fines, collection of fees, tonnage tax, etc. Compilation of Federal statistics of tonnage and merchant seamen. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and lifesaving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certi- fication of able seamen and lifeboatmen, and the investigation

of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE. Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks,

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents. Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the

jiatents and trade-marks issued.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1932