ANDSCAPE L INES 3

Landscape Characteristics INTRODUCTION

As the field of cultural landscape preservation has evolved, a method

has been developed to describe the tangible and intangible characteristics of a historically significant landscape. Individually and collectively,

the characteristics give a landscape character and aid in understanding

its cultural value.

Various classification systems and terms have been used to describe the

cultural and natural processes and physical forms that define the appearance of a landscape. The classification systems have originated from

several sources within the National Park Service (NPS) for various

preservation purposes (such as inventory, documentation, and treatment) and have addressed various cultural landscape types (such as

designed and vernacular). Different titles have been given to the classification systems, such as “landscape components,” “landscape features,”

“landscape characteristics,” and “character-defining features.” Each

classification system contains a list of the cultural and natural processes

and the physical aspects of a landscape.

In addition to providing methods for describing a landscape’s character

and physical qualities, the classification systems have introduced new

terminology to the cultural landscape preservation field. This has

resulted in some confusion about terms with similar, yet slightly

different meanings.

The intent of this text is to provide a recommended classification system

for describing the character of cultural landscapes in the national park

system for use in research, inventory, documentation, analysis and

evaluation, and treatment. This classification system is recommended to

provide consistency in the terminology used in the NPS Park Cultural

Landscape Program, and specifically in the Cultural Landscapes Inventory
2 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

(CLI) and Cultural Landscape Report (CLR). The

classification system outlined should provide a

means for documenting all the cultural and natural

processes and physical forms that may exist in a

given landscape. The system is flexible and must

be applied to each landscape according to the

type of landscape and the nature of its historical

development. Not all landscapes will have the

same physical character.

The recommended classification system presented

in this text builds upon, and has many similarities

with, earlier efforts. It addresses the diversity and

scope of cultural landscapes in the national park

system. To give this recommended system context

in the cultural landscape preservation field, the text

first presents an overview of the classification

systems developed to date by the NPS, along with

the terminology associated with the systems. The

similarities and differences between the systems

and the terminology used are described. Finally,

based on the recommended classification system

and terminology, the application and use of landscape characteristics and associated features in a

CLR are described.

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS AND

TERMINOLOGY USED IN THE FIELD

A review of the classification systems and their

associated terminology indicates many commonalties. The recommended classification system

presented in this text builds upon the following

studies and publications:

• In 1984, Cultural Landscapes: Rural Historic

Districts in the National Park System, provided the first classification system. It identified

“landscape components” that can be used to

identify, evaluate, nominate (to the National

Register), and manage rural historic districts.

• In 1987, National Register Bulletin 18: How

to Evaluate and Nominate Designed Historic

Landscapes, presented a detailed list of

“landscape features,” which focused on

describing designed landscapes for nomination to the National Register. The list of

features was provided for consideration in

describing designed landscapes, but it was not

intended to be a comprehensive classification

system.

• In 1990, National Register Bulletin 30:

Guidelines for Evaluating and Documenting

Rural Historic Landscapes coined the term

“landscape characteristics” as the title for the

classification system outlined in the publication. Bulletin 30 was largely a revision of the

1984 study, Cultural Landscapes: Rural

Historic Districts in the National Park System. The classification system of landscape

characteristics was similar to the original list

of “landscape components” in the 1984

study. However, Bulletin 30 gave an expanded explanation of how various landscape characteristics could be meaningful in

understanding the cultural development of

rural landscapes, and it provided guidelines

for their documentation.

• In 1996, The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties

with Guidelines for the Treatment of Cultural

Landscapes identified “organizational elements”

and “character-defining features” as a classification system for the treatment of cultural
L A N D S C A P E C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S 3

CHRONOLOGY OF CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

1984

Landscape Components

Overall Patterns of Spatial

Organization

Land Use: Categories and Activities

Response to Natural Features

Circulation Networks

Boundary Demarcations

Vegetation Related to Land Use

Cluster Arrangement

Structure: Type, Function,

Materials, Construction

Small-Scale Elements

Historical Views and Other

Perceptual Qualities

Source: Cultural Landscapes: Rural

Historic Districts in the National Park

System.

1987

Landscape Features

Spatial Relationships and

Orientations

Land Uses

Natural Features

Circulation Systems

Landscape Dividers

Topography and Grading

Vegetation

Buildings, Structures, and Lighting

Drainage and Engineering

Structures

Site Furnishings and Small-Scale

Elements

Water Bodies, Sculpture, and Signs

Views and Vistas

Source: National Register Bulletin 18:

How to Evaluate and Nominate

Designed Historic Landscapes.

1997

Landscape Characteristics

1996

Organizational Elements and

Character-Defining Features

Organizational Elements

Spatial Organization

Land Patterns

Character-Defining Features

Topography

Vegetation

Circulation

Water Features

Structures, Site Furnishings,

and Objects

Source: The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for the

Treatment of Historic Properties with Guidelines for the

Treatment of Cultural Landscapes.

1990

Landscape Characteristics

Processes

Patterns of Spatial Organization

Land Uses and Activities

Response to the Natural

Environment

Cultural Traditions

Components

Circulation Networks

Boundary Demarcations

Vegetation Related to Land Use

Buildings, Structures, and Objects

Clusters

Archeological Sites

Small-Scale Elements

Source: National Register Bulletin 30:

Guidelines for Evaluating and

Documenting Rural Historic Landscapes.

Natural Systems and

Features

Spatial Organization

Land Use

Cultural Traditions

Cluster Arrangements

Circulation

Topography

Vegetation

Buildings and Structures

Views and Vistas

Constructed Water

Features

Small-Scale Features

Circulation

Archeological Sites

Source: A Guide to Cultural Landscape Reports: Contents,

Process, and Techniques and Cultural Landscapes Inventory

Professional Procedures Guide.
4 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

landscapes. (The term, character-defining

feature, dates from the 1978 publication of

The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for

Historic Preservation Projects with Guidelines for Applying the Standards, where the

term was used to describe architectural

qualities contributing to the character of

historic buildings).

In referencing the publications prepared by

the National Register, it needs to be noted

that the National Register allows a considerable degree of latitude in the way survey

information is presented and organized in

nominations. The classification systems outlined in the bulletins were presented to

facilitate the evaluation process, but did not

require that information about cultural landscapes be organized as such.

There is some overlap in the definitions of terms

associated with the classification systems, partly

because the terms originated at different times

by different sources, and for discrete uses. For

instance, the term “landscape characteristic” was

conceived primarily to apply the National

Register criteria to cultural landscapes so they

could be evaluated and nominated as sites or

districts to the National Register. The term

“character-defining feature” was conceived to

guide the appropriate treatment and management of historic structures (and later of cultural

landscapes), so that features conveying historic

character would be retained by treatment

activities. The term “contributing or noncontributing feature” was conceived as a specific,

quantifiable item that could be identified in the

field for the purpose of the CLI and National

Register evaluation. In all these efforts, the

evolution of terms was influenced by the type(s)

of cultural landscape being addressed, along with

the range of physical conditions to which the

terms apply. (See A Guide to Cultural Landscape

Reports: Appendices, “Appendix C: National

Register Bulletins (nos. 18 and 30),” and “Appendix H: Treatment Policy, Guidelines, and

Standards.“)

Landscape Characteristics

“Landscape characteristics” is the recommended term associated with the classification

system in this text. It refers to the processes

and physical forms that characterize the appearance of a landscape and aid in understanding its

cultural value. The following general points

apply to landscape characteristics and their use

in CLRs:

• Landscape characteristic is defined as the

tangible and intangible characteristics of a

landscape that individually and collectively give a

landscape character and aid in understanding its

cultural value.

• Landscape characteristic is applied to either

culturally derived and naturally occurring

processes or to cultural and natural physical

forms that have influenced the historical development of a landscape or are the products of its

development. The appearance of a cultural

landscape, both historically and currently, is a

unique web of landscape characteristics that are

the tangible evidence of the historic and current

uses of the land.
L A N D S C A P E C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S 5

TERMINOLOGY USED IN CULTURAL LANDSCAPE PRESERVATION

Character-Defining Feature

“A prominent or distinctive aspect, quality, or characteristic of a historic property that contributes significantly to its physical

character. Structures, objects, vegetation, spatial relationships, views, furnishings, decorative details, and materials may be such

features.”

—Cultural Resource Management Guideline, Release No. 5 (1997) and The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for the

Treatment of Historic Properties with Guidelines for the Treatment of Cultural Landscapes (1996)

Contributing Feature

“A biotic or abiotic feature associated with a landscape characteristic that contributes to the significance of the cultural landscape.”

—Cultural Landscapes Inventory Professional Procedures Guide (1998)

Contributing Resource

“A building, site, structure, or object that adds to the historic significance of a property. A contributing building, site, structure, or

object adds to the historic associations, historical architectural qualities, or archaeological values for which a property is significant

because of the following: it was present during the period of significance; it relates to the documented significance of the property;

it possesses historic integrity or is capable of revealing information about the period; or it independently meets the National

Register criteria.”

—National Register Bulletin 16A: How to Complete the National Register Registration Form (1991)

Landscape Characteristic

“The tangible evidence of the activities and habits of the people who occupied, developed, used, and shaped the land to serve

human needs. The beliefs, attitudes, traditions, and values of the people and processes that have been instrumental in shaping the

land, and the processes are evident as physical components on the land.”

—National Register Bulletin 30: Guidelines for Evaluating and Documenting Rural Historic Landscapes (1990)

Landscape Feature

“The smallest physical unit that contributes to the significance of a landscape that can be managed as an individual element.”

—Cultural Landscapes Inventory Professional Procedures Guide (1998)

Landscape Unit

“A discrete portion of the landscape which can be further subdivided into individual features. The landscape unit may contribute

to the significance of a National Register property, such as a farmstead in a rural historic district. In some cases the landscape unit

may be individually eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places, such as a rose garden in a large urban park.”

—The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties with Guidelines for the Treatment of

Cultural Landscapes (1996)

Non-Contributing Feature

“A biotic or abiotic feature associated with a landscape characteristic that does not contribute to the significance of the cultural

landscape.”

—Cultural Landscapes Inventory Professional Procedures Guide (1998)

Non-Contributing Resource

“A non-contributing building, site, structure, or object that does not add to the historic architectural qualities, historic associations, or archaeological values for which a property is significant, because: it was not present during the period of significance or

does not relate to the documented period of significance of the property; due to alterations, disturbances, additions or other

changes, it no longer possesses historic integrity or is capable of yielding important information about the period; or it does not

independently meet the National Register criteria.”

—National Register Bulletin 16A: How to Complete the National Register Registration Form (1991)
6 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

• Landscape characteristics are categories under

which individual features can be grouped. For

example, the landscape characteristic “natural

systems and features” may include such individual

features as a ravine, valley, wetland, or cliff. The

landscape characteristic “topography” may include

such features as an earthwork, drainage ditch, or

hill. The landscape characteristic “vegetation” may

include such individual features as a specimen

tree, woodlot, or perennial bed.

• Many landscape characteristics are common

among cultural landscapes; however, not all

categories of landscape characteristics occur

in every landscape. Determining which

landscape characteristics exist or did exist

within the unique development of each

landscape must be made, and only the

landscape characteristics that exist or have

existed in a particular landscape are identified

in CLR.

• Landscape characteristics are valuable in

understanding the evolution of a landscape’s

appearance over time. They may not have

retained integrity (that is, existed in a relatively

unchanged state since the established

period(s) of significance), and therefore may

or may not contribute to the significance of a

landscape. Some landscape characteristics

may be completely lost, some may be recent

additions. Understanding what remains and

what was lost can influence the treatment of

the landscape.

• Landscape characteristics exist primarily within

the boundaries of a cultural landscape; however, it is important to identify the natural,

cultural, and political context for every

landscape. The context provides an understanding of the relationship between the

landscape characteristics and the broader

environment within which they exist. The

natural context includes the naturally occurring

physical forms that have influenced the

landscape’s development, such as dominant

landforms, watersheds, native vegetation,

water bodies, and wetlands. The cultural and

political contexts include land use, zoning,

legal restrictions, transportation, utilities,

population, and political jurisdiction (state,

county, city, village, or town).

RECOMMENDED LANDSCAPE

CHARACTERISTICS

This section recommends a classification system

of landscape characteristics. The list of landscape

characteristics does not necessarily apply to all

cultural landscapes, but rather provides a basis

from which the relevant characteristics for a

landscape can be identified.

Landscape characteristics must be uniquely

identified for each cultural landscape according

to the type of landscape and the nature of its

historical development. In addition, it is also

important to recognize that the list of characteristics is not mutually exclusive. For example,

vegetation, buildings and structures, and views

and vistas often assist in defining the spatial

organization of a landscape. Determining the

relationship among the landscape characteristics

identified for a property is important in understanding the history of a landscape and how it

should be treated.
L A N D S C A P E C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S 7

Natural Systems and Features

Natural systems and features are the natural

aspects that have influenced the development and

physical form of a landscape. The following may

be included:

• geomorphology: the large-scale patterns of

land forms

• geology: the surficial characteristics of the

earth

• hydrology: the system of surface and subsurface water

• ecology: the interrelationship among living

organisms and their environment

• climate: temperature, wind velocity, and

precipitation

• native vegetation: indigenous plant communities and indigenous aggregate and individual

plant features

Examples of features associated with natural

systems and features include ravines, valleys,

watersheds, wetlands, and rock outcrops. (See

Figure 1.)

Spatial Organization

Spatial organization is the three-dimensional

organization of physical forms and visual associations in a landscape, including the articulation of

ground, vertical, and overhead planes that define

and create spaces. Examples of features associated with spatial organization include circulation

systems, views and vistas, divisions of property,

and topography. (See Figure 2.)

Figure 1. View of natural systems and features. Canyon de

Chelly National Monument. (NPS, 1988)

Figure 2. Land use and spatial organization are made visible in

part by field and crop patterns. Ebey’s Landing National

Historical Reserve. (NPS, 1983)
8 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

Land Use

Land use describes the principal activities in a

landscape that form, shape, and organize the

landscape as a result of human interaction.

Examples of features associated with land use

include agricultural fields, pastures, playing

fields, and quarries. (See Figure 2.)

Cultural Traditions

Cultural traditions are the practices that influence

the development of a landscape in terms of land

use, patterns of land division, building forms,

stylistic preferences, and the use of materials.

Examples of features associated with cultural

traditions include land use practices, methods of

construction, buildings, patterns of land division,

and use of vegetation.

Cluster Arrangement

Cluster arrangement is the location and pattern of

buildings and structures in a landscape and associated outdoor spaces. Examples of features

associated with a cluster arrangement include

village centers and complexes, mining, agricultural, and residential buildings and structures and

the associated spaces they define. (See Figure 3.)

Circulation

Circulation includes the spaces, features, and

applied material finishes that constitute the

systems of movement in a landscape. Examples of features associated with circulation

include paths, sidewalks, roads, and canals.

(See Figure 4.)

Figure 4. Circulation is a prominent landscape characteristic of this

Civilian Conservation Corps development. Scotts Bluff National

Monument. (NPS, 1995)

Figure 3. Cluster arrangements are visible in this aerial view of

outbuildings in this cattle ranch landscape. Grant-Kohrs Ranch

National Historic Site. (NPS, 1970)
L A N D S C A P E C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S 9

Figure 5. The reconstructed earthworks that form the Grand

French Battery complex of Yorktown Battlefield are a

feature of topography. Colonial National Historical Park.

(NPS, n.d.)

Topography

Topography is the three-dimensional configuration of a landscape surface characterized by

features (such as slope and articulation) and

orientation (such as elevation and solar aspect).

Examples of features associated with topography

include earthworks, drainage ditches, knolls, and

terraces. (See Figure 5.)

Vegetation

Vegetation includes the deciduous and evergreen

trees, shrubs, vines, ground covers and herbaceous plants, and plant communities, whether

indigenous or introduced in a landscape. Examples

of features associated with vegetation include

specimen trees, allees, woodlots, orchards, and

perennial gardens. (See Figure 6.)

Buildings and Structures

Buildings are elements constructed primarily

for sheltering any form of human activity in a

landscape. Structures are elements constructed for functional purposes other than

sheltering human activity in a landscape.

Engineering systems are also structures.

Mechanical engineering systems may be

distinguished from structural engineering

systems as follows:

• Mechanical engineering systems conduct

utilities within the landscape, such as power

lines, hydrants, and culverts.

• Structural engineering systems provide physical

stabilization in the landscape, such as retaining

walls, dikes, and foundations.

Figure 6. Vegetation includes specimen plant features, such

as the nineteenth century Saucer Magnolia in the background, and aggregations of plants, such as the Boxwood

hedge outlining the pathways. Hampton National Historic

Site. (NPS, n.d.)
10 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

Examples of features associated with buildings

include houses, barns, stables, schools, and

factories. Examples of features associated with

structures include bridges, windmills, gazebos,

silos, and dams. (See Figure 7.)

Views and Vistas

Views and vistas are the prospect created by a

range of vision in a landscape, conferred by the

composition of other landscape characteristics

and associated features. (See Figure 8.) Views and

vistas are distinguished as follows:

• Views are the expansive or panoramic prospect of a broad range of vision, which may be

naturally occurring or deliberately contrived.

• Vistas are the controlled prospect of a discrete,

linear range of vision, which is deliberately

contrived.

Constructed Water Features

Constructed water features are the built features

and elements that use water for aesthetic or

utilitarian functions in a landscape. Examples of

features associated with constructed water

features include fountains, canals, cascades, pools,

and reservoirs. (See Figure 9.)

Small-Scale Features

Small-scale features are the elements providing

detail and diversity for both functional needs and

aesthetic concerns in a landscape. Examples of

small-scale features include fences, benches,

monuments, signs, and road markers. (See

Figure 10.)

Figure 8. Views are a significant landscape characteristic of the

Blue Ridge Parkway. This is the view from Flat Top Mountain

toward Grandfather Mountain. Blue Ridge Parkway. (NPS, c.

1940s)

Figure 9. Constructed water features, such as this water

cascade, are a landscape characteristic of the historic designed

landscape of Meridian Hill Park. Rock Creek Park. (NPS, n.d.)

Figure 7. Lover's Lane Footbridge is a feature associated with

the landscape characteristics, buildings and structures, and

circulation at the Presidio. Golden Gate National Recreation

Area. (NPS, 1993)
L A N D S C A P E C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S 11

Archeological Sites

Archeological sites are the ruins, traces, or

deposited artifacts in a landscape, evidenced by

the presence of either surface or subsurface

features. Examples of features associated with

archeological resources include road traces,

structural ruins, irrigation system ruins, and

reforested fields.

USE OF LANDSCAPE CHARACTERISTICS

IN CULTURAL LANDSCAPE REPORTS

Landscape characteristics are a useful framework

for preparing CLRs because they provide a

system for: 1) gathering, organizing, and understanding information about the site history and

existing conditions of a cultural landscape, and 2)

documenting the changing appearance of a

landscape over time. Landscape characteristics

can be used in all sections of a CLR, including the

following:

• Site History

• Existing Conditions

• Analysis and Evaluation

• Treatment

• Record of Treatment

The organization of landscape characteristics

throughout the sections of a CLR should be

considered. A hierarchical or nested arrangement may be useful for organizing and emphasizing the interrelationships of landscape characteristics. The manner in which they are presented in a CLR may not be the order in which

landscape characteristics are recognized and

identified in the field. For example, it may be

necessary to identify which landscape characteristics give structure to spatial organization, such

as vegetation and topography, before spatial

organization can be recognized and identified as

a landscape characteristic.

Site History

The site history describes the landscape through

every relevant historic period until the present.

Landscape characteristics are used as a system for

organizing the documentation describing the

chronological development of the landscape and

recording the physical changes, events, and

persons integral to the evolution. The appearance

Figure 10. The gatepost of the Presidio Boulevard Gate is a

small-scale feature of the Presidio landscape. Golden Gate

National Recreation Area. (NPS, 1993)
12 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

of landscape characteristics over time is communicated graphically in a CLR through a series of

period plans, in a narrative format, and in historical photographs and other documents.

Existing Conditions

The existing conditions identify and describe the

landscape characteristics that define the existing

appearance and character of a landscape. Landscape characteristics are identified and documented during field surveys and through the use

of site investigation techniques, such as tree

coring, archeology, and aerial photograph analysis. Landscape characteristics are geographically

located and their physical condition is assessed.

Existing landscape characteristics are graphically

documented in an existing conditions plan and in

the narrative text of a CLR. Landscape characteristics are also documented in black and white

photographs and color slides.

Analysis and Evaluation

The analysis and evaluation compares the findings

of the site history with the existing conditions to

identify the landscape characteristics that retain

integrity and contribute to the significance of a

landscape. (Landscape characteristics that have

existed since an established historic period are

determined to retain integrity.) If not already

determined, the analysis and evaluation section

states the significance of the landscape (according

to National Register criteria A-D), and the historic

period(s) of significance.

Treatment

Treatment prescribes how the landscape should be

treated and managed, based on its significance,

existing conditions, and use. Although the treatment

of cultural landscapes is directed by policy, guidelines,

and standards, knowledge of landscape characteristics as they existed over time influences the selection

of a primary treatment and development of a treatment plan for the entire landscape. The extent of

written evidence of the historic appearance of landscape characteristics is considered during treatment

planning, and the physical condition of characteristics

influences specific treatment. A treatment plan may

be described in a CLR using narrative guidelines, a

schematic drawing, or a detailed plan.

Record of Treatment

The record of treatment is an appendix or addendum to a CLR that describes treatment activities

in the landscape as implemented. Landscape

characteristics may be used to organize the

continued documentation of a landscape during

the physical changes involved in implementing the

treatment plan. A record of how treatment

activities affected landscape characteristics is

presented in a narrative description of construction work, “as-built” construction drawings, and

photographs. These records become primary

sources of the continued evolution of landscape

characteristics and add to the archived historic

records of a landscape.

In each section of a CLR, landscape characteristics

provide a valuable framework for understanding

and organizing the chronological development of

a landscape, describing the existing conditions,
L A N D S C A P E C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S 13

and outlining a treatment plan. Each landscape

characteristic represents a broad category of

processes or physical forms that interrelate and

can be used to illustrate patterns through time.

REFERENCES

Curry, George, W., Regina Bellavia, and David

Uschold. Unpublished report, 1993. Landscape

Features: Character-defining Features for the

Documentation of Cultural Landscapes. Available

from George Curry, Faculty of Landscape Architecture, State University of New York, College of

Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse,

New York.

Other useful references from the SUNY Syracuse,

landscape architecture program, using the same

classification system of landscape features.

Bellavia, Regina, M. 1994. Cultural Landscape Report: Sagamore Hill National

Historic Site, Oyster Bay, New York. Massachusetts: USDI, NPS, North Atlantic Regional Office.

Uschold, David, L. 1994. Cultural Landscape Report: Martin Van Buren National

Historic Site, Kinderhook, New York.

Massachusetts: USDI, NPS, North Atlantic

Regional Office.

Birnbaum, Charles, A. 1994. Preservation Brief

36: Protecting Cultural Landscapes: Planning,

Treatment and Management of Historic Landscapes. Washington, DC: USDI, NPS, Preservation Assistance Division.

________, Charles A., with Christine Capella

Peters, eds. 1996. The Secretary of the Interior’s

Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties with Guidelines for the Treatment of Cultural Landscapes. Washington, DC: USDI, NPS,

Heritage Preservation Services.

Keller, Timothy J., and Genevieve Keller 1987.

National Register Bulletin 18: How to Evaluate

and Nominate Designed Historic Landscapes.

Washington, DC: USDI, NPS.

Keller, Timothy J., Genevieve Keller, Linda Flint

McClelland, and Robert Z. Melnick. 1990.

National Register Bulletin 30: Guidelines for

Evaluating and Documenting Rural Historic

Landscapes. Washington, DC: USDI, NPS.

Melnick, Robert, Z. March 1980. Preserving

Cultural Landscapes: Developing Standards.

CRM Bulletin, vol. 3, no.1.

Melnick, Robert, Z., Daniel Sponn, and Emma

Jane Saxe. 1984. Cultural Landscapes: Rural

Historic Districts in the National Park System.

Washington, DC: USDI, NPS.

Page, Robert R. 1998. Cultural Landscapes

Inventory (CLI) Professional Procedures Guide.

Washington, DC: USDI, NPS, Park Cultural

Landscapes Program.

National Park Service. 1997. Cultural Resource

Management Guideline, no. 5. Washington, DC:

USDI, NPS.
14 L A N D S C A P E L I N E S

National Park Service. 1991. National Register

Bulletin 16A: How to Complete the National

Register Registration Form. Washington, DC:

USDI, NPS, Interagency Resources Division.

The mission of the Department of the Interior is to protect

and provide access to our Nation’s natural and cultural

heritage and honor our trust responsibilities to tribes.

U.S. Department of the Interior

National Park Service

Cultural Resources

Park Historic Structures & Cultural Landscapes

National Park Service. 1995. The Secretary of

the Interior’s Standards for the Treatment of

Historic Properties. Washington, DC: USDI,

NPS, Preservation Assistance Division.