NREL is a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC.

Examination of a Standardized Test for Evaluating 

the Degree of Cure of EVA Encapsulation (#1066/0731)

2013 Photovoltaic Science and Engineering Conference (Asian PVSEC) 

(Rm 101D, Taipei International Convention Center, Taiwan)

2013/11/01 (Friday) 11:10–11:30

This presentation contains no proprietary information

NREL/PR-5200-60810

1 National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, CO, USA

2 National Institute of Standards & Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, MD, USA

3 Solutia Inc., 730 Worcester Street, Springfield, MA, USA

4 Arkema at INES, Savoie Technolac, 73377 Le Bourget du Lac, FRANCE

5 LayTec in-line GmbH, Seesener Str. 10-13, Berlin, GERMANY

6 Specialized Technology Resources, Inc., East Windsor, CT, USA

7 Mitsui Chemicals, Inc., 580-32 Nagaura, Sodegaura, Chiba, JAPAN

8 Fraunhofer CSP, Walter-Hülse-Str. 1, Halle (Saale) GERMANY

9 Trina Solar Limited Company, ChangZhou, CHINA

*David.Miller@nrel.gov

David Miller,1* Xiaohong Gu,2 Steven Haldeman,3 Manuel Hidalgo,4 Enno Malguth,5

Charles Reid,6 Tsuyoshi Shioda,7 Stefan Schulze,8 Zhaoyun Wang,9 and John Wohlgemuth1
2

Background: PV Modules, EVA, and Lamination

“Exploded” view of components used in the historically 

most-common PV module configuration: glass/backsheet. http://www.viridiansolar.co.uk/Assets/Images/Technical/laminate_small.jpg

front glass

(could be 

textured, 

with AR)

encapsulation

encapsulation

backsheet

PV cells

• The lamination temperature Also: junction box & diodes; cables & connectors; frame & grounding

activates peroxide-initiated 

thermosetting (“curing”).

• Curing then activates primer 

additive(s), facilitating adhesion.

• Module manufacturers seek a 

minimum degree of cure to ensure 

mechanical integrity.

• The cost of manufacturing 

(lamination) motivates using the 

minimal time and temperature.

• PV modules are increasingly complex 

multi-component products, 

assembled using vacuum lamination.

• Ethylene-co-vinyl acetate (EVA) 

encapsulation attaches components 

(glass, cell, backsheet) together, 

when it is cross-linked.

Photo of undercured module, fielded for ~1 year.

Problems can include displaced components and delamination.
3

Motivation for a Degree of Cure Test Standard

(IEC 62755, from NWIP #655)

A test standard helps material or module manufacturers to:

• Verify the cross-linking additive is present and has not expired. 

• Facilitate quality and process control of lamination.

• Assess uniformity of the EVA formulation within a roll.

• Compare variation of the EVA formulation from roll to roll. 

The standard may be applied to:

• Uncured or recently cured EVA sheet.

• Uncured or recently cured EVA from PV modules.

• Other thermosets. Details in the standard are tailored to EVA.

No specified pass/fail criteria. Pass/fail may be set by the user.
4

Possible Methods to Assess Degree of Cure, G

• Rheometry, e.g., DMA

• Rheometric cure metering 

- ISO 6502, ASTM D5289.

- Direct assessment of the key 

mechanical characteristics.

• Gel content 

- ISO 10147, ASTM D2765

• Swell ratio 

- ASTM D2765

• DSC

- Residual enthalpy method, e.g., ASTM E2160

- Melt/freeze method

• Indentation

- Performed on backsheet side, nondestructive.

- Presently being commercialized.

• Other methods Backside indentation (in cross-section) for degree of 

cure assessment.

Mickiewicz, Proc. ATLAS/NIST Work. PV Mats. Durability, 2011.

Commercial rotational cure meter (in cross-section).

Winkler et al., Proc. Euro. PVSEC, 3482–3485 (2012).
5

Using a Primary to Calibrate a Secondary Method

• A rapid test is necessary for quality and process control.

• Results of quickest methods are formulation- or resin-specific. 

• Quickest methods often work well only for a certain range of G.

• Accurately perform the primary (reference) measurement 

occasionally per EVA formulation.

• A variety of specimens (sheet, module; unaged & aged) may be 

examined using the secondary method(s).

• The secondary and primary methods can be correlated against 

module qualification results or processing conditions 

(lamination).

Solution: use a precise primary method to calibrate a rapid 

secondary method.

• The primary method allows for interpretation of the secondary. 
6

Use of Gel Content as the Primary Method

• Gel content selected as most practical primary method.

• Gel content has a longstanding legacy of use with PV EVA.

• Method quantifies the % insoluble cross-linked gel. 

• Method does quantify the gel structure, e.g., # bonds/molecule.

Results of survey of the EVA degree of cure standard group, relative to existing standards and IEC 62755 (proposed).

• The disparate solvents and tests conditions cannot improve the 

repeatability or reproducibility of the gel content test.

⇒ Let’s standardize the method!
7

Details of a Standardized Gel-Content Test

Solvent: use xylene (mixed isomers, CAS 1330-20-7).

• Temperature of use, e.g., boil at 140°C, cannot induce curing.

• Condensed temperature important relative to Tmelt EVA.

• Use antioxidant additive, e.g., 0.1% wt. BHT, in the solvent & thimble 

to prevent decomposition and additional curing.

Apparatus: use soxhlet extractor, with porous membrane filter. 

• Closed system prevents contamination, solvent concentration 

effects, and improves solvent circulation. 

• A pressure relief is recommended for safety.

• A fine filter thimble will retain undissolved EVA gel.

 Do not use a wire cage as in ISO 10147 or ASTM D2765.

Additional Details: specimen mass, time, temperature in standard

—standardized conditions for direct comparison between institutions.

• LONG DURATION test (12 + 4 hours)!

Schematic of a soxhlet extractor.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Soxhlet_extractor.svg

still pot reservoir

heater

condenser

specimen
8

Details of the DSC Residual Enthalpy Test Method

• Exothermic peroxide reaction ⇒ measure enthalpy of reaction using DSC.

• Small sample size, 5–9 mg.

• Fast test time, 20°C → 225°C at 10°C⋅min-1

• A single uncured reference specimen must be characterized in addition 

to the test specimen(s).

Heat flow for a partially cured test specimen and 

an uncured specimen composed of the same EVA.

( )

u

u t

e

h

h h G − =100

• Results depend on the EVA 

formulation, e.g., the type and 

concentration of peroxide.

• DSC can’t be used to directly 

determine processing conditions 

(DSC furnace has different 

operating characteristics than a 

laminator ∴ test laminated 

specimens using DSC).

Heating
9

Evaporation of Peroxide May Limit the DSC Enthalpy Test

• When properly stored EVA (peroxide) will remain fresh for ~6 months.

Measured weight change (via mass chromatography) of 

EVA sheet freely exposed to the ambient environment .

• Reactive peroxide chemistry will also decompose over time (months).

⇒ Proper storage and prompt examination of G are necessary!
10

Thermal Decomposition of EVA May Limit the DSC Enthalpy Test 

• Perform DSC residual enthalpy test well above cure temperature to ensure 

complete characterization.

• EVA will deacetylize (lose sidegroups) and depolymerize at high 

temperature. 

• What maximum temperature should be used for DSC? 

Mass loss and its derivative with temperature for 28% and 

33% VAc EVA in pure-N2 or O2-containing atmospheres.

See also summary table in appendix of this presentation.

Modulated TGA used to quantify 

the decomposition of EVA: 

• Additives can volatilize at 

temperatures > 200°C.

• Tmax[deacetylization] ~310°C. 

• Tmax[depolymerization] ~420°C. 

⇒ The standard recommends 

measuring to 225°C, but integrating 

the enthalpy up to 200°C.
11

Details of the DSC Melt/Freeze Method (1)

• T value and data profile at freeze transition vary with cross-linking. 

• Depends on molecular structure, not peroxide concentration.

• Small sample size, 5–9 mg.

• Fast test time, 20°C → 100°C → -20°C at 10°C⋅min-1

• Requires 1 uncured and 1 extensively cured reference specimen 

in addition to the test specimen(s).

Cooling profiles for an EVA test specimen, 

relative to samples with no thermal history 

(“uncured”) or extensively (“maximum”) cured. 

• Degree of cure is the average of 

the three G parameters.

100 , ,

, ,

c u c m

c u c t

c

T T

T T G −− =

(Maximum) crystallization temperature 

Cooling

Crystallization onset temperature 

100 , ,

, ,

o u o m

o u o t

o

T T

T T G −− =

100

% , %

% %

,

, ,

u m

u t

SF

SF SF

SF SF G −− =

Shape factor (concavity)
12

Details of the DSC Melt/Freeze Method (2)

Cooling profiles for an EVA test specimen, 

relative to samples with no thermal history 

(“uncured”) or extensively (“maximum”) cured. 

Crystallization onset temperature 

100 , ,

, ,

o u o m

o u o t

o

T T

T T G −− =

100

% , %

% %

,

, ,

u m

u t

SF

SF SF

SF SF G −− =

Shape factor (concavity)

-see appendixLimitations:

• Results subject to EVA resin,

including vinyl acetate content, VAc.

• Results subject to the effect of aging, 

e.g., UV cross-linking.

100 , ,

, ,

c u c m

c u c t

c

T T

T T G −

− =

(Maximum) crystallization temperature 

Cooling
13

Sample Volume and Heterogeneity of Peroxide in EVA 

May Limit Secondary (DSC) Test Results

• Small sample size in DSC allows heterogeneity in rolls to be mapped. 

Enthalpy map, obtained from an EVA roll.

Schultze et al., PV Intl, 2011, 118–126.

• The uniformity of additives has not been rigorously studied. 

• Enthalpy mapping may motivate better quality control.

• Additive heterogeneity may limit the repeatability & 

reproducibility of the secondary (DSC) test methods.
14

Details of a Round-Robin Experiment in 

Support of the EVA Degree of Cure Standard

Goals:

• Quantify repeatability & reproducibility of primary (gel content) & 

secondary (DSC) methods.

• Aid test development, e.g., bounds of integration for DSC enthalpy. 

• Provide additional understanding about the curing of EVA.

Key considerations:

• Follow round-robin guidelines in ASTM D7778 and ASTM E691.

• Examine both 28% and 33% VAc EVA.

• Examine EVA using different peroxides (type and concentration). 

• Use additional methods, including: rotational cure meter; 

indentation; and modulated TGA, to gain insight about specimens 

examined.
15

Summary

• A degree of cure test for EVA, IEC 62755, is being developed 

within IEC TC82 WG2 to aid quality control.

We are looking for volunteers to support the standard development, 

including a round-robin test quantifying repeatability & reproducibility! 

Contact David.Miller@nrel.gov

• Gel content (solubility) test will be used as the “primary” method 

for calibration data that may be compared between institutions.

• DSC residual enthalpy and melt/freeze are “secondary” methods 

that may be used for more rapid quantification of degree of cure.

Photo of undercured

module, fielded for ~ 1 year.

Problems can include 

displaced components and 

delamination.
16

Acknowledgements

• NREL: Dr. Michael Kempe, Dr. Peter L. Hacke, Scott Deibert, 

Dylan Nobles

This work was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy under 

Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308 with the National Renewable 

Energy Laboratory.

See also the manuscript: “Examination of a Standardized Test for Evaluating 

the Degree of Cure of EVA Encapsulation,” Proc. Asian PVSEC 2013.

NREL STM campus, Dennis Schroeder
17

Appendix: Example Lamination Procedure 

Temperature and pressure settings applied at NREL to thoroughly cure EVA 

for specimens in experiments. The lamination cycle is typically performed 

much faster in module manufacturing.
18

Appendix: Results of Modulated TGA

Table summarizing ramp experiment (20°C⋅min-1) and modulated experiment 

(1°C⋅min-1) for 28% and 33% VAc EVA in pure-N2 or O2-containing atmospheres. 
19

• Calculate shape factor (SF) from 

inverse [Q] and its convolution 

with T.

• Determine at max [T⋅Q-1] and at 

(Tc-20°C).

• SF calculation can be automated.

Example showing the analysis, generating the data 

points for the SF computation.

The shape factor of 66.9% is determined for 

T[ T·Q]max = 27.4°C, Q-1

[ T·Q]max = 0.336 mW-1, 

Tc = 32.1°C, and Q-1

Tc-20 = 0.429 mW-1.

Appendix: Example of Determining Shape Factor

[ ] 100

1

20

max

1

−

















−

− ⋅

⋅ =

Tc

Tc Q

T Q SF