An Assessment of the 

United States Measurement System:

Addressing Measurement Barriers to

Accelerate Innovation

NIST Special Publication 1048
Dr. Dennis A. Swyt, Director

NIST USMS Program

NIST USMS Report Editorial Committee

Mark Bello

Jacqueline Calhoun

Kari Harper

Mary Saunders

James Whetstone 

NIST USMS Task Group

James Adams

Thelma Allen

Clare Allocca

Frank Barros

Herbert Bennett

Jacqueline Calhoun

Leslie Collica

Hunter Fanney

Barbara Goldstein

Prasad Gupte

Kari Harper

Cameron Miller

Thomas Rhodes

Mary Saunders

John Slotwinski

James Whetstone 

http://usms.nist.gov
Dr. Dennis A. Swyt

Office of the Director

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

February 2007

U.S. Department of Commerce

Carlos M. Gutierrez, Secretary

Technology Administration

Robert Cresanti, Under Secretary of Commerce for Technology

National Institute of Standards and Technology

William Jeffrey, Director

An Assessment of the United States

Measurement System:

Addressing Measurement Barriers to

Accelerate Innovation

NIST Special Publication 1048
Certain commercial entities, equipment, or materials may be 

identified in this document in order to describe an experimental 

procedure or concept adequately. Such identification is not intended

to imply recommendation or endorsement by the National Institute

of Standards and Technology, nor is it intended to imply that the

entities, materials, or equipment are necessarily the best available

for the purpose.

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Special Publication 1048

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Spec. Publ. 1048, 64 pages

(August 2006) (Released February 2007)

CODEN: NSPUE2


An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii

Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .v

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

II. Purpose and Elements of the USMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

III. Focus on Innovation: The Importance of Measurement . . . . . . . .11

IV. Methodology of the Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

V. Results of the Inferential Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

VI. Summary of the Assessment of the USMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

VII. Next Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48

Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

Table of Contents
A . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Descriptions of NIST USMS Workshops

B . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Case-Study Measurement Needs: A Compilation

C . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Technology Roadmap Review: Summary Report

D . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Contributors to the 2006 Assessment of the USMS by NIST

E . . . . . . . . . . . . . .NIST’s Realization and Dissemination of the Units of the SI

F . . . . . . . . . . . . . .The Methodology of the Inferential Analysis

G . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Descriptions of Selected Broad Technologies

H . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Analysis of Case-Study Measurement Needs: Summary Report

I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Summary Results of Inferential Analysis of Measurement Needs

All Appendices are contained on the accompanying CD, along with an electronic copy

of this document.

Guidelines for users on searching and navigating the appendices are included in the

main directory of the CD.

Appendices
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation iii

The creation of the Wright Flyer of 1903, the world’s first airplane, is a story of a measurement

barrier to technological innovation overcome. 

The Wright Brothers had been vexed by the under-performance of a wing they had designed based

on data published by Otto Lilienthal, the foremost glider expert of the day. The lift generated by

the wing was but one-third of that expected, and, to their consternation, they were forced to conclude that the measurement data were wrong. 

To solve the problem of the inaccurate measurement data

impeding their innovation, they built a balance for the precise measurement of the aerodynamic lift of wings of different profiles. Based on the accurate measurement data

they produced, they designed the wings and propeller of

what came to be recognized as the world’s first powered,

controlled, heavier-than-air flying machine.

This report is about measurement barriers to potential technological innovations that are 

pending today. Some of these innovations, for example, those of nanotechnology, bio-medicine,

and intelligent machines, have the allure and promise that flying machines had a century ago. 

The measurement barriers impeding these innovations are as vexing as those encountered by 

the Wright Brothers. The science and technology enabling these innovations are more complex. 

The dependence of would-be innovators on the technical infrastructure of the nation, including 

its measurement system, is, as a result, greater. 

The technological innovation that the flying machine was in its day benefited this nation immensely. Other innovations pending today could benefit it as well. 

This report is an assessment of the nation’s measurement system, aimed at addressing measurement barriers with the goal to accelerate U.S. innovations. NIST hopes through this assessment to

contribute to the realization of that goal. I hope that your reading of this report will lead in some

way to your contributing to the realization of this goal as well.

Dr. Dennis A. Swyt

Director, NIST USMS Program

Foreword
Cover clockwise from the top: © Robert Rathe, © Robert Rathe, © Geoffrey Wheeler, stock photo, Beamie Young/NIST, stock photo,

stock photo; center: © Corbis. Page 1 large photo: NIST; upper left: © Robert Rathe; middle left: Barry Gardner; lower left: Courtesy

HDR Architecture, Inc./Steve Hall © Hedrich Blessing. Page 4 large photo: Lorelle Mansfield/NIST; upper right: stock photo; middle

right: © Corbis; lower right: stock photo. Page 7 upper: Barry Gardner; lower: NIST. Page 11 large photo: © Robert Rathe; top left: stock

photo; middle left: stock photo; lower left: stock photo. Page 13 upper: stock photo; lower: stock photo. Page 15 large: © Robert Rathe;

upper left: Gail Porter/NIST; middle left: stock photo; lower left: Gail Porter/NIST. Page 20 large: © Robert Rathe; upper right: NIST;

middle right: stock photo; lower right: NIST. Page 26 © Corbis. Page 32 NIST. Page 36 large: N. Miller and A. Clark/NIST; upper left: 

© Robert Rathe; middle left: © Robert Rathe; lower left: © Robert Rathe. Page 44 large: © Robert Rathe; upper left: Barry Gardner;

middle left: Barry Gardner; lower left: Signe Seidelin and John Chiaverini/NIST. Photos on pages not listed above are stock photos.
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation v

Introduction

The National Institute of Standards and

Technology (NIST) has teamed with the private

sector and others to undertake an assessment of

the United States Measurement System

(USMS), with a focus on technological innovation. The 2005 Council on Competitiveness

report, Innovate America, notes that, “Innovation

will be the single most important factor in determining America’s success through the 21st century,” and further asserts that the acceleration of

innovation is critical for the United States to

maintain its competitive edge in the world economy. Technological innovation is taken to be that

part of the innovation process relating to the

introduction into the marketplace of new technology. Fundamental and potentially transformative technological innovations in nanotechnology, bio-medicine, and intelligent machines hold

great promise. Advanced measurement capabilities are essential to innovation in every major

economic area and at every stage of the innovation process. Advanced tools and measurements

are required to innovate—to design and incorporate new or better features into the kind of nextgeneration products and processes necessary for

the United States to compete effectively and stay

ahead in the global marketplace. 

The United States Measurement System

The USMS is the complex network of all 

private and public organizations that develop,

supply, use, or ensure the validity of measurements. It is an essential infrastructure, woven

into the fabric of our market economy, supporting industry, commerce, government, research,

and trade as well as homeland security, defense,

health, safety, consumer protection, and other

national interests. Encompassing the methods,

standards, instruments, and private- and publicsector organizations involved in measurements

of products and processes, the USMS is vital to

the production and service sectors of the U.S.

economy.

In the United States, measurement matters to

technology and innovation:

• This year the U.S. semiconductor industry

will spend $9 billion on measurement 

equipment, citing measurement challenges

as a major barrier to continued miniaturization of circuits.

• The electric power grid that links the 10,000

generating stations in the United States must

be synchronized to within one millionth of

one second per day and the Global

Positioning System (GPS) to one billionth.

• The U.S. Army requires calibrations 

traceable to national standards for 58,000

different types of equipment in order to

maintain the operational readiness of its

weapons systems.

• Improved accuracy of reference measurements for emissions of sulfur in oil 

refining and steel production has been 

estimated to have produced $440 million in

cost savings and other benefits.

• Software errors due to ineffective testing

cost the U.S. economy $60 billion annually.

• The United States spends more than $100

billion per year on measurements in health

care, incurring increased costs due to errors

in measurement. For example, in a cancer

screening trial participants spent an extra

$1,000 a year in medical expenses due to

false-positive results. 

Executive Summary
vi Executive Summary

The Assessment Process

This assessment seeks to determine the capability

of the USMS to sustain the nation’s ever-present

need to enhance its performance as a world leader

in innovation. NIST undertook several activities

from October 2005 to June 2006 to accomplish

this goal:

• conducted 15 NIST-industry workshops

• interviewed industry representatives about

innovation-impeding measurement problems

facing U.S. industry, which were documented as case studies

• reviewed 164 industry technology roadmaps

and extracted measurement needs

• contacted executives, in an outreach effort,

at more than 100 businesses and trade 

organizations

In total, more than 1,000 people contributed to

this unique assessment of the USMS. 

The assessment resulted in the documentation of

723 innovation-impeding measurement problems authenticated by industry. This sample of

U.S. industry’s unresolved measurement problems is considered to be sufficient to represent

measurement barriers impeding technological

innovation confronting the USMS. The assessment process consisted of the following:

• content analysis of measurement needs

abstracted from industry technology

roadmaps

• characterization into various categories of

the measurement needs identified in workshops and documented by NIST and industry in authenticated case studies

• application of an inferential analysis

methodology to the collected measurement

needs, whether derived from roadmaps or

case studies

• authentication of the findings from the 

inferential analysis

• interpretation of the authenticated findings

to arrive at judgments about the USMS

Findings from the Assessment Process

Outputs of the inferential analysis process form

the basis for findings regarding measurement 

barriers to technological innovation. Findings

were obtained for 11 individual sector/technology

areas defined by this assessment and for all the

sector/technology areas taken together. These

findings were authenticated by representatives of

industry to verify their validity, relevance, and

significance. This also was done for case-study

measurement needs. The findings for all

sector/technology areas taken together are the 

following:

• Fundamentally new measurement technologies are required to overcome limitations of

accuracy, which are the most prevalent type 

of measurement barrier to technological 

innovation across all sector/technology areas.

• The absence of accurate sensors for real-time

monitoring and control of manufacturing

processes and environmental conditions poses

a significant barrier to innovation that spans

multiple sector/technology areas.

• A lack of standards, benchmarks, metrics, and

protocols for assessing system-level performance of new technologies, including the compatibility and interoperability of hardware and

software systems, is a substantial measurement

barrier in a number of sector/technology areas.
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation vii

Conclusions of the Assessment

Distilled from the full set of 723 measurement

needs documented for this study, the conclusions

reported here provide a system-wide perspective. They are high-level judgments: about the

overall structure of the USMS; about challenges

to the system posed by the economic imperative

for continuing technological innovation; and

about possible responses to those challenges.

The following conclusions, while high level and

relatively general in nature, represent a first step

toward understanding and addressing system-level

weaknesses that diminish the ability of the USMS

to support innovation in a rapidly changing technology environment and an increasingly competitive global economy.

Structure and Function of the USMS 

• The USMS must provide a national measurement infrastructure for the nation to keep pace with the measurement

needs of a growing, rapidly changing, technologically sophisticated economy.

• Novel, multidisciplinary approaches often will be required to meet new types of measurement needs, significantly

extending the established USMS structure and paradigm.

• The USMS must evolve in concert with the international measurement system to enable U.S. companies, including

technology innovators, to meet the growing number of measurement-based standards that influence access to and

transactional efficiency in the global marketplace.

Challenges to the USMS Posed by Technological Innovation

• Measurement innovation (breakthroughs in measurement capabilities) often will be a critical determinant of 

successful technological innovation in nearly all sectors of the economy.

• The USMS must anticipate and deliver innovations required to meet measurement needs of producers and users 

of new technology in the manufacturing sector, as well as users of new technology in the service sector.

• To achieve the promise of nanotechnology—an area that may yield the most important technological innovations 

of the first quarter of the 21st century—major innovations in measurement science and measurement technology

are required.

• Successful technological innovation ultimately hinges on the timely availability of production-ready, advanced

measurement capabilities.

• The inability to adequately measure system performance (especially the performance of software and information

technology hardware) limits the effectiveness and application of new technologies in important service industries.

• New measurement capabilities are required to support emerging technologies for sensing and controlling a wide

array of properties and parameters in applications critical to industrial competitiveness as well as to national security and human health and safety.

• Technological innovation has in some cases been stalled due to the lack of measurement technology to assure and

verify compliance or to resolve questions regarding potential risks and hazards that emerging technologies may pose.

Responding to USMS Challenges

• Pre-competitive, collaborative R&D is an effective vehicle for addressing needs for new measurement technologies,

many of which will have broad utility.

• Federal research organizations and other public-sector organizations that are a part of the USMS will be challenged

to prioritize needs within a growing inventory of measurement-related obstacles to technological innovation.

• USMS stakeholders, particularly supporters of fundamental research, need to strengthen the two-way link between

advanced measurement capability and the scientific discoveries that become the basis for future technologies.

• The measurement barriers to technological innovation identified in this assessment of the USMS are clear and 

compelling and call for concerted efforts by the private and public sectors to achieve timely resolution.
viii Executive Summary

Next Steps

This report makes recommendations for action

by all USMS stakeholders, acting individually

and in collaboration, to enhance USMS capabilities and, in turn, to accelerate technological

innovation. Participation from across the USMS

is essential, given the breadth and diversity of

the USMS and the challenges it faces. This

assessment has identified seven specific actions 

to be taken as next steps.

NIST, in its unique role as the nation’s national

measurement institute, has committed to participate in each of the seven recommended actions:

• promoting awareness of critical measurement needs identified in this assessment

throughout the measurement research 

community

• identifying strategies to bolster the effectiveness of USMS solution providers and accelerating development and delivery of measurement technologies that respond to measurement problems impeding innovation

• fostering collaboration to accelerate 

measurement breakthroughs

• encouraging industrial sectors to identify

and prioritize measurement needs

• facilitating pursuit of solutions to specific

industry measurement problems documented

in this assessment

• identifying shared measurement needs and

opportunities for synergy across industries

and research areas

• fostering strategic public-sector investments

in measurement R&D to accelerate technological innovation by:

– keeping end users and solution providers

informed of federal measurement 

capabilities

– incorporating insights from this assessment into strategic and program plans

– establishing an explicit agenda for 

measurement innovation

NIST will use this assessment as a means to

focus its own work in support of U.S. innovation

and competitiveness. It also will partner with

other stakeholders in both the private and public

sectors to focus organizational, sectoral, and

cross-sectoral attention on overcoming the most

significant measurement-related barriers to

innovation. Feedback on this assessment from

stakeholders in industry and government will be

solicited and used to improve and guide the next

steps described above.
The ability to innovate and apply new technology is central to our 

nation’s future. In fact, the fiercely competitive global economy demands 

that innovation become a core competency, not only for businesses and 

industries, but also for the nation as a whole. 

“One of the great 

engines of our growing

economy is our nation’s

capacity to innovate.”

–President George W. Bush

Recent studies have highlighted the critical role

played by innovation in science and technology

to the continued success of the U.S. economy.

The Council on Competitiveness report,

Innovate America, notes that, “Innovation will

be the single most important factor in determining America’s success through the 21st century,”

and further asserts that the acceleration of innovation is critical for the United States to maintain its competitive edge in the world economy.1

A recent report published by the National

Academies, Rising Above the Gathering Storm,

notes that, “Although many people assume that

the United States will always be a world leader

in science and technology, this may not continue

to be the case inasmuch as great minds and

ideas exist throughout the world. We fear the

abruptness with which a lead in science and

technology can be lost—and the difficulty of

recovering a lead once lost, if indeed it can be

regained at all.”2

In February 2006, President Bush said, “One of

the great engines of our growing economy is our

nation’s capacity to innovate.” The situation 

facing the U.S. economy is summed up in the

President’s American Competitiveness Initiative,

which states that, “America’s economic strength

and global leadership depend in large measure

on our nation’s ability to generate and harness

the latest in scientific and technological developments and to apply these developments to real

world applications.”3

Advanced measurement capabilities are essential

to innovation—in every major economic area

and at every stage of the innovation process.

Research represents the inception of revolutionary technologies of the future; progress in such

research depends on advanced measurement

capabilities that are fundamental to the exchange

of the resulting new knowledge and its refinement into experimental applications. 

I. Introduction

An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 1
2 I. Introduction

Ultimately, new, factory-ready measurement

tools are essential for cost-effective manufacturing and efficient marketing of leading-edge

products and for the integration of these products with other advanced technologies.

Advanced tools will be required to design and

incorporate new or better features into the nextgeneration products that will be necessary for

the United States to stay ahead in the global

marketplace.

To help ensure that these capabilities will be

ready when needed, the National Institute of

Standards and Technology (NIST) has teamed

with the private sector and others to undertake

an assessment of the United States Measurement

System (USMS) with a focus on technological

innovation. 

This assessment concentrates on that part of the

innovation process that relates to the introduction into the marketplace of new technology. The

aim of the assessment is to determine whether

the USMS, a vital component of our underpinning technology infrastructure, is adequate to

sustain the nation’s ever-present need to improve

its performance as a world leader in innovation.

Staying ahead in the race to innovate is critical if

the United States is to maintain a key competitive advantage, foster productive investment, and

create new jobs.

A Defining Moment

This assessment was initiated at an important

stage in the evolution of the global economy.

Competition in markets for high-value-added

products and services is intensifying in two

ways—first, as more foreign nations and 

companies increase their investment in R&D to

generate innovative products, and second, as

more nations promote their domestic measurements and standards in the global marketplace.

Japan has singled out enhancement of its measurement infrastructure as a strategic priority in

its science and technology plan for the years

2006–2010. China is proffering its nanotechnology measurement standards for international

adoption. The European Union is instituting

demanding requirements for assuring the accuracy of measurements used to manufacture 

certain types of medical equipment and other

high-technology products.

Measurements Matter

• This year the U.S. semiconductor industry will spend

$9 billion on measurement equipment, citing measurement challenges as a major barrier to continued

miniaturization of circuits.

• The electric power grid that links the 10,000 generating stations in the United States must be synchronized to within one millionth of one second per day

and the Global Positioning System (GPS) to one 

billionth.

• The U.S. Army requires calibrations traceable to

national standards for 58,000 different types of

equipment in order to maintain the operational readiness of its weapons systems.

• Improved accuracy of reference measurements for

emissions of sulphur in oil refining and steel production has been estimated to have produced $440 million in cost savings and other benefits.

• Software errors due to ineffective testing cost the U.S.

economy $60 billion annually.

• The United States spends more than $100 billion per

year on measurements in health care, incurring

increased costs due to errors in measurement. For

example, in a cancer screening trial participants

spent an extra $1,000 a year in medical expenses due

to false-positive results. 

The ability to measure new

things in new ways is 

critical to U.S. industry.
Nanotechnology exemplifies the challenge of

the new landscape of global competition on

emerging technologies. It is a measurementintensive and still largely experimental domain.

As industries, universities, and government

agencies work to master this and other emerging

technologies, many organizations are calling for

more focused and cooperative efforts to surmount new types of measurement barriers. As

interacting technologies and the linkages among

organizations grow and diversify, the demand

for accurate, reliable measurements will experience proportionate growth. Such measurements

will become an integral part of consumer expectations for product performance evaluation in the

marketplace. These measurements also will be

required to support efficient transactions in markets for future advanced technology products.

The USMS, NIST, and This Assessment

The USMS is the complex of all of the private

and public organizations that develop, supply,

use, or ensure the validity of measurements.

These measurements are vital to the production

and service sectors of the U.S. economy. The

USMS functions to deliver measurements that

meet the nation’s measurement needs. 

Despite its broad utility and diverse composition, the USMS is usually unseen but is deeply

embedded in the nation’s commercial technology infrastructure. 

Unmet measurement needs—or ineffectively

delivered measurement-based services—can

slow the progress of research and impede 

innovation, consequences that undermine the

competitiveness of U.S. industry and jeopardize

the nation’s economic future.

Resolution of measurement needs can speed 

the progress of research, accelerate innovation,

and contribute to supporting the competitiveness

of U.S. industry and the nation’s economic 

well-being.

An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 3

Unmet measurement

needs can slow the

progress of research and

impede innovation.

Resolution of 

measurement needs 

can accelerate 

innovation.

NIST, an agency in the U.S. Department of

Commerce, plays a central role in the USMS. By

law, NIST is responsible for maintaining U.S.

national standards of measurement, a job that the

agency and its predecessor (the National Bureau

of Standards) have carried out since 1901. As the

nation’s measurement laboratory, NIST chose to

initiate an examination of the USMS, specifically focusing on measurement-related barriers to

technological innovation. NIST recognizes that a

healthy, effectively performing measurement system is a responsibility shared across the USMS.

At the same time, NIST believes that this assessment is clearly needed as an essential step toward

ensuring that the USMS remains a valuable contributor to the innovation efforts of organizations

and the nation as a whole.

For its assessment, conducted from October 

2005 to June 2006, NIST solicited broad input

on measurement needs that pose barriers to 

innovation. For this effort NIST undertook the

following activities: 

• conducted 15 NIST-industry workshops that

engaged more than 500 participants in identifying measurement barriers to innovation

(Appendix A) 

• interviewed industry representatives about

innovation-impeding measurement problems

facing U.S. industry which were documented

as case studies (Appendix B)

• reviewed 164 industry technology roadmaps and

extracted measurement needs (Appendix C)

• contacted executives, in an outreach effort,

at more than 100 businesses and trade 

organizations 

In total, more than 1,000 people contributed to

this unique undertaking (Appendix D).

The remainder of this report provides an

overview of the USMS, describes the methodology of the assessment, presents the results 

of the assessment, and details the follow-up

actions that NIST intends to take in response

to the assessment. The full report is available

on the NIST Web site at http://usms.nist.gov.
4 II. Purpose and Elements of the USMS

In terms of technological innovation and economic growth, the USMS provides, or enables,

measurement capabilities, tools, and services

that are employed throughout the process of

innovation. This process ranges from research

(the source of new knowledge) to the diffusion

of new ideas and nascent technologies and, 

ultimately, to the production and sale of new 

products and services that embody the results 

of the innovation process.

In this assessment, the USMS is taken to include

the methods, standards, instruments, and private

and public organizations involved in measurements of products and processes or in other

measurement-related activities relevant to the

function and performance of the national economy. It includes both measurement suppliers and

users, two broad categories with many divisions

notable for both their variety and their vastly different requirements. Measurement and related

terms are defined in Figure 2.1.

For clarity, it is important to distinguish between

the USMS and a necessary core element common to all industrialized economies: the

National Measurement System (NMS). Previous

studies of the economics of measurement,

undertaken in the United States and several

other nations,4 focused almost exclusively on the

NMS within these countries.

As depicted in Figure 2.2, the NMS is situated

within—and operates in support of—the broader

USMS. In the United States, as elsewhere, key

functions of the NMS are 1) to ensure the reliability and uniformity of measurement results, as is

required for orderly markets and technological

innovation; and 2) to enable comparability of

The USMS is essential

to the function and

performance of the

national economy.

II. Purpose and Elements of the USMS

The USMS is an essential infrastructure, woven into the fabric of our market

economy and society. It supports industry, commerce, government, research,

and trade as well as homeland security, defense, health, safety, consumer 

protection, and other national interests.
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 5

measurements through linkages to the international measurement system, as is required to integrate the United States with the global economy.

Key elements of the NMS and several other

components of the USMS, as shown in Figure

2.2, are discussed in the remainder of this 

chapter. In the context of technological innovation, the scientific research enterprise plays 

an especially critical underpinning role within

the USMS. Also as indicated in the figure, the

ultimate effectiveness of the USMS depends 

on private- and public-sector inputs and participation, as well as on cross-sector collaboration.

International System of Units

Most measurements made for economic purposes quantify properties of “things.” Such

measurements are primarily rooted in physical

mechanisms and processes described by the

laws of physics.

The International System of Units (SI) is globally accepted. Its goal is to define a system of

measurement units directly based on quantities

of nature that do not vary with time or circumstance (e.g., the meter—the unit of length—is

defined in terms of the speed of light). Basing

the SI on the laws of physics provides an 

unambiguous reference for comparison, and it

facilitates the dissemination of accurate measurements in commerce, industry, and science.

The SI is the modern descendant of the 1875

Convention of the Meter, a treaty that included

the United States as the second of 17 original

signatory nations. The modern SI dates back to

the early 1960s. Both metric and customary

units are presently legal and in use in the United

States. 

The Convention of the Meter also established

the International Committee for Weights and

Measures (CIPM) and the International Bureau

of Weights and Measures (BIPM), which are

charged with ensuring worldwide uniformity of

measurements and traceability to SI units, and

with improving the SI. The CIPM fulfills these

responsibilities through a series of Consultative

Committees. Committee members are representatives of national measurement institutions from

the signatory nations of the Convention. In addition, the BIPM, headquartered near Paris,

France, performs its own laboratory work. As

the fields of science and technology advance,

values of existing units are refined and new

derived units may be established, all by international agreement through the General Conference on Weights and Measures.

Figure 2.1. 

Useful Terms

Measurement:

The process of quantitatively comparing a 

variable characteristic,

property, or attribute of 

a substance, object, or 

system to some norm.

Measurement result:

The quantitative result of 

the measurement

process, achieved to a

level of certainty influenced by a combination

of technical and human

elements that include

measurement methods,

instruments, information,

standards, and institutions. 

Measurement system:

The entire set of 

technical and human

elements involved in 

producing measurements

for an intended purpose.

Figure 2.2. The USMS and the NMS Within It
6 II. Purpose and Elements of the USMS

The SI is the globally

accepted system of

units of measurement. 

Measurement traceability and comparability

across nations also is facilitated through bilateral

and multilateral agreements and through 

Regional Metrology Organizations (RMOs), such

as the Inter-American Metrology System (SIM)

and the Asia Pacific Metrology Program (APMP).

NIST serves as the U.S. representative in SIM.

National and International Documentary

Standards Organizations

An estimated 80 percent of world trade is influenced by standards for products, processes, and

systems, as well as by regulations embodying

these standards. In turn, measurement-related

requirements (and specified tests or inspections

for demonstrating compliance with those

requirements) are significant components of

most standards and regulations. 

Documentary standards development in the

United States is led by the private sector, aligned

with industry sectors, and largely demand driven. Individual standards are typically developed

in response to specific concerns and constituent

issues expressed by both industry and government. Government agencies are major users of

standards, in both regulation and procurement.

Agency representatives also participate in the

development of all kinds of voluntary standards,

including test methods, specifications, and other

measurement-related standards.

While there are more than 450 standards-developing organizations (SDOs) in the United States,

about 20 of these develop 80 percent of the standards in use by both the private sector and government. Many of these documents have a substantial measurement component. 

Some U.S.-domiciled organizations develop

standards that are used globally to meet specific

sector needs, including electronics and materials

standards, boiler and pressure vessel codes, 

and specifications for piping and fuels. These

organizations include the Institute for Electrical

and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), ASTM

International, the Society of Automotive

Engineers, ASME International, the Aerospace

Industries Association, and American Petroleum

Institute, among others. Membership in these

organizations is on an individual or organizational basis.

International measurement-related documentary

standards also are developed by treaty organizations (with governments as members); private,

voluntary organizations with memberships 

composed of national entities; and consortia 

and forums, whose memberships are typically

company and industry based. These include the

following organizations:

• The International Organization of Legal

Metrology (OIML) is a treaty organization 

that develops model international standards

pertaining to measurements used for regulatory purposes, such as commodity exchange

and environmental monitoring.

• The International Telecommunications Union

(ITU) is a treaty organization that focuses on

standards for information and communications technologies.

• The International Organization for Standardization includes the national standards bodies

of 149 countries and develops standards for

nearly every industrial sector.

• The International Electrotechnical

Commission (IEC) focuses on electronics

standards.

The United States is prominently involved in

standards activities conducted in each of these

organizations. NIST is the technical representative to OIML, on behalf of the Department of

State. The State Department represents U.S. 

interests directly in ITU. U.S. interests in ISO and

IEC are represented by the American National

Standards Institute (ANSI), a federation of SDOs,

companies, trade associations, government agencies, and consumer groups.
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 7

National Measurement Institute

By federal statute, NIST is the National

Measurement Institute (NMI) of the United

States, responsible for national standards of

measurement and, within the SI framework, for

their compatibility with the standards of other

nations. To achieve international compatibility in

measurement, NIST works with its counterpart

NMIs. These government-established entities

exist in nearly every nation.

The role of NIST as an NMI is multifaceted:

• representing the United States in the

Consultative Committees of CIPM and 

in SIM

• establishing, maintaining, and disseminating

national standards of measurement, basing

them on its realizations of SI units and linking them globally through international comparisons conducted with other NMIs

• collaborating with BIPM and other NMIs 

to ensure that realizations of the definitions

of the base SI units—and those units derived

from these base units—have accuracies that

stay ahead of industrial needs 

• providing U.S. industry, the scientific community, and federal, state, and local governments with access to national standards of

measurement, often at the highest level of

accuracy in the world. This is accomplished

through research and the resulting measurement services:

– calibration of customers’ precision measuring instruments and physical standards

– provision of reference materials of the

highest metrological quality

– provision of evaluated reference data

– provision of measurement science results

that enable new measurements and the

development of new measuring instruments

NIST’s maintenance of base SI units (length,

mass, time, electric current, temperature,

amount of substance, and luminous intensity)

and a growing number of derived units underpins private-sector investments in measurement

technology and standards. Realizations of these

units provide the necessary means for assessing

the quality of the myriad measurements made

daily during the design, production, inspection,

and sale of goods and services. They provide 

benchmark references for so-called secondand third-tier suppliers of measurement services,

instruments, and related products, as well as 

for the users of these measurement solutions.

Examples of these suppliers and users include

private-sector test and calibration laboratories,

manufacturers of measurement tools and control

systems, and the businesses that rely on these

services and tools. Additional details of NIST’s

realization and dissemination of the units of the

SI are provided in Appendix E.

In 1999 NIST was one of the original 

signatories to the CIPM Mutual Recognition

Arrangement. This agreement set a framework

for establishing the degree of equivalence of

measurement standards maintained by NMIs

worldwide. A key objective was to assure that

measurement results traceable to different NMIs

could be accepted across international borders,

thereby improving transactional efficiency and

eliminating potential regulatory burdens and

technical barriers to international trade. 
8 II. Purpose and Elements of the USMS

Commercial 

transactions based 

on weight, measure, 

or count, make up 

about half of the 

U.S. economy.

U. S. Weights and Measures System

The U.S. Weights and Measures System, a 

subset of the USMS, is stipulated in the U.S.

Constitution. It is composed of organizations

that make, use, and ensure the validity of measurements involved in the buying and selling of

products and services on the basis of weight,

measure, or count. These commercial transactions account for about half of the U.S. economy. The U.S. Weights and Measures System

facilitates fairness in the marketplace. It enables

accurate weighing and measuring devices, from

truck scales and parking meters to gasoline

pumps and price scanners.

The system includes the following key elements:

• scale and meter manufacturers, consumer

product manufacturers, retailers, consumer

agencies, and government agencies

• an extensive network of local and state

weights-and-measures programs

• the National Conference on Weights and

Measures (NCWM), a private, nonprofit

organization with representatives from

industry, the states, and the federal government, develops standards, test procedures,

and model laws and regulations on weights

and measures

• NIST, which provides technical assistance 

to the NCWM as it develops standards, 

regulations, and methods of practice

Except for the following federal responsibilities,

laws and regulations governing weights and

measures used in commerce are generally created—and enforced—at state and local levels.

However, the NCWM works to achieve uniformity across jurisdictions to reduce barriers to

interstate commerce. 

At the federal level, Congress has assigned

weights-and-measures regulatory authority 

to three organizations:

• U.S. Department of Agriculture, for the

export of meat and poultry products and

grains

• Food and Drug Administration, for 

pharmaceutical safety and labeling

• Federal Trade Commission, for product

labeling and advertising

At the international level, OIML oversees efforts

to promote harmonization of performance

requirements for measuring instruments that are

subject to laws or regulations.

Conformity Assessment Services and Bodies 

Sampling and testing, inspection, product 

certification, and other conformity assessment

procedures provide a means of ensuring that

products, services, or systems meet customer or

regulatory requirements. These procedures also

provide assurance of consistency from product

to product, service to service, or system to system. Other examples of conformity assessment

include quality and environmental system

assessments and registrations as well as formal

programs for accrediting the competence of

organizations that provide conformity assessment services. Evaluation and recognition of the

capabilities of accreditation programs comprise

another aspect of conformity assessment. 

Each of these activities is a distinct operation, but

they are closely interrelated. Conformity assessment activities form a vital link between standards and products. These standards typically

define necessary characteristics or requirements

for products and specify tests and measurements

for achieving and demonstrating compliance. 
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 9

Conformity assessment in the United States is

complex, multifaceted, and decentralized, with

more than 100 organizations accrediting calibration, measurement, and testing laboratories.

Unfortunately, businesses that use the 

services of accredited laboratories often find

that the results are not universally recognized.

Consequently, one customer may require a 

business to demonstrate conformity with

requirements through testing done by a laboratory accredited by a specific organization, while

another customer may stipulate a testing laboratory with a different accreditation.

Three U.S.-based organizations—the

International Accreditation Service, National

Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation Program,

and American Association for Laboratory

Accreditation—along with 49 other laboratory

accreditation bodies from 42 economies around

the world, are signatories to the International

Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC)

Mutual Recognition Arrangement (MRA).

Signatories accept, on the basis of a peer evaluation process, that the accreditations granted by

other signatories are accomplished through a

process that is in conformance with internationally accepted standards and practices. Further,

signatories promote the acceptance of calibration, testing, and/or inspection results within the

respective scopes of accreditation for laboratories accredited by any of the MRA signatories. 

The aim of the ILAC MRA is to develop a 

global network of accredited testing, calibration,

and inspection facilities that can be relied on to

provide accurate data. To that end, ILAC and the

CIPM signed a memorandum of understanding

in March 2005, recognizing the important link

between accreditation and traceability to national standards. ILAC’s ultimate aim is increased

use and acceptance by industry as well as government of the results from accredited laboratories, including results from laboratories in other

countries so that a product tested once can be

accepted everywhere.

Commercial Providers of Measurement

Products and Services

Given the scale and diversity of the U.S. economy, the number of businesses that provide measurement products and services is proportionately

large. The composition of this hybrid sector is

commensurately diverse and includes the 

following:

• commercial suppliers of measurement 

standards

• measurement, calibration, and testing 

laboratories and services

• suppliers of measurement instruments 

and devices

• measurement consulting and training 

services

Because of the tremendous variety of test and

measurement tools and services required to 

support the U.S. economy, no single industrial

classification encompasses all the businesses

that supply these tools and services. Specific

segments within the “measurement sector”

range from manufacturers of process control

equipment to makers of meters for measuring

consumption of water, gas, or electricity, and

from suppliers of laboratory analytical equipment to makers of tools for inspecting semiconductor wafers and measuring the thickness and

quality of thin films. Figure 2.3 provides 

examples of selected measurement instrument

industries and their characteristics.

The measurement-intensive nature of processes

and the required levels of measurement 

accuracy vary considerably across industries.

Generally speaking, the more advanced and

complex the technologies incorporated into a

commercial product, the greater the need for

measurement support. 
10 II. Purpose and Elements of the USMS

The semiconductor

industry alone will 

spend an estimated

$9 billion on 

measurement in 2006.

For example, a NIST study found that the semiconductor industry spent about $5 billion on

measurement (not including labor and overhead)

in 2001. This investment has been growing at a

rate of about 15 percent per year, raising this

expenditure to an estimated $9 billion in 2006.

Assuming that the nation’s entire high-technology sector invests about the same percentage on

measurement as does the semiconductor industry, it would have spent about $70 billion on

measurement in 2004.

Scientific Research Enterprise

The scientific research enterprise forms the

foundation of the USMS, while also serving as

an element of the USMS. Science is, to a large

extent, the quantitative, predictive description of

the observable behavior of the things of the

physical world. Science rests on measurement.

Measurement rests on science. The discoveries

of science enable and propel advances in measurement technology. Advances in measurement

technology enable and propel advances in science. Research and advances in the most basic

sciences—physics, biology, chemistry—and in

measurement science proceed in tandem. And,

most importantly, technological innovation rests

on the availability of and access to new knowledge that is produced primarily by scientific

research.

Several principal elements of the U.S. scientific

research enterprise are foundational elements of

the USMS:

• mission-directed fundamental research in

measurement science conducted by NIST

and other parts of the research enterprise

• curiosity-driven basic research in science

conducted by universities

• mission-directed applied research conducted

by government agencies

• business-directed applied research conducted

by industry that they report publicly

• measurement-technology R&D conducted by

government agencies, including NIST

• measurement-technology R&D conducted by

industry that it reports publicly

The USMS has been described here as a complex system of independently operating entities.

Given this description, how should an assessment of the USMS be conducted? What should

it include? Chapters 3 and 4 provide the parameters of this assessment of the USMS, along with

the methodology used to conduct it.

Figure 2.3. Examples of Measurement Instrument Industries, 2004*

Industry No. of Companies Value of Shipments

Aeronautical, Nautical, & Navigational Instruments 86 $2.4 billion

Analytical & Scientific Instruments (except optical) 296 $8.8 billion

Automatic Valves 154 $2.2 billion

Equipment for Testing Elec., Radio & Comm. Circuits, & Motors 310 $9 billion

Process Control Instruments 481 $6.5 billion

* Economic and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau, Selected Instruments and Related Products: 2004; Current Industrial Reports,

August 2005.
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 11

Technological innovation drives the nation’s 

economic growth and sustains U.S. competitiveness in world markets. In nearly all industrialized nations, progress in developing and applying technology drives growth in economic output (gross domestic product). According to 

economic studies—beginning with those of

Nobel Laureate Robert Solow—technology

accounts for more than half of U.S. economic

growth in the last 60 years. Statistics within the

United States mirror this fact. Growth and 

productivity represent the primary means of

increasing national prosperity, and new technology has fueled about 75 percent of growth in

U.S. productivity. And since the mid-1990s,

technology has been credited with driving an

even larger share of productivity gains.

As international competition increases, technological innovation has become the chief differentiator for U.S. industry, a source of comparative

advantage to counter low-cost manufacturing or

labor. However, more and more developed and

developing nations recognize that improving

their technological performance is key to future

economic growth. Many of these countries are

rapidly ascending from the ranks of imitators to

become innovators.

Recognizing the strategic importance of technological innovation, NIST’s assessment of the

USMS looks at unmet measurement needs that

impede our ability to develop and commercialize new technology. The pivotal role that innovation will play in the nation’s economic future 

is underscored by the President’s American

Competitiveness Initiative and in a growing 

collection of evaluations of U.S. prospects for

sustaining technology-driven economic growth.

Nearly all have concluded that innovation will

be vital to the nation’s economic success. 

“The United States achieved global leadership in innovation in the 20th 

century. And the capacity to innovate is the foundation for bringing our 

competitiveness into fruition.” National Summit on Competitiveness 2005 

Innovation will be the

single most important

factor in determining

America’s success

through the 21st century.

III. Focus on Innovation: The Importance of Measurement
12 III. Focus on Innovation: The Importance of Measurement

Unmet measurement

needs impede our 

ability to develop and

commercialize new

technology.

Technological innovation

is critical to U.S. 

industrial competitiveness and long-term 

economic growth.

A focus on innovation, however, does not fully

capture other vital functions and contributions of

the USMS. For example, measurement needs

tangential to innovation may be key to furthering

the mission-related goals of federal agencies or

to improving safety, health, and other determinants of the nation’s well-being. 

U.S. industrial competitiveness is necessary 

to sustain long-term economic growth.

Technological innovation, in turn, is critical to

industrial competitiveness and to the degree of

productivity growth necessary for U.S. citizens

to improve their standard of living. Both benefits serve the national interest and warrant 

the focus on innovation of this initial USMS

assessment. 

The Role of Measurement in Innovation

The underpinning or infrastructural role of

advanced measurement capabilities is multifaceted. Every phase of research and development

(basic and applied research and exploratory

development) and the subsequent manufacturing

and commercialization stages of innovation

require measurement tools and related standards.

During the discovery stage, accepted measurement methods are necessary for interpreting,

communicating, replicating, and extending the

results of research. At the commercialization end

of the spectrum, the role is just as significant.

Market acceptance of new high-technology products may be contingent upon the availability and

acceptance of test and measurement methods

necessary to verify product performance claims.

For example, a communications services 

company requires a range of testing standards to

determine whether the thousands of kilometers

of ultra-thin optical fiber it purchases will meet

specifications for an assortment of performance

attributes, such as bandwidth, signal-loss rates,

and core-diameter consistency. Without such

measurement capabilities, which are essential to

sellers and buyers alike, growth of emerging

high-tech industries would be hampered. Lack

of measurement capabilities results in transactional inefficiencies that delay market acceptance and eliminate the “first-mover” advantage

of innovating firms.

Methods of measurement, analysis, testing, and

evaluation, along with relevant standards and

related databases, function as “general-purpose

technologies,” valuable for their impact on the

effectiveness, efficiency, and productivity of 

the innovation process. Like electricity and

information technology, two of the most widely

recognized general-purpose technologies, 

measurement tools have broad utility but can 

be leveraged in different ways. For example,

new measurement capabilities enable the 

following:

• making it easier to invent and produce new

products and processes

• working across functions to be adapted,

enhanced, or extended, serving multiple

uses, such as research and production, and

they can be applied to a wide variety of

commercial products and services

• enabling communication across stages 

of the innovation process and among 

collaborators

• increasing in value and utility as they diffuse

more broadly within industries and across

sectors

• complementing existing and emerging 

technologies

Although less apparent than electricity and information technology, measurement tools are just as

ubiquitous. The capabilities that these tools

enable may mean the difference between success

and failure in realizing the promise of emerging

technologies. That is, the ability to measure accurately, reliably, and cost effectively can set the
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 13

limits on what can be accomplished in the laboratory, on what can be realized on the factory

floor, and on which products can be marketed at

affordable prices. In short, what gets measured is

often what gets done.

The most recent International Technology

Roadmap for Semiconductors (2005) helps to

illustrate this increasingly vital link between

measurement and successful innovation.

According to this roadmap, “As the industry

moves further into the world of nanoelectronics,

metrology,5 including materials characterization,

will take on greater challenges and become even

more critical.”6 Examples of these challenges

include measuring materials properties at subatomic dimensions and achieving control of

atomic dimensions while maintaining profitable

high-volume manufacturing. 

Similar challenges confront many industries,

many companies, and many laboratories—not 

just those aiming to control, manufacture, and

assemble at the scale of atoms and molecules.

The more than 700 measurement needs identified in this initial assessment of the USMS serve

as compelling evidence that new or improved

measurement capabilities are a collective

requirement for leadership in innovation. 

Technological Innovation and 

Measurement Innovation

In this assessment technological innovation is

considered to be either a process or a physical

entity. As a process, technological innovation is

that part of the overall innovation process relating to the introduction into the marketplace of

new technology. As a physical entity, technological innovation is the new technology itself.

Technological innovation is considered to occur

in four stages. This conceptualization is consistent with that of a consensus of economists and

is akin to others used to characterize product

development. It shares with them limitations in

representing the non-sequential, iterative, and

conceptually messy processes of the real world.

The four stages of technological innovation are:

• applied research specifically directed at 

realization of a particular new technology

and encompassing invention and development of a prototype, if appropriate

• production to implement the processes for

producing market quantities of the new 

technology as future product

• market placement of the new technology as

product

• end use of the new technology product for its

intended purpose

These stages of technological innovation are considered to be informed by what this report calls a

technology developer’s vision. This vision is the

conceptual view of what the new technology will

functionally do, who the user of the new technology will be, and what benefit to the user that new

technology will yield. Central to the story of the

Wright Brothers’ encounter with a measurement

barrier to technological innovation, cited in the

foreword of this report, is their technology 

developer’s vision—a machine for powered, 

controlled, heavier-than-air human flight.

Figure 3.1 illustrates the process of measurement innovation for addressing measurement

barriers to technological innovation. Shown are

the process of technological innovation, the
14 III. Focus on Innovation: The Importance of Measurement

process of measurement innovation, and the

relationship between the two when a measurement barrier occurs at a particular stage of technological innovation. If the measurement technology necessary to solve that problem does not

exist, a measurement innovation is needed.

Because a measurement innovation is itself a

technological innovation, the measurement innovation process is the same as that for the technological innovation. It involves successively,

applied research, production, market, and end

use of the new measurement technology.

Roles of the Public and Private Sectors

In the United States, the public and private 

sectors play different, yet complementary, roles

in the process of technological innovation:

• The public sector (government) supports

basic research, which generates the new

knowledge and scientific discoveries upon

which new technologies ultimately are

based.

• The private sector (industry) develops and

commercializes technology.

• The public and private sectors jointly 

contribute to enhancing the technical infrastructure, including the USMS, that supports

technological innovation. 

The U.S. government seeks to create an environment that encourages investment in the pursuit

of new technologies and helps to reduce shared

barriers to innovation. Unaddressed measurement needs can impede the nation’s innovation

performance. Through this assessment, NIST

aims not only to identify measurement problems

that pose barriers to innovation, but also to identify steps toward effective solutions.

Figure 3.1. The process of measurement innovation for addressing measurement

problems that pose barriers to the process of technological innovation
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 15

Information Gathering

This assessment of the USMS is based on the

identification and analysis of measurement

problems that confront U.S. industry and pose

barriers to technological innovation. Each measurement problem represents a current, unmet

industry measurement need. 

The set of measurement needs identified for this

assessment, while a sampling, nevertheless is

sufficiently representative to yield good indicators of the USMS as a whole.

NIST identified hundreds of industry measurement needs across selected industries (sectors)

and technology areas considered to be significant to the U.S. economy—either today or in 

the future. 

This chapter summarizes the methodology that

was used to identify, characterize, and analyze

these measurement needs within and across sectors and technology areas. A detailed description

of the methodology is contained in Appendix F.

Identification of Measurement Needs 

The information used to document each measurement need was gathered from one or more of

the following sources: 

• published industry technology roadmaps 

• USMS-affiliated industry workshops convened by NIST and other organizations to

identify measurement problems in specific

sectors or technology areas

• various combinations of industry reports, 

technical publications, and interviews, as 

documented by NIST staff

• submissions by individuals or organizations

within specific industries

Submissions were solicited by NIST through

outreach efforts to senior executives in 120

measurement-related industry, trade, standards,

and professional organizations. NIST informed

these executives of the USMS effort and invited

participation to indicate industry measurement

needs or authenticate measurement needs 

or findings. NIST also solicited input through

news announcements, its USMS Web site, and

briefings to various industry audiences.

IV. Methodology of the Assessment 
16 IV. Methdology of the Assessment

Because technological innovation spans a broad

range of activities—from basic research to product and process development and beyond—and

often draws on the efforts of many individuals

and organizations, measurement needs were pursued from four points of view, described below.

The objective of this multiple-view sampling

was to achieve a wide-angle snapshot of measurement barriers to technological innovation

across a breadth of industries and technologies.

• Industrial Sectors: Three sectors—automotive, semiconductors, and IT software—were

selected to generate a sample of industry-specific measurement needs. The industries that

make up this sampling are economically and

socially important as they depend heavily on

technological innovation and are known to

have measurement barriers to innovation.

• Technologies: Four broad technologies—nanotechnology, disaster first responder technology, biomedical imaging, and magnetic data

storage7—were selected for the sample of

technology areas. (See Appendix G.) These

areas were selected because of their dependence

on innovation, potential to yield numerous commercial applications, or relevance to important

national needs.

• Scientific and Engineering Disciplines:

Seven disciplines were selected—physics,

chemistry, materials science, electrical and

electronic engineering, mechanical and civil

engineering, manufacturing engineering, and

computer science and engineering—on the

basis of their foundational relationships to

new product and process technologies. 

• International System of Units (SI):

The units of the SI—both base units (length,

mass, time, electric current, temperature,

amount of substance, and luminous intensity)

and derived units—were selected because of

their centrality to the spectrum of measurements performed in industry, commerce, and

science. (See Appendix E.)

Regardless of the sector, technology, discipline,

or SI unit taken as the vantage point for identifying measurement problems that pose barriers to

technological innovation, all participating scientists, industry representatives, and technology

experts were presented with the same challenge

whether they participated in workshops,

abstracted technology roadmaps, or otherwise

represented a measurement need. All were asked

to respond to the following question: “From

your position in this sector (be it an industry,

technology area, scientific-engineering discipline, or field of measurement), what industry

measurement problems do you see that pose 

barriers to technological innovation?” 

Documentation of Measurement Needs

Basic units of input to this report are measurement needs, defined as unresolved industry

measurement problems that pose technical barriers to economically important technological

innovations. As mentioned previously, these

measurement needs were identified in industry

technology roadmaps; in workshops; in NIST

staff syntheses from various combinations of

industry reports, technical publications, and

interviews; or in submissions by individuals outside NIST. Measurement needs from the latter

three sources were documented following a standardized reporting format. The data fields of this

format are listed in Figure 4.1. 
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 17

Within this report, these one-page, stand-alone

measurement need summaries are referred to as

case studies. These case-study measurement

needs appear in Appendix B. 

Measurement needs abstracted from published

technology roadmaps could be summarized in

general terms only, as they were documented

prior to this assessment, not documented explicitly for this purpose, and, in many cases, not

detailed in information for all the fields in the

case-study format.

Authentication of Measurement Needs 

Measurement needs reported and analyzed in

this assessment have undergone authentication.

That is, they were independently verified as

valid, relevant, and significant. 

For measurement needs distilled by NIST technical staff, the facts asserted were authenticated

by multiple sources external to NIST. These

sources included the following:

• industry representatives and/or technology

experts selected for their knowledge of the

specific industry or technology in question

• public domain documentary references,

including technology roadmaps

• reports from workshops having broad

industrial representation

Measurement needs abstracted from industry

technology roadmaps were considered to be 

self-authenticated. Each roadmap was produced

by a group representative of that particular community and knowledgeable about the specific

industry or technology area in question. 

Measurement needs derived from USMS-affiliated, industry-needs workshops were considered to

be self-authenticated. As a group, participants in

each workshop met the criteria for authenticators.

By design and mix of interests, the workshop

groups were knowledgeable and representative. 

Analysis of Gathered Information

The principal results of this assessment are

based on several types of analyses of identified

industry measurement needs: 

• content analysis of measurement needs

abstracted from industry technology

roadmaps

• characterization into various categories of the

case-study measurement needs identified in

workshops, documented by NIST staff, or 

submitted by individuals outside of NIST

• inferential analysis of all the collected 

measurement needs, whether derived from

roadmaps or case studies and whether derived

from the perspectives of sectors, technologies,

disciplines, or SI units

• authentication of the findings from the 

inferential analysis

• interpretation of the authenticated findings 

to arrive at judgments about the USMS 

Content Analysis of Measurement Needs

Abstracted from Industry Technology Roadmaps

An industry technology roadmap analysis 

was conducted. (See Appendix C.) Through the

analysis process, the set of measurement needs

derived from industry technology roadmaps was

examined, trends in measurement needs within

sectors were evaluated, and a review probing for

key themes, synergies, and commonalities

across sectors was performed.

Figure 4.1. 

Data Fields for 

the Case-Study

Measurement

Needs

 Technology at Issue

 Submitters

 Technological

Innovation at Stake

 Economic Significance

of Innovation

 Technical Barrier to

the Innovation

 Stage of Innovation

Where Barrier Appears

 Measurement-Problem

Part of Technical

Barrier

 Potential Solutions to

Measurement Problem
18 IV. Methdology of the Assessment

Case-study measurement needs were first 

categorized according to sector/technology area,

which encompasses the combination of the economic sector or the technology area with which

a particular technological innovation is associated, as shown in Figure 4.2. 

Next, the measurement needs within each sector/technology area were categorized according

to specific characteristics of the data fields—

Measurement Problem, Solution to the

Measurement Problem, and Potential Solution

Providers. These specific characteristics are 

listed in Exhibit 3 of Appendix F.

The categorized set of all case-study measurement needs was sorted, tabulated, and correlated

according to the data fields mentioned above.

The resulting statistical data and the content

analysis of the industry technology roadmaps

were used as the basis for making inferences

about measurement barriers to technological

innovations and the USMS.

Inferential Analysis Process

As the basis of its assessment of the USMS,

NIST developed an inferential analysis process

consisting of these steps:

• examining the case-study and roadmap measurement needs and the results of statistical and

content analyses to identify significant features and patterns within and among those

measurement needs

• extracting facts from and making factual 

statements about those features and patterns

• using informed judgment to interpret the

meaning and significance of those factual

statements

Characterization Analysis of 

Case-Study Measurement Needs

The measurement needs documented as case

studies were analyzed according to various 

characteristics within seven major categories.

(See Appendix B.) 

• Economic Sector/Technology Area:

In what part of the economy does the vision

exist for the development of the particular

technological innovation?

• Stage of Technological Innovation:

Where along the spectrum, from applied

research on a concept to end use of the 

product, is the technological innovation

planned?

• Is the Technological Innovation at 

Stake a Measurement Technology?

Is a new measurement technology the planned

technological innovation? 

• Measurand: What type of quantity is 

being measured?

• Measurement Problem Posing Technical

Barrier: What is the measurement-related

portion of the technical barrier that is inhibiting the technological innovation?

• Potential Measurement Solution(s): What

possible routes can be followed to solve the

measurement-problem part of the technical

barrier?

• Potential Solution Provider(s): What private

or public organizations, groups of organizations, and individuals might contribute to 

solutions to the measurement-problem part 

of the technical barrier?

Figure 4.2. 

Sector/Technology

Areas

 Building and

Construction

 Chemicals 

 Defense and

Homeland Security

 Discrete-Parts

Manufacturing

Including

Automotive

 Electronics and

Information

Technology (IT)

Hardware

 Energy, Power, and

Environment

 Health Care

Including

Bioimaging

 IT Software

 Materials

 Nanotechnology

 Semiconductor

Electronics
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 19

• making declarative statements based on the

factual statements as so interpreted 

• identifying some declarative statements as

being based on a sufficient number of documented measurement needs and supported by

sufficient fact and logic to qualify as potential

findings and submitting them for authentication by industry representatives

• identifying other declarative statements as not

meeting the standard of a potential finding but

representing a potentially significant measurement issue and submitting it for review by

industry representatives as other observations

This process for generation of potential findings

was applied to each of the 11 sector/technology

areas, as well as to the aggregated group of all

the measurement needs from each sector/technology area. In each case, a small group of

NIST technical staff knowledgeable about that

area was convened to participate in the inferential analysis process. 

The process was applied in rounds, focusing in

turn on the following areas: 

• barriers, providers, and solutions

• measurands (i.e., the quantities measured)

and cases where the technological innovation

was a measurement technology

• stage of technological innovation

• technology developer’s vision and 

cross-sector aspects

There was neither an upper nor a lower limit to

the number of findings in each round. Rather,

the number of findings, and the rounds in which

they were noted, varied across the sector/technology areas, as the data supported them. The

final round asked the participants in the inferential analysis to list challenges to measurement

innovation and the operation of the USMS that

were noted during the analysis. 

Authentication of Findings 

The findings of this assessment report are those

findings that resulted from the inferential analysis process that were subsequently authenticated.

As with the case-study measurement needs, the

findings were vetted with individuals outside

NIST who were considered to be knowledgeable

and representative of a particular sector/technology area. Authenticators, working in a webbased environment, reviewed and commented 

on each of the findings within a specific sector/

technology area. Findings based on the entire 

set of measurement needs were similarly 

authenticated.

Interpretation of Findings

The outputs of the inferential analysis form the

basis for the principal results of this assessment,

which are, first, authenticated findings on measurement barriers to technological innovation 

and, second, conclusions about the USMS as it

relates to those barriers. These conclusions are

judgments about the capacity of the USMS to

address the identified measurement barriers to

technological innovation. They are based on an

examination of the findings, the measurement

needs, the analysis of them on which the findings are based, and the overall context of technological innovation within the United States.
20 V. Results of the Inferential Analysis

This assessment of the USMS by NIST was

based on measurement needs—unresolved

measurement problems, such as insufficient

accuracy and resolution or lack of productionready techniques—that pose barriers to technological innovation. The assessment consisted of

three types of analyses that yielded results at different levels of specificity:

• actual measurement needs that were 

tabulated, categorized, and correlated to

enable identification of patterns within and

across categories of unmet measurement

needs

• findings about measurement problems 

within the 11 industry sectors and technology areas (referred to as sector/technology

areas)

• findings about measurement barriers for all

sector/technology areas taken together

Measurement Needs

This assessment has documented 723 specific

industry measurement needs that pose technical

barriers to technological innovation. This collection of measurement needs is the product of two

different sampling methods.

The first method utilized industry technology

roadmaps that provided a broad perspective on

the scientific and technical research needed to

support future technological progress. Incorporating the views of representatives from industry, academia, and, often, government, the

roadmaps are consensus documents identifying

targets of opportunity and barriers to envisioned

technologies in a particular industry. In all, 164

industry technology roadmaps, published from

2000 to 2006, were reviewed for statements of

measurement needs. Of these, 82 percent (135)

identified measurement problems that pose barriers to technological innovations in their industry.

These 135 roadmaps provided 386 of the 723

V. Results of the Inferential Analysis 
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 21

documented measurement needs. The analysis of

the measurement barriers to technological innovation identified in these roadmaps is described

in Appendix C, Technology Roadmap Review.

Roadmap measurement needs in this chapter,

referred to as RMNs, are summarized there.

The second method utilized the case-study

approach and format for documenting measurement needs as described in chapter 4. These

case-study measurement needs were gathered

through industry workshops, NIST analyses of

industry reports and interviews of industry representatives, and voluntary submissions by trade

organizations during the period from the fall of

2005 to the spring of 2006. This methodology

yielded 337 of the 723 documented measurement needs. The entire set of case-study measurement needs, referred to as MNs in this chapter, is provided in Appendix B.

Figure 5.1 shows the number of measurement

needs by type and source of documentation. The

two types of documentation are case study and

technology roadmap. The two sources of documentation are industry and NIST. As indicated

by the table, nearly two-thirds of the measurement needs identified in this assessment as

impediments to technological innovation are

documented by industry.

Figure 5.2 shows the distribution of the 337 

case-study measurement needs categorized by

sector/technology area. Because some of these

measurement needs were common to two or

three sector/technology areas, they were placed

in more than one category.

Figure 5.2 Distribution of Case-Study Measurement Needs Across Sector/Technology Areas

Measurement

Needs

Measurement

Needs

Documented

by Industry

Measurement

Needs

Documented

by NIST

Case

Studies 337 (47%) 93 (13%) 244 (34%)

Technology

Roadmaps 386 (53%) 386 (53%) 0 (0%)

Total 723 (100%) 479 (66%) 244 (34%)

Figure 5.1 

Measurement Needs by Type and Source
22 V. Results of the Inferential Analysis

The measurement needs in the top grouping of

11 sector/technology areas shown in Figure 5.2

have been statistically analyzed (See Appendix

H). This grouping includes two of the three

industrial sectors that were singled out for examination at the beginning of the assessment—

specifically Semiconductor Electronics and IT

Software for Information Technology. The third

industrial sector, Automotive, was grouped with

Discrete-Parts Manufacturing on the basis of the

similarity of product and process technologies.

The measurement needs in the middle grouping

in Figure 5.2—the three sector/technology areas,

Agriculture and Food Processing, Telecommunications, and Transportation-Aerospace—were

not analyzed because the small numbers of MNs

collected for each was insufficient for identifying

trends, common obstacles, and industry-wide 

priorities. However, this should not be interpreted

as an indication that these sectors do not confront

significant measurement challenges. Reviewing

the summaries of specific measurement needs

listed for each sector in Appendix B provides a

basic understanding of some the measurement 

problems identified through this initial datagathering effort.

Across the sampling of sector/technology areas

chosen for this assessment, the need for new

measurement technology (for example, new or

significantly better test methods, instruments, 

or controls) is a transcending requirement, as

indicated at the bottom of Figure 5.2. Ninety-one

MNs cite new technology as a necessity in overcoming measurement barriers. When considering

approaches to ensuring that U.S. industry

remains among the leaders in the development 

of advanced technology, this statistic strongly

suggests that attention must be directed at 

innovation leading to advanced measurement

capabilities. However, the 91 measurement-technology MNs were not analyzed separately.

Suppliers of measurement technology are not

organized in a single industry with a common set

of R&D interests and objectives. Instead, they

tend to be dispersed across sectors. There is no

industry roadmap for measurement technology.

Overall, Figure 5.2 suggests that the measurement needs documented for this assessment,

while a small sample, are indicative of measurement-related barriers to innovation confronting a

substantial portion of the entire U.S. industrial

economy.

Findings About Measurement Problems 

by Sector/Technology Area 

This section contains a collection of high-level

summaries of the results from the inferential

analysis process for each sector/technology 

area. Each summary conveys the following

information:

• a brief description of the industrial sector or

technology area

• the technological innovations that would

benefit from solutions to the measurement

needs in the area

• the number of case-study and roadmap

measurement needs associated with the 

sector/technology area

• authenticated findings and other observations (statements of potentially significant

measurement issues that do not meet the

standard of a finding)

Extended summaries of the results of the 

inferential analysis process are provided in

Appendix I. 
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 23

Building and Construction

Building and

Construction is a $1.4

trillion industry (2005),

employing 10 million

people in 1 million

companies throughout

the United States. The construction industry is a

key component of the U.S. economy and vital to

its continued growth. Investment in plant and

facilities, in the form of construction activity,

provides the basis for the manufacture of products and the delivery of services. Investment in

infrastructure promotes the smooth flow of

goods and services and the movement of individuals. Investment in housing accommodates new

households and allows existing households to

expand or improve their housing. Construction

activities affect nearly every aspect of the U.S.

economy. Building and Construction is driven,

more than any other industry, by codes and 

standards.

Technological Innovations at Stake

Technological innovations in Building and

Construction that would benefit from solutions

to the measurement problems cited in this

assessment include the following:

• building materials, components, equipment,

and structures that enhance fire safety, durability, energy efficiency, and indoor air quality

• distributed energy systems utilizing fuel

cells and/or photovoltaics

• automation and interoperability of construction software, tools, and processes

• enhanced fire detection and suppression systems that integrate traditional sensors, video

detection, and intelligent signal processing

• energy-efficient LED lighting in building

applications

• advanced sensors/building automation 

systems to optimize building operations

Measurement Needs

The set of measurement needs that serves as 

the sample for this sector/technology area 

consisted of 23 MNs and 18 RMNs, the latter

from 10 roadmaps.

Findings

• The integration of various systems within a

building is needed in order to minimize lifecycle costs while ensuring a safe environment. Building systems integration requires

real-time measurements of numerous parameters and increased collaboration among

measurement solution providers in the

Building and Construction sector/technology

area.

• The lack of reliable and unbiased performance data slows the adoption of new and

innovative technologies in the Building and

Construction sector/technology area.

Standard test methods are needed to capture

desired performance data. Joint efforts by

SDOs and the private and public sectors to

develop standard test methods can ensure

that unbiased performance measures are in

place in a timely manner.

• The lack of validated models and data are

identified as significant barriers to technological innovation in the Building and

Construction sector/technology area. Models

and performance data are playing an increasingly important role in supporting applications of innovative technology as the sector

shifts toward greater reliance on performance-based standards.

• More than any other sector/technology area

in this assessment, regulations are a major

driver of measurement needs. Building and

fire code officials, operating at the state and

local levels, require proof that innovative

products proposed for installation meet

health and safety requirements outlined in

code documents.
24 V. Results of the Inferential Analysis

Chemicals 

The Chemicals

sector/technology area

includes the manufacture

of chemicals, biological

processing of chemicals

and materials, and continuous manufacturing of fluids. Pharmaceuticals

is included in Health Care for this assessment.

The use of chemicals impacts nearly every sector of the U.S. and world economies. The United

States is the number-one producer of chemistry

products in the world, accounting for 23 percent

of total world chemicals production. This sector/technology area generates $550 billion a year

(2005), produces more than 70,000 products,

and directly employs nearly 900,000 people. It is

the nation’s largest exporting sector, with $109.3

billion in exports that account for 10 cents of

each dollar of U.S. exports. This sector/technology area is a large energy user, consuming

approximately 7 percent (1999) of total U.S. 

output. It also is capital-intensive and heavily

regulated.

Technological Innovations at Stake 

Technological innovations in Chemicals that

would benefit from solutions to the measurement problems cited in this assessment include

the following:

• advances in process-control capabilities that

include innovations to process simulation for

both existing and new chemical processes

and in-line sensing of process conditions and

parameters

• shifting of raw material sources from a 

primarily petroleum base to a much more

mixed base that, significantly, includes 

biologically derived sources

• utilization of nanotechnology for advancing

chemical and bio-chemical manufacturing

• measurement and characterization tools and

standards supporting improved understanding of molecular structure-function relationships

Measurement Needs

The set of measurement needs that serves as the

sample for this sector/technology area consisted

of 22 MNs and 27 RMNs, the latter from 14

technology roadmaps.

Findings

• New thermodynamic and chemical reaction

data are needed to simulate advanced 

chemical and biochemical processes. 

• New sensor technologies for in-line, realtime, and continuous monitoring of process

variables in chemically aggressive environments are needed to overcome technical barriers to manufacturing process innovation.

• New measurement technologies with chemical specificity at the nanoscale, surpassing

the limits of detection and sensitivity of 

current techniques, are needed to overcome

measurement problems that pose barriers to

technological innovation in nanotechnology.

Other Observations 

• Regulation will drive new measurement

requirements that industry must meet in 

the future. Recent EU regulations on 

hazardous substances in electrotechnical

products and on in-vitro diagnostic devices

show how regulation drives the need for new

measurement standards for the entire supply

chain that affects these ubiquitous products. 
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 25

Defense and Homeland Security

The United States spends

roughly $100 billion per

year on homeland security in addition to that

spent on defense. This

includes the services of

federal, state, and local law enforcement and

emergency services. Nearly three million state

and local first responders regularly put their

lives on the line to save others and make the

nation safer. For the private sector, business 

continuity is a critical concern—85 percent of

the U.S. physical infrastructure is privately

owned. Before September 11, 2001, businesses

spent $55 billion annually on security. Since

then, business expenditures to fight terrorism

have increased dramatically. 

Defense and Homeland Security technologies

are categorized into two distinct areas: detection

and screening, and improvements to safety and

effectiveness of first responders. Additional

detail on this topic can be found in the DisasterFirst Responder section of Appendix G.

Technological Innovations at Stake

Technological innovations in Defense and

Homeland Security that would benefit from

solutions to the measurement problems cited in

this assessment include the following:

• advanced sensors for chemical and biological agents, nuclear radiation, and explosives

• enhanced first responder clothing, locator

systems, and communications

• advanced user interfaces for homeland 

security and first responder technology

• improved visible and infrared video 

surveillance

• enhanced millimeter-wave, terahertz, and

hyper-spectral imaging systems

• wireless communication systems, chip-scale

atomic clocks, and chemical detection

Measurement Needs

The set of measurement needs that serves as the

sample for this sector/technology area consisted

of 35 MNs and 31 RMNs, the latter from 6

roadmaps. 

Findings

• There is a significant need for accurate and

standardized methods to evaluate system

performance for existing technologies under

field conditions. By enhancing evaluation

techniques and methods of testing for existing technologies, a number of Defense and

Homeland Security measurement needs can

be addressed.

• New measurement technologies must be

developed to support development and 

application of emerging technologies in the

Defense and Homeland Security sector/technology area. Measurement needs for emerging technologies are generally different than

those needed for existing technologies.

Other Observations

• It is in the interest of Defense and Homeland

Security sector/technology area developers to

bring together the various technology user

groups to help define commonality among

measurement needs.

• Small-market demands for a portion of the

Defense and Homeland Security technologies

cited within the measurement needs may be a

barrier to their development and deployment. 

• The first responder community is diverse

and fragmented, including firefighters, medical personnel, and law enforcement personnel. Understanding the needs of technology

providers and users of first responder and

homeland security technologies will be 

challenging.
26 V. Results of the Inferential Analysis

Discrete-Parts Manufacturing 

The Discrete-Parts

Manufacturing sector, of

which the automotive

industry is a significant

part, involves the production and assembly of

materials and components, ranging in size from

nanometers to hundreds of meters, into commercially available consumer and industrial products. This sector/technology area is complex,

with thousands of entities organized into multilevel supply chains. Manufacturing at large is a

$1.5 trillion industry, employing 14.2 million

people. The U.S. automotive manufacturing

industry is a $120 billion industry and is the

third-largest manufacturing industry behind food

manufacturing and computer and electronics. 

Technological Innovations at Stake

Technological innovations in Discrete-Parts

Manufacturing that would benefit from solutions to the measurement problems cited in this

assessment include the following:

• realization of making the first part, and

every part thereafter, correctly

• manufacture of microscale and nanoscale

discrete parts

• seamless and inexpensive hardware and 

software interoperability

• advanced vehicle safety systems

• semiconductor production, following the

International Technology Roadmap for

Semiconductors projections

• manufacture of flexible electronics

• production of hydrogen fuel cells

Measurement Needs

The set of measurement needs that serves as the

sample for this sector/technology area consisted

of 62 MNs and 22 RMNs, the latter from 8

roadmaps.

Findings

• The solution to an important class of measurement problems in manufacturing is development of new measurement technology for

high-accuracy characterization of the 3D

geometry of manufactured products across a

spectrum of sector, technology, and application areas.

• The absence of measurement technologies

for accurate in-line and real-time measurement of physical attributes of manufactured

parts and assemblies, relevant to a spectrum

of applications, poses a barrier to technological innovation.

Other Observations

• Physical measurements are of primary

importance in this sector/technology area 

for control of manufacturing processes and

for validation of computer simulations of

new products and processes and their performance. Manufacturers need to better 

correlate the physically measured features

and properties with the original digital 

specification to validate virtual models,

develop standardized data sets for input 

into models (material data for example), 

and verify algorithms.
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 27

Electronics and IT Hardware

The Electronics and IT

Hardware sector/technology area is broad and

enabling. In this assessment, IT hardware

includes component-level

hardware, active and passive devices, systems,

and end-user products. According to the

International Electronics Manufacturing

Initiative (iNEMI), electronics products include

portable and consumer products, office and

business systems, telecommunications products,

medical devices, automotive products, and

defense/aerospace products. The world electronics market is forecast to be worth $1.5 trillion by

the year 2007 and to continue to expand at a rate

faster than the world economy as a whole.

Additional information on the topic of computer

data storage technology can be found in

Appendix G.

Technological Innovations at Stake

Technological innovations in Electronics and IT

Hardware that would benefit from solutions to

the measurement problems cited in this assessment include the following:

• IT and communications instrumentation

• fiber optics and optoelectronics

• superconducting electronics

• radio-frequency electronics

• computer data storage devices and systems

• smart sensors

• microelectromechanical systems (MEMs)

and nanoscale electronic devices

• quantum computing systems

Measurement Needs

The set of measurement needs that serves as 

the sample for this sector/technology area 

consisted of 92 MNs and 19 RMNs, the latter

from 7 roadmaps.

Findings 

• A systems-level “measurement gap” has

emerged, which impedes this sector/technology area’s ability to innovate in the current

environment, characterized by distributed

companies collaborating to produce integrated systems.

• The measurement problems in the computer

data storage area are most frequently associated with the state-of-the-art of electromechanical systems and requirements for

dimensional, magnetic, and optical characterization with spatial resolutions at the

nanoscale.

Other Observations 

• The specialization and increased complexity

of the supply chain accentuates the need for

stable, widely available, standards-based

measurement and test technologies.

• The achievement of the miniaturization

toward which industries in the Electronics

and IT Hardware sector/technology area are

driving requires innovative nanoscale measurement capability. 

• Regulatory requirements in foreign markets

generate measurement problems that pose

barriers to technological innovation for U.S.

manufacturers who export to those markets. 
28 V. Results of the Inferential Analysis

Energy, Power, and Environment 

The Energy, Power, and

Environment sector/technology area covers those

portions of the economy

involved with the generation and distribution of

energy and power, and environmental monitoring and pollution control issues. The segments

included are renewable energy, electric power

generation, oil and gas extraction, advanced

energy utilization technologies, power distribution, and environmental monitoring. The review

of technology roadmaps and case-study measurement needs for the Energy, Power, and

Environment sector/technology area revealed

specific measurement issues in diverse applications. Measurement needs relate to energy

sources, including photovoltaic, fuel cells,

bioenergy, wind, and fossil fuels from hard-toaccess deposits. Advanced energy utilization

technologies involve topics such as solid-state

lighting and advanced refrigeration techniques,

which currently use significant amounts of energy. Power distribution case-study topics range

from electric power transmission to storage and

metering of hydrogen. Environmental monitoring case-study topics range from global satellite

monitoring systems to local sensors for assuring

regulatory compliance.

Technological Innovations at Stake

Technological innovations in Energy, Power, and

Environment that would benefit from solution of

the measurement problems cited in this assessment include the following:

• hydrogen power

• improved methods for the distribution of

electricity including the development of

superconducting wires and tools for 

measuring power grid dynamics 

• visible light emitting diodes (LEDs) for 

general lighting 

• fusion energy through the use of tokamaks,

torus-shaped devices utilizing magnetic confinement of extremely hot plasma 

• photovoltaic/solar cell technologies

• new energy efficient refrigeration techniques 

• high-resolution remote sensing techniques

for weather forecasting, climate monitoring

and finding new sources of energy 

• advanced power cycles, the conversion of

mechanical energy derived from combustion

to electric power, for improved efficiency

with lower emissions

Measurement Needs

The set of measurement needs that serves as the

sample for this sector/technology area consisted

of 27 MNs and 49 RMNs, the latter from 14

technology roadmaps.

Findings

• Many measurement needs associated with

traditional fuel and power sources reflect

extensive regulatory requirements, while

emerging technology for alternative fuel and

power sources reflect the anticipation of

future regulation.

• In case-study measurement needs and

roadmap measurement needs related to the

hydrogen economy, measurement problems

occur at all stages of technological innovation.

Other Observations

• The greatest concentration of measurement

technology needs appear in the appliedresearch stage of technological innovation.

Often, the measurement technology needed

requires measurement innovation.

Technology developers want reliable, accurate, standardized measurements before the

prototype moves to the production stage. 
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 29

Health Care Including Bioimaging

The United States spends

close to $2 trillion per

year on health care 

(20 percent of the U.S.

economy). Autoimmune

diseases (e.g., diabetes,

rheumatoid arthritis, and lupus) alone affect at

least 23 million people in the United States at a

cost of $400 billion per year. The Department of

Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics indicates that

health care is the fastest growing occupational

field in the United States and predicts 33 percent growth by 2015. Technological innovations

that increase capabilities or reduce costs in

health care translate quickly to benefits and savings for the nation. For example, the Agency for

Health Care Policy and Research reports that

preventable costs total more than $20 billion per

year and the electronic integration of health care

information systems is projected to save $70 billion per year. Health Care Including Bioimaging

includes bio-informatics, clinical diagnostics,

and pharmaceuticals, with the major drivers for

technological innovation being improved quality

of life and lower cost of health services.

Additional information on the topic of bioimaging technology can be found in Appendix G.

Technological Innovations at Stake

Technological innovations in Health Care

Including Bioimaging that would benefit from

solutions to the measurement problems cited in

this assessment include the following:

• advanced DNA analysis using lab-on-a-chip

technology

• sensor-based proteomics for early cancer

detection

• new imaging modalities in MRI (magnetic

resonance imaging)

• systems for lower-cost diagnosis and 

monitoring of bone health

• implanted devices for metered delivery 

of insulin

• self-assembly of soft nano-materials for bone

and tissue replacement

• real-time interactive video/audio telemedicine 

Measurement Needs

The set of measurement needs that serves as the

sample for this sector/technology area consisted of

77 MNs and 37 RMNs, the latter generated from

9 roadmaps.

Findings

• The same measurement problem, the combination of lack of accuracy and lack of fundamental

knowledge, impedes the use of new medical

technologies by both clinicians and medical

researchers. The potential solution, development

of standards and measurement technologies provided by the public sector, is also identified for

both clinicians and medical researchers.

• A solution to a principal measurement 

problem impeding technological innovation in

Health Care Including Bioimaging is to be

found through collaboration of industry partnerships with government laboratories and

agencies focused on development and use of

common standards of measurement.

• Solution of measurement problems impeding

technological innovation in Health Care

Including Bioimaging require a multi-disciplinary approach engaging specialists in, for

example, chemistry, physics, materials, and

computer science and engineering with those

in biology and medicine.

Other Observations

• Health Care Including Bioimaging needs measurements and standards, such as performance

standards and predictive tools, computer modeling techniques, biomarkers, and clinical trial

endpoints, that deal effectively with regulatory

requirements.

• Many technological innovations in Health

Care Including Bioimaging are measurement

innovations, such as new diagnostic instrumentation.
30 V. Results of the Inferential Analysis

Information Technology (IT) Software

IT Software is the engine

that powers a broad range

of IT products and systems supporting manufacturing, finance, health

care, telecommunications,

transportation, defense, and most other industrial

sectors. Increasingly, the U.S. and global

economies rely on IT Software products to function effectively. The IT Software sector/technology area is both dynamic and diverse. In 2005,

the U.S. software market grew by 3.9 percent 

to a value of $75.6 billion and is projected to

grow at a compound annual rate of 5.8 percent

during 2005-2010 to a value of $100.4 billion.

Worldwide revenues for packaged software, not

including software development and services,

were projected at $205.7 billion in 2005 and

$219.8 billion in 2006. The United States is estimated to hold approximately 50 percent of the

world market. With steadily growing demands

across most sectors for new software products to

meet business requirements, new technological

and measurement innovations will be needed to

ensure software product innovations continue. 

Technological Innovations at Stake

Technological innovations in IT Software that

would benefit from solutions to the measurement problems cited in this assessment include

the following:

• automated control of complex manufacturing processes

• computer-assisted diagnoses from medical

images and data

• intelligent robotic systems for manufacturing, defense, and homeland security

• high-security analysis and transfer of 

financial and other private data

• next-generation Internet and Web services

• reliable and integrated communications

among health care systems

Measurement Needs

The set of measurement needs that serves as the

sample for this sector/technology area consisted

of 33 MNs and 50 RMNs, the latter from 16

industry roadmaps.

Findings

• Performance measurement—in particular

measurement of software and system performance, including interoperability—is 

critical to overcoming the measurement

problems that pose technical barriers to 

technological innovation in the IT Software

sector/technology area.

Other Observations

• For the IT Software sector/technology area,

the need to improve both security and cybersecurity, themes identified as cross-cutting

in the Technology Roadmap Review, presents significant technical barriers requiring

measurement innovation. This becomes particularly prominent at the production, marketing, and end-use stages of technological

innovation in IT Software.

• Issues with accuracy, data, acceptability/

compatibility, and reliability, along with a

lack of standards and a lack of fundamental

knowledge, are measurement problems that

are barriers to technological innovation, particularly during the applied research stage of

technological innovation.
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 31

Materials

The Materials

sector/technology area

includes polymers, 

metals, ceramics, biomaterials, nanomaterials,

building materials, and

composites. Measurement needs span a broad

spectrum of applications and issues, including

primary chemical, physical, and mechanical

measurands; manufacturing and processing; 

and application-specific function (e.g. catalysts,

electronics, and building infrastructure). The

measurement needs affect much of the economy

and technological innovations that have a broad

reach, such as those of nanotechnology and

manufacturing. Highly capable, accurate, sensitive, low-cost, reliable measurement methods

and instrumentation are required to realize the

promise of manipulation, imaging, measuring,

and modeling strategies upon which construction of complex materials and structures will 

be achieved.

Technological Innovations at Stake

Technological innovations in Materials that

would benefit from solutions to the measurement problems cited in this assessment include

the following:

• nanocomposite materials with increased

thermal stability and reduced flammability 

• high-accuracy dies for the production of

sheet metal-formed automotive body parts

• better superconducting magnets for 

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

• new classes of body armor using advanced

fibers

• advanced scanning probe microscopy (SPM)

techniques for nanoscale mapping of chemical, mechanical, thermal, and electro-optical

properties

Measurement Needs

The set of measurement needs that serves as the

sample for this sector/technology area consisted

of 40 MNs and 68 RMNs, the latter from 17

roadmaps.

Findings

• A principal measurement problem in the

Materials sector/technology area is the

absence of measurement instruments and

methods capable of accurately characterizing

the behavior of complex materials systems

and structures.

• In the Materials sector/technology area, a

key factor driving the need for measurement

innovation is the anticipated need to evaluate

the performance and reliability of new 

materials successively at the production and

market stages of their development.

• The timely delivery of measurement solutions in the Materials sector/technology 

area is increasingly challenged by the growing complexity of materials systems and

structures and their interfaces.

Other Observations

• Significant measurement problems impeding

materials technological innovations exist in

the areas of accuracy, data and data collection and/or retrieval, lack of fundamental

knowledge, and resolution.

• Mature Materials production industries face

common measurement problems that impede

innovations related to processes needed to

improve production efficiency, in terms 

of cost, time, and energy.
32 V. Results of the Inferential Analysis

Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is the

understanding and control

of matter at dimensions

of roughly 1 to 100

nanometers, where

unique phenomena enable

novel applications. At nanoscale dimensions, the

physical, chemical, and biological properties of

materials differ in fundamental and valuable

ways from the properties of individual atoms

and molecules or bulk matter. The National

Science Foundation, in its 2001 publication,

Societal Implications of Nanoscience and

Nanotechnology, predicts that the worldwide

market of nanotechnology-related products will

be more than $2.5 trillion annually in 10 to 15

years. Highly capable, low-cost, and reliable

measurement methods and instrumentation are

required to realize the promise of manipulation,

imaging, measuring, and modeling strategies

upon which construction of complex nanoscale

devices and machines will be achieved.

Additional information on the topic of 

nanotechnology can be found in Appendix G.

Technological Innovations at Stake

Technological innovations in Nanotechnology

that would benefit from solution of the measurement problems cited in this assessment include

the following:

• vastly increased digital data storage 

capacities

• smaller, faster, more power-efficient 

electronic devices

• advanced drug delivery systems

• high-capacity fuel cells

• new families of high performance 

catalysts, sensors, and actuators

Measurement Needs

The set of measurement needs that serves as 

the sample for this sector/technology area 

consisted of 36 MNs and 49 RMNs, the latter

from 10 roadmaps.

Findings

• Nanotechnology is unique among the

sector/technology areas in its high demand

for new advanced measurement instrumentation, which is needed to achieve accurate,

high-resolution characterization of physical,

chemical, and biological properties of materials at nanometer dimensions.

• Industry is limited not only in its ability to

measure key parameters but also in its ability to identify which key parameters must be

measured to meet anticipated regulations.

• The absence of measurement tools with the

capability to measure properties of nanomaterials and nanodevices as they relate to

functional performance and to make such

measurements at speed are impediments to

realization of nanotechnology products.

Other Observations

• Public-sector measurement providers that 

are linked to applied research sectors, production communities, market drivers, and

user issues can help accelerate the innovation process.

• Innovative approaches to the measurement

of nanoscale physical and chemical properties are key to technological innovation for

Nanotechnology, especially where the 

fundamental limits of current measurement

techniques are being approached.
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 33

Semiconductor Electronics

The Semiconductor

Electronics industry greatly affects global economic

growth. Just as its strength

provides a leading indicator of the world’s economic health, advanced semiconductor systems contribute substantially to new business opportunities

and growth around the world. The scope of this

analysis includes semiconductor memories,

microprocessors, signal processors, radiofrequency and analog/mixed signal circuits, logic

devices, and emerging research devices and materials. The Semiconductor Industry Association’s

(SIA) annual forecast of global semiconductor

sales projects a compound annual growth rate of

nearly 10 percent for the forecast period of 2005

through 2008 and worldwide sales of microchips

from $227 billion in 2005 to $309 billion in 2008.

The rapid introduction of new materials, processes, and three-dimensional (3D) structures places

great demands on measurement science. The 

time between when new measurement techniques

become available for manufacturing and when

high-volume production using them begins has

decreased substantially. 

Technological Innovations at Stake

Technological innovations in Semiconductor

Electronics that would benefit from solutions to

the measurement problems cited in this assessment include the following:

• logic devices

• microprocessors

• computer data memories

• signal processors

• radio-frequency and analog/mixed signal 

circuits

• new types of semiconductor materials,

devices, and systems emerging from

research

Measurement Needs

The set of measurement needs that serves as 

the sample for this sector/technology area 

consisted of 52 MNs and 34 RMNs, the latter

from 1 roadmap.

Findings

• In Semiconductor Electronics manufacturing,

problems posed by the slowness of physical

measurement can be overcome by greater

use of computer simulations.

• New measurement instrumentation developed from pre-competitive R&D is needed

to address the principal measurement problems that pose barriers to technological

innovation identified in the Semiconductor

Electronics sector/technology area.

Other Observations 

• U.S. Semiconductor Electronics companies

are becoming increasingly dependent on foreign providers of measurement solutions, but

they must be involved in the creation of

those solutions to remain at the cutting edge

of technological innovation.

• High-accuracy 3D measurements in combination with simulation, visualization, and

extraction of information from massive data

sets will be a basis for accurate prediction of

yield in high-volume manufacturing of nextgeneration products.
34 V. Results of the Inferential Analysis

Measurement Barriers to 

Technological Innovation

This assessment of the USMS is based on an

analysis of unresolved measurement problems

that impede technological innovation. The first

part of this chapter addressed those measurement problems as data. The second part of this

chapter presented findings for individual

sector/technology areas from an analysis of the

data for the individual areas. This part of the

chapter presents findings from an analysis of

data for all sector/technology areas taken together and observations about measurement barriers

that cut across areas.

Findings 

Fundamentally new measurement technologies are required

to overcome the limitations of accuracy, which are the most

prevalent type of measurement barrier to technological

innovation across all sector/technology areas.

Inadequate accuracy is the most frequently 

cited measurement problem impeding innovation within the individual sector/technology

areas and in the set of all the measurement

needs taken together. It is often cited in combination with inadequate resolution and in many

cases with a lack of fundamental knowledge as

related factors. Accuracy, resolution, and lack of

fundamental knowledge as measurement barriers reflect two trends: some measurement technologies are reaching the limits of their capabilities, and/or technological advances and societal

change are precipitating demand for entirely

new measurement technologies. Accuracy and

resolution are notably important barriers in economic sectors where technological advance is

occurring most rapidly: health care, electronics

(both semiconductor and non-semiconductor),

information technology, telecommunications,

nanotechnology, and materials.

While solutions to the issues of accuracy, resolution, and other barriers are often sector-specific,

there are commonalities in measurement science

that will be required to support individual solutions. More accurate measurement of chemical

and biological species, for example, is important

to the chemical industry as well as to the 

environment, health care, agriculture and food,

nanotechnology, materials, and homeland 

security sector/technology areas. The development of entirely new measurement technologies

and research to increase the fundamental knowledge base will be required in some cases to

overcome some of the limitations of current

methods. There is clear indication within the

case-study measurement needs, verified by

authenticators, that research is needed to develop

new fundamental knowledge to address the

measurement accuracy barrier, and that the public sector has a direct role in development of

solutions to specific accuracy-related measurement problems.

The absence of accurate sensors for real-time monitoring

and control of manufacturing processes and environmental

conditions poses a significant barrier to innovation that

spans multiple sector/technology areas.

The inability to make real-time, non-intrusive/

non-destructive measurements of production and

process variables is a measurement barrier in a

number of economic sector/technology areas

(chemicals, energy and power, basic materials

such as steel, aluminum, glass, automotive,

metal working). Real-time measurements are

needed to inspect equipment integrity and 

monitor and control production for efficiency

and product quality, among other factors. The

capabilities of currently available sensing technology are a limiting factor in some cases. For

example, measurements need to be made in

harsh operating environments (high temperature,

pressure, and corrosives), which requires rugged

sensing and detection technology that is not

readily available today. There are some common

measurement barriers in production environments that could potentially be addressed

through the collaborative efforts of multiple

industries and organizations. In other cases, 

the solutions are very application specific, and

small-market/low-volume demand may inhibit

development by the private sector.
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 35

The absence of adequate sensors and detectors 

in applications related to environment, human

health and safety, industrial productivity, and

quality of life poses a significant measurement

barrier to technological innovation for the United

States. Inadequate sensing and detection capability was noted in every economic sector/technology area as a measurement barrier. The requirements for sensing and detection are diverse,

ranging from the need to control manufacturing

processes to the delivery of energy, detection of

threats, and monitoring of environmental

impacts. Despite this diversity, commonalities

exist among sensing requirements. For example,

the need to sense, detect, and measure the elemental constituents of gases is a requirement in

chemicals manufacture; energy generation; monitoring building air quality; and detection of

chemical, radiological, and biological attack.

Entirely new science, materials, and technologies

may be required to address these diverse sensing

requirements. Unique applications of nanotechnology, biotechnology, and advanced electronics

may have the potential to overcome some of

these measurement barriers.

A lack of standards, benchmarks, metrics, and protocols for

assessing system-level performance of new technologies,

including the compatibility and interoperability of hardware

and software systems, is a substantial measurement barrier

in a number of sector/technology areas.

In Building and Construction, for example, performance benchmarks, rather than prescriptive

design standards, are becoming critical as there

is a need to predict and compare how innovative

materials and components will perform in the

final constructed product. In Defense and

Homeland Security, Health Care Including 

Bioimaging, and other sector/technology 

areas that rely heavily on information systems,

standardization and benchmarks for software

and hardware system performance and interoperability are critical. Computing power has

advanced so rapidly over the last decade that

insufficient emphasis has been given to measuring performance in practice. Software and 

hardware producers are now being challenged 

to demonstrate and predict the performance of 

systems that are critical to our economy and

infrastructure. Standardization of performance

measures will be essential for uniform acceptance across many sectors and end users. 

The fact that the need to measure system 

performance has been identified as a significant

technical barrier to innovation in the service-like

sectors of Building and Construction, Health

Care Including Bioimaging, Defense and

Homeland Security, and IT Software may be an

indicator that the problem of measurement of

system performance is a barrier to the use of

new systems technologies in the service sectors

of the U.S. economy overall (as well as in the

manufacturing-focused sectors examined in this

assessment).

Other Observations

• With the increasing importance of computational simulation tools to product design,

development, and manufacturing, a limited

availability of robust, validated measurement-based models is a concern for nearly

every economic sector/technology area. 

• For measurement problems encountered in,

or anticipated for, the later stages of technological innovation (production, market, end

use), standardization plays a progressively

greater role in solutions to measurement

problems, as do industry consortia/partnerships as solution providers.

• A lack of measurement capability to demonstrate compliance with changing regulatory

requirements calls for continuous development of new measurement technology.
36 VI. Summary of the Assessment of the USMS

This chapter considers the USMS from a broad

perspective. It reports conclusions on the structure and function of the USMS, challenges to

the system’s capacity to overcome measurement

barriers to technological innovation, and

responses needed to meet these challenges so

that the nation can continue to be an innovation

leader. Collectively, these conclusions represent

the assessment of the USMS, as viewed from

the vantage point of technological innovation.

The judgments reported here are based on the

findings from the inferential analysis of measurement needs discussed in the previous chapter.

The USMS-wide conclusions also draw upon

recently published reports and studies dealing

with science and technology, innovation, and the

nation’s performance in these two areas.

Distilled from the full set of 723 measurement

needs documented for this study, the conclusions

reported are high-level judgments that provide a

system-wide perspective of the USMS. While

high level and relatively general in nature, they

represent a first step toward understanding and

addressing system-level weaknesses that diminish the ability of the USMS to support innovation in a rapidly changing technology environment and an increasingly competitive global

economy. These conclusions deal successively

with the following: 

• the overall structure of the USMS

• challenges to the system posed by the 

economic imperative for continuing 

technological innovation

• possible responses to those challenges

Structure and Function of the USMS 

The USMS must provide a measurement infrastructure 

for the nation to keep pace with the measurement 

needs of a growing, rapidly changing, technologically

sophisticated economy. 

The USMS today is a complex network of

diverse private- and public-sector entities that

together develop and supply the products, services, and infrastructure used to carry out a variety of measurement-related tasks and responsibilities in nearly every part of the U.S. economy.

As science progresses and technology advances,

the USMS will continue to grow in complexity—requiring that attention be paid to the individual parts of the USMS, and to the network as

a whole. Like the processes, products, and services it supports, the USMS will be challenged to

VI. Summary of the Assessment of the USMS
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 37

function as a coherent system. To use an information technology analogy, it must continue to

efficiently serve legacy needs, such as those

addressed by traditional weights and measures

functions specified in the U.S. Constitution.

For example, seven percent of the case-study

measurement needs analyzed in this assessment

identified traditional types of measurement services—including measuring instrument calibrations, third-party verifications, and measurement-based product testing—as solutions to

measurement problems that pose barriers to

technological innovation.

The USMS also must respond effectively to

needs for entirely new types of measurements,

such as those generated by new applications of

existing technology (such as telemedicine) or 

by new or emerging technologies (such as 

nanotechnology, or tissue engineering for 

regenerative medicine). 

Novel, multidisciplinary approaches often will be required

to meet new types of measurement needs, significantly

extending the established USMS structure and paradigm.

Information technology continues to place new

demands on the USMS—demands that require

adding elements and capabilities that are outside

the scope of the basic measurement infrastructure common to most industrialized nations.

Software applications, now deeply embedded

within the economy and still growing in variety

and capability, necessitate measurements unlike

those supported by the SI.

The diversity and complexity of the USMS is

both a strength and a challenge to development

of coherent responses to the measurement barriers impeding innovation in the United States.

For example, providers of measurement solutions include the more than 450 U.S. privatesector standards-developing organizations and

the thousands of U.S. businesses providing

measurement instruments, materials, components, and analytical software. Foreign businesses also are measurement-solution providers.

Many conventional providers of measurement

solutions will be called upon to address new

measurement needs. Lack of standards, for

example, was noted as an impediment to technological innovation in nearly every economic sector covered in the technology roadmaps. Among

the case-study measurement needs, 22 percent

identified new standards, reference materials,

and reference data as potential solutions. 

The USMS must evolve in concert with the international

measurement system to enable U.S. companies, including

technology innovators, to meet the growing number of

measurement-based standards that influence access to

and transactional efficiency in the global marketplace.

The Organization for Economic Cooperation 

and Development has estimated that 80 percent 

of world trade is influenced by standards 

or by regulations that embody standards.

Measurement-related requirements are essential

components of most of these standards and 

regulations. Examples include product testing 

and other conformity assessment requirements,

quality and compatibility standards, measurement traceability requirements, and performance

specifications.

If USMS solution providers, products, and services are recognized internationally, U.S. exports will

encounter fewer technical barriers that can impede

access to international markets and add to the cost

of doing business. This recognition also translates

into greater efficiency in global supply chains and

into greater trust in customer-supplier transactions.

Since measurement-related requirements are

integral components of standards, leadership in

measurement capabilities often can be leveraged

for competitive advantage. Developing advanced

test and measurement methods and including

these in international standards can ease the

access of U.S. technology to global markets.

They also can simplify steps to demonstrate

compliance with standards and regulations. 
38 VI. Summary of the Assessment of the USMS

International recognition of U.S. measurement

methods and tools can pave the way for exports of

U.S. measurement equipment and services.

Therefore, U.S. suppliers of measurement solutions must stay abreast of measurement needs

worldwide, track advances and prospective

improvements in other nations’ measurement technology, and regularly assess and forecast what

measurement capabilities will be required to support the competitiveness of U.S. companies and

their technologies in the international marketplace.

Challenges to the USMS Posed by 

Technological Innovation

Measurement innovation (breakthroughs in measurement

capabilities) often will be a critical determinant of successful technological innovation in nearly all sectors of

the economy. 

As indicated by technology roadmaps and case

studies reviewed for this assessment, nearly

every industry experiences measurement needs

directly tied to its innovation performance. In

terms of number and variety, these needs clearly

indicate that the USMS continues to have a

vitally important function in our economy.

The magnitude of the challenges to the USMS

posed by these needs varies with the types of

new technologies being pursued. Incremental

advances in existing technologies may require

only incremental advances in today’s measurement-related products and services. So-called

breakthrough technologies—which range from

quantum computing to a hydrogen-powered

transportation system to systems of nanoscale

devices—will require entirely new types of

measurement capabilities. In other words, realization of revolutionary technologies will typically necessitate corresponding levels of innovation in measurement technology, beginning with

goal-driven fundamental research. As illustrated

by the International Technology Roadmap for

Semiconductors, lack of research and development directly addressing key measurement problems with no foreseeable solutions from today’s

vantage point is flagged as a “show stopper”—

an unmet technical need significant enough to

prevent the attainment of next-generation technology goals.

The USMS must anticipate and deliver innovations required

to meet measurement needs of producers and users of

new technology in the manufacturing sector, as well as

users of new technology in the service sector. 

Measurement innovations that are breakthroughs

in measurement capability will be a critical

determinant of successful technological innovation in nearly all sectors of the economy.8

Recognition of the need for measurement innovation extends well beyond the semiconductor

industry. Of the 164 industry technology

roadmaps reviewed for this assessment, 82 percent identified measurement problems that pose

barriers to technological innovation. For example, development of performance standards and

benchmarks for systems and components affects

a diverse set of usage areas—from software to

smart control systems for buildings. 

The utility and value of solutions to these measurement needs will not be confined to the businesses or industries that develop and market new

technologies. Users of the technologies also will

benefit significantly. Successful applications of

the new technologies may hinge on innovations

in measurement capability. For example, a variety of sectors are looking at radio frequency

identification (RFID) technology in a variety of

new uses, from wholesale and retail examples to

application in defense and homeland security.

Still-to-be-resolved measurement problems for

no-line-of-sight RFID technology include issues

related to standards for hardware and software,

interoperability within limits of frequency and

transmission power, and privacy/security.9

To achieve the promise of nanotechnology—an area that

may yield the most important technological innovations 

of the first quarter of the 21st century—major innovations

in measurement science and measurement technology 

are required.
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 39

Nanotechnology—perhaps the most economically important area for technological innovation

in this and the coming decade—is confronted by

measurement barriers that require breakthrough

innovations in measurement capabilities. 

Successful technological innovation ultimately

hinges on the availability of advanced measurement capabilities that are production ready.

Worldwide, the market for nanotechnology

products has been projected to exceed $2.5 trillion within 10 years. Innovations from nanotechnology are being pursued around the globe.

Total government spending on nanotechnology

R&D was more than $4.6 billion in 2005,

including the U.S. investment of more than 

$1.7 billion. The global investment—private and

public—exceeded $9.1 billion.

Nanotechnology products derive new functionalities and increased performance from phenomena

that are manifested only in matter of nanoscale

dimensions. These phenomena are the subject of

intense scientific research, where basic discoveries in nanoscience are being made, and in the

application of the nanoscience, where the foundation for commercialization of nanotechnology

products is laid. The ability to apply nanoscience

and to develop nanotechnology products depends

on the ability to measure the behavior of matter

at the nanoscale and to characterize nanoscale

materials, structures, and devices.

Nanotechnology stands out in this assessment in

terms of the acuteness of need for new fundamental measurement science and technology to

overcome the measurement barriers to technological innovations based on advances in this

rapidly emerging area. There are major measurement barriers that impede the ability to characterize virtually every property and attribute of

nanomaterials, devices, and structures and the

ability to understand the link between properties

and functionality. The fundamental nature and

diversity of measurement problems that are

impeding nanotechnology call for entirely new

families of advanced measurement instrumentation. Compared with solutions identified for all 

sector/technology areas in this assessment, the

need for new measurement instruments was

cited twice as often for nanotechnology. Meeting

this need will require new measurement science

and new measurement technology. 

Successful technological innovation ultimately hinges on

the timely availability of production-ready, advanced

measurement capabilities. 

To a large extent, measurement and analytical

capabilities set the pace of technological

progress and dictate how rapidly the benefits of

that progress reach the marketplace, where they

can be enjoyed by society. New and better measurement tools are needed to sustain advances

and discoveries in the laboratory. These tools

can help distinguish artifact from novel phenomenon, for example, and enable replication and

verification of research results across laboratories. Without such tools, science will not acquire

detailed knowledge of the exotic properties and

the novel behavior of matter at the nanoscale,

which, in turn, is needed to advance the pursuit

of the principles and laws that govern moleculesized materials and structures. 

Ultimately, however, our nation’s ability to attain

the full promise of nanotechnology and other

anticipated revolutionary technologies will

require production-ready measurement tools. In

the industry technology roadmaps reviewed,

needs for production-level measurement capabilities were cited widely as barriers to technological innovation. Measurements that are technically feasible in the highly controlled environment

of a research laboratory often are not viable in

production environments without considerable

additional effort and resources.

To manufacture the multitude of nanotechnology

products that are envisioned, U.S. industry will

require measurement tools with new capabilities

and characteristics. These tools must span the

continuum from nanometers to micrometers 

to millimeters, be configurable in array formats,

achieve high throughputs, and provide real-time

information delivery. These new measurement

tools must not require highly specialized 
40 VI. Summary of the Assessment of the USMS

environmental conditions for satisfactory operation. Further, they must meet these requirements

while being affordable and versatile.

When market drivers and potential economies of

scale exist and returns on research investment

can be captured, the private sector often steps in

to develop measurement systems for productionlevel applications. In some cases, however,

measurement needs may go unaddressed

because returns on research and development

efforts cannot be captured by individual firms—

the so-called non-appropriability problem common to generic technologies. Such consequences

can result in less-than-optimal productivity,

lower product quality, and the inability to predict

performance and functionality—all of which can

translate into competitive disadvantages for the

nation. To bolster technological innovation and

foster U.S. leadership in global markets, public

and private investment in cutting-edge measurement science, standards, and technology that the

private sector ultimately converts to productionlevel measurement technology will be essential.

The inability to adequately measure system performance

(especially the performance of software and information

technology hardware) limits the effectiveness and application of new technologies in important service industries.10 

Solving issues of system-performance measurement in information technology applications is a

significant challenge for the USMS, given the

diversity and sensitivity of some applications

and the absence of foundational measurement

science for such metrics.

To an ever-increasing degree, the U.S. economy

relies on information technology in its many

manifestations and diverse applications. As the

speed and power of hardware increases and as

the functionality of software deepens and

expands, numerous forms of information (and

communication) technology are combined and

configured into networked systems of tremendous complexity—often on an ad hoc basis.

This assessment has identified the inability to

reliably measure the performance of complex

systems to be a significant barrier to technological and organizational innovation in manufacturing and service industries that rely heavily on

information technology.

More than 70 percent of case-study measurement

needs identified in the IT software sector pertain to

issues regarding the measurement of software and

hardware performance and reliability. Reviews of

industry technology roadmaps also indicate that

system performance measures are high-priority

needs in IT software and represent important issues

for user industries and groups, such as building

and construction, health care, emergency first

responders, homeland security, defense, finance,

and retail. These and other sectors rely on the

exchange of volumes of information.

Virtually every business in the United States

now depends on software for development, production, distribution, and after-sales support of

products and services. Innovations in such fields

as robotics, nanotechnology, and biotechnology

and genetic research have been enabled, in large

part, by low-cost computational and control

capabilities accomplished through software

applications. However, annual costs due to software errors and failures, which could be reduced

with an adequate testing and measurement infrastructure, run into the tens of billions of dollars. 

New measurement capabilities are required to support

emerging technologies for sensing and controlling a wide

array of properties and parameters in applications critical

to industrial competitiveness as well as to national security and human health and safety. 

Technology roadmaps and published reports indicate that the need for new, more powerful sensor

technology is pervasive throughout the economy.

The USMS has historically been a leader in the

development of sensors—a measurement technology in its own right—and supporting measurement tools and services. Today, technology is

advancing to meet more demanding sensing

requirements in a variety of areas, including 

biometrics, micro- and nano-electromechanical

systems, and smart, wireless communications

networks. However, in some cases, today’s technologies are operating at or close to their limits
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 41

or their requirements are exceeding current capabilities. Development of next-generation sensors

and sensor networks will require fundamentally

new approaches, including innovations in complementary measurement technology.

Because sensors are pervasive to the economy,

breakthroughs in sensing technology could have

huge economic impacts. For example, wide-area

measurement systems are needed to effectively

control the next-generation electricity transmission grid. These systems also will be important

for future remote monitoring of global carbon

emissions and climate change. For homeland

security, entirely new sensing technologies are

needed to detect biological, radiological, and

chemical agents, and to more accurately monitor

the safety of the food and water supplies. 

Given the pervasiveness and diversity of anticipated sensor applications, the USMS is challenged to provide measurement tools necessary

to achieve the more exacting detection and control requirements envisioned.11

Technological innovation has in some cases been stalled

due to the lack of measurement technology to assure and

verify compliance or to resolve questions regarding 

potential risks and hazards that emerging technologies

may pose.

Accurate, reliable measurements are essential for

assuring compliance with a wide range of regulations implemented to protect human health or the

environment, assure safety, or accomplish other

societal goals. Sometimes demonstrating regulatory compliance can be difficult. Regulation was

found to drive measurement needs in 70 percent

of the industrial sectors in the review of technology roadmaps. Product areas/industries that are

affected include food, drugs, power generation,

transport systems, telecommunications, and

buildings. In some industries, regulations primarily impact not products, but the effluents or

wastes from industrial processing.

In all sectors, regulations were found to have an

impact on technological innovation, sometimes

by inhibiting the movement of products into the

marketplace and, in other cases, by impacting

how products are manufactured or constructed.

For example, in the health care sector, new medical devices that have the potential to provide

dramatic improvement over conventional diagnostic tools may be slow to market because the

available measurement technology is insufficient

to demonstrate safe performance. 

In nanotechnology, lack of common measurement tools, protocols, and standards for characterizing emerging nanomaterials and conducting

analyses to identify any environmental or health

effects is prolonging uncertainties about the

safety of the novel materials. Until these issues

are resolved, the development and introduction

of potentially revolutionary nanotechnology

products will likely be delayed.

Responding to USMS Challenges

Pre-competitive, collaborative R&D is an effective vehicle

for addressing needs for new measurement technologies,

many of which will have broad utility.

Fundamental measurement problems pose major

obstacles to technological innovation. The technology roadmaps and case studies reviewed during this assessment indicate that industry often

agrees on shared measurement needs. In contrast,

companies are reluctant to discuss measurement

needs specific to their products, operations, and

near-term technology goals because communicating this information can expose their organizations to competitive risks. Not surprisingly, technology roadmaps identify common, or generic,

measurement needs that can be resolved primarily through pre-competitive or public domain

activities. Analysis of the case-study measurement needs leads to a similar finding.

Federal research organizations and other public-sector

organizations that are part of the USMS will be challenged

to prioritize needs within a growing inventory of measurement-related obstacles to technological innovation.

Because the knowledge and early-stage solutions

generated by pre-competitive R&D are nonproprietary and widely disseminated, the public sector can play a significant role in responding to

these needs. For more than 60 percent of the
42 VI. Summary of the Assessment of the USMS

case-study measurement needs, public-sector

organizations (academia and government agencies and laboratories) were cited as having a key

role in efforts to resolve pre-competitive measurement problems that impede technological

innovation. Obviously, budget constraints, organizational priorities, and other factors dictate

how measurement needs are prioritized and

addressed within public agencies and laboratories. This will require collaborative development of criteria for prioritizing measurement

needs and R&D directions, consistent with other

federal research priorities.

USMS stakeholders, particularly supporters of fundamental

research, need to strengthen the two-way link between

advanced measurement capability and the scientific discoveries that become the basis for future technologies.

Major advances in measurement science and,

ultimately, measurement capabilities, begin with

fundamental knowledge acquired through basic

research, while progress in measurement science

enables more productive research, facilitates

confirmation and exchange of results, and leads

to new rounds of discovery. 

Developers of new product technologies draw on

a rich pool of scientific knowledge, produced

both nationally and internationally. Advances in

metrology, or measurement science, also are

products of this pool. At the same time, progress

in measurement science leads to new understanding and new measurement capabilities,

including instrumentation, that researchers use

to broaden and deepen the knowledge pool.12 As

one writer characterized the relationship, metrology is the “subdivision of science that underlies

and assists all others.”13

Solutions to one in four of the measurement

problems identified in technology roadmaps

require fundamental advances in knowledge,

acquired through basic scientific research. The

range of inquiry reaches from quantum physics

to the kinetics of chemical reactions and the

dynamics of interactions between proteins and

cell membranes. The results of fundamental

investigations may be the seeds of future technological innovations that become the “next big

thing” in economic sectors as diverse as energy,

aerospace, and health care, and include fundamental physics in microgravity environments to

allow study in space. These examples only begin

to touch on the science needed to bridge the gap

between critical measurement needs and effective solutions that enable new rounds of discovery. These measurement solutions become

embedded facilities, instruments, and equipment

needed for leading-edge research and technological development.14

The measurement barriers to technological innovation

identified in this assessment of the USMS suggest that

concerted and coordinated effort by the private and public

sectors will be necessary to achieve timely resolution.

The industry measurement problems documented in this assessment represent shared technical

challenges that industry is willing to identify

publicly. For most of these measurement needs,

industry has identified public-sector institutions

as potential solution providers. Because of the

complexity, pervasiveness, and systems nature

of many of the measurement barriers, no organization can afford to undertake them alone, especially since returns on measurement solutions

often are not easily captured by the innovators.

In fact, the characterization and analysis of

industry-identified measurement needs conducted as part of this assessment suggest that even

sizable industries are unwilling or unable to

tackle those measurement barriers on their own.

In addition, the data suggest that involvement of

industry consortia and private-public partnerships can be a key strategy for attacking measurement barriers to innovation that occur at the
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 43

very early, pre-competitive stages of technological innovation. In some cases, the public sector—NIST, as the nation’s measurement institute, as well as government agencies and 

laboratories and academia—may play a lead

role. Since U.S. industry operates in a global

economy, U.S. organizations also might cooperate with foreign and international organizations

to develop generic solutions to widely recognized measurement problems.

Conclusion 

This assessment concludes that the USMS, as

constituted today, is meeting the basic requirements of an effective national measurement 

system; that is, it provides the measurement

infrastructure—measuring instrument calibrations, third-party verifications, and measurement-based product testing—necessary to assure

uniformity of measurements supporting commercial transactions vital to the U.S. economy.

However, demands on the system associated with

increasingly rapid technological change, coupled

with technology convergence, continue to grow

in number and complexity. These demands

necessitate the enhancement of elements and

capabilities that are outside the scope of the basic

measurement infrastructure that lies at the heart

of the USMS. And they challenge the USMS as

it is currently structured. The diverse and complex USMS has many strengths, but also faces

formidable challenges with respect to enabling

and promoting technological innovation.

The measurement-needs data, findings, and 

conclusions of this assessment are substantial 

evidence of the considerable extent to which

measurements, measurement science, and 

measurement technology impact technological

innovation. This is clear even though the USMS

assessment covers only certain sectors, technologies, and disciplines. Unresolved measurement

problems pose substantial barriers to innovation. 

This assessment clearly shows that measurement

barriers impede technological innovation in

many of the manufacturing sectors of the economy, including chemicals, electronics, materials,

and discrete-parts manufacturing. It also shows

that such barriers impede innovation in a number of service sectors, including building and

construction, health care, and homeland security.

The results suggest that measurement barriers

impede innovation across virtually all sectors of

the economy.

The challenges identified in this assessment

indicate the need for the principal institutions 

of the USMS to enhance cooperation in addressing critical measurement needs to accelerate 

technological innovation.

The great extent to which measurement problems can impede innovation across sectors and

technologies and the priorities placed on measurement needs by industry provoke cautionary

thoughts for the future. The United States as a

nation and the USMS as an element of the

nation’s innovation infrastructure must act now

to overcome measurement barriers of the type

identified by this assessment. Otherwise, the

nation will be challenged to maintain its position

as a global leader.
44 VII. Next Steps

NIST, in its unique role as the nation’s national

measurement institute, has committed to participate in each of the seven recommended actions.

Promote awareness of the critical measurement needs

identified in this assessment throughout the measurement

research community.

The measurement research community is a key

contributor to measurement solutions at every

stage of technological innovation. However, the

contributions of measurement research, embedded in the nation’s technological infrastructure,

are often invisible to decision makers in industry

and government. NIST will widely distribute

this assessment to the measurement research

community in both the private and public 

sectors, communicate the importance of the

findings and conclusions, and encourage 

decision makers to address these critical needs.

Potential partners in building mutual awareness

of industry measurement needs and measurement research community capabilities include

industry consortia, producers of industry 

technology roadmaps, trade and professional

organizations, performers of scientific research,

and the National Science Foundation and other

sponsors of research. 

Unresolved measurement barriers impede technological innovation, the primary driver of the

nation’s economic and productivity growth and

the key source of competitive advantage in the

global economy. Overcoming these barriers is

essential if the United States is to continue to be

the global leader in developing and commercializing new technologies.

To meet the changing requirements of our 

economy and to respond rapidly to technical

challenges, the USMS must become a more

agile and versatile system, capable of sustaining

technological innovation at a world-leading

pace. Improving the effectiveness of the USMS

requires both immediate action and a strategic,

long-term approach. 

This assessment has identified seven actions to

be taken as next steps to enhance USMS capabilities and to accelerate technological innovation. These steps are recommended for consideration and action by all USMS stakeholders, acting individually and in collaboration.

VII. Next Steps
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 45

Identify strategies to bolster the effectiveness of USMS

solution providers and accelerate development and delivery of measurement technologies that respond to measurement problems impeding innovation.

USMS measurement solution providers are

widely dispersed in both the private and public

sectors. This fact complicates efforts to communicate needs and opportunities, which can slow

the development and commercialization of new

measurement technologies. There currently

exists no formalized measurement technology

industrial sector, and most current technology

roadmapping efforts do not explicitly address

measurement needs at a detailed level. 

NIST will reach out to groups of measurement

solution providers and technology innovators to

create a dialogue about how to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the USMS in supporting technological innovation. This effort will

embrace both the private and public sectors,

with the goal of proposing mechanisms for

improving the USMS that can be sustained over

time. These mechanisms could include collaboration tools, such as communication networks

and new information resources.

Foster collaboration to accelerate measurement 

breakthroughs. 

Today’s science and technology challenges

require ever more accurate and reliable measurement tools and associated services. As a result,

developing effective partnerships across disciplines and organizations is becoming increasingly important. Many case studies in this assessment identified industry consortia/partnerships

and interagency government partnerships as

essential to overcoming measurement barriers.

Collaborative arrangements can foster innovative

results. However, effective collaboration may

demand new mechanisms. NIST will explore

methods to promote USMS collaborations that

address specific industry and national goals.

Given the breadth and diversity of measurement

needs, a variety of collaborative approaches 

will be considered, including government interagency groups, industry-government consortia,

industry-wide alliances, international forums,

and Internet-based vehicles for information

exchange. 

Encourage industrial sectors to identify and prioritize

measurement needs.

Measurement needs identified in the roadmaps

and case studies reviewed, as well as any measurement needs identified subsequently, should

be prioritized by the industrial sectors they

affect. Criteria to guide and facilitate setting priorities should be established. Measurement solution providers and other experts (as appropriate)

should participate in the prioritization process to

ensure that industry’s requirements are accurately understood and that the time frames for

expected results from measurement R&D are

realistic. Priorities and time frames should be

updated regularly and communicated to solution

providers and prospective users. For the longer

term, more active involvement of the measurement community with technological innovators

in general and roadmap developers in particular

will help ensure that needs are promptly

addressed.

Facilitate pursuit of solutions to the specific industry

measurement problems documented in this assessment.

The measurement needs that form the basis of

this assessment of the USMS are real, unresolved measurement problems for which industry is seeking solutions. The case-study measurement needs have been documented specifically for this assessment and describe in detail

the measurement problems and potential solutions. The roadmap measurement needs have

been abstracted from industry technology

roadmaps where, in general, they are described

in broad terms. NIST will facilitate pursuit of

solutions to the measurement needs accordingly. 
46 VII. Next Steps

For roadmap measurement needs, NIST will

communicate its report to technology roadmap

developers to begin a dialogue in pursuit of solutions. For case-study measurement needs, NIST

will communicate with potential solution

providers.

Identify shared measurement needs and opportunities for

synergy across industries and research areas. 

The USMS has a diverse range of solution

providers that serve an even broader diversity of

customers. Once individual industrial sectors

determine priority measurement requirements,

cross-sector action plans should be developed,

where appropriate. Some priorities will be

addressed by short-term R&D (one to three

years), while others will require fundamental

research over a longer period. Many short-term

measurement needs, once communicated clearly,

likely will be addressed by private-sector efforts.

Fundamental measurement research and precompetitive R&D needed to address longer-term

needs may require government funding and

coordination.

Cross-sector action plans can become an

informative part of the USMS infrastructure and

help guide planning activities in both the private

and public sectors. As a result, stakeholders and

researchers can pursue measurement solutions

collaboratively, leveraging R&D resources. 

Foster strategic public-sector investments in measurement R&D to accelerate technological innovation.

Leading-edge technology development continually demands new and better measurement capabilities. Measurement needs documented as case

studies in this assessment identify roles for both

the public and private sectors as providers of

measurement solutions to the measurement 

barriers confronted. A potential public-sector

contribution to such solutions is strategic investment in both cutting-edge research that focuses

on discoveries in measurement science and in

the tools of science—facilities and instruments

that enable discovery and development—particularly unique, expensive, or large-scale tools

beyond the means of a single organization.

NIST’s unique roles in such solutions are conducting fundamental measurement-related

research, developing tools to measure, evaluate,

and standardize, and partnering with industry 

to transfer these tools to the private sector. 

Given this infrastructural focus, NIST is positioned to foster the strategic public-sector 

investments outlined here. In turn, private-sector

investments enable the translation of fundamental discoveries into the production of useful 

and marketable measurement technologies,

processes, and techniques.

Given the diversity of government-funded

research, each funding agency will need to act

individually to identify and support measurement R&D targeted to spur technological innovation within their mission-related areas of

responsibility. These areas include defense,

homeland security, health, space, energy, and

environmental protection. However, this assessment points to several areas where cross-agency

efforts to address broad measurement problems

would enhance effectiveness. 

Below, specific activities are suggested to support strategic use of public-sector investments in

measurement-related R&D to accelerate technological innovation.

• Keep end users and potential solution

providers informed of federal measurement

capabilities: 

Resources and capabilities of the USMS,

including those of—or funded by—the federal government, are extensive. NIST will

explore and promote approaches by which

federal agencies can inform the measurement R&D community in general, and

potential solution providers in particular, of

specialized measurement-related instruments

and facilities accessible to outside users.
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 47

Global leadership in 

science and technology

depends on our ability 

to develop innovative 

measurement technology.

• Incorporate insights from this assessment into

strategic and program plans:

NIST will make the results of this assessment available to other government agencies

for consideration during their strategic and

program planning. The needs and findings

reported in this assessment may serve as a

resource to help agencies identify opportunities to address measurement priorities corresponding to their mission-related interests.

For its part, NIST will incorporate the

results of this assessment into its strategic

and program plans. As part of this process,

NIST will evaluate approaches to accelerate

measurement innovation in economically

important areas. These might include new

criteria for project selection, realignment of

NIST-wide priorities, new partnerships, and

increased bilateral, regional, and international collaboration. A key element of NIST

plans will include working collaboratively

with SDOs to proactively identify measurement-related priorities to support standards

development in nanotechnology and other

emerging technology areas. NIST also will

identify and evaluate new approaches to

enable performance-based standards, protocols, benchmarks, and metrics.

• Establish an explicit agenda for measurement

innovation:

The core purpose of a measurement innovation agenda would be to identify opportunities for synergy in federally supported R&D

to eliminate measurement barriers to technological innovations. Input from the private

sector on this matter will be sought. One

possible vehicle for developing such an

agenda would be a new interagency task

force on measurement science and technology. This task force would be charged with

establishing a cohesive, proactive process for

identifying national measurement-related

priorities as well as opportunities for

improving USMS capabilities in support of

innovation.

Conclusion

This assessment underscores the importance of

measurement advances to U.S. competitiveness

in global markets. Many of the measurement

solutions identified for the individual sector/

technology areas, as well as solutions that apply

across several sector/technology areas, possess

the potential to benefit many sectors of the

economy, including sectors beyond those 

examined in this assessment. 

The focus of this assessment on technology as

represented by physical devices, materials, or

systems, results in an emphasis on manufacturing sectors rather than on service sectors.

Reviews of measurement needs in three areas—

Building and Construction, Health Care, and

First Responders—did, however, provide an

indication of needs in the service sectors.

Feedback on this assessment from stakeholders

in industry and government will be solicited and

used to improve and guide the next steps

described above. Ultimately, the success of the

USMS improvement effort will depend on the

participation of many different types of organizations in the United States and abroad. Efforts

that are both concerted and collaborative will

enable the efficient and effective use of private

and public resources to resolve measurement

problems that limit technological innovation. 
Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations

48 Glossary

A 

ANSI: American National Standards Institute; a federation of SDOs, companies, trade associations, government agencies, and consumer groups.

APMP: Asia Pacific Metrology Program.

Authentication: The term used in this report to indicate the process of validation of measurement needs

and findings by representatives of U.S. industry.

B

BIPM: International Bureau of Weights and

Measures.

C

Case-Study Measurement Needs: One-page, standalone summaries of industry measurement needs.

CIPM: International Committee for Weights and

Measures.

Conclusions: Judgments about the capacity of the

USMS to address the identified measurement barriers to technological innovation.

D

Declarative statements: The term used in this report

to indicate factual statements based on a sufficient

number of documented measurement needs and supported by sufficient fact and logic to qualify as

potential findings.

F

Findings: The term used in this report to indicate

factual statements about measurement problems that

pose technical barriers to technological innovation

that have been authenticated.

G

GPS: Global Positioning System.

I

ILAC: International Laboratory Accreditation

Cooperation.

Inferential analysis process: The term used in this

report for the process used to generate findings and

conclusions.

IEC: International Electrotechnical Commission, an

organization that develops standards on electrical,

electronic, and related technologies.

ISO: International Organization for Standardization,

a body that includes the national standards bodies of

149 countries and develops and adopts international

standards for nearly every industry sector.

ITU: International Telecommunications Union, an

organization that develops standards for information

and communications technologies.

M

Measurand: A physical quantity, property, or condition that is measured.

Measurement: The process of quantitatively comparing a variable characteristic, property, or attribute

of a substance, object, or system to some norm.

Measurement innovation: Technological 

innovation where the new technology is a measurement technology.

Measurement result: Quantitative result of the

measurement process, achieved to a level of certainty

influenced by a combination of technical and human

elements that include measurement methods, instruments, information, standards, and institutions.

Measurement system: The entire set of technical

and human elements involved in producing measurements for an intended purpose.

Metrology: The science of measurement.

MRA: Mutual Recognition Arrangement.

N

NCWM: National Conference on Weights and

Measures, a private, nonprofit organization with representatives from industry, states, and the federal government that develops standards, test procedures, and

model laws and regulations on weights and measures.
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 49

NIST: National Institute of Standards and

Technology; an agency in the U.S. Department of

Commerce, responsible for maintaining U.S. national

standards of measurement.

NMI: National Measurement Institute.

NMS: National Measurement System.

O

OIML: International Organization of Legal

Metrology, which develops model international standards of measurements used for regulatory purposes,

such as commodity exchange and environmental

monitoring.

OSTP: Office of Science and Technology Policy, an

office within the Executive Office of the President of

the United States, with a broad mandate to advise the

President and others on the effects of science and

technology on domestic and international affairs.

Other observations: The term used in this report to

indicate a declarative statement from the inferential

analysis about a potentially significant measurement

issue that has been reviewed by industry representatives but does not meet the standard of a finding.

P

Public sector: The part of the economy concerned

with providing basic government services.

Private sector: The part of the economy made 

up of private firms and companies, corporations, 

private banks, non-governmental organizations, and

individuals.

R

RFID: Radio frequency identification.

RMO: Regional Metrology Organization.

R&D: Research and development.

Roadmap Measurement Needs: Summaries of

industry measurement needs abstracted from 

published technology roadmaps.

S

Sector/Technology areas: A term used in this report

to represent an industrial sector and/or technology

area.

SDO: Standards-Developing Organization.

SI: International System of Units (abbreviated SI

from the French language name Système

International d’Unités), which is the modern form of

the metric system. It is the world’s most widely used

system of units, both in everyday commerce and in

science.

SIM: Inter-American Metrology System, an organization with the goal of promoting international and

regional cooperation in the Americas for scientific,

industrial, and legal metrology.

T

Technical barrier: A deficiency or absence of a technical capability that impedes technological innovation.

Technological innovation: Either a process or a

physical entity; as a process, it is that part of the

overall innovation process relating to the introduction

into the marketplace of new technology; as a physical

entity, it is the new technology itself.

Technology Developer’s Vision: The conceptual view

of what the new technology will functionally do, who

the user of the new technology will be, and what benefit to the user that technology will yield.

Technology roadmap: Consensus document identifying targets of opportunity and barriers to envisioned technologies in a particular industry based on

the views of representatives from industry, academia,

and, often, government.

U

USMS: United States Measurement System, which

includes the methods, standards, instruments, and private and public organizations involved in measurements of products and processes or in other measurement-related activities relevant to the functioning and

performance of the national economy.
50 Endnotes

1 Council on Competitiveness, Innovate America: Thriving in a

World of Challenge and Change, 2nd ed. (Washington, D.C.:

2004-5).

2 National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of

Engineering, and Institute of Medicine, Rising Above the

Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a

Brighter Economic Future (Washington, D.C.: The National

Academies Press, forthcoming 2006).

3 Domestic Policy Council, Office of Science and Technology

Policy, American Competitiveness Initiative: Leading the World

in Innovation (Washington, D.C.: 2006).

4 Examples include:

– R.D. Huntoon, “Concept of a National Measurement System:

The systems approach is being applied to improve understanding of the nation’s measurement activities,” Science,

158: 67-71, October 1967.

– Raymond C. Sangster, “Final Summary Report,” Study of the

National Measurement System, 1972-75. NBSIR 75-925,

December 1976.

– J.S. Hunter, “The National System of Scientific

Measurement,” Science, 210, 869-873, November 1980.

– GM Peter Swann, “The Economics of Measurement,” Report

for the United Kingdom National Measurement System

Review, June 1999.

These and related studies are summarized in:

– John Birch, Benefit of Legal Metrology for the Economy and

Society, A Study for the International Committee of Legal

Metrology, 2003.

5 The ITRS defines metrology as “the measurements made to

research, develop, and manufacture integrated circuits, including measurements made on materials used for integrated circuits and their manufacturing.”

6 International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, 2005

Edition: Metrology, 1.

7 Magnetic data storage was added after the assessment process

began. Workshop and industry submissions yielded a large

number of measurement needs in this advanced technology

area, which is basic to progress in enhancing the capabilities of

information and communication technology. 

8 Several recent studies point to pending breakthrough technologies, including National Science and Technology Council,

National Nanotechnology Initiative—Research and

Development Supporting the Next Industrial Revolution, 2003;

the President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology

(PCAST), The National Nanotechnology Initiative at Five

Years: Assessment and Recommendations of the National

Nanotechnology Advisory Panel, 2005; and the International

Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, 2005 Edition.

9 The importance of measuring system performance in service

industries is indicated in the U.S. Department of Commerce,

Radio Frequency Identification: Opportunities and Challenges

in Implementation, 2005.

10 Several recent studies indicate the importance of measuring

system performance in service industries, including the

National Science and Technology Council, Networking and

Information Technology Research and Development—Advanced

Foundations for American Innovation, 2003; The President’s

Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, Sustaining the

Nation’s Innovation Ecosystem: Maintaining the Strength of

Our Science and Engineering Capabilities, 2004; U.S.

Department of Commerce, Office of Technology Policy,

Innovation, Demand and Investment in Telehealth, 2004; and

the U.S. Department of Commerce, Radio Frequency

Identification: Opportunities and Challenges in

Implementation, 2005. 

11 The need for new measurement capabilities to enable sensing

technology breakthroughs have been documented in a number

of 2006 news stories in Sensors Magazine. Also, in two reports

by the President’s Council of Advisors on Science and

Technology: Report on Energy Efficiency, 2003; and The

Science and Technology of Combating Terrorism, 2003; in the

National Academy of Engineering, Frontiers of Engineering:

Reports on Leading-Edge Engineering from the 2005

Symposium; in U.S. Climate Change Technology Program,

Strategic Plan: Draft for Public Comment, 2005; and in the

National Science and Technology Council, Grand Challenges

for Disaster Reduction, 2005.

12 Evidence that progress in measurement science leads to new

understanding and new measurement capabilities can be found

in three documents by the President’s Council of Advisors on

Science and Technology: Sustaining the Nation’s Innovation

Ecosystems, Information Technology Manufacturing and

Competitiveness (2004); Sustaining the Nation’s Innovation

Ecosystem, Maintaining the Strength of Our Science and

Engineering Capabilities (2004); and Assessing the U.S. R&D

Investment (2002). Also, see National Academy of Sciences,

Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing

America for a Brighter Economic Future (forthcoming 2006);

Council on Competitiveness, National Innovation Initiative,

Innovate America: Thriving in a World of Challenge and

Change, 2nd ed. (2004-05); and in National Academy of

Sciences, Advanced Research Instrumentation and Facilities

(forthcoming 2006).

13 H. Arthur Klein, The Science of Measurement: a Historical

Survey (Dover Publications, 1988).

14 National Academy of Sciences, Rising Above the Gathering

Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter

Economic Future (Washington, D.C.: The National Academies

Press, Forthcoming 2006).

Endnotes
An Assessment of the United States Measurement System: Addressing Measurement Barriers to Accelerate Innovation 51

Inferential Analysis Background Documents

Energetics Incorporated, for the National Institute of

Standards and Technology. Analysis of Case-Study

Measurement Needs: Summary Report. 2006. See

Appendix H.

Energetics Incorporated, for the National Institute of

Standards and Technology. Technology Roadmap

Review: Summary Report. 2006. See Appendix C.

National Institute of Standards and Technology.

Case-Study Measurement Needs: A Compilation.

2006. See Appendix B.

Additional Sources

American National Standards Institute. United States

Standards Strategy. New York: ANSI. December

2005. www.us-standards-strategy.org

Council on Competitiveness, National Innovation

Initiative. Innovate America: Thriving in a World of

Challenge and Change, 2nd ed. Washington, D.C.:

2004-05. http://www.innovateamerica.org/webscr/

NII_EXEC_SUM.pdf

Fortune 500, Fortune Magazine. 17 April 2006.

Published online by Cable News Network LP, LLLP

at http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/

International Technology Roadmap for

Semiconductors. 2005. http://www.itrs.net/Common/

2005ITRS/Home2005.htm (registration required)

National Academy of Engineering. Engineering

Research and America’s Future: Meeting the

Challenges of a Global Economy. Washington, D.C.:

The National Academies Press. 2005.

http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11393.html

National Academy of Engineering. Frontiers of

Engineering: Reports on Leading-Edge Engineering

from the 2005 Symposium. Washington, D.C.: The

National Academies Press. 2006.

http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11577.html

National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of

Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. Advanced

Research Instrumentation and Facilities. Washington,

D.C.: The National Academies Press. Forthcoming

2006. http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11520.html

National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of

Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. Rising Above

the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing

America for a Brighter Economic Future.

Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press.

Forthcoming 2006. http://nap.edu/catalog/11463.html

National Association of Manufacturing, Facts About

U.S. Manufacturing. May 2005.

http://www.nam.org/s_nam/bin.asp?CID=202325&D

ID=233605&DOC=FILE.PDF

National Science and Technology Council,

Committee on Environment and Natural Resources,

Subcommittee on Disaster Reduction. Grand

Challenges for Disaster Reduction. Washington,

D.C.: 2005. http://www.ostp.gov/NSTC/html/

SDR%20Grand%20Challenges%20for%20Disaster%

20Reduction.pdf

National Science and Technology Council,

Committee on Technology. National Nanotechnology

Initiative—Research and Development Supporting

the Next Industrial Revolution. Washington, D.C.:

2003. http://www.ostp.gov/nstc/html/nni04_budget_

supplement.pdf

National Science and Technology Council, Committee

on Technology. Networking and Information

Technology Research and Development— Advanced

Foundations for American Innovation. Washington,

D.C.: 2003. http://www.ostp.gov/NSTC/html/

NITRD04BB-final.pdf

References
52 References

The President’s Council of Advisors on Science and

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The President’s Council of Advisors on Science and

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