U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 

November 2003 

Best Practices for Migratory Bird Care 

During Oil Spill Response
November, 2003

Best Practices for Migratory Bird Care 

During Oil Spill Response 

Edited by 

Catherine Berg 

U.S Fish and Wildlife Service 

Ecological Services Field Office 

605 W. 4th Avenue, Suite G-61 

Anchorage, Alaska 99501 
Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page iii 

Acknowledgements 

The Steering Committee for the Oil Spill Recovery Institute (OSRI) Migratory Bird Standards and 

Protocols Project wishes to acknowledge and thank the following workshop participants who 

helped to develop Best Practices for Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response: 

Catherine Berg — U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service — Anchorage, AK 

Pamela Bergmann — U.S. Department of the Interior — Anchorage, AK 

Barbara Callahan — International Bird Rescue & Research Center — Anchorage, AK 

Matt Carr — U.S. Environmental Protection Agency — Anchorage, AK 

Curt Clumpner — International Bird Rescue Research Center — Lynnwood, WA 

Amy Cocanour — U. S. Coast Guard — Washington, D.C. 

Craig Giggleman — U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service — Arlington, TX 

Eileen Gilbert — Tri-State Bird Rescue & Research, Inc. — Newark, DE 

John Kenney — Maine Department of Inland Fisheries & Wildlife — Bangor, ME 

Chris Lane — Washington Dept. of Fish & Wildlife — Olympia, WA 

Ginny Pierce — N/A — Port Deposit, MD 

Corey Rossi — U. S. Department of Agriculture — Palmer, AK 

Sharon Schmalz — Wildlife Rehabilitation & Education, Inc. — League City, TX 

Claudia Slater — Alaska Department Fish & Game — Anchorage. AK 

Heidi Stout — Tri-State Bird Rescue & Research, Inc. — Newark, DE 

Jan Thorman — U.S. Department of the Interior — Washington, D. C. 

Dave Trudgen — BP Exploration — Anchorage, AK 

Jan White — Wildlife Publications — Maple Valley, WA 

Michael Ziccardi — University of California — Davis, CA 

Members of the Steering Committee: 

Catherine Berg — U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service — Anchorage, AK 

Pamela Bergmann — U.S. Department of the Interior — Anchorage, AK 

Barbara Callahan — International Bird Rescue & Research Center — Anchorage, AK 

Claudia Slater — Alaska Department of Fish & Game — Anchorage. AK 

Kelley Weaverling — Prince William Sound Audubon Society — Cordova, AK

This document is based on the work of many individuals and organizations in the field of bird 

deterrents, rescue, and rehabilitation. The Steering Committee gratefully acknowledges the 

generous assistance of those who permitted their publications to be excerpted or otherwise used 

here. 

Thanks to the Prince William Sound Oil Spill Recovery Institute for providing the funding that 

made the February, 2001 workshop possible. 
Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page iv 

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements iii 

Introduction 1 

Responsibility & Organization 4 

Safety and Human Health 7 

Training for Bird Rescue/Rehabilitation Personnel 8 

Personal Protective Equipment 11 

Personal Safety When Handling Birds 12 

Zoonosis 12 

Hazardous Substances 13 

Volunteers 13 

Deterrence 14 

Aerial and Ground Surveys 14 

Deterrence Program Considerations 15 

Pre-emptive Capture 16 

Capture, Handling, and Transport 18 

Capture 18 

Bird Handling 21 

Bird Transport 25 

Stabilization and Rehabilitation 27 

Evaluation and Admission 28 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page v 

Euthanasia 30 

Necropsy 30 

Cleaning 31 

Husbandry 32 

Facility Requirements 36 

Release 41 

Release Criteria 41 

Post-Release Monitoring 42 

Records 43 

Scientific Records 43 

Administrative Records 44 

References 45 

Appendices 47 

Appendix 1. Sample Supply and Materials List 48 

Appendix 2. Zoonotic Diseases of Wild Birds 56

Appendix 3. Deterrent Techniques 59 

Appendix 4. Bird Natural History and Special Concerns 67 

Appendix 5. Euthanasia Guidelines 74 

Appendix 6. Sample Forms and Formats 76 
INTRODUCTION 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 1 

Introduction 

Background 

Best Practices for Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response (Best Practices) is the 

result of a Fish and Wildlife Countermeasures Coordination Project undertaken by the 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). The goals of the project include the 

development of national “best practices” using established protocols for keeping 

unoiled birds away from an oil spill and for dealing with oiled birds. Establishing a 

standardized approach helps protect wildlife resources, enables On-Scene 

Coordinators (OSCs) to focus on other aspects of spill response, and helps instill 

public confidence in overall response activities. 

A group comprised of natural resource management agencies, rehabilitators, 

veterinarians, and industry representatives developed this document at a 3-day 

workshop held in February 2001 in Anchorage, Alaska. This workshop was a followup to the March 2000, Wildlife Countermeasures Session on the Effects of Oil on 

Wildlife Conference held in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina. Prior to the Alaska 

workshop, information was distributed through a variety of forums to interested 

parties. The outreach included a solicitation for copies of existing relevant standards 

and protocols. As a result of this effort, 26 documents were collected. Of those, 11, 

which were the most current and relevant, were selected by the workshop Steering 

Committee to serve as primary source documents for the workshop. (See References, 

page 45.) 

A draft of the “Best Practices” document was presented at the March 2001 

International Oil Spill Conference in Tampa, Florida, at a special session entitled 

Migratory Bird Countermeasures Coordination Project. This was an open meeting and 

comments were solicited and discussed. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service accepted 

written comments on the draft document through July 31, 2001. During this time, the 

document also underwent internal USFWS review. 

Intended Uses 

This document, Best Practices for Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response, is intended 

for use by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and other natural resource management 

agencies, oiled bird rehabilitators, OSCs, and Potentially Responsible Parties (PRPs) as 

a guide in: 

! Developing appropriate sections of Area Contingency Plans; 
INTRODUCTION 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 2 

! Evaluating contractors for bird capture and rehabilitation; 

! Making informed choices during spill responses; and 

! Evaluating oiled bird rehabilitation activities to improve field practices. 

The creators of this document set out to define and recommend the best practices for 

their field with the aim of promoting the welfare of migratory birds during an oil spill 

response. Actual bird responses will depend on factors including the size of the spill, 

species involved, type of product spilled, time of year, and location. It is generally 

recognized that there are significant differences between a spill affecting 10 birds and 

one involving 1,000 birds. It is important that spill responders and pre-spill planners 

recognize that the degree of effort and complexity in bird response can be significant 

when comparing small and large events. This document is intended to help pre-spill 

planners and spill responders make informed decisions keeping the best interests of 

the birds in mind. 

In defining the best practices of a migratory bird response, each aspect of a response is 

discussed separately. Topics include safety, training, capture and handling, stabilization 

and rehabilitation, and release criteria. Much of what is discussed in this document 

describes factors that constitute highest and best migratory bird care and 

recommendations for achieving the highest standard of care. 

This document is not intended for use as a training manual. It is to serve as 

guidance for acquiring the best achievable care for birds during an oil spill response. 

Neither is this document an exhaustive list of techniques in this field, in which 

practical knowledge is being continuously refined and developed. It is intended that 

this document will be periodically reviewed and updated. If techniques not included 

here are proposed during an oil spill response, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service will 

seek the most current and best information on which to base an educated decision on 

the appropriate course of action. 

Criteria for Evaluating Rehabilitation Groups 

The following criteria will be used when considering and evaluating bird rehabilitators 

for conducting oiled-bird response. 

! Hold all necessary permits for bird-related response activities; 

! Experience in the capture, treatment, and care of oiled birds; 

! Experience conducting bird-related response activities within the Incident 

Command System structure; 
INTRODUCTION 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 3 

! Sufficiently trained, equipped, and experienced staff, and ability to train 

and equip personnel and volunteers for bird-related response during an 

emergency response; 

! Ability to quickly mobilize to perform bird capture, field evaluation, 

stabilization and transport, including remote locations if necessary; 

! Access to appropriate facilities adequate for treating and housing oiled 

birds: 

o Ability to establish and operate bird intake, holding, and isolation 

areas within 12-24 hours of wildlife response activation; and 

o Ability to establish and operate bird cleaning and pre-release areas 

within 48 hours of wildlife response activation. 

! Agreement with a licensed veterinarian, experienced in the treatment of 

oiled birds, to provide any necessary veterinary medical care; and 

! Use of best practices as outlined in the remainder of this document. 
Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 4 

Chapter

1

Responsibility & 

Organization 

Trust Responsibilities 

In the event of an oil spill, trust responsibilities for migratory birds and their habitats are 

clearly given to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service through several federal legislative 

statutes including the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and 

Liability Act (CERCLA), Clean Water Act (CWA), National Oil and Hazardous 

Substances Pollution Contingency Plan (NCP), the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA), 

and the Endangered Species Act (ESA). States also have trust responsibilities for 

migratory birds within their state boundaries under various state statutes. Because of 

these shared trust responsibilities, both federal and state agencies are required to respond 

to spills, or potential spills, that may impact migratory birds. To facilitate efficient and 

effective coordination during a migratory bird response, federal and state agencies may 

consider developing Memorandums of Agreement (MOA’s) or Memorandums of 

Understanding (MOU’s) that pre-designate regional primary points of contact, establish 

lead representatives, and define roles for natural resource emergency situations. 

Organizational Structure of a Wildlife Response 

The organizational structure of a migratory bird response should fit within the Incident 

Command System (ICS) or the overall spill response structure. Federal directives and 

some states mandate use of the ICS by their agencies as the emergency management 

system for oil and hazardous substance spill response. The ICS is a standardized onscene emergency management system designed to adopt an integrated organizational 

structure equal to the complexity and demands of an incident without being hindered by 

jurisdictional boundaries. A simplified chart of the ICS response organizational 

structure follows: 
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 5 

Example: Response Organization

Command 

 The Command or Unified Command, which includes the State On-Scene 

Coordinator and Federal On-Scene Coordinator, is responsible for authorizing and 

coordinating all incident operations. While the Command may include other entities 

such as a Responsible Party On-Scene Coordinator, only Federal and State OnScene Coordinators have authority over bird-related response decisions. The OSC 

will consult with the USFWS and state agencies when migratory birds may be 

impacted to determine appropriate response measures. For incidents that could 

significantly impact trust resources such as endangered species, the OSC may 

request that an agency representative become part of the Command. 

Planning 

When trust resources, such as migratory birds, may be affected by an oil spill, 

USFWS and state wildlife agency representatives will likely become involved in the 

response effort through the Planning Section. The representatives provide input on 

the protection of sensitive resources and how to minimize impacts to trust resources 

like migratory birds. Most bird-response planning occurs within the “Environmental 

Unit” of the Planning Section. The Planning Section identifies all bird-related 

response activities and describes those activities in the Incident Action Plan. 

Depending on the nature and extent of the spill, such activities may include wildlife 

reconnaissance, carcass recovery, hazing, wild-bird capture and transport, safety and 

communications, and rehabilitation and release. The Incident Command must 

approve all migratory bird response actions. The responsibilities of the Planning 

Section related to bird response include: 

! Identifying sensitive areas, locating birds-at-risk, and recommending 

response priorities; 

! Identifying the need for, and obtaining permits, consultations, and 

authorizations required by the provisions of the Endangered Species Act, 

MBTA, and other wildlife laws; and 

Command

Planning Operations Logistics Finance 
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 6 

! Developing a plan for bird protection and response strategies (e.g., 

removing oiled carcasses, pre-emptive capture, hazing, and capture and 

treatment). 

Operations 

A USFWS representative or state wildlife agency representative should also serve 

within the Operations Section, to provide oversight of the bird-related and other 

wildlife response activities. Bird-related response and other wildlife activities, 

including the operation of a wildlife rehabilitation center, are managed under the 

“Wildlife Branch” of the Operations Section. It is critical that all wildlife response 

activities be coordinated and communicated through the Planning Section, Situation 

Unit, which is responsible for maintaining the communication of critical incident 

information vital to establishing and maintaining an effective command and control 

environment. The responsibilities of the Operations Section related to bird response 

include: 

! Minimizing migratory bird losses during spill response; 

! Overseeing and coordinating all activities of private migratory bird care 

groups, including groups employed by the responsible party; 

! Coordinating early aerial and ground reconnaissance of birds at the spill site, 

and reporting the results to the Situation Unit Leader; 

! Collecting oiled carcasses, 

! Employing bird hazing measures as authorized in the Incident Action Plan; 

! Recovering and rehabilitating impacted birds; 

! Collecting necessary samples; and 

! Identifying and maintaining a central bird processing center for evidence 

tagging, transportation, veterinary services, treatment and rehabilitation, 

storage, and other support needs. 

Logistics 

The Logistics Section is responsible for providing facilities, services, and material in 

support of the incident response. Bird-related support needs are identified in the 

Incident Action Plan and acquired within Logistics. 

Finance 

 The Finance Section is responsible for financial and cost analysis aspects of the spill 

response incident. 
 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 7 

Chapter

2

Safety and Human Health 

Worker health and safety are of primary importance in any bird rescue and 

rehabilitation effort. The earliest phases of a bird-related response during an oil spill are 

generally the most hazardous to human health and safety. Thus, safe practices during 

field collection of birds must be a priority. Bird rescue programs will not be initiated 

unless personnel can conduct activities safely. 

As with all spill response activities, the bird rescue and rehabilitation effort needs to be 

coordinated and monitored by the spill response command center operations, safety, 

and medical staffs. A written site safety plan, in accordance with 29 CFR 1910.120(b)(4), 

must be developed for the rehabilitation facility and submitted to the Spill Safety 

Officer. If field activities are on-going for bird response, the site safety plan needs to be 

expanded to include these activities and any specialized equipment that will be used (e.g., 

net guns, cannon nets, propane cannons). 

Summary of Safety Precautions 

Bird rescue and rehabilitation workers can minimize the risks associated with 

physical and chemical hazards by following the precautions below: 

! Observe all industrial hygiene safety precautions stated in the Health and 

Safety Plan. 

! Know how to use the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). 

! Take all required training regarding the hazards of the work task, and in the 

proper use and limitations of personal protective equipment. 

! Wear personal protective equipment approved for, and appropriate to, the 

oil spilled to minimize contact with contaminated materials and inhalation 

of vapors. 

! Maintain an awareness of field conditions and hazards (terrain, climate, 

flora/fauna, etc.) to prevent slips, trips and falls. 
SAFETY AND HUMAN HEALTH 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 8 

! Keep all oil, cleaning compounds, and contaminated materials away from 

skin, face, and eyes. 

! Always remove protective equipment and wash hands and face with soap 

and water or approved cleaners before eating, drinking, or smoking. 

! Ensure that all oiled personal protective equipment, supplies, and waste 

material are placed in appropriate receptacles. 

! Ensure that work areas are kept clean. 

! Never conduct bird rescue work alone; always work in teams. 

! Keep birds at or below one’s waist level to protect the face and eyes from 

pokes, bites, and scratches. 

! Report all injuries and illnesses to the supervisor and/or Command Center 

medical staff. 

! Be alert for over-heating and hypothermia. 

! Don’t overwork. Eat regularly and well. 

! Never eat, drink, or smoke in bird handling areas. 

! If you have immunosuppressive conditions, or you are pregnant, do not 

have direct contact with birds and consult your physician prior to 

participating in other aspects of bird-related response activities. 

! Update tetanus shots. 

Training for Bird Rescue/Rehabilitation Personnel 

In addition to mastering specific bird rescue and rehabilitation tasks, personnel must be 

trained to recognize and minimize risk of injuries from oil-related and physical hazards 

associated with bird response operations prior to being allowed to participate in on-site 

activities. Elements of required and recommended training will vary depending on the 

tasks of the individuals involved in the response. Training-hour requirements and 

specific courses vary with level of involvement, agency policy, and OSHA and state 

regulations. 

Required Training 

29 CFR 1910.120(e) establishes the training required for hazardous operations site 

workers, including supervisors. All oiled-bird rescue and rehabilitation personnel must 

be trained to the minimal levels required in 29 CFR 1910.120 (e)(3)(iii). In addition, there 
SAFETY AND HUMAN HEALTH 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 9 

must be adequate on-site supervision by persons who meet the training requirements of 

29 CFR 1910.120(e)(4). 

Recommended Training 

In addition to the training required by federal regulations, further training is highly 

recommended (and mandated for USFWS spill response personnel) for safe and 

efficient operations during a spill response. This guidance is considered a minimum 

essential training for bird rehabilitators in accordance with the goal of establishing best 

practices. 

As a minimum, any personnel conducting bird deterrence or bird hazing activities 

should attend an 8-hour bird-deterrent training workshop and, if using pyrotechnics or 

firearms, should also attend 8-hour firearm safety training and 4-hour range training. 

Bird-capture personnel, field stabilization personnel, and bird transport personnel 

should attend a 16-hour basic rehabilitation skills training. Bird washing personnel 

should attend a 4-hour bird washing skills training session. 

Personnel operating a boat should be licensed or certified with 24-hour watercraft 

operator safety training. Anyone riding in a boat should only ride with a certified or 

licensed operator. Response personnel performing field functions (e.g. bird surveys) 

while riding in a small aircraft should complete 8-hour basic aviation safety training. As 

indicated above, any personnel handling firearms should attend 8-hour firearm safety 

training and 4-hour range training. All teams operating in the field should have at least 

one person in the party certified in First Aid and CPR. Response personnel participating 

in the Incident Command Center should be trained to a minimum level of ICS300.

Table 1 summarizes basic training requirements and recommendations as discussed in 

detail above for each operational group. 
SAFETY AND HUMAN HEALTH 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 10 

Table 1. Summary of training essential to implementing “best 

practices” when responding to oiled migratory birds. 

Training 

Personnel 

HAZWOPER ICS 100-300 Aircraft Safety Boating Safety Firearm Safety First Aid/ CPR Basic Rehabilitation Skills Bird washing Supervisory and Crisis Management 

USFWS 

Response1 

R R R R R R - - - 

Rehab 

Management2 

R R - - - H H H H 

Initial 

Assessment3 

R - H H - H - - - 

Bird Deterrent R - - H H H - - - 

Field Workers4 R - - H - H H - - 

Facility 

Workers5 R - - - - - H H - 

R = Required training, if performing the activity 

H = Highly recommended for establishing best practices, if performing the activity 

1 = Training requirements established by Director’s memorandum March 9,1998 

2 = Supervisory personnel and personnel in-charge. 

3 = Personnel conducting resources-at-risk reconnaissance surveys 

4

 = Bird capture teams, field stabilization units, transport personnel, etc. 

5

 = Bird washers, cage cleaners, pen monitors, etc. 
SAFETY AND HUMAN HEALTH 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 11 

Personal Protective Equipment 

Personal protective equipment (PPE) must be used in accordance with 29 CFR 

1910.120 (g)(3) to protect wildlife response personnel from exposure to hazardous 

substances. To guard against injury from birds, all workers should wear approved 

personal protective equipment appropriate to their task. 

Recommended PPE 

! Full eye protection, i.e., goggles, safety glasses, or face shield (Birds will peck 

when under stress and should be considered dangerous as they will aim for 

eyes.); 

! Oil resistant rain gear or oil protective clothing (coated Tyvek, Saranex, etc.); 

! Gloves (neoprene or nitrile rubber) that are oil resistant, waterproof, and 

provide protection against pecking and sharp talons; 

! Non-skid shoes/boots, which are oil resistant and waterproof; 

! Ear protection (muff or ear plug type) when using pyrotechnic devices or 

operating machinery; and 

! Personal flotation device when working on or near water. 

Respiratory protection from organic vapor hazards may also be required for some 

operations. If respirators are used, respiration training and fit testing are required in 

accordance with 29 CFR 1910.134. (USFWS personnel are not allowed to operate in an 

environment requiring protective gear above Level D as established in 29 CFR 

1910.120, Appendix B, Part A.). All workers must be trained, in accordance with 29 

CFR 1910.132(f), on the proper use and limitations of all personal protective equipment 

prior to using the equipment. 

In addition to hazards from oil, numerous physical hazards may be associated with bird 

rescue activities. To protect against bites and scratches, appropriate clothing and 

equipment should be worn underneath the oil protective equipment whenever 

necessary. Workers should be aware of temperature, weather, and other environmental 

conditions and use personal protective equipment to guard against dangerous waters, 

frostbite, hypothermia, heat-stress disorders, and infectious diseases. 

There is a potential health risk to poultry, farm and domestic animals (including pets) 

from clothing or equipment that has been in contact with wild birds. Decontamination 

procedures must be established and workers are required to return used oil spill 

response equipment and supplies to their supervisor in accordance with 29 CFR 

1910.120(k). 
SAFETY AND HUMAN HEALTH 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 12 

Personal Safety When Handling Birds 

Human safety is the primary consideration in bird handling; the safety of the bird being 

handled is important but secondary. In accordance with 50 CFR 21.31, bird capture and 

handling may only be done by trained and permitted individuals. Handling and restraint 

techniques appropriate for specific species need to be applied. M.E. Fowler’s book, 

Handling and Restraint of Wild and Domestic Animals (Fowler, 1995) serves as a preliminary 

guide to handling procedures. 

Capturing oiled birds is often physically and emotionally stressful for bird-handlers. 

Dehydration, exhaustion, and poor nutrition can all affect a person’s ability to assess and 

react to a dangerous situation. It is therefore important that workers stay well hydrated 

and eat nutritionally sound meals. Rest is equally important. A tired, stressed person, the 

presence of oil, and hazardous terrain are a dangerous combination. Workers should be 

aware of their own condition and also the conditions of those around them. The safety 

of all depends on the alertness of each individual. 

All rescue/rehabilitation work crews should have a first aid kit on site for minor cuts and 

scrapes. If bitten, scratched or otherwise injured, report the injury to a supervisor and 

seek treatment. Each crew or team, should be assigned at least one person trained to 

provide emergency first aid, including CPR. 

Other safety issues are covered in Chapter 4, Capture, Handling, and Transport, page 18. 

Zoonoses 

Wild birds may carry diseases that are transmissible to people. Diseases that are 

transmitted from animals to humans are called zoonoses. They may be viral, bacterial, 

fungal or parasitic in nature. They can be transmitted to humans by four primary routes: 

! Inhalation of particles (spores, bacteria) in the air; 

! Ingestion of feces (i.e., projectile feces, poor hygiene); 

! Dermal contact; and

! Indirectly, via a vector (e.g. needle sticks, insect bites).

NOTE: Individuals who have immunosuppressive conditions 

are more susceptible to contracting zoonotic diseases. 

To reduce risk of contracting zoonotic diseases, and in accordance with best practices, 

bird handlers should always: 

! Wash hands thoroughly with soap and water after handling birds. 
SAFETY AND HUMAN HEALTH 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 13 

! Wash hands well before and after eating. 

! Avoid smoking or eating near birds; do so in designated areas only. 

! Clean and treat all cuts and scratches. 

! Use appropriate PPE. 

! For a list of zoonotic diseases, modes of transmission, and symptoms, see 

Appendix 2. 

Hazardous Substances 

Bird rescue and rehabilitation workers may be exposed to spilled oil, and must be so 

informed in accordance with 29 CFR 1910.1200(e). Prior to handling a contaminated 

bird, the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), as established in 29 CRF 1910.1200(g), for 

the spilled material should be reviewed and all recommended precautions followed. In 

accordance with 29 CFR 1910.120(h), workers and the rehabilitation facility shall be 

periodically monitored, using calibrated instruments and devices to determine airborne 

concentrations of petroleum products (e.g., benzene). Appropriate PPE is required (see 

Personal Protective Equipment, page 11). Ventilation in all work areas should prevent the 

buildup of airborne contaminants. (See Facilities, page 36)

A portion of the rehabilitation facility should be designated for the storage of 

contaminated clothing, equipment and medical waste until the items can be 

decontaminated or disposed in accordance with 29 CFR 1910.120(k)(2-5).

Volunteers 

Wildlife response programs regularly use volunteers, particularly at the rehabilitation 

facility. Wildlife response managers need to ensure that volunteers are appropriately 

trained, supervised, and informed of all hazards in accordance with 29 CFR1910.120(i). 

A comprehensive volunteer management program is an essential component of an 

efficient wildlife response. This management program needs to address, at a minimum, 

volunteer safety, training, supervision, scheduling, and liability. 
 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 14 

Chapter

3

Deterrence 

Following an oil spill, it may be necessary to initiate a deterrence program that disperses 

and excludes unoiled birds from contaminated areas to reduce bird mortality. If 

warranted, deterrence activities are initiated as soon as possible following an oil spill to 

prevent birds from establishing or continuing regular use patterns within a 

contaminated area. Any delays may decrease the effectiveness of the program in 

reducing the overall numbers of oiled birds. Deterrent devices used to disperse birds 

include both visual and auditory techniques, using both simple and sophisticated 

devices in order to respond to the unique habits of different bird species, surrounding 

environments, and the spill situations. Information necessary to help determine 

whether or not to begin a deterrence program includes, but is not limited to: spill 

location, species present, species type, time of year, availability of nearby 

uncontaminated habitat, and location of species in relation to the spill. 

All deterrence activities require authorization from appropriate natural resource 

management agencies and oversight by the designated USFWS representative. Only 

those persons trained and certified in bird deterrence techniques will be allowed to 

conduct these activities. Deterrence activities must be authorized and coordinated 

within the Incident Command System. A communication line will need to be 

established between deterrence personnel and Air Operations to avoid potential 

bird/aircraft collisions. 

 Aerial and Ground Surveys 

Reconnaissance surveys for resources-at-risk are conducted as soon as practical 

following the spill. The main objective of these surveys is to evaluate the number, 

species and locations of birds that could be impacted by the oil spill. All surveys will be 

authorized and coordinated through the ICS. The scope and frequency of subsequent 

surveys will be incident-specific. Written reconnaissance survey results and maps are 

submitted to the appropriate ICS subunit within the Planning Section. The location 

and number of birds will need to be plotted on maps or charts for use by the Situation 

Unit. 

Experienced personnel are essential for effective surveillance. An observer should have 

the appropriate knowledge to properly identify species, record behavioral 
DETERRENCE 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 15 

characteristics, be familiar with local area ecology, and make other pertinent 

observations. Ideally, an aerial survey should be done by helicopter, but fixed wing 

aircraft can also be used. 

Deterrence Program Considerations 

Consider the following points before beginning any deterrence operations: 

NOTE: No attempt should be made to disperse oiled birds. NOTE:

! Worker safety. 

! Local habitats and species. 

o Some species, especially those found associated with a human 

environment are difficult to deter, especially if chosen deterrents 

mimic sounds or visual elements associated with that environment. 

o Consider the potential effects of human activity and disturbance 

on sensitive habitats and species. 

o Molting birds are not easily dispersed, and require a combination 

of different techniques. 

! Availability of “clean” habitat within a reasonable distance. 

o Avoid dispersing birds into areas that might become 

contaminated; be aware of oil trajectory predictions. 

o Determine if “clean” habitat can be made more attractive (e.g., 

temporarily limiting access to people, boats or certain activities) 

! Appropriate technique. 

o Deterrence will be most effective if the entire area of concern can 

be hazed as continuously as possible. As a general rule, do not start 

a deterrence operation that cannot be maintained for the required 

duration. 

o Automatically operated devices, which require checking only once 

a day or less, may be used when staffing is limited, during bad 

weather, or at night. 

o In general, expose the area to a variety of devices and techniques, 

with random variations to control habituation. Be prepared to 

back off as events dictate. 
DETERRENCE 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 16 

! Appropriate technique cont. 

o In general, most deterrence activities would probably not be 

effective for areas larger than seven to 10 miles in length or 

diameter. 

o Highly mobile devices (e.g. sound-emitting buoys) that can 

influence large radiuses are necessary for larger spills on water. 

o Some types of oil, like fuel, are highly flammable during the first 

hours following a spill, due to the presence of high concentrations 

of volatile oil fractions. Techniques with potential to induce sparks 

are to be avoided in these situations. 

! Potential side effects. 

o The effects of sound-emitting devices on humans will influence 

whether or not some techniques will be acceptable to local 

residents. 

Once the decision to deter or haze unoiled birds has been made, remember that each 

spill situation will be unique and preplanned deterrence activities must be viewed as 

tentative at best. The pros and cons of every deterrence operation are to be evaluated 

in view of site- and incident-specific details and after consultation with local experts. If 

pyrotechnics are used, permits may also be required from the local fire marshal. 

See Appendix 3, for a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of various 

deterrence methods. 

Pre-emptive Capture 

Pre-emptive capture includes the capture, handling, transportation, short-term holding 

and release of healthy, uncontaminated birds. According to 50 CFR 21.31(f)(1)(i), 

permitted rehabilitators are authorized to temporarily possess healthy, unaffected birds 

for the purpose of removing them from imminent danger. Pre-emptive capture of 

federally listed threatened or endangered species should not be conducted without 

prior consultation with, and approval by, the USFWS under Section 7 of the 

Endangered Species Act. No capture activities may be conducted in pinniped or 

seabird rookeries. Preemptive capture must be supervised by the USFWS and 

authorized by the Incident Commander 

This secondary response option has limited application based on species-specific 

criteria. The primary concerns when conducting pre-emptive capture are human and 
DETERRENCE 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 17 

bird safety and minimizing transportation and holding times. Safety of the birds 

should be focused on stress reduction. Minimize stress by: 

! Having the equipment necessary to handle and transport birds as quickly 

and efficiently as possible; 

! Minimizing the number of vessels, aircraft, all-terrain vehicles, etc. to herd 

and capture birds in a given area; 

! Avoiding unnecessary noise and disturbance during the capture effort; 

! Never pursue the birds to the point of exhaustion; and 

! Minimizing human contact with the birds except to provide veterinary 

care. 

Pre-emptive capture techniques for birds may be the same as those used by bird 

banding operations such as mist nets and herding molting or flightless birds into 

corrals. All techniques should be considered in consultation with the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service. 
 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 18 

Chapter

4

Capture, Handling, & 

Transport 

Capture 

Human safety is a primary consideration before any retrieval effort is made. Hazardous 

weather conditions, unsafe footing, icy rivers, or dangerous seas may preclude a bird 

rescue attempt. In addition, captive birds are often aggressive and should be regarded 

as dangerous in any sort of confining situation. Only authorized and trained individuals 

are allowed to undertake the capture and treatment of oiled birds under the direction of 

a permitted rehabilitator. Teamwork is essential to minimize additional stress to the 

birds. To capture and handle oiled birds, rehabilitators must have appropriate licenses 

and permits in accordance with 50 CFR 21.31. Land-owner or manager permission 

may be necessary to access capture sites. All capture activities are developed within the 

Planning Section, coordinated within the ICS, and must be authorized by the Incident 

Command. 

A bird capture program should be implemented as early as is safely possible in a spill 

response effort to increase the survival rate of birds. Captured birds are to receive 

medical evaluation and preliminary treatment as quickly as possible. The conditions 

under which oiled birds are captured can vary widely from one spill to another. A 

variety of capture methods and techniques are employed to maximize capture success. 

The effectiveness of rescue efforts will be influenced by factors such as time of year, 

type and amount of material spilled, species involved, local terrain, tides, and weather. 

Birds can be safely collected and transported in a variety of challenging conditions 

when rescue workers adhere to basic rules. 

Capture Rules 

! Ensure personnel are trained; 

! Put safety first; 

! Wear protective clothing. 

! Work in teams; never work alone; 
CAPTURE, HANDLING, AND TRANSPORT 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 19 

! Report any injuries; 

! Do not allow the presence of domestic animals; and 

! Do not pursue animals until they are exhausted. 

! As a preliminary reference for developing a capture strategy, consult the 

summary of bird characteristics, natural history, and specific species 

concerns located in Appendix 4. 

Capture Planning 

In addition to trained personnel, well developed plans will ensure a safe and successful 

capture program. 

Reconnaissance Plan 

This plan describes the steps rescuers will take to survey birds in oiled offshore 

waters, near-shore waters, and along shorelines, as well as birds in areas that 

could be oiled. The reconnaissance plan also calls for surveys of nearby 

feeding, loafing and roosting areas to detect oiled birds that may have moved 

away from contaminated sites. Knowledge of the local area ecology is critical. 

Capture Plan 

Capture plans are site specific and address the following: 

! Safety of personnel and birds from chemical and physical hazards; 

! Personal protective equipment and clothing; 

! Capture equipment and methods; 

! Site access and egress; 

! Bird approach and disturbance of unoiled birds; 

! Adequate search coverage; 

! On-site holding; 

! Special site considerations (e.g. sensitive habitat, rookeries, cultural 

resources/historic properties); and 

! Species prioritization for capture, as provided by USFWS. 
CAPTURE, HANDLING, AND TRANSPORT 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 20 

Safety Plan 

A safety briefing or plan must be approved by the ICS Safety Officer and 

available to all members of the capture team. The safety plan includes required 

personal protective equipment, communication instructions, and separate 

contingency plans for on-land and on-water capture activities, as appropriate. 

The plan will also discuss hazards of forecasted weather, terrain, and bird 

species. 

Communications Plan 

A communications plan for the capture program needs to be part of the site 

safety plan. The communications plan identifies the method of communication 

that will be used by the capture team, types of communications equipment (e.g. 

radios, cell phone), and how the capture program communications will be 

monitored. 

Capture Equipment

An equipment maintenance and inventory schedule is an essential element of a 

successful bird capture program. Capture equipment and supplies need to be regularly 

maintained and restocked as necessary to ensure availability, cleanliness/ 

decontamination, and good working condition when an oil spill occurs. The equipment 

should be readily accessible and easily mobilized. Staging capture equipment in multiple 

locations can be helpful in reducing response time. 

Capture Technique

An effective capture of oiled birds occurs swiftly with minimal pursuit and noise, uses 

correct techniques based on the species pursued and local conditions, and exposes the 

oiled bird to the least amount of stress. Knowing the pursued species’ natural history 

and behavior allows for a more successful capture while decreasing the stress on the 

birds. Unless specifically authorized by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, no normal, 

healthy, unoiled birds may be collected. No capture activities may be conducted in 

pinniped or seabird rookeries. All bird carcasses that are discovered during capture, 

need to be collected to prevent secondary oiling. Capture teams should receive 

guidance from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service regarding carcass collection protocols 

and how to record the location and condition of each carcass prior to collection. (See 

Dead Oiled, Bird Handling on page 25). In the case of raptors, only appropriately 

trained individuals should carry out their capture as these birds require special 

handling techniques. 

The most common capture techniques use dip nets, net guns, and mist nets. Other 

techniques have been developed to target specific species groups (e.g. the use of foot 

traps for small shorebirds). The use of spotlights at night is sometimes employed for 

birds that are especially skittish and difficult to approach during the day. 
CAPTURE, HANDLING, AND TRANSPORT 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 21 

A capture team consists of two or more people wearing appropriate protective 

clothing. Capture equipment most likely to be needed should be carried at all times. 

The teams evaluate each capture site and develop strategies to suit the terrain and 

species being pursued. Prior to entering the search area, the team identifies a plan of 

action, keeping in mind that alternative plans and equipment need to be available 

should the primary plan fail. 

Capture by Boat

The first priority in the collection of oiled birds is to deal with birds already beached. 

Approaching and capturing birds from a boat is considered a secondary strategy. Oiled 

birds are under stress and should be allowed to come ashore at their own pace. Chasing 

an oiled bird will use up more of the bird’s energy reserves and subject it to further 

stress. When pursuing birds by boat, it is important to know the birds’ diving habits for 

best capture results. If capture is not accomplished after repeated attempts (3-4) on 

water, a judgment is made to either back away and hope the bird will beach itself or 

continue pursuit, which may result in the bird drowning. All personnel working near 

water must wear personal flotation devices. 

Bird Handling

All bird handling should be done in a manner that minimizes stress to the bird and 

ensures that the bird does not injure itself or the handler. Birds have different weapons 

and strategies for defense so it is important that oiled birds be handled correctly. The 

chasing, capturing, and confinement of oiled birds will also increase their susceptibility 

to secondary and stress-related problems. Use of proper techniques will minimize 

stress and maximize efficiency. Only authorized, permitted and trained individuals may 

handle oiled birds. 

The Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for the spilled oil should be reviewed prior to 

handling a contaminated bird. Birds are to be carefully handled through light coverings 

that minimize damage to the bird’s feathers and human exposure to oil. Coverings 

include sheets, towels and gloves. No oiled birds should be handled with bare hands. 

Although gloves and coverings are selected to eliminate skin contact with oil and to 

afford protection from pecks, bites and scratches, heavy or bulky gloves are rarely used 

and not recommended because they reduce human dexterity and can result in injury to 

the bird. 

Appropriate Bird Handling 

! Wear the appropriate personal protective gear, including gloves and 

eyewear; 

! Use a towel, sheet, or light covering to place over the birds; 
CAPTURE, HANDLING, AND TRANSPORT 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 22 

! Handle clean birds with clean gloves and equipment; 

! Be alert for occasional and unexpected sharp foreign objects in birds, such 

as fish hooks; 

! Approach a bird from behind or the side; 

! Get control of a bird’s head by grasping the beak where it joins the head, 

by controlling the neck at the base of the skull, or by cupping the skull 

with a gloved hand if towels and blankets are unavailable; 

! Fold the wings into its body and pick it up while controlling the head; 

! Hold birds at waist level and away from the face and other people to avoid 

injury from pecking and biting; and 

! Work in teams and request assistance if needed. 

NOTE: It is inappropriate to mechanically restrict the bird NOTE: 

(e.g., tape, rubber band) from opening its beak/bill. 

Appropriate handling techniques are based on the size and species of the bird. For 

example, small birds, such as shorebirds, are cupped in the hand and placed in small 

non-plastic, non-abrasive bags (e.g. pillowcase or small cloth bag). The basic technique 

for medium-sized oiled birds, such as a duck or murre is the two-handed body hold, 

making sure to not restrict the bird’s breathing. Large oiled birds, such as geese, are 

usually controlled using the buddy system to ensure a proper hold on the bird. 

References such as Handling and Restraint of Wild and Domestic Animals (Fowler, 

1995) provide more complete descriptions of bird handling techniques. Aggressive 

birds will require additional restraint of the head and/or feet and should only be 

handled by field personnel experienced in such techniques. 

NOTE: The handling of raptors should be left to appropriately 

qualified and experienced personnel. 

A summary of bird characteristics, natural history, and species-specific concerns is 

located in Appendix 4.

Containers

Captured birds are immediately placed into containers that provide safety for both the 

bird and the handlers. These include well-ventilated, solid-sided carriers such as 

modified cardboard boxes, plastic carriers, or shipping kennels. Containers are 

constructed to meet the hazards and conditions of transportation. Occasionally, 

qualified, experienced personnel may elect to use pillowcases as temporary field 

transport containers for small birds due to difficult terrain/access or weather 

conditions. All containers must close properly to prevent escape during transport. 
CAPTURE, HANDLING, AND TRANSPORT 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 23 

Bird container requirements 

! Secure lids/tops for closing; 

! Sufficient space inside for comfort; 

! Paper or cloth towels on the bottom of the container to absorb oil; 

! Adequate ventilation on all sides; and 

! Labeling to include: date, time, location of capture, species (if known), 

specific injury, and name of person capturing bird. 

Each container should contain only one bird unless determined otherwise by qualified, 

experienced personnel. If necessary, some gentle, gregarious birds of compatible 

species (see list below) may be placed two or three to an appropriately sized container. 

Compatible Species

Guillemots 

Auklets 

Murres 

Ducks (except Scoters) 

Mergansers 

Geese 

Terns 

Sandpipers 

Eared Grebes 

Horned Grebes 

Compatible species placed in the same container should be strong, stable, and equally 

affected by the oil. Containers are to be checked 5-10 minutes after placing birds 

together to ensure compatibility. 

Steps for Containered Birds 

! Pay attention. Do not leave containers with birds unattended; 

! Place containers in a safe and quiet location (e.g. away from noise and 

activity, above high tide-line); 

! Minimize temperature extremes (e.g. hot sun); 

! Space containers adequately to ensure sufficient ventilation; and 

! Keep containers away from oil vapors. 
CAPTURE, HANDLING, AND TRANSPORT 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 24 

When taking birds to a central collection site or rehabilitation facility, do not leave the 

birds unattended. Containers are to be handed over to a site worker. Convey to the 

site worker in writing and orally, information about the bird’s condition, the location 

the bird was found, etc. 

Field Stabilization 

All of the chemical hazards to humans also apply to affected birds. Attempts by oiled 

birds to clean their feathers through preening can result in oil ingestion and irritation of 

sensitive membranes of the eyes, mouth, lungs, and digestive tract. In addition, once 

feathers become matted, weatherproofing and insulating properties are lost, leading to 

either rapid chilling or overheating. Other problems may occur when food sources 

become contaminated, or when birds cannot fly or swim well enough to feed 

adequately. Despite being on water, oiled birds frequently experience dehydration and 

electrolyte abnormalities. 

Oil contaminated birds that are captured or collected by appropriately trained field 

teams may require stabilization in the field before being transported to an off-site 

rehabilitation facility. (See Training for Bird Rescue/Rehabilitation Personnel, page 8). Field 

stabilization is provided to oiled birds that are likely to remain in the field longer than 

2-3 hours. Field stabilization is a “first-aid” method, rendered only by trained 

personnel, for administering temporary care and initial treatment to quickly mitigate the 

effects of oiling on birds soon after capture. This field treatment will increase the oiled 

bird’s chances for successful cleaning, rehabilitation and eventual release. Field 

stabilization does not include washing or taking blood samples, which can stress the 

bird and is difficult to accomplish effectively in the field. 

Steps For Field Stabilization 

! Clear mouth, nostrils and eyes. Heavily oiled birds may have debris and oil 

built up in their mouths and nostrils, which may impair their breathing. 

These foreign materials are removed prior to any additional treatment 

being rendered. 

! Regulate temperature. Oiled birds lose their ability to thermoregulate. 

When possible, the bird’s temperature is taken and the bird is warmed or 

cooled as appropriate. Once a bird’s body temperature is normal, the bird 

is closely monitored for visual signs of chill or overheating. 

! Treat for dehydration. Oiled birds are almost always significantly 

dehydrated and need to be gavage-fed fluids on a regular schedule, 

beginning at stabilization and as long as presenting conditions do not 

contra-indicate the administration of oral fluids. Pedialyte®, or a similar 

electrolyte solution, is recommended for treating dehydration. If the bird 

will remain in the field for a significantly long period prior to stabilization 

at a facility, a stomach-coating product (e.g., Toxiban®) may be used to 

help reduce the long-term effects of ingested oil. 
CAPTURE, HANDLING, AND TRANSPORT 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 25 

! Minimize stress. Place birds in a safe, quiet, warm, ventilated area away 

from drafts, human disturbance, and other noises. 

! Record field treatments. Transmit treatment records for individual birds, 

or for groups of birds (when treating large numbers of birds) with the 

bird(s) when they are checked in at the rehabilitation center. 

Dead, Oiled Bird Handling 

During an oil spill response, all carcasses need to be collected to prevent secondary 

oiling. Oiled bird carcasses will be collected in accordance with spill incident-specific 

instructions and chain-of-custody protocols provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service. (See Records, page 43). The designated, local USFWS representative will 

coordinate the collection, storage, and handling of any dead migratory birds with the 

Service’s Division of Law Enforcement. When collected, each bird carcass is placed in 

an individual plastic bag. Where cause-of-death analysis is important, each bird must 

first be wrapped in clean foil to keep the carcass from contacting the plastic bag, which 

could contaminate the hydrocarbon sample. Each carcass is labeled with the date, time, 

location, species (if known), and collector’s name; taken to a designated morgue 

location; and placed in a refrigerated unit. 

Bird Transport 

Captured birds are moved to an appropriate stabilization or treatment center at the 

earliest opportunity. Only appropriately trained personnel may transport birds (see 

Training for Bird Rescue/Rehabilitation Personnel, page 8). It is preferable to transport birds 

in an enclosed vehicle. Adequate space (at least 1-1/2") is left between containers 

during transport to allow sufficient airflow through side vents (top vents are not, by 

themselves, adequate). Remember, freshly oiled birds typically emit hydrocarbon 

vapors; therefore, always maintain adequate ventilation in the vehicle to protect both 

humans and birds from inhaling such vapors. Only one bird per transport container is 

acceptable except in the case of non-aggressive, compatible species (e.g. murres), which 

may be transported two or three birds (same species) to an appropriately sized 

container (see Containers, page 22). 

Containers are secured to prevent load shifting that could cause the containers to slide 

together and impede air circulation. Birds are placed in secured containers before being 

transported to protect them from injury or escape during the transport process. If 

birds must be transported in an open vehicle or skiff, it is important that all containers 

are securely tied with rope or straps prior to transport. Make sure to compensate for 

cold outside temperatures and wind chill when moving birds in an open vehicle. 

Temperature control and monitoring are critical during transport. Wet birds may 

require a temperature close to 80°F to be comfortable during transport, while dry, oiled 

birds will require a cooler environment. Note that birds may overheat inside an airconditioned vehicle when containers are exposed to direct sunlight. Keep in mind that 
CAPTURE, HANDLING, AND TRANSPORT 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 26 

human comfort during transport may not be synonymous with the temperature and 

ventilation needs of the transported birds. 

Birds are monitored periodically on transports longer than one hour, as directed by the 

response veterinarian. For trips that take longer than four hours, birds should be 

hydrated periodically during the transport. Critical cases require more frequent 

monitoring. The person transporting birds must maintain contact between the field 

and the rehabilitation facility so that departure and arrival times may be anticipated at 

these locations. 

Summary of Transport Practices

! Allow 1-1/2" between containers for ventilation; 

! Only 1 bird per container unless they are non-aggressive compatible 

species; 

! Maintain inside vehicle air temperature between 68-70°F or higher if birds 

are cold; and 

! Monitor birds hourly; more frequently if unstable. 

NOTE: No domestic animals are allowed in transport vehicles. NOTE: 
 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 27 

Chapter

5

Stabilization and 

Rehabilitation

In accordance with 50 CFR 21.31, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service issues permits for 

migratory bird rehabilitation. A rehabilitation permit is required for the capture, care, 

and treatment of oiled migratory birds. Only those individuals trained and experienced 

in oil spill response bird stabilization and rehabilitation techniques may care for oiled 

birds (see Training for Bird Rescue/Rehabilitation Personnel, page 8). During an oil spill 

response, the Incident Command must authorize all bird rehabilitation activities. 

These activities are developed within the Environmental Unit of the Planning Section 

of the ICS and implemented within the Wildlife Branch of the Operations Section. 

The goal in rehabilitating birds during an oil spill response is the release of a healthy 

bird back into its natural environment. The stabilization procedures described in this 

section (similar to those described under “Field Stabilization” in the previous chapter) 

represent the first medical treatment that an oiled bird receives soon after capture. 

Only trained and experienced personnel may administer this type of care. Stabilization 

procedures are performed at a designated stabilization site or at the primary 

rehabilitation center. 

General Guidelines for Stabilization 

! Stabilize within 2 to 4 hours of capture. 

! Minimize stress. Handle the birds as little as possible. Prepare treatments 

ahead of time. Keep noise to a minimum. Speak in a low voice. Provide 

visual barriers or “hides” so that the birds do not have to constantly see 

humans or other birds. 

! Provide appropriate temperature control and ventilation. This is especially 

important since oiled birds typically have difficulty regulating their body 

temperature and are susceptible to secondary diseases that can be caused 

by poor ventilation. 
STABILIZATION AND REHABILITATION 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 28 

! Evaluate all cases and consider euthanasia of high-risk birds. Unnecessary 

suffering can be alleviated and limited resources dedicated to those birds 

having a better chance of survival. (See Euthanasia , page 30). 

! Prevent health risks to humans and to other birds. Wear protective 

eyewear, protective clothing, and masks (if appropriate) when handling 

oiled birds. Isolate birds with signs of infectious disease. Understand the 

physical dangers associated with the handling of each species. Secure 

treatment for injured humans, clean all cuts thoroughly with an antiseptic, 

and obtain medical attention for major wounds. 

! Keep complete and accurate records. This helps to ensure that each bird 

receives appropriate medical care. A sequentially numbered, plastic leg 

band or equivalent ID tag, should be applied to identify each bird while in 

care. (See Records, page 43). 

Federal regulations require a written agreement with a licensed, veterinarian-of-record

who will provide medical supervision and oversight during a bird-related response (50 

CFR 21.31(d)(1)(iii). The veterinarian is responsible for all medical aspects of the 

capture and treatment program, but does not necessarily have to be physically present 

during all bird treatment and care actions. 

Veterinarian-of-Record Responsibilities 

! Joint decision-making with rehabilitation personnel; 

! Use of controlled substances (e.g. sedatives, euthanasia); 

! Necropsy supervision; 

! Triage and pre-release evaluation; and 

! Quality of medical records. 

Evaluation and Admission 

The evaluation and admission process involves collection of biomedical data on 

individual birds, to establish the medical and rehabilitation courses of action necessary 

to care for that bird. All personnel performing bird evaluation and admission must 

wear appropriate personal protective equipment to protect them from exposure to oil 

and potential injury from birds. Additionally, steps should be taken to minimize stress 

to birds during this process, including speaking in a low voice, and rapid completion of 

the examination to reduce bird handling time. 

When prioritizing multiple birds of the same species, treatment prioritization is based 

on the nature and extent of oiling, physical examination, and blood parameters. 

Medical attention should be given to those with the greatest probability of survival. 
STABILIZATION AND REHABILITATION 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 29 

Four criteria that can be used to establish prognosis are (1) packed cell volume 

(PCV)/total solids (TS) determinations, (2) body weight relative to norm for species, 

(3) body temperature, and (4) physical exam results. Birds that do not meet criteria set 

for these results may be quickly, and humanely euthanized in order to alleviate 

suffering and to allow more treatable birds a greater opportunity of rehabilitation 

success. 

However, when multiple species are presented for triage, prioritization by species may 

also be necessary. For example, an endangered species or a species of special concern 

may be given priority over resident waterfowl or an exotic species with the same or 

more critical condition. The incident-specific wildlife recovery and rehabilitation plan 

addresses species prioritization, as an integrated parameter of triage. The designated 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service representative establishes the species prioritization in 

close consultation with the veterinarian-of-record. 

General Steps for Evaluation and Admission 

! Start an individual record for each bird. 

! Review and record bird data provided by field team: capture location, date, 

time, chain-of-custody information. 

! Place a temporary identification band or tag on each bird. 

! Record general bird information: ID number, species, age class, sex (if 

possible). 

! Record overall impression of bird’s clinical status (e.g. depressed, 

hyperactive, alert, etc.). 

! Record degree of oiling: area(s) of body and degree (light, etc.). 

! Perform physical examination: record temperature, weight, presence of 

overt injuries/disease states, oil-related effects, etc. 

! Perform stabilization treatment: manually remove excess oil from nares, 

mouth and vent; flush eyes with a sterile saline or equivalent solution; and 

administer Pepto-Bismol® or Toxiban® or their equivalents in 

conjunction with hydration using a balanced electrolyte solution. 

! Collect samples: take a blood sample to determine packed cell volume 

(PCV), total solids (TS) and blood glucose (BG); an oiled feather sample; a 

photograph of the bird (for evidentiary purposes); and other specialized 

samples for additional biomedical diagnostics, as indicated. 
STABILIZATION AND REHABILITATION 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 30 

Additional medical therapies that may be warranted 

! Parenteral (e.g., not oral) fluid administration. 

! Prophylactic use of antifungals (e.g., itraconazole). 

! Start of treatment/isolation for overt clinical disease or injuries. 

! Start of treatment addressing hematological abnormalities. 

! Treatment of vomiting and/or seizures. 

! Initiation of additional diagnostics when indicated (e.g. blood 

panels/CBC’s, radiographs, or cultures). 

Inappropriate Treatments During Admission 

! Prophylactic use of antibiotics, eye ointments, or antiparasitics in the 

absence of clinical signs. 

! Oral administration of mineral oil. 

! Washing bird immediately after initial evaluation and admission. 

Euthanasia 

During an oil spill response, there are circumstances under which it may be necessary 

to humanely euthanize birds. For each spill where bird rehabilitation is undertaken, the 

bird rehabilitator will prepare a written euthanasia plan in consultation with the 

veterinarian-of-record and the designated U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service representative. 

The euthanasia plan will take into account species, spill, and regional characteristics. 

Euthanasia is appropriate for any oiled bird with injuries that will render it unable to 

survive in the wild or unsuitable for use in captivity (50 CFR 21.31(e)(4)(iii)). Such 

injuries include fractured limbs (particularly those affecting a joint), injuries to the beak, 

extensive soft tissue injuries, and significant visual or auditory deficits. If birds are 

euthanized in the field, they will be collected following the procedures outlined in this 

document in Chapter 4. To prevent secondary contamination or poisoning, euthanized 

carcasses are never left in the field. 

See Appendix 5.

Necropsy 

Valuable information can be collected from necropsies of dead birds. This information 

can be used both to refine treatment protocols for live birds during the spill event as 
STABILIZATION AND REHABILITATION 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 31 

well as to collect data on the successes and limitations of the rehabilitation process. The 

spill response veterinarian-of-record should conduct or supervise all necropsies, in 

consultation with the designated representative of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Prior to conducting a necropsy, the USFWS representative and veterinarian will agree 

on which forms to use; which samples to collect (e.g., tissues, feathers); how those 

samples will be prepared (e.g., formalin or frozen), stored, and shipped; and where 

samples will be analyzed. Reports are filed and all samples handled and stored using 

appropriate chain-of-custody protocols, provided by the USFWS. 

Cleaning 

The structure of a bird’s feathers provides insulation and waterproofing. When a bird is 

oiled, waterproofing and insulation are lost, which may lead to hypothermia. Internal 

effects of oil may include damage to the lungs, gastrointestinal-hematological system, 

liver, or kidneys. This damage is caused by inhalation of volatile components, ingestion 

during preening, drinking or eating, and dehydration. 

Based on these injuries, birds must be medically stabilized before cleaning. The 

cleaning process can be stressful to birds and care should be taken at every step to 

reduce that stress. Birds are monitored for signs of stress or instability during the wash, 

rinse, and drying processes. Handlers must always work in teams when handling birds 

during the cleaning process. 

Bird Health Criteria for Cleaning 

! Bright/Alert/Responsive (BAR); judged stable. 

! Packed cell volume (PCV) and total solids (TS) within 90% of normal 

values. 

! Exceptions as determined by veterinarian on a case-by-case basis. 

Wash Water Criteria

! Pressurized and adjustable system delivery at 40-60 psi. 

! Temperature 102 to 108°F depending on species, type of oil, and 

condition of the bird. 

! Hardness 2-5 grains per gallon (some variation in species requirements). 

! Large volumes of water (with these characteristics) available. 

Cleaning-agent Criteria

! Able to remove oil from feathers without damaging feather structure or 

irritating skin and mucosal surfaces. 

! Non-toxic. 
STABILIZATION AND REHABILITATION 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 32 

! Leaves no residue. 

NOTE: The only bird-cleaning agent that is recommended at NOTE:

this time is Dawn® dishwashing liquid (regular, not antibacterial formula) because it removes oil from feathers; is 

non-toxic; and does not leave a residue. Other methods or 

products are not recommended for use or testing during an oil 

spill at this time. 

NOTE: Pretreatment agents are used only when absolutely NOTE:

necessary because they are an additional substance that 

must be removed. Methyloleate or warmed Canola oil are 

appropriate agents for pre-treatment of tarry feathers. 

Drying 

The most effective means of drying most bird species is to maintain an ambient air 

temperature between 90 to 95°F using a pet dryer. Other heat sources, such as heat 

lamps or brooders, may be more appropriate for some species including most 

shorebirds. Birds are continually monitored during the drying process to ensure that 

they do not become overheated. Using net-bottom pens for most water birds will 

reduce the chances of overheating and allow for better circulation of warm air to 

ventral (belly) feathers. Some species (e.g. eagles, pelicans), however, require the use of 

pens with solid floors. 

Waterproofing (water birds) 

After water birds (e.g. ducks, murres) are washed and determined to be dry or 

waterproofed, they are given access to freshwater pools for swimming. Birds are 

checked regularly to monitor for chilling and incomplete waterproofing. A seabird is 

considered “waterproofed” if it exhibits normal behavior, body temperature, and 

buoyancy after 24 hours in a pool with no haul-out. Some reasons for a lack of proper 

waterproofing may include incomplete removal of oil, incomplete or non-optimal 

rinsing, underlying injury or disease, poor pool-water quality, and feather loss or 

damage. 

Waterproofing (terrestrial and wading birds) 

After a terrestrial or wading bird is washed and determined to be dry or waterproofed, 

it is given access to fresh water for drinking and bathing. Additionally, misting the bird 

will encourage preening and test for waterproofing. Terrestrial birds should display 

waterproofing appropriate for their species. 

Husbandry 

Husbandry encompasses the housing, hygiene and nutritional aspects of maintaining 

wild birds in captivity. The goal in rehabilitating oiled birds is the release of healthy 

birds back into their natural environment. In order to achieve this goal, it is necessary 
STABILIZATION AND REHABILITATION 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 33 

to treat the presenting problem — injury from oiling — as well as to prevent any 

secondary infections or injuries that may occur while keeping birds in captivity. The key 

to quality husbandry during an oil spill response is an emphasis on herd-health 

management. 

Housing 

Injuries or illnesses from improper captive housing can be a serious problem in the 

rehabilitation of oiled birds. Appropriate housing can reduce or prevent problems such 

as pressure sores, feather contamination, foot lesions, and infectious disease 

transmission. The following are best practices guidelines for good housing design and 

maintenance to maximize the chances of survival and release of healthy birds: 

! Construct pens according to the needs of the species affected. 

! Allow appropriate space based on species need. 

! Provide padding as necessary. 

! Avoid cages with wire walls or floors as these can cause feather damage, 

beak trauma, and foot lesions. 

! Avoid solid floors for species susceptible to keel sores or fecal 

contamination of feathers. 

! Provide perches as required. 

! Provide for an adequate thermal gradient (combination of ambient air 

temperature and radiant heat source) appropriate for birds to maintain 

normal body temperature. 

! Avoid placing washed (clean) birds in housing that previously held oiled 

(contaminated) birds to minimize the risk of re-oiling clean birds. 

! Maintain high water quality through water exchange or overflow to 

eliminate waterproofing problems by re-contaminating feathers. 

! Provide haul-outs as required, taking into account waterproofing and prerelease condition. 

Disinfecting 

Prevention of disease transmission relies heavily on effective disinfecting and 

sterilization of all inert objects used in treating the birds. In addition, consistency in 

technique and frequency of cleaning procedures will help ensure that optimum 

cleanliness is maintained throughout the response effort. Personnel should be trained 

in standard cleaning procedures so that these procedures will become routine. 
STABILIZATION AND REHABILITATION 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 34 

Some Important Disinfecting Guidelines 

! Know which pathogens are likely to occur; match disinfectant agents and 

procedures for best results. 

! Clean and disinfect transport cages, holding pens, and restraint equipment 

after each use. Outdoor steam-cleaning is the preferred cleaning method. 

! Change the papers under net-bottom pens at least twice a day. 

! Complete water turnover, at least every 4 hours, to provide the most 

effective water filtration or overflow in pools. 

Nutrition 

Birds are fed sufficient food to increase body weight. Sufficiency is determined by the 

nutritional value of the food, based on a metabolic formula as well as the underlying 

body condition and health status of the bird. 

Nutritional and Food-Handling Guidelines 

! Food Types and Delivery: In most cases, gavage-feed birds a high-caloric 

and digestible food slurry prior to washing. For cleaned birds, provide solid 

food, appropriate for the species, in dishes or containers in a manner that 

prevents re-soiling of feathers. Feed birds, within pools, non-oily food in a 

manner that mimics feeding in their natural environment. Allow all birds, 

within an enclosure or pool, an opportunity to feed. Keep feeding records 

for each bird, or pen of birds in the case of large numbers of birds. 

! Cleanliness: Wash hands prior to, and after, handling food. Thoroughly 

clean and disinfect all food preparation utensils and containers after each 

use. 

! Storage: Properly store all food in freezers, refrigerators, airtight containers, 

etc. to prevent contamination and spoiling. Store bird and human food 

separately. Monitor temperatures of refrigerators, freezers, thawing tubs 

and food handing areas to ensure food quality. 

Ongoing Health Assessment 

After washing, bird assessment must continue to determine whether additional medical 

and rehabilitation intervention is necessary prior to a release assessment. These 

procedures, while not as intensively instituted as during intake, follow the same basic 

areas: assessment of hematological values (PCV, TS), assessment of nutritional state 

(through successive weighing and assessment of flesh tone), and behavioral 

observations in pools or pens (to ensure appropriate feeding activities, social 

interactions, waterproofing, and other behaviors). All birds are handled either with 

washed hands or powder-free gloves (to maintain waterproofing status), and only noncontaminated exam equipment and areas are used for these assessments. Additional 
STABILIZATION AND REHABILITATION 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 35 

pre-release rehabilitative care may be necessary for some individuals and, if birds need 

to be kept in a hospital situation for a period of time, rewashing may be necessary. 
 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 36 

Chapter

6

Facility Requirements 

The size and extent of a rehabilitation facility will vary depending on location and need. 

Not all spill responses will require the use of, or will be in the vicinity of a permanent 

bird rehabilitation facility. The size of the spill, its location, and the number of birds 

oiled will determine the type and location of a facility that can meet the required need. 

There are basically, three types of oiled bird rehabilitation facilities: fixed, permanent 

facility; temporary facility established in local, fixed structures; and mobile units brought 

to a spill location to set up a temporary facility. 

The facility requirements in 50 CFR 21.31 establish minimal standards of care. It is 

critical that spill responders and pre-spill planners recognize the degree of effort and 

complexity required to implement a migratory bird response and establish an adequate 

facility. Pre-spill planning is encouraged to achieve wildlife response systems that will 

adequately address the needs of small as well as large bird-rescue efforts. For best 

achievable care standards, response entities who are planning or authorizing oiled-bird 

rehabilitation facilities are encouraged to consult: (1) entities who have constructed 

permanent facilities, operated temporary facilities, or who have conducted facility 

planning (e.g., OWCN/IBRRC, Washington State, Tri-State Bird Rescue and Research, 

Inc.); and (2) documents such as the States/British Columbia Oil Spill Task Force 

wildlife facilities report. 

Regardless of the type of facility used for bird rehabilitation during a spill response, the 

following facility requirement guidelines apply: 

Facility Setup 

! Establish and operate intake, holding, and isolation areas within 24 hours of 

wildlife response activation. 

! Establish and operate bird cleaning and pre-release areas within 48 hours of 

wildlife response activation. 

Facility Layout (traffic flow) 

! Separate contaminated and uncontaminated areas with a de-contamination 

area, to eliminate cross-contamination from oil and disease. 
FACILITY REQUIREMENTS 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 37 

! Ensure that facility layout minimizes audio and visual stimulus (e.g., human 

traffic and noise) to reduce stress to birds. 

! Ensure that layout facilitates the natural “flow” of birds through the 

admission, rehabilitation, and release process. 

Established Bird Areas (within a Facility) 

! Intake 

! Holding 

! Wash/rinse 

! Drying 

! Pools/Outdoor caging 

! Food preparation 

! Hospital/isolation 

! Morgue/necropsy 

! Storage 

In certain situations and depending on the spill characteristics, areas may have multiple 

designations, i.e., intake may need to occur in the holding area, but such designations will 

still follow the above indicated “traffic flow” requirements. 

NOTE: A general guideline for estimating sufficient space for NOTE:

the bird holding area within a facility, including walking and 

aisle space, is to allow for 6 square feet per average-sized (1 

kg) bird. More space may be needed for larger birds. 

Facility Temperature 

! Maintain air temperature between 65-85°F, adjustable within 2°F 

increments, in all pre-wash and wash areas, including bird intake, holding, 

and hospital. 

! Maintain ability to warm or cool individual bird enclosures as needed. 

! Maintain temperature in all remaining areas to meet human comfort needs. 

Air/Ventilation

! Provide fresh air exchanges via air/ventilation system that ensures healthful 

air quality (as indicated by low odor levels, prevention of mold/mildew 
FACILITY REQUIREMENTS 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 38 

growth, and minimal dust particles). Use of HEPA filters is highly 

recommended. 

o Optimal: In bird areas, a minimum of 10 to 15 air exchanges per 

hour, to minimize disease risk. 

o Optimal: In human areas, a minimum of 8 air exchanges per hour. 

Electricity 

! Maintain a reliable electrical supply sufficient for all electrical needs 

including heating, lighting, ventilation, air conditioning, water heaters, pet 

dryers, heat lamps, blenders, freezers, refrigerators, pool filters, computers, 

and faxes. 

! Provide Ground Fault Interrupt circuits in all areas where circuits may be 

exposed to water. 

Water Supply 

! Temperature: Provide washing and rinsing water temperatures of 102 to 

108°F, while maintaining additional hot water supply sufficient for other 

uses (e.g., laundry, cleaning, food preparation, warm-water pools). 

! Pressure: Provide water pressure at 40-60 psi in wash and rinse area, while 

maintaining sufficient water pressure in other areas (e.g., doing laundry, 

washing dishes). 

! Quantity: Provide supply line(s) large enough for all areas requiring water 

simultaneously (e.g., wash/rinse area, pool area, laundry.) The quantity 

should be sufficient to provide a continuous flow of 4 gallons/minute to all 

indoor outlets and additional supply for pools. 

! Quality: Maintain a water hardness of 2-5 grains per gallon for all bird wash 

and rinse stations and waterproofing pools. Provide a source of potable 

water for human use. 

Waste Water 

! Facilitate disposal of all oily wastewater in accordance with appropriate 

Federal, State, and municipal regulations. 

! Facilitate disposal of all gray water (e.g., rinse water, pool overflow) in 

accordance with appropriate Federal, State, and municipal regulations. 

! Control storm water and other runoff, as appropriate, to prevent contact 

with gray water and oily wastewater. 
FACILITY REQUIREMENTS 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 39 

Solid Waste 

! Facilitate disposal of all solid waste in accordance with appropriate Federal, 

State, and/or local hazardous waste, municipal solid waste, and/or 

biological waste laws and regulations. 

! Ensure that disposal of carcasses proceeds under the direction of the 

designated U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service representative. 

Outdoor Areas 

! Maintain a perimeter of restricted access from the public to outdoor areas. 

! Provide outdoor space typically as large as the footprint of the facility itself 

(buildings or structures); may be larger depending on the species. 

! Provide sufficient pool size as dictated by release criteria and by species (e.g., 

to demonstrate that grebes can fly, flight space is provided within the 

outdoor enclosure). 

! Locate facility in a place that minimizes visual and auditory stress to birds. 

! Provide vehicle access and parking. 

Non-Bird Areas 

! De-contamination area. 

! Administration area (e.g., sign in, volunteer orientation, training, record 

keeping). 

! Rest areas and rest rooms for workers. 

! Sufficient space for human food storage, preparation, and dining. 

Security 

! Provide controlled access to the facility and any associated outdoor areas 

(e.g., pools, bird enclosures). 

Pest Control 

! Develop and maintain a pest control plan for rodents and insects. 

! Develop and maintain a plan for predator exclusion. 

Communications 

! Ensure adequate access to phones, faxes, and computers with internet 

access for all rehabilitation personnel. 
FACILITY REQUIREMENTS 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 40 

! Maintain communication, via radio or cell phone, with all field capture 

teams and field stabilization units. 

Visitor Control 

! Coordinate and facilitate all visits by news media through the Joint 

Information Center within the ICS. 

! Limit visitor frequency to no more than 2 per day. 

! Limit number of persons per visit to minimize stress to birds. 
 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 41 

Chapter

7

Release

Release Criteria 

The goal in rehabilitating oiled birds is to release healthy birds back into their natural 

environment. During a spill event, it is highly recommended that the bird rehabilitator 

prepare a release plan for the release of rehabilitated birds in consultation with the 

designated USFWS representative. The plan is submitted to the Planning Section 

within the ICS and authorized by the Incident Command. There are certain criteria that 

must be met prior to releasing birds. For those birds that do not meet release criteria, 

several options are available following consultation with the USFWS. These include 

additional rehabilitation, euthanasia, or placement in a long-term facility. 

Bird Release Criteria 

! Normal behavior (including natural feeding, swimming, & diving); 

! Body weight within 10% of normal for that species; 

! Waterproofed; 

! Normal blood values; 

! Normal physical exam; 

! Free of apparent disease; 

! Acclimated to outdoor temperature and light; 

! Pelagic species who have been maintained on fresh water for over 14 days 

should be re-acclimated to salt water prior to release; and 

! Free of all temporary leg bands and other ID tags and fitted with a 

permanent USFWS metal leg band. 

Release Site Criteria 

! No oil contamination present; 
RELEASE 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 42 

! No risk of re-contamination; 

! Same general geographic area of capture, if possible; 

! Appropriate seasonal range for species (important consideration during 

migration periods); 

! Available, natural, uncontaminated food sources; 

! Minimal human disturbance (e.g., boats, noise); 

! Favorable weather conditions/forecast; 

! Appropriate time of day for species; and 

! Minimal logistics for traveling to site. 

Post-Release Monitoring 

To determine the long-term effectiveness of rehabilitation of oiled birds, post-release 

monitoring is a necessary component of the rehabilitation effort. Follow-up on 

released birds can improve the processes and criteria associated with emergency bird 

care. Monitoring also enhances biologists’ understanding of the role that exposure to 

oil has on both medical and behavioral aspects to bird ecology, such as short-term and 

long-term survival and breeding status. A post-release monitoring plan should be part 

of the USFWS-approved release plan. 

Several different methods are currently used for post-release monitoring of birds after 

rehabilitation. The most commonly used technique is to acquire federal band return 

data, collected by hunters, beach walk programs, or others, to determine mortality 

levels in released birds. Although this method is relatively simple to undertake, it is 

difficult to determine survival with any confidence due to low band return rates. A 

method that facilitates collection of more behavioral information is color banding and 

visual observation of released animals. This method requires large amounts of 

observation effort and is limited to birds that remain close to land and do not migrate. 

The most effective means to acquire information on released oil rehabilitated birds is 

through the use of radiotelemetry. This method involves placing a transmitter onto 

birds prior to release and monitoring the activated signal by radio or satellite. In this 

way, biologists may follow birds for months to years after release. 
 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 43 

Chapter

8

Records

The importance of recording information cannot be over-emphasized. Record 

collection enhances individual bird care, response evaluations, and the ability to 

accurately characterize the best practices for appropriate care. In-house records are 

maintained at the rehabilitation facility and copies provided to the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service. Final reports from the rehabilitator for the oiled-bird response, 

including carcass chain-of-custody and sample collection records, where required, 

should be delivered to the USFWS within 30 days of the date the FOSC declares 

the response closed or from the departure date of the rescue/rehabilitation 

organization, whichever comes first. 

Scientific Records 

The following types of records are necessary to preserve vital information for scientific 

study, natural resource damage assessment, and improved rehabilitation practices and 

techniques: 

! Resources-at-Risk Survey: provides information regarding the location of 

birds and other animals in relation to the spilled oil. 

! Oiled bird sightings: records and maps for all reports of oiled birds. 

! Field Retrieval Report: records for all birds collected in field. 

! Live Bird Log. 

! Dead Bird Log. 

! Running tally: list of all in-house birds by species and case number. 

! Daily Care Report: documents care for each bird or enclosure, including 

feedings, treatments, medications, normal/abnormal activities. 

! End-of-Day Report: reports current and next day’s work. 
RECORDS 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 44

! Oiled Bird Examination Report: individual record summary of retrieval, 

medical exam, diagnostic results, samples collected (chemical, blood, and 

tissue), cleaning, treatment, evaluation, chain-of-custody, Federal bird 

bands, and final disposition. 

! Record of samples collected (chemical, blood, feather, and tissue). 

! Lab Analyses Report: identifies all samples sent to labs; requested analyses; 

and lab results. 

! Federal Bird Banding Report: lists all birds banded for release. 

! Necropsy Report. 

Some sample forms are provided in Appendix 6.

Administrative Records 

The following are types of additional documentation and reporting requirements 

associated with an oil spill response effort for entities such as the Incident Command 

System, USFWS Rehabilitation Permit Office of Migratory Bird Management, and law 

enforcement, among others. 

! Incident Action Plan – ICS 200: Includes Site Safety and Health Plan, 

Communications Plan, Organizational Structure, and Group Assignments. 

! Pollution Incident Daily Resource Report (USCG Daily Report). 

! Chain-of-Custody Record: all migratory birds that die as a result of contact 

with exposed oil represent evidence of a potential violation of the Migratory 

Bird Treaty Act. As such, each bird carcass must be labeled with an Evidence 

Seizure Tag provided by the USFWS Division of Law Enforcement or other law 

enforcement agency, through the designated USFWS representative. The bird 

carcasses are then delivered to a central, secure, evidence storage area and a 

Chain-of-Custody record completed. 

! Qualified Wildlife Responder Application. 

Some sample administrative record forms are provided in Appendix 6. 
REFERENCES 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 45

References 

Beaulieu, D. and G. Fitzgerald. 1998. Rehabilitation of contaminated birds: 

emergency action guide for oil spills. Union Quebecoise De Rehabilitation 

Des Oiseaux De Proie. 27p. 

Environment Canada. Oiled bird stabilization training course. Marine Oil Spill 

Workforce Manual. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. Victoria, 

BC. 30 p. 

Environment Canada. Oiled bird search and collection training course. Marine 

Oil Spill Workforce Manual. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. 

Victoria, BC. 33 p. 

Fowler, M.E. 1995. Handling and restraint of wild and domestic animals. Iowa 

State University Press. Ames, IA. 392 p. 

Gilardi, K.V.K. and J.A.K. Mazet. 1999. Oiled wildlife response in California: A 

summary of current knowledge of populations at risk and response 

techniques. Oiled Wildlife Care Network, Wildlife Health Center, School 

of Veterinary Medicine, University of Califoria, Davis, CA. 124 p. 

Greer, R.D., D.J. O’Connor, L Frink, and S. Welte. 1998. Rehabilitation manual 

for oiled birds. Exxon Biomedical Sciences, Inc. East MillStone, NJ. And 

Tri-State Bird Rescue and Research, Inc. Newark, DE. 55p. 

Greer, R.D. and D.J. O'Connor. 1994. Waterbird Deterrent Techniques. 

Exxon, Biomedical Sciences, Inc. Marine Spill Response Corporation, 

Washington, D.C. MSRC Technical Report Series 94-003. 38 p. 

Lehoux, D. and D. Bordage. 2000. Deterrent techniques and bird dispersal 

approach for oil spills. Environment Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service. 

80 p. 

Miller, E.A., editor. 2000. Minimum Standards for Wildlife Rehabilitation, 3rd 

edition. National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association, St. Cloud, MN. 77 p. 

Oiled Wildlife Care Network: California Department of Fish and Game, Office 

of Spill Prevention and Response. 2000. Protocols for the care of oilaffected birds. Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, 

University of California, Davis, CA. 74 p. 

Tarpley, J. and P. Kelly. 2000. Wildlife Response Plan for California. Sec 9710, 

Vol. I, Area Contingency Plan for the California North Coast, San 

Francisco Bay and Delta, and Central Coast. U.S. Coast Guard, Marine 

Safety Office, San Francisco, CA. 38 p. 
REFERENCES 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 46

White, J., S. Patton, A. Kasper, and J. Lainson. 1998. Recommended protocols 

for the care of oil-affected birds. States/British Columbia Oil Spill Task 

Force. Portland, OR. 73 p. 

USFWS and Resource Applications Inc. 2000. Fish and Wildlife Annex to the 

USEPA Region III Inland Area Contingency Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service, Annapolis, Maryland/Resource Applications Inc. Richmond, VA. 

In: USEPA Region III Inland Area Contingency Plan. 1997. U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency, Philadelphia, PA. 78 p. 
 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 47

Appendices
 APPENDIX: SAMPLE SUPPLY & MATERIALS LIST 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 48

Appendix 1. Sample Supply and Materials List 

Administration/Communications Items: 

No. Item Purchase (P) or Stockpile (S) 

 Air horn P 

 Animal identification and natural history books P 

 Beepers P 

 Binoculars P 

 Cellular phones P 

 Chairs, folding or stacking S 

 First Aid Kit (humans) P 

 Food and fluids for volunteers geared to good nutrition and hydration (from a list of local 

sources prepared in advance) 

P 

 Maps of impacted area and response facilities P 

 Marine radios (handheld) P 

 Master copies of all forms (designed in advance) P 

 MSDS binder (add pertinent sheets as needed) S 

 Operations Manual (designed in advance) S 

Animal Care Items: 

No. Item Purchase (P) or Stockpile (S) 

 Aluminum foil P 

 Antiseptic solution (Povidone iodine; chlorhexidine) P 

 Aprons (full coverage vinyl) S 

 Astro-Bubble® bedding roll S 

 Barrier Cream S 

 Bleach S 

 Blender, industrial type S 

 Blood collection tubes: Red top ____ Lavender top____ Green top ____ other types _____ P 

 Boots, 16” vinyl (Men’s sizes 5-12) S 

 Broad spectrum antibiotic (having wide safety margin) P 

 Brood Rite® heaters 240 500 750 watt units S 

 Buckets, 5 gallon P 

 Butterfly catheters--Pediatric size or Scalp vein sizes P 

 Camera, disposable (to record each animal on intake) P 

 Can opener P 

 Cardiac and respiratory stimulants P 

 Catch pole S 

 Centrifuge for hematocrit tubes P 

 Clay tray for hematocrit tubes P 

 Cleaning table--sturdy, stable, and water resistant (96”x30”x28“) S 

 Cloth tape P 

 Clothes pins S 
 APPENDIX: SAMPLE SUPPLY & MATERIALS LIST 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 49

 Cotton balls P 

 Cotton swabs P 

 Culturettes P 

 Cutting board S 

 Dawn® dishwashing liquid S 

 Dexamethasone sodium succinate P 

 Diaper pins S 

 Digital gram scale P 

 Dish drainer mat (perforated) S 

 Dishpans, plastic S 

 Disinfectant (Roccal D®) P 

 Drum lid wrench P 

 Drums, 55 gallon with lids P 

 Elasticon® tape P 

 Electrical adapters (heavy duty, triple outlet, outdoor type) S 

 Enteric coating agent (i.e. Pepto-Bismol® or Toxiban®) P 

 Euthanasia solution P 

 Exam forms P 

 Exam Tables Size: S 

 Eye wash bottles P 

 Floatation vest S 

 Floor mats, non-slip, self draining, anti-fatigue S 

 Foley catheters (12-16 gauge, with adapters) (12 adapters and 30 catheters per dozen animals) P 

 Food processor S 

 Food strainers S 

 Food/water containers Size(s): S 

 Formalin 10% P 

 Galvanized tubs, 17 gallon round, with lids S 

 Garbage can, 33 gal. metal with lid & wheels (rodent proof food storage) S 

 Garden hose (25’) S 

 Gauntlet style gloves, butyl or neoprene S 

 Gauze squares P 

 Heat lamp fixtures with inline switch, clamp on type S 

 Heat lamps, 150 watt conical ceramic type S 

 Heating mats, kennel type S 

 Hematocrit tubes P 

 HEPA filtration units (portable) P 

 Hot/Cold water mixing valves, accurate +/- 2oF. S 

 Injectable anesthetic agents P 

 Injectable sodium bicarbonate P 

 Insect repellent P 

 Isopropyl Alcohol P 

 IV fluid stand P 

 IV sets (18-25 gauge) Sizes: P 
 APPENDIX: SAMPLE SUPPLY & MATERIALS LIST 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 50

 Kling® gauze P 

 Knife sharpener S 

 Knives carving paring boning fillet S 

 KY jelly P 

 Leg bands, plastic, numbered Sizes:__________________________ 

 Colors: red blue yellow green white other____ 

P 

 Lights, portable, on stand S 

 Measuring cups and spoons S 

 Micropore® tape P 

 Microscope P 

 Microscope slide cover slips P 

 Microscope slides P 

 Milk crate, plastic S 

 Multiple animal feeder S 

 Multitest sticks P 

 Necropsy instruments (append list) P 

 Needles (hypodermic) Sizes: P 

 Net, cast S 

 Net, hand S 

 Net, hoop S 

 Net, long handled S 

 Non-steroidal ophthalmic antibiotic solution P 

 Nylon netting (rolls 0.5” to 1”, smooth mesh) S 

 Oral rehydration fluid (i.e. Pedialyte®) P 

 Panalog® cream P 

 Penlight P 

 Perching and flooring material Type: P 

 Peroxide P 

 Pet carriers, waxed cardboard Small Large P 

 Pet carriers, plastic Large Medium P 

 Pet dryers, portable P 

 Plastic cups P 

 Plastic pitchers pint quart gallon S 

 Plastic sheeting, 4-8 mil polyethelene, 8’x100’ rolls S 

 Plastic Totes (small to large) for food storage S 

 Play pens, soft sided S 

 Plumbing adapters from 1/2” shower head to garden hose S 

 Pool thermometers S 

 Poultry shears S 

 Pretreatment agents (if needed based on type of oil and species involved) P 

 Protective goggles (non fogging) S 

 Pump hoses for intake and output, hot water resistant S 

 Rain gear XXL XL L M S 

 Raptor or welders gloves S 
 APPENDIX: SAMPLE SUPPLY & MATERIALS LIST 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 51

 Refractometer (temperature compensated) P 

 Sea salt (bags and tablets) P 

 Sharps container P 

 Sheets S 

 Shell or crab cracking mallet S 

 Shelving unit (water resistant, sturdy) S 

 Shower heads w/inline shut off valves S 

 Sponges S 

 Spray/mist bottles, quart size S 

 Sterile electrolyte (Lactated Ringers Solution with 2.5% Dextrose; or Normosol) P 

 Sterile gauze wrap Size: P 

 Sterile instruments (list appended) P 

 Sterile saline P 

 Sterile syringes, Catheter tip Sizes: P 

 Sterile syringes, Luer lock type (1cc-60cc) Sizes: P 

 Stethoscope P 

 Stool P 

 Sump pumps (1/4 HP for small pool drainage) P 

 Sunscreen lotion P 

 Surgical gloves XL L M S P 

 Surgical masks P 

 Survival suit S 

 Tegaderm® Skin Covering P 

 Telfa® Pads P 

 Thermometer calibrated to 108o F (rectal) P 

 Thermometer, Photographic calibrated to 120°F. with hanging clips S 

 Tissue sample containers (small) P 

 Toothbrushes (extra soft, child size) S 

 Towels bath size hand size P 

 Trash bags P 

 Tube feeding ingredients (varies by type of animals fed) (append list) P 

 Tyvek® coveralls XXL XL L M S S 

 Utility sink, free standing, only drain plumbed S 

 Valve, inline ball-style, for garden hose S 

 Vetrap® 2” 4” P 

 Vitamin supplements P 

 Water Pic® dental irrigator S 

 Whistle on lanyard (order one per person in the field) P 

 Zipper style plastic bags Sizes: P 
 APPENDIX: SAMPLE SUPPLY & MATERIALS LIST 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 52

Animal Deterrance 

No. Item Purchase (P) or Stockpile (S) 

 Animal calls S 

 AV Alarms® S 

 Cannon launched net S 

 Cracker shells (for 12 gauge shotgun) S 

 Decoys S 

 Hip waders P 

 Mist netting with cable ties, stakes, and mallet S 

 Mylar tape S 

 Net Gun S 

 Nylon cord S 

 Phoenix Wailer® S 

 Propane cannon S 

 Propane tank (20 lb.) 2 per cannon S 

 Scarecrow S 

 Seine net S 

 Shallow draft watercraft appropriate to conditions P 

 Shotgun, 12 gauge P 

 Spot lights S 

 Stroboscopic light, revolving S 

Facility Maintenance List: 

No. Item Purchase (P) or Stockpile (S) 

 Clock, battery operated P 

 Desk P 

 Desk Chair (rolling) P 

 Electrical circuit tester S 

 Extension cords (20amp, outdoor, 100' 50' 25' ) S 

 Fans, portable S 

 File cabinet or file storage box S 

 Fire extinguishers Type: P 

 Floor squeege P 

 Folding Metal Tables Size: S 

 Freezer Chest type Upright Lockable? Yes No P 

 Garbage cans, 33 gal. with lid & wheels S 

 Garden type spray nozzel P 

 Hardware Kit: electrical tape, wire nuts, assort. washers, nails, nuts, bolts, screws, rope, duct 

tape, wire, cotter pins 

S 

 Heaters, portable electric S 

 Large signs: Quiet Clean Animals Oiled Animals Medical Treatment Clean linens 

Newspaper Dirty Laundry Volunteer Area No Admitance 

Other_____________________________ 

P 

 Microwave oven P 
 APPENDIX: SAMPLE SUPPLY & MATERIALS LIST 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 53

 Mop bucket with wringer & wheels P 

 Multiple-outlet power strips, heavy duty P 

 Paper towel holder S 

 Paper towels S 

 Plumbing Kit: Teflon tape, assort. rubber washers, hose clamps, PVC pipe cleaner and cement, 

Y hose connectors, male & female end repairs, splice repair kit 

S 

 Plywood and lumber for pens and pools: P 

 Pool filtration system P 

 Pool(s) Size(s): P 

 Power tool Kit: Cordless & corded drills, Circular and reciprocating saws with extra blades, 

drill index, extra batteries and charger for cordless tools, level 

S 

 Push broom P 

 Refrigerator Size(s): P 

 Room thermometers S 

 Shelving unit metal plastic wood P 

 Staple Gun (heavy duty) P 

 Staples for staple gun Type: Sizes: P 

 String mop P 

 Tarp, waterproof, grommetted, 20’x20’ for pool liners, area covers S 

 Tool Kit: hammer, pipe wrench, pliers (channel, clamping , needlenose), hack saw, wire 

cutter/stripper, slot & phillips screwdrivers, utility knife, adj. wrench, tape meas. 

S 

 Trash barrels, 50 gallon, on wheels P 

 Trash Can liners 33 gal. 55 gal. S 

 Utility sink P 

 Vacuum cleaner , wet/dry type (Shop-Vac®) P 

 Water cooler S 

 Water heater, High capacity, on demand (90° rise at 3 GPM continuously) this item may require 

propane/natural gas hook up. Electric units are normally insufficient 

S 

 Water pressure gauge P 

 Water pressure pump (maintain 40 PSI at full flow, up to 60 PSI) S 

 Water test kit (pH, hardness, chlorine) P 

 Water treatment system (for hard/soft water, auto regeneration, min. maintenance high capacity) S 

 Water/sewage pump, electric, self priming, able to withstand hot water & debris S 
 APPENDIX: SAMPLE SUPPLY & MATERIALS LIST 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 54

Office Supplies List: 

No. Item Purchase (P) or Stockpile (S) 

 Bulletin Board P 

 Calculator P 

 Clip boards P 

 Copier P 

 Disks compatible with computer Type: P 

 Dry erase markers black red blue green assorted P 

 Duct tape P 

 Fax machine P 

 File folder box P 

 Highliters pink yellow blue green assorted P 

 Ink/Toner cartridge for Copier Fax Printer 

Make/Model ______________________ Cartridge No.___________ 

P 

 Manila folders P 

 Masking tape P 

 Name tags or badges P 

 Paper clips large small P 

 Paper compatible with fax machine Ink jet Laser Roll (size: ) P 

 Paper compatible with printer Ink jet Laser Pin feed P 

 Paper for copier Ink jet Laser P 

 Pencils P 

 Pens P 

 Portable computer w/database, spreadsheet, word processing programs, modem, cables P 

 Portable printer & cables, compatible w/computer model:___________ P 

 Poster boards P 

 Push pins P 

 Rulers P 

 Scissors P 

 Scotch® tape P 

 Stapler (desk type) P 

 Staples for above stapler size: P 

 Waterproof markers black red other assorted P 

 White Out® fluid P 

 Whiteboard large medium small P 

 Writing tablets P 
 APPENDIX: SAMPLE SUPPLY & MATERIALS LIST 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 55

Optional Surgical Item List: 

No. Item Purchase (P) or Stockpile (S) 

 Allis tissue clamps P 

 Disposable drapes P 

 Endotracheal tube P 

 Esophageal stethoscope P 

 Forceps P 

 Hemostat P 

 Instracal sterilizing liquid P 

 Needle holder (5.5 Olsen/Hegar) P 

 Needles Sizes: P 

 Oxygen P 

 Pan (stainless steel 8”x5”x2”) P 

 Scalpel blades No.: P 

 Scalpel handle P 

 Small animal anesthetic machine (Isoflurane vaporizer) P 

 Surgical caps P 

 Surgical gowns P 

 Surgical scissors P 

 Surgical table, stainless steel P 

 Sutures P 

 Towel clamps (3.5 Backhaus) P 

Source: Created by Jan White, Wildlife Publications, Maple Valley, WA.
APPENDIX: ZOONOTIC DISEASES OF WILD BIRDS 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Appendix 2. Zoonotic Diseases of Wild Birds 

Organism 

Common Name 

Mode of 

Transmission 

Usual Source Reported Species Signs and Symptoms 

BACTERIALCampylobacter jejuni-Campylobacteriosis 

O Contaminated Tissue 

Fecal Exposure 

Man, birds, mammals Abdominal Pain, Fever

Vomiting, Headache 

Chlamydia psittaci-Chlamydiosis 

I Aerosol droplets Man, birds Conjunctivitis, 

Depression, Respiratory Infection 

Clostridia sp. Blackleg/Tetanus -Enterotoxemia/etc. 

C, I 

Puncture Wounds 

Fecal contamination Contaminated soil 

Man, all mammals, birds 

Anaerobic Wound Infections/Septicemia Hemorrhagic Enteritis/Neurotoxin 

E. coli-Colibacillosis 

I, O Contaminated Tissue Man, birds, mammals Enteritis 

Diarrhea 

Erysipelotrix sp. -Erysipeloid, diamond skin dis. 

O, C 

Bites/Scratches 

Water/Saliva Fish/Shellfish 

Man, bird, cetacean Cellulitis, Septicemia 

Rhomboid Skin Placque 

Listeria monocytogenes -Listeriosis 

O Water/Mud Man, birds, mammals Conjunctivitis 

O = Oral I = Inhalation C = Contact PPE = Personal Protective Equipment 
APPENDIX: ZOONOTIC DISEASES OF WILD BIRDS 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response 

Organism 

Common Name 

Mode of 

Transmission 

Usual Source Reported Species Signs and Symptoms 

BACTERIAL (Cont.)Mycobacterium avium -Mycobacteriosis 

I, C, 

Insect Vectors 

Scratches 

Soil/Water Man, birds, swine Pulmonary Disease, 

Cervical Lymphadenopathy 

Mycoplasma sp. -Atypical pneumonia 

I 

Aerosols 

Mucous membranes Man, most mammals, 

birds 

Respiratory Infection Conjunctivitis 

Pasturella multocida-Pasturellosis 

I, O?, C 

Bites/Scratches 

Respiratory secretions from carrier birds or mammals 

Man, pinnipeds, birds Cellulitis/Respiratory 

Infection Septicemia/Enteritis Peracute Death 

Salmonella/Shigella Plesiomonas -Infectious Enteritis 

O Tissues from infected 

animal/fecal contamination 

Man, all vertebrates Enterocolitis/Diarrhea 

Fever/Septicemia 

Yersinia pseuotuberculosis-Pseuotuberculosis Yersinia enterocolitica-Yersiniosis 

I, O, C Fecal shedding 

Contaminated food or water 

Man, birds Enlarged Mesenteric 

Lymph Nodes -Y. enterocolitica enteritis 

O = Oral I = Inhalation C = Contact PPE = Personal Protective Equipment
APPENDIX: ZOONOTIC DISEASES OF WILD BIRDS 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response 

Organism 

Common Name 

Mode of 

Transmission 

Usual Source Reported Species Signs and Symptoms 

VIRALParamyxovirus -Newcastle Disease 

I,O Secretions and 

Excretions 

Man, birds Conjunctivitis, Fever, 

Chills, Headache 

Influenza Virus -Influenza A 

I, O Aerosol droplets birds, Harbor seals, 

pilot whale, man, 

Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Pneumonia/Conjunctivtis 

FUNGALAspergillus sp. -Aspergilliosis 

I Spores from mold 

growth in damp, poorly ventilated areas 

birds, cetaceans, man, birds 

Respiratory Infections Granulomas 

Coccidioides immitisCoccidioidomycosis 

I Spores in dust / soil 

(esp. following an earthquake) 

Dolphin, man, sea lion, sea otter 

Pyogranulomas in lung/other tissues 

Cryptococcus neoformansCryptococcosis 

I Spores in soil 

contamined by bird droppings 

Man, mammals, birds Pulmonary disease but 

may disseminate to viscera, skin, bones or CNS 

Histoplasma capsulatum-Histoplasmosis 

I Spores in dust and 

soil and bird roosts 

Man Flu-like signs, fever, 

Respiratory signs 

O = Oral I = Inhalation C = Contact PPE = Personal Protective EquipmentSource: Recommended Protocols for the Care of Oil Affected Birds, States/British Columbia Oil Spill Task Force, 1998
 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 59

Appendix 3. Deterrent Techniques

Gas-Operated Exploders 

Detonators consist of a bottled gas supply, separate pressure and combustion chambers, an igniting 

mechanism and a barrel to aim and magnify the blast. Gas-operated exploders produce a loud directional 

shotgun-like noise by slowly filling a bellows with propane gas from a tank, then rapidly transferring this gas 

to a firing chamber and igniting it with a spark. Blasts are emitted at adjustable time intervals. The interval 

between detonations can be varied from less than one minute to 30 minutes. Some gas-operated exploders 

can be set to fire at random intervals and rotate after each explosion so that subsequent shots are aimed in 

different directions. The sound level is approximately 120 dB. An exploder can operate for about two weeks 

without refueling, but needs to be maintained regularly for effectiveness and to ensure that it is working 

properly. 

Note: Gas-operated exploders are extremely dangerous and should be used only by 

trained personnel. 

Advantages

! Deployable in onshore and offshore situations (when placed on anchored rafts) especially when 

the oil is well confined and where birds are particularly susceptible; 

! Protective of relatively large areas (200 - 1000 m or 30 - 50 ha); 

! Rapidly remobilized; 

! Automatically operated and require only minimal staffing; 

! Effective during both day and night; 

! Especially effective in deterring dabblers and geese; 

! Inexpensive to operate and require little maintenance; 

! Inexpensive to purchase ($300); and 

! Widely available. 

Disadvantages

! Birds rapidly habituate to the sound of the blasts (no more than two or three days and 

sometimes less than a few hours for some bird species); 

! Not effective in deterring most shorebird species as well as gulls, coots, grebes and loons; 

! Significantly reduced effective range and sound intensity when used in fog and wind; 

! Difficult to install and operate on an anchored raft in open water and in bad weather; and 

! Disturbing to local residents and responders. 

Pyrotechnics 

These devices frighten birds by producing a whistling noise, explosion and/or flash of light. Types include 

shotgun-launched projectiles (shell crackers) and a variety of pistol-launched projectiles. When using 

pyrotechnics, the danger of igniting spilled oil and vegetation should always be avoided. Both shotgun- and 

pistol-launched devices should be fired with the wind, and away from personnel. Safety goggles and ear 

protectors (muff or ear plug type) are worn, and personnel using pyrotechnics are expected to be trained in 

firearms safety. 

Shotgun-launched projectiles include shell crackers and scare cartridges. They are fired from a 12-guage 

shotgun with the shell shot being replaced by a bulldog or M-80 firecracker that explodes at 100-150 yards 
APPENDIX: DETERRENT TECHNIQUES 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 60

(91-136 m). Single barrel shotguns that break and load at the breech are recommended. The shotgun should 

be fired from the hip at a 45° angle, and shell crackers should explode as close to the birds as possible. 

Because of the light charge, the shotgun has only a slight recoil. 

Note: Pyrotechnics are extremely dangerous and should be used only by trained 

personnel.

Advantages

! Effective both day and night; 

! Easily directed close to water birds; 

! Especially effective in deterring open-water birds; 

! Relatively high radius of effectiveness (at least 200 m from the source and up to 1 km for some 

bird species); 

! Effective on land or in offshore situations; 

! Highly effective in combination with other deterrents (motorboats, ATV, effigies); and 

! Relatively inexpensive (roughly $50 per hundred). 

Disadvantages

! Short duration of effectiveness (one or two hours); 

! Less effective in deterring dabbling ducks; 

! Ineffective in deterring gulls and shorebirds; 

! Significantly reduced effective range and sound intensity when used in windy situations; 

! Requires continuous staffing; 

! Potentially hazardous to operators and bystanders if not used carefully; 

! Potentially hazardous if used in areas containing volatile oil components; and 

! Disturbing to local residents and responders. 

Aircraft 

Aircraft, especially helicopters, are effective deterrents because of the combination of loud noise and rapid 

approach from above. They are often effective for hazing birds away from large areas. Helicopters may also 

be used to herd flightless (young and molting) birds. 

Aircraft are considered to be especially useful during the early stages of cleanup and hazing operations. They 

are more effective if used in combination with other devices such as shell crackers and gas-operated 

exploders. Because of their maneuverability and noise, helicopters are probably more effective than fixedwing aircraft. 

Not all bird species will take flight in response to overhead disturbances. Some waterbirds (e.g., loons and 

alcids) dive rather than fly when approached by aircraft, and others who are young or in their molting or 

brood-rearing stage may be incapable of flight. Flightless birds can be herded with a helicopter (Alaska 

Regional Response Team, 1991), or ground patrols after the helicopter has departed. Helicopters have been 

used successfully to drive flightless Canada geese over water, exposed tidal flats, and dense sedge in Alaska 

with the helicopter remaining 10 to 20 m (33-66 ft) behind the geese at an altitude of 1-15 m (3-49 ft). (Timm 

and Bromley, 1976). 
APPENDIX: DETERRENT TECHNIQUES 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 61

Advantages

! Readily available to remote and roadless areas; 

! Disperses birds in different types of habitats (marsh birds, offshore birds); 

! Rapidly disperses birds while oil is still offshore; 

! Requires minimal staffing; and 

! Highly effective at deterring geese. 

Disadvantages

! Less effective at deterring species other than geese, especially during molt; 

! Less effective for birds gathered in very attractive sites like feeding or nesting grounds; 

! Increased potential of bird-aircraft collisions during low flying activities; 

! Ineffective at night; 

! Reduced or limited feasibility during bad weather (especially fog); 

! Time consuming for deterring birds on a large scale basis; 

! Limited ability to procure helicopters, in heavy demand during an oil spill; and 

! Relatively high cost of charter aircraft. 

Motorboats 

Motorboats can be used to deter birds located offshore where hazing from the shoreline with other 

techniques is ineffective in driving birds away. A few studies conducted during the last 20 years have 

demonstrated the potential of boats as an effective deterrent. Birds are more sensitive to boats propelled by 

outboard motors. A powerboat causes virtually instantaneous flight as soon as it appears on the water, 

causing a majority of birds to leave. There is some speculation that the larger the flock, the more sensitive it 

is to an approach (Batten, 1977). The hazing of diving birds with boats is generally considered slow, labor 

intensive, and may be ineffective. Boats may be useful for herding flightless waterfowl away from spilled oil 

to boomed areas of lagoons, or overland to inland lakes (Alaska Regional Response Team, 1991). 

Advantages

! Useful in deterring birds located at some distance from the shoreline; 

! Rapidly implemented for deterring birds while oil is still offshore; 

! Works well with most species except diving birds; 

! Covers relatively large areas; and 

! Requires limited staffing. 

Disadvantages

! Deployment potentially hazardous during bad weather, ice conditions or darkness; 

! Limited ability to locate birds, especially in rough seas; and 

! Difficult to direct dispersed birds to unoiled waters. 

All-Terrain Vehicles (ATVs) 

All-Terrain Vehicles (ATVs) such as quad-runners are moderately effective for hazing many species of 

waterfowl and shorebirds. Human presence reinforces the effects of the noise and rapid movement of the 

vehicle. A quad-runner can also be equipped with air horns or sirens, or used with pyrotechnics. 
APPENDIX: DETERRENT TECHNIQUES 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 62

Advantages

! More efficient for covering larger shore areas (between 3 and 5 km instead of 1-2 km by foot); 

and 

! Most effective when used in combination with other methods (e.g. noisemakers). 

Disadvantages

! Limited to birds onshore; 

! Limited to daylight use; and 

! Potentially destructive to certain habitat types. 

Electronic Sound Generators 

These devices, broadcast loud, intermittent electronically synthesized sounds that are in the audible range of 

birds. The units can be adjusted to the most effective range of sound patterns for the target bird species, and 

sound patterns within this range can be varied over time to decrease habituation. Sound generators can be 

positioned on land, mounted on boats, or housed within a raft or buoy for effectiveness in open water and 

marine situations. 

Advantages

! Useful in open water environments; 

! Rapidly deployed; 

! Projects over large areas; 

! Readily deployed on leading edge of drifting oil slick; 

! Maximizes potential of dispersing birds away from contamination, when deployed directly into 

oil slick; 

! Reduces potential of bird habituation because buoy is moving with the wind and current and 

regularly encounters new groups of birds; 

! Limited habituation of birds, even when anchored, due to the diversity of sounds produced; 

! Operable and effective day and night; 

! Operable during bad weather (fog and rain); 

! Readily retrievable; 

! Easy to handle and operate by two persons; 

! Constructed to withstand the hazards of fire and explosion sometimes associated with oil 

slicks; 

! Long-lasting effectiveness (>two weeks); 

! Low maintenance (requires four marine batteries: two in the unit and two on full charge). 

Disadvantages

! May be less efficient in areas where birds are accustomed to loud background noises, where 

hunting pressure is low; or where birds congregate in very secure habitats; 

! Batteries must be replaced or recharged after 72 hours of operation; 

! Requires a boat or a helicopter to be deployed offshore; 

! Regular monitoring (daily) is recommended to ensure effectiveness; 

! Range of effectiveness decreases during high winds and rough seas; 

! Requires monitoring, when used in oil slick, to ensure that device stays in oil slick; 

! Duration of effectiveness unknown when the buoy is used in a stationary mode; 

! Disturbing to local residents and responders; 
APPENDIX: DETERRENT TECHNIQUES 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 63

! Expensive, more so if the costs of radio beacon transmitters and receivers are included; and 

! May not be immediately available. 

Biosonics 

These techniques use distress, warning, or alarm calls that are broadcast by tape players to disperse single or 

closely related species from the immediate area. In general, individuals or small flocks are less responsive 

than large flocks. The effectiveness of biosonics can be increased by supplementation with pyrotechnics. 

Advantages

! Effective at lower sound intensities; and 

! Slower habituation. 

Disadvantages

! Highly species specific; 

! May attract rather than deter birds, depending on life stage; and 

! May attract predators and scavengers. 

Underwater Acoustics 

These include devices that put sound into water, such as sweep frequencies, killer whale vocalizations, and 

underwater percussion devices. These devices have not been studied enough to allow for guidance or to 

determine advantages and disadvantages and, therefore, are NOT recommended for use as bird deterrents 

during oil spill response. 

Balloons 

All-weather helium balloons are considered effective if properly maintained and frequently refilled and 

repositioned. They are generally 20-30 inches (50-75 cm) in diameter, and should not be fully inflated in 

order to reduce stress from wind resistance. Balloons may be suspended from land or from a floating object 

in the water. They should not be located near trees or other objects that could cause puncturing. Balloons 

should be tethered on 40-75 feet (12-23 m) of 48 lb (22 kg) or stronger monofilament line and initially 

spaced at least every 200 yards (183 m). Some balloons should be set very high to deter birds from flying 

overhead. 

Advantages

! Inexpensive; and 

! Readily available. 

Disadvantages

! Rapid habituation; 

! Ineffective at night; 

! Do not function well in winds over 10 mph; and 

! Potentially subject to ultraviolet degradation. 

Flags 

Flags are considered an effective and inexpensive hazing device for waterfowl. They can be constructed by 

mounting a three-by-two-foot (91-61 cm) sheet of black plastic to a four-foot (1.2 m) stake. The stakes 
APPENDIX: DETERRENT TECHNIQUES 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 64

should be driven into the ground at an angle so the flags will move in light wind. They should be erected 

every 100 to 200 feet (30-61 m) on land, or on buoys over water. Mylar car dealership flags can also be 

effective for hazing waterfowl. Flags can be used in conjunction with gas-operated exploders. 

Advantages

! Inexpensive; and 

! Readily available. 

Disadvantages

! Rapid habituation; and 

! Ineffective at night. 

Human Effigies and Predator Models 

Human effigies (e.g., traditional scarecrows) and raptor models may be effective if they appear lifelike, have 

motion, are frequently repositioned, and are used in combination with loud sounds or recorded distress calls. 

Human effigies are more effective if you first establish the human form as being potentially detrimental (e.g., 

have response personnel create disturbance in the area before deploying human effigies), and are dressed 

similarly to personnel operating in the area. 

Advantages

! Readily put in place; 

! Easily remobilized; 

! Does not constitute an auditory disturbance near populated areas or responders; 

! Effective in good and bad (winds, rain, etc.) weather; and 

! Relatively inexpensive (<$200). 

Disadvantages

! Effectiveness limited to daylight, except if equipped with lights or combined with audio 

deterrents; 

! Rapid habituation by birds (a few days); and 

! Small range of effectiveness (100m or 4-8 ha). 

Reflectors, Mirrors, and Reflecting Tape 

Reflector devices can be constructed by attaching aluminum or tinfoil pie plates to a line suspended over 

land or water. These devices can be used in association with lights to haze waterfowl. Hand-held mirrors that 

reflect sunlight may also be effective. Mylar reflecting tape is another deterrent for many species of birds. 

This silver and red-coated tape is generally twisted and strung between support posts. The tape reflects 

sunlight, and vibrates under windy conditions producing a humming noise. 

Advantages

! Inexpensive. 

Disadvantages

! May attract, rather than deter, birds; and 

! Ineffective at night. 
APPENDIX: DETERRENT TECHNIQUES 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 65

Lights 

Strobe, barricade, search, and revolving fixed lights have been used to haze birds, and they should be 

combined with other deterrent techniques such as exploders and pyrotechnics. Although lights may be 

partially effective for deterring waterfowl during the night, some bird species may be attracted to lights, 

especially during rain, fog, or heavy cloud cover. 

Advantages

! Inexpensive. 

Disadvantages

! May attract, rather than deter, birds. 

Lure Areas and Bait Stations 

Birds may be lured from one area to another with the use of bait food. However, bait stations require that 

large quantities of bait food be available over a period of days. Because lure areas need to be relatively close 

to a spill so that the food can be detected, this proximity may increase the oiling risk to birds attracted into 

the general area. Lure areas are recommended only when, after careful evaluation, alternative techniques 

would be expected to be ineffective. 

Advantages

! Passive form of deterrence. 

Disadvantages

! May attract birds not normally present in the area and increase potential for oiling as birds 

disperse from baited site. 

Dyes 

The feasibility of using dyes for deterring birds from oil spills is unknown because of data gaps including: 

species-specific reactions to colors, habituation potential, dye toxicity, dye solubility in various types of oil, 

concentration required, and rates of dye weathering. Therefore, use of dyes is NOT recommended as a bird 

deterrent during oil spill response at this time. 

Trained Falcons and Hawks 

Trained falcons and hawks are sometimes used at airports to chase away birds and disperse birds from 

runways. If used in a contaminated or oiled area, there is the potential that these trained birds could 

themselves become oiled or contaminated, or could potentially chase or disperse birds into contaminated 

areas. Using trained falcons and hawks is NOT recommended as a bird deterrent during oil spill response. 

Decoys and Visual Devices 

Dead-bird decoys or bird carcasses are sometimes used to discourage birds from using an area. However, 

placing dead-bird decoys or bird carcasses in a contaminated or oiled area may attract healthy birds of prey or 

other mammalian predators, potentially causing these predatory species to become contaminated or oiled. 

Using decoys and carcasses is NOT recommended as a bird deterrent during oil spill response. 
APPENDIX: DETERRENT TECHNIQUES 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 66

Sources: Deterrent Techniques and Bird Dispersal Approach for Oil Spills, Denis Lehoux and Daniel Bordage, Canadian Wildlife 

Service, 2000; and Rehabilitation Manual for Oiled Birds, Greer, R.D., D.J. O'Connor of Exxon, Biomedical Sciences, Inc., L. 

Frink, and S. Welte of Tri-State Bird Rescue and Research, Inc., 1998. 
APPENDIX: BIRD NATURAL HISTORY AND SPECIAL CONCERNS 

Source: Oiled Bird Search and Collection Training Course, Marine Oil Spill Workforce Manual, BC Environment 

 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 67

Appendix 4. Bird Natural History and Special Concerns 






 

Appendix 5. Euthanasia Guidelines 

Rehabilitators must administer euthanasia in accordance with 50 CFR §21.31(e)(4)(iii). In 

addition, rehabilitators who treat migratory birds at oil and hazardous waste spills should do the 

following: 

1. Euthanasia should be considered for a bird having serious injuries that will require

extended treatment or render it unable to survive in the wild. Serious injuries can

include fractured limbs (particularly those affecting a joint), injuries to the beak,

extensive soft tissue injuries, and significant visual or auditory deficits. 

2. When large numbers of birds are contaminated in a spill, it is necessary to selectively

treat them so the appropriate attention is given to those with the greatest probability of

survival. Packed cell volume (PCV), relative weight, and body temperature are used to

identify those birds having reduced chances of survival. 

Birds having a PCV of less than 20 percent may require an extended period of

treatment, and are thus at a greater risk of developing secondary complications. This is 

especially true for seabirds that may have little resistance to terrestrial disease 

organisms. Birds that are both underweight and hypothermic (relative to other birds

of the same sex/species involved in the spill) have been shown to have a significantly 

decreased survival rate. A bird having consistently low body temperatures (less than

100o F.) despite attempts to warm the animal are considered a poor risk. 

3. Birds showing signs of infectious disease should be isolated, and either supported until 

a diagnosis is made or euthanized and necropsied. Birds with lesions characteristic of

avian pox (warty lesions around the eyes, mouth or on the feet) should be isolated and

precautions taken to prevent exposure to other birds. Other signs which should 

arouse suspicion include: bloody or mucous discharge from the eyes, nose or mouth;

moist or gurgling respiratory sounds; watery or bloody diarrhea; regurgitation; rapid 

weight loss; or pronounced neurologic signs. 

4. Birds that show signs of chronic disease, such as extreme emaciation, have a very poor 

prognosis. Consider euthanasia for a very underweight bird that has wasted pectoral

musculature and a prominent keel. However, note the following: the keel is normally 

very prominent in species such as herons and egrets; at certain times (the end of winter 

or migration), birds may also have reduced muscle mass with no underlying disease 

process; and severely dehydrated birds are often underweight but will gain rapidly with 

rehydration. 

5. The degree of oiling, the temporary presence of bleeding from the GI tract, and 

molting are NOT considered adequate grounds for euthanasia.

6. Approval by Federal or State agencies is required before certain birds can be 

euthanized. This applies to threatened or endangered birds, migratory birds, unusual 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 74
 

Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 75

birds with small local populations, and species with low reproductive potential. All 

birds that are euthanized must be disposed of as instructed by the Division of Law 

Enforcement or the USFWS on-scene oil spill coordinator, as the birds they possess 

may be essential evidence for a civil or criminal investigation conducted by the USFWS 

or other agencies. 

7. Techniques for euthanasia: 

a. Appropriate for the size of the animal; 

b. Designed to minimize stress; 

c. Reliable and rapid.

d. Safe for personnel administering technique. 

8. Chemical injection as discussed below is recommended and preferred. Alternative 

techniques are mentioned but not discussed. 

a. Injection, according to dosage guidelines, of a commercial euthanasia solution, 

with prescribed routes usually being the medial metatarsal, right jugular or 

brachial veins, will quickly and painlessly kill most birds. 

b. Most euthanasia solutions are restricted drugs and subject to control by the Drug 

Enforcement Administration: professional supervision, inventory control, and 

locked storage are required. All solutions must be obtained through a 

veterinarian and used under veterinary supervision. 

c. Ensure that animals euthanized by this method do not become food for carrion 

eaters.

9. Alternative techniques of chemical euthanasia include inhalation of anesthesia or toxic 

gases. Physical euthanasia is not recommended. 

10. Refrigerate all dead birds until necropsied. Post mortems conducted in-house can yield 

information that will help in determining treatment protocols in live birds at the 

facility. All carcass disposal should be coordinated with the Division of Law 

Enforcement or the USFWS on-scene oil spill coordinator and disposed of consistent 

with spill incident-specific instructions and chain-of-custody protocols. 

Source: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Spill Response Contingency Plan, 1997. Appendix Q, as revised.
Best Practices For Migratory Bird Care During Oil Spill Response Page 76

Appendix 6. Sample forms and formats.