January 2014 

NASA/CR2014-218157 

 

Multilayer Pressure Vessel Materials 

Testing and Analysis 

Phase 1 

Joseph W. Cardinal, Carl F. Popelar, and Richard A. Page 

Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas 
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Hampton, Virginia 23681-2199 under Contract NNA09DB39C

 

January 2014 

NASA/CR2014-218157 

 

Multilayer Pressure Vessel Materials 

Testing and Analysis 

Phase 1 

Joseph W. Cardinal, Carl F. Popelar, and Richard A. Pageaffiliation 

Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas 
Available from: 

NASA Center for AeroSpace Information 

7115 Standard Drive 

Hanover, MD 21076-1320

443-757-5802 

Acknowledgments 

The authors of this report would like to first express their appreciation to Mr. Doug 

Fraser of NASA Ames Research Center for supplying key background information on the 

AO Smith multilayer pressure vessel along with related “legacy” reports and documents. 

Secondly, Mr. Steve Ziola of Digital Wave Corporation is acknowledged for providing 

information and data on the conduct of the cyclic pressure testing as well as coordinating 

the shipment of the pressure vessel to Southwest Research Institute (SwRI). 

Special thanks are due to Mr. Doyle Smith and his supporting cast of welders in SwRI’s 

Fabrication Shop for carefully sectioning the vessel into smaller pieces for material 

testing. The technical staff of the solids and metallurgical labs are acknowledged for 

their support of the material characterization testing and the failure analysis. Finally, Ms. 

Deborah Gohmert and Ms. Alberta Matthews are acknowledged for the preparation of the 

final report. 

The use of trademarks or names of manufacturers in the report is for accurate reporting and does not 

constitute an official endorsement, either expressed or implied, of such products or manufacturers by 

the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
v

LIST OF REVISED PAGES

Multilayer Pressure Vessel Materials

Testing and Analysis (Phase 1)

SwRI Project 18.17408

Table One

Revision Number Issue Date

Final Report September 20, 2012

Revision 1 November 6, 2012

Issue dates for the original document and all subsequent changes are given in Table One. Table Two 

lists all pages affected by the latest revision or by any previously issued revision. Pages not listed in 

Table Two are the same as issued with the original document. All pages affected by a revision are 

annotated with the words “Revision ____” with the underscore replaced by the pertinent Revision 

Number as given in Table Two. This annotation will be printed immediately to the right of the page 

number at the bottom of the revised page. 

Table Two

Revision 

No.

Page No. Description

1 3-1 text revisions; material grades added

1 4-1 text revisions

1 5-1 text revisions; footnote #2 added

1 5-2 text revisions; footnote #3 added

1 5-3 lateral expansion data added to Table 5-2

1 5-7 text revisions

1 5-11 text revisions

1 5-15 text revisions

1 5-16 text revisions

1 6-1 heading correction

1 7-2 text revisions
vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................... 1-1

2.0 VESSEL SECTIONING........................................................................................... 2-1

3.0 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS......................................................................................... 3-1

4.0 FRACTOGRAPHY OF CRACK FROM NOTCH IN OUTER SHELL ............ 4-1

5.0 MECHANICAL CHARACTERIZATION ............................................................ 5-1

5.1 Tensile Testing ........................................................................................................ 5-1

5.2 Charpy V-Notch Testing ......................................................................................... 5-2

5.3 Plane Strain Fracture Toughness – A-225 Grade B Head Material ........................ 5-4

5.4 Plane Stress Fracture Toughness Testing – AO Smith 1146a Shell Material......... 5-7

5.5 Fatigue Crack Growth Behavior ............................................................................. 5-9

5.6 Mechanical Characterization Summary ................................................................ 5-15

5.7 Considerations for Phase 2 Characterization Testing ........................................... 5-15

6.0 FRACTURE MECHANICS ANALYSIS OF FLAW IN OUTER SHELL......... 6-1

6.1 Stress Analysis ........................................................................................................ 6-1

6.2 Fracture Mechanics Analysis.................................................................................. 6-1

7.0 FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH ANALYSIS.......................................................... 7-1

7.1 Fatigue Crack Growth Rate Data Background........................................................ 7-1

7.2 Fatigue Crack Growth Equations............................................................................ 7-2

7.3 Pressure Vessel Cycle History ................................................................................ 7-2

7.4 Analysis of FCG at Notch in Outer Shell................................................................ 7-3

7.5 Discussion and Conclusions.................................................................................... 7-4

8.0 REFERENCES.......................................................................................................... 8-1

APPENDIX A: PRESSURE VESSEL CYCLE HISTORY........................................... A-1

LIST OF FIGURES

1-1. Nameplate from AO Smith Multi-Layer Pressure Vessel (MV50466-8)........................ 1-2

2-1. Vessel Arrival at SwRI’s Fabrication Shop..................................................................... 2-2

2-2. Vessel Sectioning Plan (Approximate Dimensions; Notch not to Scale)........................ 2-2

2-3. Photos of Sectioned Pressure Vessel ............................................................................... 2-3
vii

2-4. Photos of Shell Layers and Carilloy Steel Logo.............................................................. 2-3

2-5. Cross-section Through Head-to-Shell Weld Showing Shell Layers................................ 2-4

4-1. Photograph of One Face of the As-Opened Crack........................................................... 4-3

4-2. SEM Image of Deposits Present on the As-Opened Crack.............................................. 4-4

4-3. EDS Spectrum from Deposits Present of the Crack Surface ........................................... 4-4

4-4. Low Magnification Stereomicroscope Image of One Face of the 

Opened Crack................................................................................................................... 4-5

4-5. Higher Magnification Stereomicroscope Image of the Center of the 

Opened Crack................................................................................................................... 4-5

4-6. Montage of Low Magnification SEM Images of the Center of the 

Opened Crack................................................................................................................... 4-6

4-7. Low Magnification SEM Image of Location 1 in Figure 4-6.......................................... 4-7

4-8. SEM Image of Fatigue Striations at Location 1 in Figure 4-6......................................... 4-8

4-9. SEM Image of Isolated Intergranular Fracture Features at Location 2 

in Figure 4-6..................................................................................................................... 4-9

4-10. SEM Image of Isolated Intergranular Fracture Features and Secondary 

Cracking at Location 3 in Figure 4-6............................................................................. 4-10

4-11. SEM Image of Fatigue Striations and Intergranular Fracture Features at 

Location 3 in Figure 4-6 ................................................................................................ 4-11

4-12. SEM Image of Fatigue Striations and Secondary Cracking at Location 4 

in Figure 4-6................................................................................................................... 4-12

4-13. SEM Image of Transgranular Fracture, Fatigue Striations, and Secondary 

Cracking at Location 5 in Figure 4-6............................................................................. 4-13

4-14. SEM Image of Ductile Rupture Just Beyond the Fatigue Crack at 

Location 6 in Figure 4-6 ................................................................................................ 4-14

4-15. SEM Image of Ductile Fracture Features Within the Overload Region at 

Location 7 in Figure 4-6 ................................................................................................ 4-15

4-16. SEM Image of Ductile Features Along the I.D. Edge of the Fracture at 

Location 8 in Figure 4-6 ................................................................................................ 4-16

4-17. SEM Image of Ductile Fracture Features Within the Overload Region at 

Location 9 in Figure 4-6 ................................................................................................ 4-17

4-18. SEM Image of the Ductile Fracture Features Present in the Laboratory 

Fracture Region.............................................................................................................. 4-18

5-1. AO Smith 1146a Shell CVN Specimens ......................................................................... 5-4

5-2. A-225 Head CVN Specimens.......................................................................................... 5-4

5-3. Plane Strain Fracture Toughness Specimen Drawing...................................................... 5-5

5-4. Plane Strain Fracture Toughness Test Set-up .................................................................. 5-5

5-5. Typical A-225 Specimen After Toughness Testing......................................................... 5-6

5-6. Plane Stress Fracture Toughness Specimen Drawing...................................................... 5-7

5-7. Plane Stress Fracture Toughness Test Set-up .................................................................. 5-8

5-8. Schematic of the K-R Approach Used in Determing Kc (Ref [6]) .................................. 5-8
viii

5-9. FCG Specimen Drawing for the A-225 Gr B Material.................................................... 5-9

5-10. FCG Test Set-Up (1146a Specimen Shown) ................................................................. 5-10

5-11. AO Smith 1146a Outer Shell FCG Behavior at R = 0.15.............................................. 5-12

5-12. AO Smith 1146a and A-225 Gr. B FCG Behavior at R = 0.15 ..................................... 5-13

5-13. Comparison of 1146a and A-225 FCG Behavior at R = 0.15........................................ 5-14

6-1. Hoop Stress Distribution in Shell Wall for a Unit Internal Pressure of 1.0 ksi ............... 6-3

6-2. NASGRO Surface Crack in a Plate Fracture Mechanics Model SC02 [10].................... 6-3

6-3. Geometry Factors at the Crack Depth, F(a), and the Crack Surface, F(c), for 

the Stress Gradient in the Outer Shell Layer as a Function of Crack Depth, 

as Computed Using NASGRO Model SC02 ................................................................... 6-4

7-1. Schematic of Fatigue Crack Growth Behavior Illustrating the Three Regions 

of Fatigue Crack Growth ................................................................................................. 7-5

7-2. Comparison of Shell and Head FCG Data with Barsom Equation for 

Ferrite-Pearlite Steels....................................................................................................... 7-6

7-3. NASGRO Equation Fit to 1146a Shell FCG Data........................................................... 7-6

7-4. Stress History in Pressure Vessel Used in FCG Analysis................................................ 7-7

7-5. Histogram of R-Value Occurrences in Pressure Vessel Cycles....................................... 7-7

7-6. NASGRO Input Screen for NASGRO Equation Based on Curve Fit to 

1146a FCG Data Obtained at R = 0.15............................................................................ 7-8

7-7. NASGRO Input Screen for Barsom Equation ................................................................. 7-8

7-8. Crack Growth Curves Predicted Using NASGRO Equation and SC02 .......................... 7-9

7-9. Crack Growth Curves Predicted Using Barsom Equation and SC02 .............................. 7-9

7-10. Crack Growth Rates Computed Using the NASGRO Equation.................................... 7-10

7-11. Crack Growth Rates Computed Using the Barsom Equation........................................ 7-10

LIST OF TABLES

3-1. Chemical Composition of Head and Shell Material ........................................................ 3-1

5-1. AO Smith 1146a and A-225 Gr.B tensile properties....................................................... 5-1

5-2. AO Smith 1146a and A-225 Gr. B CVN Properties........................................................ 5-3

5-3. AO Smith 1146a Shell Plane Stress Fracture Toughness................................................ 5-9

6-1. Tabulated Values of Geometry Factors F(a) and F(c) ..................................................... 6-4

7-1. Results of Fatigue Crack Growth Analysis...................................................................... 7-3
ix

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

To provide the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) a comprehensive suite 

of materials strength, fracture toughness and crack growth rate test results for use in remaining 

life calculations for aging multilayer pressure vessels, Southwest Research Institute®(SwRI®) 

was contracted in two phases to obtain relevant material property data from a representative 

vessel. This report describes Phase 1 of this effort which includes a preliminary material 

property assessment as well as a fractographic, fracture mechanics and fatigue crack growth 

analyses of an induced flaw in the outer shell of a representative multilayer vessel that was 

subjected to cyclic pressure test. SwRI performed this Phase 1 effort under contract to the 

Digital Wave Corporation in support of their contract to Jacobs ATOM for the NASA Ames 

Research Center.

A multilayer AO Smith pressure vessel was shipped to SwRI and was torch cut into smaller 

sections to facilitate excising samples for material test coupons. This Phase 1 effort used only a 

small portion of the vessel material for material characterization testing. The remainder of the 

vessel sections are being retained in storage at SwRI for use in the more detailed material 

characterization effort underway in the Phase 2 program. Samples for chemical analysis were 

removed from the head and the shell of the vessel. The results obtained from the chemical 

analyses of the head and shell materials are presented in Section 3.0 and are compared with AISI 

and ASTM specifications. 

Section 4.0 of this report provides a detailed fractographic analysis of the notch and crack that 

was located in the outer shell layer during the cyclic pressure test performed by the Digital Wave 

Corporation. This analysis indicated that a fatigue crack initiated from the notch and eventually 

grew to a depth where the crack rapidly fractured through the remaining ligament. 

Section 5.0 summarizes the results of some basic mechanical testing that was performed in order 

to characterize the mechanical behavior of the AO Smith 1146a shell and A-225 Grade B head 

materials. This characterization is an initial portion of a more comprehensive effort (Phase 2) to 

characterize the pressure vessel constituents, including the heads, inner and outer shells and the 

welds (shell seam welds and head-to-shell girth welds). Results are presented for tensile tests, 

Charpy tests, fracture toughness tests, and fatigue crack growth rate tests. A number of key 

conclusions resulting from this Phase 1 testing effort are provided in Section 5.6. Based on these 

results, considerations and recommendations for the ongoing Phase 2 effort are provided in 

Section 5.7.

Sections 6.0 and 7.0 provide fracture mechanics and fatigue crack growth analyses of the crack 

that grew out of the notch during the vessel cyclic pressure test. The analyses were performed 

using the NASGRO®software. These analyses use the test data generated in this program and 

produce reasonable agreement with the observations made from the analysis of the fracture 

surface presented in Section 4.0 and compare well with the numbers of pressure cycles applied to 

the vessel during the test at Digital Wave.
1-1

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) owns and operates several hundred 

multi-layer pressure vessels, some of which are more than fifty years old. While available 

construction records show that generally good design, fabrication, and inspection processes were 

followed, these vessels are non-Code vessels and actual records do not exist for many of these 

vessels. Furthermore, the materials used typically correspond to a proprietary manufacturer’s 

specification (not an ASME or ASTM material grade). In addition, due to their age and 

operating history, it is possible that cracks have developed over time and could provide a 

potential failure mechanism during future operation. Therefore, in order to ensure the safe future 

operation of these vessels, it is necessary to obtain accurate material properties such as strength, 

fracture toughness and fatigue crack growth rate data.

To provide NASA a comprehensive suite of materials strength, fracture toughness and crack 

growth rate test results for use in remaining life calculations for the vessels described above, 

Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) was contracted in two phases to obtain relevant material 

property data from a representative vessel. This report describes Phase 1 of this effort which 

includes a preliminary material property assessment as well as a fractographic, fracture 

mechanics and fatigue crack growth analyses of an induced flaw in the outer shell of the 

representative multi-layer vessel.

The vessel from which material was taken was manufactured by AO Smith in 1959 (serial 

number MV50466-8) and the name plate is shown in Figure 1-1. It is nominally 36.25 inches in 

outside diameter and approximately 7 feet 4 inches long. The head is nominally 2.5 inches thick 

and the shell is comprised of twelve layers with the inner (first) layer 3/8-inch thick and the 

remaining eleven layers each 1/4-inch thick giving a total nominal wall thickness of 3.125 

inches. This vessel had undergone cyclic pressure testing in an attempt to monitor fatigue crack 

growth from induced flaws using Modal Acoustic Emissions (MAE) Non-destructive 

Examination (NDE) by the Digital Wave Corporation (DW). This vessel was not ASME Code 

stamped, and AO Smith used proprietary, non-ASME materials specifications for the shell and 

nozzles. The heads were fabricated from a standard ASTM material.

The intent of this Phase 1 testing program was to perform a preliminary characterization of the 

strength, fracture and fatigue crack growth properties of the vessel shell (outer layer) and the 

head parent material using current ASTM standard test methods. The AO Smith and ASTM 

material specifications were to be compared to for reference. In addition, the single flaw that 

was deemed to have exhibited some fatigue crack growth during the cyclic pressure testing and 

MAE monitoring was to be analyzed fractographically. Fracture mechanics and fatigue crack 

growth analyses of this flaw were also to be performed using the NASGRO®software and the 

data generated in this Phase 1 effort in order to demonstrate the ability to perform remaining safe 

service life assessments on similar vessels. The results of this Phase 1 effort were also to be used 

to provide guidance for the much more extensive material property characterization effort 

planned in Phase 2.
1-2

Figure 1-1. Nameplate from AO Smith Multi-Layer Pressure Vessel (MV50466-8)
2-1

2.0 VESSEL SECTIONING

The multi-layer AO Smith pressure vessel was shipped to SwRI in late April 2012 and was 

unloaded at the Structural Engineering Department’s Fabrication Shop (see Figure 2-1). As a 

precautionary measure, it was assumed that the paint on the vessel contained lead and the vessel 

was stripped of all paint by an outside vendor capable of safely containing and disposing of the 

paint before any sectioning was performed.

Using AO Smith drawing number MV50466, a vessel sectioning plan was developed and is 

shown in Figure 2-2. The vessel was torch cut approximately along the red dotted lines in Figure 

2-2 and then subsequently the shell and the head-to-shell weld were cut into smaller sections to 

facilitate excising samples for material test coupons. Special care was taken to protect the crown 

area of the outer shell that contained the notch (flaw) that was monitored by MAE during the 

cyclic pressure testing of the vessel. Figure 2-3 shows a number of photos of the vessel 

segments that resulted after the transverse cuts were made. The center section of the shell was 

then quartered as was one of the rings containing the head-to-shell weld. Photos of some of 

these sections are shown in Figure 2-4. A cross-section through the head-to-shell weld is shown 

in Figure 2-5. 

One of the most notable observations from the vessel sectioning process was how tight the layers 

of the shell were in contact with each other; see the photo in the upper right hand corner of 

Figure 2-3 and Figure 2-5. However, once the shell ring was cut axially, the layers sprung apart 

loosely as shown in Figure 2-4. In flipping through one of the stacks of shell layers, a Carilloy 

Steel logo was found on layer number nine (assuming the inside layer is layer number one) as 

shown in Figure 2-4. This was indeed a surprise to see and indicates that the source of the steel 

that AO Smith used for the layers of the shell was Carilloy Steel, which at the time, was a 

subsidiary of US Steel.

This Phase 1 effort used only a small portion of the vessel material for material characterization 

testing. The remainder of the vessel sections are being retained in storage at SwRI for use in the 

more detailed material characterization effort underway in the Phase 2 program.
2-2

Figure 2-1. Vessel Arrival at SwRI’s Fabrication Shop

Figure 2-2. Vessel Sectioning Plan (Approximate Dimensions;

Notch not to Scale)
2-3

Figure 2-3. Photos of Sectioned Pressure Vessel

Figure 2-4. Photos of Shell Layers and Carilloy Steel Logo
2-4

Figure 2-5. Cross-section Through Head-to-Shell Weld

Showing Shell Layers
3-1 Revision 1

3.0 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

Samples for chemical analysis were removed from the head and the shell of the vessel. The 

results obtained from the chemical analyses of the head and shell materials are listed in Table 3-

1. The head material satisfies the composition specifications for AISI 1513 and 1522 high 

manganese carbon steel and the shell material meets the specifications for AISI 1522 and 1524 

high manganese carbon steel1. The shell material also meets the composition requirements of 

ASTM A-299 and A-225, Grade C2. The head material, which was reportedly A-225 Gr. B, 

contains less nickel than listed in the 1999 specification for A-225; however, it does meet the A2992

specifications and the A-225 Gr. B specifications that were in place in 1956. The shell 

material also meets AO Smith’s 1146a specification, while the head material falls below this 

specification in both carbon and nickel content. For reference, the AISI, ASTM, and AO Smith 

specifications are also listed in Table 3-1.

Table 3-1. Chemical Composition of Head and Shell Material

Material

Composition, wt.%

C Mn P S Si Ni Cr Mo Cu V Al

Head 0.16 1.40 0.033 0.028 0.20 0.20 0.19 0.02 0.02 NM4<0.01

Shell 0.21 1.36 0.025 0.018 0.26 0.53 0.07 0.01 0.04 NM40.05

AISI 

1513 0.10-0.161.1-1.4 0.040 max

0.050 

max

      

AISI 

1522 0.18-0.241.1-1.4 0.040 max

0.050 

max

      

AISI 

1524 0.19-0.251.35-1.650.040 max

0.050 

max

      

ASTM A225 Gr. C20.25

max

1.72

max

0.035 

max

0.035 

max

0.13-0.450.37-

0.73   

0.11-

0.20 

ASTM A29920.28

max

0.84-1.520.035 

max

0.035 

max

0.13-0.45     

ASTM A225 Gr. B30.20

max

1.45

max

0.04

max

0.05

max

0.15-0.30 0.09-

0.14

AO Smith

1146a

0.18-0.251.10-1.500.04

max

0.05

max

0.20-0.350.40-

0.70

0.13-

0.18

1

 When the composition of an element such as nickel is not specified, concentrations in the 

range of 0.2 to 0.5 wt.% are considered to be within specification as non-deliberate additions.

2

 1999 vintage ASTM specification

3

 1956 vintage ASTM specification

4

 Not measured
4-1 Revision 1

4.0 FRACTOGRAPHY OF CRACK FROM NOTCH IN OUTER SHELL

A 41⁄2 inch wide section containing the notch was excised from the vessel shell. Two triangular 

sections were then removed from the section on either end of the notch such that a 1⁄2 inch long 

ligament was present on each end. An impact force, which applied a bending stress across the 

notch, was then applied to produce a room temperature fracture of the intact ligaments.

A photograph of one face of the opened notch is provided in Figure 4-1. The notch is the dark 

grey, thumbnail shaped feature along the top of the opened face. The light grey regions on either 

end of the notch are the lab fracture. The narrow, medium grey, thumbnail shaped region 

directly below the notch appears to be a fatigue crack that grew from the notch. The medium 

grey region beneath the fatigue crack appears to be a region of rapid fracture.

The notch was 2.01 inch long and 0.172 inch deep. The fatigue crack was 1.78 inch long and 

0.06 inch deep. A 0.03 inch ligament was present between the tip of the fatigue crack and the 

inner surface of the plate. The thickness of the shell was nominally 0.26 inches.

While the notch was covered with a dark grey oxide, both the fatigue crack and the region of 

rapid fracture were covered with medium grey colored oxides. Isolated regions of rust colored 

oxides were also present on all three surfaces. A backscattered electron image of the transition 

from the fatigue crack to the rapid fracture is provided in Figure 4-2. Patches of thicker oxides 

are evident in this image. Energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) was used to determine 

the chemical composition of these oxides. The EDS spectrum, shown in Figure 4-3, indicates 

that the oxides contained large concentrations of Si and O and smaller amounts of Na, Al, S, K, 

Ca, and Fe.

An ENDOX®process was used to remove the oxides from the fracture surface without altering 

the underlying fracture surface features. A stereomicroscope image of the opened crack 

following cleaning is presented in Figure 4-4. The fatigue crack exhibited bands oriented along 

the plane of the plate but no evidence of beach marks that would indicate significant changes in 

the fatigue loading, as shown in Figure 4-5.

Following the stereomicroscope examination, the fracture surface was examined in a 

scanning electron microscope (SEM). A montage of low magnification SEM images of the 

fracture surface is provided in Figure 4-6. The locations of each of the higher magnification 

images that follow are indicated numerically on the image. The bands along the plate plane that 

were observed in the stereomicroscope appeared as seams in the plate in the SEM, as shown in 

Figure 4-7. Although the microstructure of the plate was not examined, these seams are likely 

the result of laminar slag inclusions that were elongated during the rolling process. The images 

taken from various regions of the fatigue crack are shown in Figures 4-8 through 4-13. Regions 

of fatigue striations were evident at multiple locations, as shown in Figures 4-8, 4-11, 4-12, and 

4-13. Crack growth rate estimates obtained from the striation spacings ranged from 7.2×10-6

inch/cycle near the notch to 1.8×10-5inch/cycle adjacent to the transition to fast fracture. While

most of the fracture was transgranular, isolated regions of intergranular fracture were present, as 

shown in Figures 4-9, 4-10, and 4-11. Secondary (out of plane) cracking was also evident, as 

seen in Figures 4-10, 4-11, 4-12, and 4-13. 
4-2

Dimpled cup and cone features representative of a ductile fracture process were present 

throughout the rapid fracture region, as shown in Figures 4-14 through 4-17. Virtually identical 

dimple features were present in the regions of laboratory fracture, as shown in Figure 4-18.

In summary, the fractographic features that were revealed by opening the notch indicate that a 

fatigue crack initiated from the notch and grew to a length of 1.78 inch and a depth of 0.064 inch. 

At this size, the loading applied to the crack was sufficient to produce rapid crack advance, 

which appears to have propagated the crack through the wall. Note that the fatigue crack grew 

primarily in the depth (thickness) direction and did not grow lengthwise outside of the notch.
4-3

Figure 4-1. Photograph of One Face of the As-Opened Crack
4-4

Figure 4-2. SEM Image of Deposits Present on the As-Opened Crack

Figure 4-3. EDS Spectrum from Deposits Present of the Crack Surface
4-5

Figure 4-4. Low Magnification Stereomicroscope Image of One Face

of the Opened Crack

Figure 4-5. Higher Magnification Stereomicroscope Image

of the Center of the Opened Crack
4-6

Figure 4-6. Montage of Low Magnification SEM Images of the Center of the Opened Crack
4-7

Figure 4-7. Low Magnification SEM Image of Location 1 in Figure 4-6
4-8

Figure 4-8. SEM Image of Fatigue Striations

at Location 1 in Figure 4-6.
4-9

Figure 4-9. SEM Image of Isolated Intergranular Fracture

Features at Location 2 in Figure 4-6.
4-10

Figure 4-10. SEM Image of Isolated Intergranular Fracture Features and

Secondary Cracking at Location 3 in Figure 4-6
4-11

Figure 4-11. SEM Image of Fatigue Striations and Intergranular Fracture

Features at Location 3 in Figure 4-6
4-12

Figure 4-12. SEM Image of Fatigue Striations and Secondary

Cracking at Location 4 in Figure 4-6
4-13

Figure 4-13. SEM Image of Transgranular Fracture, Fatigue Striations, 

and Secondary Cracking at Location 5 in Figure 4-6
4-14

Figure 4-14. SEM Image of Ductile Rupture Just Beyond the 

Fatigue Crack at Location 6 in Figure 4-6
4-15

Figure 4-15. SEM Image of Ductile Fracture Features Within the Overload

Region at Location 7 in Figure 4-6
4-16

Figure 4-16. SEM Image of Ductile Features Along the I.D. Edge

of the Fracture at Location 8 in Figure 4-6
4-17

Figure 4-17. SEM Image of Ductile Fracture Features Within the 

Overload Region at Location 9 in Figure 4-6
4-18

Figure 4-18. SEM Image of the Ductile Fracture Features Present

in the Laboratory Fracture Region
5-1 Revision 1

5.0 MECHANICAL CHARACTERIZATION

Some basic mechanical testing was performed in order to characterize the mechanical behavior 

of the AO Smith 1146a shell and A-225 Grade B head materials. This characterization is an 

initial portion of an overall characterization of the pressure vessel constituents, including the 

heads, inner and outer shells and the welds (shell seam welds and head-to-shell girth welds). 

5.1 Tensile Testing

Tensile testing was performed in keeping with ASTM E8 [1]1on the AO Smith 1146a outer shell 

and the A-225 Grade B head materials. Standard 0.5-in. round tensile bars were machined from 

the head material in the longitudinal direction2 while flat dog bone specimen with a nominally 

0.25-in. square cross-section were machined from the outer shell in the hoop orientation. All 

testing was performed at room temperature.

The results of the tensile testing are presented in Table 5-1 for the 1146a shell and A-225 head 

materials. By way of reference, the tensile properties are compared to data available in a NASA 

Tech Memo [2]. The tensile properties of the A-225 Grade B head material are in very good 

agreement with the reference data. The properties of the 1146a outer shell material are in 

reasonable agreement with the reference data, but demonstrate a slight increase in strength and a 

slight reduction in ductility. While the source of the reference material is unclear, this testing 

was performed on material extracted from an actual pressure vessel. The slight differences in 

shell properties may be the result of the forming process in creating the multilayered body of the 

vessel.

Table 5-1. AO Smith 1146a and A-225 Gr.B Tensile Properties

Material ID Temp (oF)

Yield (ksi) UTS (ksi) Ductility (%) Area Reduct. 

Test Ref [2] Test Ref [2] Test Ref (%) [2]

1146a outer 

shell

1

RT

86.1

75.0

118.7

101.3

23.0

31

41.0

2 79.3 119.4 24.0 41.6

3 81.3 119.2 23.0 43.6

Ave 82.2 119.1 23.3 42.1

A-225 Gr. B 

head

1

RT

53.1

58.4

80.0

82.1

34.0

34

67.2

2 51.7 77.5 36.0 68.4

3 52.7 80.4 33.0 67.8

Ave 52.5 79.3 34.3 67.8

 

1 Numbers in square brackets [#] refer to references listed in Section 8.

2 All orientations are with respect to the pressure vessel geometry and not necessarily material 

directions.
5-2 Revision 1

5.2 Charpy V-Notch Testing

Charpy V-notch (CVN) testing was performed in keeping with ASTM E23 [3] on the AO Smith 

1146a outer shell and the A-225 Grade B head materials. CVN testing was performed at room 

temperature and -20 oF. The limited thickness (nominally 0.25 in.) of the outer shell required the 

use of sub-sized CVN specimens in the C-L orientation3. These specimens had a 2-mm notch in 

a 10-mm width but were only 5 mm thick instead of the standard 10-mm thickness. Standard, 

full-sized specimens of 10-mm by 10-mm were used for the head material in the L-C orientation.

Both materials indicate a significant drop in CVN and lateral expansion from RT to -20 oF. 

Although this testing was not designed to determine the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature, 

these data are consistent with the reported nil-ductility temperature of -25 oF for the A-225 

material and the reported decrease in CVN with temperature between RT and -20 oF for both A225 and 1146a materials (nil-ductility for 1146a was not reported) [2].

The results of the Charpy testing are presented in Table 5-2 for the 1146a shell and A-225 head 

materials. A scaling factor [4, 5] was used to adjust the sub-size CVN data in order to facilitate 

comparison to available CVN values from standard 10-mm x 10-mm specimens. This scaling 

applies to sub-sized specimens of reduced thickness by simply scaling the measured sub-sized 

CVN energy by the ratio of the thickness reduction to the standard 10-mm thickness.4 However, 

the thinner specimens have reduced notch-tip constraint, which can result in increased CVN 

energy. As the correction does not account for changes in notch-tip constraint, the thicknesscorrected CVN energy may be an overestimation. 

The scaled data is compared to data available in a NASA Tech Memo [2] in Table 5-2. The 

CVN energies are well below reported values [2]. Representative CVN specimens of the shell 

and head materials are shown in Figures 5-1 and 5-2, respectively. The fracture surface for both 

materials at room temperature and -20 oF is indicative of brittle failure. Some shear deformation 

associated with the formation of shear lips is evident at room temperature while negligible shear 

was noted at -20 oF. These fracture surfaces are indicative of the measured CVN energies. The 

source of the discrepancy with the reported values is currently unknown. It is unknown if these 

differences are attributable to the chemistry differences noted in Section 3.0. 

 

3

The first direction corresponds to the loading direction and the second indicates the crack 

growth direction.

4

The ASME B&PV Code (Section VIII, Div. 3, Article KM-2) allows the use of subsize CVN 

specimens when material size or shape precludes the use of full-size CVN specimens and 

recommends scaling the results as done here. 
5-3 Revision 1

Table 5-2. AO Smith 1146a and A-225 Gr. B CVN Properties

Notes: (1) sub-sized specimens of 10x5x2V

 (2) CVN adjusted to standard 10x10x2V per [4, 5]

Material

Temp

(

o

F)

Test

Lateral 

Expansion 

(%)

CVN (ft-lbs)

Sub-Size(1) Full-Size Ref [2]

1146a outer 

shell

RT

1 6.1 7 14(2)

79

2 9.9 7 14(2)

3 7.6 8 16(2)

Ave 7.8 7 15

(2)

-20

1 2.3 4 8

(2)

41

2 2.8 3 6

(2)

3 2.3 3 6

(2)

Ave 2.5 3 7

(2)

A-225 Gr. B 

head

RT

1 6.6 24

41

2 5.8 20

3 5.8 19

Ave 6.1 21

-20

1 1.6 6

20

2 1.5 6

3 1.4 5

Ave 1.5 6
5-4

...............................................................

(a) RT.................................................................................................................................(b) -20 oF

Figure 5-1. AO Smith 1146a Shell CVN Specimens

...................

(a) RT.................................................................................................................................(b) -20 oF

Figure 5-2. A-225 Head CVN Specimens

5.3 Plane Strain Fracture Toughness – A-225 Grade B Head Material

Plane strain fracture toughness testing was performed in keeping with ASTM E399 [6] for the A225 Grade B head material – plane strain toughness testing was believed to be unsuitable for the 

1146a shell material given its limited thickness. Testing was performed using compact tension, 

C(T), specimens with a width, W, of 2 in. and thickness, B, of 1 in. (see Figure 5-3). The test 

set-up showing the specimen, clip gage and traveling microscope (behind) is shown in Figure 5-

4.

Prior to toughness testing, specimens were polished to a mirror-like finish to aid in visually 

measuring the crack length during precracking. Crack length was measured on both sides of the 

specimen using traveling microscopes with digital verniers. The load during precracking was 

kept in the range of 60-80 percent of the anticipated fracture load in accordance with ASTM 

E399.

Unfortunately, with the low yield and apparently high toughness of the A-225 head material, 

significant plasticity and severe blunting of the crack tip developed during testing. A typical 
5-5

specimen following testing is shown in Figure 5-5 that indicates the extreme plasticity at the 

crack tip and considerable lateral contraction through the thickness. The results so grossly 

violate the conditions of ASTM E399 for plane strain toughness that subsequent data analysis 

was not performed.

Based on the yield and apparent toughness of the A-225 material, a C(T) with an estimated W of 

12 in. would be required in order to achieve a valid plane strain toughness measure. Similarly, 

an estimated W of 9 in. would be required to obtain a plane stress toughness measure per an 

ASTM E561 K-R approach [7]. Thus, it is recommended that toughness testing of the A-225 

head material be performed in keeping with the J-R approach of ASTM E1820 [8].

Figure 5-3. Plane Strain Fracture Toughness Specimen Drawing

Figure 5-4. Plane Strain Fracture Toughness Test Set-up
5-6

..................................

Figure 5-5. Typical A-225 Specimen After Toughness Testing
5-7 Revision 1

5.4 Plane Stress Fracture Toughness Testing – AO Smith 1146a Shell Material

Given the limited thickness of the outer shell material, determining a valid plane strain toughness 

was deemed unlikely. Thus, a K-R approach per ASTM E561 [7] was used to determine the 

plane stress toughness. C(T) specimens with W=1.25 in. and B= 0.24 in. were extracted from 

the shell in the C-L orientation such that the specimen would be loaded in the hoop direction and 

a crack in the axial direction (see Figure 5-6).

Following precracking, the specimen was loaded to failure while measuring crack extension. For 

the room temperature testing, crack extension was measured visually using traveling 

microscopes with digital verniers. For the -20 oF testing in which visual measurements were not 

possible, crack extension was measured using a standard direct current potential drop (DCPD) 

technique in which the specimen is subjected to a constant current and the measured voltage 

potential drop across the crack is related to crack length. This set-up, without the cold chamber, 

is shown in Figure 5-7 and includes the DCPD wires attached to the specimen. 

The resulting crack growth resistance, KR, is plotted as a function of crack extension and 

overlaid with crack driving force, K, curves of constant load (refer to Figure 5-8). The load (P3

in Figure 5-8) associated with the curve tangent to the KR curve is the critical load at instability 

and is used to establish the plane stress toughness, Kc, for the material for its tested thickness.

0.240

Figure 5-6. Plane Stress Fracture Toughness Specimen Drawing
5-8

Figure 5-7. Plane Stress Fracture Toughness Test Set-up

Figure 5-8. Schematic of the K-R Approach Used in Determing Kc (Ref [6])

This approach was used to establish the plane stress fracture toughness for the AO Smith 1146a 

outer shell material (see Table 5-3). As noted in Table 5-3, the initial crack lengths of two room 

temperature tests were ultimately found to be slightly out of specification per ASTM E561. 

However, a re-test with an initial crack length within specification resulted in very consistent 

toughness, suggesting that those values are reasonable. These toughness values are also 
5-9

consistent with a reported toughness of 82 ksi√in for a comparable sized specimen [2]. Little 

difference in toughness was noted between RT and -20 oF, which is consistent with the general 

findings in [2].

Table 5-3. AO Smith 1146a Shell Plane Stress Fracture Toughness

Material Temp (oF) B (in) W (in) ao (in) Kc ksi√in

1146a outer shell

RT

0.236 1.249 0.3505*92

0.236 1.248 0.3465*91

0.237 1.249 0.4440 88

--- --- Ave 90

-20

0.236 1.250 0.4310 86

0.237 1.249 0.4870 86

--- --- Ave 86

Note: * crack length required to be 0.391 and 0.625 in.

5.5 Fatigue Crack Growth Behavior

Fatigue crack growth (FCG) testing was performed in keeping with ASTM E647 [9] on the AO 

Smith 1146a outer shell and the A-225 Grade B head materials using standard C(T) specimens 

(see Figures 5-6 and 5-9, respectively, for the 1146a and A-225 materials). Note that a smaller 

specimen was used for the 1146a shell material due to limitations in thickness and curvature.

Figure 5-9. FCG Specimen Drawing for the A-225 Gr B Material

Testing was performed on a 50-kip servohydraulic test frame equipped with an MTS 458.20 

controller and Fracture Technology Associates (FTA) software specifically designed for ASTM 

E647 FCG testing. Prior to FCG testing, specimens were polished to a mirror-like finish to aid 

in visually measuring the crack length. Digital vernier traveling microscopes were used to 

visually measure crack length on front and back faces. The test set-up is shown in Figure 5-10.
5-10

A standard direct current potential drop (DCPD) technique was used to infer the instantaneous 

crack length during FCG testing. The corresponding Johnson’s equation coefficients were used 

with the FTA system to determine the crack length as described in ASTM E647 [9]. Typically 

three to five visual measurements were performed throughout the FCG test and used in post-test 

corrections of the DCPD-inferred crack lengths in keeping with ASTM E647.

Figure 5-10. FCG Test Set-Up (1146a Specimen Shown)

Specimen pre-cracking was performed per ASTM E647. Pre-cracking conditions were designed 

to mitigate any load history effects that might compromise subsequent FCG test results. At the 

end of pre-cracking, the final pre-crack length was measured on both the front and back faces of 

the specimen.

All FCG testing was performed at a load ratio, R, (ratio of minimum to maximum load) of 0.15 

and at RT. Constant amplitude FCG testing was utilized to establish the fatigue crack growth 

rate behavior above a growth rate of nominally 4 x 10-7in/cyc. As testing progresses under 

constant amplitude, K increases as the crack length increases. This constant amplitude strategy 

was used to characterize the majority of the FCG behavior.
5-11 Revision 1

In order to characterize the near-threshold behavior, a K-decreasing method was utilized. This 

method uses the instantaneous crack length determined from DCPD to adjust the applied cyclic 

loading and gradually load-shed to ultimately approach threshold behavior, Kth. For this 

testing, a gradient, C, of -2 in.-1 was used and is the maximum shedding rate allowed by ASTM 

E647. Also per ASTM E647, K-decreasing testing was restricted to starting below a growth rate 

of 4x10-7in/cyc. K-decreasing testing was allowed to continue to growth rates in the 10-9in/cyc 

decade where data indicated threshold behavior after which continued testing was performed 

under constant amplitude (increasing K) until test completion.

Upon completion of each fatigue crack growth test, the data generated was post-processed to 

calibrate the DCPD crack length measurements with the visual crack lengths that were recorded 

periodically during the entire test. This procedure was performed using the FTA Automated 

Fatigue Crack Growth Analysis software (2001 series, version 3.05.03a, FTA). 

The resulting da/dN-∆K FCG behavior for the 1146a and A-225 materials is shown in Figures 5-

11 and 5-12, respectively. The results are typical of FCG behavior, characterized by a near 

threshold region of little/no crack growth followed by a so-called Paris region where growth rate 

is proportional (on log-log scale) to cyclic driving force. At driving forces approaching material 

toughness, the growth rate accelerates to failure. Loss of validity of the test data occurred in this 

region as the crack was especially deep and close to the back face of the specimen, violating 

LEFM considerations. These data are represented by open symbols throughout this report. It 

may be appropriate to develop additional data in the near-threshold and near-failure regions 

during the second phase of this program.

It is important to note that the FCG data generated for each material consists of two individual 

tests. The inability to discern these individual tests is an indication of the repeatability of the 

data generated.

Also included in Figures 5-11 and 5-12 are FCG data generated by NASA Langley (LaRC) [2]. 

The Langley data were generated with R = 0.05 (recall that data generated in this SwRI effort 

were at R = 0.15). While the Langley data certainly has considerable scatter, there appears to be 

reasonable consistency given the difference in R between these data sets since one would expect 

the R = 0.15 data to be only slightly higher than the R = 0.05 data. The new data obtained herein 

lie above the Langley data for both materials.

A comparison of the 1146a and A-225 FCG behavior is shown in Figure 5-13. The behavior of 

the two materials is extremely consistent, including the near threshold region. 
5-12

1.E-09

1.E-08

1.E-07

1.E-06

1.E-05

1.E-04

1.E-03

1 10 100

da/dN (in/cyc)

K (ksi√in)

1146a

Valid

Invalid

LaRC, R=0.05

Figure 5-11. AO Smith 1146a Outer Shell FCG Behavior at R = 0.15
5-13

1.E-09

1.E-08

1.E-07

1.E-06

1.E-05

1.E-04

1.E-03

1 10 100

da/dN (in/cyc)

K (ksi√in)

A-225 Gr B

Valid

Invalid

LaRC, R=0.05

Figure 5-12. AO Smith 1146a and A-225 Gr. B FCG Behavior at R = 0.15
5-14

1.E-09

1.E-08

1.E-07

1.E-06

1.E-05

1.E-04

1.E-03

1 10 100

da/dN (in/cyc)

K (ksi√in)

1146a

A-225 Gr B

Figure 5-13. Comparison of 1146a and A-225 FCG Behavior at R = 0.15
5-15 Revision 1

5.6 Mechanical Characterization Summary

Tensile, Charpy V-notch, fracture toughness and fatigue crack growth testing was performed on 

the AO Smith 1146a outer shell and A-225 Grade B head materials. The following provides a 

summary of the findings.

 The tensile properties of both materials were in reasonable agreement with reference 

tensile data [2]. A slight increase in strength and a slight reduction in ductility with 

respect to the reference data were noted for the 1146a material. These slight differences 

may be the result of forming process in creating the multilayered body of the vessel.

 The Charpy V-notch results of the A-225 head material and 1146a shell material, even 

when adjusted for sub-size specimens, were very low and much lower than the reference 

data. The source of this difference is unknown.

 Both materials indicate a significant drop in CVN from RT to -20 oF. This is consistent 

with the reported nil-ductility temperature of -25 oF for the A-225 material and the 

reported decrease in CVN with temperature between RT and -20 oF for both materials 

[2].

 Plane strain fracture toughness testing of the A-225 Grade B material resulted in grossly 

invalid conditions due to its high apparent toughness and low yield. The extreme 

ductility and plasticity at the crack tip would necessitate a J-R approach in order to obtain 

a valid toughness measure, which was not within the scope of this Phase 1 effort.

 The plane stress fracture toughness of the 1146a material, based on a K-R approach for a 

nominal 0.25-in. thickness, was consistent with the reported toughness of similar 

thickness. Little difference was noted between RT and -20 oF, consistent with the general 

findings in [2].

 The fatigue crack growth behavior at R = 0.15 was developed for both materials at RT. 

The FCG behavior includes the general Paris region as well as some near-threshold 

behavior. Loss of validity limited the behavior at upper regions of the da/dN-K 

behavior.

 The FCG behavior of the 1146a and A-225 materials was indistinguishable.

5.7 Considerations for Phase 2 Characterization Testing

The testing reported herein consisted of an initial portion of an overall characterization of the 

pressure vessel constituents, including the heads, inner and outer shells and the welds (shell seam 

welds and head-to-shell girth welds). Based on the results and findings of this effort, the 

following are considerations for the scope of the follow-on Phase 2 characterization.

 As the intent was to characterize both the RT and -20 oF behavior of all of the pressure 

vessel constituents, a limited amount of tensile testing should be performed at -20 oF. 

This will not only elucidate the low-temperature tensile properties, but also facilitate 

more robust low-temperature toughness and FCG characterization, which is a function of 

material yield.

 The Charpy results of the 1146a material were surprisingly low and significantly lower 

than reference values. This testing should be revisited to ensure confidence in the results.

 Given the high apparent toughness and low yield strength of the A-225 head material, a JR approach should be considered to determine the toughness of the head material.

 Some additional, targeted FCG testing should be performed to provide additional data in 

the near-threshold and near-failure regions for both materials.
5-16 Revision 1

 Although most steels exhibit very little R-ratio dependence, particularly in the Paris 

region, a limited amount of FCG at a distinctly different R (likely a very high R) should 

be considered to support more complete FCG characterization for use in fitting the 

NASGRO equation.

 Although toughness did not exhibit any significant temperature dependence (the 1146a 

material did not in this effort and reference data indicated that neither material exhibits 

much), the development of a limited amount of FCG at an existing R-ratio (0.15) should 

be considered in order to determine the influence of temperature on FCG behavior.
6-1 Revision 1

6.0 FRACTURE MECHANICS ANALYSIS OF FLAW IN OUTER SHELL

6.1 Stress Analysis

Using the nominal shell dimensions (OD = 36.25 inches and T = 3.125 inches) and the standard 

thick-walled cylinder solution, the stress distribution through the thickness of the vessel shell 

wall was computed for a unit (1.0 ksi) internal pressure and is shown in Figure 6-1 plotted as a 

function of normalized distance, x/T. The red lines in the figure represent the thickness of the 

outer layer of the shell (0.25 inches) and over this short thickness the hoop stress is nearly linear 

decreasing from 4.408 ksi on the inside of the outer layer to 4.347 ksi on the outer surface. This 

stress gradient (in the outer layer) was used in the fracture mechanics and fatigue crack growth 

analyses that follow.

6.2 Fracture Mechanics Analysis

The notch and fatigue crack surface was shown in Figure 4-1 and, as previously mentioned, the 

fatigue crack did not grow laterally along the outer surface of the shell. The total notch length 

was 2.01 inches and for the purposes of analysis is set equal to 2c where c is the half-crack/notch 

length along the surface (c = 1.0 inches). The initial depth of the notch, a, was 0.172 inches and 

the fractographic analysis showed that it grew by fatigue 0.06 inches to a total depth of 0.232 

inches. A 0.03 inch ligament was present between the tip of the fatigue crack and the inner 

surface of the plate that failed rapidly according to the fractographic analysis. The thickness, t,

of the shell outer layer at the location of the notch was measured to be 0.26 inches (as compared 

to the nominal specified shell thickness of 0.25 inches). 

It is unusual that the fatigue crack grew primarily in the through-thickness (depth) direction. 

That is, the crack length, 2c, remained essentially constant at about 2.0 inches while the crack 

grew only in the depth direction. It is suspected that the machining process used to “insert” the 

notch into the surface of the outer shell induced compressive residual stresses at the point where 

notch intersected the surface and that precluded fatigue crack growth from the surface crack tips. 

However, this is merely a logical explanation and it cannot at present be verified. 

The NASGRO [10] surface crack in a plate model SC02 was used to perform the fracture 

mechanics and fatigue crack growth analysis of the flaw in the outer layer of the shell using the 

outer layer thickness of 0.26 inches. This model is a univariant weight function model capable 

of handling a nonlinear through-thickness stress gradient as shown in Figure 6-2. The stress 

gradient is that shown in Figure 6-1 between the red lines for the outer layer and is applied 

through-the-thickness. A width, W, of 24 inches was assumed. Note that this model neglects 

any effect of the curvature of the shell which is minimal at the large diameter to thickness ratio 

of the outer shell.

Normalizing the stress gradient allows the computation of geometry factors as a function of 

crack size and facilitates computing the stress intensity factor, K, for any internal pressure (or 

hoop stress). The geometry factors were computed using the NASSIF module of NASGRO and 

can be used to compute the stress intensity factor at any crack depth for this problem according 

to the following expression:
6-2

K(a) = p*(SF)*F(a)* (6.1)

where p is the internal pressure (ksi), SF is a scale factor (4.347) to convert the internal pressure 

to hoop stress in the outer layer, F(a) is the geometry factor for the crack depth, a, (the a-tip). 

K(a) is the stress intensity factor at the a-tip in units of ksi√in. Similarly, the stress intensity 

factor at the surface (the c-tip) is computed as:

K(c) = p*(SF)*F(c)* (6.2)

where F(c) is the geometry factor for the surface crack tip. Values of F(a) and F(c) are plotted 

in Figure 6-3 and tabulated in Table 6-1. Note that for this crack geometry, since the surface 

crack length never changed, the aspect ratio (defined as a/c) is equal to the crack depth since c is 

always 1.0 inches. 

At the beginning of the cyclic pressure testing, the initial maximum pressure was 6.6 ksi and, 

therefore, the initial stress intensity factors at the a-tip and the c-tip can be computed as follows:

K(a=0.172) = 6.6(4.347)*1.612*√π(0.172) = 34.0 ksi√in

K(c=1.0) = 6.6(4.347)*0.892*√π(0.172) = 18.8 ksi√in

At the point of maximum fatigue crack depth (a = 0.23 inches) the geometry factor F(a) is 1.655. 

Near the end of the test (see the following section) the peak internal pressures were 10 ksi and 14 

ksi. Repeating the above calculation for K(a=0.23) for these pressures gives stress intensity 

factors of 61.2 ksi√in for the 10 ksi peak pressure and 85.6 ksi√in for the 14 ksi peak pressure. 

Table 5-3 lists fracture toughness values obtained for the shell material (and thickness) that 

average 90 ksi√in at room temperature and 86 ksi√in at -20oF. Therefore, it can be concluded 

that the region of rapid fracture (spanning the 0.03 inch remaining ligament shown in Figures 4-

1, 4-2 and 4-5) most likely occurred during one or more of the few 14 ksi pressure cycles near 

the very end of the test since the applied K was so close to the fracture toughness. 
6-3

Figure 6-1. Hoop Stress Distribution in Shell Wall for a 

Unit Internal Pressure of 1.0 ksi

Figure 6-2. NASGRO Surface Crack in a Plate Fracture Mechanics Model SC02 [10]
6-4

Figure 6-3. Geometry Factors at the Crack Depth, F(a), and the Crack Surface, F(c),

for the Stress Gradient in the Outer Shell Layer as a Function of Crack Depth,

as Computed Using NASGRO Model SC02

Table 6-1. Tabulated Values of Geometry Factors F(a) and F(c)
7-1

7.0 FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH ANALYSIS

This section first provides a review of fatigue crack growth (FCG) data and how they are 

modeled using the NASGRO equation [10]. While the NASGRO software contains some data 

for these materials from the 1975 NASA Langley report [2], these data sets are not as extensive 

as one would hope and exhibit considerable scatter (see Figures 5-11 and 5-12). The FCG data 

generated in this Phase 1 effort was first compared to a Paris equation from Barsom [11] quoted 

for these materials in the Langley report. A set of NASGRO equation parameters for the 1146a 

shell material was obtained using the NASMAT module of NASGRO and was then used to 

perform an analysis of the fatigue crack growth from the notch in the outer shell layer that 

occurred during the cyclic pressure testing.

7.1 Fatigue Crack Growth Rate Data Background

Fatigue crack growth rate data are generally characterized on log-log plots of growth rate, da/dN

(in/cycle) versus stress intensity factor range, ΔK (ksi in). It is commonplace to consider FCG 

data to be divided into three regions as shown schematically in Figure 7-1. Region I is the 

fatigue “threshold” region where cracks propagate very slowly and the data usually exhibit a 

threshold (ΔKth) below which cracks do not propagate. Region II is the linear or steady-state 

region where the relationship between da/dN and ΔK is linear on a log-log plot. Region II is also 

commonly referred to as the Paris region after the power law equation [da/dN = C(ΔK)

n

] that has 

been used to model fatigue crack growth in this region for many years. Region III is the near 

instability region where rapid unstable crack growth occurs as fracture instability is approached.

Crack growth rate calculations in NASGRO use a relationship called the NASGRO equation 

given by:

da

dN

C

f

R

K

K

K

K

K

n

th

p

c

 q

























































1

1

1

1







max

(7.1)

where N is the number of applied fatigue cycles, a is the crack length, R is the stress ratio, K is 

the stress intensity factor range, and C, n, p, and q are empirically derived constants. The 

NASGRO equation is a “full-range” crack growth model in that it can represent all three crack 

growth regions as well as account for the dependence of FCG rate on the stress ratio. Closure is 

modeled using the Newman crack opening function, f. For additional detail on the NASGRO 

equation, the reader is referred to the documentation for the NASGRO software [10]. 
7-2 Revision 1

7.2 Fatigue Crack Growth Equations

Figure 7-2 plots all the fatigue crack growth data obtained in this Phase 1 effort for both the 

1146a shell material and the A-225 Gr B head material (similar to Figure 5-11). For fatigue 

crack growth in ferrite-pearlite steels, Barsom [11] developed an “upper bound” Paris equation 

that the Langley report recommended be used [2]:

da/dN = 3.6E-10 (ΔK)

3.0

 (7.2)

This relationship is also shown plotted in Figure 7-2 for comparison and matches the data 

reasonably well; however, the slope is somewhat shallower than the measured data (above the 

data at low ΔK and below the data at higher ΔK (although as previously noted, these higher data 

are considered invalid). It does not appear that this equation is an upper bound over the full 

range of ΔK. The maximum ΔK used in developing this equation was about 60 ksiin [11].

To fit the NASGRO equation to fatigue crack growth rate data, one generally needs multiple sets 

of data at different R values. In this Phase 1 effort, FCG rate data were obtained only at an R of 

0.15; further testing at a higher R value has been recommended for Phase 2 to determine the 

extent of the variation on da/dN as a function of R. This variation is anticipated to be small but 

testing is required to verify this expectation. 

However, in order to facilitate the FCG analysis of the crack that propagated out of the notch 

during the pressure testing, the NASGRO equation was fit to the 1146a shell FCG data (using 

only the single R value of 0.15). The resulting fit is shown in Figure 7-3 along with the 

corresponding NASGRO equation parameters. Note that a toughness value of 90 ksi√in was 

used in the fit (reference Table 5-3) and also that only the “valid” FCG data were used in the fit. 

The plot shows the NASGRO equation fit at R=0.15 and it matches the R=0.15 test data quite 

well. Also shown on the plot are the NASGRO equation lines computed for R=0 (blue) and 

R=0.45 (red); these R values correspond to the minimum and maximum R values that occurred 

in the cyclic pressure testing.

7.3 Pressure Vessel Cycle History

Digital Wave Corporation provided SwRI a spreadsheet containing the history of the internal 

pressures cycles that occurred during the testing. A total of 4688 pressure cycles were applied to 

the vessel over a period from September 2011 to March 2012. Based on communications with 

Digital Wave, each day the test began from zero pressure and the minimum pressure for the first 

cycle of each day was set to zero. The spreadsheet pressure history data were edited to account 

for this reality. Appendix A provides a listing of the pressure history and Figure 7-4 is a plot of 

the stress history in ksi for the outer layer computed using the same procedure as discussed in 

Section 6.1. In this figure the blue line represents the minimum stress in a cycle and the red line 

represents the maximum stress in a cycle. Figure 7-5 is a histogram of the R values contained in 

the pressure history indicating that the overwhelming majority of the cycles had R values 

between 0.1 and 0.2 (which was the reason the FCG rate testing was performed at R=0.15).
7-3

7.4 Analysis of FCG at Notch in Outer Shell

NASGRO was used to perform a fatigue crack growth analysis at the notch in the 1146a outer 

shell material. The fracture mechanics model used in the FCG analysis was the SC02 surface 

crack in a plate model and was identical to that described in Section 6.0, including the univariant 

through-thickness stress gradient. The initial flaw size for the analysis had a depth, a, of 0.172 

inches and a total length, 2c, of 2.0 inches with an initial aspect ratio, a/c, of 0.172. The width , 

W, was 24 inches and the thickness, t, was 0.26 inches.

Two crack growth analyses were performed. The first used the NASGRO equation fit to the 

R=0.15 da/dN data shown in Figure 7-3. The second analysis used the Barsom equation 

discussed above (Eqn. 7.2). The material data input screens captured from the NASGRO GUI 

for each of these cases are shown in Figures 7-6 and 7-7, respectively. In each of these cases, the 

NASGRO user-defined material option was employed. In the case of the Barsom (Paris) model, 

the base formulation of the NASGRO equation (Eqn. 7.1) was simplified by setting p=q=0 and 

removing (suppressing) closure in order to obtain a linear (Paris model). In each case the values 

of fracture toughness, yield strength, and ultimate strength used were the average values listed in 

Section 4.0.

Plots of crack depth and crack length for each analysis are shown in Figures 7-8 and 7-9, 

respectively, where the red curve represents the crack depth, a, and the green curve represents the 

surface crack half-length, c. Table 7-1 provides a summary of the results. Both analyses predict 

failure of the fatigue crack prior to the end of the total number of pressure cycles that were 

applied in the test (Ntest = 4,688 cycles); however, the NASGRO equation analysis predicts a 

shorter life to failure. Both analyses predicted small amounts of crack growth along the surface. 

Table 7-1. Results of Fatigue Crack Growth Analysis

Nthru Nf

FCG Material Model (cycles) (cycles) Nthru/Ntest Nf/Ntest Comments

NASGRO Equation 3,674 4,582 0.78 0.98 surface crack transitioned to through crack

a = 0.260 before failure occurred

c = 1.012 c = 1.353

Barsom Equation 4,661 4,661 0.99 0.99 surface crack failed by fracture, transitioned to 

a = 0.257 through crack, and failed immediately

c = 1.020 c = 1.020

Notes:

(1) Ntest is the total number of pressure cycles during the test (4,688).

(2) Nthru is the number of cycles to a through crack.

(3) Nf is the number of cylces at failure by fracture.

(4) Crack sizes are in units of inches.

The analysis performed using the NASGRO equation predicts that the surface crack will 

transition to a through crack (without failure) at 3,674 cycles (Nthru) and continue growing as a 

through crack until failure (Nf) after 4,582 cycles. In this analysis, the transition to the through 

crack occurred at load step number 201 (pressure = 8.4 ksi) and failure occurred at load step 

number 258 (pressure = 10 ksi). This failure is sooner than what happened in the test for the 

actual crack and (from Figure 4-1 and the fracture surface analysis) the ligament ahead of the 

fatigue crack was shown by examination of the fracture surface to fail by rapid fracture. 

In contrast, the analysis using the Barsom equation comes very close to the end of the test 

predicting failure after 4,661 cycles. In this case the surface crack failed by fracture at cycle 
7-4

4,662 and upon transition to a through crack, was predicted to fail immediately as a through 

crack. Cycle number 4,662 was the first cycle at an internal maximum pressure of 14 ksi and as 

show in Section 6.2, this corresponded to a stress intensity factor of 85.6 ksi√in, nearly reaching 

the average fracture toughness of 90 ksi√in. Again, this leads to the conclusion that the rapid 

fracture observed on the fracture surface most likely occurred at one of the 14 ksi pressure cycles 

near the very end of the test.

The fractographic analysis (Section 4.0) showed that regions of fatigue striations were evident at 

various locations on the crack surface. Crack growth rate estimates obtained from the striation 

spacings ranged from 7.2×10-6inch/cycle near the notch to 1.8×10-5inch/cycle adjacent to the 

transition to fast fracture. For comparison to these measurements, Figures 7-10 and 7-11 plot the 

computed crack growth rates da/dN and dc/dN for the analysis using the NASGRO equation and 

the Barsom equation, respectively. The striation measurements correspond primarily to crack 

propagation in the through-thickness direction and can be compared to the red curves in Figures 

7-10 and 7-11. In both analyses, the computed early crack growth rates bound the measured 

spacing of 7.2×10-6inch/cycle. However, crack growth rates computed just before failure or 

transition of the surface crack are somewhat higher than the measured spacing of 1.8×10-5

inch/cycle but they are of the same order of magnitude. 

7.5 Discussion and Conclusions

The notch that was inserted into the outer shell layer of the multilayer vessel, although shallow 

(a/c = 0.17), was really quite large since it was 70 percent through the thickness of the shell (a/t = 

0.172/0.26 = 0.70). Thus, at the beginning of the test (with a 6.6 ksi internal pressure), the stress 

intensity factor (and ΔK for the R=0 cycles) was about 34 ksi√in which is quite high on the FCG 

curve, approaching Region III, and near where the validity of the measured FCG rates in the 

material property characterization tests begins to come in to question. Since the Barsom 

equation at these stress intensity levels lies below the measured FCG data (and the NASGRO 

equation curve fit), it is therefore not surprising that it predicts longer life than the NASGRO 

equation analysis. Some of the difference between the two analytical predictions may also be a 

result of the stress ratio dependence built into the NASGRO equation. As previously mentioned, 

this could be better defined by conducting FCG testing at a higher R value, perhaps at R=0.5, but 

it is recognized (from Figure 7-5) that only about 10 percent of the cycles in the test were at a 

higher R.

The crack growth rates measured from the striation spacings can also be used in combination 

with the FCG data to estimate the applied ΔK and indicate that the applied ΔKs were at least 30

ksi√in, consistent with the values computed in the analyses.

Lastly, it is important to note that these analyses of the notch and the pressure test took place on 

the upper end of the FCG curve (approaching Region III) and that different conclusions could be 

possible if the crack size and stress history resulted in a spectrum that had a significant amount 

of cycles at lower ΔKs. For example, the Barsom equation crosses the FCG data (see Figure 7-2) 

and may actually be too conservative at lower ΔKs, particularly if the loading history results in a 

significant amount of cycles that would occur in or near the threshold region. For this reason, it 

is recommended that the full range of the FCG curve be characterized. And, as a practical 

matter, for cracks that start small, the majority of life is consumed at the lower crack growth 

rates and ΔKs further warranting a model such as the NASGRO equation that can account for 

behavior near the FCG threshold. 
7-5

Figure 7-1. Schematic of Fatigue Crack Growth Behavior Illustrating

the Three Regions of Fatigue Crack Growth
7-6

Figure 7-2. Comparison of Shell and Head FCG Data with Barsom

Equation for Ferrite-Pearlite Steels

Figure 7-3. NASGRO Equation Fit to 1146a Shell FCG Data
7-7

Figure 7-4. Stress History in Pressure Vessel Used in FCG Analysis

Figure 7-5. Histogram of R-Value Occurrences in Pressure Vessel Cycles
7-8

Figure 7-6. NASGRO Input Screen for NASGRO Equation Based on Curve Fit

to 1146a FCG Data Obtained at R = 0.15

Figure 7-7. NASGRO Input Screen for Barsom Equation
7-9

Figure 7-8. Crack Growth Curves Predicted Using NASGRO Equation and SC02

Figure 7-9. Crack Growth Curves Predicted Using Barsom Equation and SC02
7-10 

Figure 7-10. Crack Growth Rates Computed Using the NASGRO Equation 

Figure 7-11. Crack Growth Rates Computed Using the Barsom Equation 
8-1

8.0 REFERENCES

[1] ASTM E8, “Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials,” Vol. 

03.01, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2010.

[2] C.M. Hudson, J.C. Newman, Jr., and P.E. Lewis, NASA Technical Memorandum, 

“An Investigation of Fracture Toughness, Fatigue Crack Growth, and Impact 

Properties of Three Pressure Vessel Steels,” NASA TM X-3316, NASA LaRC, 

Hampton, VA, December, 1975.

[3] ASTM E23, “Standard Test Methods for Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic 

Materials,” Vol. 03.01, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2010.

[4] Towers, O. “Testing Sub Size Charpy Specimens – Parts 1, 2 and 3,” Metal 

Construction, March, April, and May, 1986.

[5] API RP 579/ASME FFS-1, Fitness-For-Service, API Recommended Practice 579, 

Second Edition, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., June 2007.

[6] ASTM E399, “Standard Test Method for Linear-Elastic Plane-Strain Fracture 

Toughness KIc of Metallic Materials,” Vol. 03.01, ASTM International, West 

Conshohocken, PA, 2010.

[7] ASTM E561, “Standard Test Method for K-R Curve Determination,” Vol. 03.01, 

ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2010.

[8] ASTM E1820, “Standard Test Method for Measurement of Fracture Toughness,” 

Vol. 03.01, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2010.

[9] ASTM E647, “Standard Test Method for Measurement of Fatigue Crack Growth 

Rates,” Vol. 03.01, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2010.

[10] NASGRO®Fracture Mechanics and Fatigue Crack Growth Analysis Software, 

Version 6.21, Southwest Research Institute and NASA Johnson Space Center, 

January 2012.

[11] Barsom, J.M. and Rolfe, S.T., Fracture and Fatigue Control in Structures: 

Applications of Fracture Mechanics, Third Edition, ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 

1999.
A-1

Appendix A: Pressure Vessel Cycle History
A-2
A-3
A-4
A-5
A-6
A-7
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Multilayer Pressure Vessel Materials Testing and Analysis

Phase I

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Cardinal, Joseph W.; Popelar, Carl F.; Page, Richard A.

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To provide NASA a comprehensive suite of materials strength, fracture toughness and crack growth rate test results for use in 

remaining life calculations for aging multilayer pressure vessels, Southwest Research Institute® (SwRI®) was contracted in 

two phases to obtain relevant material property data from a representative vessel. This report describes Phase 1 of this effort 

which includes a preliminary material property assessment as well as a fractographic, fracture mechanics and fatigue crack 

growth analyses of an induced flaw in the outer shell of a representative multilayer vessel that was subjected to cyclic pressure 

test. SwRI performed this Phase 1 effort under contract to the Digital Wave Corporation in support of their contract to Jacobs

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Modal Acoustic Emission; Crack Growth Rate; Pressure Vessel; Fatigue crack growth 

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