Management Guide to Ecosystem 

Restoration Treatments:

Two-Aged Lodgepole Pine Forests 

of Central Montana, USA

Sharon M. Hood

Helen Y. Smith

David K. Wright

Lance S. Glasgow

United States Department 

of Agriculture

Forest Service

Rocky Mountain Research 

Station

General Technical Report 

RMRS-GTR-294

September 2012
Hood, Sharon M.; Smith, Helen Y.; Wright, David K.; Glasgow, Lance S. 2012. 

Management guide to ecosystem restoration treatments: two-aged lodgepole pine 

forests of central Montana, USA. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-294 Fort Collins, CO: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 

126 p.

Abstract

Lodgepole pine is one of the most widely distributed conifers in North America, with 

a mixed-severity rather than stand-replacement fire regime throughout much of its 

range. These lodgepole pine forests are patchy and often two-aged. Fire exclusion can 

reduce two-aged lodgepole pine heterogeneity. This management guide summarizes 

the effects of thinning and prescribed burning treatments in an effort to restore twoaged lodgepole pine stands on the Tenderfoot Creek Experimental Forest, Montana. 

We report changes in tree density and fuel loading following thinning and prescribed 

burning. Results are organized by unit to help users best match a study unit stand 

condition and treatment to his/her own stand and proposed treatment to estimate 

potential treatment effects.

Keywords: lodgepole pine, mixed severity, prescribed fire, harvest, shelterwood, 

uneven-aged management, two-aged

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ECOS STEM

TREATMENTS

RESTORATION • FUEL REDUCTION • SILVICULTURAL
The Authors

Sharon M. Hood is an Ecologist with the Fire, Fuel, and Smoke Science Program 

located at the USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station’s Fire Sciences 

Laboratory in Missoula, Montana. She completed a B.S. degree in Forestry from 

Mississippi State University, a M.S. degree in Forestry from Virginia Polytechnic 

Institute and State University, and is pursuing a Ph.D. in Biology at the University of 

Montana.

Helen Y. Smith is an Ecologist with the Fire, Fuel, and Smoke Science Program 

located at the Rocky Mountain Research Station’s Fire Sciences Laboratory in 

Missoula, Montana. She completed an A.A.S. degree at Flathead Valley Community 

College in Kalispell, Montana, and a B.S. degree in Wildlife Biology and M.S. degree 

in Resource Conservation, both from the University of Montana, Missoula.

David K. Wright is an Ecologist with the Forest and Woodland Ecosystems Program 

located at the Rocky Mountain Research Station’s Forestry Sciences Laboratory in 

Missoula, Montana. David completed a B.S. degree in Wildlife Science at Purdue 

University and a M.S. degree in Forestry at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State 

University.

Lance S. Glasgow is a Forestry Technician with the Fire, Fuel, and Smoke Science 

Program located at the Rocky Mountain Research Station’s Fire Sciences Laboratory 

in Missoula, Montana. During the preparation of this report he worked for the Forest 

Woodland Ecosystems Program at the Rocky Mountain Research Station’s Forestry 

Sciences Laboratory in Missoula, Montana. Lance completed a B.S. degree in 

Environmental Biology at the University of Southern Mississippi and a M.S. degree in 

Environmental and Plant Biology at Ohio University.

Acknowledgments

We thank the Lewis and Clark National Forest personnel who implemented the 

treatments and made this study possible, particularly Steve Zachary, Jess Secrest, 

and Steve Martin. Ward McCaughey, Glenda Scott, and Carl Fielder designed 

the silvicultural prescriptions. Colin Hardy and Steve Zachary designed the burn 

prescriptions, and Darrell Schulte modeled expected fire behavior. Numerous 

technicians collected data for this project: Leon Theroux, Jack Schmidt, Cassandra 

Koerner, Virginia Arensberg, Myron Holland, Brenda Yankoviak, Courtney Couch, 

Signe Leirfallom, Violet Holley, Greg Cohn, Megan Delaurentis, Brian Izbicki, 

Duncan Lutes, Connie Flores, Ben McShan, Robert Ahl, Karen Stockman, and 

Matt Witherspoon; we thank them for their hard work and attention to detail. 

Emily Schembra created the photopoint pages. We also thank Colin Hardy, Tanya 

Murphy, and Glenda Scott for technical reviews and Scott Baggett for statistical 

review. The Bitterroot Ecosystem Management Research Project, Rocky Mountain 

Research Station Fire, Fuel, and Smoke Research Program and Forest and Woodlands 

Ecosystem Program, and USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Protection, Evaluation 

Monitoring Proposal #INT-EM-F-11-03 each funded portions of this project.

The use of trade or firm names in this publication is for 

reader information and does not imply endorsement by the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture of any product or service.
The Management Guide Series

This report is second in a series of publications that detail restoration, fuel reduction, 

and silvicultural treatment effects on ecosystems (Keane and Parsons 2010). It presents 

statistical summaries, treatment descriptions, and photographs by treatment unit at 

each time interval. This guide is intended as a reference to identify possible impacts 

of a restoration treatment at a fine scale by matching a proposed treatment for a 

stand to the most similar treatment unit presented in this report based on vegetation 

conditions, fire intensity, and geographic area. This guide differs from most other 

reports in that it presents results at the individual treatment unit level; there are no 

analyses of differences across treatment units or across research sites. This guide 

is intended to help plan and design ecosystem restoration treatments by informing 

managers of possible effects of thinning and prescribed burning treatments on trees 

and fuels.

How to Use This Management Guide

To use this guide, the manager matches the conditions of the proposed treatment and 

site to similar stratifications within this guide. First, select the proposed treatment 

(no action, group shelterwood, even shelterwood, group shelterwood and burn, and 

even shelterwood and burn). Next, match the local site to the one most similar to the 

study site within the chosen treatment. The manager can then reference the effects 

of the treatments detailed in this guide to craft cutting and/or prescribed burning 

prescriptions to achieve management objectives. The following is a set of steps that 

provide an example of how this guide can be used for lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta 

Douglas ex Louden var. latifolia Engelm. ex S. Watson) restoration in central Montana:

Step 1—Select site. Select a site or area for possible ecosystem restoration treatment.

Step 2—Identify the characteristics. Estimate the dominate fire regime (non-lethal 

surface fire, mixed-severity fire, or stand-replacement fire), topographic setting 

(aspect, slope, and elevation), geographic area, habitat type, and dominant 

vegetation.

Step 3—Develop a proposed treatment. Choose a treatment to emulate and use it to 

craft a specific prescription.

Step 4—Match local pretreatment site conditions and proposed treatment to a 

similar treatment study unit within this guide. Within the chosen treatment (no 

action, group shelterwood, even shelterwood, group shelterwood and burn, and 

even shelterwood and burn), select one that most closely resembles the proposed 

local treatment area based on pretreatment tree density, fuel loadings, and 

vegetation conditions.

Step 5—Use the treatment unit effects described in this guide to inform management 

action. Data from posttreatment monitoring help to:

• estimate effects of proposed treatment for planning and National Environmental 

Policy Act (NEPA) analysis;

• design cutting and burning prescriptions to meet management objectives;

• prioritize areas for treatments; and

• fine-tune proposed local treatments to achieve desired effects.

ii
iii

Contents

Introduction...................................................................................................1

Lodgepole Pine Ecology ........................................................................................1

Methods.........................................................................................................2

Study Description ..................................................................................................2

Study Site...............................................................................................................2

Treatment Descriptions..........................................................................................3

Sampling Methods.................................................................................................6

Data Analysis.........................................................................................................8

Results............................................................................................................8

Guide Organization...............................................................................................8

Control Units...............................................................................................11

Treatment: No action ..................................................................................................................11

Study site: Bubbling Creek–Control.....................................................................12

Unit description..........................................................................................................................12

Management implications...........................................................................................................12

Study site: Stringer Creek–Control ......................................................................18

Unit description..........................................................................................................................18

Management implications...........................................................................................................18

Even Shelterwood Treatment Units ..............................................................23

Treatment: Even-spaced shelterwood ..........................................................................................23

Study site: Sun Creek Unit 5–Even Shelterwood..................................................24

Unit description..........................................................................................................................24

Management implications...........................................................................................................24

Study site: Sun Creek Unit 8–Even Shelterwood..................................................30

Unit description..........................................................................................................................30

Management implications...........................................................................................................30

Study site: Spring Park Creek Unit 9–Even Shelterwood......................................36

Unit description..........................................................................................................................36

Management implications...........................................................................................................36

Study site: Spring Park Creek Unit 14–Even Shelterwood....................................42

Unit description..........................................................................................................................42

Management implications....................................................................................................................... 42

Group Shelterwood Treatment Units............................................................47

Study site: Sun Creek Unit 6–Group Shelterwood...............................................48

Unit description..........................................................................................................................48

Management implications....................................................................................................................... 48

Study site: Sun Creek Unit 7–Group Shelterwood...............................................54

Unit description..........................................................................................................................54

Management implications...........................................................................................................54

Study site: Spring Park Creek Unit 11–Group Shelterwood.................................60

Unit description..........................................................................................................................60

Management implications...........................................................................................................60
iv

Study site: Spring Park Creek Unit 15–Group Shelterwood.................................66

Unit description..........................................................................................................................66

Management implications....................................................................................................................... 66

Even Shelterwood and Prescribed Burn Treatment Units .............................71

Study site: Sun Creek Unit 1–Even Shelterwood and Burn ..................................72

Unit description..........................................................................................................................72

Management implications...........................................................................................................72

Study site: Sun Creek Unit 3–Even Shelterwood and Burn ..................................78

Unit description..........................................................................................................................78

Management implications...........................................................................................................78

Study site: Spring Park Creek Unit 10–Even Shelterwood and Burn ....................84

Unit description..........................................................................................................................84

Management implications...........................................................................................................84

Study site: Spring Park Creek Unit 13–Even Shelterwood and Burn ....................90

Unit description..........................................................................................................................90

Management implications...........................................................................................................90

Group Shelterwood and Prescribed Burn Treatment Units...........................97

Study site: Sun Creek Unit 2–Group Shelterwood and Burn ...............................98

Unit description..........................................................................................................................98

Management implications...........................................................................................................98

Study site: Sun Creek Unit 4–Group Shelterwood and Burn .............................104

Unit description........................................................................................................................104

Management implications..................................................................................................................... 104

Study site: Spring Park Creek Unit 12–Group Shelterwood and Burn................110

Unit description........................................................................................................................110

Management implications..................................................................................................................... 110

Study site: Spring Park Creek Unit 16–Group Shelterwood and Burn................116

Treatment description ...............................................................................................................116

Management recommendations................................................................................................116

Discussion..................................................................................................122

Conclusions and Management Implications...............................................124

References .................................................................................................125
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 1

Introduction

Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Douglas ex Louden var. 

latifolia Engelm. ex S. Watson)-dominated forest covers 

an estimated 15 million acres (6 million ha) in the western 

United States and 50 million acres (20 million ha) in Canada 

(Lotan and Critchfield 1990). Its latitudinal range extends 

from Baja, Mexico (35° latitude) to the Yukon, Canada (65° 

latitude), and longitudinally from the Pacific coast to the 

Black Hills of South Dakota, USA. In the Rocky Mountains 

of the Interior West, lodgepole pine is the third most extensive forest type. The adaptations of lodgepole pine to severe, 

stand-replacement fire–in particular its serotinous cones–

have long been acknowledged (Lotan and Perry 1983). Less 

well-known is that lodgepole pine forests also burn in lowto mixed-severity fire, often creating two-aged stands and 

variable patterns across the landscape (Agee 1993; Arno 

1980; Barrett and others 1991).

These studies are a basis for designing and refining silvicultural and prescribed fire treatments in National Forests 

of the Northern Rocky Mountains. Historically, clearcutting and broadcast burning of lodgepole pine forests was 

the most economical and efficient method for regeneration. 

These treatments roughly mimic effects of natural, standreplacement fires. More recently, foresters have recognized 

that burning irregularly shaped cutting units containing 

patches of uncut trees, while also creating snags, would far 

more effectively simulate effects of historical mixed-severity wildfires. One negative effect from leaving patches or 

individual uncut trees in lodgepole pine forests is the vulnerability of the species to windthrow (Alexander 1986). 

However, recognition of the extent of the mixed-severity 

fire regime in lodgepole pine and the recent success and experience gained from other pilot projects (Hardy and others 

2000) have led to continued efforts toward more ecologically based management of lodgepole pine. In this report, 

we present unit-level treatment results specifically related 

to fuel management to improve understanding of how other 

two-aged lodgepole pine stands in the Interior West may respond to different thinning and burning prescriptions.

Lodgepole Pine Ecology

Lodgepole pine has one of the widest ranges of environmental tolerance of all North American conifers, growing 

from the Yukon Territory, Canada, south to Baja California, 

Mexico (Lotan and Critchfield 1990). In the Northern Rocky 

Mountains, lodgepole pine grows under minimum temperatures of -70 o

F (-57 oC) to over 100 oF (38 oC), with average 

daily lows in July frequently below freezing at high elevations. It can survive frost pockets where other tree species 

do not (Lotan and Critchfield 1990). Nearly pure stands 

of lodgepole pine in the Northern Rockies occur between 

the upper limit of the Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii 

[Mirb.] Franco var. glauca [Beissn.] Franco) series and the 

lower limit of the subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa [Hook.] 

Nutt.) series. In Montana, these stands are especially well 

developed on the broad ridges and high valleys near and east 

of the Continental Divide (Arno 1980).

Because of its wide ecological amplitude (both in latitude and elevation), lodgepole pine grows from nearly pure 

stands to stands of mixed-conifer with many associated species. Lodgepole pine is a minor seral species in warm, moist 

habitats and a dominant seral species in cool, dry habitats 

(Lotan and Critchfield 1990). It occurs in some places as 

even-aged, single storied stands where fire, cones, and climatic conditions combined to produce large numbers of seed 

at one time. Elsewhere, it grows as two-aged, multistoried 

stands (Anderson 2003). Lotan and Critchfield (1990) described four lodgepole pine successional roles.

1. Minor Seral—A component of the even-aged stands 

rapidly being replaced by shade-tolerant associates in 50 

to 200 years.

2. Dominant Seral—The dominant cover type of even-aged 

stands with a vigorous understory of shade-tolerant 

species that will replace lodgepole pine in 100 to 200 

years.

3. Persistent—The dominant cover type of even-aged 

stands with little evidence of replacement by shadetolerant species.

4. Climax—The only tree species capable of growing 

in a particular environment; lodgepole pine is 

self-perpetuating.

Lodgepole pine produces seed as early as 5 to 10 years 

of age. Cones can be serotinous or nonserotinous depending 

on location and associated fire regime (Anderson 2003) and 

possibly tree age and elevation (Critchfield 1978). Serotiny 

is common in lodgepole pine in the Northern Rockies, although many stands have less than 50 percent serotinous 

cones. Serotinous cones are persistent and accumulate viable 

seed for decades (Lotan and Critchfield 1990).

Lodgepole pine is widely considered a fire-maintained 

subclimax type. Overstory trees are easily killed by fire because of thin bark; however, a new stand of lodgepole pine 

quickly develops because fire opens serotinous cones and 

creates bare mineral soil and high light conditions favorable for seed germination and growth (Lotan and Critchfield 

1990). Mixed-severity fires often kill a sufficient number of 

trees to allow establishment and growth of seedlings, even 

though lodgepole pine is shade intolerant (Anderson 2003).

Lodgepole pine is susceptible to attacks by mountain 

pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae), which can cause 

heavy tree mortality in stands during epidemics. At lower 

populations, beetles favor larger-diameter lodgepole pine, 

effectively thinning the stand from above and leaving smaller-diameter trees and younger cohorts (Anderson 2003).

Fire regimes in lodgepole pine forests are typically characterized in one of two ways: (1) mixed-severity fire that 

ranges from non-lethal surface fire to stand-replacement fire, 

and (2) stand-replacement fire (Barrett and others 1991). 

Historically, fire was more frequent and less intense in areas 
2 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

with dry summers. Low- to moderate-intensity surface fires 

with an average mean fire return interval of 25 to 50 years 

were common in many areas (Arno 1980). Arno and others (1993) found pre-1900 fires in lodgepole pine/subalpine 

fir forests near Hamilton, Montana, were relatively frequent 

and patchy, creating a fine-grained mosaic of young and 

mixed-age lodgepole pine communities. In contrast, large, 

stand-replacing fires were more common in areas with moist 

summers. This same fire regime pattern of patchy, mixedseverity burns in drier climates and large, stand-replacement 

burns in moist climates was repeated in Glacier National 

Park, Montana (Barrett and others 1991). Poor growing 

sites, such as in Yellowstone National Park, may require 300 

to 400 years to accumulate enough fuel to burn and often 

burn as stand-replacement crown fires (Romme 1982). Areas 

with previous history of stand-replacing fires or mountain 

pine beetle epidemics have heavy fuel accumulations that 

support future high-intensity, stand-replacing fires (Arno 

1980; Stewart 1996).

Methods

Study Description

The Tenderfoot Creek Research Project was designed to 

evaluate and quantify the ecological and biological effects of 

restoration treatments in an attempt to both manage fuelbed 

profiles and create two-aged stand structures in lodgepole 

pine (Hardy and others 2006). A suite of five fire and silvicultural treatments was implemented between 1999 and 2003 

on the Tenderfoot Creek Experimental Forest (TCEF) in central Montana to test how to best maintain a lodgepole pine 

overstory while also establishing a new cohort of lodgepole 

pine regeneration. The research was guided by the Tenderfoot 

Creek Research Project mission (USDA Forest Service 1997):

“Test an array of management treatments for regenerating and restoring healthy lodgepole pine forests 

through emulation of natural disturbance processes, 

but avoiding catastrophic-scale disturbances.”

The specific research objectives for the Tenderfoot Creek 

Research Project (Flora and McCaughey 1998) were:

1. Evaluate and quantify the ecological and biological 

effects of alternative silviculture treatments and 

prescribed fire in lodgepole pine forests by creating 

reserve structures that emulate those created by natural 

disturbance.

2. Evaluate damage to reserve trees relative to alternative 

stand densities and structures, and examine regeneration 

and understory vegetation changes over time associated 

with alternative silviculture treatments.

3. Develop linkages between vegetation management 

activities and hydrologic responses in order to test and 

verify hydrologic models.

4. Manage and integrate the knowledge gained from the 

variety of studies at TCEF to improve ecosystem-based 

management in lodgepole pine forests.

5. Develop demonstration sites at TCEF for education 

of the general public, students, professionals, and 

researchers.

6. Test and verify vegetation models and evaluate harvest 

costs and product recovery values associated with 

alternative silviculture prescriptions and harvest 

systems.

7. Contribute to scientific knowledge through publication of 

results in appropriate outlets.

8. Integrate knowledge gained from TCEF studies into 

ecosystem management guidelines that enhance the 

function and sustainability of lodgepole pine forests in 

the Northern Rockies through a variety of technology 

transfer products.

Study Site

The 9125-acre (3693-ha) TCEF was established in 1961 

and is representative of the vast expanses of lodgepole pine 

found east of the Continental Divide in Montana, southwest 

Alberta, and Wyoming (fig. 1). It encompasses the headwaters of Tenderfoot Creek in the Little Belt Mountains on 

the Lewis and Clark National Forest in Meagher County, 

Montana. Lodgepole pine dominates the experimental forest 

to form a mosaic typical of the fire-prone forests at moderate to high altitudes in the Northern Rocky Mountains. Wet 

meadows cover 311 acres (125 ha), and drier grass and scree 

slopes make up another 133 acres (54 ha). TCEF lodgepole 

stands are classified as both one-aged (47 percent of the forested area) and two-aged (53 percent of the forested area), 

created by past stand-replacement and mixed-severity fires. 

Lodgepole pine at TCEF is a mix of dominant seral and 

persistent, with gradual succession to shade-tolerant species 

in the absence of fire over much of the area. Pure lodgepole 

pine stands and mixed stands of lodgepole pine, Engelmann 

spruce (Picea engelmannii Parry ex Engelm.), subalpine 

fir, and whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis Engelm.) occupy 

about 8681 acres (3514 ha). Elevations range from 6035 to 

7941 ft (1840 to 2421 m).

The study area climate is generally continental with occasional influence of the Pacific maritime climate along 

the Continental Divide from Marias Pass south. Annual 

precipitation averages 34.6 inches (88.0 cm) and ranges 

from 23.4 to 41.3 inches (59.4 to 105.0 cm) from the lowest to highest elevations. Monthly precipitation generally 

peaks in December or January at 4.0 to 5.0 inches (approximately 10.0 to 12.5 cm) per month and declines to 2 to 2.4 

inches (approximately 5.0 to 6.0 cm) per month from late 

July through October. About 70 percent of the annual precipitation falls during the November through May period, 

usually as snow. Temperatures range from a minimum of 

about -16 o

F (-27 oC) in the winter to a maximum of about 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 3

90 oF (32 oC) in the summer (Onion Park SNOTEL [Natural 

Resources Conservation Service]). Mean January temperature is about 15 o

F (-9 oC) and mean July temperature is 

about 62 oF (17 oC). Mean length of the growing season 

ranges between 30 and 75 days, depending upon elevation 

and exposure.

The historical fire regime at TCEF appears to be markedly different from the large, infrequent, stand-replacing 

fires in lodgepole pine in Yellowstone National Park where 

lodgepole pine is the climax successional species (Barrett 

1993). A detailed fire history study and map completed by 

Barrett (1993) documents a sequence of stand-replacement 

and mixed-severity fires extending back to 1580 (fig. 2A). 

Stand-replacing burns occurred at intervals of 100 to over 

300 years, with low- or mixed-severity burns often occurring 

within these intervals. Mean fire return interval (MFI) for all 

fires was 38 years between 1580 and 1992 and 103 years for 

fires larger than 600 acres (243 ha). The last major fire occurred in 1902. Two-aged stands cover about half the area at 

TCEF, ranging in size from a few acres to about 1000 acres 

(405 ha) (fig. 2B). Experimental treatments at TCEF were 

designed to reflect these historical disturbance patterns and 

establish a mosaic of small, two-aged stands.

Treatment Descriptions

Treatments were implemented on two sub-watersheds of 

the Tenderfoot Creek watershed: Spring Park Creek and Sun 

Creek. Two adjacent sub-watersheds were left as untreated controls: Bubbling Creek and Stringer Creek (table 1, 

fig. 3). Treatment units averaged 43 acres (17 ha), ranging 

in size from 16 to 77 acres (6 to 30 ha). Two variable retention treatments were applied: (1) even shelterwood with 

reserves and (2) group shelterwood with reserves (fig. 4). 

Treatments were developed and proposed in 1998 (Flora 

and McCaughey 1998) and harvest began in 1999 (Tables 2 

and 3). The harvest treatments were designed to establish a 

two-aged structure by encouraging lodgepole regeneration 

under the residual reserve trees (Hardy and others 2006; 

Hardy and McGaughey 1997). Specific harvest goals included: (1) retain 40 to 60 percent of the basal area (even 

shelterwood) and 40 to 60 of unit area (group shelterwood), 

(2) retain 9 to 15 snags per acre, (3) limit basal damage 

of leave trees to less than 30 percent, (4) create 20 to 30 

percent site scarification for regeneration, and (5) promote 

seedling stocking levels of approximately 100 to 200 trees 

per acre.

The even shelterwood treatment was designed to remove 

approximately 40 to 60 percent of basal area, with leave 

trees evenly distributed throughout the unit. Leave trees 6 

inches (15 cm) diameter at breast height (DBH) and greater 

that represented the general preharvest unit population in 

species and size were marked by U.S. Forest Service personnel before harvest. Leave trees could be evenly spaced 

or in small groups of 3 to 5 trees, but no corridors or definite 

patches were created. Leave trees were healthy, windfirm, 

free of insect and disease, and preferably not forked. In addition to marking green leave trees, 9 to 15 existing snags 

or trees with broken or dead tops 9 inches (23 cm) or greater 

DBH per acre were marked for retention. Species other than 

lodgepole pine and greater than 15 ft (4.5 m) in height were 

targeted for snag retention. Some trees less than 6 inches 

DBH were slashed during harvest to further reduce tree 

density and facilitate movement of harvest equipment, but 

small trees and saplings were not slashed after thinning or 

specifically targeted for removal.

The group shelterwood treatment was designed to remove approximately 40 to 60 percent of the unit area by 

Figure 1. The Tenderfoot 

Creek Experimental Forest 

is a 9125-acre (3693-ha) 

watershed located on the 

Lewis and Clark National 

Forest in central Montana.
4 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Figure 2. (A) Fire history of the TCEF documenting a complex mosaic of fires dating from 1580 to 1947 (from Barrett 1993). (B) 

Approximately 50 percent of the Experimental Forest is two-aged resulting from low- to mixed-severity wildfires.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 5

harvesting all trees in corridors around unharvested patches 

throughout the units, which was assumed to correlate to an 

equivalent retention of basal area. This treatment resembled 

a clearcut with reserve patches. Leave patch boundaries of 

0.25 to 1.5 acre (0.1 to 0.6 ha) and covering 40 to 60 of the 

treatment unit area were marked. Leave patch design and 

location represented preharvest stand condition. Boundaries 

between leave patches were irregular but wide enough to 

allow for harvest and skidding in the corridors. All trees 

greater than or equal to 6 inches (15 cm) outside the leave 

patches were designated for harvest. However, nearly all 

trees smaller than 6 inches (15 cm) in the corridors were 

also cut to facilitate logging. Snag retention targets were 

met within the leave patches.

All treatment units were harvested using an excavatormounted “hot-saw” and whole-tree skidded to landings 

over less than 12 inches (30 cm) of snow. Trees were then 

delimbed and decked for transport at centralized locations. 

All unutilized material was piled and burned at the centralized locations. No machinery was allowed within 50 ft (15 

m) of stream channels, as these were delineated as streamside management zones.

One-half of the harvested units in the Spring Park Creek 

and Sun Creek sub-watersheds were subsequently prescribed burned with low-intensity to mixed-severity surface 

fire. Objectives for prescribed burning were to: (1) reduce 

activity fuels created during the thinning treatments to mitigate surface fire hazard, (2) expose 20 to 30 percent mineral 

soil for natural regeneration, (3) maintain at least 50 percent 

of postharvest or 25 percent of preharvest overstory trees 

greater than 6 inches (15.2 cm) DBH, and (4) maintain 12 to 

15 tons per acre (2.7 to 3.4 kg m-2) of coarse woody debris 

for nutrient cycling and small mammal habitat.

Figure 3. Treatment units are 

located in four sub-watersheds of 

Tenderfoot Creek. The harvested 

and prescribed burn units are 

located within the Spring Park 

and Sun Creek sub-watersheds. 

The control units are located 

within the Bubbling and Stringer 

sub-watersheds.

Table 1. Descriptions of treatments implemented in the Tenderfoot Creek Research Project located on the TCEF, Montana.

Treatment Description

Control No action

Shelterwood

Even 40% to 60% of basal area removed with even spacing throughout unit

Group 40% to 60% of basal area removed by retaining unharvested patches and clearcutting corridors 

around patches

Shelterwood and burn

Even Even shelterwood followed by low-intensity, mixed-severity prescribed burn

Group Group shelterwood followed by low-intensity, mixed-severity prescribed burn
6 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Table 2. Treatment descriptions and dates by sub-watershed and unit in the Tenderfoot Research 

Project located on the Tenderfoot Creek Experimental Forest, Montana. N.A. = not applicable.

Sub-watershed Unit Treatment Harvest date Burn date

Bubbling Creek C1 Control for Sun Creek N.A. N.A.

Stringer Creek C2 Control for Spring Park Creek N.A. N.A.

Sun Creek 1 Even shelterwood & burn 1999/2000 Oct. 1, 2003

2 Group shelterwood & burn 1999/2000 Oct. 1, 2003

3 Even shelterwood & burn 1999/2000 Sept. 16, 2002

4 Group shelterwood & burn 1999/2000 Sept. 16, 2002

5 Even shelterwood 2000 N.A.

6 Group shelterwood 2000 N.A.

7 Group shelterwood 2000 N.A.

8 Even shelterwood 2000 N.A.

9 Even shelterwood 2000 N.A.

Spring Park Creek 10 Even shelterwood & burn 2000 Sept. 11, 2002

11 Group shelterwood 2000 N.A.

12 Group shelterwood & burn 2000 Sept. 11, 2002

13 Even shelterwood & burn 2000 Sept. 12, 2002

14 Even shelterwood 2000 N.A.

15 Group shelterwood 2000 N.A.

16 Group shelterwood & burn 2000 Sept. 12, 2002

Figure 4. The Sun Creek sub-watershed of 

Tenderfoot Creek even shelterwood and group 

shelterwood treatments in 2000 shown in an 

IKONOS® satellite image.

To meet these objectives, units were hand ignited using 

strip head fires during fall conditions (specific burning conditions are reported in each unit). The specific prescribed 

burning window was:

 temperatures between 35 and 75 oF (2 and 24 oC),

 relative humidity between 15 and 45 percent,

 mid-flame wind speed between 0 and 7 miles per hour 

(0 and 11 km per hour),

 dead 10-hr fuel moisture between 6 and 14 percent, and

 flame lengths between 1 and 4 ft (0.3 and 0.6 m).

Sampling Methods

We established approximately one permanent plot per 

1.3 acres (0.5 ha) per unit. At each plot, we installed variable 

radius plots using either a 20 or 40 ft2/acre basal area factor prism. We permanently marked plot centers with a metal 

stake and painted an assigned number on overstory trees. For 

each tree, we recorded species, DBH, tree height, and crown 

base height. Saplings were greater than 4.5 ft (1.4 m) tall and 

less than 4.0 inches (10 cm) DBH; seedlings were less than 

4.5 ft (1.4 m) tall. We recorded total number of saplings by 

species on 1/50-acre (1/125-ha) fixed-area plots. We measured seedlings on 1/300-acre (1/1000-ha) plots pre-harvest 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

7

Table 3. General stand characteristics by sub-watershed and unit in the Tenderfoot Research Project.

Average

overstory

Primary Approximate Percent Percent Range DBH (inches)

Sub-watershed Unit Treatment1 Slope Main Elevation habitat stand single- two- of stand Pre- Post-

(%) aspect(s) range (ft) type2 age aged3 aged age harvest4 harvest5

Bubbling Creek C1 C 8 N/W 7150-7450 732 127 46 54 127-157 9.3 8

Stringer Creek C2 C 15 W/S 7160-7480 732, 733 127 10 82 170-274 10.5 9

Sun Creek 1 ES/B 4 N 7440-7520 733 127 47 53 127-235 9.2 8.5

2 GS/B 7 N 7440-7520 733 127 71 29 127-235 9.3 7.23 ES/B 6 W 7320-7440 733 127 100 0 NA 9.8 8.74 GS/B 6 W 7360-7440 733 127 100 0 NA 9.8 7.85 ES 14 W 7240-7400 732 127 100 0 NA 9.6 9.16 GS 12 W 7200-7400 732 127 61 39 127-235 9.3 8.47 GS 13 E 7120-7300 732 127 or 274 100 0 NA 9 7.68 ES 10 E 7200-7420 732 127 53 47 127-235 9.7 8.7

Spring Park Creek 9 ES 10 W 7360-7480 732 274 97 0 NA 12.2 9.8

10 ES/B 6 W 7280-7360 732 127 or 274 100 0 NA 10.9 8.5

11 GS 13 W/N 7380-7480 732 274 100 0 NA 11.6 8.9

12 GS/B 9 W/N 7280-7380 732 274 87 13 79-127 11 8.413 ES/B 16 S 7200-7340 732 127 66 34 111-274 8.6 7.914 ES 24 S 7320-7560 730 127 or 274 46 46 111-274 8.2 7.415 GS 15 S 7160-7400 733 127 or 274 72 28 127-274 8.3 6.616 GS/B 12 S 7040-7200 732,733 127 49 51 127-274 8.5 7.5

1 C = Control; ES = Even shelterwood; ES/B = Even shelterwood & burn; GS = Group shelterwood; GS/B = Group shelterwood & burn2 730 = ABILAS\VACSCO; 732 = ABILAS\VACSCO\VACSCO; 733 = ABILAS\VACSCO\THAOCC (Pfister and others 1977)3 Percent area in single and two-aged stands is for forested portion of the unit only.4 Data based on variable radius plots.5 Data based on fixed area plots.
8 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

and in 2004 and on 1/1000-acre (1/10,000-ha) plots in 2003. 

Ideally, sampling methodology would be consistent throughout a long-term study. However, this was not always possible 

due to funding and staffing issues. Fortunately, the change in 

sampling only affected the seedling plots.

We collected fuel data on one-half of the permanent plots 

by installing two, 75-ft (22.86-m) planar-intercept fuel transects radiating from plot center to estimate fuel loadings 

(mass per unit area) of all fuel components (Brown 1974). 

We measured duff and litter depths at two locations per 

transect, 1000-hr fuels along 65-ft (19.8-m) sections, 100-

hr fuels along 10-ft (3-m) sections, and 1- and 10-hr fuels 

along 6-ft (1.8-m) sections. Due to staffing limitations we 

were unable to collect preharvest fuel data in the Sun Creek 

sub-watershed before harvest began in the winter of 1999.

We installed fixed-area circular tree plots at each fuel 

plot in the burned units within one year postfire (2003 and 

2004) and on approximately one-half of the fuel plots in the 

unburned and control units in 2006. We used the same plot 

center as the variable radius plot. Plot size was 1/15 acre 

(1/33 ha) in the group shelterwood units and 1/10 acre 

(1/25 ha) in the even shelterwood units. We added the fixedarea plots to increase sample size of the overstory trees, 

which was very low after thinning.

We tagged all trees greater than or equal to 4 inches 

(10.2 cm) DBH that were alive before the fire. For each 

tree, we recorded DBH, scorch height, status (live or dead), 

percent volume crown scorched, cambium kill, percent circumference of basal char, and bark beetle attacks. Percent 

volume crown scorch was the estimated prefire crown volume that was killed by fire and included both scorched and 

consumed needles. Cambium kill was determined at four 

points per tree by dividing the tree into quadrants oriented 

to uphill, downhill, and side-slope. At the center of each 

quadrant, we used an axe to remove a small portion of bark 

at ground line and visually determined if the cambium was 

alive or dead. We coded cambium as alive if it felt moist, 

soft, and spongy, with a light, peachy shade. We coded cambium as dead if it was hardened with a darker appearance 

or resin-impregnated. Following burning, we assessed tree 

status and bark beetle attacks 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 years postfire.

Data Analysis

We calculated fuel loading (tons acre -1; kg m-2) using the 

methods described in Brown (1974). Postfire fuel loadings 

included recently fallen trees due to fire and wind; therefore, 

1000-hr loadings reflect the combined effect of consumption 

and addition of new logs. We summed the number of dead 

cambium samples per tree to calculate a cambium kill rating 

between 0 and 4. We calculated mean and median crown 

scorch, mean basal char, and mean cambium kill rating for 

each burned unit to correlate with fire-caused mortality from 

the fixed-area plots established 1 year postfire. Cumulative 

average tree (≥4 inches [10.2 cm] DBH) mortality was 

calculated for 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 years postfire in the burned 

units to observe trends in delayed tree mortality by species. 

Mortality could have been a result of fire, beetle attacks, or a 

combination of these factors.

We calculated mean live lodgepole pine, Engelmann 

spruce, and subalpine fir overstory tree (≥4 inches [10.2 cm] 

DBH) density using the data collected from the variableradius plots installed prior to harvest and mean sapling and 

seedling density using the fixed-area plot data. Temporal 

sampling varied slightly due to limited suitable prescribed 

burning conditions in 2002.

We used a repeated measures analysis with post-hoc 

comparisons adjusted for multiplicity using Sidak’s method 

(Games 1977) based on a lognormal distribution of x+1 to 

detect differences in preharvest and postharvest/postfire fuel 

loading and tree, sapling, and seeding density by species. 

We considered p-values less than or equal to 0.05 to be statistically significant. Because of the two different tree plots 

used, there are discrepancies in postfire mortality between 

the trees per acre bar graphs and the percent mortality line 

graphs. Fire-caused mortality is most accurate in the percent 

mortality line graphs due to higher sample sizes and more 

frequent sampling.

Results

Guide Organization

This section contains a comprehensive summary of the 

measured effects for each treatment unit in the study and is 

organized by treatment (table 1):

 control (no action)

 even shelterwood

 group shelterwood

 even shelterwood and prescribed burn

 group shelterwood and prescribed burn

Each treatment unit summary has a static format of treatment summaries, photographs, figures, and tables presented 

in the same order. This management guide is organized in 

this fashion so that managers can match conditions within a 

proposed treatment site (prescribed fire intensity, geographic 

area, pretreatment conditions, and habitat type) to a treatment unit in this study to approximate potential effects of the 

proposed treatment. Each unit contains:

 a brief description of treatment(s) and management 

recommendations,

 photographs taken at established photopoints for each 

of the measurement intervals to show general unit 

characteristics over time, and

 figures and tabular summaries of tree density and fuel 

loading for each interval.

The photopoints page contains pictures of two representative plots in the unit at the time intervals of preharvest, 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 9

postharvest, 1 year postfire, and 6 years postfire. The control 

units are arranged with the same headings even though no 

action occurred because the photographs were taken at the 

same intervals as the treated units.

The tree data page contains figures of overstory tree density (DBH≥4.0inches, 10.2 cm) by species and status (live or 

dead) and live sapling (DBH<4.0 inches, 10.2 cm) and seedling density (<4.5 ft, 1.37 m) for each measurement interval. 

Burned units contain a second tree data page of postfire 

overstory tree mortality by species and a summary of firerelated tree injury. These figures report the percent mortality 

that occurred after fire of all trees sampled in the unit.

The fuel loading page has three figures for each point in 

time. The left graph reports total forest floor (litter and duff) 

depth in inches. The middle graph reports fine woody fuels 

(1-hr: 0 to 0.25 inches [0 to 0.6 cm] and 10-hr: 0.25 to 1 inch 

[0.6 to 2.54 cm]) and small branchwood (100-hr: 1 to 3 inches [2.54 to 7.62 cm]) in tons per acre. The right graph reports 

surface fuel loading of logs (1000-hr: >3 inches [7.62 cm] 

diameter) in tons per acre. The 1000-hr fuel loading includes 

all decay classes. Within each unit, the scale of the three 

bar graphs is consistent across all intervals to help compare 

loadings over time.

The last page presents a tabular statistical summary of 

live tree density and surface fuel loadings collected for each 

treatment unit for each interval. We report overstory density, sapling density, and seedling density. Four tree species 

are included: lodgepole pine (LP), Engelmann spruce (ES), 

subalpine fir (SF), and whitebark pine (WP). The number in 

parentheses after each entry indicates standard error of the 

mean for each time period. For prescribed burn units where 

preharvest and postharvest/preburn data are available, the 

fuel loading tables compare the percent change between preharvest and postharvest and also between postharvest and 

postfire. An asterisk denotes if these percents are statistically 

significant from the pretreatment condition (p≤0.05).
10 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 11

ECOS STEM

TREATMENTS

RESTORATION • FUEL REDUCTION • SILVICULTURAL

Control Units

Treatment: No action

Management planning: No management actions were planned for 

these units to observe forest succession in the absence of disturbance.
12 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Study site: Bubbling Creek–Control

Unit description: The Bubbling Creek unit serves as the control sub-watershed for Sun Creek. This unit 

is dominated by lodgepole pine (57 percent of tree density) but has a large component 

of subalpine fir (42 percent of tree density) in the overstory. Four years after initial 

measurements, overstory composition changed minimally. Live lodgepole pine tree 

density dropped from 413 to 344 trees per acre (167 to 139 trees ha-1) and basal area 

declined from 115 to 106 ft2 acre-1 (26 to 24 m2 ha-1).

In the initial sampling, subalpine fir comprised the majority of the seedling (97 percent) 

and sapling (75 percent) layers. Subalpine fir seedling density dropped significantly 

between sampling periods but it remains dominant. Without disturbance, we expect 

lodgepole pine to decline in dominance and subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce to 

increase.

Fuel loading is relatively low, mostly in the form of 1000-hr fuels. Fuels changed little 

between the 2001 and 2010 measurements.

Management implications: The majority of the unit is dominant seral lodgepole pine, with an understory 

of shade-tolerant subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce. Subalpine fir seedling density 

is extremely high and, without disturbance, we expect lodgepole pine abundance will 

decrease in the overstory and be replaced by these shade-tolerant species. A minor 

portion of the unit is persistent lodgepole pine, with little shade-tolerant species in the 

understory. In these areas, we expect lodgepole pine to remain the dominant overstory 

species. If maintenance of the lodgepole pine overstory component is desirable, we 

recommend either cutting large patches of the unit or leaving patches and cutting around 

them, similar to the group shelterwood treatment described later in this report. This 

would aid in lodgepole pine regeneration and reduce fire intensity in the event of a 

wildfire. Use of low-intensity prescribed fire under current stand conditions would be 

difficult without prior silvicultural entry.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 13 PREHARVEST POSTHARVEST POSTFIRE-1 POSTFIRE-6

No data collected 

No data collected 

SITE: Bubbling Creek

TREATMENT: Control (no action)
14 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

SITE: Bubbling Creek

TREATMENT: Control (no action)

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

0

100

200

300

400

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Overstory trees per acre-Alive

0

100

200

300

400

LP

SF

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Saplings per acre

0

100

200

300

400

500

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Seedlings per acre

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

16000

Overstory trees per acre-Dead
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 15 Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

SITE: Bubbling Creek

TREATMENT: Control (no action)

PREHARVEST POSTFIRE-6 POSTFIRE-1 POSTHARVEST

No data collected

No data collected
16 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Overstory density and basal area, sapling and seedling density, and fuel loading by measurement 

year with standard error in parenthesis. Asterisk (*) denotes change between initial 2001 tree 

density/fuel loading and subsequent measurement year is significant at p<0.05. Dash indicates 

timestep where no sampling was done. 

#

Plots

2001

(Std. Err.)

2003

(Std. Err.)

2004

(Std. Err.)

2010

(Std. Err.)

Overstory density (trees acre-1)

LP 50 412.8 (85.9) 399.0 (84.6) 344.1 (79.6) —

ES 50 9.7 (4.4) 9.7 (4.4) 9.7 (4.4) —

SF 50 301.8 (87.2) 249.6 (74.0) 247.8* (74.1) —

Overstory basal area (ft2 acre-1)

LP 50 115.2 (12.6) 112.8 (12.4) 105.6 (12.1) —

ES 50 4 (1.7) 4 (1.7) 4 (1.7) —

SF 50 46.4 (9.9) 36 (7.5) 34.4* (7.3) —

Sapling density (trees acre-1)

LP 50 110.0 (27.5) 94.0 (23.2) 68.0 (16.9) —

ES 50 17.0 (9.1) 34.0 (15.8) 26.0 (10.4) —

SF 50 464.0 (75.8) 383.0 (57.1) 343.0 (53.5) —

WB 50 9.0 (8.0) 0 (0) 1.0 (1.0) —

Seedling density (trees acre-1)

LP 50 72.0 (42.5) 260.0 (93.9) 96.0 (62.1) —

ES 50 168.0 (76.7) 280.0 (185.3) 24.0 (18.9) —

SF 50 15288.0

(3180.7)

15720.0

(3295.5)

7476.0

(1136.6) —

WB 50 30.0 (174.1) 0 (0) 114.0 (108.0) —

Surface fuels

Duff and litter depth (in) 24 1.53

(0.12) — — 1.93(0.11)

1 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 24 0.31

(0.02) — — 0.25(0.02)

10 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 24 0.76

(0.08) — — 1.09(0.18)

100 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 24 1.17

(1.15) — — 1.48(0.21)

1000 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 24 15.39

(1.16) — — 13.91

(1.02)

SITE: Bubbling Creek

TREATMENT: Control (no action)
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 17
18 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Study site: Stringer Creek–Control

Unit description: The Stringer Creek unit serves as the control sub-watershed for Spring Park Creek. 

The overstory is dominated by lodgepole pine (74 percent of tree density) with a minor 

component of subalpine fir (25 percent) and Engelmann spruce (0.7 percent). Four 

years after initial measurements, composition changed minimally. Live lodgepole pine 

tree density dropped from 382 to 376 trees acre-1 (155 to 152 trees ha-1) and basal area 

declined from 120 to 116 ft2 acre-1 (28 to 27 m2 ha-1).

In the initial sampling, the recruitment layer was dominated by subalpine fir in both the 

seedling (82 percent) and sapling (60 percent) layers. Lodgepole pine comprised about 

33 percent of the sapling layer and about 9 percent of the seedling layer. Four years later, 

the relative proportions of these species remained the same in both the seedling and 

sapling layers. Without disturbance, we expect lodgepole pine to decline in dominance 

and subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce to increase.

Fuel loading is relatively low, mostly in the form of 1000-hr fuels. Fuels changed little 

between the 2001 and 2010 measurements.

Management implications: The unit consists of approximately equal portions of persistent and dominant 

seral lodgepole pine. There are patches of shade-tolerant regeneration, and in these 

areas, we expect that lodgepole pine abundance will decrease in the overstory and 

gradually be replaced by shade-tolerant species. If maintenance of the lodgepole pine 

overstory component is desirable, we recommend either cutting large patches of the 

unit or leaving patches and cutting around them, similar to the group shelterwood 

treatment described later in this report. This would aid in lodgepole pine regeneration 

and reduce fire intensity in the event of a wildfire. Low-intensity prescribed fire could 

be implemented in portions of this unit without initial entry.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 19 PREHARVEST POSTHARVEST POSTFIRE-1 POSTFIRE-6

No data collected 

No data collected 

SITE: Stringer Creek

TREATMENT: Control (no action) 
20 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

SITE: Stringer Creek

TREATMENT: Control (no action) 

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Saplings per acre

0

100

200

300

400

500

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Seedlings per acre

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Overstory trees per acre-Dead

0

100

200

300

400

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Overstory trees per acre-Alive

0

100

200

300

400

LP

SF
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 21 PREHARVEST POSTFIRE-6 POSTFIRE-1 POSTHARVEST

SITE: Stringer Creek

TREATMENT: Control (no action) 

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

5

10

15

20

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

5

10

15

20

No data collected

No data collected
22 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Overstory density and basal area, sapling and seedling density, and fuel loading by measurement 

year with standard error in parenthesis. Asterisk (*) denotes change between initial 2001 tree 

density/fuel loading and subsequent measurement year is significant at p<0.05. Dash indicates 

timestep where no sampling was done. **Pines not identified to species level.

#

Plots

2001

(Std. Err.)

2003

(Std. Err.)

2004

(Std. Err.)

2010

(Std. Err.)

Overstory density (trees acre-1)

LP 48 382.1 (76.5) 380.4 (76.5) 375.6 (76.7) —

ES 48 3.5 (2.7) 3.5 (2.7) 3.5 (2.7) —

SF 48 129.1 (77.4) 129.1 (77.4) 129.1 (77.4) —

Overstory basal area (ft2 acre-1)

LP 48 120.0 (9.7) 118.3 (9.6) 115.8 (9.6) —

ES 48 1.7 (1.2) 1.7 (1.2) 1.7 (1.2) —

SF 48 10.0 (3.5) 10.0 (3.5) 10.0 (3.5) —

Sapling density (trees acre-1)

LP 48 253.0 (36.8) ** 206.0 (33.8) —

SF 48 454.0 (130.5) 435.0 (125.7) 359.0 (117.4) —

WB 48 54.0 (16.7) ** 45.0 (18.9) —

Seedling density (trees acre-1)

LP 48 294.0 (76.9) ** 252.0 (60.2) —

ES 48 6.0 (6.0) 40.0 (40.0) 12.0 (8.4) —

SF 48 2538.0

(3545.6)

3440.0

(5831.5)

2490.0

(447.3) —

WB 48 276.0 (85.2) ** 174.0 (54.3) —

Surface fuels

Duff and litter depth (in) 25 0.93

(0.06) — — 2.06(0.16)

1 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 25 0.16

(0.02) — — 0.19(0.02)

10 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 25 0.81

(0.06) — — 1.17(0.13)

100 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 25 1.32

(0.20) — — 1.70(0.27)

1000 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 25 20.12

(1.09) — — 20.44(0.99)

SITE: Stringer Creek

TREATMENT: Control (no action)
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 23

ECOS STEM

TREATMENTS

RESTORATION • FUEL REDUCTION • SILVICULTURAL

Even Shelterwood Treatment 

Units

Treatment: Even-spaced shelterwood

Management planning: The units were harvested with the objective to 

reduce the overstory by 40 to 60 percent basal area or trees per acre. Trees 

were harvested to create approximately equal spacing between reserve 

trees. Felled trees were whole-tree skidded to centralized processing 

locations for delimbing and decking for transport. All unutilized materials 

were piled and burned at the centralized locations. A detailed harvest 

prescription is provided in the “Treatment Descriptions” section.
24 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Study site: Sun Creek Unit 5–Even Shelterwood

Unit description: The 30-acre (12-ha) unit was harvested in 2000. Before treatment, the overstory 

consisted entirely of lodgepole pine. Harvesting significantly reduced the average 

number of live lodgepole pine from approximately 540 to 39 trees per acre (219 to 

16 trees ha-1) and basal area from 189 to 23 ft2 acre-1 (43 to 5 m2 ha-1).

Lodgepole pine also was the dominant species in the preharvest seedling and sapling 

layers. Four years postharvest, lodgepole sapling density was significantly reduced 

while seedling density was significantly increased.

Preharvest fuel loading was not measured. Forest floor depth and 1-hr fuel increased 

significantly between 3 and 10 years following harvest. All other fuel components 

remained unchanged.

Management implications: The goal of reducing the overstory basal area by 40 to 60 percent through 

harvest was not met in this unit. In actuality, harvesting removed 88 percent of overstory 

trees, resulting in very few leave trees scattered throughout the unit. Increased light 

resulting from the even harvest treatment favored lodgepole pine regeneration.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 25 PREHARVEST POSTHARVEST POSTFIRE-1 POSTFIRE-6

No data collected 

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 5

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood / Unburned 

No data collected 
26 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 5

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood / Unburned 

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

0

100

200

300

400

500

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Overstory trees per acre-Alive

0

100

200

300

400

500 LP

SF

Harvest

Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Saplings per acre

0

100

200

300

400

Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Seedlings per acre

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

Harvest

Overstory trees per acre-Dead
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 27 PREHARVEST POSTFIRE-6 POSTFIRE-1 POSTHARVEST

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 5

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood / Unburned Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

No data collected

No data collected
28 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Overstory density and basal area, sapling and seedling density, and fuel loading by measurement 

year with standard error in parenthesis. For density, asterisk (*) denotes change between 

preharvest density and subsequent measurement year is significant at p<0.05. For fuel loading, 

an asterisk by postharvest loading denotes change between initial loading and postharvest 

loading. Dash indicates timestep where no sampling was done. 

#

Plots

Preharvest

(Std. Err.)

3 Years 

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

4 Years 

Postharvest 

(Std. Err.)

10 Years 

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

Overstory density (trees acre-1)

LP 29 540.0 (66.8) 42.3* (12.1) 38.8* (12.0) —

Overstory basal area (ft2 acre-1)

LP 29 189 (12.8) 24.8* (5.4) 23.4* (5.4) —

Sapling density (trees acre-1)

LP 29 384.5 (45.2) 39.7* (10.0) 37.9* (10.7) —

SF 29 3.4 (2.4) 0 (0) 6.9 (4.1) —

Seedling density (trees acre-1)

LP 29 393.1 (164.5) 4482.8* 

(945.1)

2017.2*

(379.9) —

ES 29 31.0 (17.3) 137.9 (137.9) 0 (0) —

SF 29 62.1 (23.0) 482.8 (127.7) 93.1 (33.6) —

WB 29 248.3 (150.4) 0* (0) 103.4 (56.3) —

Surface fuels

Duff and litter depth (in) 14 — 0.88

(0.12) — 1.85*(0.26)

1 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 — 0.38

(0.05) — 0.23*(0.03)

10 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 — 1.86

(0.27) — 1.34(0.11)

100 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 — 1.77

(0.28) — 2.92*(0.48)

1000 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 — 7.80

(2.13) — 8.34(2.18)

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 5

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood / Unburned
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 29
30 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Study site: Sun Creek Unit 8–Even Shelterwood

Unit description: The 77-acre (31-ha) unit was harvested in 2000. Before treatment, the unit overstory 

was dominated by lodgepole pine (97 percent of tree density). A significant wind event 

following harvest blew down a large number of leave trees. Harvesting combined with 

the wind event reduced the average number of live lodgepole pine from approximately 

468 to 41 trees per acre (190 to 17 trees ha-1) and basal area from 164 to 20 ft2 acre-1

(38 to 5 m2 ha-1).

The sapling layer was largely lodgepole pine and subalpine fir pretreatment, while the 

majority of seedlings were subalpine fir. Four years after harvest, lodgepole pine sapling 

density was significantly reduced to levels equal to subalpine fir. Seedling dominance 

shifted from subalpine fir to lodgepole pine, with only lodgepole pine having a significant 

increase.

Preharvest fuel loading was not measured. The 1-hr and 10-hr fuel components decreased 

significantly between 3 and 10 years following harvest. All other fuel components 

remained unchanged.

Management implications: The goal of reducing the overstory basal area by 40 to 60 percent through 

harvest was not met in this unit. Harvesting combined with windthrow removed 

88 percent of overstory trees and left very few leave trees scattered throughout the unit. 

Increased light resulting from the even shelterwood harvest treatment favored lodgepole 

pine regeneration. Even though subalpine fir seedlings and saplings were reduced by 

harvest, they remained a prominent component in the unit. Additional treatments may be 

necessary to reduce subalpine fir competition if lodgepole pine regeneration is desired.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 31 PREHARVEST POSTHARVEST POSTFIRE-1 POSTFIRE-6

No data collected 

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 8

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood / Unburned 

No data collected 
32 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

0

100

200

300

400

500

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Overstory trees per acre-Alive

0

100

200

300

400

500

LP

SF

Harvest

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 8

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood / Unburned Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Saplings per acre

0

50

100

150

200

250

Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Seedlings per acre

0

500

1000

1500

2000

Harvest

Overstory trees per acre-Dead
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 33 PREHARVEST POSTFIRE-6 POSTFIRE-1 POSTHARVEST

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 8

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood / Unburned Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

No data collected

No data collected
34 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Overstory density and basal area, sapling and seedling density, and fuel loading by measurement 

year with standard error in parenthesis. For density, asterisk (*) denotes change between 

preharvest density and subsequent measurement year is significant at p<0.05. For fuel loading, 

an asterisk by postharvest loading denotes change between initial loading and postharvest 

loading. Dash indicates timestep where no sampling was done. 

#

Plots

Preharvest

(Std. Err.)

3 Years 

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

4 Years 

Postharvest 

(Std. Err.)

10 Years 

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

Overstory density (trees acre-1)

LP 45 468.2 (61.2) 44.6* (9.7) 40.7* (9.6) —

ES 45 5.1 (3.7) 0 (0) 0 (0) —

SF 45 10.0 (7.0) 0 (0) 0 (0) —

Overstory basal area (ft2 acre-1)

LP 45 163.6 (10.3) 23.1* (4.5) 20.4* (4.3) —

ES 45 1.8 (1.2) 0 (0) 0 (0) —

SF 45 1.8 (1.2) 0 (0) 0 (0) —

Sapling density (trees acre-1)

LP 45 210.0 (38.2) 33.3* (9.9) 24.4* (8.5) —

ES 45 4.4 (2.1) 0* (0) 0* (0) —

SF 45 82.2 (25.8) 24.4* (15.7) 27.8* (19.0) —

Seedling density (trees acre-1)

LP 45 46.7 (21.2) 1955.6*

(487.2)

1846.7*

(366.2) —

ES 45 40.0 (24.5) 0 (0) 40.0 (33.8) —

SF 45 1086.7

(350.8)

1044.4* 

(349.5)

500.0* 

(162.9) —

WB 45 80.0 (43.1) 0* (0) 0* (0) —

Surface fuels

Duff and litter depth (in) 21 — 1.78

(0.19) — 1.93(0.24)

1 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 21 — 0.29

(0.02) — 0.23*(0.02)

10 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 21 — 1.52

(0.12) — 1.04*(0.12)

100 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 21 — 1.32

(0.24) — 1.49(0.25)

1000 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 21 — 12.53

(1.54) — 15.27*(2.33)

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 8

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood / Unburned
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 35
36 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Study site: Spring Park Creek Unit 9–Even Shelterwood

Unit description: The 21-acre (8.5-ha) unit was harvested in 2000. Before treatment, lodgepole pine 

(47 percent of tree density) and subalpine fir (49 percent) codominated the overstory. 

Harvesting reduced the average number of live lodgepole pine from approximately 226 

to 71 trees per acre (92 to 29 trees ha-1) and basal area from 135 to 37 ft2 acre-1 (31 to 

8 m2 ha-1). Harvesting significantly reduced subalpine fir to 20 percent of the residual 

overstory.

The pretreatment seedling and sapling layers were comprised almost entirely of subalpine 

fir. Four years postharvest, there was a significant decrease in subalpine fir density in 

the sapling and seedling layers. Lodgepole pine seedlings increased significantly, but 

subalpine fir still dominated the recruitment layer four years postharvest.

Preharvest fuel loading was approximately 18 tons acre-1 (4 kg m-2). Harvest significantly 

increased forest floor depth and 1000-hr fuels but decreased fine fuels.

Management implications: The goal of reducing the overstory basal area by 40 to 60 percent through 

harvest was not met in this unit. In actuality, harvest removed 88 percent of overstory 

trees and left very few leave trees scattered throughout the unit. Increased light resulting 

from the even shelterwood harvest treatment favored lodgepole pine regeneration. Even 

though subalpine fir seedlings and saplings were reduced by the harvest, they remained 

dominant components in the unit. Additional treatments may be necessary to reduce 

subalpine fir competition if lodgepole pine regeneration is desired.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 37 PREHARVEST POSTHARVEST POSTFIRE-1 POSTFIRE-6

No data collected 

SITE: Spring Park Unit 9

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood / Unburned 
38 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

0

50

100

150

200

250

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Overstory trees per acre-Alive

0

50

100

150

200

250

LP

SF

SITE: Spring Park Unit 9

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood / Unburned Harvest

Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Saplings per acre

0

200

400

600

800

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Saplings per acre

0

200

400

600

800

Harvest

Harvest

Overstory trees per acre-Dead
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 39 PREHARVEST POSTFIRE-6 POSTFIRE-1 POSTHARVEST

SITE: Spring Park Unit 9

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood / Unburned 

No data collected

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

5

10

15

20

25

30
40 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Overstory density and basal area, sapling and seedling density, and fuel loading by measurement 

year with standard error in parenthesis. For density, asterisk (*) denotes change between 

preharvest density and subsequent measurement year is significant at p<0.05. For fuel loading, 

an asterisk by postharvest loading denotes change between initial loading and postharvest 

loading. Dash indicates timestep where no sampling was done. 

#

Plots

Preharvest

(Std. Err.)

3 Years 

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

4 Years 

Postharvest 

(Std. Err.)

10 Years 

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

Overstory density (trees acre-1)

LP 27 225.5 (34.2) 76.4* (22.0) 70.8* (21.7) —

ES 27 14.3 (6.7) 1.2* (1.2) 1.2* (1.2) —

SF 27 237.7 (86.5) 41.9* (34.9) 18.4* (13.0) —

WB 27 5.9 (5.9) 0 (0) 0 (0)

Overstory basal area (ft2 acre-1)

LP 27 134.8 (13.2) 43.0* (7.4) 37.0* (7.4) —

ES 27 16.3 (7.5) 1.5* (1.5) 1.5* (1.5) —

SF 27 22.2 (5.4) 5.9* (4.6) 4.4* (3.3) —

WB 27 1.5 (1.5) 0 (0) 0 (0) —

Sapling density (trees acre-1)

LP 27 38.9 (11.1) 16.7 (7.5) 25.9 (20.4) —

ES 27 5.6 (21.2) 0 (0) 0 (0) —

SF 27 863.0 (133.1) 200.0* (64.8) 179.6* (53.0) —

WB 27 9.3 (5.4) 1.9 (1.9) 0 (0) —

Seedling density (trees acre-1)

LP 27 0 (0) 111.1 (61.6) 200.0 (81.7) —

ES 27 300.0 (245.0) 37.0 (37.0) 11.1 (11.1) —

SF 27 27300.0

(4172.4)

6814.8* 

(1459.9)

2544.4*

(559.2) —

WB 27 177.8 (101.6) 148.2 (115.8) 33.3 (18.5) —

Surface fuels

Duff and litter depth (in) 14 1.56

(0.25)

2.13*

(0.35) — 3.32*(0.36)

1 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 0.25

(0.05)

0.45*

(0.06) — 0.19*(0.02)

10 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 2.0

(0.56)

3.03*

(0.48) — 1.22*(0.19)

100 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 2.34

(0.77)

3.59

(0.60) — 3.54(0.73)

1000 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 13.84

(2.94)

26.5*

(3.62) — 25.04(3.80)

SITE: Spring Park Creek Unit 9

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood / Unburned
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 41
42 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Study site: Spring Park Creek Unit 14–Even Shelterwood

Unit description: The 54-acre (22-ha) unit was harvested in 2000. Preharvest, the overstory was dominated 

almost entirely by lodgepole pine (98 percent of tree density). Harvesting reduced the 

average number of live lodgepole pine from approximately 890 to 228 trees per acre 

(360 to 92 trees ha-1) and basal area from 214 to 64 ft2 acre-1 (49 to 15 m2 ha-1).

Saplings consisted primarily of lodgepole pine with a secondary component of 

subalpine fir pretreatment. Almost all seedlings were subalpine fir pretreatment. Four 

years postharvest, sapling density for all species was reduced. In the seedling layer, a 

significant increase in lodgepole pine seedlings combined with a significant decrease in 

subalpine fir resulted in approximately equal seedling density for lodgepole pine and 

subalpine fir four years postharvest.

Pretreatment fuel loading was approximately 13 tons acre-1 (3 kg m-2). Fuel loading 

increased significantly after harvest because many of the saplings had to be cut to access 

overstory trees for harvest. These cut saplings were then left scattered throughout the 

unit, resulting in a high level of surface fuel following harvest, so the decision was made 

to pile the material using a machine with a grapple hook and burn it. This modification 

of the original prescription affected surface fuel distribution on about 60 percent of the 

unit. Piling and burning resulted in a mix of areas with high activity fuel loading and 

areas with almost no activity fuels present.

Management implications: The goal of reducing the overstory basal area by 40 to 60 percent through 

harvest was not met in this unit. Harvesting removed 74 percent of overstory trees. 

Increased light resulting from the even shelterwood harvest favored lodgepole pine 

regeneration. Even though subalpine fir seedlings and saplings were reduced by 

harvest-related activities, they remained prominent components in the unit. Additional 

treatments may be necessary to reduce subalpine fir competition if lodgepole pine 

regeneration is desired.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 43 PREHARVEST POSTHARVEST POSTFIRE-1 POSTFIRE-6

No data collected 

SITE: Spring Park Unit 14

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood / Unburned 
44 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

0

200

400

600

800

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Overstory trees per acre-Alive

0

200

400

600

800

LP

SF

SITE: Spring Park Unit 14

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood / Unburned Harvest

Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Saplings per acre

0

20

40

60

80

100

Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Seedlings per acre

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

Harvest

Overstory trees per acre-Dead
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 45 Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

No data collected

PREHARVEST POSTFIRE-6 POSTFIRE-1 POSTHARVEST

SITE: Spring Park Unit 14

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood / Unburned 
46 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

.

Overstory density and basal area, sapling and seedling density, and fuel loading by measurement 

year with standard error in parenthesis. For density, asterisk (*) denotes change between 

preharvest density and subsequent measurement year is significant at p < 0.05. For fuel loading, 

an asterisk by postharvest loading denotes change between initial loading and postharvest 

loading. Dash indicates timestep where no sampling was done. 

#

Plots

Preharvest

(Std. Err.)

3 Years 

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

4 Years 

Postharvest 

(Std. Err.)

10 Years 

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

Overstory density (trees acre-1)

LP 40 889.6 (82.1) 240.1* (57.3) 228.1* (57.6) —

SF 40 16.7 (7.2) 4.2* (3.0) 4.2* (3.0) —

Overstory basal area (ft2 acre-1)

LP 40 214.0 (11.2) 68.0* (11.2) 64.0* (11.2) —

SF 40 9.0 (4.4) 5.0* (4.1) 5.0* (4.1) —

Sapling density (trees acre-1)

LP 40 235.0 (33.1) 23.8* (6.7) 25.0* (6.7) —

ES 40 3.8 (2.8) 0 (0) 0 (0) —

SF 40 95.0 (40.0) 66.3 (26.7) 43.8 (17.7) —

WB 40 20.0 (10.3) 3.8 (2.8) 0* (0) —

Seedling density (trees acre-1)

LP 40 30.0 (18.0) 1025.0*

(366.0) 397.5* (86.9) —

ES 40 15.0 (10.5) 25.0 (25.0) 22.5 (16.6) —

SF 40 2362.5 (693.3) 675.0* (221.8) 315.0* (114.2) —

WB 40 412.5 (92.2) 0* (0) 0* (0) —

Surface fuels

Duff and litter depth (in) 20 1.58

(0.15)

1.92

(0.2) —

2.01

(0.22)

1 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 20 0.17

(0.02)

0.34*

(0.05) —

0.27

(0.07)

10 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 20 0.83

(0.15)

2.49*

(0.24) —

1.53*

(0.26)

100 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 20 3.13

(0.63)

5.85*

(0.74) —

4.09

(0.58)

1000 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 20 9.15

(2.92)

9.93*

(1.47) —

8.69

(1.26)

SITE: Spring Park Creek Unit 14

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood / Unburned
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 47

ECOS STEM

TREATMENTS

RESTORATION • FUEL REDUCTION • SILVICULTURAL

Group Shelterwood Treatment 

Units

Treatment: Group shelterwood

Management planning: The units were harvested with the objective 

to reduce the overstory by 40 to 60 percent. All trees were cut in corridors 

that surrounded unharvested patches of leave trees. Felled trees were 

whole-tree skidded to centralized processing locations for delimbing and 

decking for transport. All unutilized materials were piled and burned at 

the centralized locations. A detailed harvest prescription is provided in 

the “Treatment Descriptions” section.
48 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Study site: Sun Creek Unit 6–Group Shelterwood

Unit description: The 78-acre (32-ha) unit was harvested in 2000. Lodgepole pine dominated (93 percent 

of tree density) the overstory prior to treatment. Harvesting reduced the average number 

of live lodgepole pine from approximately 515 to 218 trees per acre (209 to 88 trees ha-1) 

and basal area from 182 to 83 ft2 acre-1 (42 to 19 m2 ha-1).

Pretreatment, the majority of saplings were lodgepole pine, while most seedlings were 

subalpine fir. Four years postharvest, lodgepole pine sapling density was significantly 

reduced and lodgepole pine seedling density significantly increased to become the 

dominant understory species. The reduction in tree and sapling density occurred in the 

harvested corridors, with overstory and sapling structure remaining relatively unchanged 

in the uncut leave patches.

Preharvest fuel loading was not measured. Fuel loading did not change between 3 and 

10 years postharvest.

Management implications: The goal of reducing the overstory basal area by 40 to 60 percent through 

harvest was met in this unit, with an actual 58 percent reduction in overstory trees. 

Increased light resulting from the group shelterwood treatment favored lodgepole pine 

regeneration; however, most lodgepole pine regeneration occurred in the cut corridors 

where there was less vegetative competition and more light. Even though lodgepole 

pine saplings were reduced by the harvest, higher average densities remained in the 

group shelterwood harvest units compared to the even shelterwood units due to islands 

of uncut vegetation.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 49 PREHARVEST POSTHARVEST POSTFIRE-1 POSTFIRE-6

No data collected 

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 6

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood / Unburned 

No data collected 
50 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

0

100

200

300

400

500

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Overstory trees per acre-Alive

0

100

200

300

400

500 LP

SF

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 6

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood / Unburned Harvest Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Saplings per acre

0

50

100

150

200

250

Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Seedlings per acre

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

Harvest

Overstory trees per acre-Dead
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 51 PREHARVEST POSTFIRE-6 POSTFIRE-1 POSTHARVEST

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 6

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood / Unburned Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

No data collected

No data collected
52 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Overstory density and basal area, sapling and seedling density, and fuel loading by measurement 

year with standard error in parenthesis. For density, asterisk (*) denotes change between 

preharvest density and subsequent measurement year is significant at p<0.05. For fuel loading, 

an asterisk by postharvest loading denotes change between initial loading and postharvest 

loading. Dash indicates timestep where no sampling was done. 

#

Plots

Preharvest

(Std. Err.)

3 Years 

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

4 Years 

Postharvest 

(Std. Err.)

10 Years 

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

Overstory density (trees acre-1)

LP 38 515.4 (66.9) 222.3* (58.0) 218.3* (58.3) —

ES 38 11.6 (8.2) 6.4 (6.4) 6.4 (6.4) —

SF 38 25.4 (12.7) 0* (0) 0* (0) —

Overstory basal area (ft2 acre-1)

LP 38 182.1 (13.8) 86.3* (19.2) 83.2* (19.3) —

ES 38 3.2 (2.3) 1.1 (1.1) 1.1 (1.1) —

SF 38 6.3 (3.2) 0* (0) 0* (0) —

Sapling density (trees acre-1)

LP 38 206.6 (42.3) 53.9* (17.8) 76.3* (23.2) —

ES 38 23.7 (9.6) 3.9* (2.2) 3.9* (2.2) —

SF 38 39.5 (20.6) 19.7 (7.4) 18.4 (7.2) —

Seedling density (trees acre-1)

LP 38 150.0 (60.7) 2815.8* 

(989.9)

2344.7*

(606.7) —

ES 38 0 (0) 0 (0) 47.4* (26.6) —

SF 38 1002.6

(342.9)

473.7* 

(175.8)

355.3* 

(108.4) —

WB 38 418.4 (106.5) 0* (0) 0* (0) —

Surface fuels

Duff and litter depth (in) 18 — 1.13

(0.22) — 1.34(0.19)

1 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 18 — 0.29

(0.03) — 0.28(0.04)

10 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 18 — 1.53

(0.23) — 1.18(0.25)

100 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 18 — 2.34

(0.62) — 2.06(0.56)

1000 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 18 — 5.05

(1.01) — 5.22(1.05)

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 6

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood / Unburned
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 53
54 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Study site: Sun Creek Unit 7–Group Shelterwood

Unit description: The 61-acre (25-ha) unit was harvested in 2000. Lodgepole pine (45 percent of tree 

density) and subalpine fir (52 percent) dominated the overstory prior to treatment. 

Harvesting reduced the average number of live lodgepole pine trees per acre from 

approximately 321 to 105 (130 to 43 trees ha-1) and basal area from 119 to 37 ft2 acre-1

(27 to 8 m2 ha-1). Subalpine fir density was significantly reduced and now comprises 

approximately 30 percent of the overstory.

Before treatment, the seedling and sapling layers consisted almost entirely of subalpine 

fir. Four years postharvest, subalpine fir seedlings and saplings were significantly 

reduced while lodgepole pine seedlings significantly increased. While the treatment 

favored lodgepole pine regeneration, subalpine fir continued to dominate the recruitment 

layer. The reduction in tree and sapling density occurred in the harvested corridors, 

with overstory and sapling structure remaining relatively unchanged in the uncut leave 

patches.

Preharvest fuel loading was not measured. Fuel loading did not change between 3 and 

10 years postharvest.

Management implications: The goal of reducing the overstory by 40 to 60 percent basal area through 

harvest was not met in this unit. In actuality, harvesting removed 78 percent of overstory 

trees. Increased light resulting from the group shelterwood treatment favored lodgepole 

pine regeneration; however, most lodgepole pine regeneration occurred in the cut 

corridors where there was less vegetative competition and more light. Even though 

lodgepole pine saplings were reduced by the harvest, higher average densities remained 

in the group shelterwood units than in the even shelterwood units due to islands of uncut 

vegetation. Additional treatments may be necessary to reduce competing subalpine fir 

seedlings if lodgepole pine recruitment is desired.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 55 PREHARVEST POSTHARVEST POSTFIRE-1 POSTFIRE-6

No data collected 

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 7

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood / Unburned 

No data collected 
56 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

0

100

200

300

400

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Overstory trees per acre-Alive

0

100

200

300

400

LP

SF

Harvest

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 7

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood / Unburned Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Saplings per acre

0

200

400

600

800

Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Seedlings per acre

0

4000

8000

12000

16000

Harvest

Overstory trees per acre-Dead
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 57 PREHARVEST POSTFIRE-6 POSTFIRE-1 POSTHARVEST

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 7

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood / Unburned Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

5

10

15

20

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

5

10

15

20

No data collected

No data collected
58 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Overstory density and basal area, sapling and seedling density, and fuel loading by measurement 

year with standard error in parenthesis. For density, asterisk (*) denotes change between 

preharvest density and subsequent measurement year is significant at p<0.05. For fuel loading, 

an asterisk by postharvest loading denotes change between initial loading and postharvest 

loading. Dash indicates timestep where no sampling was done. 

#

Plots

Preharvest

(Std. Err.)

3 Years 

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

4 Years 

Postharvest 

(Std. Err.)

10 Years 

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

Overstory density (trees acre-1)

LP 28 321.1 (67.5) 122.2* (49.3) 105.4* (47.8) —

ES 28 10.2 (8.1) 0* (0) 0* (0) —

SF 28 373.2 (130.5) 51.8* (34.3) 51.8* (34.3) —

WB 28 9.7 (9.7) 0 (0) 0 (0) —

Overstory basal area (ft2 acre-1)

LP 28 118.6 (18.2) 44.3* (14.5) 37.1* (13.3) —

ES 28 8.6 (5.9) 0* (0) 0* (0) —

SF 28 44.3 (12.1) 5.7* (3.4) 5.7* (3.4) —

WB 28 1.4 (1.4) 0 (0) 0 (0) —

Sapling density (trees acre-1)

LP 28 67.9 (18.8) 48.2* (21.7) 33.9* (12.6) —

ES 28 19.6 (8.7) 0* (0) 0* (0) —

SF 28 794.6 (98.5) 210.7* (65.2) 169.6* (50.9) —

WB 28 3.6 (2.5) 0 (0) 0(0) —

Seedling density (trees acre-1)

LP 27 42.9 (42.9) 1370.4*

(474.9)

566.7*

(168.2) —

ES 27 42.9 (25.4) 37.0 (37.0) 11.1 (11.1) —

SF 27 15117.9

(2948.8)

9888.9* 

(5558.6)

2055.6*

(582.6) —

WB 27 10.7 (10.7) 111.1 (111.1) 88.9 (63.7) —

Surface fuels

Duff and litter depth (in) 14 — 2.18

(0.37) — 2.24(0.40)

1 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 — 0.46

(0.08) — 0.36*(0.10)

10 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 — 1.81

(0.40) — 1.49(0.29)

100 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 — 2.40

(0.49) — 3.85(0.89)

1000 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 — 17.66

(3.82) — 15.86(2.84)

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 7

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood / Unburned
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 59
60 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Study site: Spring Park Creek Unit 11–Group 

Shelterwood

Unit description: The 9-acre (4-ha) unit was harvested in 2000. Prior to harvest, subalpine fir 

dominated the overstory (43 percent of tree density), while lodgepole pine comprised 

approximately 30 percent. Harvesting significantly reduced overstory tree density and 

shifted dominance from subalpine fir to lodgepole pine. The average number of live 

lodgepole pine was reduced from approximately 136 to 55 trees per acre (55 to 22 trees 

ha-1) and basal area from 83 to 33 ft2 acre-1 (19 to 7 m2 ha-1).

Regeneration consisted almost entirely of subalpine fir prior to harvest. Four years 

postharvest, sapling density for all species was reduced. In the seedling layer, lodgepole 

pine seedling regeneration increased, though subalpine fir still dominated. The reduction 

in tree and sapling density occurred in the harvested corridors, with overstory and 

sapling structure remaining relatively unchanged in the uncut leave patches.

Preharvest fuel loading was approximately 13 tons per acre (3 kg m-2). Fine and 100-

hr fuels significantly increased after harvest but declined to preharvest levels within 

10 years.

Management implications: The goal of reducing the overstory basal area by 40 to 60 percent through 

harvest was not met in this unit. Harvesting removed 79 percent of overstory trees. 

Increased light resulting from the group shelterwood treatment favored lodgepole pine 

regeneration; however, most lodgepole pine regeneration occurred in the cut corridors 

where there was less vegetative competition and more light. Even though lodgepole 

pine saplings were reduced by the harvest, higher average densities remained in the 

group shelterwood units than in the even shelterwood units due to islands of uncut 

vegetation. Additional treatments may be necessary to reduce competing subalpine fir 

seedlings if lodgepole pine recruitment is desired.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 61 PREHARVEST POSTHARVEST POSTFIRE-1 POSTFIRE-6

No data collected 

SITE: Spring Park Unit 11

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood / Unburned 

No data collected 
62 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

0

100

200

300

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Overstory trees per acre-Alive

0

100

200

300

LP

SF

Harvest

SITE: Spring Park Unit 11

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood / Unburned Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Seedlings per acre

0

10000

20000

30000

Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Saplings per acre

0

200

400

600

800

Harvest

Overstory trees per acre-Dead
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 63 PREHARVEST POSTFIRE-6 POSTFIRE-1 POSTHARVEST

SITE: Spring Park Unit 11

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood / Unburned Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

No data collected

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4
64 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Overstory density and basal area, sapling and seedling density, and fuel loading by measurement 

year with standard error in parenthesis. For density, asterisk (*) denotes change between 

preharvest density and subsequent measurement year is significant at p<0.05. For fuel loading, 

an asterisk by postharvest loading denotes change between initial loading and postharvest 

loading. Dash indicates timestep where no sampling was done. 

#

Plots

Preharvest

(Std. Err.)

3 Years 

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

4 Years 

Postharvest 

(Std. Err.)

10 Years 

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

Overstory density (trees acre-1)

LP 25 136.3 (27.4) 56.0* (23.1) 54.5* (23.1) —

ES 25 5.4 (3.2) 2.4 (2.4) 2.4 (2.4) —

SF 25 318.2 (107.4) 38.7* (28.1) 38.7* (28.1) —

Overstory basal area (ft2 acre-1)

LP 25 83.2 (10.8) 33.6* (11.0) 32.0* (10.8) —

ES 25 4.8 (2.7) 1.6 (1.6) 1.6 (1.6) —

SF 25 43.2 (8.3) 3.2* (2.2) 3.2* (2.2) —

Sapling density (trees acre-1) —

LP 25 48.0 (13.1) 32.0* (14.4) 14.0* (7.4) —

ES 25 12.0 (7.2) 0 (0) 2.0 (2.0) —

SF 25 734.0 (142.4) 182.0* (53.0) 148.0* (44.6) —

WB 25 8.0 (3.7) 0 (0) 8.0 (3.7) —

Seedling density (trees acre-1)

LP 24 36.0 (19.9) 291.7 (140.9) 375.0 (181.7) —

ES 24 108.0 (96.3) 166.7 (130.0) 125.0 (86.5) —

SF 24 33444.0

(4768.4)

8416.7*

(1861.0)

5787.5*

(1220.5) —

WB 24 348.0 (175.5) 0* (0) 62.5 (25.4) —

Surface fuels

Duff and litter depth (in) 12 1.33

(0.16)

1.64

(0.22) — 2.12(0.26)

1 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 12 0.09

(0.03)

0.42

(0.07) — 0.20*(0.03)

10 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 12 0.65

(0.13)

2.33*

(0.57) — 1.48(0.31)

100 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 12 1.28

(0.47)

3.6*

(0.71) — 3.13(0.56)

1000 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 12 10.65

(2.23)

12.86

(1.81) — 12.90(1.77)

SITE: Spring Park Creek Unit 11

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood / Unburned
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 65
66 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Study site: Spring Park Creek Unit 15–Group 

Shelterwood

Unit description: The 73-acre (30-ha) unit was harvested in 2000. Lodgepole pine dominated (98 percent 

of tree density) the overstory prior to treatment. Harvesting reduced the average number 

of live lodgepole pine from approximately 766 to 257 trees per acre (310 to 104 trees 

ha-1) and basal area from 193 to 71 ft2 acre-1 (44 to 16 m2 ha-1).

Preharvest, saplings consisted primarily of lodgepole pine, while the seedling layer was 

composed of lodgepole pine, subalpine fir, and whitebark pine. Four years postharvest, 

lodgepole pine sapling density was greatly reduced but remained dominant. In the 

seedling layer, lodgepole pine significantly increased, while subalpine fir significantly 

decreased and whitebark pine was not detected. The reduction in tree and sapling density 

occurred in the harvested corridors, with overstory and sapling structure remaining 

relatively unchanged in the uncut leave patches.

Preharvest fuel loading was approximately 9 tons per acre (2 kg m-2). Cut saplings and 

sub-merchantable trees in the corridors were left scattered throughout the unit, resulting 

in a high level of surface fuel following harvest. Therefore, the original prescription was 

modified such that material was mechanically grapple-piled and burned throughout the 

unit. Surface fuel distribution was affected on approximately 40 percent of the unit from 

the additional burn treatment. This resulted in a mix of areas with high levels of activity 

fuels and areas with almost no activity fuels present.

Management implications: The goal of reducing the overstory basal area by 40 to 60 percent through 

harvest was not met in this unit. Harvesting removed 65 percent of overstory trees. 

Increased light resulting from the group shelterwood treatment favored lodgepole pine 

regeneration; however, most lodgepole pine regeneration occurred in the cut corridors 

where there was less vegetative competition and more light. Even though lodgepole 

pine saplings were reduced by the harvest, higher average densities remained in the 

group shelterwood units compared to the even shelterwood units due to islands of uncut 

vegetation.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 67 PREHARVEST POSTHARVEST POSTFIRE-1 POSTFIRE-6

No data collected 

SITE: Spring Park Unit 15

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood / Unburned 
68 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

0

200

400

600

800

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Overstory trees per acre-Alive

0

200

400

600

800

LP

SF

Harvest

SITE: Spring Park Unit 15

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood / UnburnedHarvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Saplings per acre

0

50

100

150

200

Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Seedlings per acre

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

Harvest

Overstory trees per acre-Dead
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 69 PREHARVEST POSTFIRE-6 POSTFIRE-1 POSTHARVEST

SITE: Spring Park Unit 15

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood / Unburned Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

No data collected
70 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Overstory density and basal area, sapling and seedling density, and fuel loading by measurement 

year with standard error in parenthesis. For density, asterisk (*) denotes change between 

preharvest density and subsequent measurement year is significant at p < 0.05. For fuel loading, 

an asterisk by postharvest loading denotes change between initial loading and postharvest 

loading. Dash indicates timestep where no sampling was done. 

#

Plots

Preharvest

(Std. Err.)

3 Years 

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

4 Years 

Postharvest 

(Std. Err.)

10 Years 

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

Overstory density (trees acre-1)

LP 32 765.7 (98.3) 269.3* (73.3) 256.8* (70.8) —

SF 32 17.7 (17.7) 17.7 (17.7) 17.7 (17.7) —

Overstory basal area (ft2 acre-1)

LP 32 192.5 (11.6) 73.8* (17.5) 71.3* (17.1) —

SF 32 1.3 (1.3) 1.3 (1.3) 1.3 (1.3) —

Sapling density (trees acre-1)

LP 32 178.1 (32.6) 54.7* (20.1) 82.8* (30.0) —

SF 32 10.9 (3.7) 1.6* (1.6) 3.1* (2.2) —

Seedling density (trees acre-1)

LP 32 590.6 (213.2) 2781.3 (794.1) 2559.4*

(677.6) —

ES 32 46.9 (38.4) 0 (0) 9.4 (9.4) —

SF 32 581.3 (176.1) 125.0* (97.9) 121.9* (37.8) —

WB 32 356.3 (87.8) 0* (0) 0* (0) —

Surface fuels

Duff and litter depth (in) 16 1.92

(0.43)

1.93

(0.27) — 2.01

(0.30)

1 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 16 0.18

(0.02)

0.26

(0.03) — 0.13*

(0.02)

10 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 16 0.88

(0.10)

1.96*

(0.29) — 1.06*

(0.16)

100 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 16 2.73

(0.95)

3.37*

(0.71) — 3.32

(0.58)

1000 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 16 5.64

(0.98)

10.5*

(1.88) — 10.06

(1.40)

SITE: Spring Park Creek Unit 15

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood / Unburned
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 71

ECOS STEM

TREATMENTS

RESTORATION • FUEL REDUCTION • SILVICULTURAL

Even Shelterwood and 

Prescribed Burn Treatment Units

Treatment: Even-spaced shelterwood followed by a low-intensity, 

mixed-severity prescribed burn

Management planning: The units were harvested with the objective 

to reduce the overstory by 40 to 60 percent during harvest. Trees were 

harvested to create approximately equal spacing between reserve trees. 

Felled trees were whole-tree skidded to centralized processing locations 

for delimbing and decking for transport. All unutilized materials were piled 

and burned at the centralized locations. The prescribed burn treatment 

was designed to reduce activity fuels created from the harvest operation 

and to prepare a seed bed for natural regeneration while limiting overstory 

postharvest mortality to 50 percent. After harvest and prescribed burning, 

the target tree density was retention of at least 25 percent of preharvest 

overstory tree density. A detailed harvest prescription is provided in the 

“Treatment Descriptions” section.
72 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Study site: Sun Creek Unit 1–Even Shelterwood and Burn

Unit description: This 16-acre (6-ha) unit is typically very wet due to a shallow water table, so it was 

harvested during the winter of 1999/2000 over frozen ground and/or snow to reduce soil 

disturbance. Prior to harvest, the overstory was dominated by lodgepole pine (54 percent 

of tree density) and subalpine fir (34 percent). A wind event following harvest blew 

down a large number of residual trees leaving lodgepole pine as the dominant species. 

Unfortunately, we were not able to measure postharvest tree density before the wind 

event. Following harvest and the wind event, the average number of live lodgepole pine 

was dramatically reduced from approximately 318 to 24 trees per acre (129 to 10 trees 

ha-1) and basal area from 119 to 14 ft2 acre-1 (27 to 3 m2 ha-1).

The seedling and sapling layer consisted mostly of subalpine fir prior to harvest. One 

year postfire, subalpine fir and lodgepole pine sapling density was significantly lower. 

Although the combined treatments favored lodgepole pine regeneration, subalpine fir 

still comprised approximately 50 percent of the seedling layer 1 year postfire.

Fuel loading was not measured prior to harvest. Fuel model 11 (Anderson 1981) best 

described the unit after harvest. The unit was prescribed burned on October 3, 2003. 

Mean fuel moisture by size class was: 16 percent for 1-hr, 14 percent for 10-hr, 16 percent 

for 100-hr, 24 percent for 1000-hr, and 44 percent for duff. Temperatures ranged from 

60 to 68 o

F (16 to 20 oC). Relative humidity ranged from 7 to 18 percent, with average 

wind speed between 1 and 6 mph (0.5 to 3 m sec-1). Crown scorch was low throughout 

most of the unit, with an average of 15 percent and a median of 0 percent. Average basal 

bark char was 47 percent (median = 50 percent). Fire-caused mortality resulted in an 

additional 52 percent mortality of lodgepole pine trees greater than 4 inches (10.2 cm) 

DBH, with mortality stabilizing within 3 years after the burn. While the fire reduced 

forest floor and fine fuel loading, very little consumption of the 1000-hr fuels occurred. 

Six years postfire, the forest floor depth and fine fuel load were significantly lower than 

postharvest levels.

Management implications: The goal of reducing the overstory basal area by 40 to 60 percent through 

harvest was not met in this unit. Harvesting combined with the wind event removed 

96 percent of overstory trees, resulting in very few leave trees scattered throughout the 

unit. The prescribed burn killed approximately 50 percent of the remaining overstory 

lodgepole pine and reduced activity fuels created during harvest. While this was 

within the mortality limits set for the prescribed burn, the overstory retention target of 

25 percent of preharvest trees was not met due to overharvesting combined with the wind 

event. Harvest followed by fire reduced litter and duff depth and created light conditions 

favorable for lodgepole pine regeneration. Additional treatments may be necessary to 

reduce competing subalpine fir seedlings if further lodgepole pine recruitment is desired. 

Because lodgepole pine has such thin bark, it is very susceptible to fire regardless of 

flame length. If the majority (>75 percent) of the tree base is blackened, lodgepole pine 

will likely die. Therefore, prescribed burns that leave patches of unburned vegetation 

are critical for limiting lodgepole pine mortality, especially in units with activity fuel 

on the ground.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 73 PREHARVEST POSTHARVEST POSTFIRE-1 POSTFIRE-6

No data collected 

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 1

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn
74 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

0

100

200

300

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Overstory trees per acre-Alive

0

100

200

300

LP

SF

Fire

Harvest

Harvest

Fire

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Saplings per acre

0

100

200

300

Fire

Harvest

Fire

Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Seedlings per acre

0

4000

8000

12000

Fire

Harvest

Overstory trees per acre-Dead

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 1

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 75
76 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. PREHARVEST POSTFIRE-6 POSTFIRE-1 POSTHARVEST

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 1

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn

No data collected

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

5

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

5

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

5

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

12
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 77

Overstory density and basal area, sapling and seedling density, and fuel loading by measurement 

year with standard error in parenthesis. For density, asterisk (*) denotes change between 

preharvest density and subsequent measurement year is significant at p<0.05. For fuel loading, 

an asterisk by postharvest loading denotes change between initial loading and postharvest 

loading. An asterisk by postburn measurement denotes change between postharvest loading and

postburn loading. Dash indicates timestep where no sampling was done. 

#

Plots

Preharvest

(Std. Err.)

3 Years 

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

1 Year 

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

6 Years

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

Overstory density (trees acre-1)

LP 17 318.2 (75.5) 24.3* (10.2) 24.3* (10.2) —

ES 17 66.4 (31.0) 1.3* (1.3) 1.3* (1.3) —

SF 17 194.7 (106.6) 0* (0) 0* (0) —

Overstory basal area (ft2 acre-1)

LP 17 118.8 (17.7) 14.1* (4.5) 14.1* (4.5) —

ES 17 17.6 (7.5) 1.2* (1.2) 1.2* (1.2) —

SF 17 18.8 (9.6) 0* (0) 0* (0) —

Sapling density (trees acre-1)

LP 17 76.5 (25.4) 2.9* (2.9) 0* (0) —

ES 17 11.8 (6.8) 0 (0) 2.9 (2.9) —

SF 17 317.6 (39.3) 17.6* (7.4) 38.2* (18.9) —

Seedling density (trees acre-1)

LP 17 0 (0) 1294.1 

(1059.8)

1976.5* 

(1021.9) —

ES 17 123.5 (45.0) 58.8* (58.8) 0* (0) —

SF 17 14858.8 

(4201.8)

2823.5* 

(1243.3)

2082.4*

(915.5) —

WB 17 35.3 (35.3) 0 (0) 0 (0) —

Surface fuels

Duff and litter depth (in) 9 — 2.49

(0.28)

1.36*

(0.24)

1.18*

(0.20)

1 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 9 — 0.51

(0.08)

0.17*

(0.05)

0.06*

(0.01)

10 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 9 — 2.88

(0.33)

0.96*

(0.28)

0.54*

(0.11)

100 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 9 — 5.09

(0.83)

2.34*

(0.55)

2.10*

(0.26)

1000 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 9 — 10.75

(2.53)

10.47

(2.37)

11.88

(2.61)

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 1

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood & Prescribed burn
78 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Study site: Sun Creek Unit 3–Even Shelterwood and Burn

Unit description: Because this 36-acre (15-ha) unit is often fairly wet, it was harvested during the winter 

of 1999/2000 over frozen ground and/or snow to reduce soil disturbance. The overstory 

was dominated by lodgepole pine (94 percent of tree density) prior to harvest. Harvest 

and fire reduced the average number of live lodgepole pine from approximately 683 to 

92 trees per acre (277 to 37 trees ha-1) and basal area from 188 to 37 ft2 acre-1 (43 to 8 

m2 ha-1).

Pretreatment sapling density was mostly lodgepole pine with some subalpine fir. 

Seedling density was predominantly subalpine fir. Two years postfire, sapling density 

was greatly reduced for all species and codominated by lodgepole pine and subalpine fir, 

while lodgepole pine seedlings had significantly increased.

Preharvest fuel loading was not measured in this unit. After harvest, fuel model 11 

(Anderson 1981) best described the unit with fuel loading approximately 14 tons per 

acre (3 kg m-2). The unit was prescribed burned on September 16, 2002, between 1400 

and 1800. Mean fuel moisture by size class was: 7 percent for 1-hr, 8 percent for 10-hr, 

13 percent for 100-hr, and 25 percent for 1000-hr. Temperatures ranged from 66 to 73 o

F 

(19 to 23 oC). Relative humidity ranged from 15 to 25 percent, with average wind speed 

between 4 and 8 mph (2 to 4 m sec-1). Crown scorch was low throughout most of the unit, 

with an average of 30 percent and a median of 8 percent. Average basal bark char was 52 

percent (median = 85 percent). Fire-caused mortality resulted in an additional 58 percent 

mortality of lodgepole pine trees greater than 4 inches (10.2 cm) DBH, with mortality 

stabilizing within 2 years after the burn. While the fire reduced forest floor depth and fine 

fuel loading, very little consumption of the 1000-hr fuels occurred.

Management implications: We did not sample tree plots postharvest in this unit; therefore, we do not know 

the reduction in tree density from harvest alone. Harvest and fire reduced overstory tree 

density by 84 percent. The goal of reducing the overstory basal area by 40 to 60 percent 

through harvest was likely close to target, but the prescribed burn killed more trees than 

the intended goal of no more than 50 percent of the residual trees. The prescribed fire 

was effective in significantly reducing fine fuel created by the logging but not the 1000-

hr fuel component.

Harvest followed by fire reduced litter and duff depth and created light conditions 

favorable for lodgepole pine regeneration. Additional treatments may be necessary to 

reduce competing subalpine fir seedlings if further lodgepole pine recruitment is desired. 

Because lodgepole pine has such thin bark, it is very susceptible to fire regardless of 

flame length. If the majority (>75 percent) of the tree base is blackened, lodgepole pine 

will likely die. Therefore, prescribed burns that leave patches of unburned vegetation 

are critical for limiting lodgepole pine mortality, especially in units with activity fuel on 

the ground.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 79 PREHARVEST POSTHARVEST POSTFIRE-1 POSTFIRE-6

No data collected 

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 3

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn
80 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Overstory trees per acre-Alive

0

200

400

600

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

0

200

400

600

Fire

Harvest

Fire

Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Saplings per acre

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Fire

Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Seedlings per acre

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

Fire

Harvest

Overstory trees per acre-Dead

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 3

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn 

LP

SF
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 81
82 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. PREHARVEST POSTFIRE-6 POSTFIRE-1 POSTHARVEST

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 3

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

No data collected
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 83

Overstory density and basal area, sapling and seedling density, and fuel loading by measurement 

year with standard error in parenthesis. For density, asterisk (*) denotes change between 

preharvest density and subsequent measurement year is significant at p<0.05. For fuel loading, 

an asterisk by postharvest loading denotes change between initial loading and postharvest 

loading. An asterisk by postburn measurement denotes change between postharvest loading and 

postburn loading. Dash indicates timestep where no sampling was done. 

#

Plots

Preharvest

(Std. Err.)

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

1 Year 

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

2 Years

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

6 Years

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

Overstory density (trees acre-1)

LP 28 682.5 (125.0) — 139.5*

(27.1) 91.8* (28.6) —

ES 28 21.2 (10.2) — 11.4 (8.5) 10.3* (8.5) —

SF 28 15.2 (11.5) — 15.2 (11.5) 15.2 (11.5) —

WB 28 6.0 (6.0) — 0 (0) 0 (0) —

Overstory basal area (ft2 acre-1)

LP 28 187.9 (12.1) — 58.6* (9.1) 37.1* (8.8) —

ES 28 8.6 (3.2) — 4.3 (2.4) 2.9 (2.0) —

SF 28 2.1 (1.6) — 2.1 (1.6) 2.1 (1.6) —

WB 28 1.4 (1.4) — 0 (0) 0 (0) —

Sapling density (trees acre-1)

LP 28 255.4 (54.8) — 51.8* (25.0) 48.2* (24.6) —

ES 28 5.4 (3.0) — 1.8 (1.8) 3.6 (2.5) —

SF 28 92.9 (16.4) — 48.2* (20.2) 48.2* (20.7) —

Seedling density (trees acre-1)

LP 28 21.4 (14.9) — 1535.7*

(603.1)

2207.1*

(717.3) —

ES 28 139.3 (44.9) — 71.4* (49.6) 75.0 (47.9) —

SF 28 3375.0

(1298.8) — 5535.7* (4276.0)

2592.9

(1041.4) —

WB 28 182.1 (71.3) — 35.7* (35.7) 0* (0) —

Surface fuels

Duff and litter depth (in) 14 — 2.34

(0.25)

1.16*

(0.25) — 2.09

(0.17)

1 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 — 0.34

(0.05)

0.24

(0.05) — 0.12*

(0.03)

10 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 — 2.6

(0.42)

1.43

(0.17) — 0.92*

(0.19)

100 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 — 2.8

(0.49)

2.49

(0.45) — 2.02

(0.41)

1000 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 — 8.17

(1.2)

7.74

(1.38) — 8.45

(1.45)

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 3

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood & Prescribed burn
84 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Study site: Spring Park Creek Unit 10–Even Shelterwood 

and Burn

Unit description: The 42-acre (17-ha) unit was harvested during the summer of 2000. Prior to harvest, 

lodgepole pine (49 percent of tree density) and subalpine fir (45 percent) codominated 

the overstory. Harvest and prescribed burning reduced the average number of live 

lodgepole pine from approximately 171 to 12 trees per acre (69 to 5 trees ha-1) and basal 

area from 98 to 6 ft2 acre-1 (22 to 1 m2 ha-1).

The seedling and sapling layers consisted almost entirely of subalpine fir prior to 

harvest. Sapling density was significantly reduced 2 years postfire. Lodgepole pine 

seedling density significantly increased for 2 years postfire; however, subalpine fir was 

still the most common species in this layer.

Before harvest, most fuels were in the 1000-hr class. Fuel model 12 (Anderson 1981) 

best described the unit after harvest due to significantly increased fuel loading in all 

classes. The unit was prescribed burned on September 11, 2002, between 1300 and 

1600. Mean fuel moisture by size class was: 13 percent for 1-hr, 14 percent for 10-hr, 

20 percent for 100-hr, and 41 percent for 1000-hr. Temperatures ranged from 66 to 68 o

F 

(19 to 20 oC). Relative humidity ranged from 31 to 32 percent, with average wind speed 

between 3 and 6 mph (1 to 3 m sec-1). Crown scorch was fairly high throughout most 

of the unit with an average of 67 percent and a median of 90 percent. Average basal 

bark char was 85 percent (median = 100 percent). Fire-caused mortality resulted in an 

additional 90 percent mortality of lodgepole pine trees greater than 4 inches (10.2 cm) 

DBH, with mortality stabilizing within 2 years after the burn. While the fire reduced 

forest floor depth and fine fuel loading, very little consumption of the 1000-hr fuels 

occurred.

Management implications: We did not sample tree plots postharvest in this unit; therefore, we do not 

know the reduction in tree density from harvest alone. Harvest and fire reduced overstory 

tree density by 97 percent. The prescribed burn killed approximately 90 percent of the 

residual lodgepole pine, much more than the intended goal of 20 to 50 percent. The 

prescribed fire was effective in significantly reducing fine fuel created by the logging 

but not 1000-hr fuels. Because of the high 1000-hr fuel load prior to harvest (20 tons 

acre-1 [4.5 kg m-2)], the fuels in this unit were heavier than most of the other prescribed 

burn units.

Harvest followed by fire reduced litter and duff depth and created higher light conditions 

favorable for lodgepole pine regeneration. Additional treatments may be necessary to 

reduce competing subalpine fir seedlings if further lodgepole pine recruitment is desired. 

Because lodgepole pine has such thin bark, it is very susceptible to fire regardless of 

flame length. If the majority (>75 percent) of the tree base is blackened, lodgepole pine 

will likely die. Therefore, when burning in lodgepole pine with heavy activity fuels, it 

is important to leave patches of unburned vegetation in order to limit lodgepole pine 

mortality.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 85 PREHARVEST POSTHARVEST POSTFIRE-1 POSTFIRE-6

SITE: Spring Park Unit 10

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn
86 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

0

50

100

150

200

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Overstory trees per acre-Alive

0

50

100

150

200

LP

SF

Fire

Harvest

Fire

Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Saplings per acre

0

200

400

600

800

Fire

Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Seedlings per acre

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

Fire

Harvest

Overstory trees per acre-Dead

SITE: Spring Park Unit 10

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 87
88 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. PREHARVEST POSTFIRE-6 POSTFIRE-1 POSTHARVEST

SITE: Spring Park Unit 10

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

5

10

15

20

25

30
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 89

Overstory density and basal area, sapling and seedling density, and fuel loading by measurement 

year with standard error in parenthesis. For density, asterisk (*) denotes change between 

preharvest density and subsequent measurement year is significant at p<0.05. For fuel loading, 

an asterisk by postharvest loading denotes change between initial loading and postharvest 

loading. An asterisk by postburn measurement denotes change between postharvest loading and 

postburn loading. Dash indicates timestep where no sampling was done. 

#

Plots

Preharvest

(Std. Err.)

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

1 Year 

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

2 Years

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

6 Years

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

Overstory density (trees acre1

)

LP 28 165.2 (39.3) — 30.5*

(15.1) 11.2* (9.3) —

ES 28 19.9 (9.7) — 0* (0) 0* (0) —

SF 28 149.5 (40.1) — 0* (0) 0* (0) —

Overstory basal area (ft2 acre-1)

LP 28 94.3 (13.7) — 18.6* (7.6) 5.7* (4.5) —

ES 28 10.0 (3.9) — 1.4* (1.4) 0* (0) —

SF 28 37.1 (7.7) — 0* (0) 0* (0) —

Sapling density (trees acre-1)

LP 28 26.8 (12.2) — 0* (0) 0* (0) —

ES 28 8.9 (4.5) — 0* (0) 0* (0) —

SF 28 883.9

(110.9) — 12.5* (7.6) 14.3* (9.9) —

Seedling density (trees acre-1)

LP 28 0 (0) — 321.4*

(126.6)

150.0*

(52.3) —

ES 28 42.9 (42.9) — 0 (0) 85.7 (55.5) —

SF 28 28950.0

(4387.6) — 1464.3*

(1284.3)

1800.0*

(1319.8) —

WB 28 85.7 (85.7) — 0 (0) 342.9*

(94.8) —

Surface fuels

Duff and litter depth (in) 14 1.52

(0.19)

3.28*

(0.36)

1.25*

(0.19) — 1.72*

(0.41)

1 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 0.31

(0.03)

0.64*

(0.07)

0.25*

(0.07) — 0.14*

(0.04)

10 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 1.19

(0.18)

3.38*

(0.53)

1.68*

(0.38) — 1.12*

(0.20)

100 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 1.46

(0.32)

3.81*

(0.65)

2.3

(0.38) — 2.65

(0.48)

1000 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 20.42

(3.69)

27.62*

(3.29)

23.49

(2.87) — 27.22

(3.98)

SITE: Spring Park Creek Unit 10

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood & Prescribed burn
90 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Study site: Spring Park Creek Unit 13–Even Shelterwood 

and Burn

Unit description: The 21-acre (8-ha) unit was harvested during the summer of 2000. Prior to harvest, 

lodgepole pine dominated the overstory (92 percent of tree density). Harvest and 

prescribed fire reduced the average number of live lodgepole pine from approximately 

636 to 62 trees per acre (258 to 25 trees ha-1) and basal area from 186 to 23 ft2 acre-1 (43 

to 5 m2 ha-1).

Sapling density was evenly distributed between lodgepole pine and subalpine fir prior 

to harvest, while seedlings were primarily subalpine fir. Two years postfire, sapling 

density was greatly reduced for all species, while lodgepole pine seedling density had 

significantly increased and comprised the majority of regeneration.

Preharvest fuel loading was low (14 ton acre-1 [3 kg m-2]) and consisted primarily of 

1000-hr fuels. Fuel model 11 (Anderson 1981) best described the unit after harvest 

due to a significant increase in fine fuel loading. The unit was prescribed burned on 

September 12, 2002, between 1330 and 1530. Mean fuel moisture by size class was: 12 

percent for 1-hr, 12 percent for 10-hr, 16 percent for 100-hr, and 36 percent for 1000-hr. 

Temperatures ranged from 68 to 69 oF (20 to 21 oC). Relative humidity ranged from 23 

to 26 percent, with average wind speed between 4 and 5 mph (2 m sec-1). Crown scorch 

was low throughout most of the unit with an average of 38 percent and a median of 

5 percent. Average basal bark char was 69 percent (median = 100 percent). Fire-caused 

mortality resulted in an additional 79 percent mortality of lodgepole pine trees greater 

than 4 inches (10.2 cm) DBH, with mortality stabilizing within 2 years after the burn. 

While the fire reduced fine fuel loading, very little consumption of the 1000-hr fuels 

occurred.

Management implications: We did not sample postharvest tree plots in this unit; therefore, we do not 

know the reduction in tree density from harvest alone. Harvest and fire reduced the 

tree density by 91 percent. The prescribed burn killed approximately 80 percent of the 

residual lodgepole pine, much more than the intended goal of no more than 20 to 50 

percent. The prescribed fire was effective in significantly reducing 1- and 10-hr fine fuel 

created by the logging but not 100- or 1000-hr fuel. Harvest followed by fire reduced litter 

and duff depth and created light conditions favorable for lodgepole pine regeneration. 

Because lodgepole pine has such thin bark, it is very susceptible to fire regardless of 

flame length. If the majority (>75 percent) of the tree base is blackened, lodgepole pine 

will likely die. Therefore, prescribed burns that leave patches of unburned vegetation 

are critical for limiting lodgepole pine mortality, especially in units with activity fuel 

on the ground.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 91 PREHARVEST POSTHARVEST POSTFIRE-1 POSTFIRE-6

SITE: Spring Park Unit 13

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn
92 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Overstory trees per acre-Alive

0

100

200

300

400

500

600 LP

SF

Fire

Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Saplings per acre

0

20

40

60

80

100

Fire

Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Seedlings per acre

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

Fire

Harvest Harvest

Fire

Overstory trees per acre-Dead

SITE: Spring Park Unit 13

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 93
94 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. PREHARVEST POSTFIRE-6 POSTFIRE-1 POSTHARVEST

SITE: Spring Park Unit 13

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

12
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 95

Overstory density and basal area, sapling and seedling density, and fuel loading by measurement 

year with standard error in parenthesis. For density, asterisk (*) denotes change between 

preharvest density and subsequent measurement year is significant at p<0.05. For fuel loading, 

an asterisk by postharvest loading denotes change between initial loading and postharvest 

loading. An asterisk by postburn measurement denotes change between postharvest loading and 

postburn loading. Dash indicates timestep where no sampling was done. 

#

Plots

Preharvest

(Std. Err.)

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

1 Year 

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

2 Years 

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

7 Years 

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

Overstory density (trees acre-1)

LP 31 635.6 

(114.7) — 96.5* 

(34.3)

62.0* 

(28.9) —

ES 31 19.0 (10.7) — 0* (0) 0* (0) —

SF 31 35.9 (20.0) — 2.8* (2.8) 2.8* (2.8) —

Overstory basal area (ft2 acre-1)

LP 31 185.8 (16.9) — 36.1* 

(10.9) 23.2* (9.0)

—

ES 31 7.7 (4.7) — 0* (0) 0* (0) —

SF 31 10.3 (4.9) — 2.6* (2.6) 2.6* (2.6) —

Sapling density (trees acre-1)

LP 31 95.2 (18.9) — 6.5* (5.0) 6.5* (3.1) —

ES 31 3.2 (2.2) — 1.6 (1.6) 0 (0) —

SF 31 77.4 (28.8) — 9.7* (7.1) 6.5* (3.8) —

WB 31 1.6 (1.6) — 0 (0) 0 (0) —

Seedling density (trees acre-1)

LP 31 38.7 (38.7) — 677.4 

(394.6)

1296.8* 

(603.9) —

ES 31 77.4 (50.1) — 161.3 

(161.3) 0 (0) —

SF 31 2854.8 

(696.7) — 64.5* 

(64.5)

154.8* 

(78.5) —

WB 31 348.4 

(129.8) — 0* (0) 38.7* 

(26.9) —

Surface fuels

Duff and litter depth (in) 15 1.38

(0.24)

1.79

(0.24)

1.24

(0.18) — 1.45

(0.16)

1 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 15 0.16

(0.02)

0.27*

(0.04)

0.1*

(0.02) — 0.13*

(0.02)

10 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 15 0.68

(0.08)

1.96*

(0.13)

0.9*

(0.17) — 0.89*

(0.13)

100 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 15 2.1

(0.44)

3.02

(0.74)

2.42

(0.44) — 2.22

(0.60)

1000 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 15 11.22

(2.97)

10.64

(2.31)

8.63

(1.45) — 8.92

(1.31)

SITE: Spring Park Creek Unit 13

TREATMENT: Even Shelterwood & Prescribed burn
96 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 97

ECOS STEM

TREATMENTS

RESTORATION • FUEL REDUCTION • SILVICULTURAL

Group Shelterwood and 

Prescribed Burn Treatment Units

Treatment: Group shelterwood followed by a low-intensity, mixedseverity prescribed burn

Management planning: These units were harvested with the objective 

to reduce the overstory by 40 to 60 percent. The group shelterwood 

treatment left islands of residual trees on 40 to 60 percent of the unit 

area, with the remaining areas resembling clearcuts. All trees were cut in 

corridors that surrounded unharvested patches of leave trees. Felled trees 

were whole-tree skidded to centralized processing locations for delimbing 

and decking for transport. All unutilized materials were piled and burned 

at the centralized locations. The prescribed burn treatment was designed 

to reduce activity fuels created from the harvest operation and to prepare 

a seed bed for natural regeneration while limiting overstory postharvest 

mortality to 50 percent. After harvest and prescribed burning, the target 

tree density was retention of at least 25 percent of preharvest overstory 

tree density. A detailed harvest prescription is provided in the “Treatment 

Descriptions” section.
98 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Study site: Sun Creek Unit 2–Group Shelterwood and 

Burn

Unit description: This 22-acre (9-ha) unit is typically very wet, so it was harvested during the winter of 

1999/2000 over frozen ground and/or snow to reduce soil disturbance. Prior to harvest, 

the overstory was dominated by lodgepole pine (57 percent of tree density) with a large 

component of subalpine fir (36 percent). Harvesting reduced average number of live 

lodgepole pine from approximately 570 to 222 trees per acre (231 to 90 trees ha-1) and 

basal area from 170 to 82 ft2 acre-1 (39 to 19 m2 ha-1). Prescribed burning further reduced 

density to 202 trees per acre (82 trees ha-1) and basal area to 74 ft2 acre-1 (17 m2 ha-1).

The seedling and sapling layers consisted primarily of subalpine fir prior to harvest. 

One year postfire, sapling density was greatly reduced, with subalpine fir remaining the 

dominant species. In the seedling layer, lodgepole pine increased significantly, although 

subalpine fir remained the dominant species 1 year postfire.

We did not measure fuel loading prior to harvest. Fuel model 11 (Anderson 1981) 

best described the unit after harvest. The unit was prescribed burned on October 1, 

2003. Mean fuel moisture by size class in the uncut groups was: 16 percent for 1-hr, 

20 percent for 10-hr, 22 percent for 100-hr, 23 percent for 1000-hr, and 51 percent 

for duff. Mean fuel moisture by size class in the clearcut areas was: 12 percent for 

1-hr and 10-hr, 16 percent for 100-hr, 23 percent for 1000-hr, and 43 percent for duff. 

Temperatures ranged from 60 to 68 o

F (16 to 20 oC). Relative humidity ranged from 7 

to 18 percent, with average wind speed between 1 and 6 mph (0.5 to 3 m sec-1). Crown 

scorch was low throughout most of the unit with an average of 7 percent and a median 

of 0 percent. Average basal bark char was 20 percent (median = 0 percent). Fire-caused 

mortality resulted in an additional 26 percent mortality of lodgepole pine trees greater 

than 4 inches (10.2 cm) DBH, with mortality stabilizing within 3 years after the burn. 

While the fire reduced litter and duff depth and fine fuel loading, very little consumption 

of the 1000-hr fuels occurred.

Management implications: Harvest reduced tree density and basal area by approximately 50 percent, 

within the goal of 40 to 60 percent. The prescribed burn also met the objectives of 

maintaining at least 25 percent of the preharvest overstory and reducing logging slash. 

The burn in this unit generally carried through the logging slash in the clearcut corridors 

but did not carry through most of the uncut leave islands. The understory in the leave 

islands consisted primarily of grouse whortleberry (Vaccinium scoparium Leiberg ex 

Coville), which did not burn well. Compared to the even shelterwood treatment, the 

group shelterwood created a stand structure that was less susceptible to windthrow 

and fire-caused mortality while reducing activity fuel loads. The group shelterwood 

treatment also created a more heterogeneous mosaic on the landscape. Increased light 

resulting from the group shelterwood harvest favored lodgepole pine regeneration. 

However, most lodgepole pine regeneration occurred in the cut patches where there was 

less vegetative competition and more light. Even though harvest reduced the lodgepole 

pine sapling component, higher average densities remained in the group shelterwood 

units than in the even shelterwood units due to islands of uncut vegetation. Additional 

treatments may be necessary to reduce competing subalpine fir seedlings if further 

lodgepole pine recruitment is desired.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 99 PREHARVEST POSTHARVEST POSTFIRE-1 POSTFIRE-6

No data collected 

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 2

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn
100 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Overstory trees per acre-Alive

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

LP

SF

HarvestHarvest

Fire

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Saplings per acre

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Fire

Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Seedlings per acre

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

Fire

Harvest

Fire

Overstory trees per acre-Dead

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 2

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 101
102 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. PREHARVEST POSTFIRE-6 POSTFIRE-1 POSTHARVEST

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 2

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

No data collected
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 103

Overstory density and basal area, sapling and seedling density, and fuel loading by measurement 

year with standard error in parenthesis. For density, asterisk (*) denotes change between 

preharvest density and subsequent measurement year is significant at p<0.05. For fuel loading, 

an asterisk by postharvest loading denotes change between initial loading and postharvest 

loading. An asterisk by postburn measurement denotes change between postharvest loading and 

postburn loading. Dash indicates timestep where no sampling was done. 

#

Plots

Preharvest

(Std. Err.)

3 Years 

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

1 Year 

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

6 Years

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

Overstory density (trees acre-1)

LP 21 570.3 (127.6) 221.5* (76.6) 201.9* (74.6) —

ES 21 73.3 (48.2) 61.9 (48.3) 59.9 (48.4) —

SF 21 362.5 (155.4) 154.2* 

(121.6)

157.5* 

(121.8) —

Overstory basal area (ft2 acre-1)

LP 21 169.5 (24.7) 81.9* (21.3) 74.3* (20.5) —

ES 21 15.2 (6.5) 11.4 (6.3) 9.5 (6.1) —

SF 21 26.7 (10.8) 5.7* (3.1) 7.6* (4.5) —

Sapling density (trees acre-1)

LP 21 116.7 (32.6) 52.4* (17.8) 47.6* (16.7) —

ES 21 107.1 (36.1) 26.2* (10.1) 19.0* (12.7) —

SF 21 611.9 (114.6) 252.4* (52.9) 223.8* (57.9) —

Seedling density (trees acre-1)

LP 21 0 (0) 571.4 (280.9) 371.4*

(134.0) —

ES 21 228.6 (87.6) 285.7 (140.5) 14.3* (14.3) —

SF 21 10671.4

(1884.2)

6476.2* 

(2064.0)

5285.7*

(1200.8) —

WB 21 42.9 (31.3) 0 (0) 0 (0) —

Surface fuels

Duff and litter depth (in) 10 — 3.42

(0.47)

3.11

(0.42)

2.07*

(0.38)

1 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 10 — 0.42

(0.07)

0.3

(0.05)

0.17*

(0.04)

10 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 10 — 1.83

(0.37)

1.19

(0.30)

0.55*

(0.11)

100 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 10 — 2.18

(0.68)

1.89

(0.60)

1.24

(0.42)

1000 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 10 — 7.23

(1.8)

5.59*

(1.35)

6.53

(1.27)

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 2

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood & Prescribed burn
104 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Study site: Sun Creek Unit 4–Group Shelterwood and 

Burn

Unit description: Because this 36-acre (15-ha) unit is typically moderately wet in places, it was 

harvested during the winter of 1999/2000 over frozen ground and/or snow to reduce 

soil disturbance. Lodgepole pine dominated the overstory (99 percent of tree density) 

prior to harvest. Harvest and prescribed burning reduced the average number of live 

lodgepole pine trees per acre from approximately 914 to 387 (370 to 157 trees ha-1) and 

basal area from 214 to 93 ft2 acre-1 (49 to 21 m2 ha-1).

Preharvest, almost all saplings were lodgepole pine, while the seedlings were a mix 

of mainly lodgepole pine and subalpine fir. Two years postfire, sapling density was 

greatly reduced, with lodgepole pine remaining the most common species. Lodgepole 

pine seedling density was significantly higher and comprised approximately 90 percent 

of regeneration 2 years postfire.

We did not measure fuel loading prior to harvest. Fuel model 11 (Anderson 1981) best 

described the unit after harvest. The unit was prescribed burned on September 16, 2002, 

between 1100 and 1400. Mean fuel moisture by size class in the uncut groups was: 9 

percent for 1-hr and 10-hr, 14 percent for 100-hr, and 17 percent for 1000-hr. Mean fuel 

moisture by size class in the clearcut areas was: 6 percent for 1-hr, 7 percent for 10-hr, 

14 percent for 100-hr, and 25 percent for 1000-hr. Temperatures ranged from 61 to 75 oF 

(17 to 24 oC). Relative humidity ranged from 14 to 29 percent, with average wind speed 

between 2 and 8 mph (1 to 4 m sec-1). Crown scorch was low throughout most of the 

unit with an average of 28 percent and a median of 5 percent. Average basal bark char 

was 41 percent (median = 10 percent). Fire-caused mortality resulted in an additional 

39 percent mortality of lodgepole pine trees greater than 4 inches (10.2 cm) DBH, with 

mortality stabilizing within 3 years after the burn. While the fire reduced forest floor 

depth and fine fuel loading, very little consumption of the 1000-hr fuels occurred.

Management implications: We did not sample postharvest tree plots in this unit; therefore, we do not 

know the reduction in tree density from harvest alone. Harvest and fire reduced tree 

density by 68 percent, within the tree retention goal. The fire killed approximately 40 

percent of the leave trees based on the estimates from the postfire mortality assessment, 

which was within the goal of limiting mortality from fire to 50 percent. The goal of 

reducing logging slash was not met immediately, but by 6 years postfire, the fine fuels 

were significantly lower than preburn levels. The burn in this unit generally carried 

through the logging slash in the clearcut corridors but did not carry through most of the 

uncut leave islands. In the leave islands, the understory consisted primarily of grouse 

whortleberry, which did not burn well. Compared to the even shelterwood treatment, 

the group shelterwood created a stand structure that was less susceptible to windthrow 

and fire-caused mortality, while reducing activity fuel loads. The group shelterwood 

treatment also created a more heterogeneous mosaic on the landscape. Increased light 

resulting from the group shelterwood treatment favored lodgepole pine regeneration; 

however, most lodgepole pine regeneration occurred in the cut patches where there was 

less vegetative competition and more light. Even though harvest and burning reduced 

the lodgepole pine sapling component, higher average densities remained in the group 

shelterwood units than in the even shelterwood units due to islands of uncut vegetation.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 105 PREHARVEST POSTHARVEST POSTFIRE-1 POSTFIRE-6

No data collected 

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 4

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn
106 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

0

200

400

600

800

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Overstory trees per acre-Alive

0

200

400

600

800

LP

SF

Fire

Harvest

Harvest

Fire

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Saplings per acre

0

100

200

300

400

Fire

Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Seedlings per acre

0

200

400

600

800

1000

Fire

Harvest

Overstory trees per acre-Dead

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 4

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 107
108 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. PREHARVEST POSTFIRE-6 POSTFIRE-1 POSTHARVEST

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 4

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

No data collected
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 109

Overstory density and basal area, sapling and seedling density, and fuel loading by measurement 

year with standard error in parenthesis. For density, asterisk (*) denotes change between 

preharvest density and subsequent measurement year is significant at p<0.05. For fuel loading, 

an asterisk by postharvest loading denotes change between initial loading and postharvest 

loading. An asterisk by postburn measurement denotes change between postharvest loading and 

postburn loading. Dash indicates timestep where no sampling was done. 

#

Plots

Preharvest

(Std. Err.)

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

1 Year 

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

2 Years

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

6 Years

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

Overstory density (trees acre-1)

LP 28 914.2 

(143.4) — 422.9* (129.1)

387.3* 

(125.9) —

ES 28 0.9 (0.9) — 0.9 (0.9) 0.9 (0.9) —

Overstory basal area (ft2 acre-1)

LP 28 213.6 (10.2) — 104.3* 

(19.4)

92.9* 

(18.6)

—

ES 28 0.7 (0.7) — 0.7 (0.7) 0.7 (0.7) —

Sapling density (trees acre-1)

LP 28 410.7 (45.7) — 98.2* 

(33.9)

57.1*

(20.5) —

SF 28 8.9 (5.2) — 7.1 (3.4) 5.4 (3.9) —

Seedling density (trees acre-1)

LP 28 289.3

(102.9) — 1535.7 (550.3)

1050.0 

(295.0) —

ES 28 21.4 (14.9) — 0 (0) 0 (0) —

SF 28 267.9 (58.4) — 250.0* 

(132.4)

139.3* 

(47.5) —

WB 28 128.6 (60.6) — 0* (0) 0* (0) —

Surface fuels

Duff and litter depth (in) 14 — 1.05

(0.11)

0.57*

(0.09) — 1.06(0.22)

1 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 — 0.24

(0.03)

0.17

(0.03) — 0.14*(0.03)

10 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 — 2.24

(0.45)

1.4

(0.41) — 0.63*(0.15)

100 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 — 2.65

(0.71)

1.61*

(0.41) — 0.83*(0.17)

1000 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 14 — 6.64

(1.49)

5.71

(1.23) — 7.68(2.21)

SITE: Sun Creek Unit 4

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood & Prescribed burn
110 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Study site: Spring Park Creek Unit 12–Group 

Shelterwood and Burn

Unit description: The 30-acre (12-ha) unit was harvested during the summer of 2000. Prior to harvest, 

lodgepole pine (45 percent of tree density) and subalpine fir (47 percent) codominated 

the overstory. Harvest and prescribed burning reduced the average number of live 

lodgepole pine trees per acre from approximately 215 to 60 (87 to 24 trees ha-1) and 

basal area from 121 to 41 ft2 acre-1 (28 to 9 m2 ha-1). Subalpine fir remained the most 

common overstory species (52 percent) 2 years postfire.

Prior to harvest, the seedling and sapling layers were predominantly subalpine fir. Two 

years postfire, sapling density was significantly reduced for all species, with subalpine 

fir still the dominant species. In addition, lodgepole pine seedlings had increased after 

fire, but subalpine fir remained the dominant species, comprising 98 percent of the 

regeneration.

After harvest, fuel model 12 (Anderson 1981) best described the unit and forest floor 

depths, and fine fuel loading were significantly higher. The unit was prescribed burned 

on September 11, 2002, between 1600 and 1930. Mean fuel moisture by size class in the 

uncut groups was: 13 percent for 1-hr, 18 percent for 10-hr, 33 percent for 100-hr, and 

28 percent for 1000-hr. Mean fuel moisture by size class in the clearcut areas was: 12 

percent for 1-hr, 11 percent for 10-hr, 19 percent for 100-hr, and 21 percent for 1000-hr. 

Temperatures ranged from 59 to 68 o

F (15 to 20 oC). Relative humidity ranged from 34 

to 42 percent, with average wind speed between 2 and 8 mph (1 to 4 m sec-1). Crown 

scorch was low throughout most of the unit with an average of 30 percent and a median 

of 0 percent. Average basal bark char was 30 percent (median = 14 percent). Fire-caused 

mortality resulted in an additional 22 percent mortality of lodgepole pine trees greater 

than 4 inches (10.2 cm) DBH, with mortality stabilizing within 3 years after the burn. 

While the fire reduced forest floor depth and fine fuel loading, little consumption of 

1000-hr fuels occurred.

Management implications: We did not sample postharvest tree plots in this unit; therefore, we do not know 

the reduction in tree density from harvest alone. Harvest and fire reduced tree density by 

67 percent, which met the tree retention goal. The burn significantly reduced 1-hr and 

10-hr fuel loads and duff and litter depths but not 100-hr or 1000-hr fuel loads. The burn 

in this unit generally carried through the logging slash in the clearcut corridors but did 

not carry through most of the uncut leave islands. In the leave islands, the understory 

consisted primarily of grouse whortleberry, which did not burn well. Compared to the 

even shelterwood treatment, the group shelterwood created a stand structure that was 

less susceptible to windthrow and fire-caused mortality, while reducing activity fuel 

loads. The group shelterwood treatment also created a more heterogeneous mosaic on 

the landscape. Increased light resulting from the group shelterwood harvest favored 

lodgepole pine regeneration; however, most lodgepole pine regeneration likely occurred 

in the cut patches where there was less vegetative competition and more light available. 

Even though lodgepole pine saplings were reduced by harvesting and burning, higher 

average densities remained in the group shelterwood units than in the even shelterwood 

units due to islands of uncut vegetation.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 111 PREHARVEST POSTHARVEST POSTFIRE-1 POSTFIRE-6

SITE: Spring Park Unit 12

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn
112 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

0

50

100

150

200

250

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Overstory trees per acre-Alive

0

50

100

150

200

250

LP

SF

Fire

HarvestHarvest

Fire

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Saplings per acre

0

200

400

600

800

Fire

Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Seedlings per acre

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

Fire

Harvest

Overstory trees per acre-Dead

SITE: Spring Park Unit 12

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 113
114 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

5

10

15

20

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

5

10

15

20

PREHARVEST

SITE: Spring Park Unit 12

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn POSTFIRE-6 POSTFIRE-1 POSTHARVEST Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

5

10

15

20

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0

1

2

3

4

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

5

10

15

20
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 115

Overstory density and basal area, sapling and seedling density, and fuel loading by measurement 

year with standard error in parenthesis. For density, asterisk (*) denotes change between 

preharvest density and subsequent measurement year is significant at p<0.05. For fuel loading, 

an asterisk by postharvest loading denotes change between initial loading and postharvest 

loading. An asterisk by postburn measurement denotes change between postharvest loading and 

postburn loading. Dash indicates timestep where no sampling was done. 

#

Plots

Preharvest

(Std. Err.)

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

1 Year 

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

2 Years

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

6 Years

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

Overstory density (trees acre-1)

LP 30 208.1 (32.3) — 64.2* (18.4) 58.3* (18.4) —

ES 30 37.3 (27.4) — 34.3 (27.5) 34.3 (27.5) —

SF 30 216.9 (56.9) — 104.8* (44.5) 101.6* 

(44.7) —

Overstory basal area (ft2 acre-1)

LP 30 117.3 (12.4) — 45.3* (11.8) 40.0* (11.7) —

ES 30 9.3 (4.6) — 6.7 (4.3) 6.7 (4.3) —

SF 30 38.7 (6.5) — 17.3* (5.3) 16.0* (5.3) —

Sapling density (trees acre-1)

LP 30 23.3 (10.4) — 8.3 (5.4) 0* (0) —

ES 30 23.3 (10.9) — 6.7 (4.6) 0* (0) —

SF 30 780.0 (131.6) — 228.3* (97.0) 183.3*(66.2) —

WB 30 1.7 (1.7) — 0 (0) 0 (0) —

Seedling density (trees acre-1)

LP 30 0 (0) — 66.7 (46.3) 80.0 (45.3) —

ES 30 280.0 (212.8) — 133.3 (133.3) 20.0 (13.9) —

SF 30 33760.0

(5702.6) — 11733.3*

(3563.5)

7930.0*

(2417.2) —

WB 30 90.0 (56.0) — 0 (0) 100.0 (48.4) —

Surface fuels

Duff and litter depth (in) 15 1.69

(0.29)

3.08*

(0.50)

1.85

(0.26) — 1.84

(0.16)

1 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 15 0.17

(0.03)

0.43*

(0.04)

0.28*

(0.07) — 0.19*

(0.06)

10 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 15 1.02

(0.17)

2.65*

(0.45)

1.29*

(0.29) — 1.01*

(0.18)

100 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 15 1.5

(0.39)

3.73

(1.00)

2.18

(0.52) — 2.04

(0.38)

1000 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 15 14.08

(2.05)

20.74*

(3.27)

16.98

(2.24) — 19.32

(2.72)

SITE: Spring Park Creek Unit 12

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood & Prescribed burn
116 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Study site: Spring Park Creek Unit 16–Group 

Shelterwood and Burn

Treatment description: The 42-acre (17-ha) unit was harvested during the summer of 2000. The overstory 

was pure lodgepole pine prior to harvest. Harvest and prescribed burning reduced the 

average number of live lodgepole pine trees per acre from approximately 613 to 168 

(248 to 68 trees ha-1) and basal area from 180 to 50 ft2 acre-1 (43 to 11 m2 ha-1).

Prior to harvest, saplings were predominantly lodgepole pine, while the seedling layer 

was a mix of lodepole pine, Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir, and whitebark pine. 

Sapling density was greatly reduced 2 years postfire. In the seedling layer, lodgepole 

pine had significantly increased and was the main species present 2 years postfire.

Fuel loading was low prior to harvest. Harvest increased 10-, 100-, and 1000-hr fuel 

loading, and fuel model 11 (Anderson 1981) best described the unit after harvest. The 

unit was prescribed burned on September 12, 2002, between 1530 and 1730. Mean fuel 

moisture by size class in the uncut groups was: 9 percent for 1-hr, 11 percent for 10-hr, 

16 percent for 100-hr, and 26 percent for 1000-hr. Mean fuel moisture by size class in 

the clearcut areas was: 8 percent for 1-hr, 9 percent for 10-hr, 16 percent for 100-hr, and 

26 percent for 1000-hr. Temperatures ranged from 66 to 68 o

F (19 to 20 oC). Relative 

humidity ranged from 19 to 22 percent, with average wind speed between 2 and 3 mph 

(1 to 2 m sec-1). Crown scorch was low throughout most of the unit with an average of 

34 percent and a median of 15 percent. Average basal bark char was 48 percent (median 

= 50 percent). Fire-caused mortality resulted in an additional 60 percent mortality of 

lodgepole pine trees greater than 4 inches (10.2 cm) DBH, and mortality stabilized 

within 4 years after the burn. The burned reduced overall fuel load, but it returned to 

near preharvest levels within 6 years postfire.

Management recommendations: We did not sample postharvest tree plots in this unit; therefore, we 

do not know the reduction in tree density from harvest alone. Harvest and fire reduced 

tree density by 72 percent, which met the tree retention goals and significantly reduced 

activity fuel loads. Like the other group shelterwood and burn units, the prescribed fire in 

this unit carried through the logging slash in the clearcut corridors. However, fire in this 

unit burned through more of the uncut islands compared to the other group shelterwood 

and burn units, killing approximately 60 percent of the leave trees. Compared to the 

even shelterwood treatment, the group shelterwood created a stand structure that was 

less susceptible to windthrow and fire-caused mortality, while reducing activity fuel 

loads. The group shelterwood treatment also created a more heterogeneous mosaic on 

the landscape. Increased light from treatment favored lodgepole pine regeneration; 

however, most lodgepole pine regeneration occurred in the cut patches where there was 

less vegetative competition and more light available. Even though harvest and burning 

reduced lodgepole pine saplings, higher average densities remained in the group 

shelterwood units than in the even shelterwood units due to islands of uncut vegetation.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 117 PREHARVEST POSTHARVEST POSTFIRE-1 POSTFIRE-6

SITE: Spring Park Unit 16

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn
118 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Overstory trees per acre-Alive

0

100

200

300

400

500

600 LP

SF

Fire

Harvest

Harvest

Fire

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Saplings per acre

0

20

40

60

80

100

Fire

Harvest

Year

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Seedlings per acre

0

400

800

1200

1600

2000

Fire

Harvest

Overstory trees per acre-Dead

SITE: Spring Park Unit 16

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 119
120 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. PREHARVEST POSTFIRE-6 POSTFIRE-1 POSTHARVEST

SITE: Spring Park Unit 16

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood & Prescribed Burn Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10

Litter and duff depth (inches)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

1-hr 10-hr 100-hr

Tons acre -1

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1000-hr

Tons acre -1

0

2

4

6

8

10
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 121

Overstory density and basal area, sapling and seedling density, and fuel loading by measurement 

year with standard error in parenthesis. For density, asterisk (*) denotes change between 

preharvest density and subsequent measurement year is significant at p<0.05. For fuel loading, 

an asterisk by postharvest loading denotes change between initial loading and postharvest 

loading. An asterisk by postburn measurement denotes change between postharvest loading and 

postburn loading. Dash indicates timestep where no sampling was done. 

#

Plots

Preharvest

(Std. Err.)

Postharvest

(Std. Err.)

1 Year 

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

2 Years

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

6 Years

Postburn 

(Std. Err.)

Overstory density (trees acre-1)

LP 51 612.7 

(63.6) — 208.5* (44.8)

167.7* 

(44.4) —

Overstory basal area (ft2 acre-1)

LP 51

179.6 

(10.3) —

65.9* 

(11.2)

50.2* 

(10.9) —

Sapling density (trees acre-1)

LP 51 93.1 (13.1) — 14.7* (4.5) 16.7* (4.6) —

SF 51 8.8 (2.7) — 0* (0) 0* (0) —

WB 51 1.0 (1.0) — 0 (0) 0 (0) —

Seedling density (trees acre-1)

LP 51 76.5 (30.1) — 1078.4

(403.8)

1911.8*

(369.3) —

ES 51 47.1 (22.8) — 0* (0) 0* (0) —

SF 51 52.9 (18.2) — 274.5

(237.8) 5.9* (5.9) —

WB 51 164.7

(52.7) — 0* (0) 0* (0) —

Surface fuels

Duff and litter depth (in) 17 1.06

(0.08)

1.27

(0.16)

0.87*

(0.11) — 1.41(0.24)

1 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 17 0.21

(0.02)

0.25

(0.03)

0.08*

(0.02) — 0.11*(0.02)

10 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 17 0.94

(0.12)

1.98*

(0.29)

0.73*

(0.14) — 0.80*(0.21)

100 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 17 1.54

(0.40)

3.19*

(0.63)

1.64*

(0.48) — 1.96(0.49)

1000 hour fuel load (tons acre-1) 17 5.07

(1.23)

10.55*

(1.57)

7.46

(0.88) — 7.6(0.75)

SITE: Spring Park Creek Unit 16

TREATMENT: Group Shelterwood & Prescribed burn
122 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

Discussion

Little research exists on silvicultural treatments to create two-aged stands of lodgepole 

pine, with the exception of Alexander (1975; 1986). However, Alexander’s research 

focused on cutting methods designed primarily to maximize timber production and 

water yield, rather than ones that restore forest structure created by historical mixedseverity fire regimes. Heterogeneous landscapes of small patches of two-aged lodgepole 

pine were historically common in many parts of lodgepole pine’s range (Arno and others 

1993; Barrett and others 1991). Over time, fire suppression has lead to more uniform 

stand structure, which could result in larger fires. The variable retention harvests and 

prescribed burn treatments implemented on the TCEF were designed to help determine 

suitable methods for establishing heterogeneous, two-aged lodgepole pine landscapes.

As expected, overstory, sapling, and seedling composition and density in the control 

units remained relatively unchanged through the study period. Exceptions to this trend 

occurred in the seedling layer, which exhibited large fluctuations in subalpine fir and 

lodgepole pine densities between sampling periods. These were most likely attributed 

to the change in sampling methodology for the 2003 sampling period. As stated in the 

“Methods” section, the change in sampling only affected the seedling plots. All units 

except Spring Park Creek unit 12 met the seedling stocking level objective of 100 to 200 

seedlings per acre by the most recent sampling period (4 years postharvest or 2 years 

postburn). Without disturbance, we expect that lodgepole pine abundance will decrease 

and subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce abundance will increase in the control units 

over time.

The postharvest overstory retention goal for all unburned units of 40 to 60 percent of the 

preharvest overstory density was not met. This was likely due to a combination of overcutting and a wind event that occurred in 2001 soon after harvest was completed. Actual 

retention values for the even shelterwood treatment ranged from 7 to 26 percent. Group 

shelterwood treatment units came closer to meeting the retention goals but were still low 

with only 21 to 41 percent of the overstory retained. Windthrow was especially heavy 

in the even shelterwood units 1 and 8. In these units, trees were downed throughout 

the area, with no particular pattern. Unfortunately, we did not collect postharvest data 

prior to the wind event, so the actual amount of windfall could not be quantified. Stands 

of dense lodgepole pine are often susceptible to windthrow after thinning (Alexander 

1975; Anderson 2003). Therefore, when conducting even thinning harvest operations in 

lodgepole pine, we recommend prescribing higher postharvest tree densities to allow for 

potential losses due to wind. Alexander (1986) provides additional information about 

designing cutting units to limit windthrow.

Over-cutting may have occurred because operators often had to cut trees in order to allow 

enough spacing for the machinery to pass through. Pretreatment stands were very dense, 

making it difficult for machinery to maneuver through them. Even-spaced thinning in 

some stands of extremely dense lodgepole pine may not be feasible due to equipment 

constraints and windthrow concerns. Also, it was very difficult and time intensive to 

estimate the appropriate size of leave patches in the group shelterwood treatment. 

Marking crews flagged patch boundaries with the goal of leaving approximately half of 

the area in each group shelterwood unit uncut, but this was hard to implement accurately. 

In addition, future harvest of the leave patches will likely be difficult without damaging 

the developing regeneration in the cut corridors.

The overstory retention goal in the prescribed burn units was at least 50 of the postharvest 

overstory, or 25 percent of the preharvest overstory. The group shelterwood and burn 

treatment units met this goal with 27 to 42 percent retained. However, overstory retention 

was low in the even shelterwood and burn treatment units with only 3 to 16 percent 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 123

Figure 5. Percent of lodgepole pine bark char 

quadrants with dead cambium by bark char 

code. Unburned = no char; Light = bark is 

not completely blackened and bark species 

characteristics are discernable; Moderate = 

bark is uniformly blackened but bark species 

characteristics are discernable; Deep = outer 

bark species’ characteristics are lost due to 

complete charring. Adapted from Hood and 

others (2008).

of the overstory remaining postfire. In general, fires did not carry through the uncut 

patches in the group shelterwood units. This resulted in higher survival in the group 

shelterwood units as fire mainly affected trees around the perimeter of the patches. Fire 

was much more uniform in the even shelterwood and burned units, due in part to the 

homogeneous distribution of uncompacted activity fuels and higher winds compared 

to the more sheltered leave patches in the group shelterwood treatment. Fire spread 

through the grouse whortleberry understory was much more effective with light winds 

(5 to 7 mph [8 to 11 km hr-1]) and a previous frost. Because of its thin bark, lodgepole 

pine is easily killed by even low-intensity surface fire (Figure 5) regardless of flame 

length. A tree will likely die if the majority of its bole circumference is charred (Hood 

and others 2008). Therefore, if maintenance of a lodgepole pine overstory is desired, a 

heterogeneous, patchy burn is essential.

The high tree mortality caused from burning highlights the limitations of fire effects 

modeling when planning prescribed fires. The First Order Fire Effects Model (FOFEM) 

(Reinhardt and others 1997) was used to develop the burning prescription necessary to 

meet mortality objectives. However, only crown scorch and DBH were factored into 

the FOFEM mortality model at that time. For example, when planning the prescribed 

burns, FOFEM predicted higher mortality for subalpine fir than lodgepole pine due to 

lower crown base heights that would lead to higher crown scorch. However, because 

both species have thin bark, high cambium kill resulted in higher mortality of lodgepole 

pine than was predicted because cambium kill was not considered in FOFEM at the time 

(Hood and others 2007). FOFEM version 5.7 addresses this issue by allowing the user 

to include the anticipated level of cambium kill through the “postfire injury” option.

All overstory tree density estimates were calculated from data collected from variableradius plots. After harvest, many units had very few sample trees remaining. In contrast, 

the postfire mortality and injury estimates were calculated from fixed-area plots, and 

sample sizes were much higher and monitored for a longer period compared to the 

variable-radius plots. Different methods could result in discrepancies when comparing 

mortality estimates between the bar graphs and line graphs in the Results section, 

especially when considerable delayed mortality occurred after the fire.We recommend 

fixed-area plots for monitoring forest structural changes over time to ensure adequate 

sampling of all tree sizes.

Treatments retained lodgepole pine as the dominant species in the overstory and 

understory with few exceptions. The even shelterwood and unburned treatment created 

a high proportion of lodgepole regeneration with some subalpine fir. The treatments 
124 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012.

created an adequate cohort for the development of two-aged stands, provided enough 

overstory was retained. The group shelterwood and unburned treatment also produced 

mixed compositions with either high lodgepole pine or subalpine fir regeneration. Not 

surprisingly, the preharvest composition determined the postharvest composition. The 

group shelterwood and unburned treatment was less effective at reducing the density 

of subalpine fir. The stark microenvironments created by this treatment tended to 

create a different forest structure, though still two-aged, than that created by the even 

shelterwood and unburned treatment. In the long term, the areas that were the equivalent 

to a clearcut will likely become dominated by lodgepole pine, while the leave groups 

will contain progressively higher densities of subalpine fir.

Overstory mortality was much lower in the group shelterwood and burn units compared 

to the even shelterwood and burn units. In the even shelterwood units, the fire caused 

significant mortality, due in part to the homogeneous distribution of activity fuels, 

whereas most of the uncut patches in the group shelterwood did not burn due to very 

low fuel loading. The continuous strip headfire ignition pattern with narrow spacing 

between strips used in this study burned almost 100 percent of the area within the even 

shelterwood units. Excess mortality could possibly be mitigated by burning under 

moister conditions, creating patchier fuel distribution, or changing ignition patterns (for 

example, wider spacing between strips or dot firing) in order to create a more patchy 

burn.

The even shelterwood treatment created more uniform forest structure conditions and 

composition compared to the group shelterwood. Regeneration predominantly occurred 

in the cut areas of each unit due to the open canopy conditions and exposed mineral soil, 

regardless of the treatment. Therefore, in the even shelterwood units, regeneration was 

fairly uniform across each unit, while regeneration in the group shelterwood only existed 

in the cut corridors. Because most of the leave patches in the group shelterwood units 

did not burn, large amounts of subalpine fir regeneration remained where it was a large 

component in the preharvest overstory and understory. Because lodgepole pine grows 

faster than subalpine fir in the open-stand conditions, we predict it will be the dominant 

overstory component in the future. However, in the patches of the group shelterwood 

units, we predict subalpine fir will continue to increase and be a significant component 

of the future overstory. In general, when subalpine fir density was low in the preharvest 

forest, the developing stands were dominated by lodgepole pine regeneration.

Harvesting caused an initial increase in both forest floor depth and total fuel loading. In 

the unburned units, fuel loading was still above preharvest levels 10 years postharvest. 

Burning generally reduced both forest floor depth and fuel loading, and 6 years postfire 

(i.e., 10 years postharvest), loading had returned to near or below preharvest levels.

Bark beetle populations were low preharvest and before prescribed burning. Mountain 

pine beetle attacked a small number of lodgepole pine trees within 1 year after fire. 

However, attacks did not produce successful broods, and no additional attacks in 

subsequent years were observed in the last sampling, 6 years postfire. However, this 

last sampling occurred in 2008 and 2009 just prior to observed increases in beetle 

populations in TCEF.

Conclusions and Management Implications

This guide is intended to help managers determine potential effects of harvesting and 

prescribed burning in lodgepole pine to create two-aged stands. Each unit should be 

considered a case study and an example of what may occur for a given stand condition 

and applied treatment.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-294. 2012. 125

Our results indicate that even-distribution thinning alone or combined with prescribed 

fire results in extremely low overstory density. Homogenous prescribed burning of any 

intensity in lodgepole pine, especially stands with activity fuels present, will almost 

always result in high mortality and is not recommended if retention of overstory trees 

is desired. For areas where windthrow is a concern, we recommend variable retention 

harvests similar to the group shelterwood described in this guide. The group shelterwood 

fostered lodgepole pine regeneration in the cut corridors while maintaining lodgepole 

pine in the overstory in the leave patches. This treatment demonstrated that fire does 

not spread well in lodgepole under typical prescribed fire burning conditions without 

some type of prior mechanical treatment. With careful marking, it is possible to create 

a heterogeneous, two-aged lodgepole pine stand using the group shelterwood treatment 

both alone and in conjunction with prescribed burning.

References

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lodgepole pine forests in the central Rocky Mountains. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTRRM-127. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky 

Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 31 p.

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Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-122. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

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Anderson, M. D. I. 2003. Pinus contorta var. latifolia. Fire Effects Information 

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fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [2011, May 18].

Arno, S. F. 1980. Forest fire history in the Northern Rockies. Journal of Forestry. 78: 

460-465.

Arno, S. F.; Reinhardt, E.; Scott, J. H. 1993. Forest structure and landscape patterns 

in the subalpine lodgepole pine type: A procedure for quantifying past and present 

conditions. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-294. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

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Barrett, S. W.; Arno, S. F.; Key, C. H. 1991. Fire regimes of western larch–lodgepole 

pine forests in Glacier National Park, Montana. Canadian Journal of Forest 

Research. 21: 1711-1720.

Barrett, S. W. 1993. Fire history of Tenderfoot Creek Experimental Forest, Lewis 

and Clark National Forest. Unpublished final report on file at the Missoula Fire 

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Flora, G. F.; McCaughey, W. 1998. Environmental assessment: Tenderfoot Creek 

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District, Lewis and Clark National Forest, Meagher County, Montana. 88 p.
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