1

Plant Invaders of

Mid-Atlantic

Natural Areas

Revised & Updated – with More Species 

and Expanded Control Guidance

National Park Service

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
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Plant Invaders of Mid-Atlantic Natural Areas, 4th ed.

Authors

Jil Swearingen

National Park Service

National Capital Region

Center for Urban Ecology

4598 MacArthur Blvd., N.W.

Washington, DC 20007

Britt Slattery, Kathryn Reshetiloff and Susan Zwicker

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Chesapeake Bay Field Office

177 Admiral Cochrane Dr.

Annapolis, MD 21401

Citation

Swearingen, J., B. Slattery, K. Reshetiloff, and S. Zwicker. 2010. 

Plant Invaders of Mid-Atlantic Natural Areas, 4th ed. National Park 

Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Washington, DC. 168pp.

1st edition, 2002

2nd edition, 2004

3rd edition, 2006

4th edition, 2010
2

Acknowledgements

Graphic Design and Layout

Olivia Kwong, Plant Conservation Alliance & Center for Plant 

Conservation, Washington, DC

Laurie Hewitt, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Chesapeake Bay Field 

Office, Annapolis, MD

Acknowledgements

Funding provided by the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation

with matching contributions by:

Chesapeake Bay Foundation

Chesapeake Bay Trust

City of Bowie, Maryland 

Maryland Department of Natural Resources

Mid-Atlantic Invasive Plant Council

National Capital Area Garden Clubs 

Plant Conservation Alliance

The Nature Conservancy, Maryland–DC Chapter 

Worcester County, Maryland, Department of Comprehensive 

Planning

Additional Fact Sheet Contributors

Laurie Anne Albrecht (jetbead)

Peter Bergstrom (European watermilfoil)

Kathy Bilton (nodding star-of-Bethlehem)

Meghan Fellows (yellow archangel)

Richard Hammerschlag & Brent Steury (marsh dewflower)

Kerrie Kyde (wavyleaf basketgrass)

Roy Miller (hydrilla)

Michael Naylor (water chestnut)

Kathryn Reshetiloff (Japanese honeysuckle, white mulberry, 

sawtooth oak, common periwinkle)

Rod Simmons (broadleaf helleborine)

Julie Slacum (privets)

Edith Thompson (butterflybush, Japanese silver grass, daylily)

Mary Travaglini (linden viburnum)

Alan Whittemore (Callery pear)

Reviewers

Philip Pannill (control options), Selma Sawaya (general proof-reading), John Peter Thompson (various), Joe DiTomaso (ravenna-grass)

Cover Image

Common periwinkle (Vinca minor) by Bill Johnson
3

Preface

Contrary to the title, the focus of Plant Invaders of Mid-Atlantic 

Natural Areas is native biodiversity. Invasive species and habitat 

destruction, intensified by global climate change, are running neck-toneck as the leading causes of environmental despoliation and loss of 

biological diversity worldwide. The ever-expanding human population 

and associated demand on limited natural resources are driving 

this worldwide problem. International trade provides a means to 

satisfy the great demand for exotic things but has resulted in the 

introduction of plants, insects and pathogens that are harmful to our 

environment and human health. Preserving remaining intact natural 

habitats, reestablishing native plants, managing overabundant whitetailed deer populations and restoring natural hydrologic and other 

conditions are some steps we can take to mend degraded lands. 

This fourth edition has been updated, expanded and reorganized 

to provide more information in a more efficient manner. The book 

now includes information on 80 species (up from 60 previously) and 

expanded control guidance. A new section called “Plants to Watch” 

has been added which includes a number of species that may not be 

widespread but are increasingly catching the attention of ecologists, 

land managers and others as being invasive in natural habitats. 

Native plant alternatives have been consolidated in a separate 

section.

For the purposes of this manual, the mid-Atlantic region includes 

the District of Columbia and the states of Delaware, Maryland, New 

Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia and West Virginia. About 280 exotic 

plant species have been identified by experts as being invasive in 

natural areas in this region. A complete list is available from the 

Invasive Plant Atlas of the United States (see References). As of this 

printing, the Invasive Plant Atlas shows 1,173 plants having been 

reported to be invasive in natural areas in the U.S. This guide should 

be used as an introduction to invasive plants and the impacts they are 

having on natural habitats and ecosystems. Plants not included here 

should not be assumed to be non-harmful.

This book is dedicated to Gail Sharabi who inspired my first Weed 

Buster event at Brookside Gardens in Wheaton, Maryland on 

Columbus Day in 1993. 
4

Table of Contents

Preface ............................................................................................................... 3

Table of Contents ............................................................................................... 4

Introduction ....................................................................................................... 7

Aquatic Plants

Eurasian Water-Milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) ............................... 14

Giant Salvinia (Salvinia molesta) ............................................................. 16

Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata) ................................................................ 17

Parrot-Feather (Myriophyllum aquaticum) .......................................... 19

Water Chestnut (Trapa natans) ............................................................... 21

Grasses and Sedges

Bamboos (Bambusa vulgaris, Phyllostachys aurea and 

 Pseudosasa japonica) ............................................................................. 23

Bog Bulrush (Schoenoplectus mucronatus) ........................................... 24

Common Reed (Phragmites australis) .................................................... 26

Japanese Stiltgrass (Microstegium vimineum) ..................................... 28

Wavyleaf Basketgrass (Oplismenus hirtellus ssp. undulatifolius) .... 29

Control Options ........................................................................................... 31

Herbaceous Forbs

Beefsteak Plant (Perilla frustescens) ...................................................... 36

Canada Thistle (Cirsium arvense) ........................................................... 37

Chinese Lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata) ................................................ 38

Common Daylily (Hemerocallis fulva) .................................................... 40

Dame’s Rocket (Hesperis matronalis) ..................................................... 41

European Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica) .............................................. 43

Fig Buttercup (Ficaria verna) .................................................................. 44

Garlic Mustard (Alliaria petiolata) .......................................................... 45

Ground Ivy (Glechoma hederacea) ........................................................... 47

Japanese Knotweed (Fallopia japonica) ................................................ 48

Nodding Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum nutans) and

 Sleepydick (Ornithogalum umbellatum) ............................................ 50

Purple Loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) .................................................. 51

Spotted Knapweed (Centaurea stoebe ssp. micranthos) ...................... 53

Control Options ........................................................................................... 55

Shrubs and Subshrubs

Amur Honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii) .................................................. 61

Autumn Olive (Elaeagnus umbellata) .................................................... 62

Japanese Barberry (Berberis thunbergii) ............................................... 64

Japanese Meadowsweet (Spiraea japonica) ........................................... 65

Linden Viburnum (Viburnum dilatatum) ............................................... 66

Morrow’s Honeysuckle (Lonicera morrowii) .......................................... 68

Multiflora Rose (Rosa multiflora) ............................................................ 69
5

Privets (Ligustrum obtusifolium, L. ovalifolium, L. sinense and 

 L. vulgare) ................................................................................................ 71

Wineberry (Rubus phoenicolasius) ......................................................... 72

Winged Burning Bush (Euonymus alatus) ............................................ 73

Control Options ........................................................................................... 75

Trees

Callery Pear (Pyrus calleryana) .............................................................. 80

Norway Maple (Acer platanoides) ........................................................... 82

Paper Mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera) ........................................... 83

Princess Tree (Paulownia tomentosa) .................................................... 84

Silk Tree (Albizia julibrissin) ................................................................... 86

Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima) ..................................................... 87

White Mulberry (Morus alba) ................................................................... 89

Control Options ........................................................................................... 91

Vines

Black Swallow-Wort (Cynanchum louiseae) .......................................... 99

Chinese Wisteria (Wisteria sinensis) ..................................................... 101

Chocolate Vine (Akebia quinata) ........................................................... 102

Common Periwinkle (Vinca minor) ....................................................... 104

English Ivy (Hedera helix) ...................................................................... 105

Japanese Honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) ......................................... 107

Japanese Hop (Humulus japonicus) ..................................................... 108

Japanese Wisteria (Wisteria floribunda) ............................................... 110

Kudzu (Pueraria montana var. lobata) ................................................. 111

Mile-a-Minute (Persicaria perfoliata) ................................................... 113

Oriental Bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus) ...................................... 115

Pale Swallow-Wort (Cynanchum rossicum) ........................................ 116

Porcelainberry (Ampelopsis brevipedunculata) .................................. 118

Sweet Autumn Virginsbower (Clematis terniflora) ............................ 120

Winter Creeper (Euonymus fortunei) .................................................. 121

Control Options ......................................................................................... 122

Plants to Watch ............................................................................................ 129

Grasses

 Japanese Silvergrass (Miscanthus sinensis) .................................... 129

 Ravenna-Grass (Ripidium ravennae) ................................................ 130

 Small Carpetgrass (Arthraxon hispidus) .......................................... 130

Herbaceous Forbs

 Broadleaf Helleborine (Epipactis helleborinus) ............................... 131

 Giant Hogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum) ............................... 131

 Goutweed (Aegopodium podagraria) ................................................. 132

 Italian Arum (Arum italicum) ............................................................ 132

 Marsh Dewflower (Murdannia keisak) ............................................. 133

 Spanish Bluebells (Hyacinthoides hispanica) .................................. 133

 Summer Snowflake (Leucojum aestivum) ......................................... 134

 Yellow Archangel (Lamiastrum galeobdolon) .................................. 134
6

Shrubs and Subshrubs

 Castor Aralia (Kalopanax septemlobus) ........................................... 135

 Jetbead (Rhodotypos scandens) .......................................................... 135

 Leatherleaf Mahonia (Mahonia bealei) ....................................... 136

 Orange-Eye Butterfly Bush (Buddleja davidii) ............................... 136

Trees

 Amur Corktree (Phellodendron amurense) ..................................... 137

 Japanese Angelica Tree (Aralia elata) .............................................. 137

 Sawthooth Oak (Quercus acutissima) ............................................... 138

Vines

 Chinese Yam (Dioscorea polystachya) ............................................... 139

Native Alternatives

Herbaceous Forbs ..................................................................................... 141

Shrubs and Subshrubs .............................................................................. 143

Trees ............................................................................................................ 146

Vines ............................................................................................................ 148

Glossary .......................................................................................................... 149

References ..................................................................................................... 151

Photographic Credits .................................................................................... 157

Websites for More Information ................................................................... 159

Index of Invasive Plants by Scientific Name ............................................ 163
7

Plant Invaders of Mid-Atlantic Natural Areas 

Introduction

What is biodiversity and why is it important to us?

All living things have evolved to live in various places on the Earth 

as a result of millions of years of responses to atmospheric, geologic, 

hydrologic, climatic and other conditions and biological interactions 

with other species. These forces have shaped the natural ecosystems 

and habitats present today and the plants, animals, fungi, bacteria 

and other organisms associated with them. The United States has an 

incredible array of wild natural areas including coniferous and deciduous forests, swamps, bogs, marshes, rivers, streams, lakes, prairies, 

barrens, deserts and montane habitats comprised of diverse groups 

of native species adapted to particular habitats and conditions. These 

species comprise our native biodiversity. Many of our parks, nature 

preserves and wildlife refuges provide some of the best examples of 

these living communities and species assemblages. 

Healthy ecosystems are essential for maintaining native wildlife populations and the native plants that provide the food and shelter they 

require. As global travel and trade have expanded humans have been 

moving species to new areas, introducing them to places they would 

not likely have been able to reach by means of wind, water or wildlife. Some exotic species have escaped from plantings and are able to 

reproduce on their own in the wild and some of these naturalized species have become weedy or ‘invasive.’ As these species establish and 

spread they are replacing native plants and altering natural habitats, 

often with disastrous consequences for the plants and animals dependent on them. Habitats are being damaged, degraded and sometimes 

completely destroyed as a result of invasion by exotic species. 

Maintaining healthy ecosystems is also vital for human survival and 

quality of life. Healthy ecosystems help provide clean air and water and reduce loss of vital soil resources to erosion. Wild areas are 

also great places for humans to enjoy, relax and recreate. For many, 

spending time in nature provides inspiration, spiritual enrichment, 

and opportunities for personal development. Restoration of invaded 

ecosystems offers some hope for the future but will require a large 

and long-term commitment of resources, labor and determination. 

Patches of disturbed land including small woodlots, landscaped areas 

and backyards can sustain native wildlife, if managed, designed and 

maintained properly. Management and reduction of white-tailed deer 

populations in areas where they are overabundant is critical to the 

success of restoration efforts and long term conservation of our natural areas and biodiversity.
8

What are native species?

A native species is one that occurs in a particular place without 

human intervention. Species native to North America are generally 

recognized as those occurring on the continent prior to European 

settlement. Non-native (alien, exotic) species are ones that have been 

introduced by people, from other continents, ecosystems, or habitats 

to places where they don’t occur and would not likely have been 

dispersed to by wind, water, wildlife or other natural means. Many 

non-native plants have great economic value for agriculture, forestry, 

horticulture and other industries and pose little environmental 

threat. However, others have become invasive and are having a 

serious and measurable ecological impact. 

What are invasive species?

Invasive species are alien species whose introduction does or is 

likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human 

health. Invasives often benefit immensely from arriving in new 

places without the assortment of natural controls (e.g., herbivores 

and diseases) in their native ranges that serve as a check on their 

survival. Many also have one or more of the following: 1) adaptation 

to disturbance; 2) broad tolerance for environmental conditions and 

extremes of light, pH, and moisture; 3) production of large numbers 

of seeds; 4) high seed germination success; and 5) ability to spread by 

runners or rhizomes.

An infestation of garlic mustard (Allaria petiolata) displaces spring wildflowers.

Bill Johnson
9

Why are invasive plants a problem in natural areas?

Like an invading army, invasive plants are taking over and degrading 

natural ecosystems and wreaking havoc on the intricate and complex 

web of life involving native plants, animals and other organisms. 

Invasive species compete for limited natural resources including soil, 

water, light, nutrients and space. They displace native plants, replace 

wildlife food sources with exotic plants that are inedible, toxic, 

or otherwise harmful, draw pollinators away from native plants, 

hybridize with native species, push rare species closer to extinction 

and cause an overall reduction in native biodiversity. Some invasive 

species spread rapidly and unabated, changing forests, meadows, 

wetlands and other natural plant communities into landscapes 

dominated by a single species. Such “monocultures” have little 

ecological value. Invasive plants also impede recreational activities 

such as boating, fishing, swimming, hiking and bike riding when they 

overgrow trails and riparian areas or form impenetrable tangles in 

shallow water areas. Once established over large areas, invasives 

require enormous amounts of time, labor and money to manage and 

most are difficult if not impossible to eliminate. One estimate of the 

economic impact of invasive species is $142 billion annually. 

An infestation of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) appears pretty, but reduces local 

biodiversity, endangers rare species and provides little value to wildlife.

Bill Johnson
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How are invasive plants introduced?

People introduce exotic plants intentionally and by accident, 

through a variety of means. Plants are introduced for food, medicine, 

landscaping, erosion control, forage, windbreaks and many other 

purposes. For example, kudzu was introduced to the U.S. from Japan 

in 1876 at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition for forage and 

ornamental uses. From 1935 to the early1950s, farmers in the South 

were encouraged to plant kudzu to reduce soil erosion, and Franklin 

D. Roosevelt’s Civilian Conservation Corps planted it widely for 

many years. Kudzu was recognized as a pest weed by the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture and, in 1970, was removed from its list 

of permissible cover plants. By then its vigorous growth was widely 

recognized and it had earned the infamous moniker “the vine that ate 

the South.” 

Many ornamental species have escaped from plantings to become 

significant environmental weeds. About two-thirds of the almost 

1,200 plants currently reported to be invasive in natural areas in the 

U.S. were imported for their horticultural value. Japanese barberry, 

bamboos, privets, Chinese and Japanese wisteria, porcelain-berry, 

Oriental bittersweet and Princess tree were introduced and planted 

for ornamental purposes and are now major weeds of natural 

habitats, requiring significant resources to attempt to control. Other 

species have come in unknowingly on various imported products or 

in soil, water and other materials used for ship ballast or packing 

materials. Japanese stiltgrass, one of our most insidious invasive 

Kudzu (Pueraria montana var. lobata) grows vigorously over other plants and trees.

Bill Johnson
11

grasses, was used as packing material for porcelain and likely got a 

start when some material containing seed was deposited outdoors. 

Invasive aquatic plants have been introduced by aquarium hobbyists 

who dump unwanted plants into waterways. Once established in a 

new environment and able to reproduce outside of cultivation, some 

exotic species are able to proliferate and expand over large areas, 

become invasive pests. 

How do invasive plants spread?

Invasive plants can spread by seed and by vegetative means 

including rhizomes, runners, shoots, tubers and bulbs. Seeds and 

plant fragments may be dispersed by wind, water, wildlife and 

people. Some animals spread invasive plants by consuming the fruits 

and depositing seeds later or by transporting seeds or fruits on their 

fur and feet. People can spread invasive plants by carrying seeds and 

other plant parts on their shoes, clothing and equipment, or by using 

contaminated fill dirt and mulch. A common pathway for dispersal of 

invasive aquatic plants is through attachment to anchors, propellers, 

and wheel wells.

How you can prevent the spread of invasive plants

Become familiar with invasive plant species in your area and avoid 

using them. When selecting plants for landscaping, check the list 

before purchasing to avoid buying any that are known to be invasive 

or have a reputation for being weedy. Use native plants whenever 

possible that are native to the ecological region where you want 

to use them. Request nurseries to carry a wide variety of native 

species and offer some suggestions for plants you’ve been looking 

for. Consumer demand is a powerful tool that can be a major driver 

behind greater diversity and supply of natives – Use It! Lists of 

native plants are available from most state native plant societies 

and some state natural resources agencies. Some great sources of 

information on the importance and selection of native plants that 

provide food and shelter for native butterflies, birds, mammals and 

other wildlife are: 1) Bringing Nature Home: How You Can Sustain 

Wildlife with Native Plants, Updated and Expanded by Douglas 

Tallamy, 2) Native Plants for Wildlife Habitat and Conservation 

Landscaping, by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Chesapeake 

Bay Field Office, 3) Native Plants of the Northeast: A Guide for 

Gardening and Conservation, by Donald J. Leonard, 4) Designing 

Gardens with the Flora of the American Northeast, by Carolyn 

Summers, and 5) the Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center’s Native 

Plant Information Network (see References). 

If you have invasive plants on your property, consider removing them 

and replacing them with native species, such as those suggested in 
12

this guide. When visiting a natural area, be alert for invasive species. 

If you see some, notify the agency or organization responsible for 

managing the land. Before you leave, avoid carrying “hitchhiking” 

plant material by taking time to brush seeds from clothing and shoes 

and remove plant material from boats, trailers and other items.

Herbicide Use

Taking action against invasive plants involves consideration of the 

various tools and techniques available for each plant and situation 

including site conditions, time of year, and resources available. 

Secondary and unintended consequences of control should also be 

considered, for example, if plants are pulled up, soil disturbance 

could bring more weed seed to the surface or facilitate invasion by 

additional invasive plants. The goal is to achieve effective long-term 

control and eventual restoration using approaches that pose the least 

risk of harm to people, especially those conducting the work, and to 

the environment including non-target plants and wildlife. And the 

bottom line is that the target species will be successfully controlled 

or at least reduced to a manageable level. This approach is referred 

to as integrated pest management (IPM) and sometimes integrated 

vegetation management (IVM). Often, the most effective method 

may be to do nothing at all until a suitable safe and well-thought-out 

tactic can be found. 

Each method comes with its own set of risks. Cutting tools like 

pruning snips, hatchets, saws, weed whips, and mowers work great, 

but if not used with proper technique and care, can lead to serious 

injury. Use of herbicides poses additional risks and requirements 

associated with mixing, application, rinsing, disposal and storage. 

In order to avoid harm to yourself and others, to non-target plants 

and animals (including pets), and to the environment, especially in 

the case of an accidental spill, it is imperative that you are properly 

and sufficiently trained. No one should be applying herbicides 

without full knowledge about: 1) reading a pesticide label; 2) what 

the requirements for applying pesticides in your state are; 3) how to 

contact the company if there are questions about using the product; 4) 

how to measure the concentrate; 5) what type of personal protective 

equipment (PPE) is required during mixing and application; 6) what 

type of application equipment is recommended and most appropriate 

to your situation; 7) calibration of spray equipment, 8) rinsing and 

cleaning sprayers; and 9) disposal of unused mix, concentrate and 

containers.

Pesticide use by homeowners on their own property requires that 

the pesticide be allowed for residential use and that the product is 

not a Restricted Use pesticide, meaning it can only be applied by 
13

a licensed applicator. Application of pesticides on public lands and 

other properties generally requires certification with the Department 

of Agriculture in your state, which involves training and testing. 

Contact the agency in your state responsible for pesticides for more 

information.

This book provides a few of the generally lower risk methods 

available for control of many invasive plants. It is not intended to 

be the ultimate reference for control practices. Additional methods 

and approaches are available and can be obtained by contacting 

organizations and specialists in the region. It is up to each individual 

to know and abide by the regulations applicable to the area where 

herbicide applications will be done.

Note

Use pesticides wisely: always read the entire pesticide label 

carefully, follow all mixing and application instructions and wear all 

recommended personal protective gear and clothing. Contact your 

state department of agriculture for any additional pesticide use 

requirements, restrictions or recommendations. 

Notice

Mention of a trade name does not constitute the endorsement of 

the product by authors, agencies or organizations involved in the 

production of this publication.
14

Eurasian Water-Milfoil _____________________ Myriophyllum spicatum L.

Water milfoil family (Halogoraceae)

Origin: Eurasia and Africa

Background

Introduced accidentally 

from Eurasia in the 1940s, 

Eurasian water-milfoil 

possibly escaped from an 

aquarium or was brought in 

on a commercial or private 

boat.

Distribution and Habitat

Eurasian water-milfoil 

occurs in at least 33 states 

east of the Mississippi 

River and has recently been 

found in Colorado. It is abundant in the Chesapeake Bay, the tidal 

Potomac River and several Tennessee Valley reservoirs. Typical 

habitat includes fresh to brackish water of ponds, lakes, slow-moving 

streams, reservoirs, estuaries and canals. It is tolerant of many water 

pollutants.

Ecological Threat

Water-milfoil tends to invade disturbed areas and does not typically 

spread into undisturbed areas where native plants are well 

established. It can form large, floating mats of vegetation on the 

surface of lakes, rivers and other water bodies, that impede water 

traffic and reduce light for native aquatic species. It thrives in areas 

that have been subjected to natural and man-made disturbance.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: herbaceous aquatic plant; stems grow to the water 

surface, usually extending 3-10 ft. but as much as 33 ft. in length 

and frequently forming dense mats; stems are long, slender, 

branching, hairless and become leafless toward the base; new 

plants may emerge from each node (joint) on a stem and root 

upon contact with mud.

•	 Leaves: bright green, finely divided and occurring in whorls of 

three or four along the stem, with 12-16 pairs of fine, thin leaflets 

about 1⁄2 in. long that give it a feathery appearance.

AQUATIC PLANTS

Graves Lovell, AL DCNR
15

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: produces small, yellow, four-parted 

flowers on a spike that projects 2-4 in. above the water surface; 

flower spikes often remain above water until pollination is 

complete; fruit is a hard, segmented capsule containing four 

seeds.

•	 Spreads: vegetatively by rhizomes, fragmented stems and 

axillary buds that develop throughout the year. Although seeds 

are usually viable, they are not an important means of dispersal.

•	 Look-alikes: many species of submerged aquatic plants including 

non-native invasive parrot-feather (Myriophyllum aquaticum), 

and native species such as Northern water-milfoil (M. sibiricum), 

coontail (Ceratophyllum dmersum) and water marigold 

(Megalodonta beckii).

Prevention and Control

Large harvesting equipment can be used to mechanically remove 

Eurasian water-milfoil in larger areas; a sturdy hand-rake can be 

used for smaller areas. Other options include manipulation of water 

level, use of water colorants or floating aquatic plants to reduce light 

penetration, physical barriers and chemical control. Potential impacts 

to existing native aquatic plant species should be evaluated carefully 

before using any of these techniques.

Native Alternatives

Aquatic plant species are difficult to tell apart to the untrained eye. 

Contact your state natural resource agency, native plant society or 

other resource (see References) for assistance.

AQUATIC PLANTS

Alison Fox, UFL Mike Naylor, MD DNR
16

Giant Salvinia ____________________________ Salvinia molesta D.S. Mitchell

Floating fern family (Salviniaceae)

Origin: South America

Background

Giant salvinia, also known as 

water fern or kariba-weed, was 

introduced as an ornamental 

aquatic plant and is spread to new 

water bodies on boats and fishing 

gear, by dumping of aquaria, and 

by other unintentional means. 

Sale, transport, release and other 

activities with this plant are 

prohibited in the United States by 

Federal law.

Distribution and Habitat

Giant salvinia has populations 

scattered throughout the southeastern U.S. from eastern Texas 

through eastern North Carolina. There are two known occurrences 

in the tip of southern California. In the summer of 2000, a small 

population was discovered in ornamental ponds in Washington, D.C. 

but was quickly eradicated.

Ecological Threat

Giant salvinia poses a serious threat to lakes, ponds, streams, rivers 

and other freshwater wetlands, and cultivated rice fields. It grows 

rapidly and spreads across water surfaces, forming dense floating 

mats that cut off light to other aquatic plants, reduce oxygen content 

and degrade water quality for fish and other aquatic organisms.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: floating aquatic fern with leaves that become compressed 

into chains in older plants.

•	 Leaves: about 1⁄2-11⁄2 inches long; oval, folded, and covered with 

arching hairs that appear like “beaters” on upper leaf surfaces.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: reproduces and spreads by tiny spores 

(rather than flowers).

•	 Spreads: by transport of plant fragments by water, humans and 

wildlife.

•	 Look-alikes: common salvinia (Salvinia minima), a native plant, 

looks very similar, but its leaf hairs do not join at the tip to form 

“beaters.”

AQUATIC PLANTS

Robert Vidéki, Doronicum Kft.
17

Prevention and Control

Do not buy this plant or release it into the wild (these activities 

are prohibited by U.S. law). If you think you see this plant, call 

1-877-STOP-ANS to report it. If you have this plant and no longer 

want it, pile plants onto a dry sunny surface (e.g., driveway) and 

let them dry out completely. Once completely dry, bag them in a 

sturdy plastic trash bag and dispose of in a landfill. Contact proper 

authorities about other methods of control and disposal.

Hydrilla _________________________________ Hydrilla verticillata (L. f.) Royle

Frog-bit family (Hydrocharitaceae)

Origin: Central Africa

Background

Hydrilla first appeared in the Crystal 

River system of Florida in 1960. 

Imported by the aquarium trade, its 

presence on the Delmarva Peninsula 

was confirmed in 1981. It attracted 

national attention when infestations 

were found in the Potomac River in 

Washington, D.C. in the early 1980s. 

It is a federal noxious weed.

Distribution and Habitat

Hydrilla is documented throughout 

the southern United States from 

California to Delaware. In the mid-Atlantic, it occurs in much of the 

Potomac River, in Virginia and Maryland freshwater tributaries of 

the Chesapeake Bay, in the Delaware portion of the Nanticoke River, 

AQUATIC PLANTS

Mic Julien, CSIRO Troy Evans, Eastern KY Univ.

Robert Vidéki, Doronicum Kft.
18

most southern Delaware ponds, and in sites in eastern Pennsylvania. 

It is not salt tolerant.

Ecological Threat

Hydrilla outcompetes native submerged aquatic vegetation and 

can quickly fill a pond or lake, thus choking off the water body for 

boating, fishing, swimming and other recreational uses. Although 

non-native and invasive, it provides good quality habitat for fish and 

shellfish as well as water quality benefits.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: rooted aquatic plant.

•	 Leaves: in whorls of 4-5; about 1⁄2 in. long; fine-toothed margins, 

spine at tip.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: tiny, translucent to white flowers 

produced on the upper branches in late summer and fall; tubers 

grow from the roots; winter buds (turions) are produced in the 

leaf axils.

•	 Spreads: vegetatively through fragments of stems, stolons, or 

rhizomes, turions, or tubers which are carried on boat livewells, 

motors and trailers, bait pails and other items, and by ingestion of 

tubers and turions by waterfowl.

•	 Look-alikes: native common waterweed (Elodea canadensis) with 

leaves in whorls of 3 and no teeth or spines.

Prevention and Control

Physical, chemical and biological controls have been used for control 

of hydrilla, with varying levels of success. Water level drawdowns 

have generally been ineffective in our area. Mechanical aquatic 

weed harvesters provide temporary relief and open boating lanes, 

but resulting plant fragments can help spread the vegetation 

faster. Contact herbicides provide temporary control, but systemic 

herbicides provide more long-term control. Herbivorous fish such as 

sterile grass carp have been used for hydrilla control where allowed 

AQUATIC PLANTS

David J. Moorhead, UGA
19

by law. Other biological controls are still being investigated. Each 

control method has its drawbacks and liabilities. On the Potomac 

River and other parts of the Chesapeake Bay watershed, resource 

managers struggle with hydrilla because submerged aquatic 

vegetation, including hydrilla, provides water quality benefits and 

habitat for fish and shellfish.

Native Alternatives

Aquatic plant species are difficult to tell apart to the untrained eye. 

Contact your state natural resource agency, native plant society or 

other resource (see References) for assistance.

Parrot-Feather ____________________________ Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verd.

Water milfoil family (Haloragaceae)

Origin: South America

Background

Parrot-feather was introduced to the United States 

in the Washington, DC area 

about 1890. Commonly sold 

for aquaria and aquatic 

gardens, it has escaped to 

become invasive in ponds and 

other calm water bodies in 

this region.

Distribution and Habitat

Parrot-feather occurs in at 

least 26 states throughout the United States. It is limited to nontidal, freshwater, slow-moving water bodies including tributaries, 

ponds, lakes and canals. It prefers good light, slightly alkaline and 

high-nutrient environments.

Ecological Threat

It can form dense mats and compete with native aquatic plants, 

especially in shallow ponds. It also provides habitat for mosquito 

larvae, impedes boats and clogs drainage ditches.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: aquatic plant with stout elongate stems suspended in the 

water column and/or floating; both stems and submerged leaves 

may be reddish tinted; gray-green tips of the stems with leaves 

may protrude above the water.

AQUATIC PLANTS

Graves Lovell, AL DCNR
20

•	 Leaves: well-developed, finely pinnately divided, in whorls of 

mostly five with smooth leaf margins.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers and fruits, if present emerge 

from axils of leaves.

•	 Spreads: vegetatively from whole plants or fragments; it can be 

dispersed by people dumping aquaria into rivers and ponds and 

by animals carrying fruits and fragments on their bodies.

•	 Look-alikes: many species of submerged aquatic plants including 

non-native invasive Eurasian water-milfoil (Myriophyllum 

spicatum), and native species such as Northern water-milfoil 

(M. sibiricum), coontail (Ceratophyllum dmersum) and water 

marigold (Megalodonta beckii).

Prevention and Control

Attempting control by manual or mechanical means tends to spread 

the plants and should only be conducted in small, contained water 

bodies. Draining a pond in the summer achieved control in one 

instance, but draining may not achieve control in winter. Control with 

herbicides is difficult because the emergent stems and leaves have a 

waxy cuticle that repels herbicides. Research into biological control 

of parrot-feather is ongoing.

Native Alternatives

Aquatic plant species are difficult to tell apart to the untrained eye. 

Contact your state natural resource agency, native plant society or 

other resource (see References) for assistance.

AQUATIC PLANTS

John M. Randall, TNC Graves Lovell, AL DCNR
21

Water Chestnut ___________________________ Trapa natans L.

Water chestnut family (Trapaceae)

Origin: Europe, Asia and 

Africa

Background

Water chestnut was first 

observed in North America 

near Concord, Massachusetts 

in 1859. The exact path for 

the introduction is unknown. 

It has been declared a 

noxious weed in Arizona, 

Massachusetts, North 

Carolina and South Carolina 

and its sale is prohibited in 

most southern states.

Distribution and Habitat

Water chestnut can grow in any freshwater setting, from intertidal 

waters to 12 feet deep, although it prefers nutrient-rich lakes and 

rivers. Presently, the plant is found in Maryland, Massachusetts, New 

York and Pennsylvania, with most problematic populations occurring in the Connecticut River valley, Lake Champlain region, Hudson 

River, Potomac River and the upper Delaware River.

Ecological Threat

Water chestnut can form dense floating mats, severely limiting 

light – a critical element of aquatic ecosystems. Once established, 

it can reduce oxygen levels, increasing the potential for fish kills. It 

competes with native vegetation and is of little value to waterfowl. 

Water chestnut infestations limit boating, fishing, swimming and 

other recreational activities. Further, its sharp fruits, if stepped on, 

can cause painful wounds.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: annual aquatic plant with a submerged stem; stems can 

reach 12-15 ft. in length; very fine roots anchor the plant into the 

mud.

•	 Leaves: rosette of floating leaves at the water’s surface; sawtooth margins; triangular in shape and connect to an inflated 

petiole which provides added buoyancy for the leafy portion; 

additional, feather-like leaves can be found along the submerged 

stem.

AQUATIC PLANTS

Mike Naylor, MD DNR
22

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers are four-petaled and white; 

form in June; are insect-pollinated; fruit is a nut with four 

1⁄2-inch, barbed spines; seeds can remain viable for up to 12 years, 

although most will germinate within the first two years.

•	 Spreads: by the rosette and by fruits detaching from the stem 

and floating to another area on currents or by clinging to birds 

and other floating objects.

Prevention and Control

Specialized methods of control are required to handle water chestnut 

infestations. Because of the likelihood of unintentional spread offsite 

and injury to those attempting control, only trained and certified 

persons should undertake management. Manual, mechanical and 

chemical techniques are used in its control. Complete removal of 

plants is imperative, as floating, uplifted plants and plant parts can 

spread the plant to new locations. It is critical that any removal 

take place prior to the July seed set. Eradication is difficult because 

water chestnut seeds may lay dormant for up to 12 years. Biological 

controls are being investigated, but no species have been approved 

for release.

Native Alternatives

Aquatic plant species are difficult to tell apart to the untrained eye. 

Contact your state natural resource agency, native plant society or 

other resource (see References) for assistance.

AQUATIC PLANTS

Leslie J. Mehrhoff, University of Connecticut
23

Bamboos ________________________________ Common bamboo - Bambusa vulgaris

Schrad. ex J.C. Wendl.

Golden bamboo - Phyllostachys 

aurea Carr. ex A.& C. Rivière

Arrow bamboo - Pseudosasa 

japonica (Sieb. & Zucc. ex Steud.) 

Makino ex Nakai

Grass family (Poaceae)

Origin: Asia

Background

Bamboos are woody reed-like grasses 

that have a shrubby growth habit. 

The three species featured here 

are popular ornamentals that were 

introduced and planted widely but 

other species and cultivars are also 

available in the nursery trade. These 

species have been reported by numerous sources as being invasive 

in natural areas (see below). Giant or switch cane (Arundinaria 

gigantea) is the only species of bamboo native to the U.S. It is found 

throughout the Southeast just into southern Maryland and is about 

the size of Pseudosasa.

Distribution and Habitat

These species of bamboo have been reported to be invasive in the 

mid-Atlantic and Southeast as well as some sites in the western and 

southwestern U.S. Infestations are commonly associated with new 

and very old residences from which they’ve escaped.

Ecological Threat

Bamboos can form very dense single-species thickets that displace 

native plant species and create dense shade that makes it difficult for 

seedlings of native species to survive. Once established, they can be 

very difficult to eradicate.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: woody stems varying from about 1⁄4 in. (arrow) to 3-4 in. 

diameter (common and golden) with hollow centers and solid 

joints; grow to heights of 7-8 ft. (arrow) to 16-40 ft. (common and 

golden).

•	 Leaves: strap-shaped and tapering with pointed tips, tough, 

somewhat papery or leathery, up to 10 in. long and 1-2 in. across.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowering is infrequent and 

unpredictable; flowers are grasslike and not especially showy.

GRASSES & SEDGES

Bill Johnson (Bambusa vulgaris)
24

•	 Spreads: by vegetative means through vigorous rhizomatous 

growth.

•	 Look-alikes: other bamboos, including native giant cane 

(Arundinaria gigantea) and some tall grasses.

Prevention and Control

Do not plant exotic bamboos. While manual control of bamboo 

through cutting and digging out of rhizomes is possible, it is 

extremely labor intensive and will need to be continued over a long 

time to ensure eradication. Control with herbicides is more practical 

and can be very effective (see Control Options).

Native Alternatives

Within its native range in the eastern U.S., giant reed (Arundinaria 

gigantea) is a good alternative to consider.

Bog Bulrush ______________________________ Schoenoplectus mucronatus (L.) Palla

Cyperaceae (Sedge family)

Origin: Africa, Eurasia

Background

Also called ricemarsh bulrush, ricefield 

bulrush and rough-seed bulrush, bog 

bulrush was collected before 1900 in 

New Brunswick and New Jersey. In 

recent times it has also been reported 

from New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, 

Iowa, Kentucky, Missouri, Tennessee, 

GRASSES & SEDGES

Bill Johnson (Phyllostachys aurea)

Ron Wilson
25

Maryland and Delaware. It is an important ricefield weed in 

California, where it was first observed in 1942. It was first observed 

in the Midwest in 1971. Schoenoplectus mucronatus is cultivated for 

wildlife food in Washington State.

Distribution and Habitat

Bog bulrush occurs in wet soil and is emergent in fresh water, ponds, 

and ditches. It has colonized several wetland restoration areas in the 

mid-Atlantic.

Ecological Threat

This species invades habitats that have been degraded in some way 

and is not currently known to invade high quality natural wetlands.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: annual or perennial sedge with fibrous roots.

•	 Leaves: triangular in cross-section, arising from the base of the 

plant.

•	 Flowers, fruit and seeds: flowers are near the top of the leaf and 

are brownish, scaly or spiky, carried near the end of a long stem 

with a distinctive angled bract.

•	 Spreads: seeds are eaten by waterfowl and probably carried 

between sites on their feet and feathers.

•	 Look-alikes: Schoenoplectus fluviatilis and S. purshianus, both 

native river bulrushes, and other native Schoenoplectus species 

(various bulrushes and three-square) lack the combination of hairlike projections from the base of the mature seed that are longer 

than the seed and the nearly right-angled upper bract.

Prevention and Control

Mature seeds may be present anytime from June through October, 

depending on local conditions. If present, clip and bag the seed heads. 

Power wash any equipment when moving between sites to remove 

seeds. Manual and chemical methods are available and effective. 

For light infestations young plants can be hand-pulled, removing 

the roots as much as possible. For larger infestations of established 

plants with significant root masses, it is more effective to treat with a 

systemic herbicide such as glyphosate (see Control Options).

GRASSES & SEDGES
26

Common Reed ____________________________ Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.

Grass family (Poaceae)

Origin: Europe

Background

European forms of Phragmites were probably introduced to North America by 

accident in ballast material in 

the late 1700s or early 1800s. 

Recent research using genetic markers has demonstrated 

that three separate lineages 

occur in North America – one 

endemic and widespread 

(native), one whose nativity is not certain that occurs 

across the southern U.S. from 

California to Florida and into 

Mexico and Central America 

(‘Gulf Coast’ type) and one 

from Europe (introduced invasive), which is the focus of this writing. The European Phragmites 

first established along the Atlantic coast and then spread across the 

continent over the course of the 20th century. The native form was 

historically more widespread, occurring throughout Canada and most 

of the U.S. except for the Southeast (Texas to Florida and north to 

North Carolina). It remains fairly widespread in the western U.S.

Native Americans used common reed for arrow shafts, musical 

instruments, ceremonial objects, cigarettes, and leaves and stems 

for constructing mats. Preserved remains of native Phragmites

40,000 years old have been found in the Southwestern United 

States indicating that it is a part of the native flora of that region. In 

coastal areas, preserved rhizome fragments dating back 3,000-4,000 

years before present have also been found in salt marsh sediments 

indicating that it is also native to these habitats. Both native and 

introduced forms have been used for duckblinds.

Distribution and Habitat

Common reed occurs in disturbed to pristine wet areas including 

tidal and non-tidal wetlands, brackish and fresh-water marshes, river 

edges, shores of lakes and ponds, roadsides and ditches. It prefers full 

sun and can tolerate fresh to mesohaline salinities.

GRASSES & SEDGES

Joseph McCauley, USFWS
27

Ecological Threat

Common reed is a vigorous growing plant that forms dense 

monotypic stands that consume available growing space and push out 

other plants including the native subspecies. It also alters wetland 

hydrology, increases the potential for fire and reduces and degrades 

wetland wildlife habitat due in part to its very dense growth habit. 

There is currently no evidence for of hybridization between native 

and introduced forms occurring in the field.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: perennial grass, stems to 15 ft., somewhat rough to the

touch, lack fungal spots but some mildew may be present.

•	 Leaves: blue green and darker than the native form; elongate,

typically 1-11⁄2 in. wide at their widest point; leaf sheaths adhere 

tightly to stem and persist through the winter; ligule is less than 

1 mm long.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers in bushy panicles, usually

purple or golden in color; upper glumes 4.5-7.5 mm, lower glumes 

2.5-5.0 mm (most <4.0).

•	 Spreads: by seed which is dispersed by wind and water; vegetatively through rhizomes and transport of rhizome fragments.

•	 Look-alikes: native form of Phragmites; other large grasses with 

plume-like inflorescences.

Prevention and Control

Avoid spread of plants and plant parts to uninfested plant areas (see 

Control Options).

GRASSES & SEDGES

Bill Johnson
28

Japanese Stiltgrass ________________________ Microstegium vimineum (Trin.) A. Camus

Grass family (Poaceae)

Origin: Japan, Korea, China, Malaysia and 

India

Background

Japanese stiltgrass was introduced into 

the United States in Tennessee around 

1919 and likely escaped as a result of its 

use as a packing material for porcelain.

Distribution and Habitat

Stiltgrass is currently established in 

16 eastern states, from New York to 

Florida. It occurs on stream banks, river 

bluffs, floodplains, emergent and forested 

wetlands, moist woodlands, early 

successional fields, uplands, thickets, roadside ditches, and gas and 

power-line corridors. It can be found in full sun to deep shaded forest 

conditions and is associated with moist, rich soils that are acidic, 

neutral or basic and high in nitrogen.

Ecological Threat

Stiltgrass threatens native understory vegetation in full sun to deep 

shade. It readily invades disturbed shaded areas, like floodplains that 

are prone to natural scouring, and areas subject to mowing, tilling 

and other soil-disturbing activities including white-tailed deer traffic. 

It spreads opportunistically following disturbance to form dense 

patches, displacing native wetland and forest vegetation as the patch 

expands.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: annual grass resembling a small, delicate bamboo; mature 

plants grow to 2-3 ft. in height.

•	 Leaves: pale green, lance-shaped, asymmetrical, about 3 in. in 

length, with a shiny midrib.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: hidden (cleistogamous), self-fertilizing 

flowers in axils and/or exposed (chasmogamous) flowers in terminal racemes of paired, hairy spikelets that open and are windpollinated; fruits awned and bristly; late summer to fall.

•	 Spreads: by seed and vegetative spread by rooting at joints along 

the stem—a new plant can emerge from each node; a single plant 

can produce 100-1,000 seeds that remain viable in the soil for 

at least three years, ensuring its persistence; seed germinates 

readily following soil disturbance. Although dispersal is not fully 

GRASSES & SEDGES

Bill Johnson
29

understood, seeds can be transported by water (e.g., surface 

runoff, streams, and floodwaters), in soil and gravel, in nursery 

grown plants, and on the feet of animals including humans.

•	 Look-alikes: Virginia cutgrass (Leersia virginica), hairy 

jointgrass or small carpetgrass (Arthraxon hispidus), and 

possibly other delicate grasses and wildflowers like Pennsylvania 

knotweed (Polygonum persicaria).

Prevention and Control

Because it is similar in appearance to 

several native grasses, it is important to 

know how to recognize and differentiate 

stiltgrass from look-alikes. Look for 

asymmetrical leaves with a shiny midrib 

and the stilt-like growth form. Attention 

to new infestations should be a priority. 

Because it is shallow-rooted, stiltgrass 

may be pulled by hand at any time. If 

flowering, cut plants back using a mower, 

weed whip or other device to prevent 

seed production. For extensive infestations, herbicides are the most 

practical and effective method currently (see Control Options).

Native Alternatives

Following disturbance to an area susceptible to stiltgrass, stabilize 

with native vegetation suitable to site conditions.

Wavyleaf Basketgrass ______________________ Oplismenus hirtellus ssp. undulatifolius (Ard.) U. Scholz

Grass family (Poaceae)

Origin: southern Europe and 

southeast Asia

Background

It was first discovered in Maryland 

in 1996 along the Patapsco River in 

Baltimore County and is spreading 

rapidly.

Distribution and Habitat

Wavyleaf basketgrass has been 

found in six counties in Maryland 

(Anne Arundel, Baltimore, Carroll, 

Howard, Montgomery and Prince 

Georges) and in counties in Virginia 

GRASSES & SEDGES

James H. Miller, USDA FS

Kerrie L. Kyde, MD DNR
30

(Fairfax, Fauquier, Loudon, Madison, and Rockingham). It is highly 

shade-adapted and is found in forested areas from the margins to 

interior.

Ecological Threat

Wavyleaf grows low to the ground and spreads across the forest 

floor displacing native plant species completely or nearly so. It 

often occurs with Japanese stiltgrass. An urgent effort is underway 

to eradicate this fast-spreading invasive that has the potential to 

become much more widespread.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: low-growing, shallow-rooted perennial grass; produces 

long stolons; branches and roots at the lower stem nodes.

•	 Leaves: flat, about 1⁄2 in. wide by 11⁄2-4 in. long; deep green with 

undulating ripples across the leaf surface; leaf sheath and stem 

are noticeably hairy, with short hairs.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers are in spikelets that alternate 

along the flowering stalk; spikelets have glumes (lower bracts) 

with very long awns (extended pointed tips) that are sticky; late 

September into October.

•	 Spreads: by seed; sticky substance produced by the awns 

facilitates adherence to animal fur, human clothing and shoes, 

tires and other objects.

•	 Look-alikes: two native subspecies of basketgrass (Oplismenus 

hirtellus ssp. fasciculatus and O. h. ssp. setarius) occur in 

southern and southeastern U.S. but are not known to occur in 

the mid-Atlantic region. O. h. ssp. setarius, its closest relative, 

setarius, has only a few hairs, if any. Native deer-tongue 

panicgrass (Dicanthelium clandestinum) and small carpetgrass 

(Arthraxon hispidus) resemble wavyleaf but grow in upright 

clumps and their leaves are not rippled.

Prevention and Control

Do not purchase or plant this or any basketgrass in the mid-Atlantic 

states. Stay out of infested areas from August through November to 

prevent seed dispersal. If you work in an infested area, be thorough 

in removing all seeds from shoes, clothing and equipment prior to 

leaving (see Control Options).

Native Alternatives

Deer-tongue grass (Dichanthelium clandestinum), bottlebrush grass 

(Elymus hystrix) and many other native grasses are available.

GRASSES & SEDGES
31

CONTROL OPTIONS

GENERAL GUIDANCE FOR GRASSES AND GRASSLIKE PLANTS

A variety of methods are available for control of grasses, depending 

on the extent of the infestation, the type of habitat, and the 

availability of labor and other resources. Preventing the introduction 

of invasive grasses from infested to non-infested areas should 

always be a priority. Early control of new infestations will also 

reduce the likelihood of establishment and expansion. When deciding 

between physical and chemical methods, keep in mind that manual 

removal of plants can result in disturbance to the soil which can 

further encourage the invasive species and open the site up to new 

introductions. Using an herbicide leaves the plants and soil in place, 

thus minimizing that likelihood. The use of grass-specific herbicides 

will reduce impacts to non-target broadleaf plants.

Use pesticides wisely: always read the entire pesticide label 

carefully, follow all mixing and application instructions and wear all 

recommended personal protective gear and clothing. Contact your 

state department of agriculture for any additional pesticide use 

requirements, restrictions or recommendations. Notice: mention of 

a trade name does not constitute the endorsement of the product by 

authors, agencies or organizations involved in the production of this 

publication.

BAMBOOS _________________________________________________ Biological

Biological control is not available for these species.

Chemical

The following method is effective for control of most exotic invasive 

bamboos such as common bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris), golden 

bamboo (Phyllostachys aurea), arrow bamboo (Pseudosasa japonica) 

and others. It was developed by Dr. Francis Gouin, formerly the 

University of Maryland Agronomist and is presented here with slight 

modification.

Cut the bamboo down to the ground in spring (e.g., June). Depending 

on the type of bamboo you are working with, you will need a chain 

saw, weed whip or weed whacker, Swedish brush axe, pruning snips 

or other tool that will cut through the bamboo stems. Hand-held 

pruning snips work fine for the thinner stemmed running bamboos 

(Psuedosasa), but it is more labor intensive and time consuming. 

Cut down as low as is comfortable and leave alone for the summer, 

allowing it to regrow. In October or early November, on a sunny, 

non-breezy day, spray the leaves of regrown plants with a 2% rate 

GRASSES & SEDGES
32

of glyphosate (e.g., Accord® or Roundup Pro®), mixed with water, 

according to the label directions. Apply thoroughly just to the point 

of drip. Wait 10-14 days and reapply the glyphosate at the same rate. 

After the second treatment, leave the bamboo alone. Do not cut, mow, 

or remove plant material. The following spring, the bamboo will be 

browned out and should not grow back. At this point, you can cut and 

remove the dead vegetation. If any bamboo remains or does reappear, 

repeat the procedure.

BOG BULRUSH ______________________________________________ See General Guidance.

Manual

Hand-pulling can be effective for young plants and light infestations.

Chemical

For plants with established root mass, treat with a systemic 

herbicide such as glyphosate to kill the entire plant to the roots. 

Mature seeds may be present anytime from June through October, 

depending on local conditions. If present, clip and bag the seed heads. 

Power wash any equipment when moving between sites to remove 

seeds.

COMMON REED _____________________________________________ Biological

Biological control is not available at this time but is under active 

investigation. Finding an appropriate control agent for the U.S. is 

complicated by the co-occurrence of native and exotic genotypes.

Chemical

Foliar. Systemic herbicides such as Accord®, Glypro® or Rodeo® 

and similar products containing 53-54% glyphosate, which moves 

through the plant to kill the roots, are most effective. Products must 

be labeled for wetland use. Low rates of herbicide (1.5-2%) mixed 

with water and a low toxicity surfactant approved for wetland 

use, can be applied to foliage using a backpack sprayer or powerdriven hand sprayer. The most effective timing for treatments 

is after flowering into the fall, but applications can be made from 

June and early October as long as plants are actively growing and 

not under drought stress. Annual followup treatments should be 

made after July to allow for sufficient regrowth of plants affected 

by previous treatments and may be slower to emerge. For large 

infestations, truck-based applications or aerial treatments are 

the most practical and can be highly effective. The U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service, Chesapeake Bay Field Office, uses 1.25% glyphosate 

mixed with water and 0.625% surfactant (e.g., LI-700® made by 

GRASSES & SEDGES
33

UAP) from September through October applied to mature green 

plants. Treatments are followed with burning or mowing which 

helps the native vegetation recover. Another product to consider is 

Habitat® (imazapyr), which can be applied August-September in our 

region using 48-64 oz/acre (higher rate is best). To avoid damage to 

nontarget plants, maintain a 50-ft. buffer between the Phragmites 

and any desirable vegetation. Target vegetation in the buffer can 

be treated with glyphosate. Follow label precautions and avoid 

application to roots of desirable plants.

Cut-stem. Another method practical for small infestations is the 

following cut-stem treatment developed by The Nature Conservancy. 

Phragmites stems are cut at waist height for convenience for the 

applicator, cutting between the nodes to expose a hollow portion 

of the stem. Use a Nalgene® squirt bottle with a bent and pointed 

tip and fill with a 50:50 glyphosate and water mixture plus a blue 

marking dye to help track applications. Insert the tip into the stem 

and apply about 1⁄2 tsp. into the stem and around the cut edge. 

This can be done mid-summer through fall. Treated areas must be 

monitored and retreated as necessary for several years until the 

Phragmites has been eradicated.

Hydrological

Altering water levels can be an effective, non-chemical option for 

certain sites and conditions. For more information on this method, 

refer to The Nature Conservancy’s Element Stewardship report on 

Phragmites (see References).

Manual-Mechanical

Hand-pulling of plants is not feasible due to the extensive tough 

rhizomes.

JAPANESE STILTGRASS ______________________________________ Biological

Biological control is not available for this species, but pathogens have 

been observed infecting stiltgrass populations naturally.

Chemical

For extensive stiltgrass infestations, use of a systemic herbicide 

such as glyphosate (e.g., Roundup Pro®) is a practical and effective 

method if used with some caution. Glyphosate is a non-specific 

herbicide that will kill or damage almost any herbaceous plant and 

possibly some woody plants it contacts. Roundup Pro® is surfactantloaded (no additional surfactant needed) and the surfactant 

is not lethal to amphibians and aquatic invertebrates like the 

polyoxyethyleneamine surfactant in Roundup Classic® is. Roundup 

GRASSES & SEDGES
34

Pro® carries the ‘Caution’ signal word while Roundup Classic® 

carries ‘Warning’. When treating stiltgrass in wetland sites, use 

Rodeo® or other formulation labeled for wetlands. Apply a 0.5 to 1% 

solution of Roundup® or Rodeo® mixed with water (8 oz. per 3 gals. 

mix) and a surfactant in late summer. Be careful to avoid application 

to non-target plants.

Grass-specific herbicides (graminicides) such as sethoxydim and 

clethodim fluazifop-p-butyl work very well on stiltgrass and if used 

correctly can reduce potential damage to woody or broadleaf plants. 

Grass-out®, and Grass-B-Gon® are homeowner versions of these 

products. Some success has also been reported using pre-emergent 

herbicide imazapic applied in March in the Mid-Atlantic region. For 

more details on these methods, refer to the fact sheet on the Plant 

Conservation Alliance’s ‘Weeds Gone Wild’ website (see References).

Manual-Mechanical

Stiltgrass is a shallow-rooted annual that can be pulled by hand 

throughout the growing season, especially when the soil is moist 

and entire plants with roots can be removed. Pulling is easier and 

probably more effective in mid-to-late summer when the plants are 

much taller and more branched however if not done early enough, 

there’s a risk of plants flowering and producing seed. At this stage, 

entire plants can be easily removed by grabbing the basal portion of 

a plant and pulling firmly. In short time, a fair amount of stiltgrass 

can be pulled and piled up to dehydrate on site. If plants are already 

in the fruiting stage, they should be bagged and disposed of offsite 

to prevent dispersal of seed. Also, try to avoid pulling native 

grasses like Virginia cutgrass (Leersia virginica) that often grow 

intermingled with stiltgrass and may be difficult to distinguish from 

it. Because hand-pulling plants disturbs the soil and may expose 

stiltgrass seed from previous seasons, late season pulling will avoid 

the likelihood of survival of any seeds that germinate. Hand-pulling 

of plants needs to be repeated and continued for many seasons until 

the seed bank is exhausted. Stiltgrass can be mowed in late summer 

(i.e., August through September) when the plants are flowering 

but preferably before seed is produced. This can be done using a 

lawn mower or “weed whacker” type machine or a scythe. Because 

stiltgrass is an annual plant, cutting late in the season before the 

plants would die back naturally avoids the possibility of regrowth. 

Recent information suggests that stiltgrass plants that are cut 

early in the summer respond by regrowing and flowering soon 

after cutting, much earlier than they would normally flower. This is 

another reason to consider cutting in late summer to fall rather than 

during the early summer months.

GRASSES & SEDGES
35

WAVYLEAF BASKETGRASS ____________________________________ Biological

Biological control is not available for this species.

Chemical

In herbicide trials in Maryland, clethodim and glyphosate were 

effective. Clethodim is grass-selective, so it leaves behind the 

woodland wildflowers and the sedges. More detailed information on 

its use can be obtained from the Maryland Department of Natural 

Resources. In areas where basketgrass has formed a monoculture, 

a 1-2% solution of glyphosate (53.8%) mixed with water and a nonionic surfactant can be applied using a backpack sprayer. The spray 

should be applied to wet the plants but not to the point of run-off. 

Applications should be made in a slow and careful manner to avoid 

harming or killing native plants. Prior to herbicide treatments, 

applicators must be taught to recognize native plants on site. It is 

important to control basketgrass before seed is produced and check 

each following year for results in June. 

Manual-Mechanical

Where basketgrass is mixed with many native plants, manual 

removal of individual plants will help to retain the native flora. Plants 

can be pulled by hand fairly easily anytime. If not in flower, pulled 

material can be left on-site to desiccate and disintegrate. If plants 

are flowering and the possibility of seeds exists, it is best to bag and 

remove pulled material. However, once the awns become sticky it is 

probably best to stop pulling or working in basketgrass infestation 

because of the likelihood of spreading seeds.

GRASSES & SEDGES
36

Beefsteak Plant ___________________________ Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt.

Mint family (Lamiaceae)

Origin: Asia (China, India, Japan, Korea, Thailand, and other countries)

Background

Also called perilla mint, beefsteak 

plant is a traditional Asian crop used 

in cooking and is often planted as 

an ornamental. It readily escapes 

cultivation and has become a 

problematic invasive plant in natural 

areas across the mid-Atlantic region 

and elsewhere.

Distribution and Habitat

Beefsteak plant is reported to be 

invasive in Washington, D.C., Illinois, 

Maryland Missouri Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. It is well established along riparian areas of streams and rivers, 

gravel bars, forest edges, roadsides, railroad right-of-ways, pastures, 

fields and other disturbed areas in soils that are rich, alluvial or dry.

Ecological Threat

Beefsteak plant has spread to natural areas, especially those 

experiencing some form of disturbance. Once established, it disrupts 

native ecosystems by pushing out native plants. It has toxic 

characteristics which may explain why very few herbivores feed on 

it. It is ordinarily avoided by cattle and has been implicated in cattle 

poisoning. Beefsteak plants are most toxic if cut and dried for hay 

late in the summer, during seed production.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: small, freely-branching annual herb that grows to 18-30 in. 

high; stems four-sided and covered with short hairs.

•	 Leaves: opposite, ovate, green to purple with toothed margins; 

distinctive musky mint-like odor.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers are small, bell-shaped, white 

and purple with a distinctive ring of fine hairs along the bottom in 

terminal spikes or emerging from leaf axils; July and October.

•	 Spreads: by seed that either drops close to parent plant or may be 

transported by wind or water.

•	 Look-alikes: beefsteak plant superficially resembles basil and coleus and can be confused with other members of the mint family.

HERBACEOUS FORBS

Bill Johnson
37

Prevention and Control

Do not purchase or plant beefsteak plant. Control is possible with 

long-term monitoring (see Control Options).

Native Alternatives

Members of the mint family like bee balm (Monarda didyma) 

and mountain mint (Pycnanthemum muticum) are a few good 

alternatives to this invasive plant.

Canada Thistle ____________________________ Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.

Aster family (Asteraceae)

Origin: Europe and Asia

Background

Canada thistle was accidentally introduced to North 

America in the 1600s and is 

designated as a noxious weed 

in 43 states.

Distribution and Habitat

Canada thistle is an 

extremely widespread weed 

of agricultural and ecological 

areas in the U.S, occurring 

throughout the northern 

states and Southwest but 

is largely absent in the 

South from Texas to Georgia. Twenty large national parks across 

the country report it as a serious invasive plant affecting natural 

resources. It invades a variety of dry to moist open habitats including 

barrens, fields, glades, grasslands, pastures, stream banks, wet 

meadows, wet prairies, and open forests. It is not very tolerant of 

shade.

HERBACEOUS FORBS

Chris Evans, River to River CWMA

Bill Johnson
38

Ecological Threat

Once established, if conditions are suitable, Canada thistle can form 

dense stands that shade out and displace native plants, changing the 

plant community structure and species composition and reducing 

biodiversity. It spreads rapidly and is very difficult to remove.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: erect, perennial herbaceous plant, to 4 ft. tall with an 

extensive creeping rootstock and ridged and hairy stems.

•	 Leaves: lance-shaped, irregularly lobed, 2-6 in. long with weaklyto strongly-prickled margins.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowering occurs in late June to 

August; flowers are purple to white and about 1 in. long by 1⁄2 

in. across; seeds are called achenes, are 1-11⁄2 in. long and have a 

feathery pappus.

•	 Spreads: by wind-dispersed seed; expands locally by vegetative 

means through lateral roots and root fragments.

•	 Look-alikes: a number of native and exotic thistle species, some 

which are very rare. Numerous species of thistle occur in North 

America. Some are invasive, some are native, and most are 

dependably difficult to distinguish without assistance.

Prevention and Control

Management of Canada thistle is very difficult and requires repeated 

applications of systemic herbicides including products not covered in 

this guide. Glyphosate is not very effective against it. Other sources 

will likely need to be contacted for more effective herbicides (see 

Control Options). 

Native Alternatives

After eradicating, plant area with native vegetation appropriate to 

site conditions. Refer to References.

Chinese Lespedeza ________________________ Lespedeza cuneata (Dum.-Cours.) G. Don.

Pea family (Fabaceae)

Origin: Eastern Asia

Background

Chinese or Sericea lespedeza was introduced in the late 1800s by federal and 

state agencies for use in bank stabilization, erosion control, soil improvement, 

mine reclamation, forage, hay and other 

purposes. It has been escaping from plantings for many years and is a well established invasive plant.

HERBACEOUS FORBS

James H. Miller, USDA FS
39

Distribution and Habitat

Chinese lespedeza occurs throughout much of the eastern U.S. from 

Minnesota to Texas east to New York and Florida. It is found in a 

variety of habitats including fields, prairies, floodplains, pond borders, 

stream banks, swamps, meadows, open woodlands, roadsides and 

other disturbed grounds, prefers full sun and is not tolerant of much 

shade.

Ecological Threat

Chinese lespedeza poses the greatest threat to open areas such as 

meadows, prairies, open woodlands, wetland borders and fields. 

Once established, it out-competes and displaces native plants, forms 

extensive monocultures and develops an extensive seed bank in the 

soil, ensuring its long residence at a site. Its high tannin content 

makes it unpalatable to livestock and most native wildlife.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: warm season, perennial herbaceous plant with an erect 

growth form, 3-51⁄2 feet in height; mature stems are somewhat 

woody and fibrous with sharp, stiff, flattened bristles.

•	 Leaves: each leaf is divided into three smaller leaflets which are 

narrowly oblong and pointed, with awl-shaped spines and wedgeshaped bases; leaflets are covered with densely flattened hairs, 

giving a grayish-green or silvery appearance.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers small (about 1⁄4 in.) creamy 

white to pale yellow with central purple spots, single or in clusters of 2-4 in axils of upper and median leaves, summer; fruits 

form in fall; seeds tiny, bean-shaped, yellow to light brown.

•	 Spreads: by seed that is consumed by animals such as bobwhite 

quail and passed through digestive tract and deposited in new 

locations.

•	 Look-alikes: other species of Lespedeza including native and nonnative species.

HERBACEOUS FORBS

Bill Johnson
40

Prevention and Control

Do not plant Chinese lespedeza. Hand pulling is impractical due to 

lespedeza’s extensive perennial root system. Mowing plants in the 

flowering stage for two or three consecutive years may help control 

it. Plants should be cut as low as possible. Systemic herbicides can be 

effective when applied in early to mid summer (see Control Options).

Native Alternatives

Blue indigo (Baptisia australis) or yellow wild indigo (Baptisia 

tinctoria), partridge pea (Cassia fasciculata), Virginia wild rye 

(Elymus virginicus), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), 

wild senna (Senna hebecarpa or marilandica).

Common Daylily ___________________________ Hemerocallis fulva (L.) L.

Lily family (Liliaceae)

Origin: Asia

Background

Common or orange daylily 

was introduced into the 

United States in the late 19th 

century as an ornamental. 

It is a very popular plant 

favored by homeowners and 

landscape designers for its 

showy flowers, hardiness 

and ability to spread. 

There are now over 40,000 

registered cultivars, many 

of which likely are or have 

the potential to become 

invasive and should be watched. For example, yellow daylily (H. 

lilioasphodelus), has also been identified as invasive in scattered 

locations in the eastern U.S. Daylily buds and flowers are edible and 

have a sweet-spicy or peppery flavor.

Distribution and Habitat

Common daylily occurs in every state in the eastern U.S. and in 

scattered locations west to Oregon. Infestations often occur near old 

homesites from which they’ve escaped from plantings.

Ecological Threat

Daylilies established in natural areas pose a threat to native plants 

in field, meadows, floodplains, moist woods and forest edges. Once 

established, daylily multiplies and spreads to form dense patches that 

HERBACEOUS FORBS

Olivia Kwong, PCA
41

displace native plants. The thick tubers make it a challenge to control.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: bulbous perennial, 2-4 ft. tall with round stems.

•	 Leaves: long, linear, strap-like, bright-green, 1-3 ft. (0.3-1 m) long 

and curve toward the ground.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers are large, showy, orange, 

usually with some striping; occur in clusters of 5-9 at the tip of 

the stalk; flowers in a cluster open one at a time, each for one day 

only; summer.

•	 Spreads: by growth from thick, tuberous roots from which new 

plants are produced; seed; people tossing away whole pulled 

plants and by farm equipment or other machinery in fields.

•	 Look-alikes: native lilies like Canada lily (Lilium canadense), 

wood lily (Lilium philadelphicum) and Turk’s cap lily (Lilium 

superbum), and non-native lilyturf (Liriope spicata).

Prevention and Control

Do not plant daylilies known to have weedy habits. Plants can be 

dug up using a shovel to loosen the soil so that the entire root system 

with tubers can be removed. Otherwise, re-sprouting will likely occur. 

Herbicides like glyphosate with systemic action are also effective (see 

Control Options).

Native Alternatives

Canada lily (Lilium canadense), wood lily (Lilium philadelphicum), 

Turk’s cap lily (Lilium superbum), three-lobed coneflower 

(Rudbeckia triloba), and Ox-eye sunflower (Heliopsis helianthoides).

Dame’s Rocket ____________________________ Hesperis matronalis L.

Mustard family (Brassicaceae)

Origin: Europe

Background

Dame’s rocket, also known as dame’s 

violet and mother-of-the-evening, 

was introduced as an ornamental 

around the time of European 

settlement. It continues to be widely 

used as an ornamental and can be 

found throughout North America.

HERBACEOUS FORBS

Bill Johnson
42

Distribution and Habitat

Habitats invaded include open woodlands, prairies, roadsides, 

ditches, and other disturbed areas.

Ecological Threat

Dame’s rocket displaces native plant species.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: herbaceous, biennial forb up to 4 ft. in height.

•	 Leaves: alternate, hairy, broadly lanceolate with toothed margins, 

sessile or nearly so, 2-6 in. long.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers showy, fragrant, white to 

purple or pink with 4 petals in a cross; late spring; fruits slender, 

cylindrical and arch upwards.

•	 Spreads: by seed.

•	 Look-alikes: might be confused with wild blue phlox (Phlox 

divaricata), fall phlox (Phlox paniculata) and non-native annual 

honesty (Lunaria annua).

Prevention and Control

Do not purchase or plant this species. Individual plants can be pulled 

by hand if soil is moist or dug up using a spade or shovel to loosen the 

soil and remove the entire root system. Re-sprouting may occur if 

entire root system is not removed. Systemic herbicides can be used to 

kill the entire plant including the roots (see Control Options).

Native Alternatives

Ox-eye sunflower (Heliopsis helianthoides), Canada lily (Lilium 

canadense), wood lily (Lilium philadelphicum), Turk’s cap lily 

(Lilium superbum), and three-lobed coneflower (Rudbeckia triloba) 

are just a few showy native perennials that would make good 

substitutes for dame’s rocket.

HERBACEOUS FORBS

Bill Johnson
43

European Stinging Nettle ____________________ Urtica dioica L.

Nettle Family (Urticaceae)

Origin: Europe

Distribution and Habitat

Also called great nettle, 

European stinging nettle occurs 

in Coastal Plain, Piedmont and 

Mountain provinces in the midAtlantic and Southeast, from 

Delaware to Florida. It inhabits 

damp, rich, disturbed areas, 

primarily in calcareous soils, 

in floodplains and moist open 

forests, and can tolerate dry soils 

and some shade.

Ecological Threat

This plant can become well 

established in floodplain areas 

and push out native plants, 

impacting spring ephemeral 

species as well as those that 

emerge later in spring and 

through the summer.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: erect, rhizomatous, dioecious (male and female flowers 

occur on separate plants) perennial; unbranched; can grow to 6 ft. 

in height; covered with minute needle-like stinging hairs that can 

cause a painful burning sensation lasting many hours.

•	 Leaves: opposite, 2-6 in. long with leaf bases broadly ovate 

to cordate (heart-shaped) and leaf margins serrate; stipules 

(outgrowths on either side of leaf stalk) are 5-15 mm long.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers are branched, many-flowered, 

and emerge from below the petioles which they exceed in length; 

flowers occur May-July; fruits occur July-September.

•	 Spreads: by seed.

•	 Look-alikes: may be confused with other members of the nettle 

family including American stinging nettle (U. gracilis), which is 

usually monoecious, stouter and more sparsely hairy; wood nettle 

(Laportea canadensis) which is alternate leaved; false-nettle 

(Boehmeria cylindrica) and clearweed (Pilea) which lack stinging 

hairs.

HERBACEOUS FORBS

Bill Johnson
44

Prevention and Control

Due to its popularity in some circles as an edible plant, it may be 

purchased and cultivated. If grown, ensure that it does not spread beyond the planted site by removing flowers and fruits and killing back 

if it does begin to beyond the intended area. Manual, mechanical and 

chemical methods are available and effective (see Control Options).

Fig Buttercup _____________________________ Ficaria verna Huds.

Buttercup family (Ranunculaceae)

Origin: Europe

Background

Fig buttercup, also known 

as lesser celandine, was 

introduced to the United 

States as an ornamental plant 

and many colorful varieties 

are currently available 

commercially.

Distribution and Habitat

Fig buttercup is currently 

found in 20 northeastern 

states and in Oregon, Washington and several Canadian 

provinces. It occurs most 

commonly on moist, forested floodplains and other wet areas.

Ecological Threat

Fig buttercup’s greatest threat is to native spring-flowering or 

“ephemeral” plants. It emerges in the winter in advance of most 

native species, giving it a great competitive advantage. Once established, it spreads rapidly, forming a solid green blanket across the 

ground through which native plants are unable to penetrate.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: perennial herbaceous spring ephemeral plant with thick 

tuberous roots and bulblets.

•	 Leaves: shiny, dark green, kidney-shaped, and stalked.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: glossy, butter-yellow flowers appear in 

March and April supported on delicate stalks above the leaves. 

Aboveground portions of lesser celandine die back by early June.

•	 Spreads: primarily by bulblets and underground tubers. The 

tiny cream-colored bulblets are attached to leafstalks and are 

easily dislodged from the plant. A mass of small, gray, fingerlike 

HERBACEOUS FORBS

Leslie J. Mehrhoff, University of Connecticut
45

tuberous roots underlies each plant. Bulblets and tubers are 

easily carried downstream during flood events and may be 

unearthed and scattered by the digging activities of some 

animals.

•	 Look-alikes: marsh marigold (Caltha palustris), a native relative 

in the buttercup family, wood or celandine poppy (Stylophorum 

diphyllum) and greater celandine (Chelidonium majus), native 

and non-native members of the poppy family, respectively.

Prevention and Control

Care should be taken to correctly identify fig buttercup before undertaking any control efforts to avoid removing native look-alike plants. 

For small infestations, clumps can be pulled by hand or dug up using 

a shovel, removing entire plants and as many tubers as possible. Use 

of systemic herbicides is also an option but should be done as early as 

possible to avoid impact to native plant species (see Control Options).

Native Alternatives

Wood poppy (Stylophorum canadense) and marsh marigold (Caltha 

palustris) are two good native alternatives available depending on 

the conditions of the planting site.

Garlic Mustard ____________________________ Alliaria petiolata (Bieb.) Cavara & Grande

Mustard family (Brassicaceae)

Origin: Europe

Background

Garlic mustard was first recorded in 

the United States around 1868, from 

Long Island, New York, and was 

likely introduced by settlers for food 

and medicinal purposes.

Distribution and Habitat

Garlic mustard has been reported 

to be invasive in natural areas 

throughout the northeastern U.S. 

and in scattered localities in the 

Midwest, Southeast, western states, 

and Alaska. It occurs in moist to dry forest habitats, forest edges, 

floodplains, and along roadsides and disturbed lands and is not 

tolerant of highly acidic soils. White-tailed deer assist in its spread by 

eating native plant species that they prefer and are adapted to eat, 

leaving the garlic mustard behind.

HERBACEOUS FORBS

Bill Johnson
46

Ecological Threat

Garlic mustard has displaced vast areas occupied by native spring 

wildflowers like spring beauty (Claytonia virginica), wild ginger 

(Asarum canadense), bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis), trilliums 

(Trillium species) and toothworts (Cardamine). Three native butterfly species, the West Virginia white (Pieris virginiensis), mustard 

white butterfly (Pieris oleracea), and the falcate orange-tip (Anthocharis midea annicka), are especially impacted when garlic mustard displaces toothworts, its host plants. Chemicals in garlic mustard 

are toxic to the larvae of the native butterflies. Other chemicals have 

been found to affect mychorrhizal fungi associated with native trees, 

resulting in suppression of native tree seedling growth.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: biennial herb in the mustard family (Brassicaceae); firstyear plants are low rosettes of kidney shaped leaves; second-year 

plants produce single or multiple flowering stalks 1-4 ft. high and, 

then die back by late spring; dried fruiting stalks may persist for 

many months.

•	 Leaves: crushed leaves and stems smell like garlic; first-year 

leaves are kidney-shaped with scalloped margins; leaves of 

mature, second year plants are heart-shaped with toothed 

margins and pointed tips.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers occur in small button-shaped 

clusters, flowers have four petals in the shape of a cross; fruits are 

slender, erect capsules (siliques); seeds are 21⁄2-3 mm long, slender 

and tan to dark.

•	 Spreads: a single plant can produce hundreds of seeds, most of 

which fall nearby but may be carried further by wind, water, 

wildlife and people.

•	 Look-alikes: toothworts (Cardamine or Dentaria), sweet cicely 

(Osmorhiza claytonii), wild anise (Osmorhiza longistylis) and 

early saxifrage (Saxifraga virginiensis).

HERBACEOUS FORBS

Chris Evans, River to River CWMA Robert Vidéki, Doronicum Kft.
47

Prevention and Control

Garlic mustard seeds can survive for five or more years in the soil. 

Effective management requires a long-term effort. Hand removal 

of plants along with the roots, is effective for light, scattered 

infestations. Flowering plants can be cut low to the ground in spring 

to prevent seed production but cut plants can resprout. Careful hand 

removal and bagging of plants with mature fruits can be done as 

soon as fruits are present. Systemic herbicides containing glyphosate 

are effective but repeated treatments are usually needed because of 

the large seed stores in the soil (see Control Options). Researchers 

are investigating potential biological control agents but none are 

available at this time.

Ground Ivy _______________________________ Glechoma hederacea L.

Mint family (Lamiaceae)

Origin: Eurasia

Background

Also known as gill-over-the-ground 

and creeping Charlie, it was 

introduced into North America as 

an ornamental or medicinal plant, as 

early as the 1800s.

Distribution and Habitat

Ground ivy occurs throughout the 

U.S. in all of the Lower 48 except for 

Nevada, Arizona and New Mexico 

and has been reported to be invasive 

in natural areas from Wisconsin to 

Connecticut, south to Tennessee 

and North Carolina. It is common in 

moist areas such as floodplains, low woods and disturbed sites and is a 

significant weed in lawns. It grows on damp, heavy, fertile and calcareous soils and does not tolerate highly acidic or saline soils.

Ecological Threat

Ground ivy is a vigorous grower that spreads across the ground 

forming dense patches that push out native plants. It is toxic to many 

vertebrates, including horses, if eaten in large quantities either fresh 

or in hay.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: perennial scrambling herbaceous plant; stems square 

(4-sided) and fragile; flowering stems can reach a height of 1 ft.

HERBACEOUS FORBS

Bill Johnson
48

•	 Leaves: opposite, heart-shaped with scalloped margins, about an 

inch across and have a musky mint odor when crushed.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers are about 1⁄2-3⁄4 in. long, tubular, 

lavender, paired and emerge from leaf axils; flowering occurs 

March to July; each flower produces a pod containing four smooth 

tan seeds.

•	 Spreads: by vegetatively by creeping stems and to a lesser 

degree by seed; shallow fibrous roots form at the base of the plant 

and at leaf nodes on the stem.

•	 Look-alikes: henbit (Lamium amplexicaule), purple deadnettle 

(Lamium purpureum), first-year garlic mustard (Alliaria 

petiolata), and possibly other small herbaceous plants with 

opposite leaves and blue flowers.

Prevention and Control

Once established, this plant is difficult to control because it is hard to 

remove all root and stolon fragments. Seed banks may also remain 

viable after control methods are used. Small patches can be pulled 

by hand or using a rake when the soil is damp. All roots must be 

removed. Large infestations can be effectively controlled using 

systemic herbicides like glyphosate (see Control Options). A rust 

fungus Puccinia glechomatis attacks ground ivy causing severe 

damage or death and may hold some potential for biological control.

Japanese Knotweed _______________________ Fallopia japonica (Hout.) R. Decr. 

(previously Polygonum cuspidatum)

Buckwheat family (Lythraceae)

Origin: Eastern Asia

Background

Japanese knotweed was probably 

introduced into the United States 

in the late 1800s. First used as an 

ornamental plant, it has also been 

planted for erosion control and 

landscape screening. It is designated 

a noxious weed in the state of 

Washington.

Distribution and Habitat

Japanese knotweed occurs across the U.S. and has been reported to 

be invasive in natural areas throughout the northeast into Georgia 

and west to Missouri, with additional infestations in Oregon and 

Washington. It can tolerate a wide variety of challenging conditions, 

HERBACEOUS FORBS

Bill Johnson
49

including deep shade, high salinity, high heat, and drought. Knotweed 

is commonly found near water sources, such as along streams and 

rivers, and in a variety of low-lying areas like ditches, waste places, 

utility rights-of-way and around old home sites. 

Ecological Threat

It spreads quickly to form dense thickets and pushes out native plant 

species. Knotweed poses a significant threat to riparian areas where 

it can survive flooding events and rapidly colonize scoured shores and 

islands. Once established, populations are extremely persistent.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: upright, shrubby, herbaceous perennial 4-10 ft. tall with 

stems that are smooth, stout and hollow; stem leaf junctures 

are swollen and surrounded by a membranous sheath called an 

“ocrea” which is typical of the family.

•	 Leaves: variable; about 6 in. long by 3-4 in. wide, broadly oval to 

somewhat triangular with a truncated base and a tapered tip.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: tiny greenish to white colored flowers 

occur in attractive sprays in summer; fruits are winged on three 

sides; seeds are triangular, dark brown, shiny and about 1/10 in. 

long.

•	 Spreads: by seed and by vegetative means through growth of 

long, stout rhizomes; can be transported long distances by water 

as a contaminant in fill-dirt, or on the soles of shoes; escapes from 

gardens and landscaped areas through discarded cuttings.

•	 Look-alikes: the lovely native Virginia knotweed (Tovara 

virginiana), and two exotic invasive relatives - prince’s feather 

(Polygonum orientale) and giant knotweed (Polygonum 

sachalinense).

Prevention and Control

Japanese knotweed is an extremely difficult plant to control due to its 

ability to re-grow from vegetative pieces and from seeds. Mechanical 

and chemical methods are most commonly used to eliminate it. Single 

young plants can be pulled by hand when soil is moist and roots are 

small. Roots and runners must be removed to prevent re-sprouting. 

Glyphosate and triclopyr herbicides have been used effectively, 

applied to freshly cut stems or foliage (see Control Options). 

Although a biological control agent has been found and is being 

released in the United Kingdom in 2010, there are no agents available 

for release in the U.S. at this time.

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50

Nodding Star-of-Bethlehem __________________ Nodding Star-of-Bethlehem - Ornithogalum nutans L.

Sleepydick - Ornithogalum umbellatum L.

Lily family (Liliaceae)

Origin: Europe (Ukraine, Bulgaria 

and Greece) and Asia (Turkey)

Background

Also called drooping star-ofBethlehem, this species was 

introduced for ornamental 

purposes and is widely cultivated. 

A diminutive close relative (O. 

umbellatum), known as sleepydick, 

nap-at-noon, and common star-ofBethlehem, is native to northern 

Africa, western Asia and Europe, and 

was also introduced as an ornamental 

plant. It has been reported to be invasive in the mid-Atlantic, 

Northeast and elsewhere.

Distribution and Habitat

Nodding star-of-Bethlehem occurs in scattered locations in the 

Midwest, Great Lakes, Northeast and mid-Atlantic and has been 

reported to be invasive in Maryland and Pennsylvania. It is adapted 

to floodplains, fields, waste places, abandoned gardens and grows 

in full sun to partial shade. Sleepydick is more widespread and has 

been reported to be invasive in at least 10 states from Wisconsin to 

Connecticut south to Tennessee and Virginia.

Ecological Threat

Once established, it spreads across the forest floor and displaces 

many species of native spring ephemeral plants.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: bulbous herbaceous annual to 20 in. in height (nodding starof-Bethlehem) or 12 in. (sleepydick).

•	 Leaves: basal, linear, narrow, and succulent with parallel veins,

0.3-0.6 in. wide (nodding); grasslike and less than 1⁄4 in. wide 

(sleepydick).

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flower is a “perianth” consisting of

6 petal-like structures called tepals that are white with a wide 

central green stripe on the outer or underside; flowers occur in 

racemes; fruits are 3-angled-capsules which are broadly ovoid.

•	 Spreads: by bulbils and seeds.

•	 Look-alikes: other spring-flowering herbaceous bulbous plants.

HERBACEOUS FORBS

Peter C. Gorman via Flickr (O. nutans)
51

Prevention and Control

Be on the lookout for it and dig it up as soon as it is noticed. Most of 

the time, the bulbs will be extremely deep (see Control Options).

Native alternatives

Many native wild flower species are available including bloodroot 

(Sanguinaria canadensis),Virginia bluebells (Mertensia virginica), 

wild ginger (Asarum canadense), may apple (Podophyllum 

peltatum).

Purple Loosestrife _________________________ Lythrum salicaria L.

Loosestrife family (Lythraceae)

Origin: Eurasia

Background

Purple loosestrife was introduced to 

the northeastern United States and 

Canada in the 1800s for ornamental 

and medicinal uses. It is still widely 

sold as an ornamental, except in 

states such as Minnesota, Wisconsin 

and Illinois where regulations now 

prohibit its sale, purchase and 

distribution. Purple loosestrife 

adapts readily to natural and 

disturbed wetlands.

Distribution and Habitat

According to the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service, purple loosestrife 

now occurs in every state except Florida. It is found in many types 

of wetlands, including wet freshwater meadows, tidal and non-tidal 

marshes, river and stream banks, pond edges, reservoirs and ditches.

Ecological Threat

Under favorable conditions, purple loosestrife is able to rapidly 

establish and replace native vegetation with a dense, homogeneous 

stand that reduces local biodiversity, endangers rare species and 

provides little value to wildlife.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: erect perennial herb with a square, woody stem usually 

covered by downy hair; 4-10 ft. high, depending upon conditions.

•	 Leaves: lance-shaped, stalk-less and rounded to heart-shaped at 

the base; arranged in pairs or whorls around the stem.

HERBACEOUS FORBS

Bill Johnson
52

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: produces a showy display of magentacolored flower spikes throughout much of the summer. Individual 

flowers have five to seven petals. A single mature plant can 

have 30-50 stems arising from one rootstock, and can produce 

an estimated two to three million seeds per year. The flowering 

season extends from June to September; flowers require 

pollination by insects, for which they supply an abundant source 

of nectar.

•	 Spreads: through the vast quantity of seeds, dispersed by wind 

and water. It also readily reproduces vegetatively through 

underground stems at a rate of about one foot per year.

•	 Look-alikes: from a distance, purple loosestrife may be confused 

with blue vervain (Verbena hastata), blazing star (Liatris aspera

and L. spicata), Canada germander (Teucrium canadense), 

swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata), and fireweed 

(Chamaenerion angustifolium), which is native to the northern 

U.S. and Canada.

Prevention and Control

Small infestations of young purple loosestrife plants may be pulled 

by hand, preferably before seed set. For older plants, spot treatment 

with a glyphosate-based herbicide such as Rodeo® for wetlands or 

near water and Roundup® for uplands may be effective (see Control 

Options). Biological control, using several imported beetle species 

approved by the USDA for release, is the most effective method for 

long-term control of large infestations.

Native alternatives

Blazing star (Liatris aspera and L. spicata), blue vervain (Verbena 

hastata), Canada germander (Teucrium canadense), cardinal flower 

(Lobelia cardinalis) and ironweed (Vernonia noveboracensis).

HERBACEOUS FORBS

Bill Johnson
53

Spotted Knapweed _________________________ Centaurea stoebe ssp. micranthos (Gugler) Hayek

Aster family (Asteraceae)

Origin: Europe and western Asia

Background

Spotted knapweed was accidentally 

introduced into North America in the 

late 1800s in contaminated alfalfa and 

clover seed and in soil used for ship 

ballast. In North America, plants 

generally live 3 to 7 years but can 

live up to nine years or longer and 

regrow from buds on the root crown. 

Reproduction is by seed. Individual 

plants are capable of producing an 

estimated 500-4,000 seeds per square 

foot per year. Most of the seed is 

viable at the time of dispersal and can remain viable in the soil for 5-8 

years. Most seed is dispersed near the parent plant but can be moved 

great distances by people, livestock, wildlife, and vehicles and in soil, 

crop seed, and contaminated hay.

Distribution and Habitat

Spotted knapweed is widely distributed in the U.S. and is reported 

to occur in every state in the Lower 48 except Texas, Oklahoma and 

Georgia. Over two dozen states and seventeen large national parks 

across the country recognize it as a significant invasive plant of 

natural areas. It invades open habitats, preferring full sun and can 

tolerate nutrient poor soils and harsh dry conditions.

Ecological Threat

Spotted knapweed invades a wide variety of habitats including open 

forests, shale, serpentine and other barrens, meadows, prairies, 

old fields, and disturbed areas. It forms deep taproots allowing it 

to capture moisture and nutrients and spreads rapidly, displacing 

native vegetation and reducing the forage potential for wildlife and 

livestock.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: herbaceous biennial or perennial plant.

•	 Leaves: a basal rosette of deeply lobed leaves is produced the 

first year; rosette leaves are deeply lobed, stalked and about 8 

in. long; stem leaves are alternate and may be slightly lobed or 

linear; leaves become smaller and less lobed toward the apex.

HERBACEOUS FORBS

Bill Johnson
54

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowering stems are 2/3- 4 ft. tall and 

branched; flowers are produced early summer after the first year 

and resemble tiny pineapples topped with a showy ring of pink 

to light purple, highly dissected petals; the bract tips of the base 

(“pineapple”) are dark, giving the spotted look for which the plant 

is named.

•	 Spreads: by wind-dispersed seed.

•	 Look-alikes: other knapweeds and thistles including Canada 

thistle (Cirsium arvense) which occurs in similar habitats in the 

mid-Atlantic region.

Prevention and Control

The most cost effective management strategy for spotted knapweed 

is to prevent its spread to non-infested areas. Spread by seed can be 

minimized by avoiding travel through infested areas by: 1) cleaning 

footwear, clothing, backpacks, and other items after hiking through 

infested areas; 2) not grazing livestock when ripe seeds are present 

in the flower heads; and 3) using certified weed-free hay. Individual 

plants can be pulled by hand when the soil is moist as long as the 

entire crown and taproot are removed, using a shovel or weed-popper 

type tool if necessary. Control of spotted knapweed infestations is 

very difficult and may require large investment of time, labor and 

materials to remove using manual and mechanical means or repeated 

applications of herbicides often at higher rates (see Control Options).

HERBACEOUS FORBS

John Cardina, OH State Univ. John M. Randall, TNC
55

CONTROL OPTIONS

GENERAL GUIDANCE FOR HERBACEOUS FORBS

Use pesticides wisely: always read the entire pesticide label 

carefully, follow all mixing and application instructions and wear all 

recommended personal protective gear and clothing. Contact your 

state department of agriculture for any additional pesticide use 

requirements, restrictions or recommendations. Notice: mention of 

a trade name does not constitute the endorsement of the product by 

authors, agencies or organizations involved in the production of this 

publication.

Chemical

Foliar. This method is effective on infestations where mechanical 

control is not practical or desired. Glyphosate (e.g., Accord®, 

Rodeo® and other products) is a non-selective systemic herbicide 

that is absorbed by the plant and carried to the roots, killing the 

entire plant. It is important to avoid contact of spray with desirable 

plants. Treatments should be done either in early spring when most 

other non-target vegetation is dormant or mid to late summer and 

fall when plant growth slows and resources are being sent to the 

roots. Refer to manufacturer’s label for specific information and 

restrictions regarding use. In general, a 1-2% solution of glyphosate 

mixed with water and a non-ionic surfactant (seek manufacturer’s 

recommendations) is used. Spray should be applied such that it 

thoroughly covers most of the leaves but not to the point that it is 

dripping off the leaves. 

Manual

Generally speaking, most herbaceous plants can be pulled by hand 

as long as the entire plant including the roots is removed to prevent 

regrowth. This is almost always recommended for individual plants

Mechanical

While repeated mowing can be effective for control of some 

herbaceous forbs, it may not be practical for others. Mowing often 

needs to be conducted repeatedly and for many years to eradicate 

plants with significant root systems. It may be more practical and 

effective to use chemical methods or a combination of mowing and 

herbicides for difficult species.

BEEFSTEAK PLANT __________________________________________ See General Guidance.

HERBACEOUS FORBS
56

CANADA THISTLE ___________________________________________ See General Guidance.

Management of Canada thistle can be achieved through cutting, 

mowing, controlled burning, and chemical means, depending on 

the level of infestation and the type of area being managed. Due 

to its perennial nature, entire plants must be killed in order to 

prevent regrowth from rootstock. Hand-cutting of individual plants 

or mowing of larger infestations prior to seed set will help reduce 

spread, but will need to be done repeatedly to exhaust root reserves. 

Controlled burns have been used but require training and expertise 

not provided here. Other sources of information should be consulted. 

In natural areas where Canada thistle is interspersed with desirable 

native plants, targeted spot application of a systemic herbicide will be 

needed. 

CHINESE LESPEDEZA ________________________________________

See General Guidance.

Mechanical and chemical methods are the most effective options 

currently available for Chinese lespedeza. Hand pulling is not 

recommended due to lespedeza’s extensive perennial root system 

that will resprout from the root crown. Mowing plants in the flower 

bud stage for two or three consecutive years may reduce the vigor 

of lespedeza stands and control further spread. Plants should be cut 

as low to the ground as possible. Impacts to adjacent native plants 

should be minimized as much as possible during any treatments. 

Since root reserves increase up to the flower bud stage, all herbicide 

treatments should be completed in early to mid summer. The addition 

of a non-ionic surfactant at a concentration of 0.5% will improve 

the effectiveness of foliar treatments. A 2% solution of glyphosate 

(Accord® for upland and wet areas or Rodeo® for wet sites only) 

mixed with water is effective during the vegetative stage prior to 

branching or during flowering. Treatments should cover the leaves 

and stems of plants just to the point of runoff but should not be 

dripping off the leaves. 

COMMON DAYLILY __________________________________________

See General Guidance.

DAME’S ROCKET ____________________________________________ See General Guidance.

EUROPEAN STINGING NETTLE _________________________________ See General Guidance.

HERBACEOUS FORBS
57

FIG BUTTERCUP _____________________________________________ See General Guidance.

In order to have the greatest negative impact to fig buttercup and the 

least impact to desirable native wildflower species, herbicide should 

be applied in late winter-early spring, generally February through 

March. Start applications prior to flowering and up until about 50 

percent of the plants are in flower, around April 1, then stop. After 

that, control success declines and many more native wildflowers have 

emerged that could be killed by spray. Native amphibians would also 

be emerging and could be harmed. Apply a 1.5-2% rate of a 53.8% 

active ingredient glyphosate isopropylamine salt (e.g., Rodeo® 

which is labeled for use in wetland areas), mixed with water and a 

non-ionic surfactant to foliage, avoiding application to anything but 

the celandine. The full effect on the plant may take 1-2 weeks and 

retreatment will likely be needed for many years to fully eradicate 

it. Applications can be made during the winter season as long as 

the temperature is above about 65° F and no rain is anticipated for 

12-24 hours. To minimize impacts to sensitive-skinned frogs and 

salamanders, some experts recommend applying herbicide in March 

and then switching to manual methods.

For small infestations, fig buttercup may be pulled up by hand or dug 

up using a hand trowel or shovel. It is very important to remove all 

bulblets and tubers. Due to the abundant tiny bulblets and tubers, 

all material must be bagged up, removed from the site and disposed 

properly in a landfill or incinerator. A major consideration when 

manually removing invasive plants like this is the disturbance to the 

soil which can encourage the target invasive as well provide openings 

for invasion by other exotic species. For these reasons, manual and 

mechanical removal is probably inappropriate for larger infestations 

in high quality natural areas.

GARLIC MUSTARD ___________________________________________ Because the seeds of garlic mustard can remain viable in the soil 

for five years or more, effective management requires a long-term 

commitment. The goal is to prevent seed production until the stored 

seed is exhausted. Hand removal of plants is possible for light 

infestations and when desirable native species co-occur. Care must 

be taken to remove the plant with its entire root system because new 

plants can sprout from root fragments. This is best achieved when 

the soil is moist, by grasping low and firmly on the plant and tugging 

gently until the main root loosens from the soil and the entire plant 

pulls out. Pulled plants should be removed from site if at all possible, 

especially if flowers are present.

HERBACEOUS FORBS
58

Mechanical

For larger infestations of garlic mustard, or when hand-pulling is 

not practical, flowering stems can be cut at ground level or within 

several inches of the ground, to prevent seed production. If stems are 

cut too high, the plant may produce additional flowers at leaf axils. 

Once seedpods are present, but before the seeds have matured or 

scattered, the stalks can be clipped, bagged and removed from the 

site to help prevent continued buildup of seed stores. This can be 

done through much of the summer.

Chemical

For very heavy infestations, where the risk to desirable plant species 

is minimal, application of the systemic herbicide glyphosate (e.g., 

Roundup®) is also effective. Herbicide may be applied at any time of 

year, including winter (to kill overwintering rosettes), as long as the 

temperature is above 65°F and rain is not expected for 8-12 hours, 

to allow for drying. Extreme care must be taken to avoid contact of 

glyphosate with desirable plants as the product is non-selective and 

will kill almost any plant it contacts. Spray shields may be used to 

better direct herbicide and limit non-intentional drift.

Fire

Fire has been used to control garlic mustard in some large natural 

settings but, because burning opens the understory, it can encourage 

germination of stored seeds and promote growth of emerging garlic 

mustard seedlings. For this reason, burns must be conducted for 

three to five consecutive years. Regardless of the control method 

employed, annual monitoring is necessary for a period of at least 

five years to ensure that seed stores of garlic mustard have been 

exhausted.

GROUND IVY _______________________________________________ See General Guidance.

JAPANESE KNOTWEED _______________________________________ See General Guidance.

NODDING STAR-OF-BETHLEHEM _______________________________ See General Guidance.

PURPLE LOOSESTRIFE ________________________________________ See General Guidance.

Small infestations of young purple loosestrife plants may be pulled by 

hand, preferably before seed set. For older plants, spot treating with 

a glyphosate type herbicide (e.g., Rodeo® for wetlands, Accord® for 

uplands) is recommended. Herbicides are often most effective when 

applied late in the season when plants are preparing for dormancy 

HERBACEOUS FORBS
59

but an additional application in mid-summer would help to reduce 

the amount of seed produced. While herbicides and hand removal 

may be useful for controlling individual plants or small populations, 

biological control is seen as the most likely candidate for effective 

long term control of large infestations of purple loosestrife. As of 

1997, three insect species from Europe have been approved by 

the U.S. Department of Agriculture for use as biological control 

agents. Two leaf-feeding beetles (Galerucella calmariensis and 

Galerucella pusilla) offer the most promise and have been widely 

used with good control results throughout much of the northern U.S. 

Although occasional feeding on other plants has been observed it 

has been light and non-destructive and the beetles have not shown 

successful reproduction on any native plant species other than purple 

loosestrife.

SPOTTED KNAPWEED ________________________________________ See General Guidance.

Biological control

Biological control is available and used primarily in the western 

and Southeastern U.S. for control for large infestations. However, 

because it has not been used in the mid-Atlantic to date and 

non-target effects are not well studied or understood, it is not 

recommended by the author at this time.

Manual

Small infestations of spotted knapweed can be controlled by 

persistent hand-pulling done prior to seed set. Gloves should be 

worn because of the possibility of skin irritation and potential 

carcinogenicity of chemicals in knapweed. Because spotted knapweed 

can regrow from the base, care must be taken to remove the entire 

crown and taproot. Plants can also be dug out using a spade. In 

areas with more than about 10 plants per square meter, repeated 

spot-burning (see below) by trained individuals is more effective 

and efficient. For detailed information see McGowan-Stinski in the 

References section.

Burning

Swath or spot-burning methods developed by The Nature 

Conservancy, Michigan Chapter, have been used very successfully. 

Generally, this method involves using a six-wheeled Polaris® ATV 

that has a rear bed retrofitted with a propane-based weed burner. 

The torches are set 11⁄2-2 ft. above the ground and burn the knapweed 

at very high flame temperatures around 2,000°F. For detailed 

information see McGowan-Stinski in the References section.

HERBACEOUS FORBS
60

Mechanical

Mechanical removal of spotted knapweed involves the use of a Weed 

Popper®. This tool consists of a row of spikes at the end of a springloaded pedal. The user inserts the spikes into the ground at the base 

of the plant, steps on the square foot pad on the top of the pedal and 

pushes down lightly (the same movement as when using a shovel). 

In one motion, the spikes move forward and up, thus uprooting the 

plant, and a plate moves forward that pushes the plant off of the 

spikes.

When removing knapweed mechanically, individuals generally spread 

out in a line and walk through an area to ensure complete coverage. 

For detailed information see McGowan-Stinski in the References 

section.

HERBACEOUS FORBS
61

Amur Honeysuckle _________________________ Lonicera maackii (Rupr.) Herder

Honeysuckle family 

(Caprifoliaceae)

Origin: China, Japan, Korea, and 

Russian Far East

Background

Amur honeysuckle was imported 

as ornamental into New York 

in 1898 through the New York 

Botanical Garden. It has been 

widely planted for wildlife cover 

and soil erosion control but long 

ago escaped from plantings 

and began reproducing on its 

own and spreading into natural 

areas. Other invasive exotic shrub honeysuckles include fragrant (L. 

fragrantissima), Standish’s (L. standishii), Morrow’s (L. morrowii), 

Tartarian (L. tatarica), and Bell’s (L. x bella), a hybrid between 

Tartarian and Morrow’s. These are less common in our area.

Distribution and Habitat

Amur honeysuckle is one of the most common and invasive bush 

honeysuckles found in the mid-Atlantic region. It occurs in most 

states in the eastern U.S. except for Minnesota, Maine and Florida 

and has been reported to be invasive in many. It is adaptable to 

a range of conditions from sun to deep shade and wet to dry. It 

occurs in disturbed habitats including forest edges, forest interiors, 

floodplains, old fields, pastures, and roadsides. Disturbance increases 

the likelihood of invasion. Amur honeysuckle grows especially well on 

calcareous soils.

Ecological Threat

Amur honeysuckle impedes reforestation of cut or disturbed areas 

and prevents reestablishment of native plants. It leafs out earlier 

than most natives and form dense thickets too shady for most native 

species. Additionally, researchers in the Midwest found increased 

nest predation of robins using Amur honeysuckle as a result of plant 

structure which facilitates access to nests by predators such as 

snakes. While the carbohydrate-rich fruits of exotic honeysuckles 

provide some nutrition for birds and rodents in winter, they do not 

compare to the lipid-rich fruits of native species that provide greater 

energy to sustain migrating birds.

Bill Johnson

SHRUBS & SUBSHRUBS
62

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: upright, deciduous shrub up to 15-20 ft. high; pith of 

mature stems is hollow and white or tan (in contrast to solid 

white pith of native shrub honeysuckle species).

•	 Leaves: opposite, ovate with a tapered tip, lightly pubescent, and 

up to 31⁄2 in. long.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers paired, tubular, white to 

pinkish, fading to yellow, less than 1 in. long, borne from leaf 

axils, five petals, upper 4 fused; fruits are red to orange-red 

berries produced in late summer and persist through the winter.

•	 Spreads: by fruits which are abundant and highly attractive to 

birds that consume them and defecate the seeds in new locations. 

Vegetative sprouting aids in the local spread and persistence.

•	 Look-alikes: other exotic bush honeysuckles including Tartarian 

(L. tatarica) and Standish’s honeysuckle (L. standishii); native 

species of Lonicera like American fly honeysuckle (L. canadensis), 

swamp fly-honeysuckle (L. oblongifolia) and mountain fly 

honeysuckle (L. villosa); northern bush-honeysuckle (Diervilla 

lonicera) which has leaves with toothed margins.

Prevention and Control

Young plants can be pulled by hand, larger plants either pulled 

using weed wrench-type tool or cut repeatedly. Systemic herbicides 

containing glyphosate or triclopyr can be applied to foliage, bark or 

cut stems (see Control Options).

Autumn Olive _____________________________ Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.

Oleaster Family (Elaeagnaceae)

Origin: East Asia

Background

Autumn olive was introduced into the 

United States in 1830 and widely planted 

as an ornamental, for wildlife habitat, as 

windbreaks and to restore deforested 

and degraded lands.

Distribution and Habitat

Autumn olive is found from Maine to Virginia and west to Wisconsin 

in grasslands, fields, open woodlands and other disturbed areas. 

It is drought tolerant and thrives in a variety of soil and moisture 

conditions. Because autumn olive is capable of fixing nitrogen in its 

roots, it can grow on bare mineral substrates.

SHRUBS & SUBSHRUBS

James H. Miller, USDA FS
63

Ecological Threat

It threatens native ecosystems by out-competing and displacing 

native plant species, creating dense shade and interfering with 

natural plant succession and nutrient cycling.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: deciduous shrub that can grow to 20 ft. in height; stems, 

buds and leaves have a dense covering of silvery to rusty scales.

•	 Leaves: alternate; deciduous; egg or lance-shaped, smooth 

margined, dull green above and often with brown scales beneath.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers occur in June and July; 

aromatic, pale yellow, fused at the base with 4 petals pointed at 

the tips; fruits are produced August through October; small, redbrown to pink and dotted with brown or silvery scales; abundant.

•	 Spreads: by seed that is dispersed by birds and mammals; some 

vegetative propagation also occurs.

•	 Look-alikes: Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia) leaves are 

narrow-elongate with silvery scales on both sides and fruit is 

mealy, yellow or silvery; thorny olive (E. pungens) has leaves that 

are persistent, egg-shaped with wavy margins, upper surfaces 

shiny green, lacking scales, and lower surfaces covered with dull 

white scales and dotted with light brown scales.

Prevention and Control

Do not plant autumn olive. Individual young plants can be handpulled, ensuring that roots are removed. Cutting, in combination 

with herbicide application, is effective. Hedges can be cut down using 

a brush type mower, chain saw, or similar tool, and stumps treated 

with a systemic herbicide like glyphosate or triclopyr (see Control 

Options). Herbivorous animals are not known to feed on it and few 

insects seem to utilize or bother it. Canker disease is occasionally a 

problem.

Native Alternatives

Many native shrubs are available as alternatives (see Native 

Alternatives).

SHRUBS & SUBSHRUBS

Bill Johnson James R. Allison, GA DNR
64

Japanese Barberry _________________________ Berberis thunbergii DC.

Barberry family (Berberidaceae)

Origin: Japan

Background

Japanese barberry was introduced 

to the United States as an ornamental in 1875. Seeds were sent from 

Russia to the Arnold Arboretum in 

Boston, Massachusetts. In 1896, it 

was planted at the New York Botanic 

Garden. It was eventually promoted 

as a substitute for Berberis vulgaris, an exotic plant introduced and 

used by early settlers from Europe for hedgerows, dyes and jams, 

and later found to be a host for the black stem rust of wheat.

Distribution and Habitat

Japanese barberry occurs and is reported to be invasive throughout 

the northeastern U.S. from Maine to North Carolina and west to 

Wisconsin and Missouri. It grows well in full sun to deep shade 

and forms dense stands in closed canopy forests, open woodlands, 

wetlands, fields and other areas. 

Ecological Threat

Where it is well established, barberry displaces many native 

herbaceous and woody plants. In large infestations, its leaf litter 

causes changes in the chemistry of the soil, making it more basic.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: spiny deciduous shrub typically to 3, but sometimes to 6 ft. 

in height; branches are deeply grooved, brown and usually have 

simple spines as opposed to 3-pronged spines in exotic invasive 

European barberry (B. vulgaris) and the native Allegheny 

barberry (B. canadensis).

•	 Leaves: small 1⁄2-11⁄2 inches long and shaped like small spatulas or 

narrow ovals, with a color ranging from green to bluish-green to 

dark reddish purple.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowering occurs in spring; abundant 

pale yellow flowers occur along the entire length of the stem in 

clusters of two to four; fruits are bright red berries about 1/3 in. 

long that mature July to October and persist through the winter.

•	 Spreads: seed produced in abundance and eaten by birds like 

turkey and grouse and other wildlife that spread it far and wide; 

local vegetative spread is through root creepers and tip rooting 

branches.

SHRUBS & SUBSHRUBS

James H. Miller, USDA FS
65

Prevention and Control

Do not plant Japanese or European barberry. No biological control is 

available for this plant. Wearing thick gloves to protect from spines, 

young plants can be pulled up by hand. A Weed Wrench® can be used 

to uproot older shrubs when soil is moist. Shrubs can also be mowed 

or cut repeatedly. Treatment with systemic herbicides like glyphosate 

and triclopyr has been very effective (see Control Options).

Japanese Meadowsweet ___________________ Spiraea japonica L. f.

Rose family (Rosaceae)

Origin: Japan, Korea and China

Background

Also called Japanese spiraea, it was 

introduced into the United States 

around 1870 to 1880 for ornamental 

cultivation due to its showy rosy-pink 

to carmine flowers.

Distribution and Habitat

Japanese meadowsweet is found 

throughout the mid-Atlantic and in the Southeast, most commonly in 

the Appalachian Mountains. Great Smoky Mountains National Park 

identifies it as a targeted invasive plant. It tolerates a wide range 

of soil and light conditions and inhabits forest edges and interiors, 

riparian areas, roadsides, power-line rights-of-way and other 

disturbed areas. It is often associated with old home sites.

Ecological Threat

Japanese meadowsweet grows rapidly and can form dense stands, 

filling in open areas and creating dense shade. It displaces native 

plants and impedes native seedlings.

SHRUBS & SUBSHRUBS

Jil M. Swearingen, NPS

Bill Johnson
66

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: small, deciduous shrub, 4-6 ft. tall, brown to red-brown 

stems.

•	 Leaves: alternate, oval to lance-shaped, 3-6 in. long, dark green 

above, pubescent on veins beneath, coarsely toothed margins.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers small pink (rarely white) in 

dense branched umbel-like clusters at the tips of branches, July 

to August; fruits mature in the fall.

•	 Spreads: by seed which is produced in abundance.

•	 Look-alikes: native white meadowsweet (Spiraea alba) which 

has white flowers in narrow branched clusters; exotic invasive 

Thunberg’s meadowsweet (S. thunbergii) and bridalwreath 

spiraea (S. prunifolia).

Prevention

Do not plant this species. Cutting may be effective for small 

populations or environmentally sensitive areas. Repeated mowing 

or cutting will control the spread of spiraea but will not eradicate it. 

Systemic herbicides containing glyphosate or triclopyr are effective 

(see Control Options).

Native Alternatives

White meadowsweet (Spiraea alba), ninebark (Physocarpus 

opulifolius), sweet pepperbush (Clethra alnifolia), silky dogwood 

(Cornus amomum), Virginia sweetspire (Itea virginica), and 

leatherleaf (Dirca palustris) are some great substitutes for this 

invasive plant.

Linden Viburnum __________________________ Viburnum dilatatum Thunb.

Honeysuckle family (Caprifoliaceae)

Origin: Korea and eastern Asia

Background

Linden viburnum was introduced in the early 1800s as an ornamental.

Distribution and Habitat

It occurs in scattered locations throughout the mid-Atlantic region 

from New York to Virginia and has been reported to be invasive in 

natural areas in Virginia. It grows in disturbed forests and wetlands.

Ecological Threat

Shrubs can grow over 15 ft. high in thickets that cast dense shade, 

suppressing native shrubs, small trees and herbaceous vegetation. A 

dense cover of young plants produced from seed and vegetative regrowth often blankets the ground in infested areas. Linden viburnum 

SHRUBS & SUBSHRUBS
67

leafs out earlier in the spring and keeps its leaves later into the fall 

than most native vegetation, giving it a competitive advantage.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: scruffy multi-stemmed deciduous shrub, upright to 

rounded, 8-10 ft. tall by 6-10 ft. across.

•	 Leaves: opposite, dark green, shiny, with shallowly toothed 

margins, nearly round to straplike, 2-5 in. long by 1-21⁄2 in. wide; 

usually covered in soft hairs; leaves drop relatively late in the fall.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: small creamy white flowers in 

numerous flattened clusters 3-5 in. wide; May to early June; fruits 

are bright red, flattened spheres, about 1/3 in. wide.

•	 Spreads: by seed that is consumed and spread by birds.

•	 Look-alikes: other viburnums and other opposite-leaved shrubs.

Prevention and Control

Do not plant linden viburnum. Cutting should be avoided in spring 

because cut branches can reproduce by layering (when a new plant 

forms from development of roots on a stem attached to the parent 

plant). Use of a systemic herbicide containing glyphosate or triclopyr 

will prevent resprouting (see Control Options). Seedlings can be 

pulled up by hand. Seed heads should be removed from mature plants 

to prevent seed dispersal and seedling establishment.

Native Alternatives

Native shrubs including American cranberrybush (Viburnum opulus

var. americanum), Southern arrowwood (Viburnum dentatum), 

mapleleaf viburnum (Viburnum acerifolium), red elderberry 

(Sambucus racemosa), and winterberry (Ilex verticillata) would 

make great substitutes for this invasive plant.

SHRUBS & SUBSHRUBS

Mary Travaglini, TNC Bill Johnson
68

Morrow’s Honeysuckle _____________________ Lonicera morrowii A. Gray

Honeysuckle family (Caprifoliaceae)

Origin: Japan and South Korea

Background

Morrow’s honeysuckle was imported 

in the 1800s for use as an ornamental, 

for wildlife food and cover as well 

as for soil erosion control. Widely 

planted through the 20th century it is 

recognized as highly invasive species 

impacting natural areas as well as 

managed parks, gardens and other 

lands.

Distribution and Habitat

Morrow’s honeysuckle is fairly 

common in the mid-Atlantic region, 

often co-occurring with Amur 

honeysuckle. It is found from Wisconsin to Maine and Missouri to 

North Carolina. It is shade tolerant but will flower and fruit more in 

full sun. Morrow’s honeysuckle invades forest edges and interiors, 

floodplains, pastures, old fields, roadsides and other disturbed areas.

Ecological Threat

Morrow’s honeysuckle forms dense thickets and outcompetes and 

displaces native shrubs, trees and herbaceous plants. Its dense 

growth can impede reforestation efforts. It invades open woodlands, 

old fields and other disturbed sites and can spread rapidly with 

help from birds and mammals which disperse its seeds. Like Amur 

honeysuckle, Morrow’s honeysuckle likely also encourages increased 

nest predation due to its branching structure. While the fruits of 

exotic honeysuckles provide some nutrition for birds and mice in 

winter, their carbohydrate-rich quality is no match for the lipid-rich 

fruits of many native species that sustain migrating birds.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: multi-stemmed, upright, deciduous shrub that grows to 7 

ft. tall; pith of mature stems is hollow and white or tan in contrast 

to solid white pith of native shrub honeysuckle species.

•	 Leaves: opposite, 1-2 in. long, elliptic to oblong, on short stalks, 

sparsely hairy above, permanently hairy underneath.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers are paired, borne from leaf 

axils, white, tubular (lower half) with 5 separate (unfused) petal 

lobes, spring (late April-early May); fruits paired, red to orange, 

SHRUBS & SUBSHRUBS

Bill Johnson
69

many-seeded berries mature in July and persist through the 

winter.

•	 Spreads: by seed which is spread by birds that consume the fruits 

and defecate the seeds in new locations; vegetative sprouting aids 

in local spread.

•	 Look-alikes: native bush honeysuckles (Diervilla sp.), hairy 

honeysuckle (L. hirsuta), swamp fly-honeysuckle (L. oblongifolia) 

and water-berry (L. villosa).

Prevention and Control

Young plants can be pulled by hand, larger plants either pulled 

using weed wrench-type tool or cut repeatedly. Systemic herbicides 

containing glyphosate or triclopyr can be applied to foliage, bark or 

cut stems (see Control Options).

Native Alternatives

Other native honeysuckles including American fly honeysuckle 

(L. canadensis), swamp fly-honeysuckle (L. oblongifolia) and 

mountain fly honeysuckle (L. villosa) and the related northern bushhoneysuckle (Diervilla lonicera) can be alternatives for Morrow’s 

honeysuckle.

Multiflora Rose ____________________________ Rosa multiflora Thunb. ex Murr.

Rose family (Rosaceae)

Origin: Japan, Korea and Eastern 

China

Background

Multiflora rose was introduced 

to the eastern United States in 

1866 as rootstock for ornamental 

roses. Beginning in the 1930s, 

the U.S. Soil Conservation 

Service promoted it for use in 

erosion control and as “living 

fences” to confine livestock. State 

conservation departments recommended multiflora rose as cover for 

wildlife. More recently, it has been planted in highway median strips 

to serve as crash barriers and reduce automobile headlight glare. 

Its tenacious growth habit was eventually recognized as a problem 

on pastures and unplowed lands, where it disrupted cattle grazing, 

and, more recently, as a pest of natural ecosystems. It is designated 

a noxious weed in several states, including Iowa, Ohio, New Jersey, 

Pennsylvania and West Virginia.

SHRUBS & SUBSHRUBS

Bill Johnson, James Miller (inset)
70

Distribution and Habitat

Multiflora rose occurs throughout the eastern half of the United 

States and in Washington and Oregon. It tolerates a wide range of 

soil, moisture and light conditions and is able to invade fields, forests, 

prairies, some wetlands and many other habitats. 

Ecological Threat

Multiflora rose grows aggressively and produces large numbers of 

fruits (hips) that are eaten and dispersed by a variety of birds. Dense 

thickets of multiflora rose exclude most native shrubs and herbs from 

establishing and may be detrimental to nesting of native birds.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: multi-stemmed shrub, sometimes climbing vine, with 

arching stems and recurved thorns.

•	 Leaves: divided into five to eleven sharply toothed leaflets; leaf 

stalks with fringed stipules (paired wing-like structures).

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: clusters of showy, fragrant, white to 

pinkish, 1 in. wide flowers appear during May; small bright red 

fruits, or rose hips, develop during the summer and remain on the 

plant through the winter.

•	 Spreads: reproduces by seed and by forming new plants from the 

tips of arching canes that can root where they contact the ground. 

An average plant produces an estimated one million seeds per 

year, which remain viable in the soil for up to 20 years.

•	 Look-alikes: pasture rose (Rosa carolina); swamp rose (Rosa 

palustris); Allegheny blackberry (Rubus allegheniensis); 

flowering raspberry (Rubus odoratus). Only multiflora rose has 

the combination of upright arching stems and fringed stipules.

Prevention and Control

Do not plant multiflora rose. Effective control of multiflora is 

possible using chemical, manual, or mechanical means or, preferably, 

a combination. Frequent, repeated cutting or mowing at the rate of 

three to six times per growing season, for two to four years, has been 

shown to be very effective. In high-quality natural communities, 

cutting of individual plants may be preferable to minimize habitat 

disturbance. Because of the long-lived stores of seed in the soil, 

follow-up treatments are necessary. Application of a systemic 

glyphosate-based herbicide to freshly cut stems, to regrowth, or 

to foliage is very effective, especially if done late in the growing 

season (see Control Options). Two naturally-occurring controls affect 

multiflora rose to some extent. A native virus (rose-rosette disease) 

spread by a tiny native mite impedes stem growth and a non-native 

seed-infesting wasp, the European rose chalcid, causes damage to the 

seeds.

SHRUBS & SUBSHRUBS
71

Privets__________________________________ Border privet - Ligustrum obtusifolium Sieb. & Zucc.

California privet - L. ovalifolium Hassk.

Chinese privet - L. sinense Lour.

European privet - L. vulgare L.

Olive Family (Oleaceae)

Origin: Japan (Border); Japan and 

South Korea (California); China 

(Chinese); Europe, Morocco, Western 

Asia and Caucasus (European)

Background

There are no species of Ligustrum

native to the U.S. Privets have been 

introduced to the U.S. since the 1800s 

and some species even earlier. They 

are commonly used as hedges in 

yards, gardens and other landscapes 

from which they have escaped and 

are now well established in the wild.

Distribution and Habitat

All four privet species featured here 

have been reported to be invasive 

in the mid-Atlantic region; some are 

recognized as invasive elsewhere 

in the eastern U.S. and nationwide. 

They thrive in floodplains, fields, 

disturbed forests and forest edges.

Ecological Threat

Privets form dense thickets that shade out and take the place of 

native shrubs and herbaceous plants. The shady thickets make 

conditions unsuitable for native seedlings. Phenolic compounds in the 

leaves protect plants from leaf-feeding insects which include native 

herbivorous species.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: deciduous or semi-evergreen shrubs that grow from 8-20 

ft. tall; trunks with multiple stems with long leafy branches; the 

presence or absence of hairs and type of hairs on stems is helpful 

in distinguishing species.

•	 Leaves: opposite, simple, entire, short-stalked, ranging in length 

from 1-3 in. and varying in shape from oval, elliptic to oblong.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers small, white and tubular with 

four petals and occur in clusters at branch tips; fragrant; late 

SHRUBS & SUBSHRUBS

Chris Evans, River to River CWMA (L. sinense)
72

spring to early summer (May to July); length of corolla tube 

length ranges from 1/10 in. (Chinese) to 1⁄4 in. (border); anthers 

exceed the corolla lobes (Chinese and California); fruit is small 

black to blue-black oval to spherical drupe (i.e., a fleshy fruit with 

1-several stony seeds inside), mature late summer to fall.

•	 Spreads: by birds that consume fruits and excrete seeds undamaged in new locations; can spread locally through root sprouting.

Prevention and Control

Do not plant privets. Small plants can be dug out pulled out by 

hand or with the help of a mattock or heavy Weed Wrench® type 

tool. Larger plants can be cut repeatedly or treated with a systemic 

herbicide. Herbicide can be sprayed on foliage or applied to bark or 

cut stems and stumps (see Control Options). No biological controls 

are available for any of these species. Known pests that affect 

privets include a foliage-feeding insect native to Europe (Macrophya 

punctumalbum), a fungal leaf spot (Pseudocercospora ligustri) and a 

common root crown bacteria (Agrobacterium tume-faciens).

Wineberry _______________________________ Rubus phoenicolasius Maxim.

Rose family (Rosaceae)

Origin: Japan, Korea and China

Background

Wineberry, or wine raspberry, is 

a spiny shrub that was introduced 

into the United States in 1890 as 

breeding stock for new Rubus

(raspberry genus) cultivars and 

still used today by berry breeders. It is prized for its delicious 

edible raspberry-like berries that 

are produced in abundance in 

summer.

SHRUBS & SUBSHRUBS

Bill Johnson (L. vulgare) James H. Miller, USDA FS (L. sinense)

Bill Johnson
73

Distribution and Habitat

Wineberry is found from New England and eastern Canada to North 

Carolina and west to Michigan and Tennessee. It occurs along forest, 

field, stream and wetland edges and in open woods, preferring moist 

habitats. 

Ecological Threat

Wineberry forms dense shady thickets that displace native plants and 

significantly alter habitat structure.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: multi-stemmed shrub with spiny stems densely covered 

with reddish, glandular hairs, also on flowering stems and buds.

•	 Leaves: alternate, divided into three leaflets with toothed margins, terminal leaflet largest; undersides conspicuously white.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers with five white petals occur in 

springtime; bright red edible berries produced in early summer.

•	 Spreads: by seed that is consumed and dispersed by birds and 

mammals (including humans) and by vegetative means when new 

plants grow from the tips of canes that touch the ground and new 

plants sprout from root buds.

Prevention and Control

Do not plant wineberry. It can be controlled through mechanical 

means or by treating the canes with a systemic herbicide like 

glyphosate or triclopyr (see Control Options).

Native Alternatives

Native blackberries and non-invading cultivated raspberry would be 

good alternatives.

Winged Burning Bush ______________________ Euonymus alatus (Thunb.) Sieb.

Bittersweet Family (Celastraceae)

Origin: Northeastern Asia, Japan and 

Central China

Background

Winged burning bush, also known as 

winged wahoo and winged euonymus, 

was introduced to the U.S. around 

1860 as an ornamental plant for use 

in landscaping. Despite its invasive 

nature, it remains very popular 

and is widely sold for its hardiness, 

winged stems and intense red foliage 

SHRUBS & SUBSHRUBS

Bill Johnson
74

in the fall. It is ubiquitous and can be found planted along roadways, 

at commercial and industrial sites and in park and residential 

landscapes.

Distribution and Habitat

In the United States, winged burning bush is found from New 

England to northern Florida and the Gulf Coast and also in Illinois. 

Ecological Threat

It threatens a variety of habitats including forests, coastal scrublands 

and prairies where it forms dense thickets, displacing many native 

woody and herbaceous plant species. Hundreds of seedlings are often 

found below the parent plant in what is termed a “seed shadow.”

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: multiple stemmed, angular branching shrub with 

conspicuously winged stems, normally 5-10 ft. high but mature 

plants can grow to 20 ft.

•	 Leaves: deciduous, dark green, in pairs along stem, turn brilliant 

red-purple in autumn.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: inconspicuous, greenish flowers occur 

in late spring and red-purple fruits mature during summer.

•	 Spreads: expands locally through vegetative reproduction and to 

new areas through bird dispersal of seeds.

•	 Look-alikes: may be confused with other species of euonymus 

including our native strawberry bush (Euonymus americana), 

also called ‘hearts-a-bustin,’ which has green non-winged stems. 

Saplings of native sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) with 

winged stems may be mistaken for winged burning bush.

Prevention and Control

Do not plant winged burning bush. Manual, mechanical and chemical 

means are available to control established plantings. Seedlings can 

be pulled by hand. Shrubs can be repeatedly cut to the ground to 

control re-sprouts, or cut and treated with systemic herbicides like 

glyphosate and triclopyr (see Control Options).

SHRUBS & SUBSHRUBS

Bill Johnson
75

CONTROL OPTIONS

GENERAL GUIDANCE FOR MOST SHRUBS

Use pesticides wisely: always read the entire pesticide label 

carefully, follow all mixing and application instructions and wear all 

recommended personal protective gear and clothing. Contact your 

state department of agriculture for any additional pesticide use 

requirements, restrictions or recommendations. Notice: mention of 

a trade name does not constitute the endorsement of the product by 

authors, agencies or organizations involved in the production of this 

publication.

Chemical

Two of the more widely used systemic herbicides are glyphosate 

and triclopyr. Systemic herbicides are absorbed by plant tissues and 

carried to the roots causing the entire plant to die usually within 

about a week. Glyphosate is a non-selective herbicide that may kill 

or harm any plants that come in contact with the spray. It carries 

a Caution signal word and requires long-sleeved shirt, long pants, 

shoes and socks during application. Glyphosate products referred to 

in this publication are sold under a variety of brand names (Accord®, 

Rodeo®, Roundup Pro® Concentrate) and in three concentrations 

(41.0, 50.2 and 53.8% active ingredient). Other glyphosate products 

sold at home improvement stores may be too dilute to obtain effective 

control. 

Triclopyr is a selective herbicide that affects only broadleaf plants 

(e.g., forbs, shrubs and trees) and can be used in grasslands or areas 

where desirable grasses are growing under or around targeted 

woody or broad-leaved invasives. Use of triclopyr in areas where 

soils are permeable, particularly where the water table is shallow, can 

result in groundwater contamination. Triclopyr comes in two forms 

– triclopyr amine (e.g., Garlon® 3A, Brush-B-Gone®, Brush Killer®) 

and triclopyr ester (e.g., Garlon® 4, Pathfinder®, and Vinex®). They 

are very different products with very different specific uses, hazards 

and precautions. Triclopyr amine mixes with water and can be used 

near water without posing a threat to aquatic organisms and can be 

used as a cut stem treatment at a 50% rate or a foliar treatment at 5% 

rate. It is not effective for basal bark treatments. However, the amine 

form of triclopyr carries a Danger signal word due to its corrosive 

properties which, in concentrated form, can cause irreversible eye 

damage. For this reason, it should only be used by trained and 

certified applicators who are familiar with this hazard and know the 

precautions that need to be taken when using it.

SHRUBS & SUBSHRUBS
76

The ester form of triclopyr (e.g., Garlon® 4) carries a Warning signal 

word for the potential to cause skin and eye irritation but is not 

known to cause irreparable eye damage. Because it is toxic to aquatic 

invertebrates, it cannot be used near water or in wet soils. Garlon® 4 

can be used for foliar, cut stem and basal bark applications. Due to the 

high potential for volatilization and offsite drift, triclopyr should not 

be used when the temperature is above 85°F. Drift can result in kill 

of non-target trees and other woody vegetation. It is imperative that 

protective eyewear and chemical resistant gloves be worn in addition 

to long-sleeve shirt, long pants, shoes and socks, during mixing and 

application. Always read the entire label before using any pesticide.

Basal Bark Method: This method is effective throughout the year as 

long as the ground is not frozen. While reducing the total amount 

of herbicide mixture applied to the environment, it requires a much 

more concentrated mix than that used for foliar applications. Prepare 

a mixture of 25% triclopyr plus 75% horticultural oil and apply to the 

basal parts of the shrub to a height of about a foot from the ground. 

Thorough wetting is necessary for good control; spray until run-off 

is noticeable at the ground line. A dye added to the mixture will help 

keep track of treated plants.

Cut Stem Method: This method and basal bark should be considered 

when treating individual plants or when target plants are mixed 

in with desirable species which would preclude foliar treatment. 

It is usually effective as long as the ground is not frozen. As with 

basal bark treatment, it reduces the total amount of herbicide 

mixture applied to the environment but requires use of a much 

more concentrated mix than that used for foliar applications. Cut 

stems at or near ground level and immediately apply a 25% solution 

of glyphosate or triclopyr mixed in water to the cut stump surface, 

making sure to cover the entire surface. As with basal bark, a dye 

added to the mix will help keep track of treated plants.

Foliar: Because this method involves applying herbicide mix to foliage 

(leaves), it should be considered mostly for large infestations where 

the risk to non-target species is minimal. The best time to treat is 

late fall or early spring when targeted plants are shifting resources 

toward the roots and many native species are dormant. Foliar 

application can be done almost anytime but air temperature should 

be above 65°F to ensure absorption of the herbicide mix. To allow 

ample drying time applications should be made when rain is unlikely 

for about 12 hours after application and leaves should be dry prior 

to treatment. Wind speed should be below 8-10 mph to avoid off-site 

drift. Apply a 2% solution of glyphosate or triclopyr and water plus a 

0.5% non-ionic surfactant to thoroughly wet all leaves. Mix should not 

SHRUBS & SUBSHRUBS
77

be dripping off leaves. Use a low pressure and coarse spray pattern 

to reduce spray-drift damage to non-target species. To avoid drift, 

triclopyr and glyphosate should be applied when winds are below 

about 8 mph. If desirable trees are nearby, a no-spray buffer area 

should be established to protect non-target plants.

Manual

Hand pulling is an effective method for many shrubs when in the 

young seedling stage, after which a tool or other method is often 

needed to remove strong roots. Plants should be pulled as soon 

as they are large enough to grasp but before they produce seeds. 

Seedlings are best pulled after a rain when the soil is loose. Larger 

stems, up to 6 cm (21⁄2 in), can be removed using a Weed Wrench® 

or similar uprooting tool. For most species, the entire root should be 

removed to avoid resprouting.

Mechanical

Cutting or mowing is appropriate for small infestations or 

environmentally sensitive areas where herbicides cannot be used. It 

is not generally recommended for plants that resprout heavily unless 

cutting can be repeated and plants monitored until the targeted 

invasive has been eliminated. Ideally, cutting is most effective when 

combined with an application of herbicide to cut surfaces. Stems 

should be cut at least once and preferably multiple times per growing 

season and as close to ground level as possible.

AMUR HONEYSUCKLE ________________________________________ See General Guidance.

AUTUMN OLIVE _____________________________________________ See General Guidance.

Basal bark. Seedlings, saplings, and mature trees can be killed using 

triclopyr ester (e.g. Garlon® 4) as a basal bark treatment which is 

very effective. This method involves spraying herbicide directly 

onto the lower 2 feet of each stem with triclopyr (e.g. Garlon® 4 

or RemedyTM). It minimizes soil disturbance and maintains other 

desirable vegetation. Applications should completely wet the entire 

circumference of all stems or clumps of stems, but not to the point of 

run-off. For saplings, apply Garlon® 4 as a 20 percent solution (2.5 

qts. per 3 gal. water) in horticultural oil with a penetrant (check with 

herbicide distributor) to young bark as a basal spray.

Cut stump. First cut the stem/trunk as close to the ground as possible, 

then immediately (within a few minutes) brush-on or squirt a 50% 

Garlon® 4 onto the cambium layer of the cut-stump. This can also be 

done as a hack and squirt type application. 

SHRUBS & SUBSHRUBS
78

Foliar. This method works well on seedlings and saplings and 

works best when applied July to October. These are directed spray 

treatments with limited soil activity. Thoroughly wet all leaves with 

a glyphosate-based herbicide (e.g., Accord®) or triclopyr-based 

herbicide (Garlon® 4) as a 2-percent solution (8 oz. herbicide per 3 

gal. water) with a surfactant.

JAPANESE BARBERRY ________________________________________ Chemical

See General Guidance.

Because Japanese barberry leafs out early, it is easy to identify and 

begin removal efforts in early spring. Small plants can be pulled by 

hand, using thick gloves to avoid injury from the spines. The root 

system is shallow making it easy to pull plants from the ground, and 

it is important to get the entire root system. The key is to pull when 

the soil is damp and loose. Young plants can be dug up individually 

using a hoe or shovel. Hand pulling and using a shovel to remove 

plants up to about 3 ft. high is effective if the root system is loosened 

up around the primary tap root first before digging out the whole 

plant. Mechanical removal using a hoe or Weed Wrench® can be very 

effective and may pose the least threat to non-target species and 

the general environment at the site. Tools like the Weed Wrench® 

are helpful for uprooting larger or older shrubs. Shrubs can also be 

mowed or cut repeatedly. If time does not allow for complete removal 

of barberry plants at a site, mowing or cutting in late summer prior 

to seed production is advisable.

JAPANESE MEADOWSWEET ___________________________________ See General Guidance.

Japanese meadowsweet resprouts after cutting, making repeated 

cutting necessary to exhaust the plants energy reserves. Stems 

should be cut at least once per growing season, prior to seed 

production, and cut as close to ground level as possible.

LINDEN VIBURNUM __________________________________________ See General Guidance.

Cutting should be avoided in spring because cut branches can 

reproduce by layering (when a new plant forms from development 

of roots on a stem attached to the parent plant). Use of systemic 

herbicides like glyphosate or triclopyr will prevent resprouting. 

Seedlings can be pulled up by hand. Seed heads should be removed 

from mature plants to prevent seed dispersal and seedling 

establishment.

SHRUBS & SUBSHRUBS
79

MORROW’S HONEYSUCKLE ____________________________________ See General Guidance. 

MULTIFLORA ROSE ___________________________________________ See General Guidance.

Biological

Biological control is not yet available for management of multiflora 

rose. However, researchers are investigating several options, 

including a native viral pathogen (rose-rosette disease), which is 

spread by a tiny native mite, and a seed-infesting wasp, the European 

rose chalcid. Rose-rosette disease, native to the western U.S., has 

been spreading easterwardly at a slow pace. It may hold some 

potential for eliminating multiflora rose in areas where it grows in 

dense patches. 

PRIVETS ___________________________________________________ See General Guidance.

WINGED BURNING BUSH _____________________________________ See General Guidance.

SHRUBS & SUBSHRUBS
80

Callery Pear ______________________________ Pyrus calleryana Dcne.

Rose family (Rosaceae)

Origin: China and Vietnam

Background

Callery pear was imported 

multiple times to the 

U.S., including the first 

introduction in 1909 to the 

Arnold Arboretum and 

an introduction in 1916 by 

the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture for development 

of fire blight resistance in 

the common pear (Pyrus 

communis), which was 

devastating the commercial 

pear industry. It was widely 

planted as a rootstock for 

common pear long before 

it gained interest as an 

ornamental. Around 1950, 

the ornamental value and hardiness of Callery pear were recognized, 

leading to the development of a number of cultivars, including 

‘Bradford.’ Cultivars in the U.S. originated from China and represent 

different genotypes. While some genotypes are self-incompatible, 

meaning they require cross pollination from another genotype 

in order to set seed, others can pollinate themselves. Different 

genotypes growing near each other (e.g., within about 300 ft.) can 

cross-pollinate and produce fruit with viable seed. Also, cultivars are 

often grafted onto seed-grown rootstocks with varying genotypes; 

if the plant produces shoots from the rootstock (which it often does), 

then these shoots and the graft can pollinate one another. Thus, the 

Bradford pear cultivar is one of several cultivars (varieties) of Callery 

pear capable of spreading and being invasive. Pyrus calleryana

‘Bradford’ is one genotype. It is propagated asexually (by grafting 

and cuttings) and does not change over time. Any plant resulting 

from a seed produced by Pyrus calleryana ‘Bradford’ is a different 

genotype of Pyrus calleryana and not a member of any cultivar 

(unless somebody propagates that seedling and names it as a new 

cultivar). The plants that spread in natural areas are not cultivars. 

They are sexually reproducing populations consisting of multiple 

genotypes that recombine every generation.

TREES

Bill Johnson
81

Distribution and Habitat

Callery pear occurs throughout the eastern U.S. from New Jersey to 

Illinois and south to Texas. It grows best in full sun but will tolerate 

some shading and drought.

Ecological Threat

Once established Callery pear forms dense thickets that push out 

other plants including native species that can’t tolerate the deep 

shade or compete with pear for water, soil and space. A single tree 

can spread rapidly by seed and vegetative means forming a sizeable 

patch within several years. Its success as an invader results from 

its capacity to produce copious amounts of seed that is dispersed 

by birds and possibly small mammals, seedlings that germinate and 

grow rapidly in disturbed areas and a general lack of natural controls 

like insects and diseases, with the exception of fire blight.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: 30-50 ft. tall, 20-30 ft. wide; young trees may be thorny.

•	 Leaves: deciduous, alternate, simple, broad-ovate to ovate, 11⁄2-3 

in. long; shiny dark green and leathery, small round-toothed 

margins; scarlet, mahogany, purple hues in fall.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers in early spring before the 

leaves, white with five petals, about 1 in. across; fruits mature in 

fall and are small, hard, brown, and almost woody.

•	 Spreads: by seeds that are dispersed to new locations by starlings 

and other birds that eat the fruits.

•	 Look-alikes: apple and crabapple (Malus); basswood (Tilia).

Prevention and Control

Do not plant Callery pear or any cultivars including the well known 

Bradford pear. Seedlings and shallow-rooted plants can be pulled 

when soil is moist. Medium to large trees should be cut down and 

stumps treated with a systemic glyphosate or triclopyr-based herbicide (see Control Options).

Native Alternatives

Several native trees would make excellent substitutes for Callery 

pear, including common serviceberry (Amelanchier arborea), Allegheny serviceberry (Amelanchier laevis), cockspur hawthorne (Crataegus crus-galli), green hawthorne (C. viridis) and the native sweet 

crabapple (Malus coronaria), although its availability may be limited 

currently.

TREES
82

Norway Maple ____________________________ Acer platanoides L.

Maple family (Aceraceae)

Origin: Europe and Western Asia

Background

Norway maple was introduced for use as an ornamental landscape 

plant.

Distribution and Habitat

John Bartram of Philadelphia first introduced Norway maple 

from England to the U.S. in 1756 and soon began offering it for 

sale. It was planted on farms and in towns for its shade, hardiness 

and adaptability to adverse conditions. Norway maple has been 

reported to be invasive throughout the northeastern U.S. from 

Maine to Wisconsin, south to Tennessee and Virginia and also in the 

Pacific Northwest. Over time, as reforestation occurred across the 

Northeast, Norway maple joined native tree species as a component 

of eastern forest ecosystems. It also escaped from town plantings.

Ecological Threat

Norway maple forms monotypic populations by displacing native 

trees, shrubs, and herbaceous understory plants. Once established, it 

creates a canopy of dense shade that prevents regeneration of native 

seedlings. Although thought to have allelopathic properties (meaning 

that the plant releases toxins that inhibit or prevent the growth of 

other plants), research has not been able to confirm this.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: broad deciduous tree up to 90 ft. in height with broadlyrounded crown; bark is smooth at first but becomes black, ridged 

and furrowed with age; milky sap.

•	 Leaves: paired, deciduous, dark green, palmate (like a hand), 

broader across than from base to tip, marginal teeth with long 

hair-like tips.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers in spring, bright yellow-green; 

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Jan Samanek, State Phytosanitary Administration Paul Wray, IA State Univ.
83

fruits mature during summer into paired winged “samaras” 

joined broadly at nearly 180° angle; milky sap will ooze from cut 

veins or petiole.

•	 Spreads: to new areas by vegetative reproduction and seed.

•	 Look-alikes: other maples including sugar maple (Acer 

saccharum) and red maple (Acer rubrum). Distinguish Norway 

by milky white sap, broad leaves, hair-like leaf tips, samara wings 

straight out, yellow fall foliage.

Prevention and Control

Don’t plant Norway maple. Seedlings can be pulled by hand and small 

to large trees can be cut to the ground, repeating as necessary to 

control any re-growth from sprouts (see Control Options).

Native Alternatives

Native maples like sugar maple (Acer saccharum) and red maple 

(Acer rubrum) would be good substitutes for this invasive tree.

Paper Mulberry ___________________________ Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Her. ex Vent.

Mulberry family (Moraceae)

Origin: Japan and Taiwan

Background

Paper mulberry was introduced for use as a fast-growing shade tree. Native Pacific 

cultures use it to make bark 

cloth.

Distribution and Habitat

Found from Illinois to Massachusetts, south to Florida and 

west to Texas, paper mulberry invades open habitats 

such as forest and field edges. 

Internationally, it is identified 

as an invasive weed in over a 

dozen countries.

Ecological Threat

Once established it grows vigorously, displacing native plants 

through competition and shading. If left unmanaged, paper mulberry 

can dominate a site. Its shallow root system makes it susceptible to 

blowing over during high winds, posing a hazard to people and causing slope erosion and further degradation of an area.

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Bill Johnson
84

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: deciduous tree with milky sap that grows to a maximum 

height of about 45 ft. (15 m.); twigs of paper mulberry are 

hairy reddish brown, the bark is tan and smooth to moderately 

furrowed, the wood is soft and brittle, and it has conical buds; 

stems and leaves hirsute.

•	 Leaves: alternate, opposite, and whorled, densely gray-pubescent, often 3-15-lobed (the lobes sometimes deep), with leaf 

margins sharply toothed, and leaf base heart-shaped to rounded; 

upper leaf surface is somewhat rough feeling.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: separate 

male and female flowers appear in the 

spring; male flower clusters are elongate, 

pendulous, 21⁄2-3 in. long, and composed of 

many individual flowers; female flowers 

are globular and about 1 in. diameter; 

fruits are reddish purple to orange, 3⁄4-1 

in. across, mature in summer.

•	 Spreads: by seed and by vegetative 

growth through sprouting.

•	 Look-alikes: exotic invasive white mulberry (Morus alba) and 

native trees including red mulberry (Morus rubra), American 

basswood (Tilia americana) and sassafras (Sassafras albidum), 

due to a shared leaf form.

Native Alternatives

Basswood (Tilia heterophylla) and sassafras (Sassafras albidum) 

have similar foliage and form and grow in similar places as paper 

mulberry.

Princess Tree _____________________________ Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) Sieb. & Zucc. ex Steud.

Figwort family (Scrophulariaceae)

Origin: Central and Western China

Background

Also known as empress tree or royal 

paulownia, it was imported to Europe 

by the Dutch East India Company in 

the 1830s and to North America soon 

after. Historical records describe 

important medicinal, ornamental and 

timber uses of Princess tree as early 

as the 3rd century B.C. Its ability to 

sprout prolifically from adventitious 

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Amy Richard, UFL

Bill Johnson
85

buds on stems and roots allows it to survive fire, cutting and even 

bulldozing in construction areas. It is highly prized for carving.

Distribution and Habitat

Princess tree occurs throughout much of the eastern United States 

from Texas to New England where it can be found growing along 

roadsides, stream banks and forest edges. It tolerates infertile and 

acid soils and drought conditions and adapts to a wide variety of 

habitats. 

Ecological Threat

Princess tree invades forests, stream banks and some rocky habitats, 

displacing native plant species.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: medium-sized deciduous tree that grows to 30-60 ft. in 

height; twigs are stout, green to brown, and have many lenticels; 

bark is thin, gray-brown with shallow features.

•	 Leaves: paired, large, hairy on upper surfaces, broadly oval to 

heart-shaped and sometimes shallowly three-lobed.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers are showy, pale violet and 

fragrant and produced in conspicuous upright clusters in spring 

before the leaves appear; fruit is a four-compartmented oval 

capsule containing thousands of small winged seeds; capsules 

green, becoming brown and dry as they mature and persist 

through the winter.

•	 Spreads: by seed which is abundant and easily transported long 

distances by wind and water; a single tree is estimated to produce 

twenty million seeds; seeds germinate easily in suitable soil; 

seedlings grow and mature quickly, producing flowers within 8-10 

years.

Prevention and Control

Do not plant princess tree. Young plants can be pulled by hand; cut 

larger trees at ground level with power or manual saw, preferably 

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James H. Miller, USDA FS
86

prior to seed formation to prevent further spread. Systemic herbicides containing glyphosate or triclopyr are effective and can be applied to cut stumps or to bark (see Control Options).

Silk Tree _________________________________ Albizia julibrissin Durazz.

Pea family (Fabaceae)

Origin: Asia

Background

Silk tree, also called silky acacia 

or mimosa tree, was introduced 

to the United States in 1745 for 

use as an ornamental plant.

Distribution and Habitat

Silk tree occurs from California 

across the southern United 

States to New York. It grows 

in disturbed areas such as 

roadsides, forest edges and 

various open habitats. It is a 

hardy plant that tolerates a variety of soil and moisture conditions, 

enhanced by the ability of its roots to produce nitrogen.

Ecological Threat

Silk tree grows vigorously and displaces native trees and shrubs, 

spreading by seed and vegetative means. Once established, silk tree 

is difficult to remove due to its long-lived seeds and its ability to resprout vigorously.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: small deciduous tree that grows 10-50 ft. in height and 

often has multiple trunks; the bark is light brown, nearly smooth, 

thin and has lens-shaped spots along the stem.

•	 Leaves: alternate, twice-pinnately compound, fern-like.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers are pink, fragrant and look like 

pom-poms; flowering occurs in early summer; fruits are flat 6 in. 

long seedpods that develop in the late summer.

•	 Spreads: by seed and vegetative growth.

•	 Look-alikes: honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos) and black locust 

(Robinia pseudoacacia) with leaves that are once-pinnately 

compound.

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87

Prevention and Control

Do not plant silk tree. Trees can be cut at ground level with power or 

manual saws. Cutting is an initial control measure, best done prior 

to seed set, and usually requires follow-up cuttings in combination 

with herbicide treatments due to re-sprouts. Systemic herbicides like 

glyphosate and triclopyr are effective (see Control Options).

Native Alternatives

Serviceberry (Amelanchier arborea), river birch (Betula nigra), 

redbud (Cercis canadensis), fringetree (Chionanthus virginicus) and 

flowering dogwood (Cornus florida).

Tree of Heaven ____________________________ Ailanthus altissima (P. Mill) Swingle

Simaroubaceae Family

Origin: Northeastern and Central China and Taiwan

Background

Also called shumac, stinking sumac, Chinese sumac, and ailanthus, 

it was introduced by a Pennsylvania gardener in 1748 and was made 

available commercially by 1840. It gained some notoriety as the 

species featured in the book “A Tree Grows in Brooklyn,” by Betty 

Smith.

Distribution and Habitat

Tree of heaven is reported to be invasive in natural areas in 30 states 

across continental U.S. and Hawaii. It is highly adaptable to disturbance and a huge range of soil types and conditions, grows best in full 

sun and is tolerant of drought. 

Ecological Threat

A common tree in urban areas where it causes damage to sewers and 

structures, ailanthus poses a greater threat to agriculture and natural ecosystems. It is a vigorous growing tree and prolific seeder that 

establishes dense stands that push out natives. Tree of heaven contains chemicals, including ailanthone, that have been found to have 

strong allelopathic (herbicidal) affects on the growth of other plants 

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Paul Wray, IA State Univ. Bill Johnson
88

which help it establish and spread.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: deciduous tree that can reach 70 ft. in height; twigs with 

smooth, pale gray bark, and twigs that are light chestnut brown, 

especially in the dormant season; dioecious meaning plants are 

either male or female; wood soft, weak, coarse-grained and 

creamy white to light brown in color; leaves, stems and some 

flowers have a strong, unpleasant to offensive odor likened to cat 

urine or rotting peanuts or cashews.

•	 Leaves: alternate, large (1-4 ft. long), compound, with 11-25 

smaller leaflets, each with one to several glandular teeth near the 

base.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: large showy clusters of small yellowish-green flowers produced during June; in summer, flat, twisted, 

single-seeded winged fruits or samaras are produced on female 

trees and may remain on trees for long periods of time; individual 

trees may produce an estimated 325,000 seeds per year.

•	 Spreads: reproduces by seed and by vigorous re-sprouting, 

especially in response to injury such as breakage or cutting.

•	 Look-alikes: compound-leaved shrubs and trees like staghorn 

sumac (Rhus typhina), ash (Fraxinus sp.), black walnut (Juglans 

nigra), and hickory (Carya sp.). Sumac has fuzzy, reddish-brown 

stems and leaves; ash species have opposite leaves; ash, black 

walnut, hickory and sumac leaf margins are completely to mostly 

toothed; black walnuts have large green fruits.

Prevention and Control

Do not plant tree of heaven or spread its seeds when moving soil 

from infested areas. Before attempting control, ensure that you are 

not mistaking a native species like staghorn sumac, ash or walnut 

for tree of heaven. Elimination of tree of heaven requires diligence. 

Targeting large female trees for control will help reduce spread 

by seed. Because vegetative spread by male and female trees will 

continue to be a threat, elimination of all trees must be the long term 

goal. Systemic herbicides with active ingredients like glyphosate and 

triclopyr are most effective and can be applied to bark, cut stems or 

foliage (see Control Options).

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White Mulberry ___________________________ Morus alba L.

Mulberry family (Moraceae)

Origin: China

Background

White mulberry was introduced to 

the U.S. during colonial times for the 

purpose of establishing a silkworm 

industry.

Distribution and Habitat

White mulberry is widespread in 

the U.S., occurring in every state 

of the lower 48 except for Nevada. 

It invades old fields, urban lots, 

roadsides, forest edges, and other 

disturbed areas.

Ecological Threat

White mulberry invades forest edges and disturbed forests and 

open areas, displacing native species. It is slowly outcompeting and 

replacing native red mulberry (Morus rubra) through hybridization 

and possibly through transmission of a harmful root disease.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: deciduous tree, 30-50 ft. tall; young bark, inner bark and 

bark along the roots is bright orange; older bark is grey with 

narrow irregular fissures; bark splits easily; stems are glabrous to 

pubescent, not thorny.

•	 Leaves: alternate, simple, glossy above, toothed, unlobed or 

lobed with one or many, sometimes deep lobes; upper leaf surface 

glossy, glabrous or slightly scabrous; lower leaf surface glabrous, 

or slightly pubescent on the veins and in the vein axils only.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers are produced in Spring; male 

and female flowers are on separate plants; male flowers are 

small, green and occur in 1-2 in. long catkins; female flowers 

are inconspicuous and crowded in short spikes; fruits form from 

female flowers; fruits are multiple-seeded berries that range in 

color from black to pink to white when ripe; contain abundant 

seed--a single tree is estimated to produce twenty million seeds!

•	 Spreads: by seed which is consumed by wildlife and deposited in 

new locations.

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Chris Evans, River to River CWMA
90

•	 Look-alikes: may be confused with native red mulberry (Morus

rubra) which has larger leaves that are dull and rough; basswood 

(Tilia sp.) with unlobed leaves and flowers and fruits on leaf-like 

bracts; sassafras (Sassafras albidum) with smooth-margined 

lobed to unlobed leaves; and paper mulberry (Broussonetia 

papyrifera) with leaves densely gray-pubescent (see pg. 83).

Prevention and Control

White mulberry seedlings can be pulled by hand. Otherwise, cut the 

tree and grind the stump or paint the cut surface with a systemic 

herbicide like glyphosate or girdle the tree (see Control Options).

Native Alternatives

Red maple (Acer rubrum), hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), black gum 

(Nyssa sylvatica) and sassafras (Sassafras albidum).

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John Cardina, The Ohio State Univ. Bill Johnson
91

CONTROL OPTIONS

GENERAL GUIDANCE FOR TREES

Use pesticides wisely: always read the entire pesticide label 

carefully, follow all mixing and application instructions and wear all 

recommended personal protective gear and clothing. Contact your 

state department of agriculture for any additional pesticide use 

requirements, restrictions or recommendations. Notice: mention of 

a trade name does not constitute the endorsement of the product by 

authors, agencies or organizations involved in the production of this 

publication.

While removal of young plants or cutting of some trees may be 

effective for some species, the most effective method for control 

of invasive tree species involves the use of systemic herbicides. 

Herbicides which may be applied as a foliar (to the leaves), basal 

bark, cut stump, or hack-and-squirt treatment. Always be careful 

with herbicide applications in the vicinity of desirable native plants or 

valuable ornamental shrubs and trees. 

Chemical

Two of the more widely used systemic herbicides are glyphosate 

and triclopyr. Systemic herbicides are absorbed by plant tissues and 

carried to the roots causing the entire plant to die usually within 

about a week. Glyphosate is a non-selective herbicide that may kill 

or harm any plants that come in contact with the spray. It carries 

a Caution signal word and requires long-sleeved shirt, long pants, 

shoes and socks during application. Glyphosate products referred to 

in this publication are sold under a variety of brand names (Accord®, 

Rodeo®, Roundup Pro® Concentrate) and in three concentrations 

(41.0, 50.2 and 53.8% active ingredient). Other glyphosate products 

sold at home improvement stores may be too dilute to obtain effective 

control. 

Triclopyr is a selective herbicide that affects only broadleaf plants 

(e.g., forbs, shrubs and trees) and can be used in grasslands or areas 

where desirable grasses are growing under or around targeted 

woody or broad-leaved invasives. Use of triclopyr in areas where 

soils are permeable, particularly where the water table is shallow, can 

result in groundwater contamination. Triclopyr comes in two forms 

– triclopyr amine (e.g., Garlon® 3A, Brush-B-Gone®, Brush Killer®) 

and triclopyr ester (e.g., Garlon® 4, Pathfinder®, and Vinex®). They 

are very different products with very different specific uses, hazards 

and precautions. Triclopyr amine mixes with water and can be used 

near water without posing a threat to aquatic organisms and can be 

used as a cut stem treatment at a 50% rate or a foliar treatment at 5% 

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rate. It is not effective for basal bark treatments. However, the amine 

form of triclopyr carries a Danger signal word due to its corrosive 

properties which, in concentrated form, can cause irreversible eye 

damage. For this reason, it should only be used by trained and 

certified applicators who are familiar with this hazard and know the 

precautions that need to be taken when using it. 

The ester form of triclopyr (e.g., Garlon® 4) carries a Warning signal 

word for the potential to cause skin and eye irritation but is not 

known to cause irreparable eye damage. Because it is toxic to aquatic 

invertebrates, it cannot be used near water or in wet soils. Garlon® 4 

can be used for foliar, cut stem and basal bark applications. Due to the 

high potential for volatilization and offsite drift, triclopyr should not 

be used when the temperature is above 85°F. Drift can result in kill 

of non-target trees and other woody vegetation. It is imperative that 

protective eyewear and chemical resistant gloves be worn in addition 

to long-sleeve shirt, long pants, shoes and socks, during mixing and 

application. Always read the entire label before using any pesticide.

Basal Bark Method. This is one of the easier methods available, does 

not require any cutting, uses a small amount of herbicide mix and is 

effective throughout the year as long as the ground is not frozen. It 

works best during late winter/early spring and in summer. The base 

of the tree must be free of snow, ice, or water on the bark from recent 

rainfall, though precipitation following application is inconsequential. 

Late winter/early spring (February 15 -April 15, Mid-Atlantic) 

is generally the most productive time, since vegetation near the 

base of the trees is usually absent or leafless. Late spring and early 

summer applications (April 15-June 1 in the mid-Atlantic), when 

plant fluids are moving upwards to support new growth, are usually 

not as effective. Application during the summer (June 1-September 

15) works very well as long as vegetation is not a hindrance, and 

allows lower concentrations of herbicide to be used. Fall to midwinter applications (October-January) may be less effective and 

temperatures below 45oF will restrict the use of triclopyr. 

Mix up a solution of 20% (as low as 10% in summer depending on 

objectives) concentration of oil-soluble triclopyr product (e.g., 

Garlon® 4) in 80% oil (mineral oil, or special vegetable oils). A dye 

added to the mixture will help keep track of treated plants. Some 

applicators add a pine oil-based additive (e.g., Cide-Kick® II) at the 

rate of 10%, which helps penetrate the bark and eliminate unpleasant 

odor. Some companies market diluents based on mineral or vegetable 

oils specifically designed for basal bark application, which should be 

considered for use in sensitive areas. Another option is to use a premixed, ready-to-use triclopyr product designed for basal bark (and 

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cut stump) application (e.g., Pathfinder® II). Using a handheld or 

backpack sprayer, apply the mixture in a 12-inch wide band around 

the entire circumference of the tree base with no “skips.” The basal 

bark method is generally used for trees that are less than 6 inches in 

diameter, though slightly larger stems may also be treated effectively 

by thoroughly treating bark up to 24 inches in height. Follow-up 

foliar application (see above) to basal sprouts and root suckers may 

be necessary, depending on the species. 

Cut Stem Method: This method is useful in areas where the trees need 

to be removed from the site and will be cut as part of the process. 

While situations exist that dictate this method over the others given 

above, felling trees is usually less effective in killing the root system, 

slower, more labor intensive, and more hazardous to personnel than 

other methods. This method is likely to be most successful during 

the growing season, with diminishing success through the early fall. 

Dormant season applications may prevent resprouting from the 

stump itself, but will do little to inhibit root suckering. However, at 

any time of year, if the tree must be cut it is better to treat the stump 

than not. 

Cut trees near ground level and immediately apply a 25% solution of 

glyphosate mixed with water or 20% Garlon® 4 plus 80% oil dilutant, 

to the whole cut stump surface and the sides to the ground line. 

As with basal bark, a dye added to the mix will help keep track of 

treated plants. The mixture may be painted on with a paint brush 

or sprayed on using a spray bottle or backpack sprayer. Application 

of herbicide to the cut stumps must be conducted immediately 

after cutting, within 5-15 minutes of the cut with water soluble 

formulations, longer with oil mixtures, to ensure uptake of the 

chemical before the plant seals the cut area off. 

Foliar: Because this method involves applying herbicide mix to foliage 

(leaves), it should be considered for small dense infestations or for 

large infestations where the risk to non-target species is minimal. 

Foliar treatment can be very effective but requires use of larger 

volumes of herbicide mixture and increases the risk of non-target 

impacts. Limitations of the method are the seasonal time frame and 

the need to transport a larger, more dilute mixture. It is typically 

more effective in summer and late season when plants are shifting 

resources downward to roots.

For most plants, use a 2% rate of glyphosate mixed with water 

and a small amount (0.5%, or as per label) of a non-ionic surfactant 

(except for Roundup®, which contains a surfactant) to help the 

spray spread over and penetrate the leaves. A 1.5% rate (4 lb./gal.) 

triclopyr (Garlon® 4) can also be used in this way. The mixture 

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should be applied to leaves and green stems, including sprouts and 

suckers, until thoroughly wet but not to the point of runoff. Use a low 

pressure and coarse spray pattern to reduce spray-drift damage to 

non-target species. To avoid drift, applications should be made when 

winds are below about 8 mph. If desirable trees are nearby, a nospray buffer area should be established to protect non-target plants.

Foliar application can be done almost anytime as long as air 

temperature is above about 65°F (and no higher than 85°F for 

triclopyr) to ensure absorption of the herbicide. To allow ample 

drying, applications should be made when rain is unlikely for about 12 

hours after application and leaves should be dry prior to treatment. 

Wind speed should be below 8-10 mph to avoid off-site drift. 

Hack-and-squirt or injection. This method can be very effective and is 

useful when target trees are mixed in with desirable trees. it requires 

using a hand axe to make downward-angled cuts into the sapwood 

around the tree trunk and squirting about a teaspoon of concentrated 

herbicide into the cut. 

Manual

Young seedlings may be pulled or dug up, preferably when soil is 

moist. Care should be taken to remove the entire plant including the 

roots whenever possible to avoid the possibility of regrowth through 

sprouting.

Mechanical

Cutting can work for many trees unless they are likely to resprout. It 

will need to be done continuously until the plants are no longer found.

CALLERY PEAR ______________________________________________ See General Guidance.

NORWAY MAPLE ____________________________________________ See General Guidance.

PAPER MULBERRY ___________________________________________ See General Guidance.

PRINCESS TREE _____________________________________________ See General Guidance.

SILK TREE __________________________________________________ See General Guidance.

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TREE OF HEAVEN ____________________________________________ See General Guidance.

Elimination of tree of heaven requires diligence, due to its abundant 

seed production, high seed germination rate, and vegetative 

reproduction. Followup monitoring and treatment when needed 

should be an integral part of any serious ailanthus management 

program. Regardless of method selected, treated areas should be 

rechecked one or more times a year and any new suckers or seedlings 

treated (cut, sprayed or pulled) as soon as possible, especially before 

they are able to rebuild root reserves. Establishing a thick cover 

of trees (non-invasive and preferably native) or grass sod will help 

shade out and discourage establishment of ailanthus seedlings. 

Targeting large female trees for control will help reduce spread of 

ailanthus by seed.

Biological

Several fungal pathogens are being investigated as potential agents 

for biological control for tree-of-heaven. Two of these, Verticillium 

dahliae and Fusarium oxysporum, have been isolated from dead 

and dying tree of heaven in New York and in southern and western 

Virginia. Another fungal pathogen, Verticillium albo-atrum, was 

recently confirmed using inoculations in the lab and on canopy field 

trees to be the cause of Ailanthus wilt disease that killed more than 

8,000 trees in south-central Pennsylvania since 2002. Research and 

testing are on-going and none are available at this time.

Chemical

The most effective method of ailanthus control is through the use 

of herbicides, which may be applied as a foliar (to the leaves), basal 

bark, cut stump, or hack and squirt treatment. While it is relatively 

easy to kill the above ground portion of tree of heaven, you need to 

kill or seriously damage the root system to prevent or limit stump 

sprouting and root suckering. Always be extremely careful with 

herbicide applications in the vicinity of valuable ornamental shrubs 

and trees.

Foliar application. See General Guidance. Foliar sprays applied when 

trees are in full leaf are very effective, and should be the method 

of choice where ailanthus size and distribution allow effective 

spray coverage of all foliage without unacceptable contact with 

nearby desirable vegetation or applicator. Where it growing in 

association with other exotic weed species, as is often the case, foliar 

spray allows treatment of the entire area at one time. Use either 

glyphosate or triclopyr mixed with water and a small amount (0.5%, 

or as per label) of a non-ionic surfactant (except for Roundup®, which 

already contains a surfactant) which will help spread the mix and 

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penetrate the leaves. Apply the mixture to leaves and green stems, 

including sprouts and suckers, until thoroughly wet but not to the 

point of runoff. For backpack sprayer applications, 2% glyphosate 

(e.g., Roundup, Accord) applied June 15 to Sep. 15 has worked well 

in the mid-Atlantic region. For higher volume applications using a 

truck-mounted sprayer, concentration can be reduced to 1 or 1.5%. 

Other herbicides which have shown to be effective as foliar treatment 

of Ailanthus include imazapyr (e.g., Arsenal®, Chopper®), and 

metsulfuron methyl (e.g., Escort®), but these products are not 

discussed further here.

Basal bark method. This method works best during late winter/

early spring and in summer. The base of the tree stem must be 

free of snow, ice, or water on the bark from recent rainfall, though 

precipitation following application is inconsequential. Late winter/

early spring (February 15 -April 15, Mid-Atlantic) is generally the 

most productive time, since vegetation near the base of the trees is 

usually absent or leafless. Late spring and early summer applications 

(April 15-June 1, Mid-Atlantic), when plant fluids are moving 

upwards to support new growth, are questionable. Application 

during the summer (June 1-September 15, Mid-Atlantic) works 

very well as long as vegetation is not a hindrance, and allows lower 

concentrations of herbicide to be used. Fall to mid-winter applications 

(October-January) have given poor results. Mix up a solution of 20% 

(as low as 10% in summer depending on objectives) concentration of 

oil-soluble triclopyr product (e.g., Garlon® 4) in 80% oil (mineral oil, 

or other recommended vegetable oils but not diesel or other fuels 

that can pollute groundwater). With these diluents some applicators 

add a pine oil based additive (e.g., Cide-Kick® II) at the rate of 10%, 

which helps penetrate the bark and eliminate any unpleasant odor. 

Some companies market diluents based on mineral or vegetable 

oils specifically designed for basal bark application, which should be 

considered for use in sensitive areas. Using a handheld or backpack 

type sprayer, apply the mixture in a 12 in. wide band around the 

entire circumference of the tree base with no “skips”. The basal 

bark method is generally used for trees that are less than 6 inches in 

diameter, though slightly larger stems may also be treated effectively 

by thoroughly treating bark up to 24 in. in height. Follow-up foliar 

herbicide application (see above) to basal sprouts and root suckers 

may be necessary. Another herbicide which has been shown to 

be effective for basal bark control of ailanthus is imazapyr (e.g., 

Chopper®, Stalker®). This is sometimes used in a combination with 

triclopyr at a concentration of 15% Garlon® 4 and 5% Stalker® in 

80% oil dilutant.

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Hack-and-squirt or injection. This method is very effective and 

minimizes sprouting and suckering when applied during the summer. 

Root suckering will be an increasing problem in the fall, winter and 

spring. The method requires first making downward-angled cuts 

into the sapwood around the tree trunk at a comfortable height, 

using a hand ax. With spray bottle or wand in the other hand, a 

straight (100%) concentration of a water-soluble triclopyr product 

(e.g., Garlon® 3A) is applied into the cuts within a minute or two of 

cutting, applying 1-2 milliliters into each cut (typically 1-2 squirts of 

a trigger squirt bottle) so that the bottom of the cut is covered, but 

liquid doesn’t run out of it. Generally, you would make about 1 hack 

cut for each inch of diameter plus one (i.e., for a 10 in. diameter tree, 

make about 11 cuts). Space the cuts so that about 1-2 in. of uncut 

living tissue remains between them. A continuous line of cuts around 

the trunk would likely cause the tree to go into emergency response 

mode and react by producing basal sprouts and root suckers. For 

this reason, girdling or frilling (girdling followed by herbicide) is not 

recommended for Ailanthus unless long term follow-up treatment 

is possible. This method can be used with trees of any size, though 

it is most productive with stems over 2 in. in diameter. This method 

is relatively easy for one person to do, with hatchet in one hand and 

spray bottle in the other, but should be done with a buddy nearby in 

case of an accident. Monitor the treatment area and be prepared to 

follow-up with a foliar application the next year to control any basal 

sprouts or root suckers that might emerge. Glyphosate products 

have sometimes been recommended for control of ailanthus using 

this method, but field trials have shown consistently poor long-term 

control of basal sprouts and root suckers at any time of year.

Cut stump. See General Guidance. Use this method when trees 

need to be removed from the site and will be cut as part of the 

process, Effectiveness is likely to be better during the growing 

season, with diminishing success through the early fall. Dormant 

season applications may prevent resprouting from the stump itself, 

but will do little to inhibit root suckering. However, at any time 

of year, if the tree must be cut it is better to treat the stump than 

not. Application of herbicide to the cut stumps must be conducted 

immediately after cutting, within 5-15 minutes of the cut with water 

soluble formulations, longer with oil mixtures, to ensure uptake of the 

chemical before the plant seals the cut area off. The mixture may be 

painted on with a paint brush or sprayed on using a spray bottle or 

backpack sprayer. A mixture of 20% Garlon® 4 plus 80% oil dilutant, 

as for basal bark spraying (above), may be used. In this case the 

whole stump surface and sides to the ground line would be sprayed. 

Be prepared to follow-up with a foliar application the next year to 

TREES
98

control any stump sprouts or root suckers which emerge. Other 

herbicides which have been shown to be effective in stump treatment 

of ailanthus are the same as those listed above for hack and squirt or 

injection but are not covered in this book.

Manual

Young seedlings may be pulled or dug up, preferably when soil is 

moist. Care must be taken to remove the entire plant including all 

roots and fragments, as these will almost certainly regrow. Root 

suckers appear similar to seedlings, but would be connected to a 

pre-existing lateral root, and would be nearly impossible to remove 

effectively.

Mechanical

Cutting alone is usually counter-productive because ailanthus 

responds by producing large numbers of stump sprouts and root 

suckers. However, for small infestations, repeated cutting of sprouts 

over time can exhaust the plants reserves and may be successful if 

continued for many years or where heavy shade exists. If possible, 

the initial cutting should be in early summer in order to impact the 

tree when its root reserves are lowest. Cutting large seed producing 

female trees would at least temporarily reduce spread by this 

method.

WHITE MULBERRY ___________________________________________ See General Guidance.

TREES
99

Black Swallow-Wort _______________________ Cynanchum louiseae Kartesz and Gandhi

Milkweed family (Asclepidaceae)

Origin: Endemic to 

southwestern Europe, 

primarily in the Iberian 

Peninsula, southern France 

and northern Italy

Background

Also known as black dogstrangling vine, this species 

was introduced as an ornamental plant. Early North 

American collections include 

one from Essex County Massachusetts in 1864, stating 

“escaping from the botanic 

garden where it is a weed and promising to become naturalized” and 

in 1867, Gray’s Manual of Botany, 5th edition, reported it as “a weed 

escaping from gardens in the Cambridge Massachusetts area.”

Distribution and Habitat

This species occurs in southern and eastern Ontario and southern 

Quebec, around Montreal, and in the U.S., primarily in the Northeast 

and Midwest with an additional occurrence in California. Recent observations of infestations along the Appalachian Trail in Pennsylvania 

are a concern due to the potential for spread. It occurs primarily in 

upland areas in forest understory, pastures, old fields, shores, flood 

plains and disturbed areas. Most populations occur in areas dominated by limestone bedrock, although it is sometimes found on rock 

substrates or sandy areas of low pH. It is tolerant of a wide moisture 

regime and habitats subject to hydrologic extremes such as alvar 

communities, rocky outcrops and coastal areas are often colonized. 

Although tolerant of some shade, it flourishes in sunny open areas 

and shrubby habitats and once established moves into less disturbed 

habitats. Well-drained, stony soils are often densely colonized.

Ecological Threat

Black swallow-wort is a threat to native flora because of its vigorous 

growth and the formation of dense patches that cover and shade out 

native plants and reduce invertebrate and vertebrate biodiversity. 

Establishment of C. louiseae is reportedly threatening the endemic 

Jessop’s milkvetch (Astragalus robbinsii) at Windsor, Vermont, on 

ice-scoured banks of the Connecticut River.

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Jennifer Forman Orth
100

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: herbaceous perennial twining vine; stems pubescent with 

the hairs often in longitudinal bands; sap is not milky.

•	 Leaves: opposite; oblong or ovate, rounded or subcordate at base, 

acute to acuminate at tip; smooth margins; 2-5 in. long by 1-21⁄2 in. 

wide, largest leaves in the middle of the stem;petioles about 1⁄2 in. 

long; lightly pubescent on margins and major veins on underside 

of leaf.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flower buds globose with a rounded 

apex, unopened petals not twisted; flowers purple to almost black 

with fine hairs on inner surface, 5-parted, about 1⁄4 in. across; 

corona is a fleshy lobed cup; fleshy petals ovate to broadly deltoid 

or triangular, about 1/10 in. long; flower stalks usually curved and 

hairy and less than 1 in. long; fruit is slender to plump, smooth 

hairless seedpod (follicle) about 11⁄2 in. long; seeds are about 1⁄4 

in. long, dark brown, ovoid to obovoid, flattened with narrow 

membranous wing on margin and silky filament at tip.

•	 Spreads: by wind-dispersed seed.

•	 Look-alikes: honeyvine (C. laeve), native to the mid-Atlantic 

and Southeast, has heart-shaped leaves and white flowers; pale 

swallow-wort (C. rossicum) non-native and invasive, has flowers 

that are pink to maroon in color and strap-shaped petals.

Prevention and Control

Do not plant this or other exotic swallow-worts. Plants can be 

pulled by hand or cut or mowed once or twice per season, or dug 

up, removing the roots. For large infestations, the most effective 

control is usually achieved with herbicides applied to foliage, because 

manual and mechanical control are difficult, labor-intensive and timeconsuming. Systemic herbicides (e.g., glyphosate) are most effective 

because they kill the entire vine including the roots (see Control 

Options). No biological control agents are available for this species.

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101

Chinese Wisteria __________________________ Wisteria sinensis (Sims) A.P. de Cand.

Pea family (Fabaceae)

Origin: China

Background

Chinese wisteria was introduced in 1916 

as an ornamental plant. It has been 

widely planted and cultivated and is still 

very popular in the nursery trade despite 

its weedy and destructive habits.

Distribution and Habitat

Found extensively throughout the eastern U.S., Chinese wisteria has been reported to be invasive in at least 19 states 

from Massachusetts to Illinois south 

to Texas. Wisteria prefers full sun, but 

established vines will persist and reproduce in partial shade. Vines 

climb trees, shrubs and manmade structures. It is tolerant of a variety of soil and moisture regimes but prefers deep, loamy, well drained 

soils. Infestations are commonly found along forest edges, roadsides, 

ditches, and rights-of-way.

Ecological Threat

The hard woody vines twine tightly around host tree trunks and 

branches and cut through bark, causing death by girdling. On 

the ground, new vines germinating from seed or sprouting from 

rootstocks form dense thickets that smother and shade out native 

vegetation and impede natural plant community development. As 

girdled trees die, canopy gaps are created which increase the amount 

of sunlight reaching the forest floor. While this may temporarily favor 

some native species, it also stimulates vigorous growth and spread of 

wisteria.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: deciduous, woody twining vine that climbs up tree trunks 

in a clockwise direction; stems are stout, smooth gray-brown and 

covered with fine white hairs. Older plants can grow to 15 in. or 

more in diameter.

•	 Leaves: alternate, compound, 6-10 in. long with 9-11 (7-13) 

leaflets; leaflets egg-shaped with wavy-margins and strongly 

tapering tips.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowering occurs in April before leaf 

expansion; flowers are lavender to purple, occur in pendulous 

racemes or clusters 6-8 (up to 12) in. long, and open mostly all 

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James H. Miller, USDA FS
102

at once; individual flowers are 0.8-0.9 in. long on 0.6-0.8 in. long 

stalks (pedicels); fruits are green to brown velvety seedpods 4-6 

in. long, narrowed toward the base with constrictions between 

the 1-3 flat, round seeds; fruits begin to appear midsummer and 

persist for a long time on the vine.

•	 Spreads: by seed which, in riparian areas, can be transported by 

water; vegetatively by producing stolons (above-ground stems) 

that produce shoots and roots at short intervals. 

•	 Look-alikes: Japanese wisteria (see pg. 110); American wisteria 

(Wisteria frutescens), with leaves 7-12 in. long, 9-15 leaflets 

of uniform size, margins plane, tips acute to slightly tapering, 

smooth bright green above, undersides slightly milky, flowers 

in May after leaf expansion, flower clusters 4-6 in. long and 

not especially pendulous, individual flowers about 3⁄4 in. long, 

pale lilac-purple with a yellow spot, fruit green and glabrous 

(not hairy); seeds swollen, bean to kidney-shaped; and trumpet 

creeper (Campsis radicans) with opposite, compound leaves, 

leaflet margins toothed, flowers red-orange, tubular and bloom 

late spring through summer.

Prevention and Control

For small infestations, cut vines to relieve trees of the weight and 

girdling. Treat lower cut stem portions with a systemic herbicide 

containing glyphosate or triclopyr. New plants may grow from seed. 

Long term management is needed (see Control Options).

Chocolate Vine ____________________________ Akebia quinata (Houtt.) Decne.

Lardizabala family (Lardizabalaceae)

Origin: Central China, Japan and Korea

Background

Also known as five-leaf akebia, this is an unusual and attractive 

exotic vine that was imported around 1845 for ornamental purposes.

VINES

Bill Johnson Ted Bodner, SWSS
103

Distribution and Habitat

It has been reported to be invasive 

throughout the mid-Atlantic to 

Kentucky with scattered occurrences 

elsewhere.

Ecological Threat

Akebia can form an impenetrable 

groundcover and when climbing 

shrubs and trees forms a dense 

tangle that creates deep shade for the 

vegetation it covers.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: woody deciduous, perennial plant that grows either as a 

twining vine or a groundcover; slender stems are green when 

young becoming brown when mature.

•	 Leaves: alternate, dull blue-green, divided into five stalked 

leaflets that meet at a central juncture; leaflets are 11⁄2-3 in. long, 

entire (non-toothed), oval shaped and notched at the tip.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers are reddish to purple-brown, 

about 1 in. across, and have a sweet fragrance likened to 

chocolate; female flowers are chocolate-purple, male flowers are 

lighter rosy purple; spring flowering; fruits, if produced at all, are 

large, soft, edible sausage-shaped pods 21⁄4-4 in. in length, that 

ripen in late summer to fall. 

•	 Spreads: primarily by vegetative means; infrequently by seed.

•	 Look-alikes: Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), 

native to the eastern U.S., has palmate leaves with five leaflets 

that are toothed.

Prevention and Control

Young plants can be pulled by hand. Cutting can be done any time 

of year and vines should be cut to the ground. Vines may be dug up, 

removing as much of the roots as possible. For large infestations, a 

systemic herbicide containing glyphosate or triclopyr is effective (see 

Control Options).

Native Alternatives

Pipevine (Aristolochia macrophylla), cross-vine (Bignonia 

capreolata), trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans) and trumpet 

honeysuckle (Lonicera sempervirens).

VINES

Bill Johnson
104

Common Periwinkle ________________________ Vinca minor L.

Dogbane family (Apocynaceae)

Origin: Europe

Background

Common periwinkle was first introduced 

into North America in the 1700s as an 

ornamental. It is still commonly sold as an 

ornamental ground cover.

Distribution and Habitat

Periwinkle has escaped cultivation and is 

invading natural areas throughout the eastern U.S. It inhabits open 

to shady sites including forests and often escapes from old homesites.

Ecological Threat

Periwinkle grows vigorously and forms dense and extensive mats 

along the forest floor, displacing native herbaceous and woody plant 

species.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: vine-like erect or trailing groundcover; mostly evergreen; 

stems slender.

•	 Leaves: opposite, dark green, glossy, oval to lance-shaped, thicktextured; may be variegated.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flower blue, lavender or white, about 1 

in. across, five petals blunt at tip, arranged in spiral; springtime; 

no fruits or seeds typically.

•	 Spreads: vegetatively through rhizomes.

•	 Look-alikes: may be confused with several close relatives of this 

plant, including bigleaf periwinkle (Vinca major), imported from 

Europe, and Madagascar periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus), 

native only to Madagascar, both also invasive in natural areas in 

the mid-Atlantic and other parts of the United States; and winter 

creeper (Euonymus fortunei).

Prevention and Control

Periwinkle can be pulled by hand, dug up or raked up, being sure to 

remove underground portions. Where appropriate, mowing can be 

used to cut plants back but will likely have to be repeated regularly. 

Mowing followed soon after by application of a systemic herbicide 

would improve control greatly (see Control Options). 

VINES

Bill Johnson
105

English Ivy _______________________________ Hedera helix L.

Ginseng gamily (Araliaceae)

Origin: Europe, Western Asia and 

Northern Africa

Background

European colonists introduced English 

ivy as early as 1727. It is widely 

planted for its evergreen foliage and 

dependability as a year-round “carefree” 

groundcover. Although recognized as 

a serious weed of natural ecosystems, 

parks, landscapes and other areas, it 

continues to be sold and marketed as an 

ornamental plant in the United States. 

Vast resources, time and labor are expended attempting to manage 

infestations on public and private lands.

Distribution and Habitat

English ivy is found throughout the eastern U.S. and in the West 

where it occurs from Arizona to Washington State. It flourishes 

under shady to full sun conditions in soils that are moderately 

fertile and moist but it is intolerant of drought and salinity. Habitats 

invaded include forest openings and edges, fields, cliffs, steep slopes, 

and disturbed areas.

Ecological Threat

English ivy is an aggressive invader that threatens all vegetation 

levels of forested and open areas, growing along the ground as well as 

into the forest canopy. Vines climbing up tree trunks spread out and 

envelop branches and twigs, blocking sunlight from reaching the host 

tree’s foliage, thereby impeding photosynthesis. An infested tree will 

exhibit decline for several to many years before it dies. The added 

weight of vines also makes trees susceptible to blowing over during 

storms. English ivy has been confirmed as a reservoir for bacterial 

leaf scorch (Xylella fastidiosa), a harmful plant pathogen that affects 

a wide variety of native and ornamental trees such as elms, oaks and 

maples.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: evergreen perennial climbing vine that attaches to bark of 

trees, brickwork and other surfaces by root-like structures that 

exude a glue-like substance to aid in adherence.

•	 Leaves: alternate, dark green, waxy, somewhat leathery; 

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Bill Johnson
106

extremely variable leaf forms, from unlobed to 3-5 lobed; typically 

green with whitish veins.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowering occurs in late summer 

to early fall, typically under full sun conditions; flowers are 

small, greenish-yellow and occur in globular starburst type 

inflorescences at tips of flowering stems; fruits are black with a 

fleshy outer layer and stone-like seeds.

•	 Spreads: vegetatively by vigorous growth at tip of stems; and 

by seed which is consumed by birds and dispersed to new areas; 

fruits contain glycosides that may be mildly toxic and cause some 

birds to regurgitate them; new plants grow easily from cuttings 

or stem fragments that make contact with the soil.

•	 Look-alikes: Irish ivy (Hedera hibernica), Persian ivy 

(Hedera colchica), Boston ivy (Parthenocissus japonicus) and 

Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia). Poison ivy 

(Toxicodendron radicans) may sometimes be confused with 

English ivy because of its hairy stems but because it is deciduous, 

it will lack leaves in the winter. In summer, poison ivy can be 

distinguished easily by its compound leaves of three leaflets and 

its clusters of creamy white fruits.

NOTE: The leaves and berries of English ivy contain the glycoside 

hederin which may cause toxicosis if ingested. Symptoms include 

gastrointestinal upset, diarrhea, hyperactivity, breathing difficulty, 

coma, fever, polydipsia, dilated pupils, muscular weakness, and lack of 

coordination. This feature also helps ensure effective seed dispersal 

by birds.

Prevention and Control

Do not plant English ivy including invasive cultivars. Individual vines 

can be pulled by hand when soil is moist. Vines covering the ground 

can be uprooted and gathered using a heavy-duty rake, then close to 

the ground with pruning snips, Swedish brush axe or other cutting 

tool. Gathered vines can be piled up and allowed to desiccate and rot 

which will occur quickly, in a matter of days. If needed, material can 

be bagged and disposed of in normal trash. Vines climbing up trees 

can be cut a few feet from the ground, for convenience, to kill upper 

portions and then apply systemic herbicide to lower cut portions (see 

Control Options).

VINES

James H. Miller, USDA FS Chris Evans, River to River CWMA
107

Japanese Honeysuckle _____________________ Lonicera japonica Thunb.

Honeysuckle family (Caprifoliaceae)

Origin: Eastern Asia

Background

Japanese honeysuckle was introduced to Long Island, New York, 

in 1806 for ornamental, erosion 

control and wildlife uses.

Distribution and Habitat

Japanese honeysuckle is one of 

the most recognizable and well 

established ornamental vines 

in the U.S. It is documented to 

occur and reported to be invasive 

throughout the eastern U.S. from 

Maine to Florida and west to 

Wisconsin and Texas, with scattered occurrences in the Southwest. It 

is adapted to a wide variety of habitats from full sun to shade.

Ecological Threat

It is a fast-growing vine that twines around stems of shrubs, 

herbaceous plants and other vertical supports. In full sun it forms 

large tangles that smother and kill vegetation. It can kill shrubs and 

saplings by girdling.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: perennial, deciduous to semi-evergreen twining vine; 

stems are pubescent and reddish brown to light brown.

•	 Leaves: paired (opposite), ovate to oblong-ovate, about 1-3 in. 

long by 1⁄2-11⁄2 in. wide, entire-margined except for young leaves 

which are often deeply toothed.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers are bi-lobed, white turning 

yellow, highly fragrant and with nectar, produced in June; fruits 

are black, about 1⁄4 in. diameter, paired, produced in the fall.

•	 Spreads: by seed that is dispersed by birds.

•	 Look-alikes: native trumpet honeysuckle which has red or yellow, 

long tubular flowers.

Prevention and Control

Small infestations can be controlled by hand removal of vines. Large 

infestations require mowing twice or more per year or treatment 

with systemic herbicides like those containing glyphosate or triclopyr 

(see Control Options). No biological controls are available.

VINES

Bill Johnson
108

Native Alternatives

Coral honeysuckle (Lonicera sempervirens), hairy honeysuckle 

(L. hirsuta), crossvine (Bignonia capreolata) and trumpet creeper 

(Campsis radicans).

Japanese Hop _____________________________ Humulus japonicus Siebold & Zucc.

Hemp family (Cannabaceae)

Origin: Temperate Asia (China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and the Russian 

Federation) and tropical Asia (Vietnam)

Background

Japanese hop was originally imported to the U.S. in the late 1800s 

for use as an Asian tonic and ornamental vine. It is still sold for these 

purposes today. Common hop (Humulus lupulus) contains bitter 

acids and essential oils used for flavoring and as preservative in beer. 

The chemistry of Japanese hop is less desirable for that purpose.

Distribution and Habitat

Japanese hop occurs in scattered locations from Nebraska to Maine 

to Georgia and is most common in the Northeastern U.S. and eastern 

Canada. It has been reported to be invasive in natural areas in 

Connecticut, Delaware, Indiana, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, 

and the District of Columbia. Japanese hop prefers plentiful sunlight 

and moisture, rich exposed soil, and is most commonly found along 

stream banks and floodplains. Growth is less vigorous in shade and on 

drier soils, but it can grow in disturbed areas with fairly moist soils, 

including roadsides, old fields, and forest edges. In milder climates, it 

can survive the winter.

Ecological Threat

Japanese hop can spread to cover large areas of open ground or 

low vegetation including understory shrubs and small trees. Many 

thousands of hop plants per acre may be produced, eventually 

blanketing the land and vegetation. The vines grow rapidly during 

the summer, climbing up and over everything in their path and 

can form dense mats several feet deep, blocking light to plants 

underneath. Hop vines also twine around shrubs and trees causing 

them to break or fall over. It is invasive in riparian and floodplain 

habitats where it displaces native vegetation, prevents the 

emergence of new plants, and kills newly planted trees installed for 

streamside habitat restoration. Hop can quickly cover small trees 

hiding them from view, preventing mowing and obstructing herbicide 

applications.

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Description and Biology

•	 Plant: herbaceous annual, twining, shallow-rooted vine that 

can climb to heights of ten or more feet with the help of roughtextured stems covered with short, sharp, downward pointing 

prickles that can be very irritating to the skin.

•	 Leaves: leaves are rough-textured, paired, simple, palmate (like a 

hand) with typically 5-7 lobes; leaf margins are toothed.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowering occurs in July and August; 

male and female flowers are borne on separate plants; male 

flowers are very small, greenish yellow and occur in branched 

panicles; female flowers are in pale green, plump, drooping, 

cone-like structures with overlapping scales that become ‘hops’; 

hop scales and the seeds are covered with yellow glands; seeds 

are about 1/8 in. in diameter, roundish with a blunt tip, and light 

brown with darker specks; seeds mature through September.

•	 Spreads: by seed which begins to germinate in early spring, but 

new plants may continue to emerge as the season progresses 

if sunlight and moisture are available; seeds are dispersed by 

animals (including people), machinery and floodwaters.

•	 Look-alikes: native common hop (Humulus lupulus) looks very 

much like Japanese hop but it is usually 3-lobed or unlobed; native 

bur cucumber (Sicyos angulatus) lacks prickles, has tendrils, and 

the leaves have much less pronounced lobes.

Prevention and Control

Do not purchase, plant or transplant this species. Vines can be handpulled wearing gloves, long-sleeves and long pants and shoes to avoid 

injury from the prickles. Systemic herbicides are most effective (see 

Control Options).

Native Alternatives

Native grapes (Vitis), Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) 

and coral honeysuckle (Lonicera sempervirens).

VINES

Chris Evans, River to River CWMA Leslie J. Mehrhoff, Univ. of CT
110

Japanese Wisteria _________________________ Wisteria floribunda (Willd.) DC.

Pea family (Fabaceae)

Origin: Japan

Background

Japanese wisteria was introduced to 

the U.S. in 1830. It has been widely 

planted and cultivated and is still 

very popular in the nursery trade 

despite its weedy and destructive 

habits. It is probably frequently misidentified as Chinese wisteria.

Distribution and Habitat

Japanese wisteria is found invasive 

in the mid-Atlantic and southeastern 

U.S., from New York to Florida and 

west to Texas. Wisteria prefers full 

sun, but established vines will persist 

and reproduce in partial shade. 

Vines climb trees, shrubs and manmade structures. It is tolerant of 

a variety of soil and moisture regimes but prefers deep, loamy, well 

drained soils. Infestations are commonly found along forest edges, 

roadsides, ditches, and rights-of-way.

Ecological Threat

The hard woody vines twine tightly around host tree trunks and 

branches and cut through bark, causing death by girdling. On 

the ground, new vines germinating from seed or sprouting from 

rootstocks form dense thickets that smother and shade out native 

vegetation and impede natural plant community development. As 

girdled trees die, canopy gaps are created which increase the amount 

of sunlight reaching the forest floor. While this may temporarily favor 

some native species, it also stimulates vigorous growth and further 

spread of wisteria.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: deciduous woody, twining vine that climbs upwards in a 

counter-clockwise direction; stems are slender, brown and densely 

hairy when young, becoming hairless with age; older plants can 

grow to 15 in. or more in diameter.

•	 Leaves: alternate, compound, 8-12 in. long, with 13-17 (11-19) 

leaflets; leaflets egg-shaped with wavy-margins and strongly 

tapering tips.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowering occurs in April before 

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Bill Johnson
111

the leaves expand; flowers are violet to violet blue, occur in 

pendulous racemes 1-3 ft. in length and open sequentially from 

the base to the tip; flowers are 0.6-0.7 in. long on 0.6-0.8 in. long 

stalks (pedicels); fruits are velvety pods 41⁄2-71⁄2 in. long, broader 

towards the tip, and contain 3-6 round, flattened seeds each about 

1⁄2 in. in diameter; pods begin to appear soon after flowering, 

mature during the summer and may persist for quite a while on 

the vines.

•	 Spreads: by seed which, in riparian areas, is transported by 

water; vegetatively by producing stolons (above-ground stems) 

that produce shoots and roots at short intervals.

•	 Look-alikes: Chinese wisteria (see pg. 102); American wisteria 

(Wisteria frutescens) with leaves 7-12 in. long, 9-15 leaflets of 

uniform size, margins plane, tips acute to slightly tapering, 

smooth bright green above, undersides slightly milky; flowers 

in May after leaf expansion, flower clusters 4-6 in. long and 

not especially pendulous, individual flowers about 3⁄4 in. long, 

pale lilac-purple with a yellow spot; fruit green and glabrous 

(not hairy); seeds swollen, bean to kidney-shaped; and trumpet 

creeper (Campsis radicans) with opposite, compound leaves, 

leaflet margins toothed, flowers red-orange, tubular and bloom 

late spring through summer.

Prevention and Control

For small infestations, cut vines to relieve trees of the weight 

and girdling; treat cut stems with a systemic herbicide containing 

glyphosate or triclopyr; new plants will grow from seed; long term 

management is needed (see Control Options).

Kudzu ___________________________________ Pueraria montana var. lobata

(Willd.) Maes. & S. Almeida

Pea family (Fabaceae)

Origin: Temperate and Tropical Asia, 

Australasia, and Pacific

Background

Kudzu was introduced to the 

United States from Japan in 1876 

at the Philadelphia Centennial 

Exposition, as an ornamental plant. 

In early 1900s, it was recognized 

and promoted as a forage crop and 

planted throughout the southeastern 

U.S. In the 1930s and 1940s, the Soil 

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Bill Johnson
112

Conservation Service paid southern farmers to plant kudzu to reduce 

soil erosion on deforested lands, resulting in over 1 million acres 

being planted. Kudzu, nicknamed “the vine that ate the South,” was 

recognized as a pest weed in the 1950s and removed from the list 

of acceptable species in the Agricultural Conservation Program. In 

1998, it was listed as a federal noxious weed by the U.S. Congress.

Distribution and Habitat

Kudzu occurs primarily in the eastern U.S. and has been reported 

to be invasive in natural areas from Connecticut to Florida and west 

to Texas. Infestations have also been reported in North Dakota and 

Oregon. Kudzu grows well under a wide range of conditions and in 

many soil types. Preferred habitats are open, sunny areas like forest 

edges, abandoned fields, roadsides and disturbed areas. Kudzu grows 

best where winters are mild, summer temperatures are above 80°F 

and annual rainfall is 40 inches or more.

Ecological Threat

Its vigorous growth and large leaves smother and shade out native 

plants. It can kill trees through girdling and the extra weight of vines 

can lead to toppling during storms. Once established, kudzu plants 

grow rapidly, extending as much as 60 feet per season, about 1 foot 

per day.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: climbing perennial vine in the pea family (Fabaceae); 

vines may extend 32-100 ft. in length, with stems up to 4 in. in 

diameter; roots are fleshy, with massive tap roots that can get 

to 7 in. or more in diameter, 6 ft. or more in length, and weigh as 

much as 400 lbs.; up to 30 vines may grow from a single plant.

•	 Leaves: alternate, deciduous, and compound, with three broad 

leaflets up to 4 in. across, leaflets may be entire or lobed with 

hairy margins.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: individual flowers, about 1⁄2 in. long, 

are purple, fragrant and borne in upright clusters during late 

summer; fruits are brown, hairy, flattened seed pods, each of 

which may contain as many as ten hard seeds.

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Bill Johnson
113

•	 Spreads: expands locally by vegetative means through runners & 

rhizomes and by vines that root at the nodes to form new plants; 

may spread by seed in areas where a pollinator, the giant resin 

bee, occurs.

•	 Look-alikes: Thick tangles of various vines including grape, 

porcelainberry and bittersweet may be mistaken for kudzu as 

well as some native three-leaved vines in the pea family.

Prevention and Biological Control

Do not plant kudzu. The U.S. Department of Agriculture is 

investigating biological control agents for kudzu including the 

naturally occurring fungus Myrothecium verrucaria. For successful 

long-term control of kudzu, the extensive root system must be 

destroyed. Any remaining root crowns can lead to reinfestation of 

an area. Mechanical methods include repeated cutting of vines just 

above ground level, frequent mowing and cultivation. Use of systemic 

herbicides with the active ingredients triclopyr and glyphosate have 

been used effectively (see Control Options).

Mile-A-Minute ____________________________ Persicaria perfoliata (L.) H. Gross

Buckwheat family (Polygonaceae)

Origin: India, Eastern Asia and the islands from Japan to the 

Philippines

Background

Mile-a-minute, also called Devil’s-tail tearthumb, was experimentally 

introduced into Portland, Oregon in 1890, and in 1937 to Beltsville, 

Maryland, but did not become established at either site. An additional 

unintentional introduction in the 1930s to a nursery site in York 

County, Pennsylvania was successful, was allowed to reproduce, 

and is the likely source of this invasive plant in the mid-Atlantic and 

northeastern United States. Seeds of the plant may have been spread 

with rhododendron stock. In the past 70 years, the range for this 

plant in the United States has expanded more than 300 mi. from the 

York County site.

Distribution and Habitat

Mile-a-minute is found in the northeast from Virginia to New York to 

Ohio and Oregon. It invades open and disturbed areas, such as fields, 

forest edges, stream banks, wetlands, roadsides and wetlands.

Ecological Threat

Mile-a-minute grows rapidly, producing a thick tangle of vines 

over herbaceous and woody plants and even scrambling up into 

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114

trees. Thick tangles block sunlight and limit photosynthesis which 

eventually kills covered plants.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: herbaceous, annual, trailing vine; stems are delicate 

and armed with recurved barbs which are also present on the 

underside of the leaf blades; distinctive circular, cup-shaped leafy 

structures called ocrea surround the stem at nodes.

•	 Leaves: alternate, pale green and shaped like an equilateral 

(equal-sided) triangle.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flower buds, and later flowers and 

fruits, emerge from within the ocrea; flowers are small, white and 

generally inconspicuous; fruits are berry-like, attractive, deep 

blue and arranged in clusters at terminals; each fruit contains a 

single glossy, black or reddish-black hard seed called an achene 

with a small elaiosome.

•	 Spreads: by seed that is transported long distances by birds; 

short-distance seed dispersal by ants attracted to the elaiosome 

has been observed but needs further investigation; water is an 

important mode of dispersal as fruits can remain buoyant for 

seven to nine days.

Prevention and Control

Manual and chemical methods can be employed for control of mile-aminute weed but biological control is the most promising and costeffective methods currently available. Young vines can be removed 

by hand wearing gloves and long-sleeves to avoid injury from the 

numerous barbs. Pulling vines that have mature fruits should be done 

with care to avoid spreading seeds. Contact and systemic herbicides 

are effective in controlling it (see Control Options).

Native Alternatives

After eradicating, if no native plants emerge, plant area with native 

species appropriate to site conditions. See References.

VINES

Britt Slattery, USFWS Bill Johnson
115

Oriental Bittersweet _______________________ Celastrus orbiculatus Thunb.

Staff-tree family (Celastraceae)

Origin: Eastern Asia, Korea, China 

and Japan

Background

Oriental bittersweet was introduced 

into the United States in the 1860s 

as an ornamental plant and it is still 

widely sold for landscaping despite 

its invasive qualities. It is often 

associated with old home sites, from 

which it has escaped into surrounding 

natural areas.

Distribution and Habitat

Oriental bittersweet has been 

reported to be invasive from Maine 

to North Carolina west to Wisconsin 

and Missouri. It occurs in forest 

edges, open woodlands, fields, 

hedgerows, coastal areas, salt marshes and disturbed lands. While 

often found in more open, sunny sites, its tolerance of shade allows it 

to invade forested areas.

Ecological Threat

Oriental bittersweet is a vigorous growing plant that threatens 

native vegetation from the ground to the canopy level. Thick masses 

of vines sprawl over shrubs, small trees and other plants, producing 

dense shade that weakens and kills them. Shrubs and trees can be 

killed by girdling and by uprooting as a result of excessive weight 

of the vines. In the Northeast, Oriental bittersweet appears to be 

displacing the native American bittersweet (Celastrus scandens) 

through competition and hybridization.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: deciduous, woody, twining vine, sometimes occurring as a 

trailing shrub; stems of older plants can reach 4 in. in diameter.

•	 Leaves: alternate, glossy and rounded with finely toothed 

margins.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: abundant clusters of small greenish 

flowers emerge from most leaf axils; globular, green to yellow 

fruits split open at maturity to reveal fleshy red-orange arils that 

cover the seeds; seeds germinate in late spring.

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Bill Johnson
116

•	 Spreads: by seed, which is 

dispersed to new areas by many 

species of birds and by people 

who are not responsible when 

disposing of faded bittersweet 

wreaths and other floral 

decorations; it expands locally by 

stolons and rhizomes and through 

root suckering (the ability to send 

shoots up from the roots).

•	 Look-alikes: is easily confused 

with the native American bittersweet (Celastrus scandens), 

which produces flowers just at the terminal ends (stem tips) 

rather than from multiple leaf axils as in the exotic invasive. For 

this reason, it is important to correctly identify the vine before 

controls are attempted.

Prevention and Control

Do not buy, plant, transplant Oriental bittersweet or dispose of live 

or dead seed-containing material. Manual, mechanical and chemical 

methods can be employed to control it. Vines can be pulled out by the 

roots, cut repeatedly or treated with systemic herbicides (see Control 

Options). No biological controls are currently available for this plant.

Native Alternatives

Caution: Although our native bittersweet (Celastrus scandens) 

would be an excellent alternative plant to use as an alternative, many 

nurseries often confuse it with the exotic invasive bittersweet under 

the native label. Be certain of the species you are buying or choose 

another plant. Also, because of hybridization between the native and 

exotic species, many feel it is irresponsible to plant the native species 

when the invasive occurs in the area.

Pale Swallow-Wort ________________________ Cynanchum rossicum (Kleopow) Borhidi

Milkweed family (Asclepidaceae)

Origin: Endemic to southwestern European Russia in regions north of 

the Black Sea and the Caucasus

Background

The first collections of pale swallow-wort in the northeastern United 

States were from Monroe and Nassau counties New York in 1897. 

Canadian records indicate that it was established and probably 

naturalized in southern Canada since the early 1900s.

VINES

Chris Evans, River to River CWMA
117

Distribution and Habitat

Pale swallow-wort, also known as dog-strangling vine, occurs in 

southern Ontario, Montreal and west Quebec and the northeastern 

United States from southern Maine to northern Maryland with scattered occurrences in the Great Lakes and Midwest. It is widely distributed in central New York State. It is associated with calcareous 

soils in upland areas and is found in forest understory, pastures, old 

fields, shores, flood plains and disturbed areas. Ecosystems on welldrained, stony soils are often densely colonized but it can tolerate 

a wide moisture regime. Plants establish in full sun or under forest 

canopies and can form dense stands in all light conditions.

Ecological Threat

Pale swallow-wort is a threat to native flora in forests, forest edges, 

fields, and open disturbed areas where it grows vigorously and forms 

dense patches that cover and shade out native plants. It smothers and 

kills vegetation and reduce invertebrate and vertebrate biodiversity.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: perennial herbaceous twining vine; sap is clear and watery, 

not milky.

•	 Leaves: paired, dark green, shiny, margins are non-toothed, oval 

to elliptic with a pointed tip; 2-5 in. long; are pubescent on the 

margins and major veins underneath; petioles are 2-8 in. long.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flower buds are ovoid to conoidal with 

a pointed apex, unopened petals are twisted; 5-20 flowers are 

produced in the axils of the leaves in small branched, clusters; 

flowers are 5-parted and about (5-7 mm) 1⁄4 in. across; petals are 

strap-like, pink, red-brown to maroon and hairless above, flower 

stalks are 1⁄2-2 in. long and fuzzy; fruits are slender, smooth (hairless) seed pods, about 11⁄2-3 in. long, usually one pair per flower; 

pods turn from green to light brown as they mature and split 

open at a ventral suture to release seeds; seeds are light to dark 

brown, wider towards tip, about 1/3 in. long, flattened or concave 

on one side and convex on the other, with a tiny membranous 

marginal wing a silky filament.

•	 Spreads: by wind-dispersed seed.

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John M. Randall, The Nature Conservancy
118

•	 Look-alikes: honeyvine (C. laeve), native to the mid-Atlantic 

and Southeast, has heart-shaped leaves and white flowers; black 

swallow-wort (C . louiseae - see pg. 99), also non-native and invasive, has clusters of small five-petaled, star-shaped flowers about 

1⁄4 in. across that are purple to nearly black and covered with 

white hairs.

Prevention and Control

Do not purchase or plant this species. Plants can be pulled by hand or 

mowed, once or twice per season, or dug up, removing the roots. The 

most effective control is with herbicides, because mechanical control 

of this plant is difficult, labor-intensive and time-consuming. Systemic 

herbicides containing glyphosate or triclopyr are most effective 

because they kill the entire plant including the roots (see Control 

Options). No biological control agents are available for this plant.

Native Alternatives

Honeyvine (Cynanchum laeve), if available, coral honeysuckle 

(Lonicera sempervirens) and pipevine (Aristolochia macrophylla) 

make suitable alternatives.

Porcelainberry ____________________________ Ampelopsis brevipedunculata (Maxim.) Trautv.

Grape family (Vitaceae)

Origin: China, Korea, Japan and 

Russian Far East

Background

Porcelainberry, also called amur 

peppervine, was originally cultivated 

as a bedding and landscape plant. In 

spite of its acknowledged invasiveness, 

it is still widely used and promoted in 

the horticultural trade.

Distribution and Habitat

Porcelainberry occurs from Wisconsin 

& Iowa to New Hampshire & south to Georgia and has been 

reported to be invasive in natural areas in at least ten states from 

Massachusetts to Virginia. It grows well in most soils, especially 

forest edges, pond margins, stream banks, thickets, and waste 

places, where there is full sunlight to partial shade, and where it 

is not permanently wet. It appears to be less tolerant of heavily 

shaded areas, such as that found in mature forest interiors. The seeds 

germinate readily in the soil after natural or human disturbance.

VINES

Bill Johnson
119

Ecological Threat

Porcelainberry is a vigorous invader 

of open and wooded habitats where it 

shades out native shrubs and young 

trees. As it spreads, it climbs over 

and blankets existing plants and 

weakens and kills them by blocking 

sunlight.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: deciduous, woody, 

perennial vine that resembles 

grape and climbs by non-adhesive 

tendrils at the base of each leaf; 

grows to 15-20 ft.; young twigs 

are usually pubescent; stem pith 

is white (grape is tan or brown) 

and is continuous across the nodes (except for V. rotundifolia, 

grape is interrupted by a diaphragm across the node); bark is 

dotted with lenticels and does not peel (grape bark lacks lenticels 

and peels or shreds). 

•	 Leaves: alternate, simple, 3-5 lobed to highly dissected with 

heart-shaped base and coarsely toothed margins, shiny 

underneath with hairs on veins. 

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: tiny, greenish-white flowers with 

petals separate at their tips occur in flat-topped clusters opposite 

the leaves; appear in summer (June through August); fruit is a 

speckled berry in colors ranging from aqua to pink to purple; each 

berry carries 2-4 seeds.

•	 Spreads: by seed that is eaten by birds and other small animals 

and dispersed in their droppings.

•	 Look-alikes: native species of grape (Vitis) and peppervine 

(Ampelopsis) including heartleaf peppervine (Ampelopsis

cordata) which is native to the Southeast and has unlobed leaves 

and smooth (hairless) stems; other native Ampelopsis have 

compound leaves.

Prevention and Control

Do not plant porcelainberry. Birds are attracted to the fruits and will 

easily spread it far and wide. Once established it can be difficult to 

control due to the vigorous root system. Pull young vines up by hand 

anytime and try to remove the rootstock. Apply systemic herbicides 

like glyphosate and triclopyr to cut stems or leaves to kill entire 

plants including the roots (see Control Options).

VINES

James H. Miller, USDA FS
120

Sweet Autumn Virginsbower _________________ Clematis terniflora DC

Buttercup family (Ranunculaceae)

Origin: Japan and China

Background

Sweet autumn virginsbower was 

introduced into the United States as 

an ornamental vine and is still widely 

sold in the nursery trade.

Distribution and Habitat

Sweet autumn virginsbower is 

documented to occur in much of the 

eastern U.S. from Minnesota to Vermont, south to Texas and Florida. 

It has been reported to be invasive in Alabama, Delaware, Florida, 

Georgia, Illinois, Maryland, New Jersey, North Carolina, South 

Carolina, Tennessee and Virginia, although it is probably invasive in 

additional states where it occurs. It prefers full sun but can tolerate 

partial shade.

Ecological Threat

This species is found invading forest edges, right-of-ways and urban 

areas along streams and roads. It grows vigorously over other 

vegetation, forming dense blankets that block sunlight to the plants 

underneath. In late summer infestations are conspicuous as a result 

of its abundant showy white flowers.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: climbing, deciduous to semi-evergreen, perennial vine.

•	 Leaves: opposite, compound 3 leaflets; leaflets are 2-3 in. long and 

have entire (non-toothed) margins.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers are produced late summer 

through fall; flowers are white with four petals; seeds are produced in profusion and are showy due to long, silvery-gray, 

feather-like hairs attached.

•	 Spreads: by wind-dispersed seed.

•	 Look-alikes: There are dozens of native species of Clematis in the 

U.S. including several that are quite rare. Devil’s darning needles 

(C. virginiana), the species most likely to be confused with sweet 

autumn virginsbower due to its similar looking white flowers, 

has leaves that are compound and toothed. The much cultivated 

and highly popular ornamental Clematis vines with large, showy 

flowers in a wide variety of colors from white to rose to purple, 

typically with eight or more petals, have not been reported to be 

invasive. 

VINES

Bill Johnson
121

Winter Creeper ____________________________ Euonymus fortunei (Turkz.) Hand.-Maz.

Bittersweet family (Celastraceae)

Origin: China, Japan, Korea

Background

Winter creeper, or creeping 

euonymus, is an evergreen 

perennial vine that was 

introduced as an ornamental 

groundcover.

Distribution and Habitat

Winter creeper has been 

reported to be invasive in natural 

areas in most of the states in 

the eastern half of the U.S. It 

can tolerate a broad range of 

environmental conditions ranging 

from full sun to deep shade, and acidic to basic and low nutrient soils, 

but it does not grow well in heavy wet soils.

Ecological Threat

Winter creeper is a vigorous vine that invades forest openings and 

margins. It grows across the ground, displacing herbaceous plants 

and seedlings and climbs trees high into the tree canopy by clinging 

to the bark. Forest openings, caused by wind, insects or fire are 

especially vulnerable to invasion.

Description and Biology

•	 Plant: evergreen woody vine or sprawling shrub with stems that 

are green when young, becoming light gray and corky with age.

•	 Leaves: opposite, glossy, dark green, oval, slightly toothed, with 

light-colored veins, about 1-21⁄2 in. long.

•	 Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers are small and greenish with 

five petals on long branched stalks; fruits are small round pinkred capsules that split open to expose seeds with red-orange arils.

•	 Spreads: by seed that is dispersed by birds and other wildlife and 

by water; local spread is by vigorous vegetative growth.

•	 Look-alikes: Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) and common periwinkle (Vinca minor).

Prevention and Control

Do not plant this plant. A variety of mechanical and chemical methods 

are available for its management, including hand pulling, cutting and 

application of systemic herbicides (see Control Options).

VINES

Bill Johnson
122

CONTROL OPTIONS

Use pesticides wisely: always read the entire pesticide label 

carefully, follow all mixing and application instructions and wear all 

recommended personal protective gear and clothing. Contact your 

state department of agriculture for any additional pesticide use 

requirements, restrictions or recommendations. Notice: mention of 

a trade name does not constitute the endorsement of the product by 

authors, agencies or organizations involved in the production of this 

publication.

GENERAL GUIDANCE FOR VINES

Manual, mechanical and chemical control methods are all effective 

in removing and killing woody vines. Employing a combination of 

methods often yields the best results and may reduce potential 

impacts to native plants, animals and people. The method you select 

depends on the extent and type of infestation, the amount of native 

vegetation on the site, and the time, labor and other resources 

available to you. Whenever possible and especially for vines climbing 

up trees or buildings, a combination of cutting followed by application 

of concentrated systemic herbicide to rooted, living cut surfaces 

is likely to be the most effective approach. For large infestations 

spanning extensive areas of ground, a foliar herbicide may be the 

best choice rather than manual or mechanical means which could 

result in soil disturbance.

HERBACEOUS VINES. For most herbaceous vines, a systemic herbicide 

containing glyphosate (e.g., Accord®, Roundup®, Rodeo®) can be 

applied to the foliage at a rate of 1-3% mixed in water. If needed, the 

rate can be increased but not above the rate provided on the pesticide 

label.

WOODY VINES. For most woody vines, the most effective method 

of control is to cut the vine stem and apply a concentrated mix of 

systemic herbicide immediately to the cut surface. If foliar treatment 

is necessary, it is important to take measures to reduce off-site and 

non-target effects.

Chemical

Two of the more widely used systemic herbicides are glyphosate 

and triclopyr. Systemic herbicides are absorbed by plant tissues and 

carried to the roots causing the entire plant to die usually within 

about a week. Glyphosate is a non-selective herbicide that may kill 

or harm any plants that come in contact with the spray. It carries 

a Caution signal word and requires long-sleeved shirt, long pants, 

shoes and socks during application. Glyphosate products referred to 

in this publication are sold under a variety of brand names (Accord®, 

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123

Rodeo®, Roundup Pro® Concentrate) and in three concentrations 

(41.0, 50.2 and 53.8% active ingredient). Other glyphosate products 

sold at home improvement stores may be too dilute to obtain effective 

control. 

Triclopyr is a selective herbicide that affects only broadleaf plants 

(e.g., forbs, shrubs and trees) and can be used in grasslands or areas 

where desirable grasses are growing under or around targeted 

woody or broad-leaved invasives. Use of triclopyr in areas where 

soils are permeable, particularly where the water table is shallow, can 

result in groundwater contamination. Triclopyr comes in two forms 

– triclopyr amine (e.g., Garlon® 3A, Brush-B-Gone®, Brush Killer®) 

and triclopyr ester (e.g., Garlon® 4, Pathfinder®, and Vinex®). The 

amine and ester forms are very different products with specific uses, 

hazards and precautions. 

Triclopyr amine (e.g., Garlon® 3A) mixes with water and can be used 

near water without posing a threat to aquatic organisms. It can be 

used as a cut stem treatment at a 50% rate or a foliar treatment at 5% 

rate. It is not effective for basal bark treatments. However, the amine 

form of triclopyr carries a Danger signal word due to its corrosive 

properties which, in concentrated form, can cause irreversible eye 

damage. For this reason, it should only be used by trained and 

certified applicators who are familiar with this hazard and know the 

precautions that need to be taken when using it. 

The ester form of triclopyr (e.g., Garlon® 4) carries a Warning signal 

word for the potential to cause skin and eye irritation but is not 

known to cause irreparable eye damage. Because it is toxic to aquatic 

invertebrates, it cannot be used near water or in wet soils. Garlon® 4 

can be used for foliar, cut stem and basal bark applications. Due to the 

high potential for volatilization and offsite drift, triclopyr should not 

be used when the temperature is above 85°F. Drift can result in kill 

of non-target trees and other woody vegetation. It is imperative that 

protective eyewear and chemical resistant gloves be worn in addition 

to long-sleeve shirt, long pants, shoes and socks, during mixing and 

application. Always read the entire label before using any pesticide.

Basal bark. Use a string trimmer or hand saw to remove some of 

the vine foliage in a band a few feet wide and a few feet above the 

ground at comfortable height. To the exposed vine stems, apply a 

20% solution of triclopyr ester (Garlon® 4) (2.5 quarts per 3-gallon 

mix) in commercially available basal oil with a penetrant (check 

with herbicide distributor). As much as possible, avoid application of 

herbicide to the bark of the host tree. This method can be employed 

essentially year-round when daily temperatures remain around 50°F 

for several days. Efficacy will vary seasonally.

VINES
124

Cut Stem Method. Use this method in areas where vines are 

established within or around non-target plants or where vines are 

growing on host trees. Cut vine stems close to the ground (about a 

foot above ground or at a convenient height) and immediately apply a 

25% solution of glyphosate (e.g., Accord®) or triclopyr (e.g., Garlon® 

4) mixed with water to the cut surface of the stem. Glyphosate and 

triclopyr applications are effective at temperatures as low as 45°F as 

long as the ground is not frozen. Subsequent foliar applications may 

be necessary to control new seedlings or sprouts. Homeowners can 

apply products like Brush-B-Gone®, Brush Killer® and Roundup 

Pro® concentrate undiluted to cut stems. Use a paint brush or a 

plastic spray bottle to apply the herbicide to cut surfaces.

Foliar. Use this method to control extensive patches of woody 

vines where cut stem and basal bark treatments are not possible. 

If desirable native plants occur within the infestation, manual, 

mechanical or cut stem treatments could be used to reduce the 

risk to non-target species prior to spraying. Foliar spray herbicide 

applications are often used to control large infestations. Apply to the 

leaves a 2% solution (8 oz per 3 gal. mix) triclopyr ester (Garlon® 4) 

in water with a non-ionic surfactant. Concentrations as low as 1% in 

mid-summer and 0.05% in September have also been very effective. 

Thoroughly wet the foliage but not to the point of runoff. If large 

amounts of desirable native vegetation are present or small amounts 

of rare native plants occur, it may be best to delay spray until the 

fall when much of the native vegetation has become dormant. A 0.5% 

concentration of a non-ionic surfactant is recommended in order to 

penetrate leaf cuticle. If the 2% rate is not effective increase the rate 

to 3% or up to 5%. Ambient air temperature should be above 65°F. 

For dense, low patches, another alternative is to cut the entire patch 

to the ground early in the growing season using a mower, weed-whip, 

machete or other tool. About one month later, apply 1-2% solution of 

triclopyr ester (Garlon® 4) in water to the cut patch using a backpack 

sprayer. This method has achieved complete kill of the targeted 

vines with little off-target damage or root uptake by adjacent 

plants. The herbicide clopyralid (e.g. Transline®) may be a better 

choice when managing plants in the aster (Asteraceae), buckwheat 

(Polygonaceae), and pea (Fabaceae) families. This herbicide is 

effective at a concentration of 0.5%.

Manual and Mechanical

Always wear gloves and long sleeves to protect your skin from poison 

ivy and barbed or spined plants that often grow amongst the invasive 

vines. For small infestations, plants can be hand-pulled along with 

the root portions. If fruits are present, the vines should be bagged in 

VINES
125

plastic trash bags and disposed of in a landfill or, alternatively, piled 

up and allowed to desiccate onsite. Dried piles of pulled material can 

either be left on-site and monitored the next year for new growth or 

hauled away. For climbing vines, first cut the vines near the ground 

at a comfortable height to kill upper portions and relieve host tree. 

Vines can be cut using pruning snips or a pruning saw for smaller 

stems and a hand axe or chain saw for larger stems. Try to minimize 

damage to the host tree’s bark. Rooted portions will remain alive 

and should be pulled, repeatedly cut to the ground or treated with 

herbicide. Cutting without herbicide will require vigilance and 

repeated cutting because new plants will resprout from the stem 

base.

Grubbing. Grubbing is the removal of entire plants from the roots up 

and is appropriate for small initial populations or environmentally 

sensitive areas where herbicides cannot be used. Using a pulaski, 

weed wrench or similar digging tool, remove the entire plant, 

including all roots and runners. Juvenile plants can be hand pulled 

depending on soil conditions and root development. Any portions of 

the root system not removed may resprout. 

BLACK SWALLOW-WORT ______________________________________ See General Guidance.

CHINESE WISTERIA __________________________________________ See General Guidance.

CHOCOLATE VINE ____________________________________________ See General Guidance.

COMMON PERIWINKLE _______________________________________ See General Guidance.

ENGLISH IVY ________________________________________________ See General Guidance.

For vines growing on trees, cut vine stems in two places about a foot 

apart and remove cut segment. Treat cut surface of rooted stems 

immediately with 5% glyphosate (e.g., Accord®) mixed with water. 

This will kill the rooted portions and prevent regrowth.

For infestations of vines on the ground, use a sturdy double-sided 

rake with short tines to gather vines and, while pulling taut on the 

vines, have a second person cut the vine stems near the ground. 

Ball the mass up and start again. The cut vines can be piled and left 

to desiccate on site. This process also allows removal of the rooted 

portions of vines and is quite effective but labor intensive. It requires 

at least two people taking turns. This method can be done at any time 

VINES
126

but may be more practical and effective in the dormant season when 

few other plants are around to interfere with the raking.

If treatment of foliage is needed, triclopyr and glyphosate can be 

used, with triclopyr typically giving greater control. Apply a 2-5% 

solution (8-20 oz. per 3 gal. mix) of triclopyr ester (e.g., Garlon® 4) 

mixed in water with a non-ionic surfactant to the leaves. Thoroughly 

wet the foliage but not to the point of run-off. Glyphosate can be 

applied as a 2-4% solution (8-16 oz. per 3 gal. mix) mixed in water 

with a 0.5 to 0.1% non-ionic surfactant. Repeat treatments may be 

needed. 

JAPANESE HONEYSUCKLE ____________________________________ See General Guidance. 

JAPANESE HOP _____________________________________________ See General Guidance.

The information on control of this plant is from research conducted by 

Dr. Philip Pannill and is available in more complete detail on the Plant 

Conservation Alliance ‘Weeds Gone Wild’ website (see References). 

While several herbicides are effective against Japanese hop, 

glyphosate (Accord Concentrate® at 1 qt./ac.) provides very effective 

control. Ideally, the first application would be made after most seeds 

have germinated (mid-April to mid-May) and before hop vines are 

covering the trees (early June to late July, depending on tree size) or 

before seed formation starts (August). Treatments in August or later 

can lessen the damage from hop vines and reduce seed production. 

Applications timed closer to the initiation of seed formation are more 

likely to prevent seed production before frost. 

Two treatments are recommended in order to protect trees from 

damage by the hop vines and to prevent or reduce seed production. 

The herbicide options can also be combined with efforts to pull vines 

or regularly mowing. According to The Nature Conservancy, hop 

seeds in the soil are unlikely to last more than three years. Repeat 

treatments for two to three years should be expected especially 

in areas subject to flooding that may receive influx of seed from 

upstream infestations.

The use of pre-emergent herbicides, which typically kill weed 

seeds as they germinate, is potentially valuable in controlling hop. 

Because this method requires specialized skills and knowledge about 

calibration and timing of application, it will not be discussed in detail 

here. For further information, refer to the Weeds Gone Wild fact 

sheet on Japanese hop (see References). 

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Cultural

Japanese hop prefers direct sunlight and does not tolerate heavy 

shade. As soon as the tree canopy closes, the hop will cease to be a 

problem. Practices that favor fast tree growth, early crown closure, 

and heavy shade will help the new stand survive and outgrow the 

hop. These include planting fast-growing tree species that are 

adapted to the site and that will create dense shade in spring and 

summer, spacing the plants close together, and using effective weed 

control measures. Hop will climb up and over shrubs and small trees, 

but it needs a ladder of tall weeds, shrubs, or low tree branches to 

cling to as it climbs. To minimize the availability of low-growing 

vegetation for hop to climb, it is important to reduce the proportion 

of shrubs and smaller trees in favor of tall-growing trees. As trees 

grow taller, prune the lower limbs and basal sprouts to reduce 

the ladder effect. Use of tree shelters can assist hop control by 

marking the location of the seedling, protecting it from herbicide 

spray, reducing low branching and making a less structured ladder. 

However, if the shelter surface is smooth, hop can still climb using 

the stake or adjacent vegetation. As much as possible, prevent hop 

vines from growing inside or overtop the shelters and depositing seed 

inside the shelter. Practices such as adequate site preparation, preemergent herbicide application or hand weeding inside the shelter, 

and herbicide application around the shelter can be used. If shelters 

are not used it is especially important to prevent and control hop 

from establishing or to detect and act on infestations early, before the 

vines can begin to climb onto the tree plantings.

Manual

Manual control is the most targeted method, with the least likelihood 

of damage to other plants. However, it is slow and labor-intensive and 

best suited for fairly small, readily accessible infested areas. Japanese 

hop does not develop an extensive or deep root system and as a result 

is fairly easy to pull or dig early in the season, especially when the 

soil is moist. This is an effective method but care must be taken to 

remove the root and not just break the stem off at ground level. Hand 

weeding needs to be started early in the growing season (April-May) 

while the roots are small and before the vines become tangled with 

other vegetation. Monthly pulling and monitoring will be needed until 

the infestation is eradicated. Due to the irritating prickles on the 

stems and leaves, it is important to wear gloves, long pants and long 

sleeves to avoid skin contact with the plant. Started early enough, 

and using proper precautions, this is a good method for homeowners 

or for volunteers working in public areas.

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Mechanical

Cutting or mowing the hop vines as close to the ground as possible 

is an acceptable control method as long as the cutting is started 

early (late spring), the entire site is thoroughly cut, and the practice 

is repeated frequently until the plants die back in fall. There are 

problems with this method. Attempts to mow or drive a vehicle 

through tree planting sites with tangles of hop vines covering the 

trees can result in the vines pulling out trees and breaking tree 

shelters. Vines quickly re-grow from the cut stems and from uncut 

vines around the trees. If successful, mowing tends to retain and 

promote the development of perennial grasses.

JAPANESE WISTERIA ________________________________________ See General Guidance.

KUDZU ____________________________________________________ See General Guidance.

MILE-A-MINUTE _____________________________________________ See General Guidance.

ORIENTAL BITTERSWEET ______________________________________ See General Guidance.

PALE SWALLOW-WORT _______________________________________ See General Guidance.

PORCELAINBERRY ___________________________________________ See General Guidance.

SWEET AUTUMN VIRGINSBOWER ______________________________ See General Guidance.

WINTER CREEPER ___________________________________________ See General Guidance.

VINES
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Plants to Watch 

The following plants include newly reported species and others that 

while known to be invasive elsewhere, have more recently been 

noticed to be expanding in our region. If you find these plants in the 

wild, outside of a planted landscape in an area that is supposed to be 

managed as natural habitat, it would be prudent to target them for 

removal. 

GRASSES

Japanese Silvergrass _________________________________________ Miscanthus sinensis Anderss.

Grass family (Poaceae)

Japanese silvergrass, also known as Chinese silvergrass, miscanthus, and susuki (in 

Japan), is native to Southeast Asia where it 

occurs along roadsides and disturbed sites 

throughout much of Japan, especially at 

higher elevations (3,000-4,000 ft.). It is popular and frequently planted in commercial and 

residential landscapes. Japanese silvergrass 

is found in scattered locations in most of the 

eastern U.S. and as far west as Missouri and 

Louisiana, and in California and Colorado. It 

is a clump-forming grass with short, inconspicuous rhizomes and is adaptable to a variety of soil types including light, well-drained, nutrient-poor soils not 

suitable for agriculture such as roadsides, powerline rights-of-way, 

railroads, and steep embankments. It prefers full sun. Mature plants 

have slender, upright or somewhat arching leaves up to 18 in. long, 

with silvery midribs, sharp tips and rough margins and feathery, 

fan-shaped, terminal flower panicles that are silvery to pink in color 

and up to 2 ft. long. Flowering occurs September through October. 

More than fifty ornamental forms of Miscanthus sinensis are sold in 

the U.S. nursery trade. Most forms set little or no seed due to selfincompatibility, meaning that pollen from other forms is needed in 

order to produce viable seed. The species or wild type of Miscanthus

likely originated from ornamental plantings. Due to the large number 

of forms planted, the wild type now produces a significant amount of 

viable seed that is wind-dispersed. It resembles ravenna-grass and 

other tall showy exotic ornamental grasses. Good substitutes would 

include eastern gamagrass (Tripsacum dactyloides), little bluestem 

(Schyzachirium scopyrium) and other native grasses. Removing 

seedheads is one way to reduce the likelihood of spread to new areas.

GRASSES & SEDGES

Bill Johnson
130

Ravenna-Grass ______________________________________________ Ripidium ravennae (L.) Trinius

Grass family (Poaceae)

Ravenna-grass, or plume-grass, is native 

to southern Europe and was introduced for 

ornamental purposes. It occurs in Delaware, 

District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Maryland, and Tennessee, as well as a number of 

other states across the U.S., from California 

to Michigan. It is a tall clumping grass with 

a basal tuft of leaves and flowering stalks 

that reach heights of 8-12 ft., towering over 

big bluestem and other plants and making 

them easily visible from a distance. The base of the clump can be 

several feet in diameter indicating a sizeable root mass. Control is 

difficult to date the most effective method has been achieved come 

from physically removing the plants by pulling or digging out. The 

leaves and stems are covered with fine hairs. Flower heads are pale, 

feathery plumes at the tips of the tall flower stalks. It has been observed spreading from plantings along roadsides and other disturbed 

edge habitats as well as in fields and other open sites. Spread is by 

wind-blown seed. While still fairly uncommon in our area, this species shows signs of being invasive under some conditions and should 

be watched and controlled whenever it spreads beyond a planting. 

It would be wise to find a non-weedy native substitute for this grass 

or at least one that is not likely to become invasive. It resembles 

Japanese silvergrass and other tall showy ornamental grass species. 

A good substitute would be eastern gamagrass (Tripsacum dactyloides). Previous names for ravenna-grass include Saccharum ravennae and Erianthus ravennae.

Small Carpetgrass/Joint-Head Grass _____________________________ Arthraxon hispidus (Thunb.) Makino

Grass family (Poaceae)

Small carpetgrass, or joint-head grass, is an annual 

grass native to temperate and tropical Asia and 

Australia. It was first observed in Virginia in 1930s 

and may have been accidentally introduced. It is 

reported to be invasive throughout the mid-Atlantic 

from Connecticut to Tennessee. It favors sunny 

moist habitats like floodplains, stream banks and 

shorelines, as well as roads and trails and thrives 

in sunny areas. It is invasive in scattered locations but has not been 

reported to be highly invasive over large areas to date. It has upGRASSES & SEDGES

Bill Johnson

Leslie J. Mehrhoff
131

right, smooth hairless stems 1-2 ft. tall are branched with many nodes 

which can root when they come in contact with the ground. The 

leaves are 1-2 in. long by about 1⁄2 in. wide, egg- to lance-shaped with 

a cordate (heart-shaped) base that clasps around the stem. The leaf 

stem and leaf margins are visibly hairy and the leaf sheath is covered 

with wart-like nodules. Flowers and fruits are produced September 

through November in terminal finger-like clusters 1⁄2-11⁄2 in. long. It 

spreads by seed that can be dispersed by moving water. It may be 

confused with deertongue panicgrass (Dicanthelium clandestinum), 

a native species, which is taller and has longer leaves that lack marginal hairs. It is a plant to keep an eye on and when possible, infestations should be eradicated to prevent potential spread.

HERBACEOUS FORBS

Broadleaf Helleborine ________________________________________ Epipactis helleborine (L.) Cr. Wats. & Coult.

Orchid family (Orchidaceae)

This attractive non-native orchid superficially 

resembles several native lilies that occur in our 

region, including Virginia bunchflower (Veratrum 

virginicum), Appalachian bunchflower (Veratrum 

parviflorum) and green false hellebore (Veratrum 

viride). Broadleaf helleborine has irregular, bilaterally symmetrical flowers with 5 petals and all the 

Veratrum have regular flowers with 6 petals. This is 

an exotic plant that is becoming increasingly invasive 

throughout the region, especially in dryish, gravelly soils of forest 

and woodland edges. It’s been documented in the eastern U.S. for a 

long time. It occurs throughout the Northeast in most counties from 

Pennsylvania to Maine, and in scattered locations in the mid-Atlantic 

and Great Lakes region as well as occasional locations in the central 

and western states. The state of Wisconsin included this plant in its 

control manual for ecologically invasive plants in 1997. 

Giant Hogweed ______________________________________________ Heracleum mantegazzianum Sommier & Leview

Parsley family (Apiaceae)

DO NOT TOUCH THIS PLANT. Giant hogweed is a dangerous plant and is designated as a federal noxious 

weed due to its toxic sap that causes skin sensitivity 

to UV radiation and leads to blistering and severe 

burns. It is native to Europe and Asia and was introduced around 1917 for use as an ornamental plant. 

It is also used as a spice in middle Eastern cooking. 

HERBACEOUS FORBS

Paula Sullivan

USDA APHIS
132

Hogweed is a towering herbaceous biennial plant growing 15-20 ft. in 

height with interesting foliage and massive flower heads. The large 

stem is hollow, about 2 in. across and usually marked with purple 

blotches. The leaves are deeply lobed, sharply pointed, and up to 5 ft. 

across. Flowering occurs in late spring to early summer. The white 

flowers are arranged in large umbrella-shaped heads that can be up 

to 21⁄2 ft. in diameter. Hogweed has been reported in scattered locations in the Northeast, Mid-Atlantic and Pacific Northwest regions. It 

grows well in a variety of habitats but prefers moist, rich soils in disturbed areas such as riverbanks, ditches and railroad right-of-ways. 

It spreads by seed. Do not cultivate, plant, purchase, or transplant 

this plant. If found, notify your state Department of Agriculture of 

the exact location and request assistance with control. 

Goutweed __________________________________________________ Aegopodium podagraria L.

Parsley family (Apiaceae)

Goutweed is a creeping perennial herbaceous 

plant native to Europe and temperate portions of Asia that was introduced to North 

America as an ornamental. It occurs throughout most of Canada and in the U.S. from 

Maine to Minnesota, south to Georgia, and 

in Montana, Idaho, Oregon and Washington. 

Goutweed flourishes in moist, shaded areas 

of forest edges and disturbed forests and other disturbed habitats. 

Goutweed grows to 3 ft. tall and has alternate, compound leaves 

divided twice into three leaflets that are 1-3 in. long and have toothed 

margins and are sometimes irregularly lobed. Leaf stalks have 

sheathing bases. Leaves at the top of the stem are smaller and have 

fewer leaflets. Most leaves are basal, with the leafstalk attached to an 

underground stem, or rhizome. There are “wild” forms with green foliage and cultivated forms with white-margined or variegated leaves 

(as shown). Flowering occurs in June. Flowers are tiny and arranged 

in flat-topped clusters 2-4 in. across. 

Italian Arum ________________________________________________ Arum italicum P. Mill

Arum family (Arecaceae)

Italian arum is an evergreen herbaceous ornamental plant native to African, Asia and Europe that is 

showing signs of being invasive in natural areas. It 

has showy arrow-shaped fleshy leaves with white 

veins and can be seen in the dead of winter in the 

mid-Atlantic states. It has been reported to be 

HERBACEOUS FORBS

Bill Johnson

Bill Johnson
133

invasive in Rock Creek Park and the U.S. National Arboretum in 

Washington, D.C. and in the state of Oregon. Italian arum occurs as 

individual plants in low level infestations of scattered individuals over 

a particular area. It reproduces and spreads by seed. 

Marsh Dewflower ____________________________________________ Murdannia keisak (Hassk.) Hand.-Mazz.

Spiderwort family (Commelinaceae)

Marsh dewflower, Asian spiderwort, or wartremoving herb is native to eastern Asia and was 

first noted in 1935 in cultivated rice paddies in 

South Carolina. It escaped cultivation and has 

become established in the wild where it is invasive and spreading. It is a low growing, sprawling herbaceous plant with lance-shaped leaves 

and small solitary flowers with three equal sized 

petals that are pink to bluish in color. Flowers are borne in the upper 

leaf axils beginning in late summer (September). Fruits are capsules. 

It is known from 18 southern states north to Maryland and the District of Columbia. It prefers damp soil along the edges of freshwater 

tidal marshes, pond margins and slow-moving streams and can also 

be found inhabiting stream banks, canals, ditches, swamp forests, 

and other moist to wet disturbed places. Its vigorous growth enables 

it to out-compete native plants by forming dense mats. Seeds are 

dispersed by wildlife and it can spread by root fragments during flood 

events. Do not purchase or plant this invasive. Hand pulling may be 

effective if done before the plant sets seed. Chemical treatment with 

glyphosate (e.g. Rodeo®) labeled for wetland use may be effective 

if applied before seed set but it can be a challenge to control once 

established.

Spanish Bluebells ___________________________________________ Hyacinthoides hispanica (Mill.) Rothm.

Hyacinth family (Hyacinthaceae)

Spanish bluebells is a bulbous perennial native 

to Spain, Portugal and northwest Africa. It is a 

showy spring-flowering herbaceous plant with 

strap-shaped leaves and nodding, lavender, 

bell-shaped flowers on erect stalks that stand 

up to 18 in. high. Plants become dormant 

by early summer. Previously known as Scilla campanulata and 

Scilla hispanica. It is currently documented to occur in the wild in 

Delaware, Virginia and North Carolina and may be underreported. 

Spanish bluebells is known to naturalize and spread, a feature 

appreciated and used by the horticulture industry as a marketing 

HERBACEOUS FORBS

Linda Lee, Univ. of SC

Dan Wihela via Flickr
134

tool. It poses a threat to native spring-blooming wildflower species 

already being heavily impacted by other non-native invasives like fig 

buttercup, garlic mustard, and nodding star-of-Bethlehem. For these 

reasons, it is a plant to keep an eye on and be prepared to remove if it 

is found invading natural habitats.

Summer Snowflake __________________________________________ Leucojum aestivum L.

Lily family (Liliaceae)

Summer snowflake is an herbaceous perennial 

plant that flowers in spring. The flowers are 

white, nodding and easily identified by the small 

green spot on the outer tip of the petals and 

petal-like sepals that resembles nail polish on 

a fingernail. It is found throughout the eastern 

U.S. from Maine to Illinois, south to Texas and 

also in California and Oregon. It has been reported to be invasive 

in Fairfax County, Virginia, in habitats shared by fig buttercup 

(Ficaria verna) and garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) and is likely 

invasive elsewhere. Snowflake could be confused with other lowgrowing spring-flowering lilies with white flowers such as snowdrop 

(Galanthus nivalis), nodding star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum 

nutans), fairy lily (Zephyranthes candida) and others.

Yellow Archangel ____________________________________________ Lamiastrum galeobdolon (L.) Her. & Pol.

Mint family (Lamiaceae)

Yellow archangel is a perennial herbaceous 

groundcover native to Europe. Grown as an 

ornamental in Europe, it has now escaped 

in several states in the mid-Atlantic as well 

as the mid-west and west coast. It has been 

found growing in gardens as far north as 

Newfoundland, Canada. It favors deeply shady, 

moist habitats like floodplains, stream banks and wet areas, but it 

can grow in rock gardens in full sun. It has not (yet) been reported 

to be highly invasive over large areas, rather localized in small 

monocultures in natural areas adjacent to gardens or where garden 

waste may have been deposited. Yellow archangel may have upright 

stems or long groundcovering vines. The opposite, variegated silver 

and green leaf is persistent, oval shaped, and pubescent with large 

teeth on the margin. Showy yellow flowers are present April through 

June in shade or sun on upright stems (1-2 ft.). It spreads by root 

fragments or numerous seed. Hand pulling control methods were 

not effective, as even small root fragments efficiently and vigorously 

HERBACEOUS FORBS

Bill Johnson

Bill Johnson
135

resprouted. A dense newspaper/mulch blanket can work in small 

areas. Effective control has been obtained with triclopyr although 

care must be used to avoid desirable species. Small populations 

should be eradicated when found as area of coverage can expand 

rapidly in fertile soil. 

SHRUBS AND SUBSHRUBS

Castor Aralia ________________________________________________ Kalopanax septemlobus (Thunb.) Koidz

Ginseng family (Araliaceae)

Castor aralia is a showy ornamental shrub in the 

same family as ginseng and English ivy (pg. 105). 

Harvard University’s Arnold Arboretum distributed the plant to schools across the country in 

1972 to celebrate its centennial. Based on recent 

observations it is known from at least two sites 

in Maryland including Piscataway National Park 

in Accokeek, Maryland, and Rock Creek Park in 

Washington, D.C. Patches are currently limited 

in size but because it is able to spread vegetatively and by seed; it 

is a plant to watch and if possible should be removed to prevent its 

spread. 

Jetbead ____________________________________________________ Rhodotypos scandens (Thunb.) Makino

Rose family (Rosaceae)

Jetbead is a multi-stemmed deciduous shrub that 

was introduced from Central China, Korea and 

Japan in 1866 for ornamental purposes. Found 

in at least 17 states east of the Mississippi, it 

has recently come to the attention of land managers who noticed it 

becoming invasive in natural habitats away from intentional plantings. It is very shade tolerant and can do well in forest edges and 

interiors. Once established, it shades out native plants in the ground 

layer and inhibits native tree generation. Jetbead spreads by seed 

and by vegetative means. It can grow to 6 ft. in height and has opposite simple leaves 21⁄2-4 in. long with doubly serrate toothed margins 

and conspicuous ribbed veins with long pointed tips. It flowers in the 

spring, producing white four-petaled flowers about 2 in. across. Small 

pale to red turning black, bead-like fruits are produced soon after 

flowering. Jetbead invades forests, creating a thick shrub layer that 

displaces native shrubs, shades out understory species and restricts 

tree seedling establishment. 

SHRUBS & SUBSHRUBS

Bill Johnson

John M. Randall, TNC
136

Leatherleaf Mahonia _________________________________________ Mahonia bealei (Fortune) Carrière

Barberry family (Berberidaceae)

Leatherleaf mahonia is native to China. It has 

been planted as an ornamental and is invading 

woodlands in the southeastern and mid-Atlantic 

states. It is an evergreen shrub that grows 

5-10 ft. tall. The unusual leaves are pinnately 

compound, about 18 in. long with 9-13 paired, 

glossy holly-like leaflets. The leaflet margins 

have 2-7 teeth per side that are about 1⁄4 in. or less in length. Leaflets 

are very thick and stiff. Flowering occurs in early spring. Fragrant 

yellow flowers emerge from the tips of the plant in attractive spikelike sprigs. The fruits are green berries that turn bluish black with a 

grayish bloom. Fruits hang in grapelike clusters. 

Orange-Eye Butterfly-Bush _____________________________________ Buddleja davidii Franch.

Snapdragon family (Scrophulariaceae)

Orange-eye butterfly-bush, or summer lilac, 

is native to southwestern China and was 

introduced into North America around 1900 

for ornamental purposes. It escaped from 

plantings and occurs in scattered locations in 

the Northeast, Southeast and Mid-Atlantic and 

in the western U.S. from southern California to 

northern Washington. Butterfly-bush prefers 

disturbed sites and riparian areas. It is a 

deciduous shrub with arching stems and can grow 3-15 ft. in height. 

The leaves are 6-10 in. long, opposite, lanced-shaped, pale graygreen, velvety and have toothed margins. It flowers summer to fall. 

The flowers are produced in thick, wand-like clusters from the tips 

of stems. Flowers are tubular, with four petals with wavy margins 

and can be lilac, pink or white with a deep yellow to orange center. 

The flowers produce lots of nectar which attracts butterflies. It 

spreads by seed which is dispersed mostly by wind. A related species, 

Lindley’s butterfly-bush (B. lindleyana) has been reported to be 

invasive in natural areas in Florida. 

SHRUBS & SUBSHRUBS

Bill Johnson

Bill Johnson
137

TREES

Amur Corktree ______________________________________________ Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Rue family (Rutaceae)

Amur corktree is native to eastern Asia including 

Northern China (Manchuria, Ussuri, Amur), 

Korea, and Japan and was introduced into the 

United States in 1856 for ornamental purposes. 

To date, it has been reported to be invasive 

in scattered locations in Illinois, Maryland, 

Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania and 

Virginia. It prefers full sun and rich soils. Once 

established, it can form patches that displace native plants. It spreads 

by seed which is produced in abundance. Amur corktree can reach 

35-45 ft. at maturity. The distinctive bark is a light golden brown 

on younger trees and gray-brown, ridged, and furrowed on mature 

trees. Bark of both young and old trees is slightly spongy or corky to 

the touch and has a distinctive bright neon yellow layer of inner bark 

that can be revealed with a quick scrape of a pocket-knife. The leaves 

are 10-15 in. long, opposite, pinnately compound with 5-11 (up to 13) 

entire leaflets that are dark green, turning bright yellow in the fall. 

When crushed, the leaves have a distinctive citrusy smell sometimes 

likened to a disinfectant or skunk odor. Male and female plants are 

separate (dioecious) and each bears hanging panicles of yellowishgreen flowers from May through June. From mid-June to mid-July, 

female trees produce abundant clusters of fruits (technically drupes) 

which are 1⁄4-1⁄2 in. diameter. The fruits bright are green, turning black 

in late summer to fall, and may remain on the tree until winter. It is a 

plant to watch and should be controlled as necessary. 

Japanese Angelica-Tree ______________________________________ Aralia elata (Miq.) Seem

Ginseng family (Araliaceae)

Japanese angelica tree is a deciduous shrub or 

small tree native to China, Korea, Japan and the 

Russian Federation. It occurs in Ontario, Canada 

and throughout much of the northeastern U.S. 

from New Hampshire south to Maryland and 

west to Michigan and Illinois. It also occurs in 

Oregon and Washington. It can grow to 30 ft. in 

height. It has prickly stems and large compound 

leaves that are 2 or 3 times pinnate. The leaf stalks and flower stalks 

may have prickles. The main lateral veins of the leaflets continue all 

the way to the teeth at the leaflet margin. Flowering occurs late July 

TREES

Bill Johnson

John M. Randall, TNC
138

through August and fruits mature in August and September. Flowers 

are small and white and emerge from tips of stems in broad umbels 

1-2 ft. across that lack a central stalk. Fruits are black and about 1/10 

in. across. Angelica-tree is becoming increasingly common in the midAtlantic and should be watched and controlled as needed. 

Sawtooth Oak _______________________________________________ Quercus acutissima Carruthers

Beech family (Fagaceae)

Sawtooth oak, a tree native to eastern Asia, 

is popular for use in street tree plantings due 

to its interesting foliage and fruits (acorns). 

It spreads by seed that is produced in large 

numbers and has been found in recent years to 

be escaping from plantings to become invasive 

in wild areas, displacing native plants. Because 

of this, land managers recommend against the 

use of sawtooth oak and suggest instead that 

landscapers use native oaks, of which there are 

many species to choose. One observer noted 

that it readily seeds into woodland edges, meadow habitats and 

open areas. Sawtooth oak successfully establishes in edge habitats 

that are not managed by mowing or other woody plant control. With 

regular, annual and semiannual mowing it does not seem to persist. 

If not mowed, however, it is fast growing, tolerant of a wide range of 

moisture and temperature conditions and can become a troublesome 

invasive. Do not plant sawtooth oaks. If small, pull seedlings or treat 

leaves with glyphosate. To control large trees: cut tree and grind 

stump; girdle, hack and squirt glyphosate; or cut and paint stump 

with glyphosate. Alternative plants include shagbark hickory (Carya 

ovata), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), red oak (Quercus rubra) 

TREES

and many other lovely native trees. 

Chuck Bargeron, UGA
139

VINES 

Chinese Yam ________________________________________________ Dioscorea polystachya Turcz. (previously D. oppositifolia)

Yam family (Dioscoreaceae)

Chinese yam, or cinnamon vine, is an 

herbaceous, deciduous, perennial twining 

vine native to China. It is found throughout 

the eastern U.S. from Arkansas to Florida 

and as far north as Vermont with most 

current occurrences in the central portion of 

that range. It was introduced for ornamental, 

food, and medicinal purposes and probably 

escaped cultivation in the mid-1990s. It can 

form dense masses of vines that cover and kill native vegetation 

including trees within a variety of moist disturbed habitats. The 

leaves are halberd-shaped with a pointed tip, a concavity between 

leaf base and tip, long parallel veins, a long stalk, are 3-6 in. long by 

3-4 in. wide and opposite to alternate (near the tips). The stems are 

rounded, thin and wiry. It rarely flowers. Reproduction is mainly by 

aerial potato-like tubers (bulbils) in leaf axils and by underground 

tubers. Several vines look like Chinese yam including two native 

species – whorled wild yam (D. quaternata) and common wild yam 

(D. villosa) which have heart-shaped leaves, small hairs on upper 

leaf surfaces, lack aerial tubers and twine right to left. Other vines 

that might be confused with it include native greenbrier (Smilax sp.) 

which lacks the aerial tubers, typically has thorns and blue to purple 

berries, non-native field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis), which has 

alternate leaves and showy trumpet-like flowers, and morning-glory 

(Ipomoea sp.) which has heart-shaped, alternate leaves. 

VINES

Jack Ranney, Univ. of TN
140
141

blazing star or gayfeather

(Liatris spicata)

Bill Johnson

cardinal flower

(Lobelia cardinalis)

Bill Johnson

evergreen wood fern

(Dryopteris marginalis or intermedia)

Bill Johnson

creeping phlox

(Phlox stolonifera)

Connie Schmotzer, Penn State Coop. Ext.

foam flower

(Tiarella cordifolia)

Bill Johnson

blue vervain

(Verbena hastata)

R. Harrison Wiegand

Native Alternatives for Herbaceous Forbs

green and gold

(Chrysogonum virginianum)

Bill Johnson

Joe Pye weed

(Eupatorium fistulosum)

Bill Johnson

NATIVE ALTERNATIVES
142

Native Alternatives for Herbaceous Forbs

lady fern

(Athyrium filix-femina)

Bill Johnson

New York fern

(Thelypteris noveboracensis)

Bill Johnson

New York ironweed

(Vernonia noveboracensis)

Bill Johnson

obedient plant 

(Physostegia virginiana)

Bill Johnson

wild ginger

(Asarum canadense)

Britt Slattery, USFWS

partridgeberry 

(Mitchella repens)

Bill Johnson

wild geranium

(Geranium maculatum)

Bill Johnson

NATIVE ALTERNATIVES
143

black haw

(Viburnum prunifolium)

Bill Johnson

flowering raspberry

(Rubus odoratus)

Bill Johnson

gray dogwood

(Cornus racemosa)

Bill Johnson

highbush blueberry

(Vaccinium corymbosum)

Bill Johnson

fragrant or shining sumac

(Rhus aromatica or copallina)

Bill Johnson

groundsel tree

(Baccharis halimifolia)

Bill Johnson

inkberry

(Ilex glabra)

Bill Johnson

common blackberry

(Rubus allegheniensis)

©Steve Baskauf, 2002-2005 via Bioimages

Native Alternatives for Shrubs and Subshrubs

NATIVE ALTERNATIVES
144

Native Alternatives for Shrubs and Subshrubs

maleberry

(Lyonia ligustrina)

Alan Cressler via Flickr

smooth sumac

(Rhus glabra)

Bill Johnson

southern arrowwood

(Viburnum dentatum)

Bill Johnson

silky dogwood

(Cornus amomum)

Richard I. Bonser via Flickr

red or black chokeberry

(Aronia arbutifolia or melanocarpa)

Bill Johnson

pasture rose

(Rosa carolina)

Larry Allain, USDA PLANTS Database

northern bayberry

(Myrica pensylvanica)

Bill Johnson

mapleleaf viburnum 

(Viburnum acerifolium)

Ted Bodner, USDA PLANTS Database

NATIVE ALTERNATIVES
145

swamp rose

(Rosa palustris)

Chris Miller, NRCS

Native Alternatives for Shrubs and Subshrubs

winterberry

(Ilex verticillata)

Bill Johnson

staghorn sumac

(Rhus typhina)

Bill Johnson

Virginia sweetspire

(Itea virginica)

Bill Johnson

sweet pepperbush 

(Clethra alnifolia)

Bill Johnson

spicebush

(Lindera benzoin)

Chris Miller, NRCS

NATIVE ALTERNATIVES
146

American beech

(Fagus grandifolia)

Bill Johnson

black haw

(Viburnum prunifolium)

Bill Johnson

box elder

(Acer negundo)

Bill Johnson

fringetree

(Chionanthus virginicus)

Bill Johnson

black walnut

(Juglans nigra)

Bill Johnson

flowering dogwood

(Cornus florida)

Bill Johnson

black gum

(Nyssa sylvatica)

Bill Johnson

Native Alternatives for Trees

red maple

(Acer rubrum)

Britt Slattery, USFWS

NATIVE ALTERNATIVES
147

redbud

(Cercis canadensis)

Bill Johnson

sourwood

(Oxydendrum arboreum)

Connie Schmotzer, Penn State Coop. Ext.

sweet gum

(Liquidambar styraciflua)

Bill Johnson

sweetbay magnolia

(Magnolia virginiana)

Bill Johnson

serviceberry

(Amelanchier canadensis or arborea)

Bill Johnson

Native Alternatives for Trees

willow oak

(Quercus phellos)

Bill Johnson

NATIVE ALTERNATIVES
148

American wisteria

(Wisteria frutescens)

Fred Nation

passionflower

(Passiflora incarnata)

Bill Johnson

Native Alternatives for Vines

pipevine

(Aristolochia macrophylla)

Jim Gallion

trumpet honeysuckle

(Lonicera sempervirens)

Bill Johnson

Virginia creeper

(Parthenocissus quinquefolia)

Marielle Anzelone via Flickr

virgin’s bower

(Clematis virginiana)

Bill Johnson

trumpet creeper

(Campsis radicans)

Olivia Kwong, Plant Conservation Alliance

crossvine

(Bignonia capreolata)

Bill Johnson

NATIVE ALTERNATIVES
149

Glossary

alien, exotic, foreign, introduced: see non-native.

axil: the junction of leaf and stem.

biodiversity: the sum of all the plants, animals and other organisms 

living on Earth.

biological control: the use of living organisms — parasites, pathogens 

or predators — to control an invasive or other pest species.

cultivar: a race or variety of a plant that has been created or selected 

intentionally and maintained through cultivation.

girdle: to cut through the bark and growing layer (cambium) all 

around the trunk of a tree. 

glyphosate: a type of systemic herbicide (e.g., Roundup® for nonwetland use, Rodeo® for wetlands or near water). 

indigenous: see native.

invasive: a species that grows and spreads rapidly, establishes over 

large areas, and displaces native species.

native: a species that naturally occurs in a particular region, 

ecosystem and habitat. Species native to North America are 

generally recognized as those occurring on the continent prior to 

European settlement. 

natural area: an area of land or water with predominantly native 

vegetation or natural geological features that is allowed to respond 

to the forces of nature with minimal human influence.

non-native: a species that, due to direct or indirect human activity, 

occurs in locations beyond its known historical or potential natural 

range. Refers to species from another continent, region, ecosystem, 

or habitat.

noxious weed: a legal designation used specifically for species that 

have been determined to be major pests of agricultural systems and 

are subject, by law, to certain restrictions. 

pedicel: stalk that attaches individual flowers to the main stem of an 

inflorescence.

peduncle: stalk that supports an inflorescence.

pest: a plant, animal or other organism considered harmful.

rhizomes: underground stems.

sepals: bract-like or leaf-like structures below the petals of a flower.

stipules: a pair of leaf-like structures at the base of the leaf stalk on 

some plants.
150

stolons: above-ground stems.

systemic herbicide: an herbicide that is absorbed by a plant and 

carried throughout the tissues.

turions: vegetative buds formed in leaf axils or stem tips.

triclopyr: a type of systemic herbicide (e.g., Garlon®).

weed: a subjective word used to describe any plant growing wherever 

someone wishes it did not; can include native and non-native plants.

wildland: see natural area. 

_____________________________________________________________

*Note: mention of a trade name does not constitute the endorsement 

of the product by authors, agencies or organizations involved in the 

production of this publication.
151

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157

Photographic Credits 

All photographs in this publication were used with permission of the 

photographers. Most images are copyrighted by the photographers 

and/or sources listed below, and may not be used for commercial purposes without prior written permission of the copyright holders. The 

National Park Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service are grateful 

for the generosity and cooperation of these photographers.

Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants, University of South Florida 

(www.plantatlas.usf.edu): 

Fred Nation

Marielle Anzelone via Flickr

Bill Johnson Nature Stock Photography, Inc. 

(www.agpix.com/billjohnson):

Bill Johnson

Bioimages (bioimages.vanderbilt.edu): 

Steve Baskauf

Richard I. Bonser via Flickr

Alan Cressler via Flickr

Jennifer Forman Orth

Peter C. Gorman via Flickr

Maryland Department of Natural Resources (www.dnr.state.md.us):

Mike Naylor, Tidewater Ecosystem Assessment

R. Harrison Wiegand, Wildlife and Heritage Division

The Nature Conservancy (www.nature.org):

Mary Travaglini

Penn State Cooperative Extension (www.extension.psu.edu):

Connie Schmotzer

Paula Sullivan

Plant Conservation Alliance (www.nps.gov/plants):

Olivia Kwong
158

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation 

Service, PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov):

Chris Miller, NRCS

Ted Bodner. Miller, J.H. and K.V. Miller. 2005. Forest plants of the 

southeast and their wildlife uses. University of Georgia Press, 

Athens.

Larry Allain, USGS NWRC

U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, 

Chesapeake Bay Field Office (chesapeakebay.fws.gov):

Britt Slattery

University of Georgia & U.S. Forest Service

Invasive and Exotic Species of North America (www.invasive.org):

James R. Allison, Georgia Department of Natural Resources

Chuck Bargeron, University of Georgia

Ted Bodner, Southern Weed Science Society

John Cardina, The Ohio State University

Chris Evans, River to River CWMA

Troy Evans, Eastern Kentucky University

Alison Fox, University of Florida

Mic Julien, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research 

Organization

Kerrie L. Kyde, Maryland Department of Natural Resources

Linda Lee, University of South Carolina

Graves Lovell, Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural 

Resources

Joseph McCauley, US Fish and Wildlife Service

Leslie J. Mehrhoff, University of Connecticut

James H. Miller, USDA Forest Service

David J. Moorhead, University of Georgia

John M. Randall, The Nature Conservancy

Jack Ranney, University of Tennessee

Amy Richard, University of Florida

Jan Samanek, State Phytosanitary Administration

Jil M. Swearingen, National Park Service

USDA APHIS PPQ Archive

Robert Vidéki, Doronicum Kft., Hungary

Paul Wray, Iowa State University

Dan Wihela via Flickr

Wildlife Gardening Adventures (www.gardeningadventures.com):

Jim Gallion

Ron Wilson
159

Websites for More Information

Eating your weeds

Alien Weeds: The Invasive Species Harvest: 

http://alienweeds.com/

Mid-Atlantic Invasive Plant Council: 

http://www.maipc.org

Herbicide Information

Dow AgroSciences LLC Product Labels and Material Safety Data 

Sheets: http://www.cdms.net/LabelsMsds/LMDefault.aspx

Accord®: 

http://www.dowagro.com/ivm/forestry/prod/accord.htm

http://www.cdms.net/ldat/ld4TL015.pdf

Garlon® 3A: 

http://www.dowagro.com/ivm/utility/prod/garlon3a.htm

http://www.cdms.net/ldat/ld0AU003.pdf

Garlon® 4: 

http://www.cdms.net/ldat/ld0B0013.pdf 

http://www.dowagro.com/ivm/utility/prod/garlon4.htm

Habitat®: 

http://www.cdms.net/ldat/ld6H2000.pdf

RemedyTM: 

http://www.dowagro.com/ca/prod/remedy.htm

http://www.cdms.net/ldat/ld0B4005.pdf

Rodeo®: 

http://www.dowagro.com/ivm/invasive/prod/rodeo.htm

http://www.cdms.net/ldat/ld4TN001.pdf

Roundup®: 

http://www.scotts.com/smg/brand/roundup/brandLanding.jsp

Backpack and Spot Treatment Calibration Guidelines in Techline 

Newsletter: http://www.dowagro.com/range/resource/techline.htm

Plant Identification, Distribution and Management

California Invasive Plant Council – Invasive Plants of California’s 

Wildlands: http://www.cal-ipc.org/ip/management/ipcw/online.php

Early Detection and Distribution Mapping System (EDDMapS): 

http://www.eddmaps.org/
160

Flora of the Southeast and Mid-Atlantic States (Weakley’s): 

http://herbarium.unc.edu/WeakleyFlora2010Mar.pdf

Global Invasive Species Database: 

http://www.issg.org/database/welcome

Invasive Plant Atlas of the United States: 

http://www.invasiveplantatlas.org

Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center Native Plant Information Network: http://www.wildflower.org

NatureServe Explorer: An Online Encyclopedia of Life: 

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/index.htm

Pennsylvania Flora Project: 

http://www.paflora.org

Plant Conservation Alliance: 

http://www.nps.gov/plants

U.S. Forest Service Weed of the Week: 

http://www.na.fs.fed.us/fhp/invasive_plants/weeds

Weeds Gone Wild: Plant Invaders of Natural Areas in the United 

States: http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien

Organizations

Central Jersey Invasive Species Task Force: 

http://www.cjist.org

Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control: http://www.dnrec.state.de.us

Delaware Invasive Species Council: 

http://www.delawareinvasives.net

Delaware Native Plant Society: 

http://www.delawarenativeplants.org

Federal Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force: 

http://www.anstaskforce.gov

Invasive and Exotic Species of North America: 

http://www.invasive.org/

Invasive Plant Atlas of the United States: 

http://invasiveplantatlas.org

Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center’s Native Plant Information 

Network: http://www.wildflower.org/explore
161

Maryland Department of Natural Resources: 

http://www.dnr.state.md.us

Maryland Invasive Species Council: 

http://www.mdinvasivesp.org

Maryland Native Plant Society: 

http://www.mdflora.org

Mid-Atlantic Invasive Plant Council: 

http://www.maipc.org

Mid-Atlantic Panel on Aquatic Invasive Species: 

http://www.midatlanticpanel.org/

National Association of Exotic Pest Plant Councils: 

http://www.naeppc.org

National Invasive Species Council: 

http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov

New Jersey Invasive Species Council: 

http://www.nj.gov/dep/njisc

Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources 

Invasive Plant Tutorial: http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us

Pennsylvania Invasive Species Council: 

http://www.invasivespeciescouncil.com

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s Native Plants for Wildlife Habitat 

and Conservation Landscaping: 

http://www.nps.gov/plants/pubs/chesapeake

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, BayScapes.: 

http://www.fws.gov/chesapeakebay/bayscapes.htm

Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation: 

http://www.dcr.virginia.gov

Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation. Native Plants 

for Conservation, Restoration and Landscaping: 

http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural_heritage/nativeplants.shtml

Virginia Native Plant Society: 

http://www.vnps.org

West Virginia Division of Natural Resources: 

http://www.dnr.wvdnr.gov
162
163

Index of Invasive Plants by Scientific Name

(80 species)

Acer platanoides (Norway maple) ......................................................... 82

Aegopodium podagraria (goutweed) .................................................. 132

Ailanthus altissima (tree of heaven) .................................................... 87

Akebia quinata (chocolate vine, five-leaved akebia) ......................... 102

Albizia julibrissin (silk tree, mimosa tree) .......................................... 86

Alliaria petiolata (garlic mustard) ........................................................ 45

Ampelopsis brevipedunculata (porcelainberry) ................................ 118

Aralia elata (Japanese angelica-tree) ................................................. 137

Arthraxon hispidus (small carpetgrass) ............................................. 130

Arum italicum (Italian arum) .............................................................. 132

Bambusa vulgaris (common bamboo) ................................................... 23

Berberis thunbergii (Japanese barberry) ............................................. 64

Broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) .......................................... 83

Buddleja davidii (orange-eye butterfly bush) ................................... 136

Celastrus orbiculatus (Oriental bittersweet) .................................... 115

Centaurea stoebe ssp. micranthos (spotted knapweed) ..................... 53

Cirsium arvense (Canada thistle) .......................................................... 37

Clematis terniflora (sweet autumn virgins-bower) .......................... 120

Cynanchum louiseae (black swallow-wort) ......................................... 99

Cynanchum rossicum (pale swallow-wort) ....................................... 116

Dioscorea polystachya (Chinese yam) ................................................ 139

Elaeagnus umbellata (autumn olive) .................................................... 62

Epipactis helleborine (broadleaf helleborine) .................................... 131

Euonymus alatus (winged burning bush) ............................................ 73

Euonymus fortunei (winter creeper) .................................................. 121

Fallopia japonica (Japanese knotweed) ............................................... 48

Ficaria verna (fig buttercup) .................................................................. 44

Glechoma hederacea (ground ivy, gill-over-the-ground) .................... 47

Hedera helix (English ivy) .................................................................... 105

Hemerocallis fulva (common daylily, orange daylily) ......................... 40

Heracleum mantegazzianum (giant hogweed) ................................. 131

Hesperis matronalis (dame’s rocket) .................................................... 41

Humulus japonicus (Japanese hop) .................................................... 108

Hyacinthoides hispanica (Spanish bluebells) .................................... 133

Hydrilla verticillata (hydrilla) ............................................................... 17

Kalopanax septemlobus (castor aralia) .............................................. 135
164

Lamiastrum galeobdolon (yellow archangel) .................................... 134

Lespedeza cuneata (Chinese lespedeza) ................................................ 38

Leucojum aestivum (summer snowflake) ........................................... 134

Ligustrum obtusifolium (border privet) .............................................. 71

Ligustrum ovalifolium (California privet) ........................................... 71

Ligustrum sinense (Chinese privet) ...................................................... 71

Ligustrum vulgare (European privet) .................................................. 71

Lonicera japonica (Japanese honeysuckle) ........................................ 107

Lonicera maackii (Amur honeysuckle) ................................................ 61

Lonicera morrowii (Morrow’s honeysuckle) ........................................ 68

Lythrum salicaria (purple loosestrife) ................................................. 51

Mahonia bealii (leatherleaf mahonia) .............................................. 136

Microstegium vimineum (Japanese stiltgrass) ................................... 28

Miscanthus sinensis (Japanese silvergrass) ...................................... 129

Morus alba (white mulberry) ................................................................. 89

Murdannia keisak (marsh dewflower) ............................................... 133

Myriophyllum aquaticum (parrot-feather) ......................................... 19

Myriophyllum spicatum (Eurasian water-milfoil) ............................. 14

Oplismenus hirtellus ssp. undulatifolius (wavyleaf basketgrass) .. 29

Ornithogalum nutans (nodding star-of-Bethlehem) ........................... 50

Ornithogalum umbellatum (sleepydick) .............................................. 50

Paulownia tomentosa (princess tree) ................................................... 84

Perilla frutescens (beafsteak plant) ...................................................... 36

Persicaria perfoliata (mile-a-minute weed) ....................................... 113

Phellodendron amurense (Amur corktree) ........................................ 137

Phragmites australis (common reed) .................................................... 26

Phyllostachys aurea (golden running bamboo) ................................... 23

Pseudosasa japonica (arrow bamboo) .................................................. 23

Pueraria montana var. lobata (kudzu) ............................................... 111

Pyrus calleryana (Callery pear) ............................................................ 80

Quercus acutissima (sawtooth oak) .................................................... 138

Rhodotypos scandens (jetbead) ........................................................... 135

Ripidium ravennae (ravenna-grass) ................................................... 130

Rosa multiflora (multiflora rose) ........................................................... 69

Rubus phoenicolasius (wineberry) ....................................................... 72

Salvinia molesta (giant salvinia, kariba-weed, water fern) ............... 16

Schoenoplectus mucronatus (bog bulrush) .......................................... 24

Spiraea japonica (Japanese meadowsweet) ........................................ 65

Trapa natans (water chestnut) .............................................................. 21

Urtica dioica (European stinging nettle) ............................................. 43
165

Viburnum dilatatum (linden viburnum) ............................................... 66

Vinca minor (common periwinkle) ...................................................... 104

Wisteria floribunda (Japanese wisteria) ............................................. 110

Wisteria sinensis (Chinese wisteria) ................................................... 101
166

Notes
167

Notes
168

Notes
CENTIMETERS
National Park Service

National Capital Region

Center for Urban Ecology

4598 MacArthur Boulevard, N.W.

Washington, DC 20007

(202) 342-1443 ext 218 

www.nps.gov/cue

U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service 

Chesapeake Bay Field Office

177 Admiral Cochrane Drive

Annapolis, MD 21401 

(410) 573-4500 

www.fws.gov/chesapeakebay/

National Fish and Wildlife Foundation

1120 Connecticut Avenue N.W., Suite 900

Washington, DC 20036

(202) 857-0166

www.nfwf.org

Plant Conservation Alliance

1849 C Street N.W., LSB-204

Washington, DC 20240

(202) 912-7232

www.nps.gov/plants

The Nature Conservancy

Maryland/DC Chapter

5410 Grosvenor Lane, Suite 100

Bethesda, MD 20814

(301) 897-8570

www.nature.org

Chesapeake Bay Foundation

Philip Merrill Environmental Center

6 Herndon Avenue

Annapolis, MD 21403

(410) 268-8816

www.cbf.org

Chesapeake Bay Trust

60 West Street, Suite 200-A

Annapolis, MD 21401

(410) 974-2941

www.chesapeakebaytrust.org

Maryland Department of Natural Resources

Wildlife and Heritage Service

580 Taylor Avenue, Tawes State Office Building

Annapolis, MD 21401

(410) 260-8540

www.dnr.state.md.us

Mid-Atlantic Invasive Plant Council

5617 5th Street S.

Arlington, VA 22204

www.maipc.org

National Capital Area Garden Clubs, Inc.

3501 New York Avenue, N.E.

Washington, DC 20002-1958

www.ncagardenclubs.org

City of Bowie, Maryland

Dept of Planning and Economic Development

2614 Kenhill Drive

Bowie, MD 20715

(301) 809-3051

www.cityofbowie.org

Worcester County, Maryland

Department of Comprehensive Planning

One West Market Street, Suite 1302

Snow Hill, MD 21863

(410) 632-5651

www.co.worcester.md.us