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Final Environmental Impact Statement for the

Land and Resource Management Plan

National Forests in Mississippi

Forest Supervisor’s Office – Jackson, Mississippi

Bienville National Forest – Forest, Mississippi

Delta National Forest – Rolling Fork, Mississippi

De Soto National Forest –

Chickasawhay Ranger District – Laurel, Mississippi

De Soto Ranger District - Wiggins, Mississippi

Holly Springs National Forest – Oxford, Mississippi

(Includes the Yalobusha Unit)

Homochitto National Forest – Meadville, Mississippi

Tombigbee National Forest – Ackerman, Mississippi

(Includes the Ackerman and Trace Units)

Lead Agency: USDA Forest Service

Responsible Official: Elizabeth Agpaoa, Regional Forester

Southern Region

1720 Peachtree Road, NW

Atlanta, GA 30309

Cooperating Agency: USDI Bureau of Land Management

Eastern States, Southeastern States Field Office

Bruce E. Dawson, Field Manager

411 Briarwood Drive, Suite 404

Jackson, MS 39206

For Information Contact: Margrett L. Boley, Forest Supervisor

National Forests in Mississippi

200 South Lamar St., Suite 500-N

Jackson, MS 39201

Telephone: (601) 965-1629

Abstract: Five alternatives for revision of the Land and Resource Management Plan (LRMP or Forest 

Plan) for the National Forests in Mississippi are described, compared, and analyzed in detail in this Final 

Environmental Impact Statement (FEIS). Alternative A provides analysis of custodial management to 

address minimum legal management requirements. Alternative B represents no change from the current 

LRMP. Alternative C is the alternative selected by the Forest Service and was the foundation for the 

Revised Plan. Alternative D addresses an increased emphasis on restoration of historical forest conditions. 

Alternative E addresses an emphasis on improving forest health.
Land Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi

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Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi i

Table of Contents

SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................................................XI

PROPOSED ACTION ........................................................................................................................................................ XI

ISSUES ADDRESSED ........................................................................................................................................................ XI

ALTERNATIVES............................................................................................................................................................... XI

EFFECTS ANALYSIS ......................................................................................................................................................... XI

Soils....................................................................................................................................................................... xi

Air ........................................................................................................................................................................ xii

Water................................................................................................................................................................... xii

Ecological Systems............................................................................................................................................... xii

Species Diversity .................................................................................................................................................. xii

Forest Health and Protection.............................................................................................................................. xiii

Fire Management ............................................................................................................................................... xiii

Outdoor Recreation ............................................................................................................................................ xiii

Scenery................................................................................................................................................................ xiv

Recreational Fisheries Management.................................................................................................................. xiv

Wilderness .......................................................................................................................................................... xiv

Wild and Scenic Rivers........................................................................................................................................ xiv

Special Areas....................................................................................................................................................... xiv

Cultural Resources .............................................................................................................................................. xiv

Forest Products.................................................................................................................................................... xv

Minerals............................................................................................................................................................... xv

Infrastructure....................................................................................................................................................... xv

Land Use and Ownership .................................................................................................................................... xvi

Other Effects....................................................................................................................................................... xvi

CHAPTER 1. PURPOSE AND NEED...........................................................................................................................1

1.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................1

1.2 PURPOSE AND NEED FOR ACTION ..........................................................................................................................1

1.3 PLANNING PROCESS ............................................................................................................................................1

1.4 SCOPE OF FOREST PLAN REVISION AND DECISIONS TO BE MADE ..................................................................................2

1.5 RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER DOCUMENTS ...................................................................................................................2

1.6 LOCATION AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANNING AREA..................................................................................4

1.7 SUMMARY DESCRIPTIONS OF THE FORESTS ..............................................................................................................4

1.8 IDENTIFYING THE ISSUES.......................................................................................................................................4

1.9 SUMMARY OF ISSUES...........................................................................................................................................5

1.9.1 Native Ecosystem Restoration ...............................................................................................................6

1.9.2 Biodiversity and Species Viability...........................................................................................................6

1.9.3 Forest Health..........................................................................................................................................6

1.9.4 Vegetation Management for Timber.....................................................................................................7

1.9.5 Fire Management ..................................................................................................................................7

1.9.6 Old Growth.............................................................................................................................................7

1.9.7 Watersheds and Water, Soils, Aquatic Resources, Riparian Environments...........................................8

1.9.8 Access Management..............................................................................................................................8

1.9.9 Recreation..............................................................................................................................................8

1.9.10 Special Area Designations......................................................................................................................9

1.9.11 Land Use and Ownership .......................................................................................................................9

1.9.12 Climate Change......................................................................................................................................9

1.9.13 Minerals Management ........................................................................................................................10

1.9.14 Economic Benefits................................................................................................................................10

1.10 PLANNING RECORDS..........................................................................................................................................10
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ii National Forests in Mississippi

CHAPTER 2. ALTERNATIVES.................................................................................................................................. 11

2.1 PURPOSE AND ORGANIZATION ............................................................................................................................11

2.2 PROCESS USED TO DEVELOP ALTERNATIVES ...........................................................................................................11

2.3 ALTERNATIVES CONSIDERED BUT ELIMINATED FROM FURTHER STUDY.........................................................................11

2.4 ALTERNATIVES CONSIDERED IN DETAIL..................................................................................................................13

2.4.1 Elements Common to All Alternatives..................................................................................................13

2.4.2 Summary of Alternatives .....................................................................................................................15

2.5 COMPARISON OF ALTERNATIVES ..........................................................................................................................23

2.5.1 Management Areas and Prescriptions.................................................................................................23

2.5.2 Designated Geographic or Special Areas.............................................................................................24

2.5.3 Vegetation Management.....................................................................................................................25

2.5.4 Community Diversity and Species Viability ..........................................................................................26

2.5.5 Fire Management ................................................................................................................................27

2.5.6 Recreation Management.....................................................................................................................27

2.5.7 Minerals Management ........................................................................................................................27

CHAPTER 3. AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT ................................................................................................................ 29

3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................29

3.2 DESCRIPTIONS OF ECOLOGICAL UNITS...................................................................................................................29

3.3 DESCRIPTIONS OF MANAGEMENT UNITS ...............................................................................................................31

3.3.1 Bienville National Forest......................................................................................................................31

3.3.2 Delta National Forest...........................................................................................................................32

3.3.3 De Soto National Forest.......................................................................................................................32

3.3.4 Holly Springs National Forest...............................................................................................................33

3.3.5 Homochitto National Forest.................................................................................................................33

3.3.6 Tombigbee National Forest..................................................................................................................34

3.4 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT ...................................................................................................................................34

3.4.1 Geology and Topography.....................................................................................................................34

3.4.2 Soils......................................................................................................................................................38

3.4.3 Air.........................................................................................................................................................38

3.4.4 Water...................................................................................................................................................38

3.4.5 Climate.................................................................................................................................................43

3.5 BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT................................................................................................................................51

3.5.1 Ecological Systems...............................................................................................................................51

3.5.2 Species Diversity...................................................................................................................................68

3.5.3 Threatened and Endangered Species...................................................................................................71

3.5.4 Management Indicator Species ...........................................................................................................89

3.5.5 Special Areas Status, Trends................................................................................................................97

3.5.6 Forest Health and Protection.............................................................................................................107

3.5.7 Fire Management ..............................................................................................................................115

3.6 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT ..............................................................................................................117

3.6.1 Timber................................................................................................................................................117

3.6.2 Range.................................................................................................................................................119

3.6.3 Minerals.............................................................................................................................................119

3.6.4 Infrastructure.....................................................................................................................................122

3.6.5 Land Use and Ownership ...................................................................................................................123

3.6.6 Outdoor Recreation ...........................................................................................................................125

3.6.7 National Wild and Scenic Rivers.........................................................................................................136

3.6.8 Wilderness .........................................................................................................................................137

3.6.9 Recreational Fisheries Management .................................................................................................139

3.6.10 Cultural Resources .............................................................................................................................142

3.6.11 Scenery...............................................................................................................................................142
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi iii

3.6.12 Social Demographics..........................................................................................................................144

3.6.13 Values, Attitudes, and Beliefs Survey.................................................................................................160

CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES ................................................................................................ 163

4.1 SOILS............................................................................................................................................................163

4.1.1 Soil Direct and Indirect Effects...........................................................................................................163

4.1.2 Soil Cumulative Effects.......................................................................................................................170

4.2 AIR ..............................................................................................................................................................172

4.3 WATER.........................................................................................................................................................173

4.3.1 Water Direct and Indirect Effects.......................................................................................................173

4.3.2 Cumulative Effects .............................................................................................................................176

4.4 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS .....................................................................................................................................180

4.4.1 Upland Longleaf Pine Forest and Woodland .....................................................................................181

4.4.2 Shortleaf Pine-Oak Forest and Woodland..........................................................................................184

4.4.3 Loblolly Forest....................................................................................................................................186

4.4.4 Southern Loblolly-Hardwood Flatwoods............................................................................................189

4.4.5 Slash Pine Forest................................................................................................................................193

4.4.6 Northern Dry Upland Hardwood Forest.............................................................................................195

4.4.7 Southern Dry Upland Hardwood Forest.............................................................................................198

4.4.8 Southern Loess Bluff Forest................................................................................................................199

4.4.9 Southern Mesic Slope Forest..............................................................................................................201

4.4.10 Northern Mesic Hardwood Forest......................................................................................................203

4.4.11 Floodplain Forest ...............................................................................................................................205

4.4.12 Lower Mississippi River Bottomland and Floodplain Forest...............................................................207

4.4.13 Near-coast Pine Flatwoods................................................................................................................209

4.4.14 Xeric Sandhills....................................................................................................................................212

4.4.15 Rock Outcrops....................................................................................................................................214

4.4.16 Black Belt Calcareous Prairie and Woodland.....................................................................................215

4.4.17 Jackson Prairie and Woodland...........................................................................................................218

4.4.18 Ephemeral ponds and emergent wetlands........................................................................................221

4.4.19 Cypress Dominated Wetlands............................................................................................................223

4.4.20 Wet Pine Savanna..............................................................................................................................225

4.4.21 Seeps, Springs, and Seepage Swamps................................................................................................228

4.4.22 Herbaceous Seepage Bogs and Flats .................................................................................................230

4.5 THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES ............................................................................................................233

4.5.1 Dusky Gopher Frog.............................................................................................................................234

4.5.2 Red-cockaded Woodpecker ...............................................................................................................238

4.5.3 Gulf Sturgeon .....................................................................................................................................241

4.5.4 Pallid Sturgeon...................................................................................................................................243

4.5.5 Louisiana Black Bear..........................................................................................................................244

4.5.6 Gopher Tortoise .................................................................................................................................245

4.5.7 Louisiana Quillwort............................................................................................................................247

4.5.8 Pondberry...........................................................................................................................................248

4.5.9 Indiana Bat.........................................................................................................................................249

4.6 TERRESTRIAL SPECIES GROUPS COVERED BY ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM SUSTAINABILITY FOREST PLAN COMPONENTS ...............252

4.6.1 Cypress Dominated Wetlands Associates..........................................................................................252

4.6.2 Herbaceous Seepage Bogs and Flats Associates................................................................................254

4.6.3 Mature Mesic Deciduous Forest Associates.......................................................................................256

4.6.4 Mature Open Pine-Grass Associates..................................................................................................257

4.6.5 Mature Riparian Forest Associates....................................................................................................259

4.6.6 Mature Upland Pine-Hardwood Associates.......................................................................................261

4.6.7 Pine Flatwoods Associates.................................................................................................................263

4.6.8 Ponds and Emergent Wetlands Associates........................................................................................265
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iv National Forests in Mississippi

4.6.9 Prairie Associates...............................................................................................................................267

4.6.10 Rock Outcrop Associates....................................................................................................................269

4.6.11 Seeps, Springs, and Seepage Swamps Associates..............................................................................270

4.6.12 Wet Pine Savanna Associates............................................................................................................272

4.6.13 Xeric Sandhill Associates....................................................................................................................274

4.7 TERRESTRIAL SPECIES GROUPS REQUIRING ADDITIONAL FOREST PLAN COMPONENTS ..................................................277

4.7.1 Bat Roost Structure Group .................................................................................................................277

4.7.2 Den Tree Associates...........................................................................................................................278

4.7.3 Downed Wood Associates..................................................................................................................280

4.7.4 Forest Interior Birds ...........................................................................................................................281

4.7.5 Species Sensitive to Fire Injury ...........................................................................................................283

4.7.6 Snag Associates..................................................................................................................................284

4.7.7 Species Dependent on Fire to Maintain Habitat................................................................................285

4.7.8 Species Sensitive to Hydrologic Modification of Wetlands................................................................287

4.7.9 Species Sensitive to Recreational Traffic (Terrestrial and Non-riverine Aquatic)..............................289

4.7.10 Species Needing Occurrence Protection.............................................................................................291

4.7.11 Stump and Stump-hole Associates.....................................................................................................292

4.7.12 Calciphiles..........................................................................................................................................293

4.7.13 Species Sensitive to Canopy Cover Modifications..............................................................................295

4.7.14 Species Sensitive to Soil Disturbance .................................................................................................297

4.8 AQUATIC SPECIES ASSOCIATIONS .......................................................................................................................298

4.8.1 Aquatic Coarse Woody Debris Associates..........................................................................................298

4.8.2 Open Water Associates......................................................................................................................300

4.8.3 Aquatic Species Sensitive to Modification of In-stream Flow ............................................................301

4.8.4 Aquatic Species Sensitive to Non-native Invasive Species..................................................................302

4.8.5 Aquatic Species Sensitive to Non-Point Source Pollution...................................................................303

4.8.6 Aquatic Species Sensitive to Stream Sediment...................................................................................304

4.8.7 Aquatic Species Sensitive to Stream Toxins .......................................................................................305

4.8.8 Aquatic Species Sensitive to Water Temperature Regime .................................................................306

4.8.9 Species Sensitive to Recreational Traffic............................................................................................307

4.9 MANAGEMENT INDICATOR SPECIES....................................................................................................................308

4.9.1 Environmental Effects........................................................................................................................308

4.10 FOREST HEALTH AND PROTECTION.....................................................................................................................309

4.10.1 Non-native Invasive Species...............................................................................................................309

4.10.2 Southern Pine Beetle..........................................................................................................................316

4.10.3 Old Growth.........................................................................................................................................317

4.10.4 Age Class Changes for Each Alternative.............................................................................................319

4.11 FIRE MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................................................................320

4.11.1 Wildland and Prescribed Fire .............................................................................................................320

4.12 OUTDOOR RECREATION ...................................................................................................................................325

4.12.1 Outdoor Recreation Opportunities.....................................................................................................325

4.13 SCENERY .......................................................................................................................................................329

4.14 RECREATIONAL FISHERIES MANAGEMENT............................................................................................................331

4.14.1 Recreational Fisheries Management Environmental Effects.............................................................331

4.15 WILDERNESS..................................................................................................................................................341

4.15.1 Re-evaluation of RARE II Study Areas ................................................................................................341

4.15.2 Wilderness Environmental Effects .....................................................................................................341

4.16 WILD AND SCENIC RIVERS ................................................................................................................................342

4.17 SPECIAL AREAS...............................................................................................................................................342

4.18 CULTURAL RESOURCES.....................................................................................................................................343

4.19 FOREST PRODUCTS..........................................................................................................................................344

4.19.1 Forest Products Markets and the National Forests in Mississippi’s Timber Supply Role ...................344

4.19.2 Forest Land Suitability for Timber Production....................................................................................344
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi v

4.19.3 Vegetation Management and Timber Production Consequences of Alternatives.............................345

4.20 MINERALS .....................................................................................................................................................351

4.21 INFRASTRUCTURE............................................................................................................................................353

4.22 LAND USE AND OWNERSHIP .............................................................................................................................354

4.23 OTHER EFFECTS..............................................................................................................................................354

4.23.1 Benefits and Costs..............................................................................................................................354

4.23.2 Social and Economic Effects...............................................................................................................356

4.23.3 Environmental Justice ........................................................................................................................360

4.23.4 Relationship of Short‐Term Use and Long‐Term Productivity............................................................360

4.23.5 Irreversible and Irretrievable Commitment of Resources ..................................................................361

4.23.6 Effects on Wetlands and Floodplains.................................................................................................361

4.23.7 Unavailable or Incomplete Information.............................................................................................362

CHAPTER 5. PREPARERS, CONTRIBUTORS, AND RECIPIENTS .............................................................................. 363

5.1 PREPARERS AND CONTRIBUTORS........................................................................................................................363

5.2 RECIPIENT LIST ...............................................................................................................................................363

GLOSSARY.......................................................................................................................................................... 367

REFERENCES CITED............................................................................................................................................. 379

INDEX ................................................................................................................................................................ 387

List of Tables

TABLE 1. COMPARISON OF ACRES WITHIN MANAGEMENT AREAS OVER THE PLANNING PERIOD .........................................................24

TABLE 2. COMPARISON OF GEOGRAPHIC OR SPECIAL AREA ALLOCATIONS BY ALTERNATIVE ...............................................................25

TABLE 3. COMPARISON OF VEGETATION MANAGEMENT LEVELS BY ALTERNATIVE ...........................................................................26

TABLE 4. COMPARISON OF AVERAGE ANNUAL PRESCRIBED BURN PROGRAMS BY ALTERNATIVE .........................................................27

TABLE 5. MAJOR MISSISSIPPI WATERSHED BASINS ..................................................................................................................39

TABLE 6. MAJOR SUB-BASINS ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI ...................................................................................40

TABLE 7. MAJOR MISSISSIPPI AQUIFER SYSTEMS.....................................................................................................................42

TABLE 8. SOUTHERN REGION CLIMATE CHANGE TRENDS ...........................................................................................................45

TABLE 9. ECOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES WITHIN THE NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI ...................................................................52

TABLE 10. DISTRIBUTION OF ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI .......................................................54

TABLE 11. CURRENT PERCENT OF FORESTED ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS BY UNIT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI........................56

TABLE 12. FEDERALLY THREATENED OR ENDANGERED SPECIES THAT OCCUR ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI........................69

TABLE 13. OBJECTIVES, GOALS, AND DESIGNATIONS OF RED-COCKADED WOODPECKER HABITAT MANAGEMENT AREAS (HMAS) IN THE 

NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI...............................................................................................................................78

TABLE 14. MANAGEMENT INDICATOR SPECIES FOR THE NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI.............................................................90

TABLE 15. RECENT SOUTHERN PINE BEETLE (SPB) PHEROMONE TRAPPING SURVEY RESULTS, SPOT ACTIVITY AND PREDICTIONS FOR THE 

NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI...............................................................................................................................95

TABLE 16. DESIGNATED SPECIAL AREAS OF THE NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI........................................................................98

TABLE 17. PROPOSED NEW SPECIAL AREAS OF THE NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI .................................................................103

TABLE 18. INVASIVE SPECIES .............................................................................................................................................109

TABLE 19. NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI PRELIMINARY INVENTORY OF POSSIBLE OLD-GROWTH ACREAGE BY DISTRICT AND 

STATUS/SELECTION CRITERIA .....................................................................................................................................114

TABLE 20. NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI PRELIMINARY INVENTORY OF POSSIBLE OLD-GROWTH ACREAGE SUMMARIZED BY DISTRICT 

AND OLD-GROWTH COMMUNITY TYPE.........................................................................................................................115

TABLE 21. TOTAL ANNUAL PRESCRIBED BURN ACREAGE BY YEAR ..............................................................................................116

TABLE 22. WILDLAND FIRES AND AVERAGE ACRES BURNED PER YEAR ........................................................................................117

TABLE 23. AGE CLASS STRUCTURE OF ALL FORESTED ACRES .....................................................................................................118

TABLE 24. SUMMARY OF MINERAL ACTIVITY ........................................................................................................................119
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vi National Forests in Mississippi

TABLE 25. MINERAL OWNERSHIP ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI (ACRES) .................................................................120

TABLE 26. NUMBER OF FOREST SERVICE ROADS ...................................................................................................................122

TABLE 27. MILES OF FOREST SERVICE ROADS.......................................................................................................................123

TABLE 28. MAINTENANCE LEVEL DEFINITIONS FOR FOREST SERVICE ROADS................................................................................123

TABLE 29. NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI INVENTORY OF DEVELOPED RECREATION AREAS .......................................................128

TABLE 30. NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI CAMPING AND DEVELOPED DAY USE AREAS.............................................................128

TABLE 31. NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI TRAIL SUMMARY BY MARKET ...............................................................................129

TABLE 32. TRAIL OPPORTUNITIES BY MARKET .......................................................................................................................130

TABLE 33. 2009 NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI RECREATION VISITS ...................................................................................132

TABLE 34. DEMOGRAPHICS OF RECREATION VISITS ................................................................................................................132

TABLE 35. 2009 NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI OUTDOOR RECREATION ACTIVITY PARTICIPATION ............................................133

TABLE 36. CURRENT DISTRIBUTION OF ROS CLASSES .............................................................................................................135

TABLE 37. CROSSWALK BETWEEN VISUAL QUALITY OBJECTIVES AND SCENIC INTEGRITY OBJECTIVES .................................................143

TABLE 38. SCENIC CLASS INVENTORY ..................................................................................................................................144

TABLE 39. NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI LAND BASE BY FOREST AND COUNTY......................................................................145

TABLE 40. POPULATION CHANGE FOR MISSISSIPPI 1980-2000 ..............................................................................................146

TABLE 41. POPULATION CHANGE FOR NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI..................................................................................146

TABLE 42. MIGRATION IN SOUTHERN REGION, MISSISSIPPI, AND SELECTED CITIES 1995-2000 .....................................................148

TABLE 43. RACIAL COMPOSITION OF NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI COUNTIES .....................................................................149

TABLE 44. POPULATION PROJECTIONS - PERCENT INCREASE FROM 2010...................................................................................150

TABLE 45. PER CAPITA INCOME .........................................................................................................................................151

TABLE 46. PERCENT UNEMPLOYMENT RATE - WEIGHTED AVERAGES 1995-2010........................................................................151

TABLE 47. PERCENTAGE OF INDIVIDUALS IN POVERTY.............................................................................................................152

TABLE 48. FEDERAL TRANSFER PAYMENTS TO INDIVIDUALS .....................................................................................................152

TABLE 49. ECONOMIC DIVERSITY .......................................................................................................................................153

TABLE 50. SHANNON-WEAVER ENTROPY INDICES .................................................................................................................154

TABLE 51. EXPORTING OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES (IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS)...............................................................................155

TABLE 52. REVENUE FOR THE NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI FOR FISCAL YEARS 205 THROUGH 2011.......................................156

TABLE 53. PAYMENTS FROM THE SECURE RURAL SCHOOLS ACT TO THE NATIONAL FOREST IN MISSISSIPPI COUNTIES FOR FISCAL YEARS 

2004 THROUGH 2011 ............................................................................................................................................156

TABLE 54. TWENTY-FIVE PERCENT FUNDS............................................................................................................................157

TABLE 55. PAYMENT IN LIEU OF TAXES (PILT)......................................................................................................................158

TABLE 56. RESPONDENT RECREATION ACTIVITIES ..................................................................................................................161

TABLE 57. RESPONDENTS BELIEFS ......................................................................................................................................161

TABLE 58. RESPONDENTS PERCEPTION OF FOREST MANAGEMENT ISSUES...................................................................................162

TABLE 59. PREDICTED RISK LEVELS FOR ALL ALTERNATIVES IN FIRST DECADE................................................................................178

TABLE 60. ELEMENT CONDITION SCORES .............................................................................................................................181

TABLE 61. DUSKY GOPHER FROG BURN MATRIX ....................................................................................................................235

TABLE 62. SPECIES GROUPS REQUIRING ADDITIONAL FOREST PLAN COMPONENT .........................................................................277

TABLE 63. LOCATION OF DISCUSSION OF MANAGEMENT INDICATOR SPECIES MANAGEMENT AND EFFECTS ........................................309

TABLE 64. INVASIVE SPECIES .............................................................................................................................................311

TABLE 65. ACRES IN PINE DOMINATED ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS REGENERATED AND THINNED AND AT RISK FROM SOUTHERN PINE BEETLE 

EFFECTS AT THE END OF THE NEXT DECADE BY ALTERNATIVE .............................................................................................317

TABLE 66. ACRES BY AGE CLASS AND ALTERNATIVE ................................................................................................................319

TABLE 67. ANNUAL PRESCRIBED BURNING PROGRAMS BY DISTRICT BY ALTERNATIVE ....................................................................323

TABLE 68. ESTIMATED CHANGE IN NATIONAL FOREST SITE VISITS BY ALTERNATIVE (1000S)...........................................................327

TABLE 69. AREAS FOR RECREATION OPPORTUNITY SPECTRUM CLASS, REMOTE ROADED NATURAL ...................................................327

TABLE 70. ESTIMATED CHANGE IN CAPACITY OF DEVELOPED RECREATION AREAS BY ALTERNATIVE...................................................328

TABLE 71. NATIONAL FORESTS IN MISSISSIPPI TIMBER SUITABILITY TOTAL ACRES.........................................................................345

TABLE 72. ESTIMATED VEGETATION MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ................................................................................................346

TABLE 73. TIMBER SALE PROGRAM QUANTITY (FIRST DECADE).................................................................................................347

TABLE 74. TIMBER SALE PROGRAM QUANTITY PRODUCT MIX (FIRST DECADE) .............................................................................348

TABLE 75. AGE STRUCTURE OF LONGLEAF PINE AND SHORTLEAF PINE FORESTS AFTER FIRST DECADE ................................................350
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi vii

TABLE 76. FIRST DECADE PINE FOREST CONVERSIONS (ACRES CONVERTED).................................................................................351

TABLE 77. CONVERSION TO JACKSON PRAIRIE AND WOODLAND (ACRES CONVERTED)...................................................................351

TABLE 78. CUMULATIVE DECADAL PRESENT VALUES OF COSTS AND BENEFITS IN $M..................................................................355

TABLE 79. CURRENT ROLE OF FOREST SERVICE-RELATED CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE AREA ECONOMY..................................................356

TABLE 80. EMPLOYMENT BY PROGRAM BY ALTERNATIVE (AVERAGE ANNUAL, FIRST DECADE).........................................................357

TABLE 81. LABOR INCOME BY PROGRAM BY ALTERNATIVE (AVERAGE ANNUAL, FIRST DECADE; $1,000)...........................................358

TABLE 82. EMPLOYMENT BY MAJOR INDUSTRY BY ALTERNATIVE (AVERAGE ANNUAL, FIRST DECADE) ...............................................358

TABLE 83. LABOR INCOME BY MAJOR INDUSTRY BY ALTERNATIVE (AVERAGE ANNUAL, FIRST DECADE)..............................................358

List of Figures

FIGURE 1. MAP INDICATING THE LOCATIONS OF NATIONAL FOREST UNITS WITHIN THE STATE OF MISSISSIPPI ........................................3

FIGURE 2. MAP INDICATING ECOLOGICAL SECTIONS AND PROVINCES FOR MISSISSIPPI ....................................................................30

FIGURE 3. MAJOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF MISSISSIPPI .....................................................................................................35

FIGURE 4. BASIN OUTLINES OF MISSISSIPPI (WWW.SEISMICEXCHANGE.COM/RES/DWF/US-BASINS.KMZ GOOGLE EARTH 2012).........36

FIGURE 5. GEOLOGIC OUTCROP MAP OF MISSISSIPPI 

(HTTP://WWW.DEQ.STATE.MS.US/MDEQ.NSF/PDF/GEOLOGY_MSGEOLOGY1969MAP/$FILE/MS_GEOLOGY1969.PDF?OPENELE

MENT)....................................................................................................................................................................37

FIGURE 6. MISSISSIPPI PRIORITY WATERSHEDS IDENTIFIED BY MISSISSIPPI DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY........................41

FIGURE 7. MAJOR (CATEGORY 3-5) HURRICANES MAKING LANDFALL IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES (1851 - 2005).........................49

FIGURE 8. MATURE OR LATE SERAL PINE HABITAT - BIENVILLE, DE SOTO, AND HOMOCHITTO NATIONAL FORESTS ...............................52

FIGURE 9. FOREST-TYPE COMPOSITION COMPARISONS 1981 TO 2006.......................................................................................53

FIGURE 10. DUSKY GOPHER FROG COOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT UNIT.........................................................................................73

FIGURE 11. MISSISSIPPI SANDHILL CRANE COOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT UNIT ...............................................................................75

FIGURE 12. CHICKASAWHAY RANGER DISTRICT REVISED HABITAT MANAGEMENT AREA ..................................................................79

FIGURE 13. DE SOTO RANGER DISTRICT REVISED BILOXI HABITAT MANAGEMENT AREA ..................................................................79

FIGURE 14. DE SOTO RANGER DISTRICT REVISED BLACK CREEK HABITAT MANAGEMENT AREA .........................................................80

FIGURE 15. BIENVILLE NATIONAL FOREST REVISED HABITAT MANAGEMENT AREA..........................................................................81

FIGURE 16. HOMOCHITTO NATIONAL FOREST REVISED HABITAT MANAGEMENT AREA....................................................................82

FIGURE 17. RED-COCKADED WOODPECKER FOREST TRENDS ......................................................................................................91

FIGURE 18. PILEATED WOODPECKER FOREST TRENDS...............................................................................................................92

FIGURE 19. WOOD THRUSH FOREST TRENDS..........................................................................................................................93

FIGURE 20. FOREST COVER TYPES IN 1985............................................................................................................................94

FIGURE 21. FOREST COVER TYPES IN 2010............................................................................................................................94

FIGURE 22. OWNERSHIP OF MISSISSIPPI FOREST LANDS .........................................................................................................124

FIGURE 23. STATE PARKS, NATIONAL FORESTS, NATIONAL PARKS AND WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREAS.........................................126

FIGURE 24. AGE OF MARKET AREA FOR HOLLY SPRINGS AND TOMBIGBEE NATIONAL FORESTS (SOURCE: US CENSUS) .......................147

FIGURE 25. AGE OF MARKET AREA FOR BIENVILLE, DE SOTO, DELTA AND HOMOCHITTO NATIONAL FORESTS (SOURCE: US CENSUS) ...147

FIGURE 26. ANNUAL TIMBER HARVEST ACRES BY ALTERNATIVE ................................................................................................164

FIGURE 27. PROPORTIONAL EXTENT OF SOIL RUTTING SUSCEPTIBILITY .......................................................................................165

FIGURE 28. PROPORTIONAL EXTENT OF SOIL COMPACTION SUSCEPTIBILITY.................................................................................166

FIGURE 29. PROPORTIONAL EXTENT OF DISTRICT FLOOD PLAINS AND SLOPE PHASES .....................................................................167

FIGURE 30. PROPORTIONAL EXTENT OF SOIL EROSION SUSCEPTIBILITY .......................................................................................168

FIGURE 31. ANNUAL PRESCRIBED BURNING ACRES BY ALTERNATIVE ..........................................................................................169

FIGURE 32. AVERAGE YEARS BETWEEN HARVEST ENTRIES BY ALTERNATIVE .................................................................................171

FIGURE 33. AVERAGE BURN RETURN INTERVAL BY ALTERNATIVE...............................................................................................172

FIGURE 34. PERCENT CHANGE FROM CURRENT BASELINE MANAGEMENT BY ALTERNATIVE.............................................................176

FIGURE 35. PROPORTIONAL EXTENT OF 5TH LEVEL WATERSHED SEDIMENTATION RISK BY FOREST ...................................................177

FIGURE 36. FORESTWIDE UPLAND LONGLEAF PINE FOREST AND WOODLAND ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES............182

FIGURE 37. FORESTWIDE SHORTLEAF PINE-OAK FOREST AND WOODLAND ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES ...............184

FIGURE 38. FORESTWIDE LOBLOLLY PINE FOREST ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES ...............................................187
Table of Contents

viii National Forests in Mississippi

FIGURE 39. FORESTWIDE SOUTHERN LOBLOLLY-HARDWOOD FLATWOODS FOREST ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES ....189

FIGURE 40. SOUTHERN LOBLOLLY-HARDWOOD FLATWOODS FOREST PERCENT MATURE OPEN........................................................190

FIGURE 41. PERCENT OF SOUTHERN LOBLOLLY-HARDWOOD FLATWOODS FOREST BURNED AT DESIRED INTERVAL BY ALTERNATIVE.........191

FIGURE 42. PERCENT OF SOUTHERN LOBLOLLY-HARDWOOD FLATWOODS FOREST BURNED IN THE GROWING SEASON BY ALTERNATIVE ...191

FIGURE 43. FORESTWIDE SLASH PINE FOREST ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES ....................................................193

FIGURE 44. FORESTWIDE NORTHERN DRY UPLAND HARDWOOD FOREST ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES .................196

FIGURE 45. FORESTWIDE SOUTHERN DRY UPLAND HARDWOOD FOREST ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES..................198

FIGURE 46. FORESTWIDE SOUTHERN LOESS BLUFF FOREST ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES BY ALTERNATIVE.............200

FIGURE 47. PERCENT OF SOUTHERN LOESS BLUFF FOREST AT APPROPRIATE SYSTEM BY ALTERNATIVE...............................................200

FIGURE 48. FORESTWIDE SOUTHERN MESIC SLOPE FOREST ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES...................................202

FIGURE 49. FORESTWIDE NORTHERN MESIC HARDWOOD FOREST ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES ..........................204

FIGURE 50. FORESTWIDE FLOODPLAIN FOREST ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES ..................................................206

FIGURE 51. FORESTWIDE LOWER MISSISSIPPI BOTTOMLAND AND FLOODPLAIN FOREST ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES

...........................................................................................................................................................................207

FIGURE 52. FORESTWIDE LOWER MISSISSIPPI BOTTOMLAND AND FLOODPLAIN PERCENT REGENERATION BY ALTERNATIVE ...................208

FIGURE 53. FORESTWIDE LOWER MISSISSIPPI BOTTOMLAND AND FLOODPLAIN PERCENT MATURE FOREST BY ALTERNATIVE..................209

FIGURE 54. FORESTWIDE NEAR-COAST PINE FLATWOODS FOREST ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES..........................210

FIGURE 55. PERCENT OF NEAR-COAST PINE FLATWOODS IN MATURE OPEN CANOPY CONDITION .....................................................210

FIGURE 56. PERCENT OF NEAR-COAST PINE FLATWOODS FOREST BURNED AT DESIRED INTERVAL BY ALTERNATIVE ..............................211

FIGURE 57. PERCENT OF NEAR-COAST PINE FLATWOODS FOREST BURNED DURING THE GROWING SEASON BY ALTERNATIVE .................211

FIGURE 58. FORESTWIDE XERIC SANDHILLS ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES .......................................................213

FIGURE 59. FORESTWIDE BLACK BELT CALCAREOUS PRAIRIE AND WOODLAND ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES ..........216

FIGURE 60. BLACK BELT CALCAREOUS PRAIRIE AND WOODLAND ACRES BY ALTERNATIVE................................................................216

FIGURE 61. BLACK BELT CALCAREOUS PRAIRIE AND WOODLAND PERCENT ACRES BURNED AT DESIRED INTERVAL ................................217

FIGURE 62. BLACK BELT CALCAREOUS PRAIRIE AND WOODLAND PERCENT ACRES BURNED DURING THE GROWING SEASON...................217

FIGURE 63. FORESTWIDE JACKSON PRAIRIE AND WOODLAND ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES ...............................219

FIGURE 64. JACKSON PRAIRIE AND WOODLAND ACRES IN APPROPRIATE SYSTEM BY ALTERNATIVE....................................................219

FIGURE 65. JACKSON PRAIRIE AND WOODLAND PERCENT ACRES BURNED AT DESIRED INTERVAL BY ALTERNATIVE................................220

FIGURE 66. PERCENT JACKSON PRAIRIE AND WOODLAND BURNED DURING THE GROWING SEASON .................................................220

FIGURE 67. FORESTWIDE EPHEMERAL PONDS AND EMERGENT WETLANDS ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES ..............222

FIGURE 68. FORESTWIDE CYPRESS DOMINATED WETLANDS ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES ..................................224

FIGURE 69. FORESTWIDE WET PINE SAVANNA ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES ...................................................225

FIGURE 70. WET PINE SAVANNA ACRES IN APPROPRIATE SYSTEM BY ALTERNATIVE .......................................................................226

FIGURE 71. PERCENT OF WET PINE SAVANNA BURNED AT DESIRED INTERVAL BY ALTERNATIVE........................................................226

FIGURE 72. PERCENT OF WET PINE SAVANNA BURNED IN THE GROWING SEASON BY ALTERNATIVE ..................................................227

FIGURE 73. FORESTWIDE SEEPS, SPRINGS, AND SEEPAGE SWAMPS ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES.........................229

FIGURE 74. FORESTWIDE HERBACEOUS SEEPAGE BOGS AND FLATS ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES.........................231

FIGURE 75. PERCENT OF HERBACEOUS SEEPAGE BOGS AND FLATS BURNED AT DESIRED INTERVAL BY ALTERNATIVE .............................231

FIGURE 76. PERCENT OF HERBACEOUS SEEPAGE BOGS AND FLATS BURNED IN THE GROWING SEASON BY ALTERNATIVE........................232

FIGURE 77. FORESTWIDE ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES FOR THE DUSKY GOPHER FROG .....................................235

FIGURE 78. FORESTWIDE ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES FOR THE MISSISSIPPI SANDHILL CRANE ...........................237

FIGURE 79. FORESTWIDE ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES FOR THE RED-COCKADED WOODPECKER .........................239

FIGURE 80. FORESTWIDE ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES FOR THE GULF STURGEON ...........................................242

FIGURE 81. FORESTWIDE ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES FOR THE PALLID STURGEON..........................................243

FIGURE 82. FORESTWIDE ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES FOR THE LOUISIANA BLACK BEAR...................................245

FIGURE 83. FORESTWIDE ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES FOR THE GOPHER TORTOISE .........................................246

FIGURE 84. FORESTWIDE ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES FOR THE LOUISIANA QUILLWORT...................................247

FIGURE 85. FORESTWIDE ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES FOR THE PONDBERRY..................................................249

FIGURE 86. FORESTWIDE ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES FOR THE INDIANA BAT ................................................250

FIGURE 87. HERBACEOUS SEEPAGE BOGS AND FLATS ASSOCIATES CURRENT AND ESTIMATED ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION 

SCORES FORESTWIDE ...............................................................................................................................................254

FIGURE 88. MATURE MESIC DECIDUOUS FOREST ASSOCIATES CURRENT AND ESTIMATED ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES 

FORESTWIDE ..........................................................................................................................................................256
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi ix

FIGURE 89. MATURE OPEN PINE-GRASS ASSOCIATES CURRENT AND ESTIMATED ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES 

FORESTWIDE ..........................................................................................................................................................258

FIGURE 90. MATURE RIPARIAN FOREST ASSOCIATES CURRENT AND ESTIMATED ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES 

FORESTWIDE ..........................................................................................................................................................260

FIGURE 91. MATURE UPLAND PINE-HARDWOOD ASSOCIATES CURRENT AND ESTIMATED ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES 

FORESTWIDE ..........................................................................................................................................................262

FIGURE 92. PINE FLATWOODS ASSOCIATES CURRENT AND ESTIMATED ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES FORESTWIDE ..264

FIGURE 93. PONDS AND EMERGENT WETLANDS ASSOCIATES CURRENT AND ESTIMATED ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES 

FORESTWIDE ..........................................................................................................................................................266

FIGURE 94. PRAIRIE ASSOCIATES CURRENT AND ESTIMATED ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES FORESTWIDE................268

FIGURE 95. SEEPS, SPRINGS AND SEEPAGE SWAMPS ASSOCIATES CURRENT AND ESTIMATED ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION 

SCORES FORESTWIDE ...............................................................................................................................................271

FIGURE 96. WET PINE SAVANNA ASSOCIATES CURRENT AND ESTIMATED ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES FORESTWIDE

...........................................................................................................................................................................273

FIGURE 97. XERIC SANDHILLS ASSOCIATES FORESTWIDE XERIC SANDHILLS ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES................274

FIGURE 98. PERCENT OF XERIC SANDHILLS BURNED AT DESIRED INTERVAL BY ALTERNATIVE AND UNIT ..............................................276

FIGURE 99. PERCENT OF XERIC SANDHILLS BURNED IN THE GROWING SEASON BY ALTERNATIVE AND UNIT.........................................276

FIGURE 100. BAT ROOST STRUCTURE GROUP CURRENT AND ESTIMATED ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES FORESTWIDE

...........................................................................................................................................................................278

FIGURE 101. DEN TREE ASSOCIATES CURRENT AND ESTIMATED ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES FORESTWIDE ...........279

FIGURE 102. FOREST INTERIOR BIRDS GROUP CURRENT AND ESTIMATED ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES FORESTWIDE

...........................................................................................................................................................................282

FIGURE 103. SPECIES DEPENDENT ON FIRE TO MAINTAIN HABITAT CURRENT AND ESTIMATED ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION 

SCORES FORESTWIDE ...............................................................................................................................................286

FIGURE 104. SPECIES SENSITIVE TO HYDROLOGIC MODIFICATION OF WETLANDS CURRENT AND ESTIMATED ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY 

EVALUATION SCORES FORESTWIDE..............................................................................................................................288

FIGURE 105. CALCIPHILES ASSOCIATES CURRENT AND ESTIMATED ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION SCORES FORESTWIDE........294

FIGURE 106. SPECIES SENSITIVE TO CANOPY COVER MODIFICATIONS CURRENT AND ESTIMATED ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION 

SCORES FORESTWIDE ...............................................................................................................................................296

FIGURE 107. SPECIES ASSOCIATION CURRENT (WATERSHED-WIDE) AND PREDICTIVE STATUS BASED ON NATIONAL FOREST SYSTEM LAND 

MANAGEMENT AND ACTIVITIES ..................................................................................................................................299

FIGURE 108. SPECIES ASSOCIATION CURRENT (WATERSHED-WIDE) AND PREDICTIVE STATUS BASED ON NATIONAL FOREST SYSTEM LAND 

MANAGEMENT AND ACTIVITIES ..................................................................................................................................300

FIGURE 109. AQUATIC SPECIES SENSITIVE TO MODIFICATION OF IN-STREAM FLOW. SPECIES ASSOCIATION CURRENT (WATERSHED-WIDE)

AND PREDICTIVE STATUS BASED ON NATIONAL FOREST SYSTEM LAND MANAGEMENT AND ACTIVITIES ......................................301

FIGURE 110. AQUATIC SPECIES SENSITIVE TO NON-NATIVE INVASIVE SPECIES; SPECIES ASSOCIATION CURRENT (WATERSHED-WIDE) AND 

PREDICTIVE STATUS BASED ON NATIONAL FOREST SYSTEM LAND MANAGEMENT AND ACTIVITIES.............................................303

FIGURE 111. AQUATIC SPECIES SENSITIVE TO NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; SPECIES ASSOCIATION CURRENT (WATERSHED-WIDE) AND 

PREDICTIVE STATUS BASED ON NATIONAL FOREST SYSTEM LAND MANAGEMENT AND ACTIVITIES.............................................304

FIGURE 112. AQUATIC SPECIES SENSITIVE TO STREAM SEDIMENT; SPECIES ASSOCIATION CURRENT (WATERSHED-WIDE) AND PREDICTIVE 

STATUS BASED ON NATIONAL FOREST SYSTEM LAND MANAGEMENT AND ACTIVITIES ............................................................305

FIGURE 113. AQUATIC SPECIES SENSITIVE TO STREAM TOXINS; SPECIES ASSOCIATION CURRENT (WATERSHED-WIDE) AND PREDICTIVE 

STATUS BASED ON NATIONAL FOREST SYSTEM LAND MANAGEMENT AND ACTIVITIES ............................................................306

FIGURE 114. AQUATIC SPECIES SENSITIVE TO WATER TEMPERATURE REGIME; SPECIES ASSOCIATION CURRENT (WATERSHED-WIDE) AND 

PREDICTIVE STATUS BASED ON NATIONAL FOREST SYSTEM LAND MANAGEMENT AND ACTIVITIES.............................................307

FIGURE 115. SPECIES SENSITIVE TO RECREATIONAL TRAFFIC; SPECIES ASSOCIATION CURRENT (WATERSHED-WIDE) AND PREDICTIVE STATUS 

BASED ON NATIONAL FOREST SYSTEM LAND MANAGEMENT AND ACTIVITIES .......................................................................308

FIGURE 116. LONG TERM SUSTAINED YIELD (LTSY), AND TIMBER SALE PRODUCT QUANTITY (TSPQ) ..............................................349
Land Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi

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Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi xi

Summary

This Final Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), prepared by the USDA Forest Service, describes and 

analyzes in detail five alternatives for managing the land and resources of the National Forests in 

Mississippi. It describes the affected environment, and discloses environmental effects of these 

alternatives.

Proposed Action

The USDA Forest Service proposes to revise the 1985 Land and Resource Management Plan for the 

National Forests in Mississippi. The proposed action updates the goals and desired conditions, objectives, 

standards and guidelines, and monitoring requirements. In addition, the proposal includes designations for 

18 new Special Areas. New management direction is focused on restoring natural resources and natural 

processes and creating and maintaining diverse wildlife habitats

Issues Addressed

Issues, concerns, and opportunities are described in Chapter 1 under the heading Purpose and Need. The 

proposed action was developed to address the issues, concerns, and opportunities identified during the 

collaborative planning process. Alternatives to the proposed action were developed when unresolved 

conflicts remained concerning alternative uses of limited resources, or to address issues with significant 

environmental impacts. The following concerns were expressed during a comment period that took place 

following publication of a Notice of Intent to revise the plan. They were addressed either by clarifying or 

changing language in the proposed action, modifying management area prescriptions in the proposed 

action, or by developing an alternative to the proposed action. (1) Native Ecosystem Restoration; (2) 

Biodiversity and Species Viability; (3) Forest Health; (4) Vegetation Management for Timber; (5) Fire 

Management; (6) Old Growth; (7) Watersheds and Water, Soils, Aquatic Resources, Riparian 

Environments; (8) Access Management; (9) Recreation; (10) Special Area Designations; (11) Land Use 

and Ownership; (12) Climate Change; (13) Minerals Management; and (14) Economic Benefits. 

Alternatives

Five alternatives are considered and analyzed in detail:

A. Alternative A is custodial management based on minimum legal requirements,

B. Alternative B is the 1985 Plan currently in effect,

C. Alternative C is the Proposed Action (selected alternative),

D. Alternative D increases the emphasis on restoration of native ecosystems,

E. Alternative E increases the emphasis on improving forest health.

Effects Analysis

Soils 

Implementation of the best management practices, proper mitigation measures, and monitoring by the 

Sale Administrator would result in minimal soil effects for all alternatives. The cumulative effects of all 

management actions over time are not expected to reduce soil productivity. Mitigation measures for past, 
Summary

xii National Forests in Mississippi

present and reasonably foreseeable management activities (timber harvesting, site preparation and 

prescribed burning) are designed to keep the litter layer in place, or to replace the litter layer on exposed 

soils by seeding and fertilization; therefore, impacts associated with any one treatment would be 

completely recovered within three years.

Air

The air quality program for the National Forests in Mississippi provides guidance for conducting forest 

management activities in a manner that complies with State and Federal standards, protects human health, 

promotes safety, and does not degrade air quality. Prescribed burning is the activity most likely to 

contribute air emissions. Alternatives A through E have progressively larger prescribed burning programs 

with alternative A having the smallest program and alternative E having the largest. The range is 121,000 

to 251,000 acres. The greater the alternative’s program acres, the larger the likely air quality impacts. 

However, the program controls mentioned above should keep the impacts within acceptable standards for 

all alternatives. 

Water 

The Clean Water Act provides the primary regulatory framework for managing the National Forests in 

Mississippi water resources. In compliance with the above mandate, forest management activities are 

implemented in a manner that does not substantially or permanently impair water quality. Mitigation 

measures, in the form of State best management practices and forest standards and guidelines, are used to 

meet this requirement. Analysis indicates that, at the forest level, the expected intensity of management 

activities planned will not result in measurable changes either beneficial or detrimental to overall 

watershed condition ranking.

Ecological Systems 

Performance measures were identified for both terrestrial and aquatic systems, criteria were set for rating 

each performance measure as poor, fair, good, and very good relative to ecological sustainability. 

Restoration of ecosystems is a priority in alternatives C, D, and E. In alternatives C, D, and E the longterm effects of restoration, management, and maintenance of the ecosystem are expected to be critical to 

the sustainability of these communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional 

as well as local viability concern will become increasingly sustainable. In both the 1st and 5th decades of 

alternative A, conditions remain slightly inadequate and they may be subject to gradual decline. 

Alternative B, on the other hand, provides adequate conditions in the first decade before degrading 

considerably by the fifth decade. Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be 

occurring within the Forests, and which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and 

communities, negative cumulative impacts of alternatives C, D, and E will be minor. 

Species Diversity

Species diversity effects were considered by six distinct categories. These include threatened and 

endangered species, terrestrial species groups covered by ecological system sustainability Forest Plan 

components, terrestrial species groups requiring additional Forest Plan components, aquatic species 

associations, and management indicator species. The National Forests in Mississippi used these species 

groups as an evaluation and analysis tool to improve planning efficiency and for development of 

management strategies. Each species was grouped according to its habitat needs, limiting factors, threats, 

and specific associated habitat elements. 

Ecological conditions that are needed to conserve threatened and endangered species are provided by the 

forest plan components for ecosystem diversity included in all alternatives. Alternatives A, C, D, and E 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi xiii

would have more direct positive effects on threatened and endangered species than alternative B which 

would not incorporate improved strategies and increased emphasis on recovery mandates. 

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management and protection are expected to result in 

sustainable native communities and associated species. Each alternative includes management strategies 

and appropriate forest plan components for each group. Over time, associated species of regional as well 

as local viability concern should remain sustainable. For some species associations, the long-term effects 

of restoration, management, and maintenance of the ecosystem in alternatives C, D, and E are expected to 

be critical to sustainability. Alternative A will have negative impacts on species and communities in the 

long run due to reduced management of the associated systems.

Future trends in management indicator species are discussed in various sections of this document. In 

summary, six species have been selected as management indicator species for the revised forest plan. 

They will be used to assess effects of alternatives and to help monitor effects of implementing the selected 

alternative.

Forest Health and Protection 

Each alternative is based on an overall strategy for achieving healthy forests using a combination of 

vegetation management practices and prescribed burning to restore and maintain resilient native 

ecosystems. The emphasis in this forest plan on thinning; converting loblolly and slash pine stands that 

are not on appropriate sites to longleaf and shortleaf pine forests; and restoring rare communities and old 

growth; is expected to not only improve native species diversity but also improve resilience of ecological 

communities to non-native invasive species, disease and insect outbreaks, extreme weather disturbances 

associated with climate change, and other stressors. The three most important forest health issues for the 

National Forests in Mississippi are non-native invasive species, southern pine beetle and the need to 

improve old-growth. Alternatives C, D and E will positively influence overall forest health. Alternative A 

would allow overall forest-wide forest health to deteriorate. 

Fire Management 

While suppression strategies and resources needed to combat wildland fires will not vary by alternative, 

the level of prescribed fire for hazardous fuel mitigation and ecosystem management will vary. 

Alternatives C, D, and E, because of the projected level of prescribed fires (220,000; 240,000 and 251,000 

acres annually respectively); will provide the highest level of hazardous fuels reduction and ecological 

restoration and maintenance in fire-adapted ecosystems with an emphasis on growing season burning. 

Alternative B, at an average annual prescribed fire program of 190,000 acres, will likewise contribute to 

fuels management and ecological restoration, but will likely relegate some restoration of rare ecological 

communities and control of non-native invasive plant species to occurrences embedded in larger 

landscape burns as has been done in the past with less emphasis on growing season burning. The level of 

prescribed fire in alternative A (121,000 acres) will be restricted to four districts. Priorities will be 

established based on the need for burning for threatened and endangered species habitat areas and 

minimal fuels management. This level of prescribed burning will likely decrease viability trends for a 

number of flora and fauna, and hamper any effort to maintain condition class at or near desirable levels.

Outdoor Recreation 

Alternative A would over time close all facilities due to reduced program. Under alternative B, financial 

resources will continue to be limited and diminishing. Therefore there will be a challenge managing 

growing and changing recreation demands. Alternatives C, D and E would maintain most current 

developed activities. These three alternatives would include a new backcountry designation on the 
Summary

xiv National Forests in Mississippi

Tombigbee National Forest and acquisition next to Black Creek Wilderness providing approximately 

4,600 acres of more remote outdoor experiences.

Scenery

Except for alternative A, where the resources will not be expended beyond the minimal legal 

requirements, the scenic integrity objective acreages of the alternatives do not vary directly across the 

current management (alternative B) and alternatives (C, D and E). What varies across the alternatives is 

amount of impact, most directly due to the restoration and ecological sustainability activities, total volume 

of timber cutting, the percentage of restoration harvests, and the location of vegetation management 

activities. However, implementation guides will reduce the impacts associated with these activities.

Recreational Fisheries Management 

Under alternative A limited resources and budgets would favor reduced/ minimal recreational fisheries 

management. As a result, this action would have reduced/minimal fisheries management resulting in a 

reduction in recreational fishing opportunities for the public. Angler catch rates would be reduced thus 

resulting in lower angler satisfaction. Under alternatives B, C, D and E fisheries management would be 

conducted to improve recreational fishing opportunities for the public. The proposed recreational fisheries 

management activities on the National Forests in Mississippi would result in improved recreational 

fishing opportunities for the public. Angler catch rates would increase resulting in improved angler 

satisfaction.

Wilderness 

Based on findings in the wilderness evaluations, no areas were found on the National Forests in 

Mississippi that qualified for placement on the potential wilderness inventory. At this time there are no 

recommended additions to the wilderness system. Wilderness management will not vary by alternative.

Wild and Scenic Rivers 

No change is planned from current management. The additional reaches of Black Creek within the 

DeSoto National Forest will continue to be managed (for all alternatives) to protect the character that 

would make them eligible for designation as wild and scenic. Therefore, management of wild and scenic 

river designation will not vary by alternative.

Special Areas 

Special area designations or management do not negatively affect other resource areas to an unreasonable 

degree. Eighteen additional designations are analyzed in alternatives C, D and E. Alternatives A and B do 

not provide for these designations. Additional botanical areas and research natural areas remove acres 

from the land base suitable for timber production. The additional 3,881 acres of special area designations 

will not have a significant effect on timber production in any alternative. Botanical area and research 

natural area designations contribute to development and protection of medium sized old-growth areas. 

Cultural Resources 

Cultural resources are potentially affected by ground disturbing activities. Alternatives A through E would 

have progressively higher levels of ground disturbing activities with A being the least and E having the 

most ground disturbing activity. However, compliance with the forest plan guidelines will result in no 

unreasonable impacts under any alternative.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi xv

Forest Products 

Each alternative analyzed utilizes the same allocation of acres to the land base suitable for timber 

management. Most of the land base on the National Forests in Mississippi (81 percent) is considered 

suitable for timber production after identifying lands not appropriate for timber production. 

The implementation under each alternative evaluated would be based on the same desired conditions and 

vegetation management priorities. The basic difference between alternatives is program level determined 

by funding and staffing levels. Alternative C is the proposed action alternative which would be an 

increase in vegetation management over alternative B (current management program levels). Alternative 

A, the custodial management alternative, would be a strategy to focus very limited resources on 

threatened species and their critical habitat needs under a minimal program level. Outcomes for programs 

based on increased funding are analyzed in two alternatives. Alternatives D and E utilize stepped up 

funding for increased restoration emphasis in D and increased thinning emphasis in alternative E for 

forest health improvement. 

The harvest acre outcomes from these alternatives represent a range likely to occur based on alternative 

emphasis or funding and resources available. Alternatives (A), (B), (C), (D) and (E) result in harvest acre 

outcomes of approximately 79,000, 114,000, 168,000, 164,000, and 223,000 acres respectively in the first 

decade of implementation. The total volumes for each alternative are 75, 120, 181, 202 and 237 million 

cubic feet respectively for the first decade of implementation. The excess of growth over the harvest 

removals in all alternatives is likely to result in higher densities and older stands. High density and older 

age results in reduced forest health and increased mortality. This density and age based stress and 

mortality will be greatest in alternatives with lower harvest volumes. A positive effect of older stands 

resulting from an excess of growth over removals is an increase in conditions beneficial to ecosystem 

components dependent on older, less disturbed forest conditions.

Minerals 

In August 2010, the National Forests in Mississippi renewed its decision for Lands Available for Oil and 

Gas Leasing. The 2010, oil and gas leasing decision authorized all lands on the National Forests in 

Mississippi, except for congressionally designated wilderness areas and the Sandy Creek RARE II 

Further Study Area (which is also identified as an inventoried roadless area), to be available for Federal 

oil and gas leasing through the Bureau of Land Management. All alternatives incorporate the 2010 oil and 

gas leasing decision as continuation of management direction. The deferred decision on oil and gas 

leasing availability on the Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area is addressed in this environmental 

impact statement. Alternatives A and B would not authorize oil and gas leasing in the Sandy Creek RARE 

II Further Study Area. Alternatives C, D, and E would permit oil and gas leasing in the Sandy Creek 

RARE II Further Study Area subject to the 2001 Roadless Area Conservation Rule restrictions. The 

restrictions include no new road construction or reconstruction permitted in the inventoried roadless area; 

therefore existing system roads would be utilized as access for new lease activities.

Infrastructure 

The effect of vegetation management which varies by alternative on infrastructure is that alternatives C, D 

and E which have higher levels of timber harvests will provide higher levels of funding to upgrade and 

maintain existing roads. Alternative A, having a minimal level of timber harvest, would provide less 

funding for road maintenance. Because there is very little need for new road construction under any 

alternative, road infrastructure is expected to have little impact on other resources based on alternative. 

However, road maintenance and reconstruction would vary by alternative with greater need for these 

activities as vegetation management activities increase from alternative A through E.
Summary

xvi National Forests in Mississippi

Land Use and Ownership 

Land exchange, procurement or disposal will not vary by alternative, nor will the implementation of any 

alternative effect the government’s ability to pursue any of these land adjustment opportunities. 

Special use authorizations are issued for multiple purposes to individuals, corporations, and other 

government agencies. The predominant uses are for public roads, communication facilities, and utility 

rights-of-way. Special use authorizations for personal use are a minor land commitment such as private 

road easements and permits. Neither these uses nor their impacts will vary by alternative. Areas identified 

for disposal or special use could contain areas with important biological diversity or habitat for threatened 

and endangered species. Likewise, areas identified for disposal or uses could contain areas with historical 

or archeological importance. Forest plan guidelines will reduce or mitigate impacts to natural resources 

associated with implementation of special use and/or land ownership adjustment activities and would 

apply to all alternatives.

Other Effects 

The effects of alternative implementation on the local economy were evaluated. The management of the 

National Forests in Mississippi has the potential to affect jobs and income within its area of influence. 

These effects are positive and larger as the program level increases from alternative A to E. 

The principles for considering environmental justice outlined in Environmental Justice Guidance under 

the National Environmental Policy Act were considered in this analysis. The concerns of environmental 

justice encompass specific considerations of equity and fairness in resource decision-making. Benefits to 

the economy from National Forests in Mississippi management would accrue to all Counties where the 

National Forests occur, and are demonstrated in the social and economic environment sections of this 

document. There are no disproportionate negative environmental or health effects to minority or lowincome populations anticipated from any alternative. Public involvement during forest plan revision was 

inclusive and provided ample opportunity for issues of environmental justice to be raised.

Other effects such as relationship of short-term use and long-term productivity, irreversible and 

irretrievable commitment of resources, effects on wetlands and floodplains, unavailable or incomplete 

information were evaluated. No alternative would be detrimental to the long-range productivity of the 

National Forests in Mississippi. Irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources are normally not 

made at the programmatic level of a forest plan. However, an example of such commitments considered is 

the allocation of management prescriptions that do not allow timber harvests. For the period of time 

during which such allocations are made, the opportunity to produce timber from those areas is foregone, 

thus irretrievable. Allocation of these unique areas to these designations will simply be making a 

determination that some of the harvest forgone mostly due to budgetary constraints will be in areas to be 

protected for their unique natural resource values. No significant adverse impacts on wetlands or 

floodplains are anticipated. Wetlands values and functions would be protected in all alternatives through 

the implementation of management area prescriptions and standards and guidelines. The National Forests 

in Mississippi have used the most current scientific information available and state of the art analytical 

tools to evaluate management activities and to estimate their environmental effects. However, gaps will 

always exist in our knowledge. Should new information become available, the need to change 

management direction or amend the forest plan would be determined through the monitoring and 

evaluation process.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 1

Chapter 1. Purpose and Need

1.1 Introduction

This environmental impact statement (EIS) is a companion document to the revised land and resource 

management plan (forest plan) for the National Forests in Mississippi (or the Forests). The EIS presents 

the analysis of five alternatives considered for managing the land and resources of the National Forests in 

Mississippi, describes the affected environment, and explains environmental effects of these alternatives. 

The revised forest plan guides the natural resource management activities on the Forests and provides a 

detailed description of the alternative that the Forest Service recommends for implementation.

1.2 Purpose and Need for Action

The proposed action is to produce a revised forest plan which will guide resource management activities 

on the National Forests in Mississippi for the next 10-15 years. Forest plans are required by the Forest and 

Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974 (RPA), as amended by the National Forest 

Management Act of 1976 (NFMA). The NFMA regulations require forest plans to be revised on a 10-15 

year cycle or sooner when significant changes in conditions or demands occur in the forest plan coverage 

area. NFMA also requires forest supervisors to review the conditions on lands covered by a forest plan at 

least every five years to determine whether significant change has occurred.

The current forest plan for the National Forests in Mississippi went into effect in 1985 and has been 

amended 18 times to date. Periodic reviews have identified numerous areas where conditions have 

changed since 1985. In some cases, new scientific understanding evolved, monitoring direction needed to 

shift to more important resource concerns, or current direction was not having the intended outcome. For 

other issues, there were new public priorities, and new desired conditions were needed. In recent years, 

restoration and maintenance of biodiversity, old-growth forest habitats, and ecosystem management have 

gained public and scientific interest and have emerged as forest management issues. The amount of time 

since the implementation of the 1985 forest plan, new scientific understanding, and shifting public 

interests have all contributed to the need to revise the forest plan.

The National Forests in Mississippi began revision of the 1985 forest plan in 2000 under the existing 

requirements of the NFMA. In July 2005, the Forests transitioned the forest plan revision process to new 

2005 planning rule requirements (36 CFR Part 219). After the 2005 rule was remanded and replaced with 

a new planning rule in March 2008, the Forests converted to the requirements under the 2008 rule. The 

2008 planning regulations were also successfully challenged in court, and the Forests subsequently 

elected to use the September 1982 version of the NFMA planning regulations (36 CFR 219) to complete 

the forest plan revision. 

1.3 Planning Process

The process for developing forest plans falls within the regulations of the NFMA and the National 

Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA). In this process, the forest supervisor is responsible for 

development and implementation of the forest plan, as well as preparation of the EIS for the forest plan. 

The forest supervisor appoints and oversees the interdisciplinary team which develops the forest plan and 

EIS.
Chapter 1. Purpose and Need

2 National Forests in Mississippi

Planning actions required by the NFMA and used in this forest plan revision process include:

• Identification of issues, concerns, and opportunities;

• Development of planning criteria;

• Inventory of resources and data collection;

• Analysis of the management situation;

• Formulation of alternatives;

• Estimation of effects of alternatives;

• Evaluation of alternatives;

• Recommendation of preferred alternative;

• Approval and implementation;

• Monitoring and evaluation.

1.4 Scope of Forest Plan Revision and Decisions to be Made

Planning for units in the National Forest System (NFS) involves two levels of decision-making. The first 

occurs in the approval of a forest plan that sets the direction for managing resources on the entire planning 

unit. These plans provide forestwide and management area direction and are adjustable through 

amendment and revision. Approval of the forest plan establishes multiple-use goals, desired conditions, 

objectives, standards, and guidelines for making future project-specific decisions.

The second level of decision-making occurs during implementation of the forest plan. Proposed sitespecific projects and activities must be analyzed and carried out within the framework of the forest plan 

and be consistent with it. 

The primary decisions made in the revised forest plan for the National Forests in Mississippi are:

• Establishment of forestwide multiple-use goals and objectives; 

• Establishment of forestwide management requirements (standards and guidelines);

• Establishment of management areas and management area direction, including desired future 

condition statements;

• Determination of land that is suitable for timber production;

• Establishment of allowable sale quantity (ASQ) for timber;

• Inventory, evaluation, and recommendations for potential wilderness;

• Inventory, evaluation, and recommendations for potential wild and scenic rivers; and

• Establishment of monitoring and evaluation requirements.

1.5 Relationship to Other Documents

This document incorporates by reference (40 CFR 1502.21) the management direction and environmental 

analysis from the following regional programmatic decisions:

• Revised Route Designation Environmental Assessment, Decision Notice and Finding of No 

Significant Impact, National Forests in Mississippi, April 29, 2009.

• Lands Available for Oil and Gas Leasing Environmental Assessment, Decision Notice and Finding of 

No Significant Impact, August 6, 2010.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 3

Figure 1. Map indicating the locations of national forest units within the State of Mississippi
Chapter 1. Purpose and Need

4 National Forests in Mississippi

1.6 Location and General Description of the Planning Area

Originally established in the 1930s on predominately cut-over, eroded, and abandoned farmlands, the 

National Forests in Mississippi now cover some 1.2 million acres of public forest land. The Forests 

consist of six proclaimed national forests (seven ranger districts) widely distributed across the state. 

Forest headquarters is the Supervisor’s office in Jackson, Mississippi. District offices are located in 

Ackerman, Forest, Laurel, Meadville, Oxford, Rolling Fork, and Wiggins. Although each unit within the 

Forests has unique characteristics and conditions, they are all managed under one forest plan. See figure 1

- Map indicating the locations of national forest units within the State of Mississippi.

1.7 Summary Descriptions of the Forests

The six National Forests in Mississippi are briefly summarized as:

• Bienville National Forest – 178,000 acres located in east-central Mississippi

• Delta National Forest – 60,000 acres located in west-central Mississippi

• De Soto National Forest – 518,000 acres located in southeastern Mississippi, comprised of two ranger 

districts (Chickasawhay and De Soto)

• Holly Springs National Forest – 156,000 acres located in north-central Mississippi

• The Homochitto National Forest – 192,000 acres located in southwestern Mississippi

• The Tombigbee National Forest – 67,000 acres located in northeastern Mississippi

(All acreage figures are approximate.) For detailed descriptions of the national forest geographical 

conditions go to chapter 3.

1.8 Identifying the Issues

Public involvement in the identification of significant issues and management concerns has been a key 

part of the planning process. Issues identified by the public, the Forest Service, interested groups, and 

other state and federal agencies guided the need for change and the development of management 

alternatives. 

For the Forests, the forest plan revision issues that influenced the range of alternatives were identified 

from topics raised during public scoping efforts. Since the publication of the first Notice of Intent (NOI) 

to revise the National Forests in Mississippi forest plan in December 1999, approximately 45 public 

meetings were held across the state. Over 1300 participants attended workshops and meetings statewide, 

and over 6,000 individual comments were generated. The comments were reviewed by Forest personnel 

(both district and supervisor’s office staff) and categorized by subject. Due to delays and changing rules, 

additional meetings were added throughout the process to re-visit previous input and identify any 

potentially new emerging issues. The collective comments from the various public scoping efforts were 

determined to be relevant for identification of the significant issues that formed the basis of forest plan

revision alternatives. Appendix A - Summary of Public Participation provides a detailed discussion of the 

public involvement process used to identify issues and alternatives for forest plan revision.

In addition to issues identified through public involvement, the USDA Forest Service Strategic Plan for 

Fiscal Years 2007-2012 influenced which forest plan revision issues were most relevant. Local national 

forest management direction should be consistent with established national and regional policies, goals 

and objectives. Forest plan direction for the National Forests in Mississippi focused on implementation of 

Forest-specific direction consistent with national and regional policy and management emphasis. The 

primary National Strategic Plan goals and objectives applicable to the Forests planning direction and 

management included:
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 5

• Restore, sustain, and enhance the Nation’s forests and grasslands.

○ Reduce risks from wildfire.

○ Reduce adverse impacts from invasive and native species, pests, and diseases.

○ Restore and maintain healthy watersheds and diverse habitats.

• Provide and sustain benefits to the American people.

○ Provide a reliable supply of forest products over time that is consistent with achieving 

desired conditions on National Forest System lands and helps maintain or create 

processing capacity and infrastructure in local communities.

○ Help meet energy resource needs.

○ Promote market-based conservation and stewardship of ecosystem services.

• Sustain and enhance outdoor recreation opportunities.

○ Improve the quality and availability of outdoor recreation experiences.

○ Improve the management of off-highway vehicle use.

Accomplishment of each of these National Strategic Plan goals and objectives was considered and 

incorporated into forest plan revision alternatives. 

In keeping with the intent of the NFMA, the revised forest plan for the National Forests in Mississippi 

was developed to provide a strategic framework from which project level decisions will be made. The 

forest plan does not deal with project specifics, but establishes the framework for identifying the vision, 

strategy, and design criteria that focus project decisions on accomplishment of desired conditions. 

Management direction in the 1985 forest plan was also reviewed, and needed management changes were 

incorporated into the revised forest plan.

The geographic distribution of the six national forest units or ranger districts within the National Forests 

in Mississippi resulted in each unit having its own unique social-economic and ecological niche. The 

unique characteristics of each unit generated some diversity in the way planning issues influenced 

management requirements for that particular unit. Therefore, the planning issues and their disposition 

varied somewhat between the various units of the Forests.

The significant forest plan revision issues that drove development of plan alternatives are described in the 

following sections. Any differences (applicability) that vary by national forest unit are noted where 

unique distinctions are warranted. The issues presented are not all inclusive of the many resource 

management facets that must be considered and evaluated during forest plan revision. The following 

section describes the topics that were identified as being the primary issues that defined the development 

of the forest plan and range of revision alternatives.

1.9 Summary of Issues

The issues described below were identified during the forest plan revision process as subjects of 

widespread interest concerning management of the Forests and were used to formulate alternatives and 

analyze environmental effects. These issues were derived from input from the public and concerns from 

Forest Service personnel, as well as strategic planning goals and objectives. Although a broad variety of 

issues were identified during the public involvement process and in consultation with other agencies, 

some issues became significant drivers of different management strategies while others did not notably 

change or vary by alternative. The following discussion describes the major issues to be addressed during 

the forest plan revision process.
Chapter 1. Purpose and Need

6 National Forests in Mississippi

1.9.1 Native Ecosystem Restoration

Much of the ecological emphasis in the 1985 forest plan was on management prescriptions for the major 

vegetation types on the Forests, particularly loblolly pine, slash pine, longleaf pine, hardwoods, and 

mixed pine-hardwoods. Since that time, there has been a shift in emphasis to managing for sustainable 

ecosystems and restoring and protecting native ecological communities on appropriate sites. Although 

pines are still the dominant forest type, a major part of today’s management focus is on re-establishing 

native longleaf and shortleaf pine forests on suitable sites now occupied by loblolly and slash pine 

plantations. Enhancement of hardwood forest types and hardwood components in mixed stands and 

maintaining bottomland hardwood forests are also important priorities, as are efforts to maintain and 

protect rare communities. Emphasis on restoring the national forest to more natural conditions and native 

ecosystems was a widely-supported recommendation from the public, stakeholders, and staff.

1.9.2 Biodiversity and Species Viability

Maintaining a diversity of habitats for all species on the National Forests in Mississippi, especially 

threatened or endangered species, and enhancing native wildlife habitat were prominent desired 

conditions identified by stakeholders and our agency partners. Ecological communities provide the 

foundation for species diversity and, in the planning process, 15 major ecological communities and 9 rare 

systems or localized features were identified within the Forests. These communities provide habitat for 

species with viability concerns as well as a mosaic of habitats for desirable wildlife across the Forests. 

Vegetation management practices such as prescribed fires, thinning, and regeneration are the primary 

tools used on the Forests to influence vegetation composition and structural diversity of habitats. Forest 

management strategies that restore native ecosystems and provide a variety of species habitat conditions 

are important aspects in addressing this issue.

1.9.3 Forest Health

Forest health issues identified during forest plan revision included a variety of needs such as forests 

resilient to insects, diseases, and damaging natural disasters; forests naturally adapted to local 

environmental conditions; and forest structure and composition suitable for sustaining forest health into 

the future. Achieving healthy forests requires integration of a number of components. Healthy forest 

conditions involve a balance of physical conditions and essential resources; desired ecological systems 

and species diversity; resilience to abiotic and biotic stressors; and a diversity of vegetation seral stages, 

ages, and structure. Management practices considered for enhancing forest health included using 

commercial harvests where appropriate to restore sites to native ecosystems, creating openings for 

regeneration and establishment of desirable species, improving resilience to storm events and other 

stressors through healthier stand densities, reducing tree mortality caused by southern pine beetle 

outbreaks, and using prescribed burns to reduce the impacts of disease and competition on developing 

longleaf pine seedlings.

Control of non-native invasive species, forest pests, and pathogens was identified as a particularly 

important component of forest health. Although control of pest populations was recognized in the 1985 

forest plan as important in achieving resource management objectives, the increasing spread of noxious 

weeds over the last two decades has become an increasing problem. Nonnative invasive species, 

particularly plant species such as cogongrass and kudzu, were generally not a management concern in 

1985. Currently, non-native invasive species have been identified at the national level as one of the most 

serious threats to national forests, and their continued spread throughout the State of Mississippi is 

causing increasing damage to forest health. Consistent management practices aimed at reducing the 

spread of invasive species, controlling important pests such as southern pine beetle, and improving overall 

forest health are all included in this issue. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 7

1.9.4 Vegetation Management for Timber

Emphasis on sustained yield of forest products through commercial harvesting was a major management 

priority in 1985. It was anticipated that there would be an increasing demand for wood products that 

would be met through more efficient and intensive vegetation management and harvesting practices. 

Although meeting multiple resource needs was also an important objective, there was a strong emphasis 

on generating the highest return from the timber sale program. Since then, forest health and native 

ecosystem restoration have become the main focus of vegetation management activities, with commercial 

harvesting viewed as one of the methods for achieving habitat and ecological results. Today, vegetation 

management emphasizes improving the landscape condition, and practices such as prescribed burning, 

thinning, and regeneration are used to create and enhance habitats for threatened and endangered species, 

restore native ecosystems, and minimize impacts of insects and disease. Forest products are produced as a 

result of these practices and still serve important economic needs through niche markets such as poles and 

quality sawtimber. 

Over the course of forest plan revision, public feedback on the use of vegetation management practices as 

tools for creating desired conditions represented a broad range of perspectives, varying from wanting to 

reduce timber harvesting to supporting an expanded program. These issues, the potential use of forest 

wood and fiber as biomass for energy production, and the effects of carbon sequestration were all 

identified as concerns. In addition to management direction, the rates at which progress could be made 

toward desired conditions within anticipated budget and staffing levels are all important considerations.

1.9.5 Fire Management

Historically, the role of fire in shaping the native plant and animal communities in Mississippi was not 

well understood, and the use of prescribed burning as a tool for reversing the loss of habitat and native 

communities was not widely practiced. Today, an aggressive prescribed fire program on the Forests is 

returning the national forests to a more historic fire regime and at the same time maintaining human 

safety as the highest priority. While the prescribed burning program in 1985 averaged 124,000 acres 

annually, the average in recent years was over 200,000 acres, and wildland fire occurrence has been 

reduced.

In the forest plan revision process, creating appropriate fire regimes for native ecological communities is 

recognized as a necessary part of the desired conditions and objectives for ecosystem diversity. This 

strategy reflects increasing knowledge of the critical role of fire in restoring habitats for fire-dependent 

species such as red-cockaded woodpecker and gopher tortoise, and maintaining desirable stands of 

longleaf and shortleaf pines and rare communities such as prairies and pitcher plant bogs. Management of 

wildfires and prescribed burns can serve to restore and maintain native ecosystems while also protecting 

national forest and adjacent lands from the negative effects of fire. Since fire-dependent native 

ecosystems and habitats for endangered species play a major part in so many native ecosystems on the 

Forests, management of fire was identified as a significant issue.

1.9.6 Old Growth

Although most of the lands that became the National Forests in Mississippi had been mostly cut over 

before becoming part of the National Forest System, there are stands of trees across the Forests that over 

the years have reached the age and structural conditions classified as old growth under guidance 

definitions established by the Southern Region. Some tracts were missed or left with significant residual 

overstory after the harvests that occurred in the early 1900s. More old-growth stands was a desired 

condition expressed during public scoping, and it was recognized that old-growth areas provided 

biological richness, wildlife habitat, recreation and social values, high-value wood products, and research 

opportunities. The Guidance for Conserving and Restoring Old-Growth Forest Communities on National 
Chapter 1. Purpose and Need

8 National Forests in Mississippi

Forests in the Southern Region (USDA Forest Service 1997) needs to be followed in developing 

alternatives for the revised forest plan, and incorporating a mix of old-growth areas into forest 

management strategies was identified as a significant issue.

1.9.7 Watersheds and Water, Soils, Aquatic Resources, Riparian 

Environments

The streams, lakes, meandering rivers, and backwater sloughs that define the character of the land in 

Mississippi also shape the ecological makeup and recreational uses of the national forest units scattered 

across the state. Public comments identified clear lakes and streams, water quality protection, and 

watershed restoration as the biggest concerns for water resources. Due to the intermingled nature of land 

ownership, many of the impacts to water resources happen upstream or downstream of lands managed by 

the Forest Service and outside agency control. In looking at management practices on national forest 

lands aimed toward achieving desired conditions, the focus needs to be on strategies for updating best 

management practices, working with partners and other agencies to improve water quality, restoring and 

protecting riparian ecosystems, and providing a refuge for aquatic life and waterfowl. 

1.9.8 Access Management

The balance between access to national forest lands and protection of natural resources is a challenge for 

most national forests, including the National Forests in Mississippi. While some stakeholders want to see 

motorized access increase, others feel that road construction should be limited and some existing roads 

decommissioned. With a mix of private and public lands within the proclamation boundaries of the 

National Forests in Mississippi and past construction for recreation and management needs, a mature 

roads system has already been constructed as part of the national forest units in Mississippi. In looking at 

needs over the next 10 to 15 years, the primary concerns are maintaining this existing system, addressing 

a backlog of repairs and upgrades, public safety, and addressing improvements for environmental 

protection.

Use issues on roads and trails are also affected by national regulations, particularly the Travel 

Management Rule (36 CFR Parts 212, 251, 261, and 295) which requires national forests and grasslands 

to designate roads, trails, and areas open to motorized vehicles. In April 2009, the National Forests in 

Mississippi amended the 1985 forest plan to conform to Travel Management Rule requirements 

prohibiting motor vehicle use off of designated roads and trail and outside of designated areas. The results 

of this decision will also need to be incorporated into all alternatives. 

1.9.9 Recreation

At the time the 1985 forest plan was developed, it was thought that there was an adequate supply of 

recreation opportunities to meet or exceed anticipated public demand. The 133 miles of horse and hiking 

trails, for example, exceeded existing demands. Now, the 265 miles of hiking, biking, and horse trails plus 

the 144 miles of designated motorized trails make the Forests the major trail provider in the state, but still 

falls short of demand in some areas. Designated and dispersed recreation opportunities continue to grow 

in popularity as visitation continues to increase. Supply no longer exceeds demand, and providing 

sufficient opportunities while maintaining existing facilities is a growing challenge. While the many 

public comments received during forest plan revision reflected the importance of National Forest System

lands for recreation within the state, opportunities for expansion of facilities and trails is expected to be 

limited under anticipated future budgets. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 9

1.9.10 Special Area Designations

Special area designations include administratively-recognized, specific geographic locations within the 

Forests such as wilderness, wild and scenic rivers, botanical areas, and research natural areas that have 

special management restrictions. The public identified several potential areas for review and 

consideration during scoping. The Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area on the Homochitto National 

Forest was considered for qualification as wilderness designation, and new river segments adjoining the 

Black Creek Scenic River on the De Soto National Forest were proposed and evaluated to see if they were 

eligible for possible inclusion as a wild and scenic river (see appendix C). Numerous botanical areas and 

new research natural areas were also proposed. Appropriate designations and applicable management 

direction for these areas has been evaluated as an important issue.

1.9.11 Land Use and Ownership

The population of Mississippi was approximately 2.5 million in the 1980s. Currently, the State population 

is over 2.9 million, with over 3 million residents projected by 2030. With an increasing population, 

development of private lands adjacent to the Forests has increased dramatically since 1985. This was 

particularly true for the De Soto National Forest close to the Gulf Coast and portions of the Holly Springs 

National Forest close to Memphis, Tennessee. The wildland-urban interface was not an issue in 1985 but 

is a growing factor in management decisions today. Also, land acquisition priorities in the 1985 forest 

plan were on consolidating ownership to meet the timber demands more efficiently and provide access for 

removal of market goods. Land acquisition priorities today still focus on consolidating ownership, but the 

intent is to reduce fragmentation of forest communities, provide protected habitat for wildlife, protect 

heritage sites, and preserve desirable ecological communities. Today’s land ownership focus also includes

lands that may not be contiguous but would preserve and enhance high-value habitats, rare species, or 

critical watersheds.

The current challenges faced by the Forests associated with managing public lands that are interspersed 

with numerous small parcels of private lands are typical for national forests in the South. Management 

direction will need to be developed that recognizes that changes in population and spreading urban 

development present problems in conducting effective management programs to control nonnative 

invasive species, carrying out prescribed burning to reduce fuel hazards and restore desired ecosystems, 

restoring habitat for wildlife and rare species, and protecting water quality on the national forests from 

upstream activities. 

1.9.12 Climate Change

The forest plan set in place in 1985 was 16 years after Hurricane Camille, enough time for some of the 

storm effects to fade. Then on August 29, 2005, Hurricane Katrina made landfall causing catastrophic 

damage to the Mississippi Gulf Coast. Hurricane Katrina tracked inland across Mississippi causing 

extensive resource damage on the De Soto and Chickasawhay Ranger Districts in south Mississippi and 

varying levels of damage to the other five national forests. Across the Forests, more than 300,000 acres of 

timber received moderate to heavy damage, and high winds and downed trees blocked roads, closed trails, 

damaged facilities and recreation sites, and damaged red-cockaded woodpecker trees, with several redcockaded woodpecker clusters lost entirely. Post-Katrina salvage operations removed approximately 300 

million board feet of damaged timber, but high fuel levels continued to be a concern for wildfires on both 

national forest system lands and adjacent properties for years. 

The increasing weather variability and climate changes projected for the future were not addressed in the 

1985 forest plan but are expected to be a growing issue over the life of the revised forest plan. Although 

simulations indicate a range of potential climate change effects for the southeastern United States in the 

coming years, the key factor expected to affect Mississippi forests in the near-term is an increase in 
Chapter 1. Purpose and Need

10 National Forests in Mississippi

extreme weather events. During the revision process, strategies for addressing the effects of increasing 

weather disturbances and responding to anticipated climate changes will need to be examined.

1.9.13 Minerals Management

In August 2010, the National Forests in Mississippi updated its minerals management forest plan direction 

with issuance of the Lands Available for Oil and Gas Leasing Environmental Assessment and associated 

decision notice and finding of no significance impact (signed August 6, 2010). The 2010 minerals 

management decision is being incorporated into the revised forest plan. The 2010 minerals management 

decision made all lands on the National Forests in Mississippi available for Federal oil and gas leasing, 

except for congressionally designated wilderness areas (Black Creek and Leaf) and the 2,558 acre Sandy

Creek RARE II Further Study Area located on the Homochitto National Forest.

The Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area is an area identified in the set of inventoried roadless area 

maps contained in the Forest Service Roadless Area Conservation, Final Environmental Impact Statement 

Volume 2 dated November 2000. In 2010, a minerals management decision for this area was deferred due 

to ongoing federal litigation concerning the Agency’s 2001 Roadless Rule. Minerals management options 

for the Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area are being considered and evaluated in this 

environmental impact statement.

1.9.14 Economic Benefits

Vegetation management, minerals development, and recreation use are the traditional forest management 

activities that generate the majority of revenues from National Forest System lands. In addition to outputs 

that can be readily valued, less quantifiable ecosystem services that benefit society are also provided by 

National Forest System lands such as wildlife habitat, clean water, carbon storage, and scenic landscapes. 

Categories of activities associated with national forests that were identified by the public as important to 

local economies included timber products, recreation and tourism, hunting and fishing, oil and gas 

leasing, and revenue sharing payments for schools and roads. Economic benefits to the communities will 

need to be integrated into management strategies, but the pace of progress toward desired conditions is 

not expected to create a significant change to local economies, even under the most aggressive alternative.

1.10 Planning Records

Additional background information, maps, and supporting documents used in the National Forests in 

Mississippi forest plan revision process are contained in the planning records. These records are 

maintained at the Forest Supervisor’s office as required by 36 CFR 219.10(h). The planning record in its 

entirety is incorporated here by reference. Specific records are referenced throughout the EIS and forest 

plan as appropriate. The planning records are available for review during regular business hours

At the end of this EIS is a glossary that defines many of the terms used in this document and in the forest 

plan, and a references cited section which lists literature and references cited in the EIS.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 11

Chapter 2. Alternatives

2.1 Purpose and Organization

Chapter 2 presents alternatives for managing the National Forests in Mississippi (Forests). The chapter is 

divided into four major sections:

• Process used to develop alternatives

• Alternatives considered but eliminated from further detailed studies

• Alternatives considered in detail

• Comparison of alternatives

2.2 Process Used to Develop Alternatives

As part of the forest plan revision process, alternatives are developed to consider a range of strategies to 

manage the land and resources of the National Forests in Mississippi with the intent of moving from 

current conditions to desired future conditions. These alternatives illustrate different management 

scenarios and acres analyzed to provide the basis for selecting the alternative that most effectively 

addressed issues and public benefits. Development of alternatives was based on the issues and need for 

change described in chapter 1 and the analysis of the management situation in appendix A. Alternatives 

also had to be consistent with resource integration and management requirements of the implementing 

regulations for the National Forest Management Act (NFMA) [(36 CFR 219.12(f)].

Alternative development began with analysis of the significant issues identified during the earlier stages 

of the planning process. These issues reflected input from the public and Forest Service personnel, as well 

as strategic planning goals and objectives. They identified subjects of widespread interest concerning 

management of the National Forests in Mississippi.

Benchmark analysis was used to define the range within which alternatives can be constructed [36 CFR 

219.12(e) (1)]. Benchmarks display physical, ecological, and technical capabilities. They are not limited 

by Forest Service policy or budget, discretionary constraints, or spatial feasibility. Benchmarks are 

physically and technically implementable, but may not be operationally feasible. Benchmarks provide 

reference points for comparing developed alternatives. Appendix B provides more information on the 

benchmarks. 

A broad range of reasonable alternatives was considered, based, in part, on the following criteria:

• Alternatives are within the boundaries of the benchmarks.

• Alternatives respond to issues and concerns raised during the planning process.

• Alternatives respond to national and regional management direction.

• A variety of management practices would be applied in the various alternatives.

• A range of outputs would be produced between alternatives.

2.3 Alternatives Considered but Eliminated from Further 

Study

A broad range of alternatives was originally considered during the analysis process. Management 

scenarios for potential alternatives were analyzed for a variety of issues including effectiveness in 
Chapter 2. Alternatives

12 National Forests in Mississippi

meeting desired conditions, policy requirements, and implementation feasibility. The following briefly 

describes the eliminated alternatives and discusses the reasons for elimination.

Early in the revision process, comments were made to consider a strong commodity-driven focus that 

would emphasize production of high levels of goods and services for local markets. Under this scenario, 

timber management would provide a greater sustained yield of wood products with an emphasis on highquality sawtimber, as well as providing public demand for game species for hunting. In a similar manner, 

comments were also made to expand developed and dispersed recreation opportunities to a broader 

variety of settings across the state. Based on analysis, these options were considered but eliminated from 

further study. Although the Forests are capable of producing a sustained yield at a much higher level of 

timber production, and expanded recreation opportunities are possible within the land base, maximization 

of these resources would come at the expense of other resources. Anticipated agency funding levels would 

not support higher levels of timber production or expanded recreation facilities with their associated 

increase in operational and maintenance costs. Also, the multiple-use mandate would not be met in 

emphasizing singular resource programs. While these alternatives were not carried forward, portions of 

these scenarios were incorporated into alternatives C, D, and E. 

Another similar alternative considered but eliminated addressed comments about low levels of timber 

harvest on the Forests and recommendations for at least harvesting annual growth. This alternative would 

set harvest levels to the growth estimated through forest inventory. This alternative was not considered in 

detail because it would not be physically or biologically sustainable over the long term. At this level of 

timber harvest, there would be soil and water concerns for erosion damage, increased sedimentation, and 

reduction of water quality. There would also be biological concerns for reduction of species diversity and 

loss of habitat for threatened and endangered species. In addition, this alternative was not considered 

feasible because it would not meet the long-term sustained yield requirements of the NFMA. Another 

related alternative that considered production near long-term sustained yields was not carried forward 

because of similar unacceptable levels of environmental impact and lack of funding and staffing for these 

more intensive management levels.

Other alternatives considered looked at expanded emphasis on red-cockaded woodpecker habitat. 

Comments were made during the forest plan revision process to consider emphasizing thinning existing 

forest settings for red-cockaded woodpecker and forgoing regeneration and restoration of longleaf pine 

ecosystems to accommodate immediate habitat improvement. While this alternative would provide 

appropriate habitat in the short term, it was not considered in detail because it would not sustain optimal 

habitat over the long term. A mix of thinnings and regeneration is needed to sustain optimal habitat for 

red-cockaded woodpecker populations.

Another red-cockaded woodpecker alternative considered the potential to supplement habitat for redcockaded woodpecker populations located on the Noxubee National Wildlife Refuge adjoining the 

Tombigbee National Forest. Work is underway on the Noxubee Refuge to increase red-cockaded 

woodpecker populations, and this scenario would shift Forest resources to the Tombigbee to support this 

expansion. This option was closely examined and modeled and found to be a possible opportunity in the 

future but not a viable option at this time. As population objectives are reached on the Noxubee in coming 

years, expanded habitat on the Tombigbee may be appropriate, but until red-cockaded woodpecker 

populations reach higher levels, this alternative would pull limited Forest resources from other areas and 

impede the recovery efforts for red-cockaded woodpecker populations on existing habitat management 

areas on the National Forests in Mississippi.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 13

2.4 Alternatives Considered in Detail

Five alternatives were considered in detailed analysis, including the no-action alternative which would 

continue management under the 1985 forest plan as amended. Four action alternatives were developed in 

response to issues and concerns identified during the planning process as previously described in chapter 

1. For ease of understanding, these alternatives have been “named” as follows:

A. Custodial Management Alternative

B. No-action Alternative

C. Proposed Action Alternative

D. Accelerated Restoration Alternative

E. Enhanced Forest Health Alternative

The alternative names suggest the general direction or theme of an alternative but should not be thought 

of as being exclusive. For example, the Enhanced Forest Health Alternative is not the only alternative that 

would implement projects to enhance forest health. However, the name was chosen to help in the 

understanding of what that alternative (or one of the other alternatives) would emphasize in the way of 

proposed project implementation.

Each alternative combines land allocations, management practices, and activity schedules which when 

implemented would provide a unique set of resource outputs and environmental consequences. Each 

alternative was developed to be fully implementable and achievable. However, some alternatives could 

require shifts in resources. 

2.4.1 Elements Common to All Alternatives

All alternatives were designed to comply with applicable laws, regulations and policy. This included 

compliance with NFMA legal and regulatory requirements regarding resource protection, vegetative 

manipulation, silvicultural practices, even-aged management, riparian areas, soil and water protection, 

and community diversity and species viability. All alternatives were designed to meet health and safety 

standards and included the concepts of multiple-use, sustained yield, and ecosystem management.

In addition to meeting laws, regulations, and policies, the alternatives developed in detail reflected 

considerable agreement on primary issues. The extended public involvement period that evolved during 

changing Planning Rule requirements and delays for hurricane recovery allowed more opportunities for 

Forest Service staff to work with stakeholders and the public on important issues and desired conditions. 

While many different interests and concerns were identified by participants, there was considerable 

agreement on overarching issues. In particular, the emphasis on native ecosystem restoration, species 

diversity, and habitat improvement for threatened and endangered species received widespread support 

among the public, Forest Service staff, other agencies, and interested parties. Based on this collaborative 

consensus, the following management goals and strategies were common to all alternatives considered in 

detail. 

Restore native ecological systems –Restoration of native ecological systems was a major desired 

condition for stakeholders and served as the primary framework for revising the forest plan. Twenty-four 

native ecological systems were identified on the Forests, including nine unique communities or 

uncommon local features. Priorities for achieving desired conditions included conversion of loblolly and 

slash pine stands to longleaf pine and shortleaf pine-oak ecosystems, restoration of floodplain forests, and 
Chapter 2. Alternatives

14 National Forests in Mississippi

continued maintenance and enhancement of native hardwood ecosystems and unique communities such as 

native prairies and bogs. 

Promote diversity of species – One of the basic tenants in revising the forest plan was that managing for 

a diversity of healthy native ecosystems was integral to providing appropriate ecological conditions for a 

diversity of plant and animal species. In the revision process, a list of all potential species that could occur 

on the National Forests in Mississippi was developed and analyzed through a series of collaborative 

meetings with technical experts and taxonomic specialists familiar with the plant and animal species 

across Mississippi. Species that could possibly occur on the Forests were further evaluated through a 

series of iterative screenings and identified as federal threatened and endangered species, sensitive 

species, and locally rare species. The specific needs and habitats of species were addressed, primarily 

through ecosystem diversity management strategies, but also through integrated programs for soils, water, 

fire regimes, and other resource areas. Threatened and endangered species protection and habitat 

enhancement were important priorities in all alternatives considered, and the needs of the nine threatened 

and endangered species identified as potentially occurring on the Forests were emphasized. 

Manage for healthy forests – A shift in focus from commodity production to native ecosystem 

restoration and forest health was emphasized. Vegetation management practices support a variety of 

integrated resource strategies including converting loblolly and slash pine plantings to native ecosystems, 

creating a diversity of habitats, improving resilience to natural disturbances and a changing climate, 

reducing impacts of insects and diseases, controlling non-native invasive species, and producing quality 

timber commodities.

Conserve old-growth communities – Diversity of tree ages, from regeneration to old growth, was 

emphasized to support a sustainable mix of ecological conditions across the landscape. A strategy to 

establish old-growth stands across all ecological systems and all districts, with at least 10 percent of all 

forested ecosystems in old-growth conditions was incorporated into all the alternatives.

Restore historic fire conditions – On the National Forests in Mississippi, periodic prescribed burning 

has become an important tool for recreating historic fire regimes and reducing the risk of catastrophic 

fires while restoring conditions that favor desirable native ecosystems and habitats for threatened and 

endangered species. While all alternatives included a prescribed burning component aimed at restoring 

historic fire conditions, the average annual prescribed fire program levels varied by alternative. 

Manage for healthy watersheds – Productive soils, clean water, and clean air were important desired 

conditions identified by stakeholders and are essential to sustaining the ecological function and 

productive capacity of National Forest System lands. Use of best management practices for sustaining and 

improving watershed areas within national forest control while working cooperatively with other agencies 

and landowners to improve statewide watershed health were included in all alternatives. Desired 

outcomes that relate to improving or sustaining a diversity of aquatic species and water-related 

ecosystems were also emphasized.

Maintain sustainable infrastructure and access – The main priorities for managing the roads, trails, 

and facilities that make up the Forests infrastructure were safety and maintenance of existing systems. 

This included backlogged repairs and upgrades, improvements for environmental protection, disposal of 

facilities that are no longer needed, and rehabilitation of user-created trails and roads. The balance sought 

emphasized improved maintenance of existing roads and trails, with a focus for the roads system on 

reduced maintenance levels and improvements to important public safety and ecological features, such as 

bridges and stream culverts. The emphasis for the trails system was on sustaining a forestwide network of 

trails for a variety of uses across the state and bringing existing designated trails up to improved 

conditions. Partnerships with other agencies, communities, and special interest groups were identified as 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 15

key to offering additional seasonal access to wildlife management areas and expanding or adding new 

trails.

Maintain sustainable recreation – Strategies for sustaining outdoor recreation opportunities on the 

National Forests in Mississippi under anticipated funding levels focused on maintaining and improving 

existing dispersed recreation opportunities and developed recreation sites, with the addition of new 

facilities and amenities dependent on expanding local and state-wide partnerships. Instead of sustaining a 

full mix of recreation opportunities on every unit, recreation use would be considered from a forestwide

perspective with emphasis on sustainable programs and infrastructure that minimize impacts to the 

environment. 

Provide stable economic benefits – The national forest activities that generate the majority of the 

revenues that feed back into the local economy in Mississippi come from timber, minerals, and recreation. 

As a result of restoring native ecosystems to appropriate sites and maintaining healthy and resilient 

forests, there should be a steady flow of economic benefits back to local communities.

Adapt to changing conditions – An increase in extreme weather events is the climate change factor most 

likely to affect the Forests in the next 10-15 years. In response to potential effects from climate change, 

strategies in the alternatives include reducing vulnerability by maintaining and restoring resilient native

ecosystems, enhancing adaptation by reducing impacts from serious disturbances and taking advantage of 

disruptions, using preventative measures to reduce opportunities for forest pests, and mitigating 

greenhouse emissions by reducing carbon loss from hurricanes.

2.4.2 Summary of Alternatives

The five alternatives considered in detail are described below. These alternatives are presented in order of 

increasing management levels, with alternative A representing a minimal management approach that lets 

natural processes prevail. Alternative B is the no-action alternative and depicts the current level of work 

on the Forest under the amended 1985 forest plan. Alternative C is the selected alternative and describes a 

level of management and direction that will move the Forest toward desired conditions at a realistic pace 

under current agency funding levels. Alternative D accelerates the rate of progress toward desired 

conditions by restoring more acres of native ecological communities through additional regeneration 

activities. Alternative E further increases progress toward desired conditions for healthy forests by 

treating more acres of dense forest that need thinning to be more resilient to damage from insects and 

storms. Alternatives C, D and E are projected to require additional funding opportunities and staffing 

above current budget levels but would make faster progress toward desired conditions. The following 

comparisons provide additional details and distinctions among the alternatives.

Alternative A – Custodial Management Alternative

This alternative allows natural succession to dominate the landscape with minimal intervention by active 

management practices to achieve desired conditions or management goals. Resource management 

activities would focus on the protection of natural resources and meeting legally mandated requirements. 

Management for the conservation and recovery of threatened and endangered species and their critical 

habitat would dominate as the primary management focus or emphasis. Ecosystem management strategies 

would favor natural succession and implementation of low intensity forest health management practices. 

Best management practices and regulations would be followed to protect water quality and riparian areas, 

but watershed restoration efforts would be limited. Recreation opportunities would emphasize low impact 

recreation opportunities (favor nonmotorized activities). Danger to forest visitors, risk of damage to 

private property through Forest Service inaction, or introduction of an exotic pest would be considered 

unhealthy forest conditions requiring management action. However, resource management intervention 
Chapter 2. Alternatives

16 National Forests in Mississippi

actions would only be implemented in response to severe or catastrophic weather events or epidemic level 

pest outbreaks that pose human health and safety concerns. Limited emphasis would be placed on control 

of invasive species due to reduced resource capabilities. Roads not needed for legal requirements and 

other resource needs would be closed or obliterated. 

The following are distinguishing features for alternative A:

Native Ecosystem Restoration and Forest Health

• Vegetation management activities would attain an average annual timber production level of 7.5

million cubic feet (MMCF) [37 million board feet (MMBF)] from red-cockaded woodpecker habitat 

maintenance and enhancement, and salvage and sanitation harvests from wind or southern pine beetle 

occurrences. 

• Longleaf restoration on the Bienville, De Soto, and Homochitto National Forests outside redcockaded woodpecker habitat management areas would not be emphasized.

• Natural succession would result in a greater pine and hardwood component on all Forests. Shortleaf 

and loblolly pine management areas would be reduced with natural succession to hardwoods.

Fire Management

• Reduced emphasis on management by ignited prescribed fires and more reliance on wildland fire 

occurrences to achieve desired conditions and natural resource benefits. 

• Prescribed fire applications would focus on threatened and endangered habitat management 

requirements with an average annual burn program objective of 121,000 acres or less.

Community Diversity and Species Viability

• Over the long term, community diversity and species viability would likely decline.

• This alternative would promote a tendency towards late succession with locally reduced species 

richness and minimal management practices to prevent species loss.

• Red-cockaded woodpecker resource management activities would do the minimum necessary to 

sustain populations and would be focused only in designated red-cockaded woodpecker habitat 

management areas.

• Population expansion potential for gopher tortoise would be reduced compared to other more 

intensive alternative management themes.

Old Growth

• Emphasis would be placed on providing old-growth areas through natural succession with little 

human intervention evident over a long period of time. The availability of medium sized (100 acre or 

more) old-growth stands would be left to chance and the fact that there would be less resource 

management activity.

Recreation Management

• No new trails, facilities, or recreation opportunities would be added, and maintenance activities would 

be minimal to meet safety standards. 

• Conditions over time would favor areas of more primitive character with less evidence of human 

intervention apparent on the landscape.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 17

Special Areas

• Current management of existing designated areas would continue and no new designations for 

wilderness areas, wild and scenic rivers, research natural areas, or other special areas would be 

recommended.

Minerals Management

Current management for oil and gas leasing would continue. However alternative A would not authorize 

new oil and gas leasing in the 2,558 acre Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area. 

Economic Conditions

• Reduced management activities would result in fewer commodity outputs, particularly wood 

products.

Alternative B – No-action Alternative

The no-action alternative reflects continued implementation of current forest plan direction as amended, 

consistent with expected budget and staffing levels. This alternative serves as a baseline to measure 

opportunity cost trade-offs associated with proposed changes to management direction. Production of 

both commercial wood products and creation of a variety of wildlife habitats would be emphasized. 

Developed and dispersed recreation opportunities would be in a variety of settings—both natural and 

managed. Water quality and riparian areas would be protected through implementation of best 

management practices and streamside management zones, with minor investment in small watershed 

restoration projects. Large- and medium-sized blocks of old-growth would be provided only on land 

classified as not suitable for timber production. Small-sized old-growth blocks would be provided as 

regulated late serial components. Access would be developed, maintained, and used as needed to meet 

goal of balanced age classes, wildlife habitat, and production of timber products. 

The following are distinguishing features for alternative B:

Native Ecosystem Restoration and Forest Health

• Vegetation management activities would attain an average annual timber production level of 12.0 

MMCF (60 MMBF)1

. 

• In the upper coastal plain, hardwood management strategies would focus on no net loss of hardwoods. 

In the lower coastal plain, hardwood retention guidelines would be applied in areas that have less than 

20 percent hardwood component.

• Longleaf restoration on the Bienville, De Soto, and Homochitto National Forests would focus on 

restoring longleaf to its historical range.

• Pine and hardwood management would continue current management direction on loessial soils of the 

Homochitto National Forest.

• Current management emphasis on shortleaf would continue only on the Holly Springs National 

Forest. Shortleaf management would not be emphasized on other forests.

Fire Management

• Utilize prescribed fire to reduce hazardous fuels, facilitate management, and improve wildlife habitat 

as part of the Healthy Forest Initiative. 

 1 Note: the 1985 forest plan had an allowable sale quantity of 51 MMCF or 254 MMBF. The 60 MMBF presented 

here represents the level actually produced over the past six years.
Chapter 2. Alternatives

18 National Forests in Mississippi

• Annual prescribed fire program level would be maintained near current levels with an averaging 

annual burn program objective of 190,000 acres or more.

Community Diversity and Species Viability

• There would be no expected change in current community diversity and species viability.

• Forest and woodland ecosystems would be managed to restore or maintain native communities and 

provide the desired composition, structure and function.

• Red-cockaded woodpecker management would continue under interim guidelines and appropriate 

regional guidelines. The tentative habitat management areas from the red-cockaded woodpecker final 

environmental impact statement (1995) would continue to be used as boundaries for the red-cockaded 

woodpecker habitat management areas.

• Protective measures would restrict mechanical equipment in the vicinity of active gopher tortoise 

burrows, and management under present timber rotation and fire management regimes would 

continue.

Old Growth

• Areas of old growth would be provided by previously designated wilderness areas, withdrawn special 

management areas, and regulated late serial components. The availability of medium sized (100 acre 

and more) old-growth stands would be left to chance and the fact that resource management activity 

would be at a low level.

Special Areas

• Continue management of existing designated special areas.

• No new areas would be recommended.

Minerals Management

• Current management for oil and gas leasing would continue. However alternative B would not 

authorize new oil and gas leasing in the 2,558 acre Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area.

Recreation 

• Maintain current recreation management opportunities subject to available funding and staffing 

levels.

Economic Conditions

• No change in recent levels of commodity outputs.

Alternative C – Proposed Action Alternative (Selected Alternative)

The proposed action alternative is biologically based and driven, with emphasis on restoring natural 

resources and natural processes and creating and maintaining diverse wildlife habitats. Restoration of 

native ecological communities would be based on the ecological potential and capability of the land. 

Restoration activities would provide a mix of wildlife habitat conditions favorable for game and nongame species. Restoration activities would produce both large and small openings. Water quality and 

riparian areas would be protected through implementation of best management practices and streamside 

management zone, with minor investments in priority watershed restoration projects. A variety of 

recreation settings and opportunities would occur in areas where they would be compatible with 

restoration activities and in areas where restoration is not occurring. A balanced mix of small and 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 19

medium-sized old-growth forest community types would be established. Access would be reduced as 

needed to restore and protect aquatic systems, soils, and plant and animal communities. 

The following are distinguishing features for alternative C:

Native Ecosystem Restoration and Forest Health

• Vegetation management activities would attain an average annual timber production level of 18 

MMCF (91 MMBF).

• Hardwood; and pine and hardwood management types would be grown and maintained where 

ecologically feasible on all districts.

• Longleaf pine on the Bienville, De Soto, and Homochitto National Forests would be restored within 

its natural range but with longer rotations and lower stocking density consistent with red-cockaded 

woodpecker habitat management requirements.

• Shortleaf and loblolly pine management types on the Bienville, Holly Springs, and Tombigbee 

National Forests would be grown and maintained where ecologically feasible. There would be an 

emphasis on restoration of shortleaf based on ecological potential and land capability.

Fire Management

• Focus on burning historically maintained fire ecosystems to preserve natural diversity.

• Annual prescribed fire program level would be greater than current management levels with an 

average annual burn program objective ranging of 220,000 acres. An increase in prescribed fire 

applications would be necessary to support ecosystem restoration goals and objectives.

Community Diversity and Species Viability

• Forest and woodland ecosystems would be managed to restore or maintain native communities that 

would provide the desired composition, structure and function. Emphasis would be placed on 

maintaining forest and plant community types not abundant on private lands.

• Expanded opportunities for additional red-cockaded woodpecker population growth would be 

provided on suitable areas outside of designated habitat management areas.

• Expansion of red-cockaded woodpecker habitat management areas would extend across the entire 

district on the Bienville and Chickasawhay Ranger Districts.

• Conservation management areas would be developed on the De Soto Ranger District for sandhill 

cranes.

• Expanded opportunities for conservation and recovery of gopher tortoise populations would be 

provided by promoting improved habitat conditions on additional suitable habitat areas than current 

management provides.

Old Growth

• Implementation of the regional old-growth strategy would achieve a balanced mix of small and 

medium-sized old-growth forest community types with a goal to meet species viability and diversity 

requirements.

• There would be sufficient levels of old growth in all communities for biological needs and desired 

conditions.

Special Areas

• Approximately sixteen botanical areas would be designated and two research natural areas proposed 

for designation. 
Chapter 2. Alternatives

20 National Forests in Mississippi

Minerals Management

• Current management for oil and gas leasing would continue, and alternative C would authorize new 

oil and gas leasing in the 2,558 acre Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area, but it would be

subject to the 2001 Roadless Area Conservation Rule restrictions.

Recreation Management

• A back country special emphasis area would be developed on the Tombigbee National Forest 

(Ackerman Unit).

Economic Conditions

• Increased management activities would result in slightly increased commodity outputs and jobs, 

primarily in wood products.

Alternative D – Accelerated Restoration Alternative

This alternative, like the proposed action alternative, is biologically based and driven, with emphasis on 

restoring natural resources and natural processes, and creating and maintaining diverse wildlife habitats. 

Restoration of native ecological communities would be based on the ecological potential and capability of 

the land, and the pace of restoration would be accelerated by additional regeneration activities. 

Restoration of native ecosystems would provide a mix of wildlife habitat conditions favorable for game 

and non-game species, and both large and small openings would be produced. Water quality and riparian 

areas would be protected through implementation of best management practices and streamside 

management zone, with minor investments in priority watershed restoration projects. A variety of 

recreation opportunities and settings would occur in areas where they would be compatible with 

restoration activities and in areas where restoration in not occurring. A balanced mix of small and 

medium-sized old-growth forest community types would be established. Access would be reduced as 

needed to restore and protect aquatic systems, soils, and plant and animal communities. 

The following are distinguishing features for alternative D:

Native Ecosystem Restoration and Forest Health

• Vegetation management activities would attain an average annual timber production level of 20.0 

MMCF (101 MMBF).

• Hardwood and pine and hardwood management types would be grown and maintained where 

ecologically feasible on all districts.

• Longleaf pine on the Bienville, De Soto, and Homochitto National Forests would be restored within 

its natural range but with longer rotations and lower stocking density consistent with red-cockaded 

woodpecker habitat management requirements.

• Shortleaf and loblolly pine management types on the Bienville, Holly Springs, and Tombigbee 

National Forests would be grown and maintained where ecologically feasible. There would be an 

emphasis on restoration of shortleaf based on ecological potential and land capability.

Fire Management

• Focus on burning historically maintained fire ecosystems to preserve natural diversity. 

• Annual prescribed fire program level would be greater than the proposed action alternative levels 

with a minimum average annual burn program objective of 240,000 acres or more. An increase in 

prescribed fire applications would be necessary to support expanded ecosystem restoration goals and 

objectives.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 21

Community Diversity and Species Viability

• Forest and woodland ecosystems would be managed to restore or maintain native communities that 

would provide the desired composition, structure, and function. Emphasis would be placed on 

maintaining forest and plant community types not abundant on private lands.

• Expanded opportunities for additional red-cockaded woodpecker population growth would be 

provided on suitable areas outside of designated habitat management areas.

• Expansion of red-cockaded woodpecker habitat management areas would extend across the entire 

district on the Bienville and Chickasawhay Ranger Districts.

• Conservation management areas would be developed on the De Soto Ranger District for sandhill 

crane.

• Expanded opportunities for conservation and recovery of gopher tortoise populations would be 

provided by promoting improved habitat conditions on additional suitable habitat areas due to higher 

levels of vegetation management and prescribed fire application.

Old Growth

• Implementation of the regional old-growth strategy would achieve a balanced mix of small and

medium-sized old-growth forest community types with a goal to meet species viability and diversity 

requirements.

• Although there may be slightly fewer acres of old growth in some forest types for the short term, 

there would be a more sustainable mix of old growth in all communities for future biological needs 

and desired conditions.

• There would be sufficient levels of old growth in all communities for biological needs and desired 

conditions.

Special Areas

• Approximately sixteen botanical areas would be designated and two research natural areas proposed 

for designation.

Minerals Management

• Current management for oil and gas leasing would continue, and alternative D would authorize new 

oil and gas leasing in the 2,558 acre Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area, but it would be 

subject to the 2001 Roadless Area Conservation Rule restrictions.

Recreation Management

• A back country special emphasis area would be developed on the Tombigbee National Forest.

Economic Conditions

• Increased management activities would continue the trend toward slightly increased commodity 

outputs and jobs, primarily in wood products.

Alternative E – Enhanced Forest Health Alternative

This alternative is biologically based and driven, with emphasis on restoring natural resources and natural 

processes and creating and maintaining diverse wildlife habitats. Restoration of native ecological 

communities would be based on the ecological potential and capability of the land, and the pace of 

restoration would be further accelerated by increasing both regeneration and thinning activities. Thinning 

of stand densities would improve resilience to southern pine beetle and other pests and reduce damage 

from intense storms. The vegetation management program for this alternative would be around 75 percent
Chapter 2. Alternatives

22 National Forests in Mississippi

of the estimated long-term sustained yield capacity for the National Forests in Mississippi land base. 

Management activities would provide a mix of wildlife habitat conditions favorable for game and nongame species and produce both large and small openings. Water quality and riparian areas would be 

protected through implementation of best management practices and streamside management zone, with 

additional investment in priority watershed restoration projects. A variety of recreation opportunities and 

settings would occur in areas where they would be compatible with restoration activities and in areas 

where restoration in not occurring. A balanced mix of small and medium-sized old-growth forest 

community types would be established. Access would be reduced as needed to restore and protect aquatic 

systems, soils, and plant and animal communities.

The following are distinguishing features for alternative E:

Native Ecosystem Restoration and Forest Health

• Vegetation management activities would attain an average annual timber production level of 24.0 

MMCF (118 MMBF). This level would result in achieving desired conditions in the shortest 

(biologically feasible) timeframe while also ensuring compliance with the multiple-use sustained 

yield act requirements of non-declining sustained yields. 

• Hardwood, and pine and hardwood management types would be grown and maintained where 

ecologically feasible on all districts.

• Longleaf pine on the Bienville, De Soto, and Homochitto National Forests would be restored within 

its natural range but with longer rotations and lower stocking density consistent with red-cockaded 

woodpecker habitat management requirements.

• Shortleaf and loblolly pine management types on the Bienville, Holly Springs, and Tombigbee 

National Forests would be grown and maintained where ecologically feasible. There would be an 

emphasis on restoration of shortleaf based on ecological potential and land capability.

Community Diversity and Species Viability

• Forest and woodland ecosystems would be managed to restore or maintain native communities that 

would provide the desired composition, structure and function. Emphasis would be placed on 

maintaining forest and plant community types not abundant on private lands.

• Expanded opportunities for additional red-cockaded woodpecker population growth would be 

provided on suitable areas outside of designated habitat management areas.

• Expansion of red-cockaded woodpecker habitat management areas would extend across the entire 

district on the Bienville and Chickasawhay Ranger Districts.

• Conservation management areas would be developed on the De Soto Ranger District for sandhill 

crane and dusky gopher frog.

• Expanded opportunities for conservation and recovery of gopher tortoise populations would be

provided by promoting improved habitat conditions on additional suitable habitat areas due to higher 

levels of vegetation management and prescribed fire application.

Old Growth

• Implementation of the regional old-growth strategy would achieve a balanced mix of small and 

medium-sized old-growth forest community types with a goal to meet species viability and diversity 

requirements.

• Although there may be slightly fewer acres of old growth in some areas for the short term, there 

would be a more sustainable mix of old growth in all communities for future biological needs and 

desired conditions.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 23

Fire Management

• Focus on burning historically maintained fire ecosystems to preserve natural diversity. 

• Annual prescribed fire program level would be greater than alternative D with an average annual burn 

program objective of 251,000 acres or more. Increased prescribed fire applications would be 

necessary to support expanded ecosystem restoration goals and objectives.

Special Areas

• Approximately sixteen botanical areas would be designated and two research natural areas proposed 

for designation.

Minerals Management

• Current management for oil and gas leasing would continue, and alternative E would authorize new 

oil and gas leasing in the 2,558 acre Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area, but it would be 

subject to the 2001 Roadless Area Conservation Rule restrictions.

Recreation

• A back country special emphasis area would be developed on the Tombigbee National Forest.

Economic Conditions

• Increased management activities would continue the trend toward slightly increased commodity 

outputs and jobs, primarily in wood products.

2.5 Comparison of Alternatives

The types of management areas, approach to various issues, concerns and opportunities, pace of progress 

toward desired conditions; and levels of output of various goods and services that would result from the 

alternatives are described in the following section. These tables and narrative discussions do not provide a 

comprehensive comparison but summarize how the alternatives treat a selection of topics of most interest 

and issues that would vary most by alternative.

2.5.1 Management Areas and Prescriptions

For the National Forests in Mississippi, management areas and prescriptions are based on the general 

locations and extent of the major ecosystems on the Forests. On these broad general areas of the Forests, 

management prescriptions are applied to achieve desired conditions. The ecologically-based management 

areas do not have precise boundaries and may contain less-common ecosystems or other designated areas 

or special uses that have additional requirements or different prescriptions. The major ecosystems 

identified as management areas on the National Forests in Mississippi are listed in table 1 along with the 

approximate number of acres under the five alternatives after the 10-15 years covered by the revised 

forest plan. These ecosystems are mapped by ranger district and found in appendix H.

Ultimate desired conditions for the ecosystem-based management areas did not vary under the five 

alternatives, but the rate at which these conditions were achieved and the management actions and 

resources required were major distinguishing factors. In some locations on the Forests, the distribution of 

native ecosystems systems is close to what should occur based on landscape characteristics and soil 

classifications; however, in other settings, major regeneration activities and many decades will be needed 

to restore desirable native communities. In comparing the alternatives, restoration of native ecosystems 

will be slowest and restore the fewest acres over the life of the forest plan under Alternative A – Custodial 

Management. Under the alternative A scenario, restoration changes would primarily result from natural 

succession, which would favor hardwood components over time. Alternatives B and C assume agency 
Chapter 2. Alternatives

24 National Forests in Mississippi

funding levels similar to current conditions but with more emphasis and integration of restoration actions 

under alternative C. Alternative D depicts a faster rate of progress toward desired conditions (more acres 

restored) by adding regeneration activities. Alternative E further increases restoration progress and forest 

health by treating more acres of dense forest that need thinning to be more resilient to damage from 

insects such as southern pine beetle and to survive severe storms. Alternatives D and E are projected to 

require additional funding opportunities and staffing above current budget levels but would make faster 

progress toward desired conditions. 

Table 1. Comparison of acres within management areas over the planning period

Ecosystem-Based Management 

Areas

Alternative 

A

Alternative 

B

Alternative 

C

Alternative 

D

Alternative 

E

Upland Longleaf Pine Forest and 

Woodland 238,876 246,660 251,152 261,285 251,705

Shortleaf Pine-Oak Forest and 

Woodland 59,139 60,819 61,815 68,049 66,616

Upland and Mesic Loblolly Pine 

Forest 299,317 299,042 286,524 277,087 276,880

Southern Loblolly – Hardwood 

Flatwoods 143,109 143,468 142,982 140,993 142,183

Slash Pine Forest 114,231 110,745 109,537 105,625 110,547

Northern Dry Upland Hardwood 

Forest 52,376 54,084 56,021 58,816 57,762

Southern Dry Upland Hardwood 

Forest and Southern Loess Bluff 

Forest

52,030 51,768 51,997 52,570 52,425

Southern Mesic Slope Forest 15,833 16,465 16,551 17,496 16,822

Northern Mesic Hardwood Forest 3,568 3,782 3,879 4,248 3,981

Floodplain Forest 96,424 96,924 97,346 96,905 97,885

Lower Mississippi River 

Bottomland and Floodplain Forest 59,197 59,197 59,197 59,197 59,197

2.5.2 Designated Geographic or Special Areas

In addition to the management areas based on major ecosystems, there are distinct, administrativelydefined geographic areas that have special characteristics or uses which may modify or take precedence 

over management area prescriptions for ecosystems. These designated special areas include a variety of 

distinctive uses or settings with exceptional or uncommon botanical, scenic, research, wilderness, 

recreational, or archaeological values. 

Many of these areas exhibit or support desired attributes and diversity. For example, some designated 

geographic areas are mature examples of desired ecosystems and serve as some of the best locations of 

mid-sized or larger expanses of old-growth conditions. These areas also provide sites for native 

ecosystems, habitats for species diversity, refuge areas for aquatic and terrestrial wildlife and threatened 

and endangered species, experimental sites for vegetation management practices, unique recreational 

opportunities, and desirable scenic conditions. Designating and managing these areas for their special 

characteristics are part of our strategy for moving toward desired conditions. Table 2 compares the 

existing plus proposed acres of designated special areas by alternative. Maps of these geographic areas 

can be found in appendix D.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 25

Table 2. Comparison of geographic or special area allocations by alternative

Special Area 

Description Alternative A Alternative B Alternative C Alternative D Alternative E 

Administrative Areas No change No change No change No change No change

Archaeological Areas 39 acres 39 acres 39 acres 39 acres 39 acres

Botanical Areas 722 acres 722 acres 4,169 acres 4,169 acres 4,169 acres

Developed Recreation 

Areas No change No change No change No change No change

Experimental Forests 7,568 acres 7,568 acres 7,568 acres 7,568 acres 7,568 acres

Red-Cockaded 

Woodpecker Habitat 

Management Area

390,886 367,169 390,886 390,886 390,886

Research Natural Areas 1,030 acres 1,030 acres 1,464 acres 1,464 acres 1,464 acres

Scenic Areas 9,338 acres 9,338 acres 9,338 acres 9,338 acres 9,338 acres

Special Recreation 

Areas 40 acres 40 acres 40 acres 40 acres 40 acres

Wild and Scenic Rivers 21 miles 21 miles 21 miles 21 miles 21 miles

Wilderness Areas 6,046 acres 6,046 acres 6,046 acres 6,046 acres 6,046 acres

Under alternatives A and B, current special areas would be retained but no additional designations would 

be planned. Alternatives C, D, and E would add approximately seventeen new botanical areas and propose 

designation of two new research natural areas. Management actions under alternatives C, D, and E would 

also include expansion of current red-cockaded woodpecker habitat management areas. Under alternatives 

A and B, new mineral leases in the Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area (also identified as an 

inventoried roadless area) would not be authorized. Under alternatives C, D, and E the Sandy Creek 

Further Study Area area would become available for new oil and gas leasing with a No Surface 

Occupancy stipulation on the 300 acre Sandy Creek Botanical area and a stipulation that prohibits 

National Forest System road construction for newly leased areas in the remaining portions of the Sandy 

Creek inventoried roadless area.

2.5.3 Vegetation Management

Vegetation management activities are the primary tools for restoring native ecosystems, creating a 

diversity of habitats, controlling the spread of non-native invasive species and insect pests, sustaining 

healthy forests, and producing wood-product commodities to benefit local communities. For the National 

Forests in Mississippi, prescribed burning, thinning, and regeneration are the principal management 

practices used for vegetation management, and the five alternatives depict varying levels of management 

activities aimed at accomplishing desired conditions. Table 3 compares outputs under the various 

alternatives as a quantitative measure of the different management strategies.

Under the custodial management focus of alternative A, there would be minimal use of active 

management practices, natural succession would result in a greater hardwood component, longleaf pine 

restoration efforts would be limited to habitat management areas on the Bienville, De Soto, and 

Homochitto National Forests, and occurrence of shortleaf and loblolly pines would be reduced. Average 

annual timber production would be reduced from current levels and would be a byproduct from redcockaded woodpecker habitat maintenance and enhancement and salvage and sanitation harvests from 

wind or southern pine beetle occurrences.
Chapter 2. Alternatives

26 National Forests in Mississippi

Alternative B is the no-action alternative and would continue current direction and levels of vegetation 

management. The average annual timber production level in table 3 for alternative B lists production 

levels for recent years under revisions to the 1985 forest plan and reflects reduced output and available 

management resources from the original forest plan.

Alternatives C, D, and E focus on restoring a variety of native ecosystems and habitats and creating 

healthier, more sustainable forests. Longleaf pine would be restored within its natural range; hardwood,

and pine and hardwood management types would be grown and maintained where ecologically feasible 

on all districts; hardwood, and pine and hardwood management types would be grown and maintained on 

appropriate sites, and there would be an emphasis on restoration of shortleaf based on ecological potential 

and land capability. Forest products are produced as a result of vegetation management practices although 

they do not drive the process. Alternative C would move toward desired conditions at a realistic pace 

under current agency funding levels. Alternative D restores more native ecosystem acres through 

regeneration activities, and alternative E further improves forest health through thinning. Alternative E 

would result in achieving desired conditions in the shortest (biologically feasible) timeframe while also 

ensuring compliance with the multiple-use sustained yield act requirements of non-declining sustained 

yields. However, alternatives D and E would require additional funding and management resources above 

current levels.

Table 3. Comparison of vegetation management levels by alternative

Alternative A Alternative B Alternative C Alternative D Alternative E

Average annual 

program level =

7.5 MMCFa

(37 MMBFb)

Average annual 

program level =

12.0 MMCF 

(60 MMBF)

Average annual 

program level =

18.0 MMCF

(91 MMBF)

Average annual 

program level =

20.0 MMCF 

(101 MMBF)

Average annual 

program level =

24.0 MMCF 

(118 MMBF)

Minimal 

management 

activities (slower 

ecosystem 

restoration and 

more insect and 

disease problems).

No change 

Slight increase in 

native ecosystem 

restoration (starts 

trend toward 

restoration but slow 

pace initially).

More regeneration 

to appropriate native 

ecosystems.

More regeneration 

plus more thinning of 

dense stands for 

improved resilience to 

Southern Pine Beetle, 

other pests, and 

storm damage.

a – MMCF = Million cubic feet

b - MMBF = Million board feet

2.5.4 Community Diversity and Species Viability

Ecological communities provide the foundation for biological diversity. By restoring and maintaining the 

key characteristics, composition, conditions, and functionality of native ecological systems, the National 

Forests in Mississippi should be able to improve ecosystem diversity and provide for the needs of diverse 

plant and animal species across the Forests. 

Under alternative A, community diversity and species viability would likely decline over time. This 

alternative would promote a tendency towards late succession with locally reduced species richness and 

minimal management practices to prevent species loss. Red-cockaded woodpecker resource management 

activities would do the minimum necessary to sustain populations and would be focused only in 

designated red-cockaded woodpecker habitat management areas. Population expansion potential for 

gopher tortoise would be reduced compared to other more intensive alternative management themes.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 27

Under alternatives C, D, and E, forest and woodland ecosystems would be managed to restore or maintain 

native communities that would provide the desired composition, structure and function. Emphasis would 

be placed on maintaining forest and plant community types not abundant on private lands. Expanded 

opportunities for additional red-cockaded woodpecker population growth would be provided on suitable 

areas outside of designated habitat management areas. Expansion of red-cockaded woodpecker habitat 

management areas would extend across the entire district on the Bienville and Chickasawhay Ranger 

Districts. Conservation management areas would be developed on the De Soto Ranger District for 

sandhill crane. Expanded opportunities for conservation and recovery of gopher tortoise populations 

would be provided by promoting improved habitat conditions on additional suitable habitat areas due to 

higher levels of vegetation management and prescribed fire application.

2.5.5 Fire Management

In Mississippi, fire management is a necessary part of creating appropriate habitats for native ecological 

communities and fire-dependent species as well as protecting National Forest System and private lands. 

Table 4 compares annual prescribed burning levels by alternative. 

Alternative A would generate the lowest prescribed burn program and would be limited to threatened and 

endangered habitat management requirements and response to wildland fire occurrences. Alternatives C, 

D, and E would focus on burning historically maintained fire ecosystems to preserve natural diversity and 

would have annual prescribed fire levels slightly greater than under current management (alternative B). 

Increased prescribed fire applications under C, D, and E would be necessary to support expanded 

ecosystem restoration goals and objectives.

Table 4. Comparison of average annual prescribed burn programs by alternative

Alternative A Alternative B Alternative C Alternative D Alternative E

121,000 acres or less 190,000 acres 220,000 acres 240,000 acres 251,000 acres

2.5.6 Recreation Management

Forest management strategies for recreation considered an appropriate mix of sustainable recreation 

opportunities that would balance increasing and changing demands with concerns for public health and 

safety and ecosystem protection. For the National Forests in Mississippi, anticipated budget and staffing 

levels required our focus to be on maintaining current infrastructure and recreation opportunities rather 

than expanding and adding new facilities. This approach did not vary significantly by alternative, but 

there were slight differences between alternative A, which would emphasize low impact recreation 

opportunities and minimal management, and alternatives C, D, and E, which would include the addition 

of a back country special emphasis area on the Tombigbee National Forest.

2.5.7 Minerals Management

In August 2010, the National Forests in Mississippi renewed its decision for Lands Available for Oil and 

Gas Leasing (National Forests in Mississippi - Lands Available for Oil and Gas Leasing Environmental 

Assessment, August 2010). The 2010, oil and gas leasing decision authorized all lands on the National 

Forests in Mississippi, except for congressionally designated wilderness areas (Black Creek and Leaf) and 

the Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area, available for Federal oil and gas leasing through the 

Bureau of Land Management (BLM). These lands, approximately 1.2 million acres, would be 

administratively available subject to 1) management direction in the National Forests in Mississippi 

Forest Plan, 2) oil and gas lease stipulations, 3) the wide range of laws and regulations that require 
Chapter 2. Alternatives

28 National Forests in Mississippi

environmental protections for oil and gas exploration and development and 4) site-specific environmental 

analysis as detailed exploration proposals are made by lease holders. Additionally, all administratively 

available lands will be available for lease by the BLM, subject to the stipulations identified in the 

analysis, the standard USDA stipulations, and the environmental requirements of the standard federal 

lease terms detailed in appendix B of the National Forests in Mississippi Lands Available for Oil and Gas 

Leasing Environmental Assessment, August 2010.

A decision regarding oil and gas leasing availability on the Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area is 

being evaluated and addressed in this environmental disclosure document. Alternatives A and B would not 

authorize new oil and gas leasing in the 2,558 acre Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area. However, 

alternatives C, D, and E would permit new oil and gas leasing in the Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study 

Area (which is also identified as an inventoried roadless area) subject to the 2001 Roadless Area 

Conservation Rule restrictions. The restrictions include no new road construction or reconstruction 

permitted in the inventoried roadless area; therefore existing system roads would be utilized as access for 

new lease activities.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 29

Chapter 3. Affected Environment 

3.1 Introduction

Chapter 3 describes the existing environment of the areas on the National Forests in Mississippi (Forests) 

affected by the alternatives. This chapter begins with background information on the ecological and 

management units that comprise the Forests, followed by descriptions of the current physical, biological, 

social, and economic characteristics. Environmental consequences associated with implementing the 

alternatives are discussed over the short term and long term in chapter 4.

3.2 Descriptions of Ecological Units

The Forest Service has adopted the National Hierarchical Framework of Ecological Units (Cleland et al. 

1997) as a consistent nationwide classification system to describe similar ecosystems for planning 

purposes. This framework provides a standardized method for classifying, mapping, and describing 

ecological units at various geographic, planning and analysis scales. Ecological units across the U.S. are 

mapped based on patterns of climate, soils, hydrology, geology, landform, and topography. These 

classifications represent homogeneous units having similarities among their resource capabilities and 

relationships.

Ecological classification is useful for:

 Evaluating the inherent capability of land and water resources.

 Estimating ecosystem productivity.

 Determining probable responses to land management activities.

 Addressing environmental issues such as air pollution, forest diseases, and climate change over large 

areas.

 Predicting changes occurring over time.

 Discussing and analyzing ecosystems and biodiversity at multiple scales.

The national hierarchical framework system is composed of four planning and analysis scales—

ecoregions, subregions, landscapes, and land units—that progressively range in size from millions of 

square miles to less than ten acres. Ecological units within the upper scales (ecoregions and subregions) 

are further divided into domains, divisions, provinces, sections, and subsections. Sections are nested 

within provinces, and these are the scales of physical and vegetative features typically most useful in 

management planning for multiple forest locations within a state such as the National Forests in 

Mississippi. 

The National Forest System lands which make up the National Forests in Mississippi lie within the humid 

temperate domain, the subtropical division, and the three provinces that occur within the state—

southeastern mixed forest, outer coastal plain mixed forest, and lower Mississippi riverine forest. Within 

the three provinces, the locations of the Forests units can further be defined by sections and subsections. 

The province and section descriptions for the Forests are summarized below and were derived from the 

Ecological Subregions: Sections and Subsections of the Conterminous United States (USDA 2007) and 

depicted in figure 2.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

30 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 2. Map indicating ecological sections and provinces for Mississippi

Southeastern Mixed Forest Province (231) – This province covers much of the central, eastern, 

northern, and southwestern portions of the state of Mississippi and includes the Holly Springs, 

Tombigbee, Bienville, and Homochitto National Forests. There is a generally uniform maritime 

climate with mild winters and hot, humid summers. Annual precipitation is evenly distributed, but 

a brief period of mid- to late-summer drought occurs in most years. Landscape is hilly with 

increasing relief farther inland. Forest vegetation is a mixture of deciduous hardwoods and 

conifers.

Coastal Plains – Middle Section (231B) – The topography varies from strongly rolling to hilly 

landscapes of marine-deposited sediments ranging from sands and silt to chalk and clays, which 

vary in reaction from acid to alkaline. Vegetation is variable and includes oak-pine, loblollyshortleaf pine, or oak-hickory cover types.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 31

Coastal Plains – Loess Section (231H) – This section has weakly to moderately dissected 

irregular plains. Forest cover is primarily loblolly-shortleaf pine and oak-gum-cypress cover 

types.

Outer Coastal Plain Mixed Forest Province (232) – This province is located in the southern 

part of the state along the Gulf Coast and includes the De Soto and Chickasawhay National 

Forests. This area has a humid, maritime climate; winters are mild and summers are warm. 

Precipitation is abundant with rare periods of summer drought. Upland forest vegetation is 

dominated by conifers, with deciduous hardwoods along major floodplains.

Gulf Coastal Plains and Flatwoods Section (232B) – This section has a flat, weakly dissected 

landscape of irregular or smooth plains formed on marine deposits of sands and clays. Natural 

vegetation consists of longleaf-slash pine, loblolly-shortleaf pine, and oak-hickory cover types, 

with oak-gum-cypress along rivers.

Lower Mississippi Riverine Forest Province (234) – This province is located along the 

Mississippi River on the western side of the state and includes the Delta National Forest. The 

climate of this province is characterized by warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation occurs 

throughout the year with minimum in fall. Much of this subregion is influenced by periodic 

flooding of the Mississippi River. Vegetation was initially forests of cold-deciduous, mesophytic 

hardwoods, which have now largely been cleared and cultivated.

White and Black River Alluvial Plain Section (234D) – This section is a flat, weakly to 

moderately dissected alluvial plain formed by deposition of continental sediments. Much of the 

natural vegetation has been cleared for cultivation; small areas remain of oak-gum-cypress and 

oak-hickory cover types.

3.3 Descriptions of Management Units

The National Forests in Mississippi are widely dispersed across the state, providing ecological diversity 

and a representative cross-section of Mississippi’s natural and cultural heritage (see figure 1). Originally 

established in the 1930s on predominately cut-over and eroded abandoned farmlands, the six national 

forests (or seven ranger districts) that make up the National Forests in Mississippi provide a forested 

setting that offers a variety of uses and opportunities. These National Forest System lands, although 

separated from each other, cover approximately 1.2 million acres and are managed under one forest plan.

The following provides an overview of the individual national forests and ranger districts or management 

units that make up the National Forests in Mississippi.

3.3.1 Bienville National Forest 

Location and Size: The Bienville National Forest is located in the east-central part of the state and 

contains approximately 180,000 acres. Parts of the National Forest are in Scott, Smith, Jasper, and 

Newton counties. The principal towns within the area are Forest, Morton, and Raleigh. The major travel 

routes are Interstate 20, U.S. Highway 80, and State Route 18 east and west, and State Route 35 north and 

south. The closest metropolitan area is Jackson, Mississippi, located about 43 miles to the west. 

Key Characteristics: The headwaters of the Strong River flow through the western part of the Bienville 

National Forest. There are extensive acreages of 70+-year-old loblolly pine and dense hardwood 

midstory, which is also home to the largest state population of the endangered red-cockaded woodpecker. 

The soils on the northern half of the forest are primarily a heavy clay (Jackson Prairie) which restricts 

many activities to dry seasons due to potential for rutting and compaction problems. The Bienville 

National Forest has the largest remaining acreage of the rare Jackson Prairie ecological system which 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

32 National Forests in Mississippi

provides refuge to rare species including the endemic Jackson Prairie crayfish. There are approximately 

6,000 acres of longleaf pine forest present on the Bienville National Forest. The Bienville has some broad

hardwood bottoms that provide excellent wildlife habitat. There is limited oil and gas activity on the 

Bienville. There is one large developed recreational site at Marathon Lake Recreation Area. The 

Shockaloe National Recreation Trail, which has two base camps designed for horseback riders, is also 

located on the Bienville.

3.3.2 Delta National Forest 

Location and size: The Delta National Forest is located in the west-central part of the state and covers 

approximately 60,000 acres. The proclamation boundary includes parts of Issaquena and Warren counties; 

however, national forest ownership is entirely in Sharkey County. There are no towns within the 

boundaries. The closest communities are Rolling Fork, Holly Bluff, and Valley Park. 

Key Characteristics: The Delta National Forest is the only bottomland hardwood national forest in the 

Nation. Much of the area is subject to annual slackwater flooding. The Delta National Forest is also 

critical for recovery efforts for the endangered pondberry and the threatened Louisiana black bear. This 

area contains three research natural areas and five greentree reservoirs managed for waterfowl. The 

potential for wildlife habitat is high, and dispersed recreation opportunities focus on traditional hunting 

and fishing uses.

3.3.3 De Soto National Forest 

Location and size: The De Soto National Forest is located in the southeastern portion of Mississippi and 

contains a total of approximately 532,000 acres. This national forest is divided into two ranger districts. 

The Chickasawhay Ranger District (approximately 150,000 acres) is located in Wayne, Jones, and Greene 

counties. The De Soto Ranger District (approximately 382,000 acres) is located in Greene, Perry, Forrest, 

Pearl River, Stone, George, Harrison, and Jackson counties. The principal communities within or adjacent 

to the De Soto National Forest are Waynesboro, Laurel, Richton New Augusta, Beaumont, McLain, and 

Brooklyn. The closest metropolitan areas are the Biloxi-Gulfport area, Hattiesburg, and Laurel. The major 

travel routes are U.S. Highways 49 and 98, and State Highways 67, 15, 57, 26, 29, 13, 63, and 42. 

Chickasawhay Ranger District: The Chickasawhay Ranger District is a separate approximately 

150,000-acre administrative unit within the De Soto National Forest. The Chickasawhay Ranger District 

includes Thompson Creek, a broad hardwood bottom. The Chickasawhay Ranger District has several 

unique pitcher plant flats and xeric sandhill communities. Both De Soto and Chickasawhay Ranger 

Districts are known for recovery efforts of threatened and endangered species. The Chickasawhay Ranger 

District’s recovery efforts are primarily for red-cockaded woodpecker, gopher tortoise, and Louisiana 

quillwort. Hurricane Katrina (2005) and the associated salvage operation effected a thinning of landscape 

scale improving habitat for many wildlife species. The Chickasawhay Ranger District is known for the 

Gavin Forest Education Auto Tour and Turkey Fork Recreation Area.

De Soto Ranger District: The De Soto Ranger District is a separate approximately 382,000-acre 

administrative unit within the De Soto National Forest. The De Soto Ranger District has several unique 

pitcher plant flats and xeric sandhill communities. The soils in the southernmost portion of Mississippi 

have less fertile, sandy soils compared to the rest of the state. Southern Mississippi is known for its 

diversity of plant communities such as longleaf pine, pitcher plant flats, and titi swamps. It is 

characterized by large areas of planted pine forests, interlaced with blackwater streams. The De Soto 

Ranger District manages for red-cockaded woodpecker, gopher tortoise, and Louisiana quillwort and also 

gives management consideration for Mississippi sandhill crane and the endemic federally endangered 

gopher frog. As also noted on the Chickasawhay Ranger District, Hurricane Katrina (2005) and the 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 33

associated salvage operation effected a thinning of landscape scale improving habitat for many wildlife 

species. There is moderate oil and gas activity on both units of the De Soto National Forest. 

About 117,000 acres on the northern end of the De Soto Ranger District are under special use permit to 

the Mississippi National Guard for Camp Shelby as a training area. The Harrison Experimental Forest is 

located on the southern end of the district. In addition to the two wilderness areas and the scenic river 

corridor, several botanical and research natural areas are located on the De Soto Ranger District. The De 

Soto Ranger District offers two wilderness areas (Black Creek and Leaf Wilderness), the Black Creek 

National Wild and Scenic River, Tuxachanie National Recreation Trails as well as ATV, horse, bicycle, 

motorcycle and hiking trails.

3.3.4 Holly Springs National Forest 

Location and Size: The Holly Springs National Forest is located in the north-central part of the state and 

contains approximately 156,000 acres. This national forest is located in Benton, Lafayette, Marshall, 

Tippah, Union, and Yalobusha counties. The portion of the Holly Springs National Forest in Yalobusha 

County is separated from the rest of the national forest by about 30 miles. The principal communities 

within the boundaries are Hickory Flat and Potts Camp. The nearest towns are Holly Springs, Oxford, and 

New Albany. The closest metropolitan area is Memphis, Tennessee, about 50 miles northwest of the Holly 

Springs National Forest. Being only a short drive from Memphis, the national forest attracts many 

recreational users from that area. The major travel routes are U.S. Highways 78 and 72, and State Routes 

30, 7, 4, 370, 5, 2, 349, and 355. 

Key Characteristics: Soils are moderately to highly erosive, with a number of areas where gullies 

occurred prior to the establishment of the national forest. The Holly Springs National Forest has two 

primary recreation areas at Chewalla and Puskus Lakes. There are three Corps of Engineers reservoirs 

adjacent to the Holly Springs National Forest and many smaller fishing lakes on national forest 

administered lands. The Holly Springs National Forest is also home to the first known occurrence and 

maternity roost of the Indiana bat in Mississippi as of May 2013. 

3.3.5 Homochitto National Forest 

Location and Size: The Homochitto National Forest is located in southwest Mississippi and contains 

approximately 189,000 acres. It lies in Adams, Amite, Copiah, Franklin, Jefferson, Lincoln, and 

Wilkinson counties. The principal towns are Natchez to the west; Brookhaven and McComb to the east; 

and Meadville, Bude, and Gloster within the area. The major travel routes are U.S. Highways 84 and 98, 

and State Highways 33, 563, and 550. The closest metropolitan areas are Jackson, Mississippi, which is 

about 50 miles north, and Baton Rouge, Louisiana, which is about 45 miles south. 

Key Characteristics: This national forest provides excellent wildlife habitat with large areas of mixed 

pine-hardwood forest type. The terrain is very irregular, and the loessial soils are more productive than 

those found on the other national forests. There is extensive and active oil and gas exploration and 

production on the Homochitto National Forest. The Homochitto River flows through the national forest. 

The Homochitto is known for its management of the federally endangered red-cockaded woodpecker and 

is also home to the Natchez and Chukcho stoneflies. Both of these stonefly species are endemic to 

southwest Mississippi. The Homochitto National Forest provides the best remaining habitat for their 

continued survival. There are two large recreation areas on the Homochitto, Clear Springs and the 

recently completed Okhissa Lake. Sandy Creek Botanical Area is also of special interest on the national 

forest.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

34 National Forests in Mississippi

3.3.6 Tombigbee National Forest 

Location and Size: The Tombigbee National Forest is located in northeast Mississippi and encompasses 

approximately 66,000 acres. This national forest is divided into two parts: one in Chickasaw and Pontotoc 

counties, and the other in Winston, Choctaw, and Oktibbeha counties. There are no towns within the 

forest boundaries, but Ackerman, Louisville, and Starkville are adjacent to the southern block; Houlka, 

Houston, and Van Vleet are adjacent to the northern block; and Tupelo is 15 miles northeast. The major 

travel routes are the Natchez Trace and State Highways 32 and 41 in the north, and State Highways 12, 

25, and 15 in the south. The nearest metropolitan areas are Jackson, Mississippi (90 miles southwest) and 

Meridian, Mississippi (60 miles south) of the southern block; and Memphis, Tennessee (90 miles 

northwest) of the northern block. 

Key Characteristics: The Tombigbee National Forest is made up of old farmland that was abandoned 

and replanted to trees. Soils are fragile and erosive with many gullied areas. The black belt calcareous 

prairie ecological system occurs on the northern unit of the Tombigbee. Oil and gas activity is minor on 

the Forest. The Natchez Trace crosses a portion of the Tombigbee, making it easily accessible from the 

north and south. The Tombigbee has two large recreation areas that draw some travelers from the Natchez 

Trace. Several archaeological sites of Native American origin are located in the area.

3.4 Physical Environment

The physical environment includes the geology, topography, soils, water, air, and climate that define the 

general setting for the National Forests in Mississippi. Over time, these physical processes and conditions 

have shaped the characteristics of the land and influenced the development of ecosystems and biological 

diversity throughout the state. Since the six national forests that make up the National Forests in 

Mississippi are spread across the state, many of the major physiographic or geomorphic regions of the 

state are represented within the national forests.

3.4.1 Geology and Topography

Geology is the foundation for the diverse settings and ecosystems that define the National Forests in 

Mississippi. Deposition and weathering of geologic material over time have created today’s topography 

and landscape as well as the soils which are the basis of ecosystem diversity in Mississippi. Surface 

geologic processes such as erosion, flooding, and stream movement are part of the natural disturbance 

regime of the national forests and shape the topography of the land surface. 

The state of Mississippi covers 31 million acres of surface area and is approximately 340 miles in length 

and 180 miles at its widest (Stewart 2003). The highest point is Woodall Mountain in Tishomingo County 

at 806 feet above mean sea level, and the lowest point is in the southern portion of the state at sea level 

along the Gulf of Mexico. Much of the state of Mississippi and most of the Forests lie within the East 

Gulf Coastal Plain. The exception to this is the Delta National Forest which lies within the Mississippi 

Alluvial Plain physiographic region along the Mississippi River on western edge of the state. 

Coastal plain landscapes are relatively low-lying areas of water-deposited sediments bordering oceans. 

Topography is generally flat to rolling hills. The Mississippi River Alluvial Plain in the northwest part of 

the state consists of level and nearly level floodplains that extend to the foothills of the loess bluffs on its 

eastern edge. This landscape feature is locally called the "delta" and also occurs along the Mississippi 

River in eastern Louisiana and Arkansas and southeastern Missouri. Figure 3 portrays the general 

locations of the major physiographic regions of Mississippi.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 35

Figure 3. Major physiographic regions of Mississippi

Portions of three major sedimentary basins dominate the geologic setting in the state of Mississippi: the 

Mississippi Embayment, the Black Warrior Basin, and the Mississippi Salt Basin. Each is a regional 

feature that extends into several states and whose origins are tied to major tectonic events at various times 

in geologic history. The Mississippi Embayment was the first to form, resulting from Precambrian shear 

forces, followed by Cambrian rifting. Sediments tied to this feature are found across much of the south 

and far into the continental interior. Creation of the Black Warrior Basin followed later, being connected 

to the Appalachian-Ouachita mountain-building event. Continental break initiated in the Triassic lead to 

the creation of the Mississippi Salt Basin, an ancillary rift feature associated with the development of the 

Gulf Coast Geosyncline. Deposition in the Mississippi Embayment was eventually renewed, as well.

Each of these features is further described in the paragraphs that follow. Figure 4 is a diagram showing 

the approximate locations of the Black Warrior Basin and the Mississippi Salt Basin (Seismic Exchange, 

Inc. 2012).

Episodes of inundation and erosion throughout geologic time, have led to the deposition of a thick, 

complex sedimentary pile that covers the entire state. The stratigraphic column includes rock formations 

ranging from the Devonian in the extreme northeast corner of the state thru the Paleocene along the 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

36 National Forests in Mississippi

southern extent. In general, formations dip to the south and west as a part of sedimentary wedge that 

thickens in the same directions. Some accounts estimate that approximately 30,000 feet of sediments have 

accumulated in the thickest segments of the wedge. The Permian is present as a series of metamorphic 

intrusives that underlay the Wiggins Arch, Jackson Dome, Monroe Arch and Sharkey Dome, as well as a 

number of other intrusions scattered across several central western counties, including Washington, 

Issaquena, Sharkey and Humphreys. 

Additional details on the geology and potential mineral development of the National Forests in 

Mississippi can be found in the Reasonable Foreseeable Development Scenario Summary prepared for the 

Forest Service by BLM in 2005. A geologic outcrop map from the Mississippi Department of 

Environmental Quality is presented in figure 5 (Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality 2011).

Figure 4. Basin outlines of Mississippi (www.seismicexchange.com/res/dwf/US-BASINS.kmz

Google Earth 2012)
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 37

Figure 5. Geologic outcrop map of Mississippi

(http://www.deq.state.ms.us/mdeq.nsf/pdf/Geology_MSGeology1969Map/$File/MS_Geology1969.pdf?Ope

nElement)
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

38 National Forests in Mississippi

3.4.2 Soils

Within the National Forests in Mississippi, soil resource inventories have identified approximately 93 soil 

series. Soil series are the grouping of soils with similar physical and chemical properties. Soil series can 

be further divided into soil map units which are phases of a soil series with more specific properties, such 

as slope, flood frequency, surface texture, etc. About 170 soil map units have been identified within the 

Forests. 

Soil units across the Forests range from deep, sandy, excessively well-drained to shallow soils with 

restrictive root zones to soils with shrink-swell clays that have poor internal drainage. Soils cover a range 

of slopes. In uplands, slopes range from nearly level (less than 2 percent slope) to very steep (up to 60

percent slope). Along floodplains and wetlands, slopes are less varied and range from gently sloping to 

nearly level. Soil productivity in Mississippi ranges from very high site indexes on loess soils of 

Homochitto National Forest to very low site indexes on wetlands bogs of De Soto National Forest. 

Throughout the National Forests in Mississippi, the majority of the land (approximately 90 percent) has 

high to moderate soil productivity, with high to moderate capability and slight to moderate limitations of 

use. Approximately 10 percent of National Forest System land consists of unproductive soils that 

frequently have low capability, high hazards, severe limitations for use and management. Most of these 

lower productivity soils are very significant from the ecological stand point, offering critical habitat for a 

variety of sensitive species.

Soil plays an integral role in the use and management of National Forest System land. The physical and 

chemical properties determine the capability and limitation for use and management. Soils should have 

adequate physical, biological, and chemical properties that maintain or improve ecological systems, soil 

productivity, soil hydrologic function, and slope stability. Healthy soils maintain or enhance water and air 

quality, ensure long-term soil productivity, provide habitat for diverse wildlife, as well as create beautiful 

landscapes. Soils do this by regulating water flow and infiltration, filtering potential pollutants, cycling 

nutrients, and sustaining plant and animal life.

Forest soil quality is maintained primarily through the implementation of soil conservation measures such 

as state best management practices, forest standards and guidelines, and region 8-southern region soil and 

water conservation practices. On a small scale (usually less than 20 acres per year) forest soil quality is 

improved through watershed restoration projects. 

3.4.3 Air

The Clean Air Act of 1990 provides the primary regulatory framework for the protection of air resources 

on the National Forests in Mississippi. Under the Clean Air Act, national ambient air quality standards 

have been established by the Environmental Protection Agency and states to protect public health and 

welfare from individual pollutants and prevent the significant deterioration of clean air areas. For the state 

of Mississippi, air quality is generally good, and the state has been designated in attainment for meeting 

all national ambient air quality standards. The 1977 and 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act provide 

special protection from air pollution to Class I areas. However, there are no Class I areas on the Forests.

3.4.4 Water

Watersheds, in the general sense, are geographic boundaries for describing water drainage pathways for 

both surface and ground waters. Surface water moves through a network of rivers, streams, and tributaries 

which may become progressively larger as water moves downstream or downslope eventually reaching an 

ocean. In contrast, groundwater moves beneath the Earth’s surface through rock pore space and fractures 

of geologic formations, such as aquifers. Sometimes groundwater flows interchangeably with surface 

water toward a downdip and can be recharged from surface-water flow from springs, seeps, oases, and 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 39

wetlands. Because both surface water and groundwater have a downward flow, upstream activities often 

affect the water quality, quantity, or rate of movement at locations downstream. 

There are nine major watershed basins in Mississippi, and the National Forests in Mississippi interconnect 

with all nine basins. The major basins are identified in table 5 and drain more than 48,000 square miles.

Table 5. Major Mississippi watershed basins

Major Basins Estimated Acreage

(mi2)

Big Black River 3,400 

Coastal Streams 1,545 

North Independent Streams 1,075 

Pascagoula River 9,700 

Pearl River 8,000 

South Independent Streams 4,418 

Tennessee River 417 

Tombigbee River 6,100 

Yazoo River 13,375 

Total: 48,030 

Mississippi’s major watersheds are delineated by utilizing a nationwide, standardized interagency 

hydrologic unit code (HUC) generated by the United States Geological Service (USGS). For planning and 

project management purposes, sub-watersheds are typically analyzed in terms of HUCs at or greater than 

the 4th level to better understand the possible effects of activities on watershed health. Table 6 displays 

the 25 sub-basins located on the National Forests in Mississippi by unit, and the percentage of the subbasin occurring on National Forest System lands. About 36 percent (9 of 25) of the sub-watersheds listed 

have greater than 5 percent national forest occurrence; but only about 16 percent (4 of 25) cover a

National Forest System area of more than 10 percent. Although National Forest System lands comprise 

only a small percentage of the sub-basins, it provides important habitats for aquatic species. Historically, 

long-term watershed-health issues in and near Forest Service boundaries evolved from and are affected 

more by actions of other landowners (e.g., channelizations).

Surface Water

Watershed health is essential to sustaining the ecological function and productive capacity of National 

Forest System land. Within the proclamation boundaries of the National Forests in Mississippi there are 

over 11,000 miles of streams and more than 2,000 acres of lakes and permanent ponds. Average annual 

rainfall ranges from 65 inches along the gulf coast to about 55 inches in the northern part of the state. 

Stream conditions vary across the Forests, and many streams have been channelized or modified in the 

past. Due to the fragmented land ownership patterns across national forest units, stream condition is often 

heavily affected by land use upstream and on adjacent private properties. Erosion and headcutting are 

problems on national forests with steeper topography, especially the Homochitto, Holly Springs, and 

Tombigbee National Forests, but they are often caused or exacerbated by offsite sources outside Forest 

Service control. Much of the adverse impacts to surface waters on national forest lands, such as 

deterioration of water quality (i.e., sedimentation, siltation, channelization, nutrient loading, pathogens, 

and other pollutants) and loss of aquatic habitats, are due to past actions or upstream activities.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

40 National Forests in Mississippi

Table 6. Major Sub-basins on the National Forests in Mississippi

Sub-basins National Forests Forest Units 8-digit HUCs Percent NF 

Land Area

Wolf River Holly Springs Holly Springs 08010210 7.81%

Porter’s Creek Holly Springs Holly Springs 08010208 7.85%

Hatchie River Holly Springs Holly Springs 08010207 0.88%

Coldwater River below 

Arkabutla Dam Holly Springs Holly Springs 08030204 0.04%

Little Tallahatchie River above 

Sardis Dam Holly Springs Holly Springs 08030201 10.24%

Yocona River above Enid 

Dam Holly Springs Holly Springs

Yalobusha 08030203 2.51%

Yalobusha River Holly Springs Yalobusha 08030205 0.91%

Tallahatchie River Holly Springs Yalobusha 08030202 0.76%

Town Creek Tombigbee Trace 03160102 0.07%

Tibbee Creek Tombigbee Trace 03160104 3.70%

Noxubee River Tombigbee Ackerman 03160108 4.92%

Yockanookany River Tombigbee

Bienville

Ackerman

Bienville 03180001 1.70%

Pearl River above Strong 

River Bienville Bienville 03180002 4.88%

Upper Leaf River Bienville Bienville 03170004 8.00%

Lower Chickasawhay River De Soto Chickasawhay 03170003 6.38%

Lower Leaf River De Soto Chickasawhay 

De Soto 03170005 11.93%

Black and Red Creeks De Soto De Soto 03170007 25.48%

Pascagoula River De Soto De Soto 03170006 9.22%

Jourdan River De Soto De Soto 03170009 9.37%

Bayou Pierre Homochitto Homochitto 08060203 0.79%

Homochitto River Homochitto Homochitto 08060205 23.32%

Buffalo River Homochitto Homochitto 08060206 0.41%

Amite River Homochitto Homochitto 08070202 0.09%

Bogue Phalia River Delta Delta 08030207 2.94%

Lower Yazoo River Delta Delta 08030208 1.36%
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 41

Figure 6. Mississippi priority watersheds identified by Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

42 National Forests in Mississippi

Because Section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act requires each state to identify water bodies that do not 

meet one or more applicable water quality standards, the Forest Service works cooperatively and 

collaboratively with Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality, the State regulator, and other 

organizations (i.e., private, Federal, academia, Tribal and other partners) to protect and restore the quality 

and quantity of Mississippi water resources. The Clean Water Act Section 303(d) listing requirement 

applies to water bodies impaired by point and non-point sources as reported to the U. S. Environmental 

Protection Agency (EPA). In cooperation with the EPA and Mississippi Department of Environmental 

Quality, the National Forests in Mississippi assists in priority rankings of such watersheds, taking into 

account the severity of the pollution and the uses to be made of the water bodies. Using integrated 

approaches and building and fostering relationships and partnerships with other governmental and nongovernmental organizations, the Forests have been very successful in addressing water-resource 

impairments over the past decade. Water resource impairment data from 2006 show that more than 20 

water bodies flowing through the Forest Service proclamation boundaries are included on EPA’s Section 

303(d) lists.

Ranked priority watersheds identified by Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality are shown in 

figure 6 identified by Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality. As shown on the map, impaired 

303(d)-listed (priority ranked) waters occur throughout the state. The Forest Service, along with other 

watershed stakeholders and partners, are currently focusing on priority waters primarily in the 

northeastern, northwestern, central, and southern parts of Mississippi (as highlighted in the green areas). 

Forest Service lands affected by the 2006 and 2007 priority ranking data include the Tombigbee, Delta, 

and De Soto National Forests. Water-resource monitoring along with applying best management 

practices, implementing pollution prevention strategies, and adopting mitigation measures for impairment 

issues aid in improving the overall watershed conditions; thus protecting, restoring, maintaining, or 

enhancing our vital nation’s water supply.

Groundwater

Groundwater generally moves through small openings (pore spaces) and in fractured rock layers.

Groundwater movement in sediments (aquifers) is under the influence of gravity. This natural discharge 

allows water to generally move from higher elevations to lower elevations in an aquifer, a saturated 

geologic layer that permits water use and yield of useable quantities to wells. Wells are most oftentimes 

constructed and used for ground-water extraction for agriculture, municipal, and industrial purposes.

Table 7. Major Mississippi aquifer systems

MS Ranger Districts Major MS Aquifer Systems

Bienville Cockfield, Oligocene

Chickasawhay Oligocene, Miocene

Delta Mississippi River Valley Alluvium

De Soto Citronelle, Miocene

Holly Springs Meridian-Upper Wilcox, Lower Wilcox, Winona-Tallahatta

Homochitto Citronelle, Miocene

Tombigbee Ripley

According to the U.S. Geological Survey, the State of Mississippi has an abundant supply of fresh 

groundwater which extends to depths of more than 3,000 feet in some parts of the State, but the common 

range is 100 feet to 1,800 feet. Ground water supplies most of the water used in Mississippi where 

prevalent hydrologic groundwater conditions exist. There are 15 major aquifers in Mississippi that are 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 43

used to supply freshwater for domestic and industrial supplies and for public supply, industrial, 

agricultural and domestic uses. More than 93 percent of drinking water or freshwater supplies in the state 

originate from the State’s major aquifers. The Mississippi national forests are underlain by 8 of the State’s 

15 major aquifers.

Much of the groundwater used for domestic purposes (i.e., drinking water) throughout the Forests is 

supplied through municipal water associations. Public water associations pumped significant groundwater 

from aquifers via wells. The aquifers and their respective outcrop areas commonly reflect water table 

levels where streams drain surface areas; thereby contributing water to streams even during periods of no 

precipitation, such as the case throughout the Delta National Forest. Generally, water levels in the 

Mississippi River Valley alluvial aquifer’s outcrop area commonly range from land surface to 100 feet 

below land surface.

Trends

• The National Forests in Mississippi have an abundant system of lakes, streams, and wetlands which 

provide diverse habitats for aquatic plant and animal species. Since 1985, aquatic resource conditions 

have generally improved statewide through the use of best management practices.

• Water resources and aquatic ecosystems (i.e., rivers, streams, and wetlands) provide critical habitats 

for fish, mussels, invertebrates, reptiles, and amphibians. Many hydrologic and aquatic systems are 

impacted by fragmentation of aquatic habitats by road crossings and dams that hinder or block 

upstream movements of aquatic organisms.

• Since 1995, water demand has significantly increased due to forest management activities and urban 

sprawl. 

• From a forestwide perspective, the primary areas of concern for the future associated with water 

quality conditions include erosion, gullying, headcutting, sedimentation, nutrient loading, oil 

contamination and pollution, mercury, and low dissolved oxygen.

3.4.5 Climate

For the National Forests in Mississippi (Forests) and much of the Southeastern United States, climate 

variability and weather events such as hurricanes, heat waves, droughts, tornadoes, floods, and lightning 

storms have long been part of the natural environment. The Southeast has some of the warmest 

temperatures and, although there are wet and dry periods, generally receives more rainfall than any other 

region (U.S. Global Change Research Program 2001). However, with increasing climate variability and 

weather extremes projected for the future, climate change has been recognized as an emerging issue that 

may require a new look at management strategies for forest ecosystems across the South. 

In developing strategies for addressing climate change, some of the challenges facing national forests are 

the uncertainties about the direction of change, especially at local levels, and how natural ecosystems will 

respond to future natural and human-induced pressures. Forest Service scientists have been studying 

various aspects of climate change on forests for many years, and the Forest Service Chief has identified 

climate change as one of three overarching challenges facing the agency. Yet, our knowledge of how 

plants and ecosystems respond to the threats of a changing climate and how to react appropriately at local 

levels where management actions are most effective is still very limited (Solomon 2008). 

Southern forests provide a wealth of services and products including clean water, clean air, biological 

habitats, recreation opportunities, carbon storage, timber, specialty commodities, fuel, and aesthetic and 

cultural values. Scientists have indicated that a changing climate can affect the future biodiversity and 

function of the forest ecosystems that support these services and products. Species distributions may shift, 

some species are likely to decline while others expand, and whole new communities may form. Forest 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

44 National Forests in Mississippi

productivity may be reduced in some instances due to a decline in photosynthesis caused by increased 

ozone, and productivity may be enhanced in other settings where elevated levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) 

have a fertilizing effect on overall tree growth. Anticipated increases in extreme weather events outside 

the historic range of natural variability may alter the frequency, intensity, duration, and timing of 

disturbances such as fire, drought, invasive species, insect and pathogen outbreaks, and hurricanes. 

Changes in forest composition and growth may also have associated impacts on wildlife habitats, the 

supply of wood products, specialty markets, and recreational opportunities (Marques 2008).

In developing management strategies to deal with a changing climate, it has been recognized that forests 

can play an important role in both mitigating and adapting to climate change. Mitigation measures focus 

on strategies such as carbon sequestration by natural systems, ways to increase carbon stored in wood 

products, ways to provide renewable energy from woody biomass to reduce fossil fuel consumption, and 

ways to reduce environmental footprints. Adaptation measures address ways to maintain forest health, 

diversity, productivity, and resilience under uncertain future conditions. Forest Service research activities 

in the coming years are expected to help both public and private land managers better understand 

changing conditions and determine appropriate management approaches for both adaptation and 

mitigation. The global change research approach that will guide Forest Service research and development

for the next 10 years will not only address enhanced ecosystem sustainability (adaptation) and increased 

carbon sequestration (mitigation) but will also provide decision support models for land managers and 

facilitate scientific collaboration and technology transfer (USDA Forest Service 2008).

In light of the evolving research and extent of unknowns regarding climate change impacts, this 

discussion focuses on our current understanding of what the potential climate change-related stresses are 

that may impact the National Forests in Mississippi, which factors may influence desired conditions 

identified in the forest plan, and what appropriate management strategies and future research studies are 

being developed to address climate change. At this time, the science of climate change modeling is at the 

stage of stepping down global models to regional scales (Davis 2007), so regional-level climate trends for 

the Southeastern United States will be used as the most reliable context for describing expected climate 

changes and impacts. Specifics regarding many mitigation measures, such as the appropriate calculations

for carbon offsets and how to consider carbon sequestration rates, are still being developed, so most of 

our focus at the forest level for now will be on using management options to improve resilience and 

adaptability of native ecosystems under changing conditions. Then, over the 10- to 15-year life of the 

forest plan, as issues are better understood and appropriate measures are identified, climate change 

strategies can be adjusted through the adaptive management process. 

Southern Region Climate Change Trends and Expectations

Although climate change is a global occurrence, impacts will vary from region to region. Over the past 

decade, a number of models have been developed to simulate climatic effects anticipated in the future. 

These scenarios are based on historical data, trends, and analysis of different plausible assumptions. 

While climate model simulations are continuing to be developed and refined, climate projections typically 

do not yet accurately address expected conditions below the regional scale in the United States. In the 

report by the United States Global Change Research Program; Climate Change Impacts on the United 

States (U.S. Global Change Research Program 2001); the two principal models that were found to best 

simulate future climate change conditions for the various regions across the country were the Hadley 

Centre model (developed in the United Kingdom) and the Canadian Climate Centre model. Unless 

otherwise noted, the following summary of climate change expectations for the Southern United States is 

derived from the 2001 U.S. Global Change Research Program report and is primarily based on projections 

from these two models.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 45

For some nationwide aspects of climate change, virtually all models agree on the types of changes to be 

expected:

• The climate is going to get warmer, especially warmer minimum winter temperatures. Both the 

Hadley and Canadian models show increased warming in the Southeast but at different rates (see 

table 8). Overall regional temperature changes are projected to be equivalent to shifting the climate of 

the Southern U.S. to the Central U.S. and the Central U.S. climate to the Northern U.S.

• The heat index, which is a measure of comfort based on temperature and humidity, is going to rise. 

The principal climate model simulations agree that the heat index will increase more in the Southeast 

than in other regions. By 2100, the heat index in the Southeast under the Hadley model is projected to 

increase by as much as 8-10°F and by over 15°F in the Canadian model. The Northeast may feel like 

the Southeast does today, the Southeast is likely to feel more like today’s south Texas coast, and the 

south Texas coast is likely to feel more like the hottest parts of Central America.

• Threats to coastal areas will increase, including rising sea levels, beach erosion, subsidence, salt water 

intrusion, shoreline loss, and impacts to urban development.

• Precipitation is more likely to come in heavy, extreme events.

Table 8. Southern region climate change trends

Warmer temperatures:

Maximum summer temperature increase:

Hadley model = 2.3° F (2030)

Canadian = 5° F (2030), 12° F (2100)

Mean annual temperature increase:

Hadley = 1.8° F (2030), 4.1° F (2100)

Canadian = 3°F (2030); 10° F (2100)

Higher summer heat index (average increase):

Hadley model = 8-15° F (2100) 

Canadian model = 15° F (2100)

Moisture changes:

Intensified El Nino and La Nina phases as CO2 increases.

Hadley = 20% increased moisture 

Canadian = decreased moisture; droughts

Increased extreme weather events:

Droughts, floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, freezes, winds, ice storms, heat waves.

Higher sea levels for Atlantic and Gulf Coasts:

Hadley = 8-12 inch rise (2100)

Canadian = 20-24 inch rise (2100) 

For other aspects, models tend to differ on expectations. The Southeast is the only region where climate 

models are currently simulating large and opposite variations in precipitation patterns over the next 100 

years. The Canadian model projects more extensive and frequent droughts in the Southeast, starting with 

little change in precipitation until 2030 followed by much drier conditions over the next 70 years. The 

Hadley model, in contrast, suggests there will be a slight decrease in precipitation over the region during 

the next 30 years followed by increased precipitation. There is also uncertainty over the extent of effects 

of El Nino and La Nina cycles. El Nino events typically result in cooler, wetter winters in the Southeast 

and fewer Atlantic tropical storms, while La Nina events tend to have the opposite effects with warmer, 

drier winters and more hurricanes. 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

46 National Forests in Mississippi

Unexpected interactions among multiple disturbances happening at the same time add to the level of 

uncertainty. For example, tree growth is generally projected to be stimulated by increases in CO2, but 

limits on availability of water and soil nutrients during droughts often weaken tree health leading to insect 

infestations or disease, which in turn promotes future fires by increasing fuel loads and further weakening 

tree health (Marques 2008). The inset on future climate scenarios summarizes climate change 

expectations for the Southeastern United States. (U.S. Global Change Research Program 2001).

Based on these current projections, the following discussion highlights some of the potential impacts of a 

changing climate on forests in the Southeastern United States. 

Forest productivity – In general, biological productivity of southeastern forests will likely be enhanced 

by increased levels of CO2, as long as there is no decline in precipitation and as long as any increases in 

moisture stress due to higher air temperatures are low enough to be offset by CO2 benefits. Hardwoods 

are more likely to benefit from increased CO2 and modest temperature increases than pines, since pines 

have greater water demands than hardwoods on a year-round basis. Without management adaptations, 

simulations using the Hadley model show pine forest productivity will likely increase 11 percent by 2040 

and then exhibit a declining trend to an 8 percent increase by 2100 compared to 1990 productivity 

estimates. Hardwood productivity will likely continue to rise, with projections of a 22 percent increase by 

2040 and 25 percent by 2100. This shift in productivity could have significant effects in the South. Forest 

productivity increases may be offset, however, by escalating damage from forest pests and more extreme 

weather disturbances.

Forest pests – The potential for a changing climate to increase the distribution of forest pests and diseases 

is a concern, particularly for pests that already cause widespread damage such as southern pine beetles. 

Higher winter temperatures are expected to increase over-wintering beetle survival rates, and higher 

annual temperatures will produce more generations each year leading to increased beetle infestations. 

Other factors, however, complicate projections of future infestation levels. Field research has 

demonstrated that moderate drought stress increases pine resin production thus reducing colonization 

success, while severe drought stress reduces resin production and increases pine susceptibility to beetle 

infestation. Insufficient evidence currently exists to predict which of these factors will control future 

beetle populations and impacts (McNulty et al. 1998).

Fires – Fire frequency, size, intensity, and seasonality are directly influenced by weather and climate 

conditions. Nationwide projections show seasonal fire severity is likely to increase by 10 percent over 

much of the United States, with possibly larger increases in the Southeast. At least two ecosystem models 

run under the Canadian climate change scenario suggest a 25-50 percent increase in fires, and a shift of 

some southeastern pine forests to pine savannas and grasslands due to moisture stress. Under a hotter, 

drier climate, an aggressive fire management strategy could prove critical to maintaining regional 

vegetation patterns.

Shifts in major vegetation types for the Southeast – The broad variety of ecosystem types found across 

the Southeast ranges from coastal marshes to mountaintop spruce-fir forests. Although the South is one of 

the fastest growing population regions in the country, forests are still common in many parts of the 

Southeast, and forestland averages approximately 30 percent of each state. Potential changes in vegetation 

distribution due to climate change vary with different model scenarios. Under the Hadley model, forests 

remain the dominant natural vegetation in the Southeast, but the mix of forest types changes. Under the 

Canadian model, savannas and grasslands expand and replace parts of the southeastern pine forests along 

the coastal plain due to increased moisture stress. In this scenario, the current southeastern forest moves 

into the north-central part of the United States. Both drought and increased fire disturbance play an 

important role in the potential forest breakup. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 47

Weather-related stresses on human populations – Low-lying Gulf and Atlantic coastal areas are 

particularly vulnerable to flooding. With floods already the leading cause of death from natural disasters 

in the Southeast, increased flooding from more active El Nino and La Nina cycles could have greater 

adverse impacts. Even if storms do not increase in frequency or intensity, sea level rise alone will increase 

storm surge flooding in virtually all southeastern coastal areas. Another concern is the prolonged effect of 

elevated summertime heat events, which coupled with drought conditions, not only causes elevated heat 

stress to humans but also increases smog levels. 

Increased forest disturbances – Increases in extreme events and changes in disturbance patterns may 

have more significant impacts, at least in the near future, than long-term changes in temperature or 

precipitation. Natural disturbances that may be associated with climate change include hurricanes, 

tornadoes, storms, droughts, floods, fires, insects, diseases, and non-native invasive species. Although 

disturbances are a natural and vital part of southern ecosystems, it is the change in frequency, intensity, 

duration, and timing that exceeds the natural range of variation that is a concern (Marques 2008). Multiple 

disturbances interact and further exacerbate damages. Hurricanes can cause severe disturbance that not 

only results in direct loss of biological communities and habitat, but the widespread damages can also 

shift successional direction leading to higher rates of species change and faster biomass and nutrient 

turnover. Invasive species and insect pests often have high reproductive rates, good dispersal abilities, and 

rapid growth rates enabling them to thrive in disturbed environments. 

Water stresses – The difficulty in predicting whether precipitation will increase or decrease in the 

Southeast over the next 30 to 100 years extends to uncertainties over future water quantity and quality 

conditions. Current water quality stresses across the southern region of the country are primarily 

associated with intensive agricultural practices, urban development, and coastal processes such as 

saltwater intrusion. Although water quality problems are generally not critical under current conditions, 

stresses are expected to be more frequent under extreme conditions, particularly in low stream flow

situations associated with droughts. Under the Hadley model, stream flow in the Southeast has been 

projected to decline as much as 10 percent during the early summer months over the next 30 years. The 

Chattahoochee and Tombigbee River basins are projected to have decreased water availability over the 

next 50 years, and as stream flow and soil moisture decrease, agricultural fertilizer applications and 

irrigation demands tend to increase creating further stress and conflicts over competing uses. Parts of the 

Southeast that depend more on ground water are particularly vulnerable to depletion of aquifers, which 

can take centuries to recharge after chronic drought conditions (Hoyle 2008).

Outdoor recreation – Outdoor recreation opportunities are likely to be impacted by climate change but 

would vary by location and activity. Higher summer temperatures could extend summer activities such as 

swimming and boating but may also reduce other outdoor activities such as hiking and trails use in hot, 

humid sections of the South. Warmer waters would increase fish production and fishing opportunities for 

some species but decrease fishing for other cold water species. Summer recreation activities are likely to 

expand in cooler mountainous areas as temperatures warm along the coastal plain and lowland elevations. 

Threats to coastal areas - Sea level rise is regarded as one of the more certain consequences of increased 

global temperatures. During the past 100 years, average sea level rose 4 to 8 inches and is projected to 

rise an additional 19 inches by the year 2100 (International Panel on Climate Change 1996). Large cities 

such as New Orleans, Charleston, and Houston are already impacted by frequent and intense flooding. 

Low-lying marshes and barrier islands off the Southeast coast are considered particularly vulnerable to 

inundation. Based on current projections of sea level rise, many southeastern coastal areas will lose 

shoreline as well as coastal wetlands and estuaries. In some areas, forests will decline due to saltwater

intrusion. Storm surge is also likely to intensify as sea level rises and barrier protections are lost. Even if 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

48 National Forests in Mississippi

the frequency and intensity of hurricanes do not increase, these storms are expected to be more damaging 

when making landfall due to changes in coastal landforms.

Key Climate Change Factors for National Forests in Mississippi

Based on current projections, the primary regional-level effects of climate change in the Southeast are 

expected to include (1) warmer temperatures and a rising heat index, (2) moisture changes, (3) rising sea 

levels and coastal erosion, and (4) increased extreme disturbance events. 

Although warming temperatures, moisture changes, and rising sea levels may all have either direct or 

indirect future impacts on the National Forests in Mississippi, the key area of climate change most likely 

to be a concern to the Forests during the next 10 to 15 years is an increase in extreme weather events and 

other natural disturbances. Based on current projections, the climate-related disturbance factors that are 

most likely to affect the Forests and impact desired conditions in the revised forest plan are:

• Hurricanes,

• Other extreme weather events,

• Outbreaks of insects, diseases, and non-native invasive species, and 

• Fire.

These disturbance events and the potential impacts on desired conditions for the Forests are described 

below. 

Hurricanes

In the wake of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005, much attention has been focused on the damaging 

effects of large-scale hurricanes and the potential for increases in frequency or intensity of these storms 

due to climate change. Hurricanes are part of the natural weather cycle in the Southeast and, whether 

natural variability or global climate change may be accelerating the intensity and frequency of these 

storms, most studies agree that hurricane frequency is increasing (U.S. Global Change Research Program 

2001). A recent study on disturbance and coastal forests (Stanturf et al. 2007) noted that the past 10 

hurricane seasons have been the most active on record (Emanuel et al. 2006), and the consensus among 

climatologists is that greater hurricane activity could persist for another 10 to 40 years (Goldenberg et al. 

2001).

The potential for increasing risk of hurricane disturbance is of particular concern for Gulf Coast States 

such as Mississippi. As shown in figure 7, the area at greatest risk for severe hurricanes in the Southeast is 

the gulf coast from Texas to Alabama. The circles represent storm intensity (small circles are category 3, 

large open circles are category 4, and large filled circles are category 5). The tracks are for those storms 

that were categories 3 to 5 at some point in their lifecycle (Stanturf et al. 2007). This figure depicts the 

storm tracks of major hurricanes from 1851 to 2005 and illustrates the large number of highest category 

storms that hit Gulf Coast States. Although studies have found that vulnerability of coastal ecosystems are 

a function of distance from the coast, severe hurricanes such as Katrina can affect inland forests as well. 

For Hurricane Katrina, approximately 90 percent of the damage was within 60 miles of the coast, and 67 

percent of the damage was in Mississippi (Stanturf et al. 2007). While wind and flooding damage to forest 

ecosystems was worse on the De Soto and Chickasawhay units in the southern part of the state, all of the 

units in the Forests were affected to some degree.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 49

Figure 7. Major (category 3-5) hurricanes making landfall in the Eastern United States (1851 - 2005)

The widespread effects of hurricanes and the length of time it takes to recover from storm damage make 

them a significant disturbance factor that can impact attaining and sustaining many desired conditions in 

the forest plan. Desired conditions for ecosystem diversity, species diversity, healthy watersheds, healthy 

forests, infrastructure, forest fuels, recreation, wilderness areas and scenic rivers, scenic quality, and 

economic benefits may all be affected by hurricane disturbances. Although southern forests are adapted to 

a degree of disturbance from hurricane cycles, any increases in occurrence of these large storms can have 

widespread effects.

Coastal ecosystems in the southern part of the state are the most likely to be affected by more frequent 

wind and flood damage from increased hurricane disturbances. These ecosystems include longleaf pine, 

loblolly pine, slash pine, southern dry upland hardwoods, southern mesic slope forests, floodplain forests, 

near-coast pine flatwoods, xeric sandhills, wet pine savannas, herbaceous seepage bogs and flats, rivers 

and streams, ephemeral ponds and emergent wetlands, and seepage springs and swamps. In some cases, 

hurricane damage to forest stands that are not occupying appropriate sites may offer an opportunity to 

move more rapidly toward restoration of native ecological systems such as longleaf pines. Longleaf pine 

has been found to be more resistant to breakage and mortality following hurricanes than the more widely 

planted loblolly pine (Stanturf et al. 2007), and conversion of “off-site” loblolly stands to longleaf is a 

primary desired condition for the National Forests in Mississippi. 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

50 National Forests in Mississippi

For species diversity, the desire to move threatened and endangered species toward recovery can be set 

back by hurricane impacts. Maintaining habitat for threatened and endangered species is challenging for 

species such as the red-cockaded woodpecker and gopher tortoise that occupy pine forests vulnerable to 

wind damage in the southern part of the state. Since the red-cockaded woodpecker is a cavity nester, these 

nest trees are particularly susceptible to breakage.

Damage to aquatic systems from downed trees and inundation from flooding can change streamside 

habitats, affect aquatic life, and impact proper functioning of stream channels. Other effects from the 

aftermath of hurricanes on forest health include increases in fuel loading and wildfire hazards, insect and 

disease outbreaks, and opportunities for non-native invasive species to move into altered habitats. Since 

the designated wilderness and wild and scenic river areas for the National Forests in Mississippi are 

located on the De Soto National Forest, site conditions and access to these areas near the coast are likely 

to be repeatedly affected. As a result of Hurricane Katrina, all 18 recreation areas on the De Soto received 

heavy damage, over 170 miles of district trails were made impassible or nearly obliterated, all roads were 

blocked by fallen trees, and practically all Forest Service facilities were damaged (Bryant and Boykin 

2007). Even occasional re-occurrence of similar hurricane damage can divert limited national forest staff 

and funding to recovery efforts for years and delay progress toward desired conditions or require 

reconsideration of desired conditions to allow for a more dynamic resilience.

Other extreme weather events

Although typically less devastating than hurricanes, other weather events that occur more commonly such 

as droughts, tornadoes, heat waves, wind storms, flooding, and occasional ice storms and warm winter 

days that cause untimely bud break may be influenced by climate change. Over the past 100 years, the 

occurrence of intense precipitation events has increased across the Southeast, and this trend is expected to 

continue (Marques 2007). Disturbances that exceed the historic range of natural variation can change the 

composition, structure, and function of forests and could affect a number of desired conditions. Impacts 

on desired conditions from extreme weather events could include changes in the composition and 

diversity of desired ecosystems; destruction of habitat; timber loss; increasing damage to infrastructure 

such as trails, facilities, and roads; and loss of recreation opportunities.

Outbreaks of insects, diseases, and non-native invasive species

Disturbances associated with climate change can have secondary impacts indirectly caused by weatherrelated extremes. Increased variation in temperature and moisture can cause stress and increase the 

susceptibility of forest ecosystems to invasions by insects, diseases, and non-native species. New 

environmental conditions can lead to a different mix of species and tend to be favorable to plants and

animals that can adapt their biological functions or are aggressive in colonizing new territories (Whitlock 

2008). However, changes in adaptability may be too slow given the predicted rate of change. Species that 

are already broadly adapted may become more prevalent and species with narrow adaptability may 

become less prevalent. Disturbance factors that create more vulnerability in native ecosystems or require 

extensive controls to maintain the status quo are likely to affect desired conditions for healthy and diverse 

forests.

Desired conditions for healthy forests include resilience to dramatic change caused by abiotic and biotic 

stressors and mortality agents (particularly the southern pine beetle) and a balanced supply of essential 

resources (light, moisture, nutrients, growing space). Forestwide, southern pine beetle epidemics usually 

cause the greatest insect damage, and cogongrass and kudzu are the most problematic invasive species. 

Insects and diseases typically invade in cycles followed by periods of relative inactivity. However, recent 

studies have shown that periods of attack for some insects, such as southern pine beetle, are becoming 

continuous (Whitlock 2008). As conditions fluctuate, non-native invasive species may lack the predators 

and former climate controls that kept them in check. Vulnerabilities to forest threats from an environment 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 51

that may be much different from the historic range of natural variability is an active area of research right 

now and includes developing new management approaches for changing conditions.

Fire

One of the natural disturbances that is an integral part of southern forests is fire. Many of the native 

ecosystems that make up the National Forests in Mississippi are adapted to or dependent on some level of 

periodic fire. These include commonly occurring ecosystems such as longleaf pine forests and shortleaf 

pine and oak woodlands as well as the more rare xeric sandhills, prairies, and savannas. Loblolly and 

slash pine forests are also maintained by fire. However, changes in temperature, more frequent droughts, 

and more extensive disturbances can change the historic range of natural variability and result in more 

fuel loading and fire hazards. 

Fire frequency, size, intensity, seasonality, and severity are highly dependent on weather and climate. As 

noted earlier, model results predict that seasonal severity of fire hazard is likely to increase by 10 percent 

over much of the United States., with possibly larger increases in the Southeast (U.S. Global Climate 

Change Program 2001). The warmer Canadian model scenario which anticipates increased drought stress, 

projects a 30 percent increase in fire severity for the Southeast. If extreme events such as hurricanes 

further increase forest fuel levels with widespread downed trees, there is a potential for larger, more 

catastrophic fires that could impact many of the desired conditions for the Forests.

3.5 Biological Environment

3.5.1 Ecological Systems

The National Forests in Mississippi include a wide variety of ecological systems that represent the 

distinctive character of the state. National Forest System lands are interspersed with tracts of private land 

but represent relatively large parcels of vegetated and undeveloped land that is important for maintenance 

and recovery of native ecosystems. Forest management has historically been accomplished on longer 

intervals than those used by industrial and private forest properties. These generally older forest 

conditions, combined with an expanded program of prescribed burning, offer a variety of ecological 

conditions not found elsewhere in the state. There are 13 major ecological communities (table 9) located 

within the Forests and 9 rare systems or localized features that are currently identified. Additional 

information about current conditions for these ecological systems is provided in the ecosystem and 

species diversity report which analyzed sustainability of ecological communities for the revised forest 

plan and serves as a key part of the ecological sustainability evaluation framework summarized in 

appendix G.

For the forest plan revision process, the Forest Service developed a relational database, the ecological 

sustainability evaluation tool, based on the structure of the ecological planning tool designed by The 

Nature Conservancy. The ecological sustainability evaluation tool contains data on current and desired 

conditions for each ecological system and compares it to expected outcomes based on our projected 

management. The ecological sustainability evaluation database served as the source for evaluating 

ecosystem diversity on the Forests and developing plan components for the revised forest plan. Some of 

the systems were already at desired condition and are expected to require only maintenance. Other 

systems will require management to reach desired ecological conditions. Many of the desired condition 

will take decades or longer to achieve. 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

52 National Forests in Mississippi

Table 9. Ecological communities within the National Forests in Mississippi

Major Ecological Systems Rare Communities or Localized Features

Upland Longleaf Pine Forest and Woodland Xeric Sandhills

Shortleaf Pine-Oak Forest and Woodland Rock Outcrops

Loblolly Pine Forest Black Belt Calcareous Prairie and Woodland

Slash Pine Forest Jackson Prairie and Woodland

Northern Dry Upland Hardwood Forest Ephemeral Ponds and Emergent Wetlands

Southern Dry Upland Hardwood Forest Cypress Dominated Wetlands

Southern Loess Bluff Forest Wet Pine Savanna

Southern Mesic Slope Forest Seeps, Springs, and Seepage Swamps

Northern Mesic Hardwood Forest Herbaceous Seepage Bogs and Flats

Southern Loblolly-Hardwood Flatwoods

Floodplain Forest

Lower Mississippi River Bottomland and Floodplain Forest

Near-Coast Pine Flatwoods

Trends

The National Forests in Mississippi are generally forested landscapes today much as they were when the 

1985 forest plan was implemented. 

When the National Forests in Mississippi were established during the Great Depression, much of the land 

was cleared, abandoned, and severely-eroding farmland. The planting of fast-growing pine trees 

(predominantly loblolly and slash pine) provided not only re-vegetation and recovery of soils and water, 

but also an economic commodity that continued to be emphasized in the 1985 forest plan. Today, the 

focus has shifted toward restoration of healthy and thriving native ecological communities, and vegetation 

management activities are used as tools for achieving habitat and ecosystem restoration.

Figure 8. Mature or late seral pine habitat - Bienville, De Soto, and Homochitto National Forests
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 53

Pines are still the dominant forest type statewide and are expected to continue to be common but shift 

toward native pine species. Due to its historic range, longleaf pine is the preferred choice for management 

on most upland sites on the De Soto and Homochitto National Forests and to a lesser degree, on the 

Bienville National Forest.

Since 1981, there has been a decline in all types of early-seral (1–10 years) habitats or younger forests 

due to reduction of regeneration harvests. Declines in younger forests are particularly great for those 

forest types not frequently regenerated, such as hardwoods. Increased thinning of pine forest types, 

accompanied by burning, has provided substitute habitat for some early-seral associated species.

Mature or late seral pine habitats (40 plus years) have declined in area because those habitats have been 

the focus of most regeneration efforts (figure 8).

Additionally, some of this decline is an artifact of changing classification of existing habitat from pine to 

pine and hardwood to better recognize the hardwood component in mixed stands. Compounding this 

trend, reclassification of pine to pine and hardwood is occurring due to mortality of the pine component. 

Attrition from ice and windstorms, and insects and disease losses, has also converted large acreages from 

pine to pine and hardwood (figure 9).

Figure 9. Forest-type composition comparisons 1981 to 2006

In-growth has exceeded regeneration harvest for mature forests of all types on most units, which has 

resulted in an overall increase in combined mature forest types. 

Hurricane Katrina caused heavy random thinning of forests on the De Soto and Chickasawhay Ranger 

Districts.

Background and Distribution of Ecological Systems

The National Forests in Mississippi are widely distributed throughout the state, and each forest is 

interspersed with tracts of private and other publicly administered lands. National Forest System lands are 

significant from an ecological perspective in being relatively large parcels of vegetated and undeveloped 

lands with focused management goals that contain a range of habitats and natural features supporting a 

variety of locally rare species. The National Forests in Mississippi also have an extensive prescribed 

burning program that contributes to sustaining fire-dependent native ecological systems. These factors 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

54 National Forests in Mississippi

plus the continued loss of forested land to developed uses on private lands is likely to make National 

Forest System lands even more important in the future for supporting ecological sustainability.

Table 10. Distribution of ecological systems on the National Forests in Mississippi

Ecological System

Bienville

Chickasawhay

De Soto

Homochitto

Delta

Holly Springs

Yalobusha

Ackerman

Trace

Upland Longleaf Pine Forest and Woodland    

Shortleaf Pine-Oak Forest and Woodland     

Loblolly Pine Forest        

Southern Loblolly-Hardwood Flatwoods 

Slash Pine Forest     

Northern Dry Upland Hardwood Forest    

Southern Dry Upland Hardwood Forest    

Southern Loess Bluff Forest 

Southern Mesic Slope Forest    

Northern Mesic Hardwood Forest    

Floodplain Forest        

Lower Mississippi River Bottomland and Floodplain Forest 

Near-Coast Pine Flatwoods 

Xeric Sandhills  

Rock Outcrops        

Black Belt Calcareous Prairie and Woodland 

Jackson Prairie and Woodland 

Ephemeral Ponds and Emergent Wetlands         

Cypress Dominated Wetlands   

Wet Pine Savanna 

Seeps, Springs, and Seepage Swamps        

Herbaceous Seepage Bog and Flats  

Table 10 lists the 22 ecological systems which were identified for the Forests and the units on which they 

generally occur. Ecological systems represent recurring groups of biological communities that are found 

in similar physical environments and are influenced by similar dynamic ecological processes, such as fire 

or flooding. Categorizing physical environments into ecological systems allows for more efficient 

management or restoration of each particular system on the landscape. Ecological systems are specifically 

defined as a group of plant community types that tend to occur on landscapes with similar ecological 

processes, substrates, or environmental gradients. The ecological systems for the Forests represent both 

common and rare community types, both of which are important for sustaining ecological and species 

diversity. Currently, many of the rare communities are not completely mapped or inventoried.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 55

Status of Ecological System Sustainability

Current distribution and extent of the major ecological systems on the National Forests in Mississippi are 

summarized in table 11. Forest plan components that provide for ecological system sustainability include 

desired conditions, objectives, special areas, and guidelines. Although some forest plan components 

support ecological system sustainability more directly than others, these four are the primary components 

for sustaining diversity on the Forests. Desired conditions and objectives for ecological system 

sustainability will be integrated throughout the forest plan and be addressed not only under ecosystem 

diversity but also in forest plan components for species diversity, healthy watersheds, and healthy forests.

The four forest plan components that will provide for ecological system sustainability are summarized in 

table 11.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

56 National Forests in Mississippi

Table 11. Current percent of forested ecological systems by unit on the National Forests in Mississippi

Unit Name

Ecological System Bienville Chickasawhay De Soto Homochitto Delta Holly 

Springs Yalobusha Ackerman Trace

Current percentage

Upland Longleaf Pine 

Forest and Woodland 3 40 45 9

Shortleaf Pine-Oak 

Forest and Woodland 3 28 4 12 14

Loblolly Pine Forest 31 16 13 76 38 65 53 51

Southern LoblollyHardwood Flatwoods 38

Slash Pine Forest 26 21 2 0 0

Northern Dry Upland 

Hardwood Forest 21 18 20 16

Southern Dry Upland 

Hardwood Forest 2 1 1 3

Southern Loess Bluff 

Forest 2

Southern Mesic Slope 

Forest 11 2 2 4

Northern Mesic 

Hardwood Forest 10 10 12 15

Floodplain Forest 12 15 6 6 2 2 3 2

Lower Mississippi River 

Bottomland and 

Floodplain Forest

100

Near-Coast Pine 

Flatwoods 4

Wet Pine Savanna
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 57

Upland Longleaf Pine Forest and Woodland 

This ecological system represents forests and woodlands dominated by longleaf pine occurring across a 

range of soil and moisture conditions. It occurs on the De Soto, Chickasawhay, Homochitto, and Bienville 

National Forests. It is synonymous with the NatureServe’s east gulf coastal plain interior upland longleaf 

pine woodland (CES203.496). 

Longleaf pine was once the dominant tree species of the piney woods region of south Mississippi.

Longleaf pine extended as far north as Kemper and Rankin counties, with an isolated “island” of longleaf 

pine in Attala and Leake Counties. Fires, both natural and human-caused, maintained forests and 

woodlands with a rich grass-forb understory. This rich, fire-maintained community supported a diverse 

fauna and flora, with many species unique to this system. Rare animals such as eastern diamondback 

rattlesnake, indigo snake, black pine snake, red-cockaded woodpecker, and dusky gopher frog were once 

common in this community. Blackjack oak, post oak and southern red oaks were common trees while 

turkey oak, sand post oak and flowering dogwood were less common. Longleaf pine once dominated all 

or significant portions of lands now included in the Chickasawhay, De Soto, Homochitto, and Bienville 

National Forests.

The extensive stands of virgin longleaf pine were viewed by many at the time of original settlement as 

commodities or impediments to human progress, and were essentially clear-cut around the turn of the 

20th century. Following the removal of the forest, livestock grazing and burning the woods to improve 

forage quality and quantity was commonplace. The remaining longleaf pines were either too small or 

deformed or injured in such a way as to have little or no commercial value. By the time the Forest Service 

acquired the lands in the 1930s, management emphasis was on reforestation, conservation of wildlife, and 

controlling wild fire. Because the technology of the time did not allow for planting of longleaf pine on 

large areas, virgin longleaf pine forests were replaced by loblolly pine and slash pine stands. Ironically, 

wildfire suppression ultimately hampered reforestation and wildlife conservation. The following period of 

active fire exclusion from the piney woods allowed the establishment of tree species that were not fire 

adapted and that had not been present in the original fire-maintained system. Trees such as sweetgum, 

water oak, and red maple which naturally grew in bottoms and terraces became established and subdominant in what had been a fire-maintained ecological system. 

Under historical reference conditions, fire is believed to have been frequent enough to limit development 

of fire-intolerant hardwoods and both loblolly and shortleaf pines and to stimulate rich understories of 

grasses and forbs. Fire suppression has led to increases in overstory canopy and shrub densities, which in 

turn reduces densities of grass-forb understories. Additionally, plant species diversity in these understories 

also has been adversely affected by intensive grazing and mechanical site preparation in some places.

Management activities are frequently needed to restore the open canopies, historical fire regimes, and 

characteristic grass-forb understories of longleaf pine communities.

Shortleaf Pine-Oak Forest and Woodland

This ecological system represents forests and woodlands dominated by shortleaf pine occurring on dry to 

dry-mesic ecological site types. It occurs on the Bienville, Holly Springs, and Tombigbee National 

Forests. It is synonymous with NatureServe’s east gulf coastal plain interior shortleaf pine-oak forest 

ecological system (CES203.506).

This forested system of the east gulf coastal plain occurs most extensively on generally rolling uplands 

north of the range of longleaf pine. Stands tend to occur on generally well-drained sandy or clayey soils 

with dry to dry-mesic moisture regimes. Shortleaf pine is the dominant pine species of the generally dry

and dry-mesic oak-pine forest type in the gulf coastal plain and is the most characteristic floristic 

component of this system. The actual amount of shortleaf pine present varies based on a number of 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

58 National Forests in Mississippi

factors, but intact examples of this system often include stands that are dominated by shortleaf pine 

grading into stands with a mixture of upland hardwoods. Locally on mid to lower slopes, loblolly pine 

may be a component that extends further upslope in the absence of fire. Fire is possibly the most 

important natural process affecting the floristic composition and vegetation structure of this system, 

although fire-return intervals are lower than those associated with the east gulf coastal plain interior 

upland longleaf pine woodland. Shortleaf pine may have difficulty replacing itself in the absence of fire, 

particularly on less xeric sites. Where fire is most frequent, the system may develop an essentially pure 

canopy of shortleaf pine typified by a very open woodland structure with scattered overstory trees and an 

herbaceous-dominated understory; however, examples are rare on the modern landscape. More typical are 

areas in which oaks, hickories, sweetgum, yellow poplar, maples, and blackgum have become prominent 

in the midstory and even overstory and in which herbaceous patches are rare (NatureServe 2004a, 2004b).

Current information on location and acreage of this community type is fairly well documented for the 

National Forests in Mississippi.

Under historical reference conditions, frequent fire regimes limited the development of fire-intolerant 

hardwoods and encouraged development of fire-adapted species. Fire also stimulated species-rich 

groundcover plant communities. Many forests on historic shortleaf pine – oak forest sites have been 

converted to other forest types or support only relict individuals due to a long history of exploitation, 

conversion, and fire suppression. Additionally, fire seasonality has altered community structure in pineoak communities. Fire-sensitive species of trees, shrubs and woody vines survive dormant-season 

prescribed burns while fire-adapted species are unable to successfully reproduce. Management activities 

are frequently needed to restore shortleaf pine overstories, open canopies, historical fire regimes, and 

characteristic species-rich ground cover communities.

Loblolly Forest 

This system represents loblolly pine dominated forests and woodlands occurring predominately on upland 

sites. These forests and woodlands, which occupy more acres of habitat than any other in the Forests, is 

the result of the reforestation efforts of the Forest Service in the 1930s. Loblolly pine was easily 

established, had value for stopping soil erosion, and was valued in being fast growing and producing 

valuable timber products. As a result, this association has been planted in places in which the species did 

not historically occur. Currently, loblolly pine forests occur on every management unit on the Forests with 

the exception of Delta National Forest, where no native pine occurs. Both current acreage and condition 

are well known for this community type.

Historically, loblolly pine occurred naturally in pine and mixed hardwood-pine stands on moist upland 

flats, mid and lower slopes of drains and high stream terraces in areas merging into the longleaf pine 

region to the south, and the shortleaf pine-oak associations of north Mississippi. With suppression of fire, 

a dense growth of hardwoods, shrubs and woody vines became established and thick leaf litter 

accumulates on the forest floor. Without management intervention, hardwoods will gain dominance as 

pines are reduced to snags by insect damage or old age.

There is no historical reference condition for planted loblolly pine forest that occurs outside of the normal 

range of this species, although many of these forests occur on historic longleaf and shortleaf pine sites. In 

addition, fire suppression has led to increases in overstory canopy and shrub densities, reducing densities 

of grass-forb understories and increasing levels of organic matter (needles). Plant species diversity in 

these understories has been adversely affected by intensive grazing and mechanical site preparation in 

some places. Management activities are frequently needed to restore longleaf or shortleaf pine 

overstories, open canopies, historical fire regimes, and characteristic grass-forb understories. Other 

communities such as upland hardwood, mesic slope forest will also be restored from these acres as well.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 59

Southern Loblolly-Hardwood Flatwoods

This ecological system represents open forests dominated by loblolly pine with patches of hardwoods on 

alternating mounds and depressions occurring in a tight local mosaic (gilgai), and this system only occurs 

on the Bienville National Forest on both mesic and xeric sites. The specific role of fire in this system is 

unknown. This community is synonymous with NatureServe’s east gulf coastal plain southern loblollyhardwood flatwoods (CES203.557).

Slash Pine Forest

This system represents slash pine dominated forests and woodlands in areas of natural historic occurrence 

and areas where this species has been planted on both appropriate and atypical locations. Planted forests 

and woodlands are the result of the reforestation efforts of the Forest Service in the 1930s and the boom 

of forest economics in the 1960s. Slash pine was easily established, had value for stopping soil erosion, 

and was valued in being fast growing and producing valuable timber products. As a result, this species 

has been planted in places where it did not historically occur. This system occurs on the Chickasawhay, 

De Soto, and Tombigbee National Forests and the Yalobusha Unit of the Holly Springs National Forest.

Slash pine historically occurred on the Chickasawhay and De Soto National Forests but has been planted 

outside of the historical range on the other listed forests.

Within its natural range, the distribution of slash pine was determined by its susceptibility to fire injury 

during the seedling stage. It was common along streams and the edges of swamps and bays where either 

ample soil moisture or standing water protected the young seedlings from frequent wildfires. Naturally 

occurring sites with slash pine would be part of the near coast pine flatwoods association (NatureServe 

2004a, 2004b). On other sites, slash pine stands occur that were either planted or naturally regenerated on 

old-field or former longleaf pine sites. Ground layer composition is highly variable and may range from 

substantially natural to highly altered, or very sparse, depending on management, canopy closure, and 

other factors. 

There is no historical reference condition for a man-created pine forest that occurs outside of the normal 

limits of slash pine. Most forests occur on historic longleaf pine sites on the Chickasawhay and De Soto 

National Forests. On the other districts, slash pine is planted on sites that may have historically supported 

shortleaf pine-oak or hardwood ecological systems. Fire suppression has led to increases in overstory 

canopy and shrub densities, reducing densities of grass-forb understories and increasing levels of organic 

matter (needles). Plant species diversity in these understories also has likely been adversely affected by 

intensive grazing and mechanical site preparation in some places. Management activities are frequently 

needed to restore longleaf pine overstories, open canopies, historical fire regimes, and characteristic 

grass-forb understories.

Northern Dry Upland Hardwood Forest 

This ecological system represents forests dominated by upland hardwoods occupying xeric upland slopes 

and ridgetops with nutrient-poor soils. The range of this ecological system includes portions of the coastal 

plain of western Kentucky and Tennessee, northern Mississippi, and Alabama. This habitat is found on the 

Holly Springs and Tombigbee National Forests. Northern dry upland hardwood forest is synonymous with 

NatureServe’s east gulf coastal plain northern dry upland hardwood forest (CES203.483).

Typical associated species of this system are upland oaks (post, southern red, blackjack, black and scarlet) 

and hickories (mocker nut and sand). Often shortleaf pine, and occasionally loblolly pine, is mingled with 

the hardwoods.

Northern dry upland hardwood forests are found on small 50- to 100-acre patches on ridgetops and 

uplands that divide watersheds throughout northern Mississippi. Many acres of this type have been 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

60 National Forests in Mississippi

converted to pine plantations. This community also is frequently traversed by transportation corridors 

associated with roads and trails. As a result, northern dry upland hardwood forests are often highly 

fragmented and infrequently burned.

Under historical reference conditions, fire is believed to have been frequent enough to limit development 

of both fire-intolerant hardwoods and loblolly and shortleaf pines. Fire played an important role in 

maintaining this community by reducing densities of young saplings, recycling nutrients, and oxidizing 

the ground layer. Many forests on historic northern dry upland hardwood forests have been converted to 

other forest types or support only diminished examples due to a long history of exploitation and fire 

suppression. In addition, fire suppression has led to increases in overstory canopy and shrub densities.

Management activities are frequently needed to restore typical northern dry upland hardwood forest 

overstories, historical fire regimes, and characteristic grass-forb understories.

Southern Dry Upland Hardwood Forest 

This ecological system represents forests dominated by upland hardwoods. It occurs on xeric or 

intermediate -acidic soils in naturally fire-protected landscapes, and is found on the Desoto, 

Chickasawhay, Homochitto, and Bienville National Forests. This community is synonymous with 

NatureServe’s southern coastal plain dry upland hardwood forest (CES203.560).

Southern dry upland hardwood forest overstories are typically dominated by upland oaks (post, southern 

red, and white) and hickories (mockernut and sand). Pines (shortleaf, longleaf, loblolly) may be a 

significant component but are not dominant. Midstories are typically dominated by dogwood and other 

hardwoods. Stands of this association are found on sandy coastal plain sites associated with natural 

firebreaks such as bluffs or isolated ridges. The core range of this type extends northward with the 

approximate historical range of longleaf pine. Like all hardwood systems of this region, southern dry 

upland forests occur within a landscape matrix historically occupied by pine-dominated uplands and 

consequently only occurred in fire-sheltered locations in naturally small patches. This ecological system 

tends to occur on xeric to intermediate sites. Toward the northern range limits of this system, it may have 

been less restricted to small patches in fire-protected locations and may have been formerly more 

prevalent on the landscape even in areas heavily influenced by fire (NatureServe 2004b). Current 

information on location, condition and size is not well documented for this community type. 

Southern Loess Bluff Forest 

This ecological system represents forests dominated by a mix of hardwood species occurring on loess 

soil. Historically, pine was absent from this system. The southern loess bluff forest occurs on the 

Homochitto National Forest. This community is synonymous with NatureServe’s east gulf coastal plain 

southern loess bluff forest (CES203.556).

This system of upland hardwood-dominated forests ranges from the steep loess bluffs bordering the 

eastern edge of the Mississippi River alluvial plain to south-central Mississippi to southeastern Louisiana, 

and the hardwood vegetation of the loess plains immediately to the east of these bluffs and ravines. The 

vegetation is often richer than surrounding non-loessal areas or those with only thin loess deposits. In 

some examples of this system, tree species normally associated with bottomland habitats are found to be 

abundant or even dominant in non-flooded uplands. In many cases, the bluffs provide habitat refugia for 

plant species that are more common to the north. The general composition of forests along the bluffs 

changes from north to south; the more northerly examples are represented in this classification by east 

gulf coastal plain northern loess bluff forest, north of the range of southern magnolia and spruce pine. As 

currently defined, this system ranges from about 32 degrees N latitude (where the Big Black River 

dissects the bluffs) southward and is restricted to the southern part of the loess bluff (NatureServe 2004b). 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 61

In the National Forests in Mississippi, this association is restricted to the southwestern portions of the

Homochitto National Forest. Past land management practices have converted portions of this to loblolly 

pine forest. The silty loess soils are highly erodible in nature and the risk of erosion while logging these 

sites is high. The steepest areas remain the least likely to have been previously cultivated and maintain 

some of the highest species diversity. Chinese privet, kudzu, and other invasive species have become 

established in this ecological system.

Under historical reference conditions, fire is believed to have been an uncommon, low-intensity and lowseverity event. The rich, thick organic layers that built up in the absence of intense, frequent fire allowed 

rich understories of moisture-loving herbaceous species such as trillium, northern maiden-hair fern and 

Solomon’s seal to become established. Plant species diversity in the understory has the potential to be 

very high and supportive of rare species such as wild sarsaparilla vine, fetid trillium, and others. Many 

forests on historic southern loess bluff forest sites have been converted to loblolly pine dominated forests, 

and fire suppression has led to decreases in oak reproduction. Management activities are frequently 

needed to restore southern loess bluff forest, along with its significant associates. Protection and 

restoration of the best examples most mesic old-growth sites in this system should be a priority for the 

Forests.

Southern Mesic Slope Forest 

This ecological system represents forests dominated by hardwoods occurring on steep slopes, bluffs, or 

sheltered ravines where fire is naturally rare, generally within the natural range of spruce pine and 

southern magnolia. The system occurs on the De Soto, Chickasawhay, Homochitto, and Bienville 

National Forests. Loblolly pine may dominate on non-riverine hydric site types on the Bienville National 

Forest. This community is synonymous with NatureServe’s east gulf coastal plain southern mesic slope 

forest (CES203.476) on all areas except the Bienville National Forest. On the Bienville, this system 

includes NatureServe’s east gulf coastal plain southern loblolly-hardwood flatwoods (CES203.557).

Stands are mesic, and vegetation typically includes species such as American beech, southern magnolia, 

Florida anise, and other species rarely encountered outside this system in the region. Related forests 

which occur on deep loess soils along the western margin of the region are classified as east gulf coastal 

plain southern loess bluff forest. Some component associations are also found in temporarily flooded 

floodplains adjacent to these slopes, but this is primarily an upland system (NatureServe 2004b). Past land 

management practices have converted portions of this to loblolly pine forest, and current prescribed burn 

practices may be creating too intense fire at too frequent a return interval. 

Under historical reference conditions, fire is believed to have been uncommon low-intensity and lowseverity events. The rich, thick organic layers that built up in the absence of intense, frequent fire allowed 

rich understories of moisture-loving herbaceous species such as trillium, northern maiden-hair fern and 

Solomon’s seal. Many forests on historic southern loess bluff forest sites have been converted to loblolly 

pine dominated forests. Plant species diversity in these understories has the potential to be very high and 

supportive of rare species such as wild sarsaparilla vine, fetid trillium, and others. Management activities 

are frequently needed to restore southern loess bluff forest, along with its significant associates. 

Protection and restoration of the best examples of mesic old-growth stands should be a priority of the 

Forests. 

On the Bienville National Forest, this forested system occurs on broad upland flats in the east gulf coastal 

plain of Mississippi. Known examples in the Mississippi parts of the range include a mosaic of open 

forests dominated by loblolly pine interspersed with patches of willow oak and sometimes other tree 

species. The ground surface displays an evident microtopography of alternating mounds and swales 

occurring in a tight local mosaic. These mounds are most likely "gilgai" resulting from the shrink-swell 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

62 National Forests in Mississippi

properties of the Luinn soil series. Moisture conditions range from xeric to mesic, and the most mesic 

sites trap significant moisture from local rainfall events. These ephemeral pools hold water for a 

minimum of several days, but often hold water for longer periods, especially when evapotranspiration is 

lowest. The vegetation of this system supports relatively low vascular plant diversity and thus may appear 

floristically similar to other pine-hardwood vegetation of the region. The dry portion of this vegetation 

mosaic is dominated by grassy ground cover with scattered emergent greenbriers underneath a nearly pure 

loblolly pine overstory. The historical composition of this type is unknown, but it seems likely that 

loblolly pine was a natural dominant component of this system, as it is in related systems in the west gulf 

coast. Wetter areas are dominated by an overstory of willow oak with an abundance of dwarf palmetto in 

the understory. Although the specific role of fire in this system is unknown, low-intensity ground fires 

may have been ecologically important, and such fires could have originated in the surrounding east gulf 

coastal plain interior shortleaf pine-oak forest (CES203.506).

Northern Mesic Hardwood Forest 

This ecological system represents forests dominated by hardwoods occurring on slopes and ravines 

between dry uplands and stream bottoms. It occurs on the Holly Springs and Tombigbee National Forests.

This community is synonymous with NatureServe’s east gulf coastal plain northern mesic hardwood 

forest (CES203.477).

This system includes mesic deciduous hardwood forests of inland portions of the east gulf coastal plain, 

including Alabama, Mississippi, western Kentucky, and western Tennessee. The northern mesic hardwood 

forest overstories are typically dominated by hardwoods, such as beech, white oak, cherrybark oak and 

southern magnolia. Additionally, mixed loblolly pine-hardwood conditions may exist within this system 

in the southern portion of the range. In addition, loblolly pine may be common in some examples in the

southern portion of the range, and may be locally dominant depending on previous disturbance and site 

conditions. To the south this system is replaced by east gulf coastal plain southern mesic slope forest, 

which is within the range of spruce pine and southern magnolia. Most of the vegetation is recovering from 

one or more forms of severe disturbance often resulting in conversion to one of the pine types 

(NatureServe 2004a). Current acreage and location are not well known for this community type. 

Subcanopies are more or less open and typically contain magnolia, hornbeam, yellow poplar, red maple, 

and flowering dogwood. Shrubs include red buckeye, switch cane, witch hazel, and deciduous holly. The 

forest floor typically has a rich organic layer with abundant leaf litter. This system supports populations of 

associated uncommon species, including Webster’s salamander, American ginseng, and Turk’s-cap lily.

Where site conditions are suitable, several rare communities are typically embedded within this larger 

system including rock outcrops, seeps, and springs. This system is dominated by mature forest and 

woodland (60 years old or older), and a network of well-distributed old growth is present. Early-seral 

components exist in sufficient quantities to sustain this system over time. Forests are typically closed, 

with canopy closure in mature examples of this system being greater than 80 percent. Low intensity fire 

creeps into this system from the surrounding upland community and occurs at an interval of 1-6 years. 

Under historical reference conditions, fire is believed to have been uncommon, low-intensity and lowseverity events. The rich, thick organic layers that built up in the absence of intense, frequent fire allowed 

rich understories of moisture-loving herbaceous species such as trillium, northern maiden-hair fern and 

Solomon’s seal. Many forests on historic northern mesic hardwood forest sites have been converted to 

loblolly pine dominated forests. Additionally, fire suppression has led to decreases in oak regeneration.

Plant species diversity in these understories has the potential to be very high and supportive of rare 

species such as wild sarsaparilla vine, fetid trillium, and others. Management activities are frequently 

needed to restore northern mesic hardwood forest and its significant associates. The designation of the 

best examples old-growth stands in this system should be a priority.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 63

Floodplain Forest 

This ecological system represents forests dominated by bottomland hardwoods occurring on alluvial soils 

in riparian areas. It occurs on all portions of the National Forests in Mississippi except the Delta National 

Forest. This community is synonymous with Natureserve’s east gulf coastal plain large river floodplain 

forest (CES203.489), east gulf coastal plain small stream and river floodplain forest (CES203.559), and 

the southern coastal plain blackwater river floodplain forest (CES203.493).

This is a predominately forested system of the east gulf coastal plain and includes large river floodplain 

forest, small stream and river floodplain forest, and blackwater river floodplain forest. Several distinct 

plant communities may occur based on geomorphic and other factors that may be present. Bottomland 

hardwood tree species are diagnostic, although mesic hardwood species may also be present in areas less 

frequently flooded. Lower areas may contain beaver impoundments, providing wetland habitat for 

waterfowl and other species. Past land management practices have resulted in disturbances to the 

hydrologic regime as well as conversion of hardwood forests to loblolly pine dominated forests. Current 

inventory information is considered good although some examples are possibly coded as loblolly pine 

forest.

Under historical reference conditions, fire is believed to have been very uncommon with long return 

intervals. Many floodplain forests have been converted to other forest types, mainly loblolly pine.

Additionally, these forests have been selectively cut in the past resulting in atypical species composition.

These communities are dependent on healthy hydrologic function, including overbank flooding for 

maintenance. In some cases, headcutting has lowered the stream level to such a point that overbank 

flooding seldom occurs. Management activities are frequently needed to restore floodplain forest 

overstories and healthy hydrologic function. 

Lower Mississippi River Bottomland and Floodplain Forest 

This ecological system represents forests dominated by bottomland hardwoods occurring on the 

Mississippi River alluvial plain. This community is synonymous with Natureserve’s lower Mississippi 

River bottomland and floodplain forest (CES203.195).

This system is found on fertile, fine textured clay or loam soils of floodplains, stream terraces and wet 

lowland flats of the Yazoo-Mississippi River Delta, with the Sharkey soil series the dominant soil type.

This system is represented in National Forests in Mississippi only by the Delta National Forest. The Delta 

consists of extensive flats of very deep, poorly and very poorly drained, very slowly permeable alluvial 

clays. Common trees include willow, water, overcup, and Nuttall oaks, pecan, sugarberry, American elm, 

green ash, and sweetgum. Found in the subcanopy are possumhaw, cedar elm, swamp-privet, boxelder, 

dwarf palmetto and giant cane. Past land management practices have resulted in a forest with atypical 

species composition rather than the desired distribution of species that would have occurred in the 

historical forest. The Delta National Forest is home to some of the largest populations of pondberry, an 

endangered plant species.

Under historical reference conditions, fire is believed to have been very uncommon and of a long return 

interval. These communities are dependent on healthy hydrologic function, including overbank flooding 

for maintenance. Efforts to restrict overbank flooding may inhibit this function. Management activities 

are frequently needed to restore floodplain forest overstories and healthy hydrologic function.

Near-coast Pine Flatwoods 

This ecological system represents sparse woodlands dominated by longleaf and slash pine with scattered 

loblolly pine, and predominately occurs on non-riverine hydric soil site types on the De Soto National 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

64 National Forests in Mississippi

Forest. This community is synonymous with NatureServe’s east gulf coastal plain near-coast pine 

flatwoods (CES203.375).

The near-coast pine flatwoods system occupies broad, sandy flatlands in a relatively narrow band along 

the northern Gulf of Mexico coast east of the Mississippi River. These areas, often called flatwoods or 

flatlands, are subject to high fire-return intervals even though seasonally high water tables are common.

Original vegetative condition was characterized by widely scattered longleaf pine and scattered slash pine 

in mesic areas. Scattered loblolly pine may also occur in this ecological system. Understory conditions 

range from open herbaceous-dominated areas to dense shrubs, dependent largely upon fire history.

Historically, fire occurred with lower frequency than adjacent longleaf pine or pine savanna types.

Frequency and intensity of fire determined density and structure of the shrub layer. For example, intense 

and frequent burning often resulted in an understory of pitcher plant flats. In the past, forests of this 

ecological system were often bedded, fertilized and planted to slash pine to increase forest site 

production. On sites for which this silvicultural technique was successful, slash pine grew quickly, 

outcompeted native shrubs and altered the hydrologic regime through increased uptake of water. Fertilizer 

application also created a flush of woody shrub growth and a decrease in carnivorous plant numbers.

Plant species diversity in this community has been adversely affected by these silvicultural activities.

Management activities are needed to restore near-coast pine flatwood conditions, historical fire regimes, 

and characteristic grass-forb understories.

Xeric Sandhills 

This rare ecological system represents sandhills characterized by deep, well-drained sands supporting 

plants adapted to xeric conditions such as wiregrass, prickly pear cactus, and saw palmetto. Dominant tree 

species include longleaf pine, and bluejack, turkey and other oaks. This system includes all gopher 

tortoise priority soils as identified by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. Gopher tortoise burrows are often 

a distinctive feature of sandhill communities, and provide shelter to many vertebrate and invertebrate 

species, such as the federally endangered indigo snake, black pine snake, and old field mouse.

Historically, fire combined with extreme aridity is believed to have been frequent enough to limit 

development of fire-intolerant hardwoods and both loblolly and shortleaf pines. Drought tolerant species 

of grass and forbs dominate the sparse understory. Some historic longleaf sites have been converted to 

scrub oak forest types by early removal of longleaf pine. Also, well-intentioned efforts to protect gopher 

tortoise “priority soil” areas often have left these special areas unburned and unharvested resulting in 

thick vegetative cover. Plant species diversity in these understories has likely been adversely affected by 

repeated unsuccessful attempts to replant these sites. Management activities are frequently needed to 

restore longleaf pine overstories, historical fire regimes, and characteristic grass-forb understories. A 

priority of the National Forests in Mississippi should be selection of the best examples of the most xeric 

of these as old-growth stands.

Rock Outcrops 

Rock outcrops are rare, localized features of the landscape which mainly occur along steep hill slopes, 

ravines, or river channels where soils have eroded away. They are usually embedded in a larger ecological 

system and rely heavily on surrounding habitats for landscape scale functions and processes. There are an 

estimated 500 acres of this habitat in the entire state of Mississippi. Distribution on the National Forests 

in Mississippi is unknown; however, rock outcrops may occur on all Forests except the De Soto 

Chickasawhay and Delta Units. Although of minor extent, the rock outcrops provide quality habitat for 

several species of animals and plants including Webster’s salamander and hairy lipfern.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 65

Historically, fire is believed to have occurred at the same frequency as the surrounding matrix community.

Most impacts to rock outcrops have been by quarrying and erosion from management activities in the 

surrounding forest. Rock outcrops in a shaded moist condition are excellent habitat for bryophytes, ferns 

and other shade loving herbs. Management activities are frequently needed to restore hardwood 

overstories and healthy hydrologic regimes such as springs and seeps that often co-occur with rock 

outcrops. The inclusion of rock outcrops in designated old-growth or botanical areas should be a priority 

of the National Forests in Mississippi.

Black Belt Calcareous Prairie and Woodland 

This rare ecological system represents open grassy areas dominated by characteristic prairie species.

Within this grassland matrix, woody vegetation occurs sparingly in stream bottoms and hilltops with caps 

of acid soil. It occurs on the Trace Unit of the Tombigbee National Forest. This community is 

synonymous with NatureServe’s east gulf coastal plain black belt calcareous prairie and woodland 

ecological system (CES203.478).

Native prairie vegetation once occurred on an estimated 100,000 acres in the black belt prairie region, 

extending in a narrow band from the Tennessee border through northeastern Mississippi into eastern 

Alabama. The open grassy areas were dominated by characteristic prairie species such as indiangrass, 

bluestem grasses, rosinweeds, prairie-clovers, yellow-puffs, purple cone-flower, prairie cone-flowers and 

others. Within this grassland matrix, woody vegetation occurred sparingly in stream bottoms and on 

hilltops with caps of acid soil. Individual trees and shrubs native to the black belt were post oak, Durand 

oak, nutmeg hickory, rock chestnut oak, and burr oak. Pine trees were notable for their rarity or absence.

Due to the fertility of these lands and their open character, these prairies were among the first to become 

settled and were soon converted to crop or pasture. The agricultural lands were abandoned as soil fertility 

diminished and soil erosion increased. When the Forest Service acquired these lands, they were planted 

with trees as the best alternative to retain soil and prevent soil erosion. 

Degraded examples of this type are known to occur on the Trace Unit of the Tombigbee National Forest, 

but it is uncertain of how many examples exist or how many acres are involved. No examples of the 

original large expanses of deep black soil prairie are known to exist, and current examples approximate 

chalk barrens, although both have essentially the same species. Former sites, because of past land use 

practices, are now in a woodland or sparse forest condition. Many may show signs of past erosion such as 

gullies. 

Historically, fire is believed to have been frequent enough to prevent woody encroachment into grassy 

openings. Fire also encouraged the forb component. Many black belt prairies have reverted to other forest 

types due to settlement, conversion, and fire suppression. Plant species diversity in these understories has 

likely been affected by past intensive grazing and use of the prairie openings as wildlife food plots, roads 

and log landings. Management activities are frequently needed to restore prairie vegetation, enlarge 

present openings, restore damage done by past management actions, and restore historical fire regimes.

Future management actions should include identifying and mapping all occurrences of this rare 

community.

Jackson Prairie and Woodland 

This rare ecological system represents open grassy areas dominated by characteristic prairie species.

Jackson prairie occurs as calcareous islands (less than 1 to 160 acres) on gently sloping uplands 

surrounded by pine and hardwood forest on generally acid soils. This community is synonymous with 

NatureServe’s east gulf coastal plain Jackson prairie and woodland ecological system (CES203.555).
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

66 National Forests in Mississippi

On the National Forests in Mississippi, prairie remnants range in size from less than 1, to 160 acres and 

total about 802 acres. Composites (21 percent), legumes (12 percent), and graminoids (15 percent) make 

up the floral composition in the prairie remnants. This ecological system is restricted to the Bienville 

National Forest. The once dominant or important prairie species included bluestem grasses, rosinweeds, 

prairie-clovers, yellow-puffs, purple cone-flower, prairie cone-flowers and others. Due to the fertility of 

these lands and their open character, they were among the first to become settled and were soon converted 

to cropland or pasture.

When the National Forests in Mississippi were established, these lands were allowed to revert to forest.

Fire suppression contributed to the size reduction of prairie openings by allowing encroachment of woody 

vegetation. A study of representative sites on the Bienville indicated a decrease in size of 60 to 80 percent 

over a 50 year period (1936-1988). Due to the open nature of the community, past land management has 

often utilized these openings as log landings, woods roads and wildlife food plots. Former sites are 

degraded because of past land use practices and most are now in a woodland or sparse forest condition.

Past inventory efforts have identified 65 prairie relicts on the Bienville. Not all relicts have been 

identified, and the aerial extent of these prairie relicts is yet to be determined.

Historically, fire is believed to have been frequent enough to prevent encroachment into the grassy 

openings. Fire also encouraged the forb component. Many Jackson prairies have reverted to other forest 

types due to settlement, conversion, and fire suppression. Plant species diversity in these understories also 

has likely been affected by past intensive grazing and use of the prairie openings as wildlife food plots, 

roads and log landings. Management activities are frequently needed to restore prairie vegetation, enlarge 

present openings, and restore historical fire regimes. Future management actions should include 

identifying and mapping all occurrences of this rare community. 

Ephemeral ponds and emergent wetlands 

This wetland system represents a variety of seasonally flooded depression wetlands, freshwater marshes, 

and ephemeral ponds. Included are ponds of various geomorphic origins in a variety of substrates 

including lime sinks and Grady ponds which may hold areas of shallow open water for significant 

portions of the year. Ephemeral ponds and emergent wetlands occur on all portions of the National 

Forests in Mississippi. This community includes, but is not limited to, NatureServe’s east gulf coastal 

plain depression pondshore ecological system (CES203.558).

Ephemeral ponds and emergent wetlands generally occur in isolated upland situations and are not part of 

a stream system. In some examples, distinct bands of vegetation are present, while in others the bands are 

not distinct or they are present in a complex mosaic. Many examples have been altered or destroyed (e.g., 

converted to stock ponds or affected by erosion from adjacent uplands). The few remaining examples are 

vulnerable to off-highway vehicle use, ditching and drainage, and invasion by non-native plants and 

animals. Since they are of small size and often dry up during the year, they are valuable as breeding sites 

for amphibians and for Mississippi sandhill cranes breeding on the De Soto National Forest and environs.

These habitats are also essential for dusky gopher frog breeding and habitat. Information on location and 

size of this community type is not well known or documented. Due to past land use actions, these habitats 

may be degraded due to woody plant encroachment and drainage.

Cypress Dominated Wetlands 

This rare wetland system represents cypress dominated wetlands in a range of sizes, generally conforming 

to the size of the depression in which they occur. These wetlands may be located in floodplain forest or 

other wetland systems, around oxbow lakes and abandoned stream channels, and in smaller backwater 

areas adjacent to other bottomland hardwood forest types. This system occurs on the Bienville, Delta, 

Homochitto, and Holly Springs National Forests.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 67

Depending on past history of disturbance and other factors, bald cypress may occur with other species 

such as black gum, water tupelo, green ash, ironwood and red maple. Cypress dominated wetlands may be 

found throughout the Forests, but due to inconsistencies in past mapping practices there is no current 

accurate estimate of the amount of acreage in this type. Current condition of this type on the forest is 

probably relatively young forest growing back from harvest in the early part of this century. Several key 

locations are at risk due to headcutting of streams threatening to drain the wetland, while other locations 

have been harvested without successful cypress regeneration and await restoration.

Wet Pine Savanna 

This rare wetland system represents open savannas dominated by grasses, sedges, orchids, and 

carnivorous plants, and is located on low, flat plains with poorly drained soils. These sites are often 

saturated for 50 to 100 days per year. The system occurs on the De Soto National Forest. This community 

is synonymous with NatureServe’s east gulf coastal plain treeless savanna and wet prairie (CES203.192).

This savanna or wet prairie association occurs in the western Florida Panhandle and adjacent areas of 

Alabama and Mississippi. It occurs in pine flatwoods landscape on gently sloping to almost level 

topography, and often has a scattered canopy (typically 5 to 10 percent cover) of stunted longleaf pine and 

slash pine. This fire-dependent community is part of the longleaf pine ecosystem, which once dominated 

the coastal plain landscape, and depends on frequent, low-intensity, growing-season fires to control 

understory vegetation. Carnivorous plants such as pitcher plants are diagnostic of this ecological system.

Pitcher plant abundance ranges from dominant or co-dominant to sparse, and one or more species may be 

present. Where ephemeral ponds and emergent wetlands are interspersed, this is habitat for the 

endangered Mississippi sandhill crane. Frequent fires, including growing-season burns, are essential for 

maintenance of this system (NatureServe 2004a, 2004b). It is uncertain how many acres of this 

community type occur on the National Forests in Mississippi.

Under historical reference conditions, fire is believed to have been frequent enough to limit development 

of fire-intolerant hardwood and to stimulate rich understories of grasses and forbs. Many wet pine 

savanna sites have been converted to forest or support only depauperate2 communities due to a long 

history of system drainage and fire suppression. Management activities are frequently needed to restore 

healthy hydrologic function, historical fire regimes, and characteristic grass-forb understories of wet pine 

savannas.

Seeps, Springs, and Seepage Swamps 

This wetland system represents forested wetlands in acidic, seepage-influenced habitats. Seeps, springs, 

and seepage swamps occur on all areas of the National Forests in Mississippi except the Delta National 

Forest. This ecological system combines elements of NatureServe’s southern coastal plain seepage swamp 

and baygall (CES203.505) and the east gulf coastal plain northern seepage swamp (CES203.504).

This wetland system occurs mostly in deciduous forests (and less commonly herbaceous communities), 

generally found at the base of slopes or other habitats where seepage flow is concentrated and resulting 

moisture conditions are saturated or inundated. Vegetation is characterized by black gum, tupelo gum, and 

red maple. To the south, this system grades into southern coastal plain seepage swamp and baygall where 

evergreen species are important in the canopy and understory. Due to excessive wetness, these habitats are 

normally protected from fire, except during extreme droughty periods. These environments are prone to 

long-duration standing water and tend to occur on highly acidic, nutrient-poor soils (NatureServe 2004a, 

2004b). Current information on location and size of this community type is not well documented. Due to 

 2 Having a limited biodiversity.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

68 National Forests in Mississippi

excessive wetness, these sites have not been as highly disturbed as have adjacent upland areas. Many 

seeps and springs may dry during part of the year as water tables recede. Maintenance of saturated to 

inundated soil conditions is important to maintenance of the unique forb, grass, and sedge dominated 

diversity of these sites. Without wet conditions, sites would soon be dominated by more xeric or mesic 

species from surrounding habitats. Management activities are frequently needed to maintain canopy 

closure as appropriate over these communities and to ensure maintenance of the water table.

Herbaceous Seepage Bogs and Flats 

This rare wetland system represents open seepage communities dominated by grasses, sedges, orchids, 

and carnivorous plants. These wetlands are generally found on gentle, almost imperceptible slopes 

maintained by constant seepage zones or perched water tables. Pitcher plants are notable indicators of this 

system. It occurs on the De Soto National Forest. This community includes NatureServe’s southern 

coastal plain herbaceous seepage bog (CES203.078).

This small-patch ecological system includes wet, fire-maintained, seepage communities in the outermost 

portions of the east gulf coastal plain, east of the Mississippi River in Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, 

and northern Florida. Sites are typically grass and sedge dominated and species rich. Pitcher plants are 

notable indicators of this system. In the absence of fire, shrub encroachment is common, although due to 

greater topographic isolation, the most interior examples are often naturally shrubbier (NatureServe 

2004b). The most established herbaceous seepage bogs and flats may be called “quaking bogs” and have 

deep (in excess of 2 meters) organic, mucky peats instead of inorganic soil. They are considered to be 

imperiled in the state due to their rarity as a result of a history of fire exclusion and attempts at hydrologic

modification. Examples of this community are known to exist on the De Soto National Forest, but it is 

uncertain how many examples persist and how many acres are involved. Occurrences on the National 

Forests in Mississippi typically have too much canopy closure with resultant impacts on hydrologic 

regime.

Historically, fire is believed to have been frequent enough to limit development of woody shrubs and 

vines while allowing for the maintenance of a very rich grass, sedge, forb ground cover. The balancing of 

fire seasonality, intensity and frequency is important to maintain rare components of both shrub (e.g., bog 

spice bush and odorless wax myrtle) and herbaceous layers (e.g., Harper’s yellow-eyed grass, coast sedge 

and large-leaved grass-of-Parnassus). Too frequent or too intense burns will eliminate the rare 

components of the shrub layer, while too infrequent or cooler burns will lead to exclusion of herbaceous 

layer and establishment of titi thickets. It should be noted that during drought periods, intense fire in this 

system can result in reduction of the peat layer of the bog. In the past, there have been attempts to drain 

these “unproductive wetlands.” Management activities are needed to restore the hydrologic function, open 

canopies, historical fire regimes, and characteristic grass, sedge, forb understories of this ecological 

system. 

3.5.2 Species Diversity 

There are an estimated 2,500 plant species and 307 animal species that occupy an extremely wide array of 

habitats across the diverse landscapes of the National Forests in Mississippi. Habitat management is 

designed to provide for a diversity of cover types and successional stages to sustain native and desired 

non-native wildlife species. Forest lands serve as refuges for unique or rare species, offer large contiguous 

forested areas where animal species can successfully reproduce and rear their young, afford key rest and 

feeding areas for waterfowl and other migratory bird species, and provide important linkages (travel 

corridors) between State and Federal wildlife refuges and other blocks of forested land. Additional 

background information about species diversity is including in the ecosystem and species diversity report 

(appendix G) and the ecological sustainability evaluation tool which analyzed sustainability of ecological 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 69

communities for the revised forest plan and serves as a key part of the ecological sustainability evaluation 

framework.

One focus of habitat management programs is demand species associated with recreational wildlife 

pursuits such as hunting, fishing, and viewing. Because these activities are generally limited or restricted 

on private lands, the National Forests in Mississippi offer a unique opportunity within the state for those 

wishing to participate in these activities. Some demand species are white-tailed deer, eastern wild turkey, 

fox and gray squirrels, northern bobwhite, eastern bluebird, and a diversity of neo-tropical migratory birds 

passing through during migration.

The National Forests in Mississippi have 14 wildlife management areas designated throughout its 7 

ranger districts which are managed under a cooperative agreement between the Forest Service and the 

Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks. While Mississippi Department of Wildlife, 

Fisheries, and Parks holds authority for regulation of hunting and trapping and provides equipment and 

labor for wildlife food plots, the Forests are primarily responsible for protecting and managing habitat. 

The Forests also conduct activities and programs to assist in identification, conservation, and recovery of 

threatened and endangered plant and animal species in cooperation with the US Fish and Wildlife Service 

(USFWS). Four threatened and endangered wildlife species were listed in the 1985 forest plan: the redcockaded woodpecker, Mississippi sandhill crane, American alligator, and eastern indigo snake. Since 

1985, nine additional listed plant or animal species have been confirmed on the National Forests in 

Mississippi. However, since then two species, the bald eagle and American alligator have been delisted. 

Currently, eight additional species include: pondberry, Louisiana quillwort, gopher tortoise, Louisiana 

black bear, gulf sturgeon, pallid sturgeon, dusky gopher frog, and Indiana bat. The National Forests in 

Mississippi provides habitat for ten federally listed threatened or endangered species (table 12). Habitats 

for all threatened and endangered species are provided through forestwide management prescriptions in 

associated forest communities.

Table 12. Federally threatened or endangered species that occur on the National Forests in 

Mississippi

Threatened and Endangered Species Status District Most Likely to Occur

Red-cockaded Woodpecker

(Picoides borealis) Endangered Bienville, Chickasawhay,

De Soto, Homochitto

Gopher Tortoise

(Gopherus polyphemus) Threatened Chickasawhay

De Soto

Louisiana Black Bear

(Ursus americanus luteolis) Threatened Delta, De Soto

Homochitto

Indiana Bat

(Myotis sodalis) Endangered Holly Springs

Dusky Gopher Frog

(Rana sevosa) Endangered De Soto

Louisiana Quillwort

(Isoetes louisianensis) Endangered Chickasawhay

De Soto

Pondberry

(Lindera melissifolia) Endangered Delta

Mississippi Sandhill Crane

(Grus Canadensis pula) Endangered De Soto

Gulf Sturgeon

(Acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi) Threatened Chickasawhay

Pallid Sturgeon

(Scaphirhynchus albus) Endangered Delta
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

70 National Forests in Mississippi

Aquatic Resources

Surface water resources (creeks, streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, bayous, and greentree reservoirs) within the 

National Forests in Mississippi are abundant. Stream systems provide critical habitats for fish, mussels, 

invertebrates, reptiles, and amphibians, and the larger streams and rivers on the Forests are important 

sport fishing resources. At least 143 species of fish are known to occur in streams and lakes on the 

Forests, several of which have significance as game species while others have significance as ecological 

indicators. The National Forests in Mississippi have extensive acreage of riparian areas. Riparian and 

aquatic-associated terrestrial communities are managed to protect and maintain water quality, 

productivity, bank stability, and habitat for riparian dependent or aquatic species. Because of the mixed 

land ownership pattern on these forests, many streams traverse intermittently across private land and 

National Forest System land, making management somewhat challenging. Many of the streams were 

channelized or modified in the past and are still recovering. Stream systems are impacted by road 

crossings and dams that hinder or block upstream movements of aquatic organisms. In-stream water flows 

are essential for fishing, boating, and the habitat needs of a variety of game and non-game fish and other 

aquatic species. 

Other surface waters of the Forests include man-made lakes and ponds. These systems provide a water 

source for a wide range of plants and animals. The Forests contain over 50 man-made lakes and ponds 

totaling more than 3,100 acres of water. These impoundments range in size from 1 to 1051 acres. The 

original purpose for the construction of these impoundments was floodwater prevention and erosion 

control. However, these impoundments were also stocked with largemouth bass, bluegill, and red-ear 

sunfish and now provide recreational fishing benefits. Most of the lakes and ponds over one acre in size 

are managed for sustainable sport fishing.

Fisheries management is practiced on the Forests to provide fishing opportunities to the public. 

Management practices include angler access improvement, liming and fertilization, aquatic weed control, 

fish habitat improvement, and fish stocking. Demand species associated with fishing include: largemouth 

bass, bluegill, redear sunfish, channel catfish, black crappie, white crappie, spotted bass, longear sunfish, 

and white bass.

The following is a summary of current water conditions on the National Forests in Mississippi:

• Streams on the Holly Springs and Tombigbee National Forests are characteristically small, often 

turbid with warm varying flow and low in pH. Many of these streams have been extensively 

channelized and are poorly to moderately shaded, generally with hard clay bottoms and occasionally 

with silty, soft substrate.

• Streams on the Delta National Forest are typified as highly modified, low gradient, turbid with large 

floodplains. Management activities on the Delta have minimal influence on the functioning of these 

systems compared to the extensive agricultural practices that occur upstream.

• Streams on the Homochitto National Forest are characteristically slow flowing, clear, and warm with 

a sand-gravel substrate. These streams are moderately shaded, wide and shallow. Head-cutting 

(sloughing, instable stream banks) has become a recurring problem and is a serious threat to 

maintaining aquatic ecosystems.

• Streams on the Bienville National Forest are small to moderate in size and flow. Because of flat 

topography and low flow conditions, many of these streams dry up during the summer.

• Most streams on the De Soto National Forest are classified as black-water streams. These streams 

typically occur in the pine forest areas of the southeastern United States where little or no agriculture 

occurs. These streams are usually clear or tea-colored with a sandy bottom.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 71

Trends

• The National Forests in Mississippi have an abundant system of lakes, streams, and wetlands which 

provide diverse habitats for aquatic plant and animal species. Since 1985, aquatic resource conditions 

have generally improved statewide through the use of best management practices.

• Water resources and aquatic ecosystems (i.e., rivers, streams, and wetlands) provide critical habitats 

for fish, mussels, invertebrates, reptiles, and amphibians. Many hydrologic and aquatic systems are 

impacted by fragmentation of aquatic habitats by road crossings and dams that hinder or block 

upstream movements of aquatic organisms.

• Since 1995, water demand has significantly increased due to forest management activities and urban 

sprawl. 

• From a forestwide perspective, the primary areas of concern for the future associated with water 

quality conditions include erosion, gully creation, head-cutting, sedimentation, nutrient loading, oil 

contamination and pollution, mercury, and low dissolved oxygen.

3.5.3 Threatened and Endangered Species 

Dusky Gopher Frog 

The dusky gopher frog is listed as federally endangered and is distributed across three localities. The 

largest and best known population, of approximately 100 adult frogs, breed at a pond (Glen’s Pond) 

located in Harrison County, Mississippi on the De Soto Ranger District of De Soto National Forest.

Dusky gopher frogs were found in 2004 at two other pond sites one of which is owned by the state of 

Mississippi and the other on private land with the nearest recently found pond at least 20 miles from 

Glen’s Pond.

Glen’s Pond is an ephemeral pond, typically dry during the summer. The frogs come to the pond to breed 

in the fall and winter in years when there has been adequate rainfall. The adults subsequently leave the 

pond after breeding. Metamorphosed juveniles leave the pond in the summer. A water well and pump is in 

place to supplement water levels in the pond due to inadequate rainfall in recent years. 

Gopher frog habitat includes both upland foraging sites with a subterranean refuge and isolated temporary 

wetland breeding sites embedded within the forested landscape. This species is associated with longleaf 

pine habitat and utilizes burrows of the gopher tortoise and small mammals as a refuge from heat and 

predators. Frequent fires are necessary to maintain the open canopy and groundcover vegetation in the 

aquatic and terrestrial habitats (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2001).

Critical habitat was designated for the dusky gopher frog on June 12, 2012. This included seven areas 

within DeSoto Ranger District encompassing approximately 3,084 acres. These areas include habitat 

surrounding Glen’s Pond and associated ponds, Carr Bridge Road Pond, the Ashe Nursery ponds, and 

four ponds in the Mars Hill area of Perry County. Critical habitat is a term defined in the Endangered 

Species Act. It refers to specific geographic areas that are essential to the conservation of a threatened or 

endangered species. 

This designation of critical habitat will help ensure the dusky gopher frog’s habitat needs are sustained

and ensure actions do not adversely modify or destroy this habitat. The establishment of this critical 

habitat should assist the Forest in further management of this species by creating a focus point for 

management needs including restoration of longleaf pine, protection of pond sites and their hydrology, 

invasive species management, and prescribed fire. The continuity of habitat over large areas should focus 

management, preclude isolation and allow for dispersal of the species across the landscape.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

72 National Forests in Mississippi

Dusky Gopher Frog Current Threats

The greatest threat to the dusky gopher frog is its small population numbers that makes it extremely 

vulnerable to extinction from natural and man-made processes. In 2003, an undescribed disease was 

discovered in gopher frog tadpoles at Glen’s Pond. Initial work on the disease by researchers at the 

National Wildlife Health Research Center indicated it is similar to Perkinsus, a genus of Mesomycetozoan 

that occurs in marine invertebrates. During work conducted to study the Perkinsus-like disease, an 

additional disease, a chytrid fungus, was found in two other species of amphibians at Glen’s Pond. This 

disease has been implicated in amphibian declines worldwide. The effect of these two diseases on the 

survival of gopher frogs is unknown. In close proximity to Glen’s Pond is a 4,000 acre residential 

development project on private land. Urban and commercial development of the surrounding area, 

including several highway projects, has the potential to further degrade this habitat and possibly increase 

mortality. Drought has also resulted in complete reproductive failure in some years.

Dusky Gopher Frog Responses to Threats 

The National Forests in Mississippi along with a number of cooperators have been involved in research, 

monitoring, habitat management, acquiring land and captive propagation programs. These cooperators 

include the US Fish and Wildlife Service, Mississippi Museum of Natural Science, University of New 

Orleans, Southeastern Louisiana University, USGS National Wildlife Health Center, University of 

Southern Mississippi Gulf Coast Research Lab, USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service, Harrison 

County Soil and Water Conservation District, The Nature Conservancy, Western Carolina University, Dr. 

Joe Pechmann, Dr. Steven Richter, Mississippi Department of Transportation, Mississippi Army National 

Guard, Memphis Zoo and Detroit Zoo.

Glen’s Pond has been monitored for the presence of gopher frog egg masses since 1988. A drift fence 

completely encircling Glen’s Pond was established in December of 1995. Both egg mass surveys and drift 

fence monitoring are currently being used to assess population status. Movements of adult and 

metamorphic gopher frogs into and out of the pond are monitored by capturing them as they enter and exit 

the breeding pond. Gopher frog tadpoles were collected at each breeding event since 2002 and raised in 

cattle tanks as a hedge against pond drying or other catastrophic events at the pond.

Prescribed burning Glen’s Pond basin and the surrounding upland habitat has been a priority for the 

Forest Service. Frequent growing season fires are necessary to maintain the mid-story and groundcover 

vegetation in the aquatic and terrestrial habitats. The Forests’ focus is habitat restoration and management 

and maintaining a 1-3 year burning regime. 

The National Forests in Mississippi has followed a Memorandum of Understanding with the US Fish and 

Wildlife Service and Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks which states that the Forest 

Service shall (1) cooperate in the monitoring of the breeding population of the frog and its habitat on 

forest lands, (2) manage timber stands within dusky gopher frog critical habitat in a manner appropriate 

for the protection of the frog and management emphasis will focus on maintenance and restoration of 

longleaf pine ecosystem, (3) cooperate on the development of a plan to create additional ponds for the 

purpose of introduction and (4) cooperate on the development of a long-term adaptive management plan 

for the recovery of the dusky gopher frog. This memorandum is currently being updated as is mandatory 

every 5 years. Once a recovery plan has been established for the dusky gopher frog, the Forests will 

follow the most current recovery plan guidance and the best available science in order to recover this 

species.

Dusky Gopher Frog Cooperative Management Unit (CMU)

A 1,655 acre dusky gopher frog cooperative management unit has been designated in all alternatives 

except the no-action alternative in the southern portion of De Soto Ranger District which encompasses 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 73

Glen’s Pond and surrounding habitat (figure 10). This area of the district contains the only known 

breeding population of the dusky gopher frog. The establishment of this cooperative management unit

would assist in further management of this species by creating a focus point for management needs 

including restoration of longleaf pine, protection of Glen’s Pond and its hydrology, invasive species 

management, and prescribed fire. The continuity of habitat over a large area should focus management, 

preclude isolation and allow for dispersal of the species across the landscape.

Figure 10. Dusky gopher frog cooperative management unit

Mississippi Sandhill Crane 

The Mississippi sandhill crane, the most endangered North American crane, is listed as federally 

endangered has declined in range where it once occurred along most of the northern Gulf of Mexico 

coast. A small population of 110-120 Mississippi sandhill cranes exists in southern Jackson County, MS 

from the Pascagoula River west to the county line and from 4 miles north of Vancleave, MS, south to 

Simmons Bayou which is located on the Mississippi Sandhill Crane Refuge (US Fish and Wildlife 

Service 1991). The wild flock has been slow to increase due to abnormally high mortality of nestlings and 

first-year birds. Population stability has been achieved only through the release of captive-bred chicks.

Sightings of this species on the southeastern portion of De Soto Ranger District of the De Soto National 

Forest are not uncommon as they use existing habitat for foraging. Currently, there are no nests known to 

occur on the National Forests in Mississippi.

The Mississippi sandhill crane inhabits pine savannahs as well as associated bay-heads, swamps, and 

marshes. These areas are seasonally wet, open to semi-open herbaceous communities dominated by 

grasses and sedges with poorly formed shrubs and trees. Frequent growing season fire is required to 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

74 National Forests in Mississippi

maintain this habitat. This bird uses the wet pine savannas for nesting during the summer breeding 

season. The ground cover is composed of grasses, sedges, and an array of wet-acid-soil plants. Water at 

the nest sites may range from none to a foot deep. The nests vary from token piles of grass laid on top of 

grasses or sedges, to large structures constructed from local vegetation. The nests are built at ground 

level. The cranes feed on the breeding grounds in savannas, swamps, and open fields in the spring, 

summer, and fall. During the winter they often feed in the small cornfields and pastures in the northern 

part of their range (US Fish and Wildlife Service 1991).

Mississippi Sandhill Crane Current Threats

The greatest threat to Mississippi sandhill crane its small population numbers and its current restriction to 

a small area of lower coastal plain pine savanna in Jackson County, MS. The wet pine savanna is critical 

to the crane’s habitat needs, but most of the original savanna habitat has been altered by human practices.

Wild flocks have also been slow to increase due to abnormally high mortality of nestlings and first-year 

birds. There are no known imminent dangers, but projected environmental disruptions include possible 

tourist, commercial, and industrial developments in the marsh and waterways.

Mississippi Sandhill Crane Response to Threats

The National Forests in Mississippi recognizes that the Mississippi sandhill crane’s habitat needs must be 

met in order for species survival. The Forests’ focus is to restore and maintain wet pine savanna to 

increase habitat availability for this species. A sandhill crane cooperative management unit, as described 

previously, will be designated in all alternatives except alternative B. This unit will allow for accelerated 

restoration of habitat needed for the expansion of this species at a landscape scale.

Mississippi Sandhill Crane Cooperative Management Unit (CMU)

A 3,357 acre Mississippi sandhill crane cooperative management unit has been designated in all

alternatives except the no-action alternative in the southeast corner of De Soto Ranger District which 

encompasses part of Harrison and Jackson counties and lies within 10 miles of the coastline of southern 

Mississippi (figure 11). This area of the District once contained suitable Mississippi sandhill crane 

habitat, as evidenced by records of crane sightings and nests on National Forest System land. The nearly 

20,000 acre Mississippi Sandhill Crane Wildlife Refuge is located only a few miles from this area. The 

establishment of a cooperative management unit in this southeast corner would assist in further 

management of this species by increasing the spatial extent of the species’ range including increased 

nesting and foraging habitat and creating habitat through ecosystem restoration of wet pine savannah, 

seeps, springs, and seepage swamps, and creation of ephemeral ponds and wetlands. Cooperative 

management unit size and location was dependent on the amount of potential wet pine savanna in 

contiguous blocks and distance from the Mississippi Sandhill Crane Refuge. The continuity of crane 

habitat over large areas should preclude isolation and allow for dispersal of the species across the 

landscape.

The dense pine woods currently found in the southeast corner of the De Soto Ranger District are 

unacceptable nesting and feeding habitat for cranes. Fire suppression, pine plantations, draining of land

and nearby development have changed the historic vegetation structure. Stands of pine trees and thick 

underbrush now occupy what was once open savanna. Prescribed burning, mechanical clearing, thinning, 

and restoration of habitat and hydrology will effectively restore and maintain open savanna.

Restoration of Mississippi sandhill crane habitat on the De Soto Ranger District will promote recovery of 

the species and ensure effective collaboration with the US Fish and Wildlife Service as they work to 

maintain crane habitat on the nearby refuge.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 75

Figure 11. Mississippi sandhill crane cooperative management unit

Red-cockaded Woodpecker 

The red-cockaded woodpecker is a medium-sized woodpecker adapted to the historic fire maintained 

mature pine forest ecosystems of the southeastern United States. The range of the red-cockaded 

woodpecker has been reduced to approximately 1 percent of its historic range. It is currently listed as 

endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service throughout its range. The red-cockaded woodpecker is 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

76 National Forests in Mississippi

native to the open, fire-maintained pine forests of the southeastern United States. This species required 

large areas of mature pine forest with open under-stories to meet both foraging and nesting requirements.

They excavate nesting and roosting cavities in live mature pines, 60 years old or older, and forage mainly 

in pines greater than 30 years of age within a half mile of the colony site and contiguous to the colony.

Species recovery is dependent on land management practices that mimic historical regimes that resulted 

in open stands of mature pine with under-stories dominated by forbs and grasses. Presently, 56 percent of 

all active red-cockaded woodpecker groups (known as clusters) reside on National Forest System land 

(US Fish and Wildlife Service 2003b). Thus, the Forest Service plays a crucial role in the conservation 

and recovery of the red-cockaded woodpecker.

Red-cockaded Woodpecker Threats

Fire suppression and past large-scale timber harvests have resulted in loss of habitat for red-cockaded 

woodpeckers. One of the primary threats to red-cockaded woodpeckers, described in the recovery plan 

(US Fish and Wildlife Service 2003b), is a bottleneck in the number of pines available as cavity trees. A 

second impact on the viability of red-cockaded woodpeckers is demographics or the factors associated 

with the isolation and expansion of small populations. Other threats include the lack of suitable foraging 

habitat and the lack of mid-story control.

Red-cockaded Woodpecker Response to Threats

The US Fish and Wildlife Service has determined that recovery populations of the endangered redcockaded woodpecker will be accomplished only within large expanses of mature and over-mature pine 

forests managed for the special nesting and foraging habits of this species. Four districts within National 

Forests in Mississippi have been identified by the US Fish and Wildlife Service and the US Forest Service 

as support units for this species. Two are primary core populations, known to hold at least 350 potential 

breeding groups at the time of and after delisting – the Bienville National Forest and the Chickasawhay 

Ranger District of the De Soto National Forest. Two others are secondary core populations which will 

hold at least 250 potential breeding groups at the time of and after delisting – the Homochitto National 

Forest and the De Soto Ranger District of the De Soto National Forest (US Fish and Wildlife Service 

2003b).

In 1995, the regional red-cockaded woodpecker FEIS provided direction to National Forests in the 

Southern Region with red-cockaded woodpecker population and habitat management objectives. In 

January 2003, the red-cockaded woodpecker recovery plan second revision was released (USDA Forest 

Service 1995, US Fish and Wildlife Service 2003b). The National Forests in Mississippi have

incorporated these two sources to maximize red-cockaded woodpecker opportunities within existing 

forest conditions, current political management realities, and the Forests’ planning land allocation 

decisions. The FEIS was used to define the habitat management areas strategy; while the most current US

Fish and Wildlife Service recovery plan will be implemented to define habitat management strategy, 

population management guidance and goals, and monitoring guidance. 

Current understanding of this species’ biology is sufficient to work towards red-cockaded woodpecker 

population goals. The National Forests in Mississippi should continue to improve and maintain favorable 

habitat conditions for this endangered species. Multiple techniques are available and effective, and 

strategies have been tailored to individual populations and habitat conditions. It is the implementation of 

these strategies, carefully designed to meet the conditions of each of four very different populations and 

habitat, which will continue to enhance red-cockaded woodpecker recovery on the National Forests in 

Mississippi.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 77

Red-cockaded Woodpecker Habitat Management Areas

Tentative Red-cockaded Woodpecker Habitat Management Areas (Alternative B)

Three National Forests in Mississippi; the Bienville, the Homochitto, and the De Soto (comprised of the 

De Soto and Chickasawhay Ranger Districts), currently support populations of red-cockaded woodpecker 

and have been identified as playing significant roles in species recovery by the Recovery Plan for the 

Red-cockaded Woodpecker (Picoides borealis): Second Revision (US Fish and Wildlife Service 2003).

Tentative habitat management areas were identified as part of the Final Environmental Impact Statement 

for the Management of Red-cockaded Woodpecker and its Habitat on National Forests in the Southern 

Region (USDA Forest Service 1995) and incorporated into the Land and Resource Management Plan for 

the National Forests in Mississippi (USDA Forest Service 1985) through amendment #14. The 

determination of habitat management areas and population objectives for red-cockaded woodpecker was 

needed to insure population objectives could be met for the species’ recovery in the long term and to 

conform to regional direction.

Red-cockaded woodpecker habitat management areas, as described in the FEIS, have been designated for 

each national forest where birds are currently found. Habitat management area designation involves the 

delineation of an area that represents the desired future demographic configuration of a red-cockaded 

woodpecker population. It is a strategy of management at a landscape scale. The intent is to manage an 

area large enough to avoid or overcome the adverse effects of fragmentation and to reduce the risks 

involved with small populations and environmental stochasticity. The area within habitat management 

areas and outside of cluster, recruitment stand, and replacement stand boundaries should be managed for a 

full range of multiple uses, but would emphasize the sustainable production of red-cockaded woodpecker 

foraging and future nesting habitat.

Revised Habitat Management Areas (Alternatives A, C, D, and E)

Delineation of habitat management area boundaries was based on the distribution of existing active and 

inactive clusters, therefore a habitat management area may contain more acres of suitable and potentially 

suitable habitat than needed to support the minimum required population. Population objectives for each 

habitat management area are based on red-cockaded woodpecker density objectives which vary by 

physiographic province and ecosystem. Variability in habitat capability exists among physiographic 

provinces based on ecological factors associated with individual landscapes. This variability was the 

determining factor allowing each national forest to refine the tentative population objectives established 

in the FEIS for each habitat management area. 

It has been over 10 years since the FEIS was created, thus acreage changes within the tentative habitat 

management area boundaries were expected due to land exchanges, acquisitions, natural succession of 

ecosystems, and decisions made through the years. All tentative habitat management area boundaries 

have been reexamined to insure that present conditions meet red-cockaded woodpecker recovery 

objectives both spatially and temporally (table 13).
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

78 National Forests in Mississippi

Table 13. Objectives, goals, and designations of red-cockaded woodpecker habitat management 

areas (HMAs) in the National Forests in Mississippi

Bienville De Soto Black 

Creek Biloxi Chickasawhay Homochitto Totals

Tentative 

HMA acres 125,160 35,467 38,293 100,494 67,755 367,196

Tentative 

Population 

Objective

500 177 191 502 225 1,595

Management 

Intensity 

Level

3 4 4 4 3

USFWS 

Designation

Primary 

core

Secondary

core Primary core Secondary core

USFWS Size 

at Delisting 

(PBGa)

350 250 350 250 1,200

Revised 

Tentative

HMA Acresb 140,520 30,436 43,888 102,426 93,502 390,886

Revised 

HMA 

Population 

Objective

500 152 219 502 276 1,649

a – PBG – potential breeding group

b - Suitable and potentially suitable red-cockaded woodpecker Management Intensity Level habitat acres

Tentative habitat management area boundaries on all districts have been revised based soundly on ecology 

that addresses the habitat requirements of the red-cockaded woodpecker necessary for population 

conservation and recovery. Chickasawhay Ranger District changed its habitat management areas 

boundary to remove hardwood dominated ecosystems and replaced them with suitable and potential 

suitable pine dominated ecosystems in a surplus of approximately 2000 acres (figure 12). Since the FEIS 

was written, Biloxi and Black Creek Ranger Districts were combined into De Soto Ranger District; 

however, two separate habitat management areas remain (figure 13 and figure 14). Because these habitat 

management area boundaries are separated by approximately 12.5 miles, they should still be considered 

separate habitat management areas, while the combination of both will meet the US Fish and Wildlife 

Service red-cockaded woodpecker population objectives for the De Soto Ranger District. Some of the 

areas inside of the habitat management areas that were historically pitcher plant bogs and treeless 

savannahs were excluded from suitable and potentially suitable red-cockaded woodpecker habitat and will 

not be managed for red-cockaded woodpecker. Homochitto Ranger District revised its tentative boundary 

to increase the proportion of acres per cluster of suitable and potential suitable pine dominated 

ecosystems in a surplus of approximately 25,000 acres [100 acres per cluster] (figure 16). This allows the 

district to increase its original FEIS habitat management area population objective in order to satisfy US

Fish and Wildlife Service recovery standards. Bienville National Forest’s habitat management area 

boundary was also increased to incorporate the entire district excluding hardwood dominated systems 

allowing for more than 14,000 additional suitable acres. While acres of suitable and potentially suitable 

habitat within the boundary changed due to ecosystem changes over time and as data became more 

reliable through better science and data management (figure 15), habitat management area population 

objectives did not change. Although the majority of the pine dominated ecosystems are primarily loblolly, 

longleaf dominated systems do exist on Bienville National Forest accounting for more than 5,000 acres.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 79

Figure 12. Chickasawhay Ranger District revised habitat management area

Figure 13. De Soto Ranger District revised Biloxi habitat management area
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

80 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 14. De Soto Ranger District revised Black Creek habitat management area
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 81

Figure 15. Bienville National Forest revised habitat management area
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

82 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 16. Homochitto National Forest revised habitat management area
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 83

Gulf Sturgeon 

Gulf sturgeon was once widely distributed throughout coastal rivers of the northeastern Gulf of Mexico 

primarily from the Mississippi River east to the Suwannee River. The Suwannee may support the only 

remaining population known to spawn successfully in the wild. This fish is anadramous, with adults 

migrating between fresh water spawning areas and salt water non-spawning areas. It may migrate as far as 

140 miles upstream in early spring for spawning, with sub-adults and adults returning to the Gulf of 

Mexico in late fall, remaining there through winter (Heise et al. 2004). Young generally stay in the mouth 

of the river in winter and spring, where they spend the first two years of their lives. The substrate in 

spawning areas in freshwater (sometimes tidal) usually is hard clay, gravel, or shell, and may occur in 

brackish water. Spawning probably occurs in the natal river, with offspring returning to areas where they 

were born.

In Mississippi, the Gulf sturgeon has been collected in the Pearl River and in the Pascagoula watersheds.

The closest recorded occurrence location to the Chickasawhay Ranger District of the De Soto National 

Forest in suitable waterway corridors for adults is the confluence of the Leaf River and Chickasawhay 

River well below the forest boundary. While there is a possibility that juveniles may move up into smaller 

tributaries, no confirmed collections have occurred on the district. The largest creek with water year 

round on National Forest System lands that flows directly into the Chickasawhay River on the east side of 

the district is Big Creek, approximately 6 miles from the forest boundary to the river. Areas that contain 

Gulf sturgeon critical habitat on the De Soto Ranger District of the De Soto National Forest include: the 

Leaf River from MS Hwy 588 to its confluence with the Chickasawhay River, the Pascagoula River from 

the confluence with the Leaf and Chickasawhay Rivers to Pascagoula Bay, and Big Black Creek from the 

confluence Black and Red Creeks to the confluence with the Pascagoula River (US Fish and Wildlife 

Service 2003a). There are several creeks on the De Soto Ranger District that drain into these areas.

Gulf Sturgeon Threats

Gulf sturgeon numbers declined due to overfishing throughout most of the 20th century. Dams or sills that 

are barriers to upstream fish migration during low-water conditions further exacerbated their decline.

Other threats and potential threats included modifications to habitat associated with dredged material 

disposal, desnagging and other navigation maintenance activities; incidental take by commercial 

fishermen; poor water quality associated with contamination by pesticides, heavy metals, and industrial 

contaminants; aquaculture and incidental or accidental introductions; land uses that cause excessive 

sedimentation, loss of spawning habitat, and the Gulf sturgeon's slow growth and late maturation (US

Fish and Wildlife and Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission 1995). 

Gulf Sturgeon Response to Threats

The National Forests in Mississippi recognize that the Gulf sturgeon’s habitat needs must be met in order 

for species survival. The Forests also realize that many issues are outside Forest Service control such as 

sediment loading, head-cutting of streams, upstream discharges, and past channelization practices. To 

address these issues, the Forests work with other agencies, research institutions, and interested partners to 

collectively try to address solutions. Emphasis is placed on incorporating forest plan components during 

project planning that would seek to address watershed and aquatic systems with emphasis placed on the 

stressors for which the agency has control or jurisdiction by establishing streamside buffer zones, 

restricting vegetation management activities in riparian zones, and employing erosion control measures.

Pallid Sturgeon 

The endangered pallid sturgeon has a historical range of over 3,500 miles in the Missouri and Mississippi 

Rivers. Its status has placed the pallid at the center of major conflicts over water and river use in the 

Missouri and Mississippi Rivers. At the time the pallid sturgeon was listed as an endangered species 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

84 National Forests in Mississippi

(1990), most information on the species came from the upper Missouri River (~800 historical capture 

records). The pallid sturgeon looks very similar to the shovelnose sturgeon and has only been recognized 

as a separate species since 1905, but is believed to have been rare historically throughout its entire range.

Consequently, records kept of total harvest prior to 1905 did not separate the two species. Today, it is 

essentially restricted to the Lower Yellowstone River, the Missouri River, and the lower Mississippi River. 

In the state of Mississippi there have only been three reported captures of pallid sturgeon. Two were 

captured in the Mississippi River and one in the Big Sunflower River of Sharkey County near the Delta 

National Forest. The latter was caught on 23 November 1987, 12 miles northwest of Satartia, Mississippi 

(US Fish and Wildlife Service 1993a).

Pallid sturgeon habitat preferences are not well known, but it is believed that they prefer to dwell in sandy 

or rocky bottoms of large, turbid, free-flowing rivers. Pallid sturgeons feed on the bottom of the river and 

typically consume aquatic insects, crustaceans, mollusks, marine worms, fish, and the eggs of other fish.

They are generally long-lived, possibly living as long as 41 years. Males reach sexual maturity at 5 to 7 

years. Females are believed to first spawn at 15 to 20 years. Very little is known about the reproductive 

behavior of this species. Spawning behavior is thought to occur April through mid-June, when water 

temperatures reach a range between 55 and 70°F (US Fish and Wildlife Service 2007).

Pallid Sturgeon Threats

The pallid sturgeon was probably never a common species throughout its range, and is now considered 

one of the rarest inhabitants of the Mississippi and Missouri Basins. During the past several decades, 

populations of the pallid sturgeon have drastically declined. Overharvesting may have been an initial 

cause of this. However, they are currently threatened primarily by habitat modifications from 

channelization, dam construction, and other navigation maintenance activities of major rivers. These

changes destroy spawning areas, reduce food supply or access to food, and impede the sturgeon’s ability 

to move within the river. Dams decrease flow rates and produce cooler water temperatures, making rivers 

less desirable for pallid sturgeon. Sturgeon can live and grow in reservoirs, but they cannot reproduce 

there. Water pollution from rural and urban development along rivers may also be a problem for pallid 

sturgeons. A more recent problem that will affect the future status of the pallid sturgeon is hybridization 

with shovelnose sturgeon, which is occurring likely because of a lack of spawning sites for both of these 

species (US Fish and Wildlife Service 2007).

Pallid Sturgeon Response to Threats

The National Forests in Mississippi recognize that the pallid sturgeon’s habitat needs must be met in order 

for species survival. The Forests also realize that many issues are outside Forest Service control such as 

sediment loading, head-cutting of streams, upstream discharges, and past channelization practices. To 

address these issues, the Forests work with other agencies, research institutions, and interested partners to 

collectively try to address solutions. Emphasis is placed on incorporating forest plan components during 

project planning that would seek to address watershed and aquatic systems with emphasis placed on the 

stressors for which the agency has control or jurisdiction by establishing streamside buffer zones, 

restricting vegetation management activities in riparian zones, and employing erosion control measures.

Louisiana Black Bear 

It is estimated that only 50 to 100 black bears still remain in the state. The range for Louisiana black bear 

described for Mississippi when the Louisiana black bear was listed as threatened in 1992 was the area 

lying west of the Mississippi river levee and south of Washington County (US Fish and Wildlife Service 

1995). Black bears, including those that are not Louisiana black bears, are protected in Mississippi due to 

similarity in appearance. Louisiana black bears in Mississippi, in general, are found in three areas within 

the state: the Gulf coast, the loess bluffs of southwest Mississippi, and the Mississippi River Delta. These 
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National Forests in Mississippi 85

three areas include the De Soto, Homochitto, and Delta National Forests respectively. Mississippi 

Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks compiles statewide sightings data for black bears in 

Mississippi. The largest numbers of reported sightings of the Louisiana black bear are located along the 

Mississippi River basin, mainly Issaquena and Sharkey counties. Over the last five years, the numbers of 

sightings of bears on or around Delta National Forest has also increased and is believed to be due to 

habitat afforded by the Delta National Forest, the only bottomland hardwood national forest in the United 

States (Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Parks 2006). 

Louisiana black bears exist primarily in bottomland hardwood and floodplain forest, although use of 

upland hardwood, mixed pine and hardwood, and coastal flat-woods and marshes has been documented.

Normal forest management activities that support a sustained yield of timber products and wildlife are 

considered compatible with Louisiana black bear needs (US Fish and Wildlife Service 1995). Black bears 

are adaptable and opportunistic, and can survive in the proximity of humans if afforded areas of retreat 

that ensure little chance of close contact with humans. Black bears eat a wide variety of foods, but the diet 

includes vegetable matter, including grasses, fruits, seeds, nuts and roots. Insects, fish, carrion and small 

rodents are also eaten. Blackberries, hardwoods that produce acorns and other hard mast, shrubs, fallen 

logs, and brush-piles are part of the black bear's habitat (Black Bear Conservation Committee 2005).

Louisiana Black Bear Threats

Black bears, once common in Mississippi, have seen their habitat significantly reduced or eliminated 

throughout much of the state. The main reason for this reduction of habitat was the conversion of 

bottomland timber areas to agricultural farmlands. Habitat fragmentation, vehicle collisions, unrestricted 

harvests and illegal harvest are among the reasons for their reductions (Black Bear Conservation 

Committee 1997).

Louisiana Black Bear Response to Threats

Bear management should focus on providing suitable habitat and habitat linkages, abundant natural food 

supplies, denning sites, escape cover, and lots of work fostering public acceptance of black bears (Weaver 

2000). The National Forests in Mississippi recognize that the Louisiana black bear’s habitat needs must 

be met in order for species protection and recovery. The Forests’ focus is to restore and maintain habitat 

and retain and protect den sites to increase habitat availability for this species. The Forests are also 

currently cooperating with the Bear Education and Restoration Group of Mississippi (BEaR) in relation to 

Louisiana black bear conservation, restoration, management, and public education.

Gopher Tortoise 

The gopher tortoise is a terrestrial turtle found in South Carolina, Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, 

and Louisiana, but is most abundant in northern and central Florida and southern Georgia. Within this 

range, tortoises occur on the Ocala, Osceola and Apalachicola National Forests (Florida), the Conecuh 

National Forest (Alabama), and the De Soto National Forest (Mississippi). The "western population” of 

the gopher tortoise, which consists of those tortoises inhabiting the area west of the Mobile and 

Tombigbee Rivers in Alabama to southeastern Louisiana, has been listed as federally threatened (US Fish 

and Wildlife Service 1987). This includes all gopher tortoises occurring on the De Soto National Forest. 

This species is native to the open, fire-maintained, pine forests of the southeastern United States. Dry 

habitats ranging from pine-scrub oak to oak hammocks and coastal dunes are favored by this species.

Favored soils are deep sands occurring on ridgetops and sideslopes in which tortoises can easily excavate 

burrows. On the De Soto National Forest, the majority of gopher tortoises are found in longleaf pine 

stands of various ages and condition classes or along road edges that occur in longleaf or other pine 

stands. However, gopher tortoise also inhabits sites with relatively tight, clayey soils. Other trees and 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

86 National Forests in Mississippi

shrubs tend to be xerophytic scrub oaks and associated species such as wiregrass, legumes, and 

blackberries with broadleaf grasses. In preferred habitats the canopy is relatively open allowing for 

development of the diverse herbaceous ground flora on which gopher tortoises feed, and sunny areas for 

nesting. The gopher tortoise digs an extensive burrow with adult burrows generally about 15 to 20 feet in 

length and 6 to 10 feet deep, but may be up to 47 feet long and 12 feet deep.

Gopher Tortoise Threats

Currently, the primary threat to the gopher tortoise is habitat loss, either through direct means, such as 

conversion to pine plantations, agriculture or development; or through indirect means, such as fire 

suppression that changes the understory rendering the habitat unsuitable for tortoises. Direct threats to 

habitat could possibly cause immediate mortality in tortoises or result in displacement of tortoises into 

unsuitable habitats. There is also evidence that past human activities associated with widespread 

conversion of longleaf pine habitat to unsuitable pine plantations may still be impacting current gopher 

tortoise populations. Although gopher tortoise populations were not completely extirpated from these 

degraded lands, slow growth and late maturation caused by tortoises forced into unsuitable habitat may 

contribute to long-term declines (Aresco and Guyer 1999). Other threats include genetic bottlenecking 

through population isolation, take or harvest, disease, and predation.

Gopher Tortoise Response to Threats

The National Forests in Mississippi contribute to the conservation and recovery of gopher tortoise 

populations through implementation of conservation measures consistent with the most recent US Fish 

and Wildlife Service gopher tortoise recovery plan (US Fish and Wildlife Service 1990). Intensive 

management practices associated with the ecosystem, fire, and species diversity objectives in the forest 

plan have a potential to facilitate population expansion because more areas could be maintained in 

suitable habitat conditions.

Habitat management techniques such as longleaf pine and woodland ecosystem restoration, stand 

thinning, prescribed growing season burning, and reestablishing native ground cover should increase the 

chance of gopher tortoise population recovery on De Soto National Forest by improving foraging quality 

and thermal characteristics, thus producing faster-growing tortoises that mature sooner (Aresco and Guyer 

1999).

Surveying and then periodically resurveying gopher tortoise burrows helps determine trends in gopher 

tortoise populations. The National Forests in Mississippi presently conduct surveys of gopher tortoise at 

five year intervals. In addition to these formal surveys, Forest Service employees document gopher 

tortoise burrows observed during a variety of field activities, including focused surveys designed to locate 

burrows for protection prior to implementation of ground disturbing activities. These surveys determine 

population numbers and provide a valuable “baseline” against which to judge recovery. This ‘baseline” 

enables biologists to determine the effectiveness of recovery activities by comparing data from 

subsequent surveys carried out at five year intervals, as recommended in the recovery plan.

Louisiana Quillwort 

The Louisiana quillwort is a semi-aquatic, primitive, seedless plant related to ferns. Louisiana quillwort is 

a small, semi-evergreen to evergreen plant with spirally-arranged, hollow, linear leaves that are erect to 

reclining. This species does not reproduce via flowers and seeds, and instead reproduces via spores 

formed at the bases of the leaves. New plants can develop from spores that grow in bare soils exposed by 

flood scouring (US Fish and Wildlife Service 1996).

The Louisiana quillwort occurs predominantly on sandy soils and gravel bars on small to medium-sized 

streams. Plants are regularly submerged as much as 50 cm following rains, and may remain submerged
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National Forests in Mississippi 87

for long periods in wet seasons. It is found in or near shallow channels in narrow riparian woodland and 

bayhead forest communities in pine flat-woods and upland longleaf pine (US Fish and Wildlife Service 

1996). This species is listed as federally endangered (US Fish and Wildlife Service 1996) because of its 

restricted geographic range and small total population size. It occurs in the East Gulf Plain physiographic 

province in Louisiana and Mississippi. In Mississippi, Louisiana quillwort is found on De Soto National 

Forest in Wayne, Stone, Perry, Jones, Jackson, Harrison, Greene, Forrest, Hancock, and Pearl River 

Counties.

Louisiana Quillwort Threats

Natural threats to Louisiana quillwort are limited and include occasional browsing by marsh rabbits and 

whitetail deer, as well as periodic damming of free-flowing intermittent streams by beavers. Rooting and 

wallowing of non-native feral hogs pose greater threats to Louisiana quillwort than the limited damage 

from native wildlife. Disease and insect pests are not known to threaten the plants. More serious threats 

are posed by direct damage to Louisiana quillwort colonies from vehicular and recreational traffic and 

logging activities as well as increased sedimentation from land clearing activities on nearby uplands, soilladen runoff from upstream unpaved roads and wetland crossings, unauthorized vehicle traffic through 

upstream riparian areas, and various logging activities.

Louisiana Quillwort Response to Threats

Extensive stream surveys by Forest Service personnel to locate quillwort colonies, in compliance with the 

most current Louisiana quillwort recovery plan in forest maintenance and ecosystem restoration 

operations, and prohibition of tracked vehicle maneuvers in wetlands by the military are positive steps to 

protect Louisiana Quillwort on National Forest System lands.

Surveys of areas proposed for vegetation management activities are conducted when these activities will 

occur in areas containing intermittent streams, along muddy shores, in floodplains, scour channels and 

depressions, usually lined with Titi in hardwood strands and mixed pine-hardwood bottomlands. Groups 

and individuals of Isoetes louisianensis located during these surveys will be marked. Forest management 

activities should avoid direct impact to these individuals by keeping activities well away from stream 

banks.

Present distribution data suggest that long-term survival of the species at the global level is more certain 

than when the species was listed as endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. Intensive survey 

efforts have been made by Steve Leonard and the Forest Service on the National Forests in Mississippi.

On two ranger districts they discovered populations of several thousand individuals in over 50 stream 

locations, approximately half of which are geographically distinct populations exceeding US Fish and 

Wildlife recovery plan goals. Annual monitoring indicates populations are stable.

Compliance with the current recovery plan and proactive conservation of known populations will insure 

survival of the species. The great majority of known populations are on the National Forests in 

Mississippi and the survival of the species is largely dependent upon the actions of the Forest Service and

the Mississippi Military Department overseen by the US Fish and Wildlife Service.

Pondberry 

This endangered deciduous, aromatic shrub is found in the southeastern United States. At present, there 

are populations in Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, Missouri, Arkansas, North Carolina, and South 

Carolina (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2007). New colonies have been discovered since the recovery 

plan was written in 1993, some of which are near known populations; as on the Delta National Forest;

which may allow interbreeding to occur (Devall and Schiff 2001; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2007).
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

88 National Forests in Mississippi

In Mississippi, pondberry is found in bottomland hardwood forests located in Sharkey, Bolivar, and 

Sunflower Counties with the majority of populations found on the Delta National Forest. Pondberry is 

found in or at the edges of low, wet depressions that are usually within or near more extensive ridgebottom forest within the Lower Mississippi bottomland and floodplain forest. The species grows in dense 

clumps of numerous, usually branched stems. Both male and female plants produce small yellow flowers.

The fruit is a bright red berry. Leaves produce a strong, sassafras-like odor when crushed. While 

pondberry is often found under relatively closed hardwood tree canopies, the species can acclimate to a 

variety of light conditions and may grow best at low to moderate light levels (Aleric and Kirkman 2005; 

Lockhart et al. 2012, 2013). However, in the absence of regular flooding, high light levels may increase 

the growth of competing vegetation that would otherwise be held in check (Wright 1989, 1990; Lockhart 

et al. 2013).

Pondberry Threats

Threats to the species include timber harvesting, wetland drainage, road construction and conversion of its 

habitat to agricultural use. A lack of seedling establishment may also be a reason for decline or lack of 

expansion. Most colonies found have been clonal and consist primarily of males (US Fish and Wildlife 

Service 1993b).

Pondberry Response to Threats

Protection and maintenance of sites is key to the survival of this species. Management activities will seek 

to maintain hydrology and appropriate tree canopy coverage. The National Forests in Mississippi should 

continue to conduct surveys for new populations and improve and maintain favorable habitat conditions 

for this endangered species.

Indiana Bat

This endangered bat is generally associated with limestone caves in the eastern United States. The only 

known occurrence of Indiana bats on the National Forests in Missisippi were tracked from the Rose Cave 

hibernacula in White County, Tennessee to a suspected maternity roost on the Holly Springs Ranger 

District in April, 2013. In addition to finding a new maternity colony, to date, this is the furthest 

documented migration of the Indiana bat. This straight line distance from the hibernaculum to the summer 

grounds is 367 km (228 miles). Winter hibernacula do not occur on the Forest.

Indiana bats forage in and around the tree canopy of floodplain, riparian, and upland forests. Within 

floodplain forests, Indiana bats show a preference for areas where canopy closure ranges from 30 to 70

percent (US Fish and Wildlife Service 2007). Streams, associated floodplain forests, and impounded 

bodies of water are preferred foraging habitats for pregnant and lactating Indiana bats, which may fly up 

to 1.5 miles from upland roosts to feed (US Fish and Wildlife Service 2007). In general, Indiana bats 

forage within the canopy of upland forests, over clearings with early successional vegetation, along the 

borders of croplands, along wooded fence rows and over farm ponds in pastures. Indiana bats use larger 

trees with hollows or loose bark for their summer roosts and maternity colonies, but spend their winters 

hibernating in caves (US Fish and Wildlife Service 2007).

Maternity Roosting (Summer) Habitat

During summer months, maternity colonies roost under sloughing bark of trees (alive and dead) of many 

species (US Fish and Wildlife Service 2007). Reproductive females require multiple alternate roost trees 

to fulfill their summer habitat needs (US Fish and Wildlife Service 2007). Adults forage on winged 

insects within three miles of the occupied maternity roost (US Fish and Wildlife Service 2007). In 

summer, most reproductive females occupy roost sites under the exfoliating bark of dead trees that retain 

large thick slabs of peeling bark. 
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National Forests in Mississippi 89

Information and research about summer roosting sites is extremely limited south of Tennessee. Recent 

work has been completed in eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina on Indiana bat maternity 

colonies. The colonies were found to use primary and secondary roosting sites in pines and hardwoods 

(Lacki et al. 2009). In all cases the bats were found under the exfoliating bark of either pine or hardwood 

trees, with most of the roosts being in snags (Lacki et al. 2009). During the summer months, possible 

threats include the loss and degradation of forested habitat around maternal roost trees (US Fish and 

Wildlife Service 2007). It is difficult to quantify summer roosting habitat for the Indiana bat at a rangewide, regional or local level due to the variability of known roost sites and lack of knowledge about 

landscape level habitat characteristics of maternity roosts (US Fish and Wildlife Service 2007). Maternity 

roost sites in the south are known from Virginia, North Carolina and Tennessee (US Fish and Wildlife 

Service 2007). In the south, retention of large pine snags and preservation of over-mature trees will 

provide a sustained future supply of roost trees. Forest management practices that affect occupied roost 

trees may have local impacts on Indiana bat populations (US Fish and Wildlife Service 2007). However, 

the bats live in highly altered landscapes, depend on an ephemeral resource, (dead and dying trees), and 

are capable of utilizing a wide geographic range and a wide variety of tree species and conditions for 

maternity and summer roosts.

Indiana Bat Threats

Indiana bat populations have been declining since the early 1960s. The declining numbers were observed 

at winter hibernacula sites such as caves and abandoned mines, where the bats gather in large numbers. 

The main threats to this species are availability of natural roost structures, loss of winter hibernacula, 

white-nose syndrome, and human disturbance (US Fish and Wildlife Service 2007).

Indiana Bat Response to Threats

Protection and habitat management such as pond creation/management, maintaining available 

roosts/snags, prescribed fire in uplands, bottomland hardwood forest management, and protection of 

riparian zones are key to the survival of this species. The National Forests in Mississippi should continue 

to conduct surveys for new populations and improve and maintain favorable habitat conditions for this 

endangered species. Based on site-specific consultation; areas of use (foraging and roosting) should be 

designated based on site conditions, radio-tracking or other survey information, and best available 

information regarding maternity habitat needs.

3.5.4 Management Indicator Species

Management indicator species are analyzed separately from the threatened, endangered, sensitive, and 

locally rare species. Some species were included in the ecological sustainability evaluation model and as 

management indicator species, for example, red-cockaded woodpecker was previously discussed in the 

terrestrial endangered species section.

National Forest Management Act regulations, adopted in 1982, require selection of management indicator 

species during development of forest plans (36 CFR 219.19(a)). Reasons for their selection must be 

stated. The Management Indicator Species (MIS) Review (FEIS appendix F) describes the process and 

rationale used to select management indicator species for this cycle of forest plan revision.

Management indicator species are to be selected “because their population changes are believed to 

indicate the effects of management activities” (36 CFR 219 (a)(1)). They are to be used during planning 

to help compare effects of alternatives (36 CFR 219.19(a)(2)), and as a focus for final environmental 

impact statement 165 monitoring (36 CFR 219.19(a)(6)). Where appropriate, management indicator 

species shall represent the following groups of species (36 CFR 219 (a)(1)):
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

90 National Forests in Mississippi

• Threatened and endangered species on State and Federal lists

• Species with special habitat needs

• Species commonly hunted, fished, or trapped

• Non-game species of special interest

• Species selected to indicate effects on other species of selected major biological communities

Since adoption of these regulations, the management indicator species concept has been reviewed and 

critiqued by the scientific community. These reviews identify proper uses and limitations of the indicator 

species concept. They generally caution against overreaching in the use of indicator species, especially 

when making inferences about ecological conditions or status of other species within a community. 

Caution is needed because many different factors may affect populations of each species within a 

community, and each species’ ecological niche within a community is unique.

To reflect this current scientific understanding while meeting the letter and spirit of regulations, we have 

made great effort to clearly define the legitimate uses and limitations of each selected management 

indicator species. The management indicator species process is but one tool used to develop management 

strategies and monitoring programs designed to meet NFMA requirements related to diversity of plant 

and animal communities. Other elements used for comprehensive planning for plant and animal diversity 

include: 

• Objectives and guidelines for maintenance and restoration of desired ecological conditions based on 

knowledge of overall ecosystem structure and function; 

• Biological evaluations and assessments at both the forest plan and site-specific project levels; and

• Evaluation of risk to species of viability concern at the forest plan level. 

Other elements important to monitoring effects of forest plan implementation on plant and animal 

diversity include monitoring, where appropriate:

• Key ecological conditions;

• Levels of management activities important to restoration and maintenance of community diversity, 

species assemblages (birds, bats, fish, etc.);

• Harvest levels of game and other demand species, and

• Populations of threatened, endangered, and sensitive species.

Six species have been selected as management indicator species for the revised forest plan (table 14). 

They will be used to assess effects of alternatives and to help monitor effects of implementing the selected 

alternative.

Table 14. Management indicator species for the National Forests in Mississippi

Species Common Name Category (s)

Red-cockaded Woodpecker Threatened and Endangered Species, Special 

Habitat Indicator, Biological Community Indicator

Pileated Woodpecker Special Habitat Indicator, Biological Community 

Indicator

Wood Thrush Biological Community Indicator

Longleaf Pine Biological Community Indicator

Southern Pine Beetle Biological Community Indicator

Largemouth Bass Game Species, Biological Community Indicator
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National Forests in Mississippi 91

Red-cockaded Woodpecker

This species was selected as a management indicator species to represent open mature longleaf and 

yellow pine forest. The red-cockaded woodpecker is listed as federally endangered throughout its range 

and is dependent on national forest management for its recovery and survival. Many management 

practices on the National Forests in Mississippi are focused on improvement of red-cockaded woodpecker 

habitat (e.g. prescribed burning, mid-story removal, forest thinning, etc.). There is a direct correlation 

between management activities and red-cockaded woodpecker population levels.

Figure 17. Red-cockaded woodpecker forest trends

Although still far short of current population objectives of active clusters, populations have increased 

during the past 20 years (figure 17). Red-cockaded woodpecker translocations have helped increase 

populations. The forest should continue to improve and maintain favorable habitat conditions for this 

species. Multiple techniques are available and effective, and strategies must be tailored to individual 

populations and habitat conditions. It is the implementation of these strategies, carefully designed to meet 

the conditions of each of four very different populations and habitat, which will continue to enhance redcockaded woodpecker recovery and open mature longleaf and yellow pine forest on the National Forests 

in Mississippi.

Pileated Woodpecker

The pileated woodpecker was selected as a management indicator species because it requires large snags 

for nesting and feeding. The occurrence of this species may be correlated with forested habitats 

containing abundant large dead trees and fallen logs (Hamel 1992), which also are used by other 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

92 National Forests in Mississippi

woodpeckers, owls, and numerous other birds, mammals, and amphibians. This species is selected to help 

indicate the effects of management activities on the availability of forests with desired abundance of 

snags. Monitoring will be by breeding bird survey and FSVEG database in conjunction with geographic 

information system (GIS) analysis of mature forest stands to provide a full picture of management effects 

on this species and other snag-dependent wildlife. 

Annual bird point counts for the National Forests in Mississippi were begun in 1994 and are now 

conducted annually on each district. From 1994 to July 2011; 135,959 individual birds of 153 species 

from 10,360 bird point counts have been recorded on the National Forests in Mississippi. This data 

indicates a stable to increasing population trend of pileated woodpeckers on the National Forests in 

Mississippi.

Figure 18. Pileated woodpecker forest trends

Pileated woodpeckers generally prefer mature forests. This species is a primary cavity nester and 

excavator, requiring large snags for nesting cavities and large dead trees for feeding. Generally, this 

species require trees greater than 15 inches d.b.h. for cavities, but prefers trees greater than 20 inches 

d.b.h. Based on the results of monitoring data and habitat evaluation, this species is showing stable and 

increasing population trends on the National Forests in Mississippi. Pileated woodpeckers have the 

abundance and distribution across the Forests that will provide for its persistence into the foreseeable 

future. 

Wood Thrush 

This species is known to require large tracts of unbroken forest interior for successful breeding to occur. 

This species was selected to measure effectiveness of minimizing “edge” in the implementation of 

vegetation management program and to measure management effects on interior forest habitats. 

Monitoring will be by breeding bird survey and FSVEG database in conjunction with geographic 

information system (GIS) analysis of mature forest stands as compared to open areas.

Forest Trends

Annual bird point counts for the National Forests in Mississippi were begun in 1994 and are now 

conducted annually on each district. From 1994 to July 2011, 135,959 individual birds of 153 species 

from 10,360 bird point counts have been recorded on the National Forests in Mississippi. This data 

indicates a declining population trend of woodthrush on the National Forests in Mississippi.
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National Forests in Mississippi 93

Figure 19. Wood thrush forest trends

Trend estimates for this species indicate moderately declining populations across the southern region (La 

Sorte 2007). Habitat management for the wood thrush centers on maintaining large tracts of deciduous 

forest habitat. Relative abundance of mature forest is a key factor for this species, as is tree age diversity.

Restoration and maintenance of mature and old-growth forest will help to sustain associated species.

Longleaf Pine

This species was selected to measure the effectiveness of management to restore the longleaf pine 

ecosystem. Abundance of the longleaf pine forest ecological system on the landscape is the most 

important characteristic of the system due to its widespread conversion to other forest types over the past 

century as a result of agricultural clearing, forest management, and fire suppression. The longleaf pine 

forest ecological system supports populations of associated threatened and endangered, regional forester’s 

sensitive, locally rare, and game species along with several rare communities that are typically embedded 

within this larger system including herbaceous seepage bogs, xeric sandhills, and depression ponds.

Measure of effectiveness is by acres of longleaf pine planted by year and number of acres of longleaf pine 

classified in the Forest Service Vegetation Management Database (FSVEG).

Fiscal year 2010 forest type data from the vegetation database (FSVEG) queries were analyzed to 

determine acreage by broad forest cover types. The acreages are compared to similar figures compiled 

from the 1985 forest plan to determine the magnitude and direction of change in forest cover types and 

longleaf in particular.

Since the 1985 forest plan, there has been an increase in acreage of pine-hardwood and longleaf, and a 

decrease in the yellow pine, slash pine and hardwood forest types (note: yellow pine included shortleaf 

and loblolly pine). Conversion of the loblolly and slash pine forest ecological systems to appropriate 

ecological systems is the highest priority for long-term sustainability of the forest. Restoration remains a 

long-term goal for longleaf pine forests on the National Forests in Mississippi, but the rate of progress 

will be slow given current program levels and competing forest plan needs.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

94 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 20. Forest cover types in 1985 Figure 21. Forest cover types in 2010

Southern Pine Beetle

This species was selected to measure the effects of forest management aimed at promoting forest health 

(e.g., site and soil based species selection, appropriate fire cycles, and preventing or thinning of 

overstocked stands). Monitoring will be conducted using a southern pine beetle pheromone trapping 

survey. Increased index numbers will be evidence for decreased forest health. 

Southern pine beetle spots (multi-tree infestations) detected over the course of the year have decreased 

since 2002. Southern pine beetle populations have been at record lows the last few years not only on the 

National Forests in Mississippi but throughout the state as well. Southern pine beetle seem to be 

remaining static while outbreaks could still become a problem at any time. Fall surveys are being 

explored as a potential early warning tool to predict outbreaks or elevated activity and populations in the 

following year.
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National Forests in Mississippi 95

Table 15. Recent southern pine beetle (SPB) pheromone trapping survey results, spot activity and predictions for the National Forests in 

Mississippi

Bienville Homochitto Tombigbee 

SPB Trendd CY SPB Trendd CY SPB Trendd CY

Date %SPB trap/dayc Levele Spots %SPB trap/dayc Levele Spots %SPB trap/dayc Levele Spots

Spring 2002a 12% 10.7 D/L 331 55% 38.5 I/H 299 7% 1.3 S/L 0

Spring 2003a 28% 7.6 D/L 47 17% 6.9 D/L 1 27% 3.6 I/L 9

Fall 2003b 14% 4.0 D/L 10% 2.7 D/L 42% 24.0 I/M

Spring 2004a 26% 25.5 I/L-M 7 36% 13.3 I/L 3 39% 13.9 I/M 0

Fall 2004a 3% 0.1 D/L 51% 6.9 D-S/L-M 27% 2.5 D/L

Spring 2005a 26% 6.0 D/L 10 86% 52.7 I/H 61 56% 9.9 I/L 0

Fall 2005a 2% 0.1 D/L 26% 4.5 D/L 24% 0.9 D/L

Spring 2006a 30% 12.4 I/M 32% 7.0 D/L-M

Spring 2006a 36% 14.5 I/M 2 35% 10.2 D/L-M 0 22% 1.7 S/L 0

Fall 2006a,f 54% 2.9 I/L 74% 17.4 I/M 44% 2.4 S/L

Spring 2007a,f 37% 7.0 S/L 106 78% 68.9 I/M-O 91 61% 37.8 I/L-H 0

Fall 2007 19% 1.5 D/L 16% 0.9 D/L 31% 1.2 S/L

Spring 2008a,g 12% 3.0 D/L 5 17% 3.4 D/L 0 10% 1.9 D/L 0

Fall 2008a,g 0% 0.0 S/L 0% 0.0 S/L 0% 0.0 S/L

Spring 2009a,g 2% 0.1 S/L 0 9% 0.9 S/L 0 6% 0.3 S/L 0

Fall 2009a,g 0% 0.0 S/L 0% 0.0 S/L 9% 0.1 S//L

Spring 2010a,g 0% 0.0 S/L 0 10% 1.0 S/L 0 60% 1.9 S/L 0

Fall 2010a,g NA NA NA 2% 0.0 S/L 4% 0.0 S//L

Spring 2011a,g 20% 2.1 I/L 0 23% 6.7 I/L 0 38% 1.8 S/L 0

Fall 2011a,f 23% 0.9 I/L 55% 9.8 I/L 79% 5.4 I/L

Spring 2002 2% 1.1 S/L 0 30% 40.7 I/M 1 14% 2.2 S/L 0

Spring 2003a 23% 5.8 0 39% 4.1 6 21% 0.9 0

Spring 2004a 49% 32.8 I/M 99 60% 65.8 I/O 15 44% 5.1 I/L 0

Fall 2004a 55% 10.3 D-S/L-M 25% 3.7 D/L 5% 0.3 D/L

Spring 2005a 27% 14.2 D/L-M 12 33% 9.4 D/L 0 56% 12.4 I/L-M 0

Fall 2005a 4% 0.5 D/L 11% 0.7 D/L 6% 0.2 D/L
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

96 National Forests in Mississippi

Bienville Homochitto Tombigbee 

SPB Trendd CY SPB Trendd CY SPB Trendd CY

Date %SPB trap/dayc Levele Spots %SPB trap/dayc Levele Spots %SPB trap/dayc Levele Spots

Spring 2006a 10% 2.3 D/L 6% 3.4 S/L

Spring 2006a 2% 0.3 D/L 0 17% 5.5 S/L 0 42% 2.1 S/L 0

Fall 2006a,f 0% 0 D/L 1% 0.2 D/L 44% 1.6 S/L

Spring 2007a,f 4% 1 S/L 0 6% 2.5 S/L 0 69% 8.8 I/L 0

Fall 2007a,g 0% 0 S/L 0% 0.0 S/L 4% 0.0 S/L

Spring 2008a,g 0% 0 S/L 0 1% 0.1 D/L 0 6% 0.3 D/L 0

Fall 2008a,g 0% 0 S/L 0% 0.0 S/L 5% 0.2 S/L

Spring 2009a,g 0% 0 S/L 0 1% 0.0 S/L 0 25% 0.3 S/L 0

Fall 2009a,g 0% 0.0 S/L 0% 0.0 S/L 17% 0.6 S/L

Spring 2010a,g 0% 0.0 S/L 0 0% 0.0 S/L 0 25% 1.6 S/L 0

Fall 2010a,g 0% 0.0 S/L 0% 0.0 S/L 0% 0.0 S/L

Spring 2011a,g 1% 0.0 I/L 0 0% 0.0 S/L 0 0% 0.0 S/L 0

a) Based on 3 traps per District/Forest, except for 6 traps on the Homochitto.

b) Based on 6 traps per District/Forest, except for 12 traps on the Homochitto.

c) Unless noted otherwise, Hercules steam-distilled pine turpentine used in all surveys.

d) D=Declining, S=Static, I=Increasing

e) L=Low, M=Moderate, H=High, O=Outbreak

f) Trap lures consisted of sandard frontalin pouch + 100g polysleeve of 70 percent alpha-pinene and 30 percent beta-pinene, and endo-brevicomin bubble cap. Traps placed in 

hardwood stands.

g) Trap lures consisted of sandard frontalin pouch + 100g polysleeve of 70 percent alpha-pinene and 30 percent beta-pinene, Factors that determine southern pine beetle hazard 

include the proportion of the stand in susceptibility host trees and the radial growth of those trees over a 5 year period. Trees with a relatively high radial growth are less susceptible to 

southern pine beetle-related mortality. While we do not have individual tree growth data to estimate susceptibility, we can use Culmination of Mean Annual Increment (CMAI) as a 

proxy for radial growth. Trees within stands that have passed beyond CMAI are growing relatively slower and radial growth should be slower. CMAI for pine ranges from 35 to 50 years 

old depending upon site productivity (Farrar 1982), (Sullivan and Williston 1977), (Baldwin and Feduccia 1987), (Bennett 1963). Once stands have reached 60 years old, they tend to 

be more susceptible to southern pine beetle infestations. Management of these stands by thinning or regeneration harvests can increase radial growth and reduce susceptibility. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 97

Largemouth Bass

Many management practices such as liming, fertilizing, and spawning habitat improvement are focused 

on providing recreational fishing opportunities on the National Forests in Mississippi. Largemouth bass is 

the principal predator in most of the Forests’ lakes and is also a demand species. Population structure of 

this species has been a good indicator of the effectiveness of Forest Service management activities.

Data on largemouth bass are most relevant to management when addressed on a lake-by-lake basis. The 

National Forests in Mississippi contain over 50 man-made lakes and ponds totaling more than 3,100 acres 

of water. These impoundments range in size from 1 to 1075 acres. The relatively small size of these 

impoundments makes them ideal for recreational fisheries management. During the 1960s and early 

1970s, 45 of these impoundments were constructed by the Soil Conservation Service under Public Law 

534 and Public Law 566. The original purpose for the construction of these impoundments was for flood 

prevention and erosion control. However, these impoundments were also stocked with largemouth bass, 

bluegill, and redear sunfish and now provide recreational fishing benefit. Initially, these bodies of water 

received very little attention with regard to fisheries management. Recent efforts, however, have 

improved the fishing opportunities on many of them.

Various methods to enhance recreational fishing opportunities have included: liming and fertilizing, 

spawning bed improvement, fish attractors, aquatic weed control, stocking, length and creel limits, and 

angler access improvement. Nine of the lakes on the Forests are located on or near recreational areas that 

have developed camping facilities, swim sites, and picnic grounds. These lakes not only receive the most 

recreational use on the Forests, but they receive the most fishing use also. These lakes have been 

identified to receive intensive management and thus are the ones that will be used to describe fish 

populations and their response to management.

3.5.5 Special Areas Status, Trends

There a number of different special areas located in the National Forests in Mississippi. The special area 

designation includes administratively-recognized, specific geographic locations within the Forests such as 

botanical areas, scenic areas, archeological areas and research natural areas that have special management 

restrictions. There are research natural areas which have been officially designated since shortly after the 

National Forests in Mississippi were created as well as recently proposed areas which have been 

evaluated but need to be officially designated or dropped from consideration. There are also a number of 

existing botanical areas as well as additional areas proposed for designation. Appendix D – Special Areas 

contains a complete listing of the designated and proposed areas. 

Designated Special Areas

The designated special areas on the National Forests in Mississippi include a variety of distinctive settings 

with exceptional or uncommon botanical, scenic, research, wilderness, recreational, or archaeological 

values. Special areas contribute a variety of desired conditions including providing sites for native 

ecosystems, habitats for species diversity, refuge areas for aquatic and terrestrial wildlife and threatened 

and endangered species, mid-sized to large patches of old-growth forest communities, experimental sites 

for vegetation management practices, unique recreational opportunities, and desirable scenic conditions. 

Designating and managing these areas for their special characteristics contribute to our strategy for 

moving toward desired conditions. Specific guidance for managing the various categories of special areas 

are identified in Forest Service policies and directives, national requirements, or individual management 

plans. 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

98 National Forests in Mississippi

Some designated special areas are mature examples of desired ecosystems and serve as some of the best 

locations of mid-sized or larger expanses of old-growth conditions on the National Forests in Mississippi. 

Designated botanical special areas are generally good representatives of native ecological systems such as 

longleaf pines, floodplain hardwoods, prairies, or southern mesophytic forests. These sites provide 

habitats for threatened and endangered, sensitive and locally rare species as well as habitat for an array of 

characteristic and popular demand species. Other locations such as the two designated wilderness areas 

are also protected, and monitored to preserve their natural conditions and provide habitat for sustaining a 

diversity of species. 

Desired conditions for healthy and resilient forests are supported by experimental forests and research 

natural areas that serve as sites for a broad range of studies such as stand management, watershed 

management, restoration of wildlife and plant populations, maintenance of biological diversity, and 

effects of disturbances such as climate change. Some special areas are less disturbed than is typical for 

this region and provide a valuable baseline for monitoring changes in natural conditions on National 

Forest System lands.

Scenic areas contribute to the desired naturally appearing character of the National Forests in Mississippi, 

including the old-growth loblolly-shortleaf pine forests on the Bienville Pines Scenic Area and the 

picturesque river setting along the Black Creek Wild and Scenic River. The Unmanaged Forty 

recreational special area is part of the Gavin Auto Tour of southern Mississippi’s pine forests and 

contributes to recreation management strategies, while the Owl Creek Mounds and the Dowling Bayou 

archaeological sites protect Indian mounds and village sites and support the desired conditions for cultural 

resources. 

Table 16 displays a list of existing designated special areas, their sizes, and the district on which they 

occur. Following the table are brief descriptions of these designated special areas.

Table 16. Designated special areas of the National Forests in Mississippi

Area Name Designation District Acres

Bienville Pines Scenic Area Scenic Area Bienville 189

Harrell Prairie Botanical Area Botanical Area Bienville 153

Unmanaged Forty Recreation Area Chickasawhay 41

Tiger Creek Botanical Area Botanical Area Chickasawhay 375

Red Hills Botanical Area Botanical Area De Soto 194

Harrison Experimental Forest Experimental Forest De Soto 4066

Black Creek Wild and Scenic River National Scenic River De Soto 21 miles

Black Creek Corridor Scenic Area De Soto 9,149

Harrison Research Natural Area Research Natural Area De Soto 113

Black Creek Wilderness Area Wilderness Area De Soto 5,052

Leaf River Wilderness Area Wilderness Area De Soto 994

Dowling Bayou Archaeological Site Archaeological Area Delta 10

Red Gum Research Natural Area Research Natural Area Delta 40

Overcup Oak-Water Hickory Research Natural Area Research Natural Area Delta 40

Green Ash – Sugarberry Research Natural Area Research Natural Area Delta 67

Tallahatchie Experimental Forest Experimental Forest Holly Springs 3,502 

Owl Creek Mounds Archaeological Site Archaeological Area Tombigbee 29

Noxubee Crest Research Natural Area Research Natural Area Tombigbee 552

Chuquatonchee Bluffs Research Natural Area Research Natural Area Tombigbee 218
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 99

Bienville Pines Scenic Area (Bienville National Forest): 

The Bienville Pines Scenic Area is a designated national natural landmark and was established to 

showcase the original old-growth loblolly pine – shortleaf pine forest that was typical of the area before 

logging. The mill owner kept the site from being logged as a monument to what was, and it was passed on 

to the Forest Service intact. The Bienville Pines Scenic Area continues to provide visitors the opportunity 

to witness trees that were once part of the original forest before logging and to witness the effects of 

change as these old trees are dying of natural causes and being replaced. 

Harrell Prairie Botanical Area (Bienville National Forest): 

Harrell Prairie Hill comprises the largest and best example of native tall grass prairie from the Jackson 

Prairie and is designated as a national natural landmark. It has been the focus of restoration work dating 

back to the mid-1980s and is further along in restoration than any other known relict of this type in 

Mississippi. The Jackson Prairie is healthy and provides the necessary habitat conditions to support a full 

array of native prairie species such as indiangrass, bluestem grasses, rosinweeds, prairie-clovers, yellowpuffs, prairie cone-flowers, and others. 

Unmanaged Forty Recreation Area (Chickasawhay Ranger District, De Soto National 

Forest):

The Unmanaged Forty is part of the 1935 Gavin slash pine plantation and has been withdrawn from 

timber and fire management activities by forest supervisors since 1945. It is part of the Gavin Auto Tour. 

This auto tour uses interpretive signs to inform visitors about south Mississippi's beautiful pine forests, 

and the practices used to manage these renewable resources. Sites along the 11-mile tour include mature 

pine timber; natural and artificial regeneration areas; game forage plots; prescribed burn areas; and this 

unmanaged 40 acres of timber. This site continues to be managed so that scenic and recreational 

experiences for visitors are maintained or improved. 

Tiger Creek Botanical Area (Chickasawhay Ranger District, De Soto National Forest): 

This site is located on a minor stream bottom. Dominant species are white oak, southern magnolia and 

loblolly pine. As an undisturbed representation of a floodplain forest ecological community, the area 

serves as an area in which natural biological diversity is conserved. This area was located, delineated and 

moved through the designation process by the district staff as a replacement for Thompson Creek Bottom 

Botanical Study Area listed in the 1985 Forest Plan for the National Forests in Mississippi. This was done 

because there were not good records on the intended location of the Thompson Creek Bottom Botanical 

Study Area. It was also evident the Thompson Creek location had been damaged by wind. 

Red Hills Botanical Area (De Soto Ranger District, De Soto National Forest): 

The Red Hills are an area of deeply dissected terrain overlooking Black Creek. The ridgetops, moist 

slopes, and ravines support a rich flora typical of the forest commonly called beech-magnolia. The 

southern mesophytic forest is intact and the hydrologic function of associated springs and seeps is intact. 

Harrison Experimental Forest (De Soto Ranger District, De Soto National Forest):

Scientists in Forest Service research work units use the Harrison Experimental Forest as a site for their 

studies and demonstration projects in conjunction with the National Forests in Mississippi and the De 

Soto Ranger District. Among the experiments conducted on this forest are studies on stand management 

and regeneration; restoration of wildlife and plant populations; watershed management; and the effects of 

pollution, climate change, and timber harvest. 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

100 National Forests in Mississippi

Black Creek Wild and Scenic River (De Soto Ranger District, De Soto National Forest): 

Black Creek is the only congressionally designated wild and scenic river in the state. It is a tributary of 

the Pascagoula River, which flows into the Gulf of Mexico. Twenty-one miles of Black Creek within the 

De Soto Ranger District (between Moody’s Landing and Fairley Bridge Landing) are designated scenic. 

Generally, Black Creek has been described as having outstanding scenery due to the highly varied terrain, 

wide sandbars, overhanging vegetation and steep bluffs. Moss-covered banks and colorful vertical bluffs 

add to the picturesque setting. Little evidence of man is noticeable along the designated river except 

where Highway 29 crosses near Janice Landing. The outstandingly remarkable values are the scenery and 

recreational attributes which make the river corridor a popular destination for canoeing, fishing, and other 

water based recreation. Black Creek is also potential habitat for the federally threatened Gulf sturgeon. A 

system of trails provides access along the Black Creek corridor. The Black Creek Trail is a designated 

national recreation trail. 

A total of 41 miles of Black Creek were studied for wild and scenic river suitability and only 21 miles 

were deemed eligible and hence became the congressionally designated Black Creek Wild and Scenic 

River in 1986. The density of private land in these undesignated sections of the creek was a key issue in 

why these segments were not included in the congressional designation. As lands are acquired within the 

designated or undesignated portions of Black Creek they will be evaluated for annexation and expanding 

the scenic river corridor. 

Black Creek Corridor (De Soto Ranger District, De Soto National Forest):

This area consists of a 1⁄4-mile wide corridor on either side of Black Creek, beginning at the Big Creek 

landing and ending at Alexander Bridge; a distance of about 41 miles. It includes the Black Creek Scenic 

River and all portions of the corridor are managed the same as the scenic river section.

Harrison Research Natural Area (De Soto Ranger District, De Soto National Forest):

This area (part of the Harrison Experimental Forest) contains an extensive and high quality xeric longleaf 

pine forest with saw palmetto and other characteristic species. The sand ridge is surrounded by more 

typical mesic longleaf forest and several drainages. This xeric sandhill community remains a healthy 

example of its type. As an established research natural area, this area provides undisturbed base line areas 

to monitor changes in natural conditions associated with management of similar areas. As an undisturbed 

representation of an ecological community it serves as an area in which natural biological diversity is 

conserved.

Black Creek Wilderness Area (De Soto Ranger District, De Soto National Forest):

The Black Creek Wilderness (5,052 acres) is named after its dominant feature—Black Creek, which 

bisects the wilderness, creating a large hardwood floodplain containing oxbow lakes and stands of 

sweetgum, loblolly pine, spruce pine, willow oak, baldcypress, sweetbay and red maple. Under provisions 

of the Clean Air Act, this wilderness is classified as a Class II area, the same as all other National Forest 

System land in Mississippi. 

Most of the Black Creek Wilderness occupies part of the broad valley of Black Creek. Relief is fairly 

gentle with elevations ranging from 100 to 130 feet above sea level within the creek valley, and up to 270 

feet above sea level on the adjoining uplands. This area is predominately pine and pine hardwood, with 

hardwoods along the drainages. The Black Creek Wilderness is potential habitat for the federally 

endangered Louisiana black bear. The only development in the area is the Black Creek Trail; no other 

facilities are provided. This area offers semi-primitive recreation opportunities and moderate levels of 

solitude. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 101

Leaf Wilderness Area (De Soto Ranger District, De Soto National Forest):

The Leaf Wilderness (994 acres) lies almost entirely on the floodplain of the west-to-east flowing Leaf 

River. Except for a small upland area on the extreme western edge of the wilderness, the area primarily 

consists of meandering sloughs, oxbow lakes and level terrain with spruce-pine forest or oak-gum-cypress 

river bottom types. The upland is covered in loblolly and shortleaf pines. Elevations average 50 feet mean 

sea level. The Leaf Wilderness area offers semi-primitive recreation opportunities and moderate levels of 

solitude. 

Black Creek Wilderness and Leaf Wilderness are the only two designated wilderness areas in the National 

Forests in Mississippi. Both the Black Creek and Leaf Wilderness Areas (along with the Black Creek 

Wild and Scenic River Corridor) were studied in depth during an extensive limits-of-acceptable-change 

analysis completed in April 1994.

Dowling Bayou Archaeological Site (Delta National Forest):

Dowling Bayou Archaeological Site is an Indian mound and village site on the Delta National Forest. It 

dates from the late woodland period (A.D. 800) and is a classic example of the mounds of this period. The 

cultural resources are protected and available for research.

Red Gum Research Natural Area (Delta National Forest):

The Red Gum Research Natural Area is a stand of huge sweet gum trees, some of them over 300 years 

old. This is a ridge bottom delta forest with dense understory of dwarf palmetto and switchcane. This 

relatively undisturbed Mississippi River Delta bottomland hardwood forest has never been logged. 

This example of Mississippi River bottomland hardwood forest is intact and properly functioning 

hydrologically. As an established research natural area, this area provides undisturbed base line sites on 

which to monitor changes in natural conditions associated with management of similar areas. As an 

undisturbed representation of an ecological community it serves as an area in which natural biological 

diversity is conserved. 

Overcup Oak – Water Hickory Research Natural Area (Delta National Forest):

The Overcup Oak – Water Hickory Research Natural Area is remnant of virgin bottomland forest in the 

Mississippi River Delta Region. The forest is dominated by large overcup oaks and water hickories 

estimated to be about 200 years old. This example of Mississippi River bottomland hardwood forest is 

intact and properly functioning hydrologically. As an established research natural area, this area provides 

undisturbed base line sites on which to monitor changes in natural conditions associated with 

management of similar areas. As an undisturbed representation of an ecological community it serves as an 

area in which natural biological diversity is conserved.

Green Ash – Sugarberry Research Natural Area (Delta National Forest):

The Green Ash – Sugarberry Research Natural Area is a remnant of the virgin bottomland hardwood 

forest that once covered the Mississippi River Delta. The research natural area has huge green ash trees 

that are in excess of 250 years old. This example of Mississippi River bottomland hardwood forest is 

intact and properly functioning hydrologically. As an established research natural area, this area provides 

undisturbed base line sites on which to monitor changes in natural conditions associated with 

management of similar areas. As an undisturbed representation of an ecological community it serves as an 

area in which natural biological diversity is conserved.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

102 National Forests in Mississippi

Tallahatchie Experimental Forest (Holly Springs National Forest):

Scientists in research work units use the Tallahatchie Experimental Forest as a site for their studies and 

demonstration projects in conjunction with the National Forests in Mississippi. Among the experiments 

conducted on these forests are studies on stand management and regeneration; restoration of wildlife and 

plant populations; watershed management; and the effects of pollution, climate change, and timber 

harvest. 

Owl Creek Mounds Archaeological Site (Tombigbee National Forest): 

Owl Creek Mounds Archaeological Site is an Indian mound and village site on the Tombigbee National 

Forest. It dates from the late woodland period (A.D. 800) and is a classic example of the mounds of this 

period. This site is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The cultural resources are protected 

and available for research.

Noxubee Crest Research Natural Area (Tombigbee National Forest): 

The Noxubee Crest Research Natural Area encompasses the headwaters of a branch of the Little Noxubee 

River. Much of the uplands are old field areas that were abandoned in the 1930s, but the steep side slopes 

and creek bottoms contain fine examples of 120 year-old and older shortleaf pine-oak-hickory forest. 

Noxubee Crest continues to provide habitat for wooded spring seep and dry-mesic mixed oak forest. 

Hydrological function of associated seeps and springs is intact. As a research natural area, this area 

provides undisturbed base line sites on which to monitor changes in natural conditions associated with 

management of similar areas. As an undisturbed representation of an ecological community it serves as an 

area in which natural biological diversity is conserved.

Chuquatonchee Bluffs Research Natural Area (Tombigbee National Forest): 

This bluff area is on a steep north-facing mesic slope overlooking the floodplain of Chuquatonchee Creek. 

This is an old-growth Pontotoc ridge forest. Aerial photographs dated 1937 show trees in the area with 

large crowns. The area supports a rich flora.

The bluff area continues to support healthy examples of the Pontotoc ridge forest type. Hydrological 

function of associated seeps and springs is intact. As a research natural area, this area provides 

undisturbed base line sites on which to monitor changes in natural conditions associated with 

management of similar areas. As an undisturbed representation of an ecological community it serves as an 

area in which natural biological diversity is conserved.

Proposed New Special Areas

In addition to the previously designated areas listed above, the National Forests in Mississippi also 

contain a number of distinctive locations that have been evaluated and proposed for special area 

designation. As shown in table 17, 20 proposed areas located across the 7 ranger districts have been 

identified for evaluation and designation as botanical areas, research natural areas, or other appropriate 

administrative designations. These proposed special areas have been managed for their identified special 

characteristics and are at various stages of consideration and study for special area designation. Two areas 

have been reviewed and dropped from consideration – the proposed Singleton Prairie Botanical area, and 

the Lee Creek Research Natural Area. Detailed descriptions of individual proposed areas follow table 17.

These descriptions contain rationale for dropping two areas from special area consideration.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 103

Table 17. Proposed new special areas of the National Forests in Mississippi

Area Name as Proposed Area Designation 

Recommendation District Acres

Singleton Prairie Botanical Area Drop Consideration Bienville 80

Nutmeg Hickory Research Natural Area Research Natural Area Bienville 307

Laurel Oak Research Natural Area Botanical Area Chickasawhay 277

Railroad Creek Titi Botanical Area Botanical Area De Soto 451

Little Florida Botanical Area Botanical Area De Soto 121

Pitcher Plant Botanical Area Botanical Area De Soto 251

Buttercup Flat Botanical Area Botanical Area De Soto 164

Loblolly Bay Research Natural Area Botanical Area De Soto 93

Ragland Hills Research Natural Area Botanical Area De Soto 237

Granny Creek Bay Research Natural Area Research Natural Area De Soto 127

Wyatt Hills Botanical Area Botanical Area De Soto 100

Cypress Bayou Botanical Area Botanical Area Delta 262

LA-2 Botanical Area C117S17 Botanical Area Holly Springs 12

LA-6 Botanical Area C122S Botanical Area Holly Springs 158

Lee Creek Research Natural Area Drop Consideration Holly Springs 186

Sandy Creek Research Natural Area / 

Botanical Area Botanical Area Homochitto 300

Shagbark Hickory Botanical Area Botanical Area Tombigbee 109

Choctaw #4 Botanical Area Botanical Area Tombigbee 45

Prairie Mount Research Natural Area Botanical Area Tombigbee 370

Bogue Cully Research Natural Area Botanical Area Tombigbee 500

The following descriptions of proposed special areas on the National Forests in Mississippi provide an 

overview of their special characteristics and are grouped by forest or ranger district.

Proposed Singleton Prairie Botanical Area (Bienville National Forest): 

Singleton Prairie is a relict Jackson Prairie, proposed under the 1985 forest plan as an area to be studied 

for potential botanical area designation. Prairies are greatly reduced from its historical acreage due to land 

conversion in the past to agricultural and forestry uses. Restored prairie furnishes habitat for typical plant 

and animal species once more common in this region of Mississippi. The Jackson Prairie provides the 

necessary habitat conditions to support a full array of native prairie species such as indiangrass, bluestem 

grasses, rosinweeds, prairie-clovers, yellow-puffs, prairie cone-flowers, and others.

Field inspections and reviews have been completed. On the ground observations, indicate that Singleton 

prairie is less than 6 acres, instead of the 80 acres listed in 1985 forest plan. Currently the existing prairie 

opening is less than one acre. The 1989, MS Museum of Nature Sciences’ final report titled Bienville 

National Forest Prairie Survey (Gordon and Wiseman 1989) indicate that Singleton Prairie was ranked 

one of the poorest examples of Bienville prairies (48 out of 54 – 11th percentile). The report also stated 

that Singleton Prairie was a “disturbed prairie with less than complete assemblage of prairie species, still 

restorable to prairie but with major efforts to manage and possibly many years for results. May also 

require seeding to replace species that appear to be missing”. Restoration and continued maintenance 

would be an additional concern due to the absence of reliable access. Management access is hindered due 

to wetlands and Hontokalo Creek.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

104 National Forests in Mississippi

Singleton Prairie should be protected in a manner consistent with other prairie; however, it should not rise 

to the level of a botanical area. Botanical areas should be one of our better examples of rare communities, 

rather than one of our poorer examples. Singleton Prairie Botanical Study Area has neither a high ranking, 

when compared to other prairies, or reasonable access for management or the public. Singleton Prairie has 

been dropped from further consideration as a designated special area.

Nutmeg Hickory Research Natural Area (Bienville National Forest): 

This calcareous variant of floodplain forest ecological system was proposed as a research natural area. It 

is a mature wet-mesic floodplain forest dominated by mature specimens of native prairie forest species 

such as nutmeg hickory, Durand oak, and big shellbark hickory. As a research natural area, this area 

provides undisturbed base line areas to monitor changes in natural conditions associated with 

management of similar areas and serves as an area in which natural biological diversity is conserved. The 

nomination and evaluation process has been completed for this research natural area. Further, a decision 

to dedicate this area as a research natural area was made on September 22, 2003 by the regional forester. 

However, final public notification was not completed previously. This area is being formally recognized 

through this forest plan revision process. 

Laurel Oak Botanical Area (Chickasawhay Ranger District, De Soto National Forest): 

As a botanical area, this area provides an undisturbed baseline area to monitor changes in natural

conditions associated with management of similar areas and serves as an area in which natural biological 

diversity is conserved. The area is a minor stream bottom with stands predominated by laurel oak and 

loblolly pine. This area was originally proposed by district staff for research natural area designation. The 

botanical area designation was chosen as the best way to provide special area status for this area.

Railroad Creek Titi Botanical Area (De Soto Ranger District, De Soto National Forest): 

This botanical area includes an impressive and extensive stand of 30-foot tall, 4- to 7-inch diameter 

buckwheat trees beneath a slash pine dominated swamp forest along a black water creek. Swamp titi is 

also present but is not dominant. This area provides an undisturbed base line to monitor changes in natural 

conditions associated with management of similar areas and serves as an area in which natural biological 

diversity is conserved.

Little Florida Botanical Area (De Soto Ranger District, De Soto National Forest): 

Little Florida contains the most extensive and highest quality xeric sandhill community with longleaf pine 

forest, saw palmetto, and other characteristic species remaining in Mississippi. Several plant species such 

as scarlet basil and littleleaf milkpea reach the western limits of their range at this site. The sand ridge is 

surrounded by more typical mesic longleaf forest and several drainages. 

Pitcher Plant Botanical Area (De Soto Ranger District, De Soto National Forest): 

The Pitcher Plant Botanical Area consists of three distinct and rather unique quaking bogs in relatively 

close proximity to each other. Vegetation in these bogs floats on top of a saturated layer of peat 2 meters 

or more thick over an impervious sand layer. This botanical area provides habitat for a variety of bog 

species as well as more common and diagnostic members of this ecosystem including pitcher plants, 

sundews, grasses and sedges. 

Buttercup Flat Botanical Area (De Soto Ranger District, De Soto National Forest): 

The Buttercup Flat Botanical Area consists of a scenic pitcher plant savanna along State Highway 26. The 

savanna is intact hydrologically and provides habitat for a wide variety of common and diagnostic 

members of this system including pitcher plants, sundews, grasses, and sedges. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 105

Loblolly Bay Botanical Area (De Soto Ranger District, De Soto National Forest): 

This botanical area is a classic bayhead community with sweetbay, swamp gum and slash pine as 

common dominants with yellow poplar, red maple, and water oak less common. Loblolly bay is present 

here in good numbers. The bayhead community provides habitat for the uncommon loblolly bay. Gopher 

tortoises live on the adjacent uplands which support longleaf pine. 

Ragland Hills Botanical Area (De Soto Ranger District, De Soto National Forest): 

The Ragland Hills Area is a classic southern mesophytic forest in deeply dissected ravines separated by 

well drained ridgetops which support longleaf pine. National Forest System lands are flanked by land 

owned by the University of Southern Mississippi and the Mississippi National Guard. Together these 

three publicly owned tracts offer opportunity for a multi-agency natural area preserve. The endemic bigleaf witch-hazel has recently been described from this community. As a proposed botanical area, this area 

provides an undisturbed base line site on which to monitor changes in natural conditions associated with 

management of similar areas and serves as an area in which natural biological diversity is conserved. 

Granny Creek Bay Research Natural Area (De Soto Ranger District, De Soto National 

Forest): 

Granny Creek Bay is a large spring seep and associated seepage swamp of exceptional quality. It has been 

the focus of research conducted by biologists with the University of Southern Mississippi and the 

Mississippi Natural Heritage Program. As a research natural area, this area provides undisturbed base line 

areas to monitor changes in natural conditions associated with management of similar areas and serves as 

an area to conserve natural biological diversity. The nomination and evaluation process has been 

completed for this research natural area. Further, a decision to dedicate this area as a research natural area 

was made on March 26, 2002 by the regional forester. However, final public notification was not 

completed previously. This area is being formally recognized through this forest plan revision process. 

Wyatt Hills Botanical Area (De Soto Ranger District, De Soto National Forest): 

The Wyatt Hills is an area of locally high topographic relief deeply dissected into narrow ridges, ravines, 

and bottomland forests along small creeks. It is notable for its woody plant diversity. Over 70 species of 

trees, shrubs and woody vines have been recorded, including 7 species of oak, 5 species of magnolia, 4 

pines, 4 hollies, 4 blueberries, and 3 cat-briers. Florida anisetree is by far the most common shrub on 

slopes, with mountain laurel thickets along the ridge crests. 

Cypress Bayou Botanical Area (Delta National Forest):

The Cypress Bayou Botanical Area is a tract of old-growth delta bottomland hardwood forest dominated 

by overcup oak. Timber was established on the stand in 1874 and has not been cut since. Other dominant 

trees include green ash, sugarberry, bitter pecan, Nuttall oak and sweetgum. 

LA-2 Botanical Area (Holly Springs National Forest): 

This is an area of old-growth hardwood forest in steep topography (Compartment 117, Stand 17) that was 

identified as being one of the best remaining areas of old-growth forest in Mississippi’s lignite belt during 

a 1980s evaluation done by Dr. Frank Miller at Mississippi State University’s remote sensing laboratory 

under contract to Mississippi Natural Heritage Program. The character of the area has changed 

significantly since its nomination due to flooding caused by beavers and subsequent tree mortality. 

LA-6 Botanical Area (Holly Springs National Forest): 

This is an area of old-growth hardwood forest in steep topography that was identified as being one of the 

best remaining areas of old-growth forest in Mississippi’s lignite belt during a 1980s evaluation done by 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

106 National Forests in Mississippi

Dr. Frank Miller at Mississippi State University’s remote sensing laboratory under contract to Mississippi 

Natural Heritage Program.

Proposed Lee Creek Research Natural Area (Holly Springs National Forest): 

This area was nominated for research natural area designation because of an approximately 10 acre area 

of undisturbed back water cypress which is a very rare condition. Because of the small size of the cypress 

stand additional area from the alluvial floodplain adjacent to Lee Creek to the adjacent mixed shortleaf 

upland hardwood stand above the cypress stand was included to both buffer the cypress stand and provide 

research natural area representation of both minor stream bottom hardwoods and upland pine hardwood 

forest types in the research natural area system. The head cutting condition of Lee Creek was a negative 

issue found with field review of the site. But, it was determined the site should continue through the 

designation process. Subsequently the entire area was demolished by tornado. The damage included 

nearly complete breakage of all the cypress stems in the core area of interest. The area was salvaged and 

reforested following the storm damage. Because of the changed condition this area has been dropped from 

research natural area consideration.

Sandy Creek Botanical Area (Homochitto National Forest): 

This is an area of mesic to dry mesic loessal forest. Dominant species are various hardwoods with 

scattered loblolly pine that are dropping out of the stand as the stand ages. The stand is about 70 years old.

As a proposed botanical area, this area provides undisturbed baseline sites on which to monitor changes in 

natural conditions associated with management of similar areas and serves as an area in which natural 

biological diversity is conserved. This area is within the Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area that 

was identified through the RARE II process. This area was proposed by district staff for research natural 

area designation after the initial RARE II consideration, but the botanical area designation was later 

chosen as the best way to provide special area status for this area.

Shagbark Hickory Botanical Area (Tombigbee National Forest): 

The Shagbark Hickory Botanical Area is an area of mesic hardwood in steep highly dissected terrain that 

had been utilized as outdoor classroom for many years by professors and students of Mississippi State 

University. This area provides educational opportunities as an outdoor classroom for future students and 

professors. 

Choctaw #4 Botanical Area (Tombigbee National Forest): 

This is an area of old-growth hardwood forest in steep topography that was identified as being one of the 

best remaining areas of old-growth forest in Mississippi’s lignite belt during a 1980s evaluation done by 

Dr. Frank Miller at Mississippi State University’s remote sensing laboratory under contract to Mississippi 

Natural Heritage Program. 

Prairie Mount Botanical Area (Tombigbee National Forest):

The Prairie Mount Botanical Area represents a good example of the native tall grass prairie from the black 

belt region. The black belt prairie provides the necessary habitat conditions to support a full array of

native prairie species such as indiangrass, bluestem grasses, rosinweeds, prairie-clovers, yellow-puffs, 

prairie cone-flowers, and others. As a proposed botanical area, this area provides undisturbed base line 

sites on which to monitor changes in natural conditions associated with management of similar areas and 

serves as an area in which natural biological diversity is conserved. This area was originally proposed by 

district staff for research natural area designation. The botanical area designation was chosen as the best 

way to provide special area status for this area.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 107

Bogue Cully Botanical Area (Tombigbee National Forest):

The Bogue Cully Research Natural Area represents a good example of the native tall grass prairie from 

the black belt region. The black belt prairie provides the necessary habitat conditions to support a full 

array of native prairie species such as Indian grass, bluestem grasses, rosinweeds, prairie-clovers, yellowpuffs, prairie cone-flowers, and others. As a proposed botanical area, this area provides undisturbed base 

line sites on which to monitor changes in natural conditions associated with management of similar areas 

and serves as an area in which natural biological diversity is conserved. This area was originally proposed 

by district staff for research natural area designation. The botanical area designation was chosen as the 

best way to provide special area status for this area.

3.5.6 Forest Health and Protection

Healthy forests contain all the features and functions necessary to meet management objectives for the 

land area. Desired conditions associated with healthy forests involve a variety of resource areas, including 

vegetation, wildlife, invasive species, soils, water, air, lands, and fire management. The development of 

desired conditions was based on input from public stakeholders, agency directives, and regulatory 

requirements under NFMA (National Forest Management Act). The species diversity, ecological systems, 

and vegetation management portions of this EIS include the ecological basis for the desired conditions 

and information on the long-term sustained yields of timber products that result from achieving and 

maintaining these desired conditions. 

Beginning about 18,000 years ago during the peak of the last major glacial period, the forest communities 

of the National Forests in Mississippi that we know today began to be shaped by global climate changes, 

indigenous human cultures, lightning, windstorms, beavers, large ungulates, and native insects and 

diseases. In the more recent past, European settlement and modern society have disrupted some of these 

natural processes (fire, beavers, and large ungulates) and introduced new disturbances like non-native 

invasive species.

This section of the EIS will focus on non-native invasive species, insects and diseases, and old growth.

Vegetation management treatments including harvest, fire, manual and chemical treatments to promote 

forest health, and suppress or eradicate threats will be discussed. There are other forest pests and threats 

to forest health other than those included in this discussion. However, those discussed are the most serious 

threats or require the most active prevention, suppression or monitoring efforts. Old growth is included in 

this discussion because of its contribution to overall forest health including the wellbeing of old-growth

dependent flora and fauna. 

Non-Native Invasive Species

Invasive species pose a long-term risk to the health of the Nation’s forests and grasslands. In the absence 

of their natural predators, they can increase across the landscape with little opposition, beyond limited 

efforts made in control and reclamation measures. These species interfere with natural and managed 

ecosystems, degrade wildlife habitat, reduce the sustainable production of natural resource-based goods 

and services, and increase the susceptibility of ecosystems to other disturbances such as fire by increasing 

fuel loads to hazardous levels. After habitat destruction, invasive species are the second greatest cause of 

species endangerment and decline worldwide. Current efforts are focused primarily on two species, kudzu 

and cogongrass, that are the most problematic and seem to have the most potential for rapidly spreading 

over large areas. 

Insect damage and plant disease are natural disturbances that are part of a healthy, functioning ecosystem, 

along with fire and wind damage. However, both native and non-native insects and diseases have caused 

above normal mortality rates on forested lands in the United States. There are approximately 58 million 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

108 National Forests in Mississippi

acres, or 8 percent of the forested land at risk of experiencing 25 percent or more basal area mortality due 

to insects and diseases in the next 15 years, without some sort of remediation (Krist et al. 2007). High 

mortality rates can accelerate the development of high fuel loading in fire-dependent forests, effectively 

remove important ecosystem elements, and reduce private property values. 

Trends

• Encroachment of invasive plant species into Mississippi forests is a continuing concern. They invade 

under and beside forest canopies and occupy small forest openings, eroding forest productivity, 

limiting forest use and management activities, and degrading diversity and wildlife habitat. Often 

called nonnative, exotic, non-indigenous, alien, or noxious weeds, they occur as trees, shrubs, vines, 

grasses, ferns and forbs. Without their natural predators, they now increase across the landscape with 

little opposition, beyond control and reclamation measures.

• Noxious weeds are found on every part of the National Forests in Mississippi. Few if any areas would 

be found to be weed free. Current efforts are focused on two species, Kudzu and cogongrass, that are 

the most troublesome and seem to have the most potential for destructive spreading over large areas. 

Currently they cover large areas, and both species have the ability to render acres that they occupy 

unsuitable for native species. 

• Other species such as Japanese honeysuckle, privet, Japanese climbing-fern, and Chinese tallow tree 

are currently of secondary priority and are treated on a case-by-case situation at the project level. 

• High profile exotic insects and diseases include Dutch elm disease, chestnut blight, red-imported fire 

ant and beech bark disease. High profile exotic animals found on the National Forests in Mississippi

include feral hogs and nutria. Feral hogs disrupt plant life, decimate ecosystems, and have been 

known to decimate hardwood seedling plantings. Nutria are well known for undermining and 

breaking through water-retaining levees, crop depredation, tree girdling, and decimating seedling bald

cypress. Aside from the potential economic loss from timber volume, many wildlife and fish species 

are dependent on the ecosystems affected by these invasive animals, insects, and diseases. 

• In recent years, evolving agency policy aimed at ecosystem management objectives has placed 

increased scrutiny on undesirable invasive species. Environmental assessments of large landscape 

areas (in some cases, multiple districts or national forests) and analyzing environmental effects for the 

control of kudzu, cogongrass, and other invasive species have presented a more complete picture of 

the impacts of undesirable invasive species.

• Invasive plant species that have been introduced into Mississippi and found their way onto national 

forests will continue to pose challenges in meeting ecological sustainability objectives.

A multitude of non-native invasive species including non-native plants, insects, pathogens, and mammals 

threaten the integrity of native ecosystems in the Southeast. The Chief of the U.S. Forest Service has 

identified non-native invasive species as one of the four critical threats to National Forest System lands 

ecosystems. Invasive species pose a long-term risk to the health of the nation’s forests and grasslands.

These species interfere with natural and managed ecosystems, degrade wildlife habitat, reduce the 

sustainable production of natural resource-based goods and services, and increase the susceptibility of 

ecosystems to other disturbances such as fire by increasing fuel loads to hazardous levels. After habitat 

destruction, invasive species are the second greatest cause of species endangerment and decline 

worldwide (Wilcove et al. 1998).

Invasions of nonnative plants into Mississippi forests continue unchecked and unmonitored. They invade 

under and beside forest canopies and occupy small forest openings, eroding forest productivity, limiting 

forest use and management activities, and degrading diversity and wildlife habitat. Often called 

nonnative, exotic, non-indigenous, alien, or noxious weeds, they occur as trees, shrubs, vines, grasses, 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 109

ferns and forbs. Without their natural predators, they now increase across the landscape with little 

opposition, beyond the control and reclamation measures.

Noxious weeds are found on every part of the National Forests in Mississippi. Few if any compartments 

would be found to be “weed free”. Current efforts are focused on kudzu and cogongrass, two species that 

are the most troublesome and seem to have the most potential for destructive spreading over large areas.

Both species cover large areas both have the ability to render acres that they occupy useless for other 

native species.

Other species such as Japanese honeysuckle, privet, Japanese climbing-fern, Chinese tallow tree, to name 

a few, are currently of secondary priority and are treated on a case-by case situation on the project level.

Insect damage and plant disease are natural disturbances that are part of a healthy, functioning ecosystem, 

along with fire and wind damage. However, both native and non-native insects and diseases have caused 

above normal mortality rates on forested lands in the United States. Some 58 million acres or 8 percent of 

forested land are at risk for mortality rates that exceed the norm by 25 percent or more (USDA Forest 

Service 2001). High mortality rates can accelerate the development of high fuel-loading in fire-dependent 

forests, effectively remove important ecosystem elements, and reduce private property values. The highest 

profile exotic insects and diseases include the emerald ash borer, sudden oak death, redbay ambrosia 

beetle which is associated with laurel wilt disease, Asian longhorned beetle, sirex woodwasp, and redimported fire ant.

Table 18. Invasive species

Scientific Name Common Name Prioritya

Triadica sebifera Chinese tallow 1

Albizia julibrissin Mimosa 1

Melia azedarach Chinaberrytree 1

Paulownia tomentosa Princesstree 1

Ligustrum sinense Chinese Privet 2/3

Ligustrum vulgare European Privet 2/3

Ligustrum lucidum Glossy Privet 2/3

Ligustrum japonicum Japanese Privet 2/3

Nandina domestica Sacred bamboo 1

Lonicera japonica Japanese Honeysuckle 4

Pueraria Montana Kudzu 1

Wisteria sinensis Nonnative Wisteria 1

Wisteria floribunda Nonnative Wisteria 1

Lolium arundinaceum Tall Fescue 3

Microstegium vimineum Nepalese Browntop 1

Imperata cylindrica Cogongrass 1

Miscanthus sinensis Chinese Silvergrass 1

Rottboellia cochinchinensis Itchgrass 1

Lespedeza cuneata Chinese Lespedeza 3

Lygodium japonicum Japanese Climbing Fern 3

Lespedeza bicolor Shrubby Lespedeza 2

a - Priority: 

1=high, eradicate wherever found

2=medium, control source populations and eradicate outliers

3=low, prevent invasion of last areas not invaded; eradicate high priority areas

The highest profile exotic animal found on the National Forests in Mississippi is the feral hog. Feral hogs 

disrupt plant life, decimate ecosystems, and have been known to decimate hardwood seedling plantings. 

Aside from the potential economic loss from timber volume, many wildlife and fish species are dependent 

on the ecosystems affected by these invasive animals, insects, and diseases. 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

110 National Forests in Mississippi

Non-native Invasive Plants

Many non-native plants are known to occur across the National Forests in Mississippi, often accounting 

for 25 percent or more of the documented flora. While not all non-native species are known to disrupt 

native ecosystems, of particular concern are those that are successful at invading and rapidly spreading 

through natural habitats. As defined in Executive Order 13112 issued February 3, 1999, an invasive 

species is one that meets the following two criteria: “1) it is non-native to the ecosystem under 

consideration and, 2) its introduction causes or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or 

harm to human health.” 

A list of 21 species of non-native plants that are the highest priority for management is in table 18.

Non-native Insects and Disease

Insects and diseases of most concern for the purposes of this analysis include emerald ash borer, sudden 

oak death, redbay ambrosia beetle which is associated with laurel wilt disease, Asian longhorned beetle, 

sirex noctilio, and red-imported fire ant. 

Emerald Ash Borer

The emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) is an insect pest of recent concern for the National Forests in 

Mississippi. This non-native boring insect was first identified in the United States in 2002. Initial 

infestations were located in Michigan and Ontario, Canada. The insect has rapidly spread south and east 

and now occurs in Maryland, West Virginia, and Virginia. Emerald ash borer trapping has occurred in and 

around the National Forests in Mississippi; however no emerald ash borer have been detected as yet. The 

emerald ash borer feeds on the cambium of ash trees as larvae. It is the destruction of the cambial layer 

that disrupts the transport of water and nutrients up the tree and causes mortality. A single generation of 

larvae occurs in any given season, with the larvae overwintering in the sapwood of the tree. Beetles 

emerge in May or early June to mate and start a new cycle. At this time, only ash trees are believe to be 

susceptible to this species of borer. Infested trees decline over a few years and may die after 3 to 4 years 

of heavy infestation.

Ash is rarely a dominant tree in our forested stand. However, ash species are often found as a minor 

component throughout the entire National Forests in Mississippi in the more mesic sites. While this insect 

pest is not likely to cause widespread severe mortality at the stand or landscape level because the host tree 

is not a dominant species in our Forests, it certainly could lead to severe decline and impact of ash species 

throughout the Forests. 

Sudden Oak Death 

An occurrence known as sudden oak death (Phytophthora ramorum) was first reported in 1995 in central 

coastal California. Since then, tens of thousands of tanoaks (Lithocarpus densiflorus), coast live oaks 

(Quercus agrifolia), and California black oaks (Quercus kelloggii) have been killed by a newly identified 

fungus, Phytophthora ramorum. This fungus causes a bleeding canker on the stem. The pathogen could 

also infect southeastern species including some species from both the red and white oak groups and others 

such as the southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora), southern red oak (Q. falcata), pin oak (Q. 

palustris), northern red oak (Q. rubra), white oak (Q. alba), cherrybark oak (Q. pagoda), chestnut oak (Q. 

prinus), laurel oak (Q. laurifolia), live oak (Q. virginiana), water oak (Q. nigra), and willow oak (Q.

phellos)(6). 

Widespread susceptibility of many eastern forest and landscape trees and shrubs makes establishment of 

sudden oak death to Mississippi or other southeastern states a very real possibility. The susceptibility of 

many popular horticultural plants such as camellias, rhododendrons (including azaleas), and viburnums 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 111

has already lead to the pathogen being spread to some eastern states, such as Georgia, Florida, the 

Carolinas, and Mississippi. In these locations, P. ramorum was usually detected in potted plants, soil, and 

water in or adjacent to a nursery that had unknowingly obtained infected stock. So far, the pathogen is not 

yet established in natural forests in Mississippi or elsewhere in the eastern United States.

Redbay Ambrosia Beetle

Laurel wilt is a deadly disease of redbay (Persea borbonia) and other tree species in the laurel family 

(Lauraceae). The disease is caused by a fungus (Raffaelea lauricola) that is introduced into host trees by 

a non-native insect, the redbay ambrosia beetle (Xyleborus glabratus). The fungus plugs the waterconducting cells of an affected tree and causes it to wilt. Laurel wilt has caused widespread and severe 

levels of redbay mortality in the southeastern coastal plain. 

In 2002, the USDA Forest Service Forest Health Unit, captured three specimens of the redbay ambrosia 

beetle, Xyleborus glabratus Eichhoff, in detection traps near Port Wentworth, Georgia. This was the first 

record of this Asian species in North America. In 2009, laurel wilt expanded into south Florida and 

coastal Mississippi while it continued its spread in Georgia and South Carolina as well. The detection of 

laurel wilt in Jackson County, Mississippi reflects a very large geographic jump for the beetle and fungus; 

it is not known how the problem got there, but human-aided movement or a separate introduction in cargo 

seem to be more likely causes than “natural” spread. Laurel wilt has not been detected on the National 

Forests in Mississippi, but the likelihood of occurrence is high because it has been found nearby. 

The ecological impacts of drastic reductions in redbay populations are not well researched or have not yet 

been reported in the scientific literature. Potential ecological impacts on host species other than redbay are 

even less certain at this time.

Asian Longhorned Beetle 

The Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis) has been discovered attacking trees in the 

United States. Tunneling by beetle larvae girdles tree stems and branches. Repeated attacks lead to 

dieback of the tree crown and, eventually, death of the tree. Asian longhorned beetle probably travelled to 

the United States inside solid wood packing material from China. The beetle has been intercepted at ports 

and found in warehouses throughout the United States. 

This beetle is a serious pest in China. In the United States, the beetle prefers maple species (Acer spp.).

Other preferred hosts are birches, buckeye, elms, and willows. Occasional to rare hosts include ashes, 

European mountain ash, London planetree, mimosa, and poplars. A complete list of host trees in the 

United States has not been determined.

Sirex Woodwasp 

Sirex (Sirex noctilio) woodwasp has been the most common species of exotic woodwasp detected at 

United States ports-of-entry associated with solid wood packing materials. Recent detections of sirex 

woodwasp outside of port areas in the United States have raised concerns because this insect has the 

potential to cause significant mortality of pines. The sirex woodwasp is considered a secondary pest of 

trees in its native range of Europe and Asia. However, it is a major pest in exotic pine plantations. 

Females carry a fungus, Amylostereum areolatum, they deposit in trees when laying their eggs. This 

fungus and the mucus injected by the wasp rapidly weaken and kill host trees, and the developing larvae 

feed on the fungus. This pest is attracted to stressed trees that are often used to make solid wood packing 

material. Since the life cycle can take a year or more, the insect is transported easily in pallets or other 

solid wood packing material and not readily detected at a port. 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

112 National Forests in Mississippi

Red-imported Fire Ant

The red-imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) has invaded many habitats in the United States primarily 

due to the absence of predators, effective competitors and disease. Solenopsis invicta was introduced into 

the United States in the early 1930s, and now occupies much of the southeast. Imported fire ants are often 

characterized as being associated with disturbed habitat, but may be found in most habitats, including 

woodlands and savannas, with an open canopy.

Red-imported fire ants can reduce species diversity and become the dominant species in a habitat, but 

they may fail to replace native species' functions. Native arthropods may act as pollinators, seed 

dispersers or decomposers and rarely does Solenopsis invicta replace these functions. In the longleaf pine 

ecosystem, herbivores and detritovores play an important role in ecosystem function (Epperson and Allen 

2010). 

Human activities often create and maintain disturbance-dependent ecosystems potentially facilitating 

colonization by red-imported fire ant. Disturbance promotes red-imported fire ant colonization in two 

ways: 1) by opening canopy or heavy herbaceous layers allowing light penetration and 2) by removal of 

competitive ant species. Native ants generally do not colonize as rapidly or exhibit the rapid population 

growth of the red-imported fire ant.

Management practices commonly prescribed to enhance habitat, such as fire, create and maintain early 

successional characteristics that may have the unintended consequence of increasing red-imported fire ant 

abundance or activity (Williamson et al. 2002).

Feral Hogs

Local feral hog populations have proliferated and expanded their range across the National Forests in 

Mississippi. Feral hogs have the potential to damage ecosystems as they create wallows and root for food, 

compete with native species, and transmit diseases. Evidence of feral hogs has been found in on or near 

all ranger districts across the Forests.

Foraging by feral hogs may reduce oak regeneration because the animals have been known to feed on 

acorn crops. Feral hogs also damage longleaf pine regeneration when they root up seedlings to feed on 

their roots. Feral hogs can also compete with or prey on native wildlife and game species. Habitat damage 

in sensitive areas may have a negative impact on endangered and sensitive species and their habitat, as 

well as game species, such as turkeys and deer. Feral hogs may also destroy the nests, eggs, and offspring 

of ground-nesting birds and can impact other animals directly or indirectly.

Southern Pine Beetle 

Southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis) infestations have occurred cyclically throughout recorded 

history in the South. This is a native pest. Southern pine beetle outbreaks move from low levels of 

infestation to high levels over several years. The cycles may be localized or regional and depend upon 

weather and other stress factors as well as the interrelationship between the populations of southern pine 

beetle and its predators.

The female southern pine beetle kills pines and occasionally other conifers by boring under the bark and 

destroying the cambium layer of the tree. They construct winding galleries while feeding and laying eggs. 

During outbreaks, trees are usually mass-attacked by thousands of beetles. The crowns of trees attacked 

by southern pine beetle during warm, dry weather may fade in color within weeks. Once a tree is 

successfully attacked, the tree usually turns light greenish-yellow, then yellow, and finally reddish-brown. 

This color change pattern can vary depending on the tree and environmental conditions.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 113

Old Growth

Old-growth conditions on the Forests are not prevalent because these lands were acquired as mostly 

cutover lands beginning in the 1930s. Nearly 80 years of forest restoration and management have 

provided the opportunity now to identify and manage for old-growth character across the landscape. 

An assessment of the status of possible old-growth forest acreage for the National Forests in Mississippi

was undertaken in 2005. A preliminary inventory of possible old-growth was developed based on the 

Southern Region’s old-growth guidance.

A number of selection criteria were utilized to identify stands for this preliminary list of possible oldgrowth. These included lands withdrawn from timber production, red-cockaded woodpecker clusters, late 

seral designations, stands at or above Southern Region minimum old-growth age, and rare community 

types. The areas identified were grouped based on their forest type into twelve old-growth community 

types. The development of this list resulted in the identification of 118,592 acres to manage as possible 

old growth.

The areas on the preliminary list of possible old-growth range from small to large sized patches. The 

current percentage of forested acres on each district included in the preliminary list of possible old-growth 

varies from six to 32 percent. The overall Forest average is ten percent. The current percentage of forested 

acres on each district included as medium sized or larger possible old-growth ranges from one tenth of 

one percent to four percent. The overall Forest average of medium sized or larger possible old-growth is 

one half of one percent. 

Old-growth forests are ecosystems characterized by the presence of older trees, minimal signs of human 

disturbance, mixed-age structure, presence of canopy openings due to tree falls, pit-and-mound 

topography, and downed woody debris in various stages of decay, standing snags (dead trees), multilayered canopies, intact soils, and a healthy fungal ecosystem. Because old growth is so rare in the eastern 

United States and is in such short supply, it essentially represents an endangered habitat. As second- and 

third-growth forests (last logged at the turn of the last century) approach maturity, the opportunity exists 

to set aside stands for future old-growth preservation. Old-growth forests are not necessarily virgin or 

primeval communities. They can develop over time following human disturbances, just as they do 

following natural disturbances. Old growth encompasses both older forests with a significant early seral 

species component and forests in later successional stages dominated by shade tolerant species.

The preservation of old growth is important for a variety of reasons. First, much of what is known about 

the structure, function, and natural disturbance regimes of forests have been derived from the study of 

old-growth forests. These forests provide a valuable benchmark or “experimental control” against which 

managed lands can be compared. Old-growth forests also serve as reservoirs of biological diversity. They 

may provide habitat structure that certain animals and plants need and that is not elsewhere in the 

landscape because old growth is so rare.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

114 National Forests in Mississippi

Table 19. National Forests in Mississippi preliminary inventory of possible old-growth acreage by 

district and status/selection criteria

Old-growth Status / 

Selection Criteria

Bienville

De Soto

Homochitto

Chickasawhay

Delta

Holly Springs

Tombigbee

Totals

Existing 

old-growth 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Future 

old-growth 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Wilderness 3 0 6,466 0 0 0 0 0 6,466

Research 

Natural Areas 4 189 1,820 230 539 670 186 803 4,437

Other 

Administratively 

designated 

unregulated 

areas

5 568 5585 84 451 3,122 235 72 10,117

Red-cockaded 

woodpecker 

clusters

6 8,505 3,236 4,230 2,007 0 0 0 17,978

Late seral 7 10,770 14,578 7,300 7,239 2,946 5,138 3,004 50,975

R8 old-growth 

minimum age 8 698 2,031 580 14 13,581 6,393 958 24,255

Rare 

community 

types

9 937 1175 807 134 759 552 4,364

Totals 21,667 34,891 13,231 10,384 20,319 12,711 5,389 118,592

Trends

• Old-growth guidance for the Southern Region is contained in a report titled, “Guidance for 

Conserving and Restoring Old-Growth Forest Communities on National Forests in the Southern 

Region” (USDA Forest Service 1997). The National Forests in Mississippi are implementing this 

regional guidance to establish an appropriate network of old-growth forests distributed across the 

national forests. This network should represent the ecological integrity needs for all vegetation 

community types. The first step in this process involved developing a preliminary inventory of 

possible old growth. The forest plan set of documents includes guidance on old-growth for the 

National Forests in Mississippi.

• The results of the preliminary inventory of possible old-growth acreage by ranger district for the 

National Forests in Mississippi are presented below in table 19. The information in the table is 

summarized by ranger district and old-growth status/selection criteria (July 2007). Table 20 is the 

same information presented by district and old-growth community type. Project-level evaluations will 

be needed to assess areas identified in the preliminary inventory and assign them to the existing or 

future old-growth categories.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 115

Table 20. National Forests in Mississippi preliminary inventory of possible old-growth acreage 

summarized by district and old-growth community type

Old-growth Community Types

Bienville

De Soto

Homochitto

Chickasawhay

Delta

Holly Springs

Tombigbee

NFs in MS 

Totals

Coastal Plain upland Mesic Hardwood (6) 436 394 325 66 42 1,263

Hardwood Wetland (10) 28 3,988 642 4,658

River Floodplain Hardwood (13) 2,944 9,210 1,965 3,642 20,189 448 103 38,501

Cypress-Tupelo Swamp (14) 260 399 204 863

Dry-Mesic Oak (21) 5,663 2,355 1,362 481 4,976 4,300 19,137

Dry and Xeric Oak (22) 206 441 647

Xeric Pine and Pine-Oak (24) 823 1,130 1,485 11 5,244 192 8,885

Dry and Dry-Mesic Oak-pine (25) 10,656 7,769 6,996 1,657 1,398 732 29,208

Upland Longleaf (26) 346 5,062 607 1,828 7,843

Seasonally Wet Oak-Hardwood (27) 771 1,311 92 1,601 3,775

Eastern Riverfront (28) 55 55

Southern Wet Pine (29) 3,192 456 3,648

Unclassified 14 75 20 109

Totals 21,667 34,891 13,231 10,384 20,319 12,711 5,389 118,592

3.5.7 Fire Management 

Restoring fire to fire-dependent ecosystems through prescribed burning contributes to long-term 

resiliency, integrity, and sustainability of productive forest ecosystems. Social concerns, such as proximity 

to structures, smoke management requirements, public health, and safety limit the scale of managed fire 

short of historic levels. The protection of human life is the overriding priority. 

Fire regime condition class (class) is a classification of the amount of departure from the natural fire 

regime in terms of the following ecological components: vegetation characteristics (species composition, 

structural stages, stand age, canopy closure, and mosaic pattern); fuel composition; fire frequency; 

severity, and pattern; and other associated disturbances (e.g. insect and disease mortality and drought).

The three condition classes are based on low (class 1), moderate (class 2), and high (class 3) departure 

from the natural (historical) condition. Class 1 areas are considered within the historic range of variability 

while condition class 2 and 3 represent a moderate to high departure from the natural regime, respectively.

Fire regimes in stands that contain a class 3 have been significantly altered from their historic return 

interval and species composition.

Due to the history of prescribed fire on the National Forests in Mississippi, especially during the dormant 

season, significant portions of the national forests are in condition classes 1 and 2. The prescribed fire 

strategy on the National Forests in Mississippi is to maintain ecosystem specific prescribed burning 

rotations by season and interval. Following this strategy will allow National Forests in Mississippi to 

maintain condition class 1 areas, move condition class 2 areas into condition class 1, and move condition 

class 3 areas into condition class 2.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

116 National Forests in Mississippi

In spite of a significant reduction of fuel loads through post-storm salvage operations, a large fuel buildup 

created by Hurricane Katrina still exists. Before Katrina, the fuel loadings on the De Soto National Forest 

averaged 1-4 tons per acre, and now it is as high as 40 tons per acre. Over the next few years, many 

residual large materials will degrade naturally, and the prescribed burning program will concentrate on 

removing the more dangerous fine materials and volatile live fuels. Forestwide, prescribed burning 

accomplishments are expected to return to pre-Katrina annual acreage provided the weather and funding 

levels are adequate.

Dormant season burns, which are conducted during the winter and early spring in Mississippi, are used to 

accomplish reduction of hazardous fuels. Fires during this season may top-kill some vegetation, but the 

roots will sprout. Growing season burns have more effect on species composition and are used to reduce 

competition. The goal is to knock back hardwood stems and eliminate a larger portion of vegetation 

growth. Currently, approximately 70 percent of the prescribed burning program in Mississippi is 

conducted during the dormant season, with the remaining 30 percent is conducted during the growing 

season.

Table 21. Total annual prescribed burn acreage by year

a – Region-wide drought

Fire Management Trends

• The National Forests in Mississippi have an aggressive prescribed fire program. Prescribed burning 

levels on the National Forests in Mississippi have increased from 135,000-150,000 acres burned 

annually in past decades to 235,000-250,000 acres today, weather conditions permitting.

• By far, the largest part of this program is the reduction of hazardous fuels (95 percent or more) and 

maintaining condition class 1 where it exists. Due to an intermingling of public and private lands 

within the forest, prescribed burning for treatment of hazardous fuels primarily occurs in the wildland 

urban interface. 

Year Total Prescribed Burn Acreage

1995 134,840

1996 91,165

1997 125,910

1998 132,913

1999 142,978

2000 72,596a

2001 189,026

2002 216,050

2003 259,314

2004 257,183

2005 248,156

2006 91,755

2007 222,104

2008 177,714

2009 251,165

2010 169,166
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 117

• Table 21 lists the total acres prescribed burned across the national forest each year since 1995. The 

increase in annual burn levels around 2000 was due to the establishment and staffing of the current 

fire organization. The drop in acres burned in 2006 was the result of the aftermath of Hurricane 

Katrina.

• Prescribed fires are conducted for ecosystem restoration objectives, wildlife habitat maintenance and 

improvement, threatened and endangered species habitat maintenance and improvement, control of 

undesirable species, site preparation, and brown spot needle blight control in longleaf pine. The 

National Forests in Mississippi is actively moving from an exclusive dormant season program to 

more growing season prescribed burning.

• Since the introduction of the forest plan in 1985, the use of aerial ignition has made a significant 

change in the ability of the National Forests in Mississippi to implement large scale prescribed 

burning projects. 

• The vast majority of wildfires in Mississippi are human caused (approximately 98 percent). Wildfires 

generally have limited impacts in Mississippi. There are few lightning-caused fires since most storm 

events tend to have associated rainfall. Table 22 shows the average number of wildland fires per year 

and average acres burned per year since 1980.

• With the increase in large-scale understory prescribed burning, wildfire occurrence and intensity has 

decreased and resource damage has been reduced. 

• Fire management complexity is increasing, particularly in areas of expanding wildland urban 

interface. Wildland urban interface results in increased risk for structures and natural resources.

Table 22. Wildland fires and average acres burned per year

Time Period Average Wildland

Fires/Year

Average Acres

Burned/Year

1980-1984 303 7,689

1985-1989 263 6,799

1990-1994 182 5,331

1995-1999 162 5,563

2000-2003 123 5,596

2004-2006 180 9,639

2007-2010 133 6,198

3.6 Economic and Social Environment

3.6.1 Timber

Ecological sustainability requires a diversity of species composition, age classes, stand structure and 

densities. These conditions provide for a forest resilient and resistant to insect, disease, and disturbance 

from natural disasters. Healthy forest conditions also include a mix of younger regenerating vegetation 

and old-growth stands. Primary vegetation management activities for attaining healthy forests include 

regeneration and thinning timber harvest, and prescribed burning. While timber harvesting contributes to 

the local economy and America’s supply of wood products, it is also used to create wildlife habitat 

conditions, manage fuels, manage vegetation to achieve shifts in species composition and restoration of 

native ecological communities, and provide alternate bio-energy fuel sources.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

118 National Forests in Mississippi

Trends

• An average of over 228 million board feet (MMBF) was harvested annually from 1986 through 1995.

• On a decreasing trend, an average of over 137 MMBF was harvested annually from 1996 through 

2000. From 2001 through 2003 annual timber harvests were down significantly at approximately 27, 

33 and 42 MMBF, respectively, for each year.

• Increases in timber harvest occurred in 2004 and 2005 (approximately 89 and 77 MMBF, 

respectively) but still down to less than half of the annual average in the first 10 years of the 1985 

forest plan implementation.

• Timber harvest in 2006 was up significantly due to hazardous fuel reduction salvage efforts following 

Hurricane Katrina, at over 308 MMBF for the year.

• Salvage of dead or dying trees has constituted more than 10 percent of harvest volume in 6 of 20 

years (through fiscal year 2006) since the 1985 forest plan was adopted. This exceeds expectations 

and would indicate a need for change in management. Salvage has come primarily from pine beetle 

and tornado damage and more recently from efforts to reduce hazardous fuels resulting from 

Hurricane Katrina. 

• Hurricane Katrina caused heavy random thinning of forests on the De Soto and Chickasawhay Ranger 

Districts primarily. While this can have a positive effect in creating more open habitat for some 

threatened and endangered species, the gain will be lost unless prescribed burning can keep down the 

heavy re-growth of shrubby vegetation that happens quickly in this part of the country.

• Implementation of the 1985 forest plan has resulted in a large acreage of young age classes needing 

thinning. On average, some 11,000 acres become operable for first thinnings annually. The current 

thinning program is accomplishing less than one-third of this and is not keeping up with this forest 

health need. This represents an unhealthy condition. 

• Current age class structure of all forested acres is shown below in table 23. This structure shows some 

overall balance. However, harvest of hardwood stands to provide early seral conditions within the 

hardwood types has been very limited, representing an unhealthy condition.

Table 23. Age class structure of all forested acres

Age Class Percent of Forested Areas

0-10 years 5%

21-60 years 25%

61-80 years 37%

80+ years 15%

• The percentage in the 0 to10 year age class has dropped sharply in recent years because of reductions 

in regeneration. The appropriate level of early seral age classes needs to be determined by vegetation 

type and attained to assure a vigorous, resilient forest is maintained. 

• Restoration of site-appropriate species should be a priority. Vegetation classification inventory data as 

of October 2006 indicated 265,000 to 345,000 acres of longleaf, 24,000 to 60,000 acres of shortleaf 

and 94,000 to 308,000 acres of hardwood restoration potential.

Old-growth components are present across the National Forests in Mississippi. Implementation of the 

1985 forest plan provided for the designation of “late seral” areas. These areas have some old-growth 

characteristics. Additional potential old growth has been identified and will be evaluated further at the 

project level.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 119

3.6.2 Range 

Public demand for grazing on the National Forests in Mississippi has been on the decline since 1976. The 

only active range allotments occur on the De Soto National Forest. The program level has reduced to the 

point that an active range allotment program is no longer feasible from a resource management 

perspective. The existing allotments under permit will continue until they expire. No new allotments are 

expected to be authorized unless a significant increase in demand is realized.

Trends

• Authorized grazing through range allotment permits (grazing permits) on the National Forests in 

Mississippi has been declining since 1976.

• Since fiscal year 1999, the number of grazing permits has dropped from seven to four permits.

• In 2003, a range monitoring survey of 1,869 acres of the 2,724 total acres with active range 

allotments was completed. No situations were found that required actions to protect natural resources 

from damage.

Range allotments and impacts of range use on the National Forests in Mississippi are minor resource 

considerations. There are no plans or incentives to increase use of range resources through the forest plan 

revision effort. Range availability exceeds the public demand for the use.

3.6.3 Minerals

The National Forests in Mississippi are located in the Gulf Coast Plain. The De Soto, Homochitto, Delta, 

and Bienville National Forests lie within the Mississippi Salt Basin. The Tombigbee and part of the Holly 

Springs National Forests lie within the Black Warrior Basin. A number of minerals occur, but their 

economic significance varies greatly. Iron ore, bituminous coal, lignite, limestone, aluminum ore, 

bentonite, sulfur, oil and gas, and common variety minerals are all present in varying quantities. Oil, gas 

and common variety minerals are the only minerals being produced from the National Forests in 

Mississippi. Oil and gas are the most valuable mineral resources on the National Forests in Mississippi.

Drilling began in 1929 and continues on a large scale today. The forest has approximately 500,000 acres 

under current oil, gas and mineral leases. It typically administers about 150 oil, gas and mineral leases to 

standard and processes 8 to 10 new applications annually for permits to drill each year.

Mineral activity and key conditions and trends can be summarized as follows:

Table 24. Summary of mineral activity

Mineral Past Present Future

Oil and Gas High High High

Bentonite Low Low Low to Moderate

Common Variety Low to Moderate Low to Moderate Low to Moderate

Lignite Low Low Low to Moderate

Practically all National Forest System lands in Mississippi are acquired status. Only 1,291 acres are 

public domain. Between 7 and 8 percent of the mineral rights underlying National Forest System lands in 

Mississippi are reserved or outstanding in third parties; the rest are owned by the United States of 

America.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

120 National Forests in Mississippi

Table 25. Mineral ownership on the National Forests in Mississippi (acres)

Forest Reserved Outstanding Private Surface USA Surface

Bienville 1,082 5,592 2,037 171,700

Delta 273 2,518 1,891 56,727

De Soto 3,094 33,370 6,402 478,095

Holly Springs-North 3,063 6,652 2,862 116,600

Homochitto 526 25,117 3,234 163,138

Tombigbee 1,296 2,219 2,289 62,681

Holly Springs-Yalobusha Unit 106 80 353 20,236

Totals 9,440 75,548 19,068 1,069,177

Oil and Gas

The National Forests serve a key role in support of the Nation’s energy needs. With minor exceptions, 

nearly the entire forest land base is available for oil and gas leasing, exploration and development.

Currently, there are approximately 200 active oil and gas wells, including injection and disposal wells, 

with associated facilities such as tank batteries and pipelines.

The potential for future oil and gas exploration and development is high. The reasonable foreseeable 

development scenario (BLM – October, 2005) concludes that exploration and development will continue 

on the national forest at a higher level for the next 15 years. Considering current and likely future demand 

for domestic oil and gas, prospecting activity in Mississippi is expected to continue at a moderate to high 

level.

Existing law, rule, regulation and agency policy direction are to cooperate with the Bureau of Land 

Management (BLM) to expedite authorization of drilling permits on National Forest System land. The 

two agencies are guided by an interagency memorandum of understanding regarding oil and gas 

operations.

The earliest records indicate oil and gas exploration on what became National Forest System lands 

commenced in the 1920s. Of the approximately 1.1 million acres of National Forest System lands, oil and 

gas leases are presently issued on approximately 500,000 acres where oil and gas rights are federally 

owned. There are also approximately 85,000 acres of privately owned mineral rights underlying National 

Forest System lands.

In the 1990s federal leases have typically generated in the range of $2 to $4 million in receipts annually to 

the General Treasury. In 2004, federally administered onshore oil and gas leases in Mississippi generated 

$3.7 million in gross receipts of which $925,408 was disbursed to the State (25 percent fund). In boom 

years, Federal oil, gas and mineral receipts from the lands administered by the National Forests in 

Mississippi have run as high as $15 million per annum. Overall, oil, gas and mineral extraction activities 

involving gas and crude oil on national forest land are estimated to contribute in the range of $3.1 to $6.3 

million in associated wages and salaries to the State’s economy in a typical year.

Present interest in federal sector oil and gas leasing and wildcat drilling activity is up sharply due in part 

to high current oil prices, but more due to speculative interest in locating exploitable natural gas reserves.

Natural gas demand is projected to rise sharply in the next few years as industry faces increasing pressure 

to convert to use of this cleaner burning fossil fuel in response to tightening environmental rules and 

regulations. Seismic exploration projects are detailing much of the National Forest in Mississippi. These 

projects will likely cause much drilling activity and yield significant finds.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 121

In August 2010, the National Forests in Mississippi renewed its decision for lands available for oil and 

gas leasing (National Forests in Mississippi - Lands Available for Oil and Gas Leasing Environmental 

Assessment, August 2010). The 2010, oil and gas leasing decision authorized all lands on the National 

Forests in Mississippi, except for congressionally designated wilderness areas (Black Creek and Leaf) and 

the Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area, as available for Federal oil and gas leasing through the 

Bureau of Land Management. These lands, approximately 1.2 million acres, would be administratively 

available subject to 1) management direction in the National Forests in Mississippi forest plan, 2) oil and 

gas lease stipulations, 3) the wide range of laws and regulations that require environmental protections for 

oil and gas exploration and development and 4) site-specific environmental analysis as detailed 

exploration proposals are made by lease holders. Additionally, all administratively available lands will be 

available for lease by the Bureau of Land Management, subject to the stipulations identified in the 

analysis, the standard USDA stipulation, and the environmental requirements of the standard federal lease 

terms detailed in appendix B of the National Forests in Mississippi Lands Available for Oil and Gas 

Leasing Environmental Assessment, August 2010.

The deferred decision on oil and gas leasing availability on the Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area 

(also identified as an inventoried roadless area) is now being evaluated and addressed in this 

environmental impact statement. Alternatives A and B would not authorize oil and gas leasing in the 

Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area. Alternatives C, D, and E would permit oil and gas leasing in 

the Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area subject to the 2001 Roadless Area Conservation Rule 

restrictions. The restrictions include no new road construction or reconstruction permitted in the 

inventoried roadless area; therefore existing system roads would be utilized as access for new lease 

activities.

Common Variety and Other Minerals

The National Forests in Mississippi are located in the Gulf Coast Plain. Iron ore, bituminous coal, lignite, 

limestone, aluminum ore, bentonite, sulfur, and common variety minerals (sand, clay and gravel) are all 

present in varying quantities.

Bentonite and coal are commercially mined from private lands adjacent to the Bienville and Tombigbee 

National Forests, respectively, and it is likely that commercial deposits also exist on these national forests.

Lignite is found on the Tombigbee and Holly Springs National Forests. The Tombigbee National Forest in 

particular is situated over sizeable known coal reserves. Private land adjacent to the forest has been leased 

for lignite, but no leases for these minerals currently exist on the national forests. Given that Federal law 

prohibits surface (strip) coal mining on Federal lands situated East of the 100th Meridian, the probability 

of mining lignite on the National Forests in Mississippi appears low; however, wells may be drilled to 

produce the coal bed methane gas (leasable) believed to be associated with these low grade coal deposits.

While these deposits contain relatively low grade lignite coal and interest in developing has historically 

been low (there is only one current large scale coal mining operation now going, that being a sole source 

supply for a local coal-fired power plant), geologists believe there are considerable quantities of methane 

gas associated with these coal deposits. Methane can be used in industrial processes in place of natural 

gas, and can be produced at a relatively attractive cost with little surface disturbance or impact via 

extraction wells.

The National Forest provides a needed source of common variety minerals to support local construction 

activities; for example, road building. Forest management needs for minerals materials are met as well as 

the legitimate needs of cooperators, partners and other governmental entities. Common variety minerals 

are being produced from the Holly Springs, Homochitto and De Soto National Forests.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

122 National Forests in Mississippi

3.6.4 Infrastructure

Facilities

The National Forests in Mississippi currently have an inventory of 303 owned buildings and 5 leases, 

including the Supervisor’s Office in Jackson. A total of 206 owned buildings are categorized as 

administrative (e.g., offices, warehouses, sheds, and storage buildings), while the remaining 97 are 

categorized as recreation (e.g., bath houses, pavilions, and gazebos). Many of the buildings have exceeded 

their useful life, having an average age of over 40 years. Many are obsolete, undersized, noncompliant 

with the Americans with Disabilities Act, and have very high deferred maintenance needs (failing 

structural, electrical, and mechanical systems, etc.). A consolidation in the mid-1990s reduced the number 

of ranger districts across the National Forests in Mississippi from 10 to 7, resulting in some administrative 

sites and buildings being underutilized or no longer needed. The National Forests in Mississippi intends to 

continue to dispose of facilities it no longer needs. Although the Forests’ remaining lookout towers are 

still structurally sound, newer methods of fire detection such as aerial observation have made them 

obsolete.

Roads

There are approximately 3,000 miles of roads under Forest Service jurisdiction on the National Forests in 

Mississippi. These roads serve many functions, the main one being to provide administrative and public 

access to national forest land. Forest Service jurisdiction roads in many cases also serve as through routes 

across the national forests or as access to private lands inside the national forest boundaries. They often 

serve as an integral part of the local transportation systems, carrying school buses, emergency vehicles, 

and local residents in addition to forest visitors and workers. These routes vary from asphalt surfaced or 

wide gravel roads with occasional private driveways to narrow dirt paths opened only as needed for 

activities such as timber harvesting, prescribed burning, or fire suppression. As linear openings, they 

provide varied habitat and act as fire breaks. 

Of the Forest Service roads on the National Forests in Mississippi, 32 percent are suitable for passenger 

car use, 24 percent are for use by high clearance vehicles, and 44 percent are closed for administrative or

intermittent use only. The desired road system is essentially in place and project work generally requires 

only the rehabilitation of existing roads and not the construction of new ones. The exception to this would 

be on newly acquired lands such as tracts obtained through land exchanges or the recently acquired 

University of Mississippi lands on the De Soto National Forest. Road maintenance funding has 

historically been below that necessary to maintain roads to the desired levels. To compensate, many roads 

are closed to reduce maintenance costs, while many others are maintained at less than ideal levels.

Table 26. Number of Forest Service roads

Number of Roads By Maintenance Level By District

District ML1 ML2 ML3 ML4 ML5 Totals

Bienville 202 76 78 7 2 365

Chickasawhay 245 158 35 7 3 448

De Soto 412 248 120 17 2 799

Delta 27 3 11 0 0 41

Holly Springs 233 67 28 5 0 333

Homochitto 619 131 54 6 1 811

Tombigbee 81 31 10 4 0 126

Totals 1819 714 336 46 8 2923
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 123

Table 27. Miles of Forest Service roads

Miles of Road By Maintenance Level By District

District ML1 ML2 ML3 ML4 ML5 Totals

Bienville 157.92 91.64 141.00 28.33 0.45 419.33

Chickasawhay 160.97 135.03 75.47 84.00 3.00 458.46

De Soto 279.71 234.02 270.77 83.60 0.10 868.20

Delta 41.33 4.41 28.25 0.00 0.00 73.99

Holly Springs 235.00 64.42 62.48 14.50 0.00 376.39

Homochitto 325.69 149.93 103.33 12.81 1.01 592.78

Tombigbee 80.64 37.83 25.53 4.67 0.00 148.66

Totals 1281.26 717.27 706.82 227.90 4.56 2937.81

Table 28. Maintenance level definitions for Forest Service roads

Maintenance Level Definitions

1 Closed

2 For use by high clearance (4WD) vehicles

3 Suitable for passenger cars (well-maintained gravel road)

4 Moderate degree of user comfort

5 High degree of user comfort (asphalt paved road)

3.6.5 Land Use and Ownership

The National Forests in Mississippi are composed of a mixed and often fragmented land ownership base. 

Federal, other governmental, corporate and small landowner holdings together make up a patchwork 

mosaic of interspersed ownership. Small private land holdings, which represent about two-thirds of the 

State’s total forested area, have frequently been deforested and converted to agricultural uses on a large 

scale. These small private ownerships (sometimes referred to as nonindustrial private forests) are often 

improved with structures and ancillary improvements. Other classes of ownership, such as industrial and 

government forest land holdings, are typically larger parcels of undeveloped land. National Forest System 

lands typically represent the predominant ownership class within the congressionally declared forest 

proclamation boundaries.

Many emerging factors in private forest ownership are affecting National Forest System lands in 

Mississippi. The most important and interacting changes affecting private forest lands in the South are: 1) 

land development fueled by economic and population growth; 2) new patterns of growth that place higher 

populations in the vicinity of forests; and 3) restructuring of the forest products industry, which had long 

held many of the largest tracts of contiguous forestlands in the region. These ownership changes create 

additional demand on National Forest System land and its management by increasing workloads for 

administration (special uses) and protection (fire management and law enforcement) on adjacent National 

Forest System lands. 

In recent years, large numbers of people moving into close proximity to National Forest System lands 

have generated pressure for change in forest management practices along the urban/forest interface. The 

successful establishment of the gaming industry in coastal Mississippi spurred population growth and 

associated demand for home sites and the businesses to support them. The De Soto National Forest in 

particular has been impacted by expanding suburban developments along the southern border of the 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

124 National Forests in Mississippi

national forest. The devastation resulting from Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005 spurred considerable 

relocation inland for coastal residents. To a lesser extent, similar ownership changes are occurring across 

the state. Appreciable growth is also occurring in the northerly portion of the state affecting the Holly 

Springs National Forest. Existing forest lands are close enough to Memphis, Tennessee, to attract 

development interest and activity to satisfy the needs of commuters looking for housing of a rural 

character.

Figure 22. Ownership of Mississippi forest lands

Land ownership adjustments are anticipated to simplify and improve the management of National Forest 

System lands. Consolidating the national forest land base through ownership adjustments is one way of 

maximizing efficiency. By disposing of isolated tracts and acquiring inholding properties, the National 

Forests in Mississippi can reduce landline and corner maintenance, reduce the potential for 

encroachments, reduce the number of rights-of-way necessary to acquire or grant, and reduce the need for 

special use permits on National Forest System land to serve the needs of adjacent non-federal land. Lands 

needed for special resource objectives are targeted during land ownership adjustment planning and 

implementation. Resource objectives can include benefits to soil, water, air, vegetation, fish, wildlife, 

wilderness and natural beauty. Examples include unique recreational lands or tracts of unusual character 

or attributes, such as stream flows and the species that depend on maintenance of minimum in-stream 

flows.

Trends

• The National Forests in Mississippi are composed of a mixed and often fragmented land ownership 

base. Such physical fragmentation of forest lands can severely reduce biological diversity and 

sustainable production of wildlife by creating forest areas of insufficient size to support diverse 

ecological communities or resulting in areas that lack one or more essential ecosystem elements.

• Efforts to consolidate ownership of national forest land are ongoing. Land adjustment activities 

include land purchase and exchange, transfers and donations, land use permits, acquiring and granting 

rights-of-way, landline location, and resolving title claims and occupancy trespasses.

• Large scale change in ownership patterns and attendant land management practices by adjoining 

property owners are occurring along many of the forests’ boundaries.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 125

• Development of adjacent private land fueled by population growth is placing increased demands on 

national forest land for permitted uses such as utilities and access and other uses such as recreation, 

and some parts of the forest are losing its rural character.

• Population growth historically results in increases in encroachments and unauthorized uses of 

national forest land. Boundary line management conflicts will likely increase, particularly in urban 

interface settings. 

• Development adjacent to national forest land increases impacts and management complexity on 

threatened and endangered species and other species of concern, water quality and watershed values, 

scenic beauty and wildlife habitats.

• As population density adjacent to national forests increases, potential for conflicts between forest 

users or forest management activities and adjacent residents and occupants increase for a variety of 

issues including such things as smoke, smoke management, noise, litter, public health concerns and 

conflicting uses.

• Adjacent development and forest fragmentation contributes to the elimination or degradation of 

wildlife corridors that connect important forested areas and increase wildlife/human conflicts.

• Landline marking (property boundary paint, corners, signs and monumentation) rapidly deteriorates 

in Mississippi’s warm, moist climate. The National Forests in Mississippi’s land lines are also 

deteriorating due to reduced funding for maintenance.

• At present there are some 400 inventoried, unresolved title claims and encroachments on the National 

Forests in Mississippi. Annually, only one or two cases have been resolved during the last decade. 

The backlog is expected to continue to grow over the next decade given projected growth and 

development on adjacent lands.

3.6.6 Outdoor Recreation

Located throughout the state, the public lands managed by the National Forests in Mississippi are truly 

the backyard for many local residents. In fact about 75 percent of outdoor recreation visits are made by 

people who live within 25 miles of the national forest. The National Forests in Mississippi offer a 

diversity of terrain and ecosystems for its visitors to explore. Wildlife is abundant, and there are over 

2,700 acres of lakes and ponds and more than 11,000 miles of rivers and streams. The numerous plant and 

animal communities and a rich cultural history add value to the national forest visitors’ experience. Mild 

winters permit for year-round recreation. 

Although the National Forests in Mississippi is one of the largest Forest Service units in the southern 

states, the fragmented ownership pattern can make typical Forest Service management practices 

challenging in some places. While the presence of many neighbors allows them easy access to the forest 

and creates a good environment for community partnerships, the structures and activities of nearby 

dwellings, roads and other development can disrupt a sense of remoteness and naturalness for the forest 

visitors. 

National Forest Role in Statewide Outdoor Recreation

The National Forests in Mississippi are joined by Mississippi Parks, the Army Corps of Engineers, the 

National Park Service and US Fish and Wildlife Service as the major providers of public lands and 

facilities for outdoor recreation in Mississippi (see figure 23). Using a 75 mile radius from the national 

forest properties, the National Forests in Mississippi serves two market areas in the state. The Holly 

Springs and Tombigbee National Forests serve the “Northern Market” of north Mississippi counties 

reaching into Tennessee. The Bienville, De Soto, Delta and Homochitto National Forests serve the 

“Southern Market” includes south Mississippi and parts of Alabama, Arkansas and Louisiana.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

126 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 23. State parks, national forests, national parks and wildlife management areas

In both market areas, National Forests in Mississippi is a leading provider of dispersed recreation 

opportunities, with hunting, fishing, nature watching and trails being leading activities. The National 

Forests in Mississippi program of developed recreation areas (both day use and overnight facilities) is not 

as big statewide as the Army Corps of Engineers or Mississippi State Parks programs. Yet most national 

forest recreation sites are important to local communities, offering unique outdoor settings. These places 

often serve as base for, or facilitate, visits focused on dispersed recreation activities. In 2009, an estimated 

2.6 million visits were made to the undeveloped woods and water bodies managed by the National Forests 

in Mississippi. And around 330,000 visits were seen at developed day use and overnight areas. Over 89 

percent of visits came from the two markets.

The Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Parks spearhead the hunting and fishing programs 

(habitat, population, and use management) across the State. This department administers about 50 wildlife 

management areas totaling more than 668,000; many of which are cooperatively managed with other 

agencies like the Forest Service, or some are operated under lease from private landowners. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 127

Deer hunting is the first choice of Mississippi hunters (representing over half of the annual hunting 

demand in the state) there are many other resident and migratory game species available to pursue on 

wildlife management areas. Wild turkey, squirrel, rabbit, quail, raccoon, opossum, fox, and bobcat are 

among the resident species traditionally hunted. Ducks, geese, and doves are the most commonly hunted 

migratory species, but several other migratory game birds may be taken, too. Wild hogs have proliferated 

and spread throughout the state in recent years. Hunting of this nuisance species, which has detrimental 

impacts on so many game and nongame species, is also offered.

The National Forests in Mississippi work corporately with the state to manage about 15 large wildlife 

management areas (approximately 570,000 acres) with extensive habitat improvements that support 

abundant game and non-game species. In north Mississippi, the Chickasaw, Choctaw, Sunflower, Twin 

Oaks and Upper Sardis Wildlife Management Areas are on national forest. Totaling over 150,000 national 

forest acres, these five wildlife management areas represent over half of the wildlife management area 

lands available for public hunting in the north Mississippi. Additionally, of course, these acres are open 

for other non-hunting outdoor activities like nature viewing, picnicking, gathering berries, trails and other 

recreational pastimes.

In the southern part of the state, there are ten Forest Service cooperative wildlife management areas: 

Bienville, Caney, Caston, Chickasawhay, Leaf River, Little Biloxi, Mason Creek, Red Creek, Sandy 

Creek, and Tallahalla. These areas comprise almost 427,000 acres (76 percent) of the total 530,551 acres 

managed by the Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Parks for wildlife habitat improvement 

and public hunting. These wildlife management areas also can provide for a superior opportunity for 

wildlife and bird watching.

Outdoor Recreation Trends

• The National Forests in Mississippi will continue to be a major provider of outdoor recreation. The 

demand for dispersed and developed recreation opportunities will continue to increase and some of 

that new demand can be met accommodated on national forest lands. 

• The demand for today’s outdoor activities will not be the same in 10 years or 20 years. Interest in 

some activities will grow more quickly than the rate of population growth, some will keep pace, and 

interest in others will decrease. However, the total numbers of people seeking to recreate on National 

Forests will increase. 

• By 2060, private forest lands in the south will decrease by 11 to 23 million acres and a range of 30 to 

43 million acres of rural and will become urbanized. The past trend of agricultural land transitioning 

to forest land will stop. The acreage of state and federal lands and waters managed for outdoor 

recreation will remain about the same. 

• The demand for outdoor recreation – setting activities and facilities - will be influenced by a myriad 

of factors but population growth and income are most defining. Over the next 60 years in the South, it 

predicts that the participation in hunting may grow by 8 to 25 percent while that of hiking may grow 

by 70 to 113 percent. Activities that are land intensive – like hunting and long distance trails will feel 

pressure from growing number of people wanting to participate in other activities.

• The predicted changes in weather due to climate change – more frequent and intense storms --- will 

increase challenges in keeping National Forest facilities safe, maintained and open to the public.

• To date, private lands in Mississippi are sometimes leased for hunting and there are private 

campgrounds. But there is not a trend of public use of private lands for other outdoor recreation 

activities. More trail systems are being built in suburban regional parks to meet growing demand.

• The National Forests in Mississippi developed recreation areas are small compared with the other 

outdoor recreation providers in the state. However, there is unused capacity at National Forest System 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

128 National Forests in Mississippi

developed sites that can be utilized. Finding a niche among the outdoor recreation providers will be a 

key to a sustainable future.

• Not only is the state’s population growing, but much larger segments of the population will be older. 

The forest and suburban/urban interface will continue to intensify, especially in the coastal counties of 

the Desoto National Forest and outside of Memphis near the Holly Springs National Forest. 

• The National Forests in Mississippi and its partners are expected to focus on these activities: hunting, 

fishing, featuring areas of special interest (e.g., wildflowers and wildlife viewing) driving tours and 

short loop trails for day hiking and exploring the interior of the general forest area. Places 

highlighting opportunities for families to swim, fish, and picnic will also be important. 

Table 29. National Forests in Mississippi inventory of developed recreation areas

Site Type # of Areas PAOTa % Estimated Occupancy

Campgrounds 13 4,360 32%

Picnic Areas 4 160 25%

Boating 7 300 23%

Shooting Ranges 2 45 21%

Trailheads 11 435 20%

Horse Camps 6 381 25%

Total Persons at One Time (PAOT) 5,681

a - persons at one time

Table 30. National Forests in Mississippi camping and developed day use areas

Lake Acres # ofCamp Sites # of Picnic Sites # of Boat Ramps

Northern Market Area

Choctaw Lake CG Complex 100 25 35 1

Davis Lake CG Complex 200 24 1

Chewalla CG Complex 260 27 40 1

Puskus Campground 96 19 13 1

Total 637 95 88 4

Southern Market Area

Lake Okhissa 1075 - - 1

Clear Springs CG Complex 12 22 - -

Turkey Fork CG Complex 240 20 12 1

Marathon Recreation Complex 50 34 14 1

Big Biloxi CG Complex - 25 - -

Airey Lake Campground 3 Primitive - -

P.O.W Lake Campground 7 Primitive - -

Delta NF Hunt Camps - Primitive - -

Total 1387 101 26 3

Developed Recreation

Compared to the dispersed recreation opportunites, the Forests’ developed recreation opportunities have a 

smaller role statewide. Other federal and state agencies host day use and overnight facilities on large lakes 

and rivers, dominating water based recreation opportunity statewide. The Corps of Engineers large 

reservoirs alone report nearly 14 million visits per year. See table 29 and table 30 for a description of 

National Forest facilities. Other developed recreation providers in Mississippi combine for nearly 4,400 

RV camp sites, about 250 primitive camp sites, nearly 300 cabins, group facilities and several Mississippi 

parks have hotel facilities.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 129

Trails

National Forest visitors may use trails to travel though the forest while hunting or bird watching. And 

some visitors come to enjoy the trail activity itself by hiking or riding horses, bikes or all-terrain vehicles.

The current state comprehensive outdoor recreation plan acknowledges the importance of the trail 

systems on public lands and recommends the development of a statewide master plan for land and water 

trails on large federal lands and all state parks so that opportunities can be better understood and 

marketed. The biggest challenge to the National Forest trail program has been the numerous, devastating 

storms and hurricanes which have toppled forests and cover miles and miles of trail over the past six 

years. 

Table 31 summarizes the size and types of trail systems provided by the National Forests in Mississippi in

the northern market and southern market of the state. The Holly Springs and Tombigbee National Forests 

serve the “Northern Market” of north Mississippi counties reaching into Tennessee. The Bienville, De 

Soto, Delta and Homochitto National Forests serve the “Southern Market” includes south Mississippi and 

parts of Alabama, Arkansas and Louisiana.

Table 31. National Forests in Mississippi trail summary by market

Northern Market 

(miles)

Southern Market 

(miles) Forest-wide (miles)

Non –Motorized Trails 73.2 191.4 264.6

Motorized Trails 17.4 136.8 154.2

Total 90.6 328.2 418.8

National Forest opportunities include a wide variety of trail types distributed and largely meeting the 

current needs of nonmotorized trail users.

As is the situation in other southern states, the miles and number of motorized trail systems, offered by 

public and private providers, are lower than for other trail use types. The National Forests in Mississippi 

have the largest motorized trail system for all-terrain vehicles and motorcycles in the state; it is located 

mostly in south Mississippi. The Delta National Forest system is geared for use by hunters during hunting 

season. Because of the explosive sales of ATVs over the past 2 decades, the need for trails to ride ATVs 

has not been addressed, so the demand statewide has not been satisfied. In fact, it has been overwhelming 

for public land managers, as these systems require consistent and thoughtful management to keep trails

enjoyable, safe and well maintained. Some of motorized trails are temporarily closed as better 

management schemes are put in place, following large storm events. Other public land management 

agencies, such as State Parks, National Park Service and some Corps of Engineers facilities have a 

designated routes only policy for OHV/ATV and offer very limited motorized riding opportunities. Good 

for local economies, the high demand has begun to attract local business interests, and in both market 

areas, private ATV/OHV parks have become available, with some trails and areas for mud bogging, racing 

and hill climbs.

The National Forests in Mississippi are a major provider of recreational trails in Mississippi. Trails 

provide access to the forest interior. Approximately 287 miles of non-motorized hiking, biking and 

horseback riding trails offer challenge and scenic enjoyment. There are 140 miles of designated motorized 

trails that are located on three ranger districts. Use of these motorized trail systems, primarily by 

motorcycle and ATV enthusiast, is high. As a result of high use, most of these trails require continual 

monitoring and maintenance to ensure environmental protection and user safety. These issues make 

motorized trails the most timely and costly to maintain. Over the last few years, many of these motorized 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

130 National Forests in Mississippi

trails have been heavily degraded and temporarily closed for major reconstruction and organizational 

improvements to the fee structure.

Table 32. Trail opportunities by market

North South

NFS Miles Others Miles NFS Miles Others Miles

Hikea 11 81 73 88

Mountain Bikea 29 56 37 67

Equestrian 23 77 82 74

ATV/Motorcycle 17 25 miles

2 areasb (public) 137 3 areasb(private)

Actual Miles 80 127 319

a - This mileage is managed specifically for this trail use type, although these uses – hiking and mountain bike is permitted on some 

other “multiple use” trails. Hiking can occur on any trail. Most mountain bike and equestrian use is on shared trails. All nonmotorized 

uses are allowed on motorized trails. Motor vehicles are limited to routes designated for that use only.

b - Areas allow recreational ATV and other OHV riding activities in open cross country areas and do not designate trails. Private 

area may offer specialty activities like hill climbs and racing.

Infrastructure Trends: Facilties and Trails

• Some National Forest System trails are multiple use; where they managed primarily for a specific 

type of use, although several use types may be allowed. For example, a trail system may 

accommodate both equestrian and mountain bike use or accommodate equestrian and motorized use.

All trails are open to hiking. Nonmotorized trail opportunities are also available from other State, 

Federal, community, and private providers across Mississippi. 

• National Forest visitors may use motor vehicles on roads and trails specifically designated for 

motorized use. The designation indicates the type of motor vehicle and season of use. There is also 

the ability to use all-terrain vehicles during hunting season on designated roads and the ability to 

retrieve game. 

• Technology can quickly change outdoor recreation activities and introduce the new patterns of use 

that show up on the ground. Certainly the GPS unit and the cell phone have increased people’s ability 

to navigate the forest and their sense of security, on or off roads. The advent of the all-terrain vehicle 

very much influenced trail management across the nation, including this state. The motorized trails in 

National Forest trails mostly serve smaller off-highway vehicles (OHVs) such as all-terrain vehicles 

(ATVs); utility vehicles (UTVs); and motorcycles. All-terrain vehicles are popular with hunters for

convenient access and to assist in game retrieval but are also ridden for trail sport. 

• Skilled, consistent maintenance on motorized trails is critical to a safe riding experience with minimal 

environmental impacts. The high maintenance needs of National Forests in Mississippi’s motorized 

trail systems is an ongoing challenge.

• Recent state comprehensive outdoor recreation plan recommended the establishment of an annual 

statewide OHV permit, in order to support motorized trails across the state. Similar to the other 

southern states, motorized trail systems are not widely available on public lands in Mississippi. 

However, there are private providers that are starting to offer different types of riding opportunities 

for motorized sport enthusiasts.

• Forest Service campgrounds in both the north and south market areas are much smaller in scale, 

amenities provided, and receive fewer visitations than many other public providers in Mississippi.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 131

• Forest Service developed recreation areas do however fill a unique niche, providing a more tranquil, 

slower paced recreation experience than most opportunities found at Corps of Engineers or State Park 

facilities. Forest Service developed recreation sites may function more like community parks in rural 

areas than as statewide resources. 

• Existing National Forest facilities have capacity that is not being used throughout the season.

• An inventory of recreation facilities in 2001 assessed compliance with accessibility guidelines for 

persons with disabilities. The findings of this inventory were compiled into an accessibility transition 

plan for the National Forests in Mississippi. Many of the identified needs were easily implemented, 

did not require a large capital investment, and subsequently have been accomplished. However, on all 

ranger districts many accessibility projects remain and are a priority for the National Forests in 

Mississippi as funding becomes available. 

• Improving visitor access to forest facilities and activities for persons with physical limitations or 

disabilities will continue to be emphasized. These improvements (such as hardened walkways) appeal 

to a wide segment of the population and will make facilities more convenient for many. Emphasis will 

be to operate and maintain existing recreation areas where a quality experience is offered and not to 

duplicate recreational offerings by other providers. 

• There is a significant backlog of maintenance needs at developed recreation areas. Based on current 

and expected budgets, the National Forests in Mississippi does not anticipate significant investment in 

new or expanded recreation areas or facilities. 

• The sustainability of the National Forests in Mississippi’s trails program (motorized and 

nonmotorized) will be considered before additional trails are constructed. Distribution of trail types 

within market areas, presence of other providers, availability of partnerships, and environmental 

considerations will all factor into the ability of the National Forests in Mississippi to provide 

additional trails.

Recreation Demand on National Forest: Recreation Visitation

The demand for recreation is indicated by recreation visits. A 2009 National Forest visitor survey (known 

as National Visitor Use Monitoring - NVUM) makes available visitor data. Neighbors and local residents 

living within 25 miles of the forest make up just over 75 percent of the annual recreation visitation to 

National Forests in Mississippi. (By comparison, the regional average has only 20 percent of visitors to 

southern national forests living within 25 miles of a national forest.) 

As shown in table 33, the overwhelming attraction for these visitors is the undeveloped woods and waters 

of the National Forests in Mississippi, otherwise called “the general forest area”. A large portion of

general forest area visits are due to hunting or fishing, while developed day use sites received about 9

percent of the site visits, and the overnight camping at developed Forest Service campgrounds received 

only about 2 percent of the annual site visits.

The annual visitation information in the 2009 National Visitor Use Monitoring Survey is a snapshot of 

visits that year. Visits may vary from year to year based on weather or economic trends for example. 

A site visit is the entry of one person onto a national forest site or area to participate in recreation 

activities for an unspecified period of time.

A national forest visit is defined as the entry of one person upon a national forest to participate in 

recreation activities for an unspecified period of time. A national forest visit can be composed of multiple 

site visits.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

132 National Forests in Mississippi

Table 33. 2009 National Forests in Mississippi recreation visits

Visit Type Visits (1,000s) % of total site visits

Total Estimated Site Visits 2,918 100% 

Day Use Developed Site Visits 272 9%

Overnight Use Developed Site 60 2%

General Forest Area Visits 2,586 89%

Total Estimated National Forest Visits 2,795

Table 34 provides ethnic demographics for recreation visitors to the National Forests in Mississippi. 

According to the 2009 National Visitor Use Monitoring Survey conducted by the Forest Service, most

visits (76 percent) are made by men, which is a bit higher than the average of 70 percent for all visits to 

southern national forests. Looking at other racial and ethnic demographics, the following chart shows that 

the National Forests in Mississippi have more American Indian and White visits than their population 

proportion, but less Hispanic and Black/African American than their population percentages. 

Table 34. Demographics of recreation visits

Race/ Ethnicity

2010

MS Statewide

% of population

2010

National Forests in 

Mississippi Counties

% of Population

2009

National Forests in 

Mississippi

% of visits

Hispanic 2.7% 3.42% 0.1%

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 0.5% 0.44% 2.8%

Asian 0.9% 0.92% 0%

Black/African American 37% 30% 2.8%

White 59.1% 65.3% 94.2%

Recreation Supply: National Forest Settings

Recreation visitors to the National Forests in Mississippi can quickly immerse themselves in 

undeveloped, natural appearing forest lands. Most National Forest System acres are reachable by car due 

to the high number of roads. The setting for outdoor recreation opportunities in natural environments is 

influenced by the type and density of roads and presence of infrastructure. While the National Forests in 

Mississippi is interspersed with a mature roads system for accessing public and private landholdings, 

there are pockets of National Forest System lands that seem remote and far away from civilization, 

especially in the large sloughs and swamps. Two areas are managed as designated wilderness, and there 

are historic places and structures on National Forest System lands which add to the character of the forest 

and are important to people understanding their cultural roots.

A visitor may choose developed recreation sites like campground, swim, and picnic areas designed with 

hardened sites, beaches, tables, grills, flush toilets, and showers. There are also facilities that provide 

access to the general land and water areas like trailheads and boat ramps. Or visitors may choose simply 

to be in the woods – enjoying dispersed recreation activities such as hunting, fishing, and wild life 

watching, or relaxing. Often the trails are the attraction for exploration, exercise, or sport. Developed and 

dispersed camping areas provide rustic overnight accommodations that support hunting, water-based 

recreation and destination camping.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 133

Table 35. 2009 National Forests in Mississippi outdoor recreation activity participation

Activity Percent

Participationa Percent Main Activityb

Average Hours 

Doing Main 

Activity

Viewing Natural Features 44.6 30.1 6.8

Hunting 36.2 34.3 4.6

Fishing 26.4 14.9 3.3

Viewing Wildlife 23.6 1.6 2.1

Driving for Pleasure 23.3 8.4 1.9

Relaxing 22.5 0.4 1.7

Hiking / Walking 17.9 0.6 1.4

Visiting Historic Sites 7.9 0.0 0.0

Other Nonmotorized 7.6 1.4 2.5

Picnicking 7.1 0.3 5.1

Gathering Forest Products 6.5 1.7 2.0

Some Other Activity 6.4 3.0 1.3

Developed Camping 6.4 1.1 30.0

Nonmotorized Water 5.9 1.4 10.1

Horseback Riding 4.9 2.1 3.9

Primitive Camping 3.7 0.2 12.0

Nature Study 3.6 0.0 0.0

Motorized Trail Activity 3.3 0.0 1.0

Backpacking 2.9 0.3 12.7

Bicycling 2.4 0.0 3.0

OHV Use 0.2 0.0 0.0

Nature Center Activities 0.2 0.0 0.0

Motorized Water Activities 0.2 0.0 4.4

Other Motorized Activity 0.1 0.0 0.0

Resort Use 0.0 0.0 0.0

Snowmobiling 0.0 0.0 0.0

Downhill Skiing 0.0 0.0 0.0

Cross-country Skiing 0.0 0.0 0.0

No Activity Reported 0.0 0.0

National Forests in Mississippi National Visitor Use Monitoring Survey (FY 2009) Results represent use during that year 

and not long term average.

a - Survey respondents could select multiple activities so this column may total more than 100 percent.

b - Survey respondents were asked to select just one of their activities as their main reason for the forest visit. Some 

respondents selected more than one, so this column may total more than 100 percent.

The full listing of visitor activities on the National Forests in Mississippi in 2009 is shown in table 35. 

This national visitor use monitoring survey also indicated that most camping occurs in dispersed or 

designated primitive hunt camps, rather than in developed campgrounds.

Mild winters in Mississippi permit year-round recreation, and hot summers make any place with a cool 

body of water especially popular. Warm-water fishing and relaxing at the lake are favorite past-times. 

Water bodies are purposely managed to provide good fishing – from the expert bass tournaments at Lake 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

134 National Forests in Mississippi

Okhissa to more relaxed sport of bank fishing. Picnic sites and pavilions near the water are popular for 

small and large family and group gatherings. The top three activities identified for National Forests in 

Mississippi visitors are viewing natural features (44 percent), hunting (36 percent), and fishing (24

percent). Hunting is an important southern tradition and, while not the only activity, is often identified as 

the leading reason for the visit. Thirty six percent of visitors are hunters, and 34 percent said it was the 

main reason they were there.

Like the wildlife management areas, other parts of the Forests are managed for a particular recreation 

opportunity. Black Creek in southern coastal Mississippi is a destination for those seeking more remote 

recreation experience in a designated wilderness area and wild and scenic river. The Black Creek 

Wilderness and the nearby Leaf Wilderness were set aside by Congress to be natural of places where 

recreationists need primitive outdoor skills and can find solitude. However, hurricanes have decimated 

this wilderness forest and its trail system, and storm damage will likely limit recreational wilderness 

opportunities for the future. 

Other special areas on the National Forests in Mississippi have been designated for outstanding cultural, 

botanical or scenic characteristics. These can serve as destination, whether a visitor wants simply to enjoy 

a walk or is eager to learn about the forest environment and history.

The recent findings of the USDA Forest Service Southern Forest Futures Project3 identified and projected 

the driving changes for forests in the southern United States over the next 50 years. Mississippi is no 

longer an isolated agricultural state and shares the trends across the south, where “[r]ecent population and 

economic growth has outstripped national growth rates, with resulting urbanization steadily consuming 

forests and other lands.” A straightforward finding is given: “Increasing populations would increase the 

demand for forest recreation while the availability of land to meet these needs is forecasted to decline.” 

Places for nature based recreation managed by federal and state governments will probably remain 

constant. Non-National Forest System land area is expected to decline with conversions from forests and 

farmlands to cities and suburbs. And the amount of public land acres will not significantly increase.

“The density of use of general forest area [on National Forest System land] is expected to rise by 22 to 55 

percent as participants substitute national forests for private forest and rangelands that have been reduced 

by urban development.”

Important recreational trends in the South over the last 15 years include:

• Most popular activities category ( + 30 million participants annually):

○ Participation in viewing trees and wild flowers and viewing other wildlife (expanding 

beyond the tradition of bird watching) increased over 32 percent, one of the largest 

increases.

○ Walking for pleasure is the leading activity. Eightyfour percent of the population 

participates. Almost 60 percent of southern recreationists participate in viewing and 

photographing natural scenery.

• Mid level activities (10 – 30 million participants). These changes were observed:

 3

Greis, John G., Wear, David N., “Southern Forest Futures Project”, Summary Report (May 11, 2011). This report 

includes Mississippi and 12 states in USFS Southern Region - Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, 

Florida, Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Louisiana, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 135

○ The biggest increase in participation over the decade was 42 percent more people 

participated in OHV driving. About 21.3 percent of the population participates in OHV 

use.

○ 27 million people viewed or photographed birds, (which had a 29 percent increase )

○ There as a 0.2 percent decrease in developed camping and a 7.3 percent increase in 

mountain hybrid biking.

However, the Southern Forest Futures Project does predict there will be less per capita use of the National 

Forest, even though the total number of visitors will be increasing. 

Recreation Opportunity Spectrum

The recreation opportunity spectrum is a planning tool used to identify and evaluate the supply of 

recreation settings on national forests. For planning purposes, recreation supply is defined as the 

opportunity to participate in a desired recreation activity in a preferred setting to realize desired and 

expected experiences. Recreationists choose a setting and activity to create a desired experience. The 

three components of supply are settings, activities and facilities. The Forest Service manages a supply of 

settings and facilities that allow activities. Activities and facilities (developed sites and trails) have been 

discussed earlier.

The National Forests in Mississippi, because of the highly roaded and fragmented ownership pattern, is 

predominately classified as roaded natural, with smaller acreages in remote roaded natural, semiprimitive 

nonmotorized and rural settings4

. Desired conditions which included recreation opportunity spectrum for 

different places and forest types were also identified.

Table 36. Current distribution of ROS classes

Recreation Opportunity 

Spectrum (ROS) Class Acres Prescription or Designation

Semiprimitive Nonmotorized

(SPNM) 6,064 Wilderness, Black Creek Wild and Scenic River in 

Wilderness

Remote Roaded Natural

(RN2) 4,681 Hawk’s Nest Area, Tombigbee RD and recent property 

acquisition bordering Black Creek Wilderness

Roaded Natural (RN1) 1,164,921

Majority of National Forests in Mississippi including Black 

Creek Wild and Scenic River, scenic areas, research 

natural areas

Rural (R) 14,342 Developed recreation sites, administrative sites, 

experimental forests

Total 1,190,008

Semiprimitive Nonmotorized opportunities are currently limited to the two areas managed under the 

Wilderness Act on the Desoto Ranger District – Black Creek Wilderness (5,052 acres) and the Leaf 

Wilderness (994 acres) and the Black Creek Wild and Scenic River within the wilderness. The current 

stands of old growth are too small for this designation. However, as the time goes by, the old growth will 

provide a center for more remote recreation opportunities.

Roaded Natural is the most common opportunity in the National Forests in Mississippi and in other 

southern national forests. It has been divided into two categories – roaded natural and remote roaded 

natural to allow for the management of more remote recreation settings.

 4 The 1985 ROS inventory has been updated, using more recent national GIS guidelines for classification.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

136 National Forests in Mississippi

Roaded natural settings are located within a half mile of a road and usually provide higher levels of 

development such as campgrounds, picnic areas, river access points, and rustic, small-scale resorts. Such 

evidences of man usually harmonize with the natural environment. Resource modification and utilization 

practices are evident, but harmonize with the natural environment. The recreation opportunity experience 

level is characterized by the probability for equal experiencing of affiliation with individuals and groups 

and for isolation from sights and sounds of humans. Interaction between users is moderate, but with 

evidence of other users prevalent. Retaining a natural setting, encounters with other recreationists are 

expected in roaded natural. Outdoor skills may or may not be needed; conveniences like restrooms and 

picnic shelters may be found. Cultural developments are also here. Moderate evidence of human sights 

and sounds; moderate concentration of users at campsites; little challenge or risk.

The remote roaded natural classification is found only on the Tombigbee National Forest in the proposed 

backcountry area and some acres bordering the Black Leaf Wilderness on the De Soto National Forest.

During the forest plan revision process, the public submitted comments supporting the 4,400-acre Hawk’s 

Nest on the Tombigbee National Forest for a wilderness study. However, since it did not meet the 

stringent criteria for wilderness, it is proposed across three of the alternatives for management as a remote 

roaded natural, backcountry area. The selected alternative includes management of the Hawk’s Nest area 

as a backcountry area.

Remote roaded natural areas typically have fewer roads and nodes of facility development. Management 

of these areas emphasizes retaining the more undeveloped characteristics. Interaction between users is 

low, but with evidence of other users prevalent. Therefore, for example, special use events would be 

focused on individual outdoor challenges and would not attract or involve large crowds in the 

backcountry area. Camping would be dispersed and more primitive. This subclassification makes more 

remote opportunities available, expanding the spectrum especially when the large acreages needed for 

semiprimitive settings are not available.

Rural classifications represent the most developed sites and modified natural settings on the forest such 

as developed recreation areas within the roaded natural areas. Rural areas are characterized by a 

substantially modified natural environment. Resource modification and utilization practices enhance 

specific recreation activities and maintain vegetative and soil cover but harmonize with the natural 

environment. A considerable number of facilities are designed for use by a large number of people. 

Moderate densities are provided away from developed sites. Facilities for intensified motorized use and 

parking are provided. The recreation opportunity experience level is characterized by the probability of 

affiliation with individuals and groups and the convenience of sites and opportunities. These factors are 

generally more important than the setting. Opportunities for wild land challenge, risk taking, and testing 

of outdoor skills are generally unimportant.

3.6.7 National Wild and Scenic Rivers 

A comprehensive evaluation of potential rivers in the National Forests in Mississippi for inclusion in the 

national wild and scenic rivers system was conducted during the mid-1980s. As a result of that systematic 

inventory, 21 miles of the 80-mile Black Creek, running from Fairley Bridge landing upstream to the 

Moody’s Landing, was congressionally designated, with the classification of “scenic,” as a part of the 

national Wild and Scenic River system, Black Creek Scenic River, (Public Law No. 99-590, Oct.30, 

1986). 

Black Creek Scenic River serves as a primary portal to the Black Creek Wilderness and the remote 

recreation opportunity. The legislation designating the wilderness allowed small 5 horsepower trolling 

motors on boats, so the wilderness does have an exception for these small boat motors. The water quality 

standard designated by the State for the beneficial use of Black Creek is recreational waters. Also, a large 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 137

part of the Black Creek Watershed is falls within the 117,000 acres permitted to National Guard’s Camp 

Shelby for training exercises.

In April 1994, the forest plan was amended to adopt direction that upstream and downstream segments of 

the original study area would be managed like the wild and scenic river segment. This management 

direction is carried through into the revised forest plan. This amendment incorporated the results of the 

limits of acceptable change (LAC Alternative 6a) desired conditions, standards and guidelines, 

management practices, goals and objectives, and monitoring requirements by opportunity class for the 

Black Creek and Leaf Wilderness Areas and the Black Creek Scenic Corridor (both designated and 

undesignated segments). It also tiered to the river management plan entitled Management Supplement for 

Black Creek Corridor, March 1990.

As part of the forest plan revision process, rivers and streams in Mississippi on the national rivers 

inventory and those eligible or designated in the Mississippi – Scenic Streams Stewardship Program were 

reviewed (FEIS – appendix D). The review did not identify any new rivers or river segments as eligible 

for recommendation as an addition to the national wild and scenic rivers system or inventory.

3.6.8 Wilderness 

When the National Forests in Mississippi were established in the 1930s, the lands that became part of the 

National Forest System were previously under private ownership and, in many cases, had been heavily 

farmed and logged. The patchwork of private and public lands that still characterize the National Forests 

in Mississippi means that few areas are undisturbed or unaffected by nearby human habitation. With 

almost 3,000 miles of forest system roads and use of many of the system roads as through routes to 

private lands, potential roadless areas are limited in size and extent on the National Forests in Mississippi. 

However, the Forests do contain two Congressionally-designated wilderness areas located on the De Soto 

Ranger District of the De Soto National Forest: 

• Black Creek Wilderness Area (5,052 acres)

• Leaf Wilderness Area (994 acres)

These two wildernesses, the Black Creek Wild and Scenic River, and the Black Creek corridor outside 

these federally designated areas are all managed with the same goals and standards due to a 1994 forest 

plan amendment adopting limits of acceptable change process recommendations. This united management 

scheme expands the primitive setting to over the 12,000 acres. In addition to primitive recreation, 

designated wilderness also provides opportunities to study ecosystems that are relatively undisturbed by 

humans. They can provide reference conditions for vegetation, watersheds, and wildlife. They can serve 

as high-quality habitat for a variety of plant and animal species. 

The Black Creek Wilderness is located in the gulf coastal plains of southern Mississippi. Most of this 

wilderness, the State's largest, lies in the broad valley of Black Creek, stained a deep caramel color by the 

tannic acid of decaying vegetation. The wild and scenic river bisects the wilderness, creating a hardwood 

floodplain of oxbow lakes and thick stands of sweet gum, sweet bay, red maple, oak, pine, and bald 

cypress. The 5- to 20-foot banks offer plenty of white sandbars suitable for camping or a picnic. The 

Black Creek National Recreation Trail (open only to foot traffic) runs about 41 miles along the drainage 

of Black Creek, with about 10 miles within the Wilderness. This area is part of the Lower Coastal Plain, 

with piney woods growing over low rolling hills and a few moderate ridges. The relatively flat terrain 

rises from 100 feet on Black Creek itself to only 270 feet on nearby uplands. Bass and pan fish attract 

anglers, and hunters come in season, mostly for deer. On many days, visitors will see no evidence that a 

human has ever stepped foot in the wilderness or dipped a canoe paddle into Black Creek. 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

138 National Forests in Mississippi

South Mississippi's tiny Leaf Wilderness (964 acres) lies almost entirely on the floodplain of the eastflowing Leaf River, just north of Black Creek Wilderness. Except for a little western upland, the entire 

wilderness consists of meandering sloughs, oxbow lakes, and level terrain of spruce-pine forest or oakgum-cypress river bottom. Loblolly and shortleaf pines shade the upland, with a dense understory of 

dogwood, redbud, persimmon, blueberries, and honeysuckle. The 1.5-mile Leaf Trail, one of two main 

attractions in the area, crosses the wilderness, three bridges, and a boardwalk to access this piece of 

Mississippi, where camping is unrestricted. The other attraction is wildlife, including white-tailed deer 

and wild turkeys, which bring in hunters during the fall months. 

Recent hurricanes have created a lot of disturbance in the wilderness forest and ecosystems. It will be a 

true study of natural processes as both wildernesses recover from the widespread damages of Hurricane 

Katrina in 2005. The hurricane left tremendous blow-down of hardwood and pine trees across the Leaf 

and Black Creek Wilderness. Hiking trails critical for providing access to the wilderness interior have 

almost been obliterated. Heavy fuel loading contributes to the increased risk of wildfire, another natural 

process that will likely play into the long-term recovery of the two wilderness areas. The Black Creek 

Wild and Scenic River is open and offers access to solitude in the heart of this wilderness, with trips led

by local outfitters. However, in 2010, the national recreation trail was still blocked by fallen trees.

Potential Wilderness Evaluation

As part of the forest plan revision process, the National Forests in Mississippi conducted a forestwide 

inventory of potential wilderness areas that may be suitable for recommendation for congressional 

designation as wilderness study areas (FEIS – appendix C). Areas qualify for placement on the potential 

wilderness inventory if they meet the statutory definition of wilderness. Forest Service Handbook (FSH) 

1909.12 Chapter 71 prescribes inventory criteria used to determine if an area meets the statutory 

definition of wilderness.

The inventory of all National Forest System lands for potential wilderness study area recommendations 

included:

• Consideration of possible additions to existing wilderness areas,

• Re-evaluation of study areas identified in the Roadless Area Review and Evaluation (RARE II) of 

1979,

• Analysis of areas proposed by individuals and groups during the forest plan revision process, and 

• A GIS-based forestwide analysis of National Forest System administered lands to identify potential 

wilderness areas based upon FSH 1909.12 Chapter 71 inventory criteria.

Changes in land ownership around both wilderness areas were reviewed to see if there were any 

appropriate areas for potential expansion. Although there were no opportunities for expansion of the Leaf 

Wilderness, tracts surrounding the Black Creek Wilderness have been acquired by the Forest Service in 

recent years. There are approximately 250 acres of possible additions to the Black Creek Wilderness from 

land acquisitions along the perimeter of the proclaimed wilderness. However, the acquired parcels have 

100 percent of their areas encumbered by 3rd party mineral rights. While these acres do not meet criteria 

for inclusion in the inventory of potential wilderness, they could become a part of the inventory pending a 

change in the status of the mineral rights for these acres.

In the RARE II evaluation for Mississippi in 1979, Sandy Creek was identified for further planning. In 

2008, as part of the forest plan revision process, Sandy Creek was again re-evaluated and the area did not 

meet the statutory definition of wilderness based upon FSH 1909.12 Chapter 70, section 71 inventory 

criteria. However, approximately 300 acres of the Sandy Creek area is being proposed for designation as a 

special botanical area.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 139

During the forest plan revision process, members of the public proposed three potential wilderness areas. 

Two areas were located on the Delta National Forest (Ten-Mile Bayou and Six-Mile Bayou), and one area 

was proposed on the Tombigbee National Forest (Hawk’s Nest). Each area was individually considered 

using guidance in FSH 1909.12, Chapter 70. None of the three areas qualified for placement on the 

potential wilderness inventory. The areas did not meet the criteria prescribed in FSH 1909.12 (part 71.12) 

to qualify as lands that have potential for wilderness recommendation.

In addition to the above reviews, the National Forests in Mississippi utilized resource data from the 2008 

GIS database as a tool to conduct a district-by-district analysis of any large blocks of land that would 

warrant further consideration as potential wilderness areas. The screening followed FSH 1909.12, Chapter 

70 criteria and was focused on large blocks of contiguous lands (1,000 acres or larger) that had little 

evidence of human activity and would provide a sense of remoteness and solitude. No areas greater than 

5,000 acres were identified in the screening process. Collectively across the Forests, 16 areas were 

identified as being over 1,000 acres in size with a road density of less than one-half mile per 1,000 acres. 

However, none of these areas were found to qualify for the inventory of potential wilderness areas based 

upon FSH 1909.12, Chapter 70, sections 71.1, 71.11 and 71.12 criteria.

Based on findings in the above described analysis there were no areas found on the Forests that qualified 

for placement on the potential wilderness inventory.

3.6.9 Recreational Fisheries Management

Presidential Executive Order 12962 provides the primary direction for managing the Forests recreational 

fishing resources. In compliance with the above mandate, forest management activities are implemented 

in a manner to provide quality recreational fishing opportunities to the public.

The National Forests in Mississippi contains over 50 man-made lakes and ponds totaling more than 3,100 

acres of water. These impoundments range in size from 1 to 1,075 acres. The original purpose for the 

construction of many of these impoundments was for flood prevention and erosion control. Others were 

constructed primarily for recreational purposes. These impoundments were stocked with largemouth bass 

(Micropterus salmoides), bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), and redear sunfish (Lepomis microlophus) and 

now provide recreational fishing benefit. Most of the lakes and ponds on the forest over one acre are 

managed for sustainable recreational fishing.

Recreational fishing is one of the most popular outdoor activities in the state. The Mississippi Department 

of Wildlife, Fisheries and Parks is responsible for managing and improving the states fisheries resources.

The Forest Service cooperates with that agency’s efforts in improving the fisheries resources on national 

forest lands. National Forest lakes and ponds are managed to support balanced, productive self-sustaining 

recreational fisheries that is capable of meeting current and projected demands. Demand species 

associated with fishing include: largemouth bass (management indicator species), bluegill, redear sunfish, 

channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), black crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus), and white crappie 

(Pomoxis annularis). Maintenance and restoration efforts cooperate with all program areas to achieve the 

desired conditions.

The National Forests in Mississippi strategy for restoring, maintaining, and enhancing lakes and 

permanent ponds emphasizes maintaining water quality and lake and permanent pond enhancement. 

Fisheries management is practiced on the National Forests in Mississippi to provide fishing opportunities 

to the public. Management practices include liming and fertilization, fish habitat improvement, aquatic 

weed control, angler access improvement, fish population management, and nuisance animal control. 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

140 National Forests in Mississippi

Largemouth bass is the principal predator in most Forest lakes. As the principal predator, largemouth bass 

presence/absence strongly influences the population structure of other fish species in a lake. For this 

reason, largemouth bass was selected as the management indicator species to represent the effectiveness 

of Forest Service recreational fisheries management activities. The effects of recreational fisheries 

management (directly related to this species) is discussed below.

Liming

Many Forest lakes are slightly acidic with poor buffering capacity. Tannic acid from leaves and pine 

needles from the surrounding forested watershed is washed into the lakes. This results in limited 

productivity and fish growth. Poor water chemistry is the second leading cause of fish death in 

Mississippi lakes and ponds (Managing Mississippi Ponds and Small Lakes 2011). Fish in acidic water 

with low alkalinity are more likely to get sick, especially during times of stress, such as spawning season 

or periods of rapid temperature change. Rapid fluctuations in pH can cause stress in fish making them 

more vulnerable to disease and hindering growth. Lime would enhance the water quality and productivity 

of these lakes.

Fertilization

Lake fertilization is a standard practice by many fish and wildlife agencies in southern states. The 

addition of some nutrients to lakes can yield positive results as long as the added nutrients are in the 

appropriate balance and amount. Fertilization enhances the productivity of the fish population and 

improves the quality of the fishing experience.

Lakes and ponds that receive heavy fishing pressure may be at risk of overharvest or poor fishing.

Fertilization can increase the abundance of fish to compensate for heavy fishing (Managing Mississippi 

Ponds and Small Lakes 2011).

Spawning Habitat Improvement

Good spawning sites are limited in many Forest lakes because natural spawning areas have become 

covered with silt and muck over the years. Placement of spawning beds enhances the productivity of the 

fish population and improves the quality of the fishing experience. Where possible, structures would be 

added to increase spawning success and concentrate sport fish for angling.

The availability of suitable nesting substrate has been recognized as a major factor affecting reproductive 

success of bass, bluegill, and redear. Although they will use the best habitat available, these fish prefer 

gravel substrate for spawning material. Willis (2005) examined 75 random locations in a 330-acre lake in 

South Dakota where 15 bluegill spawning sites were identified. All the locations contained 4 types of 

substrates (muck, sand, gravel, rock). However, all 15 bluegill colony spawning sites were built on gravel 

substrate.

Larry Clay (retired Forest Service fisheries biologist) examined numerous natural and man-made 

spawning sites in several Forest lakes after they had been drained for renovation. He observed that all 

natural spawning sites were located on flat or level ground. He also found that man-made gravel 

spawning beds located on sloped banks received limited use that occurred in narrow bands. This suggests 

that while the fish preferred gravel to spawn on, they only utilized a portion of the spawning bed because 

of differences in water temperature as the depth of the spawning bed changed. This information indicates 

that spawning beds should be placed on level ground.

Fish Attractors

Natural fish cover is absent or inadequate in many Forest lakes because during their construction, the 

basins were cleared of trees and brush. Even where standing trees were left, they have decomposed over 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 141

the years and become ineffective as cover for fish. In addition, creek channels coursing through the lake 

bottoms have silted in over time providing little or no irregular bottom features that attract fish. 

The purpose of fish attractors is to provide a type of structure that otherwise does not or will not exist in 

sufficient quantity within the lakebed.

Shoreline Deepening

Many of the Forests’ lakes contain areas of excessively shallow water (less than 3 feet deep). This is the 

outcome of years of natural silt deposition along the shoreline and upper ends of the lakes. Thus resulting 

in limited access for both bank and boat anglers. It has also promoted excessive aquatic weed growth 

reducing the predator/prey interaction needed to maintain fish population balance.

Aquatic Weed Control

Many of the Forests’ lakes contain areas of excessive aquatic weed growth reducing the predator/prey 

interaction needed to maintain fish population balance. This excessive aquatic weed growth is the result 

of vast areas of shallow water (less than 3 feet deep).

Aquatic plants when of the right species, the right quantities, and at the right location are very beneficial 

to a lake environment. However, if they are the wrong species, or too abundant, or in the wrong location, 

they become noxious weeds and can be detrimental to the fisheries and recreational use of the lake.

Aquatic weeds present a constant challenge to managing a lake. These plants can greatly reduce the 

carrying capacity of a lake by using the nutrients normally available to phytoplankton. They can restrict 

water flow, and often interfere with fishing and recreational boating. Aquatic weeds can contribute to the 

stunting of game fish through reduced predator/prey interaction; they can also destroy fish habitats. When 

aquatic weeds die, silting can be accelerated, while oxygen levels become reduced.

Angler Access Improvement

Fishing piers and boat ramps may be provided. These structures enable the lake sport fish population to be 

managed for optimal recreational benefits. Access to angling opportunities should increase with the 

installation of these structures.

Fish Population Management

Fish populations in lakes are managed to produce enhanced recreational fishing opportunities. Fish 

populations when of the proper species mix, the correct ratios, and at the right sizes can provide a quality 

fishing experience. However, when of the wrong species, too abundant, too few, or the wrong size, can 

provide a poor fishing experience.

A healthy lake has a balance between predator and prey populations. In lakes of at least one acre, 

largemouth bass and bluegill provide this balance better than any other species. Other species such as 

redear sunfish and channel catfish can add variety to the fishing opportunities. Crappie can also add 

variety to the fishing opportunities. However, because they tend to overpopulate in smaller lakes, these 

fish are normally only stocked in lakes over 50 acres where sufficient forage is present. It is recognized 

that crappie may become established in lakes under 50 acres, in which management practices will be 

determined on a case by case basis. In specific situations, forage species such as threadfin shad 

(Dorosoma petenense), gizzard shad, and fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) are sometimes used to 

enhance largemouth bass and crappie quality.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

142 National Forests in Mississippi

Nuisance Animal Control

Beavers, muskrats, nutria, otters, and alligators can be a nuisance or even cause damage. Burrowing and 

damming activities can cause dam failure or flood adjacent landowners. Angler access and fish habitat 

improvements can also be flooded. A family of otters can virtually eliminate catchable-size fish in a small 

lake. Alligators can present a safety concern in lakes with swimming. Trapping and removal will be 

practiced to maintain nuisance animal populations at acceptable levels.

3.6.10 Cultural Resources

Cultural Resources are archaeological and historic sites located by conducting field surveys and archival 

research. As of June 2006, the National Forests in Mississippi have recorded over 8,000 such sites, with 

the majority being of prehistoric Native American origin. The Forests also consult with Native American 

groups on the management of Federal lands, as required by the numerous Federal laws and Executive 

Orders directing the management of cultural resources on Federal lands. 

Trends

• Inventory of national forests land by professional archaeologists is ongoing. Initial survey methods 

have included shovel testing, field inspection, and in some cases, occurrence prediction modeling.

• Inventory and evaluation of cultural resources are actively pursued on each of the National Forests in 

Mississippi. These inventories (normally and historically) have occurred prior to the initiation of 

ground-disturbing activities. The State historic preservation office (SHPO) granted a waiver of the 

requirement to survey prior to ground-disturbing activity after Hurricane Katrina, provided that 

follow-up surveys would be completed after the emergency removal of hazardous fuels. Currently, 

more than 350,000 acres of the total 1.2 million acres of national forest land have had some level of 

cultural resource survey performed. 

• Sites listed in the National Register of Historic Places or considered eligible for listing in the National 

Register are protected and monitored when project activities near the sites are implemented.

• Priorities for nominating sites to the National Register of Historic Places have been established. In 

order by priority, they are (1) sites representing multiple themes; (2) sites representing themes that are 

not currently on the National Register with the State; and (3) sites representing themes that are 

currently represented by single sites.

3.6.11 Scenery

The previous inventory for the 1985 Land and Resource Management Plan for the National Forests in 

Mississippi was conducted in the 1970s. Since that time much has changed in terms of goals for 

vegetation management, land use, neighboring populations, visitation patterns, and public perceptions 

regarding scenery. In 1995, the Forest Service updated its management framework for scenery, replacing 

the visual management system with the scenery management system as defined in Landscape Aesthetics, 

USDA Handbook Number 701. The new scenery management system methodology allows for better 

monitoring and protection of visual quality in conjunction with other resources. 

The scenery management system inventory is an evaluation of the past and present ecological, cultural, 

and social land use patterns for the national forests that may impact scenic attributes valued by the public. 

The ecological descriptions of the forest are the starting point for this scenic inventory and are the 

foundation of the landscape character descriptions.

This forest plan revision adopts the new scenery management system framework, with a base inventory 

established in the National Forests in Mississippi “2005 Scenery Management System Inventory and 

Analysis”. That document defines the landscape character themes on the forest, provided excellent 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 143

existing landscape character descriptions for each National Forest, synthesized extensive input residents 

and forest recreationists’ appreciation of forest scenery, and developed the base scenery management 

system inventory.

Based on this information, desired scenic integrity objectives are established, for specific areas and 

restoration goals. And mitigation and guidance was developed to assist in obtaining the possible actions 

proposed. 

Landscape Character Themes

Including the ecological and cultural features as well as the positive and negative elements of the scenery, 

the existing landscape character for each district is described as a part of the scenery management system 

inventory. The scenery management system is an evaluation of the past and present ecological, cultural, 

and social land use patterns for the national forests that may impact scenic attributes valued by the public.

The ecological descriptions of the forest are the starting point for this scenic inventory and are the 

foundation of the landscape character descriptions.

Natural appearing landscape character expresses predominantly natural qualities but includes minor 

human interaction along with cultural features and processes that are relatively unobtrusive.

Existing Visual Quality 

The existing scenic inventory under the visual management system was updated under the new scenery 

management system framework. The crosswalk between visual quality objectives (visual management 

system) and scenic integrity objectives (the updated scenery management system) is as follows:

Table 37. Crosswalk between visual quality objectives and scenic integrity objectives

Visual Quality Objective (VQO) Scenic Integrity Objective (SIO)

Preservation (P) unaltered Very High (VH)

Retention (R) Appears unaltered High (H)

Partial Retention (PR) Slightly altered Moderate (M)

Modification (M) Moderately altered Low (L)

Maximum Modification MM) Heavily altered Very Low (VL)

Extremely altered Unacceptably Low

Scenic Integrity 

Scenic integrity is a measure of the degree to which a landscape character is visually perceived to be 

complete. Scenic integrity measures those lands most representative of the area’s landscape character type 

at the present time. It is not a measure of pristine condition. 

Deviations from the appealing aesthetic landscape character as valued by constituents can diminish an 

area’s scenic integrity. Man-made and natural disturbances disrupt the valued landscape character. 

The scenic integrity objective refers to the degree of acceptable alterations to the valued attributes for the 

characteristic landscape and is part of the desired future condition of land management prescriptions. 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

144 National Forests in Mississippi

Table 38. Scenic class inventory

Scenic 

Class

Approximate

Acres Percent Public Value

1 272,949 23% High

2 469,188 39% High

3 405,508 34% Mediuma

4 14,714 1% Medium

5 24,293 2% Low

6 664 0% Low

7 133 0% Low

Total 1,187,449 100%

a - In development of the scenery management system inventory from the visual quality objectives, 

the “seldom seem” acres were not assigned a scenic class. For forest plan revision, this large 

acreage was, following the recommendation of the scenery management system guide, transferred to 

scenic class 3 (as a typical “B” landscape).

Scenery Trends

• Scenery plays a major role in any visit to the National Forests in Mississippi. About 1/3 of visitors 

indicate that the primary reason for visiting is viewing nature and wildlife. 

• Many recreation activities are dependent on the forest setting like hunting, fishing, or camping. While 

others are made special by the natural forest setting and the cultural interest areas throughout the 

forest. 

• The potential for future oil and gas exploration and development is high on 3 National Forest units; 

scenery will be a consideration in mitigation for these wells. However, this forest plan does not make 

decisions related to oil and gas development.

• Development on neighboring lands generally negatively impacts the National Forest scenic resource 

by diminishing the natural scene. This impact will expand as surround communities grow. 

Understanding the value of National Forest scenery to the local community is important. It affects 

real estate values and quality of life.

3.6.12 Social Demographics

The National Forests in Mississippi (Forests) consist of 1.2 million acres of public lands located in six 

forests across the state. The Bienville, Delta, De Soto, Holly Springs, Homochitto, and Tombigbee 

National Forests are headquartered in Jackson, Mississippi. The following socioeconomic overview of the 

National Forests in Mississippi will discuss the socioeconomic trends and changes in the thirty-five 

Mississippi counties containing National Forest System lands. The analysis area counties and composition 

are presented in table 39.

Land Base Overview

This overview provides information on the physical and organizational characteristics of the National 

Forests in Mississippian identifies key forest resources and uses. In order to place the Forests in context, 

brief discussions are provided of the contrasts and comparisons to state characteristics.

Characteristics of an area, such as the growth of population and its various racial and ethnic components, 

can be used to determine how dynamic and subject to change an area may be. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 145

Table 39. National Forests in Mississippi land base by forest and county

Forest County Sq. Miles Total Acres NFS Acres Percent of 

County

Bienville NF

Jasper 677.3 433,472 17,226 4.0

Newton 579.4 370,816 3,341 0.9

Scott 610.2 390,528 85,299 21.8

Smith 637.1 407,744 72,676 17.8

TOTAL 2504.0 1,602,560 178,542 11.1

De Soto NF

Forrest 470.0 300,800 50,643 16.8

George 483.6 309,504 16,080 5.2

Greene 718.7 459,968 6,111 1.3

Harrison 975.9 624,576 62,602 10.0

Jackson 1043.3 667,712 22,974 3.4

Pearl River 818.7 523,968 4,052 0.8

Perry 650.1 416,064 162,821 39.1

Stone 448.0 286,720 54,919 19.2

Jones 699.6 447,744 32,952 7.4

Wayne 813/4 520,576 90,146 17.3

TOTAL 5608.3 3,589,312 380,202 10.6

Delta NF

Issaquenaa

Sharkey 434.8 278,272 60,215 21.6

Holly Springs NF

Benton 408.5 261,440 55,544 21.2

Lafayette 679.1 434,624 40,014 9.2

Marshall 709.6 454,144 21,713 4.8

Tippah 459.9 294,336 9,534 3.2

Union 416.8 266,752 8,045 3.0

Yalobusha 494.8 316,672 20,776 6.6

TOTAL 3168.7 2,027,968 155,653 7.7

Homochitto NF

Adams 486.4 311,296 14,310 4.6

Amite 731.6 468,224 35,644 7.6

Copiah 779.2 498,688 7,305 1.5

Franklin 566.7 362,688 95,596 26.4

Jefferson 527.2 337,408 8,003 2.4

Lincoln 588.0 376,320 7,936 2.1

Wilkinson 687.8 440,192 22,803 5.2

TOTAL 4366.9 2,794,816 191,597 6.9

Tombigbee NF

Chickasaw 504.2 322,688 26,091 8.1

Choctaw 419.7 268,608 11,550 4.3

Oktibbeha 461.8 295,552 117 -

Pontotoc 500.9 320,576 530 0.2

Winston 610.0 390,400 28,586 7.3

TOTAL 2496.6 1,597,284 66,874 4.2

NF Counties 20811.0 13,319,040 1,183,436 8.9

State of

Percent of 

State

Mississippi 48,434.0 30,997,760 1,183,436 3.8

Source: USDA Forest Service

a - The Delta National Forest proclamation boundary extends into Issaquena County. However, national forest lands occur only in 

Sharkey County.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

146 National Forests in Mississippi

A static area will imply few possible factors affecting change, but a dynamic growing population may 

produce conflicting concerns for land managers to consider. Certain areas of the national forests and 

surrounding lands, which are seen to be attractive to urban dwellers for recreation and second or 

retirement home residence, may cause conflict with traditional residents of the area. In the following 

subheading we will discuss demographic characteristics that may assist land managers in identifying 

issues for current and future projects.

Demographics

Information about population characteristics helps describe the general nature of a community or area. An 

analysis of population trends can help determine if changes are occurring for specific groups defined by 

age, gender, education level, or ethnicity, thereby influencing the nature of social and economic 

relationships in the community. 

Table 40. Population change for Mississippi 1980-2000

Year Total Population Population Change Percent Change 

1980 2,520,638 - -

1990 2,573,216 52,578 2.1%

2000 2,844,658 271,442 10.5%

2009 2,951,996 107,338 3.77%

Source: U.S. Census Bureau from USDA NRIS HD Model

Mississippi’s population, presented in table 40, increased from 2,520,638 in the 1980 census to 2,844,658 

in the 2000 census and 2,951,996 in 2009. This translates into a 17 percent increase in population between 

1980 and 2009. However, between 1990 and 2000, the population increased by 10.5 percent with much of 

this growth in the extreme north and southeast areas of Mississippi.

Table 41. Population change for National Forests in Mississippi

National 

Forest 1980 1990 2000 2009

Percent

Change 

1980-1990

Percent

Change 

1990-2000

Percent

Change 

2000-2009

Bienville 76,842 76,340 84,592 85,675 -0.7% 10.8% 1.28%

Delta 62,104 56,855 58,498 N/A -8.5% 2.9%

De Soto 501,244 517,692 586,623 607,798 3.3% 13.3% 3.61%

Holly Springs 143,016 146,111 167,728 151,553 2.2% 14.8% -9.6%

Homochitto 135,491 133,262 138,362 135079 -1.6% 3.8% -2.4%

Tombigbee 103,259 107,201 118,986 120801 3.8% 11.0% 1.5%

Total NF in 

Mississippi 1,021,956 1,037,461 1,154,789 2.1% 10.5%

Source: U.S. Census Bureau from USDA NRIS HD Model

Population trends for National Forests in Mississippi counties are generally similar as those for the entire 

state. Table 41 presents population changes for the counties in the analysis area. The populations of the 

counties around Bienville and Delta National Forests declined from 1980 to 1990, but they have been 

increasing in population since 1990. The population of the counties around the Homochitto National 

Forest has been fluctulating over the years. The Holly Springs National Forest population experienced the 

most growth during the 1980 to 1990 period due to the area becoming a popular family residential and 

retirement destination, but then showed a decrease from 2000 to 2009. The growth or decline of a 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 147

population has a greater relative impact in smaller, rural areas. The smaller and less dense population base 

found in rural areas makes delivery of basic services more difficult. In urban areas, the logistics and 

mechanisms for providing public services produce economies of scale impossible for rural areas to 

duplicate.

In the future, the population of the United States is expected to age. The median age in the United States 

has risen steadily since the 1980s in part due to increases in medical technology, hygiene, and rising real 

income. In 1990 the median age was 32.8 years; by 2020 it is expected to increase to 38 years of age. As 

the population ages, their recreation preferences will change. The charts below show percent increases 

and projections in each of the age strata for the thirty year period between 1990 and 2020. Forty five -

fifty four is the high growth strata for the 1990s. Sixty five and older, 55-64, and 25-34 are the projected 

highest growth strata in the Forests analysis area for the next 20 years. Given the ageing of the market 

area, it is likely that activities that older people like to do will increase in demand.

Figure 24. Age of market area for Holly Springs and Tombigbee National Forests (Source: US 

Census)

Figure 25. Age of market area for Bienville, De Soto, Delta and Homochitto National Forests 

(Source: US Census)

Populations increase or decrease in response to three variables that can change over time: fertility, 

mortality, and migration. Migration is the most unstable of the variables that affect population growth. 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

148 National Forests in Mississippi

While the population in Mississippi was estimated to have grown 10.5 percent from 1990 to 2000, 

according to the Census Bureau, the state experienced a net out-migration of 11,013 from 1995-2000 

(table 42). Growth in the state population appears to be the result of a natural increase in the population 

during this period, which offset the population out-migration. The South as a whole is experiencing 

positive migration from other states, but Mississippi is losing more residents than it is gaining. Important 

factors that influence in- and out-migration include educational and employment opportunities, the 

physical environment, and perception of regional, state, and local government taxing policies, labor 

markets, cost of living, population composition, and local and state social legislation.

Table 42. Migration in southern region, Mississippi, and selected cities 1995-2000

Geographic Area In-migrants Out-migrants Domestic 5 year net 

migration

Mississippi 6,041 11,013 -4,972

Hattiesburg, MS 845 1,969 -1,124

Jackson, MS 3,057 3,321 -264

Southern US 251,658 221,754 29,437

Source: U.S. Census Bureau from USDA NRIS HD Model

In comparison to other areas of the United States, Mississippi as a whole and the analysis area counties 

show a heterogonous racial composition of Whites and Blacks, with a recent increase in Hispanic 

residents. Table 43 shows the population of Mississippi by race in 1980, 1990, 2000 and 2010. Over half 

of the population in the counties that contain National Forest System lands is White (65.3 percent), as 

well as the State as a whole which is 59.1 percent White. Holly Springs and De Soto National Forests 

have the highest composition of White residents, 67.8 and 69.5 percent respectively. 

National visitor use monitoring data reports that 99.4 percent of the visitors to the National Forests in 

Mississippi are White. A recent values, attitudes, and beliefs survey of the Forests area residents drew 

responses from White, Black, and Hispanic residents.

The minority population increased from 30.5 percent to 34.7 percent between 1990 and 2010 within the 

forest boundaries and from 37.0 to 40.9 percent in Mississippi. The National Forests in Mississippi 

percentages of Native Americans, Asian and Pacific Islanders, and Hispanics ranged from under one-half 

percent to 3.4 percent in 2010. The Bienville National Forest has the highest percentage of Hispanics with 

an increase to 4 percent from 0.29 percent in 1990. The Bienville National Forest also has the highest 

percentage of Native Americans, who make up 1.45 percent of the population. The population of Black 

residents within the National Forests in Mississippi increased slightly from 29 percent of the population in 

1990 to 30 percent in 2010. The Delta National Forest has the highest percentage of Black residents with 

71 percent in 2010. Hispanics have been the fastest growing segment of the population. Their percentage 

of the National Forests in Mississippi population has increased from 0.72 percent in 1990 to over 3.4 

percent in 2010. This is slightly higher than the statewide increase for Hispanics which has from 0.57 

percent in 1990 to 2.7 percent in 2010.

US aggregated population density is about 80 persons per square mile (2000) in contrast to Mississippi 

which despite recent growth has a population density of 60 persons per square mile. Population density is 

dependent in part on the amount of land available for settlement and on transportations systems. The 

population density of the counties in Mississippi that contain National Forest System land is 119 persons 

per square mile. This is caused in large part by the high population density of Harrison (284.6), Jackson 

(158.6), and Forrest (146.4) counties on the De Soto National Forest. Overall, the De Soto National Forest 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 149

had 184.3 persons per square mile in 2000. Bienville National Forest had the lowest population density of 

any forest with 36.1 persons per square mile in 2000. 

Table 43. Racial composition of National Forests in Mississippi counties

Area Race 1980 1990 2000 2010

Bienville NF

Hispanic 0.92% 0.29% 2.4% 4.4%

Native American 0.74% 1.02% 1.09% 1.45%

Asian 0.06% 0.02% 0.16% 0.16%

Black 33.4% 35.3% 36.6% 35.75%

White 65.6% 63.4% 60.5% 59%

Delta NF

Hispanic 1.17% 0.48% 1.04% 0.8%

Native American 0.09% 0.15% 0.22% 0.1%

Asian 0.55% 0.53% 0.57% 0.2%

Black 41.7% 42.8% 46.8% 71%

White 57.4% 56.3% 51.3% 27.9%

De Soto NF

Hispanic 1.3% 1.04% 1.95% 4.25%

Native American 0.20% 0.30% 0.36% 0.42%

Asian 0.57% 1.14% 1.4% 1.53%

Black 20.7% 21.9% 22.7% 25%

White 78.1% 76.4% 73.6% 69.45%

Holly Springs NF

Hispanic 0.75% 0.49% 1.4% 3.07%

Native American 0.04% 0.11% 0.20% 0.24%

Asian 0.18% 0.51% 0.50% 0.77%

Black 28.7% 27.9% 27.5% 28.45%

White 70.9% 71.3% 70.5% 67.81%

Homochitto NF

Hispanic 0.83% 0.24% 0.80% 2.56%

Native American 0.03% 0.08% 0.13% 0.21%

Asian 0.08% 0.15% 0.18% 0.25%

Black 47.2% 47.5% 48% 47.62%

White 52.6% 52.2% 50.6% 50.2%

Tombigbee NF

Hispanic 0.87% 0.53% 1.44% 2.33%

Native American 0.19% 0.25% 0.29% 0.32%

Asian 0.33% 0.96% 1.01% 0.29%

Black 68% 66.7% 64.3% 32.76%

White 31.9% 33% 35.6% 63.03%

TOTAL National 

Forests in 

Mississippi

Hispanic 1.08% 0.72% 1.6% 3.42%

Native American 0.19% 0.29% 0.35% 0.44%

Asian 0.39% 0.79% 0.95% 0.92%

Black 28% 29% 29.8% 30%

White 70.5% 69.5% 67% 65.3%

Mississippi

Hispanic 0.98% 0.57% 1.3% 2.7%

Native American 0.24% 0.34% 0.41% 0.5%

Asian 0.30% 0.49% 0.68% 0.9%

Black 35% 35% 36% 37.0%

White 64% 63% 61% 59.1%

Source: U.S. Census Bureau from USDA NRIS HD Model

Most of the larger population centers in the analysis area are located along major interstate highway 

routes. Three interstate highways are in the analysis area. Interstate 55 (I-55) connects the major cities of 

northern and southern Mississippi, passing through Grenada, Jackson, Brookhaven, and McComb. 

Interstate 20 (I-20) connects the eastern and western parts of Mississippi, passing through Vicksburg, 

Jackson, and Meridian. Interstate 59 (I-59) connects the southeastern cities of Meridian, Hattiesburg, and 

Picayune.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

150 National Forests in Mississippi

In terms of regional neighbors to the National Forests in Mississippi, there are several major population 

concentrations within an hour drive of the Forests including Tupelo, Jackson, Meridian, Hattiesburg, 

Gulfport, Biloxi, Pascagoula, and to the north, Memphis, Tennessee. The growing density in Memphis to 

the north of the analysis area, in Mobile, Alabama, to the east, and the coastal areas around Biloxi suggest 

that population density may increase if the trend in nearby regions continues to extend into the analysis 

area counties. This will have implications for land use and regulations.

Table 44. Population projections - percent increase from 2010

2010 to 2015

Bienville NF 2.94%

Delta NF 2.31%

De Soto NF 4.23%

Holly Springs NF 3.13%

Homochitto NF 1.76%

Tombigbee NF 1.48%

National Forests in 

Mississippi Counties 3.33%

Mississippi 3.50%

Source: Environmental Protection Agency

Population projection is often times a hard task to accomplish with accuracy. The Environmental 

Protection Agency has made straight line interpolation projections to 2015 for every county in the United 

States. Table 44 shows the population and percentage change for the National Forests in Mississippi 

counties. All of the Forests are projected to show increases in population through 2015. According to the 

EPA population projections, the National Forests in Mississippi area continues to be seen as a desirable 

place for people to live. 

Per Capita Income

The contemporary community contrast of Mississippi is structured by demography and economy. When 

giving an overview of the economic characteristics of an area, indicators such as per capita income (table 

45), unemployment rates, poverty rates, transfer payments, and household composition are used to 

measure economic progress/viability.

Per capita income is a relative measure of the wealth of an area. It constitutes the personal income from 

all sources divided by the population of that area. For the National Forests in Mississippi analysis area, 

the per capita income average was $14,550 and $29,843 in 2000 and 2010, respectively.

The real average change in forest area income between 2000 and 2010 was 6.2 percent. This contrasts 

with that of the State’s 5 percent per year average annual change between 2000 and 2010. De Soto

National Forest was the fastest growing forest for per capita income at a 7.8 percent rate per year on a real 

basis over the 2000 decade. All of the forests are progressing at rate comparable to the state average 

except the Delta National Forest, which is rising at a slower rate.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 151

Table 45. Per capita income

Forest

2000 Per 

Capita 

Income

2000 Per 

Capita 

Income in 

2010 $$

2010 Per 

Capita 

Income

Real Avg. 

Annual 

Change 2000-

2010

Bienville NF $13,912 $17,617 $26, 385 5%

Delta NF $16,567 $20,979 $24,422 1.64%

De Soto NF $14,265 $18,064 $32,182 7.82%

Holly Springs NF $15,077 $19,092 $27,517 4.41%

Homochitto NF $13,548 $17,156 $26,755 5.6%

Tombigbee NF $14,664 $18,569 $26,663 4.36%

National Forests in 

Mississippi Counties $14,550 $18,425 $29,843 6.2%

Mississippi $15,853 $20,075 $30,900 5.39%

Source: U.S. Census Bureau from USDA NRIS HD Model

Real rates of increase were determined by inflating 2000 per capita income to 2010 with the Consumer Price Index 

Deflator.

Another indicator of relative economic prosperity is the percent of the workforce out of work. 

Unemployment rates change dramatically over time, depending in large part on the national economy. 

Some areas, however, have protracted unemployment problems because of educational attainment and 

lack of skills.

Table 46. Percent unemployment rate - weighted averages 1995-2010

Forest 1995 2001 2010

Bienville NF 6.1 5.0 9.6

Delta NF 9.5 7.0 12.9

De Soto NF 6.1 4.8 9.4

Holly Springs NF 9.1 5.8 11.4

Homochitto NF 7.9 7.6 11.5

Tombigbee NF 7.2 10.2 12.3

National Forests in 

Mississippi Counties 6.8 6.3 10.3

Mississippi 6.1 5.5 10.4

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics from USDA NRIS HD Model

In 2010 the National Forests in Mississippi had about the same rate of unemployment, 10.3, as that of the 

State. The Forests’ unemployment rate was calculated as a weighted average (unemployment rate and 

number of unemployed) of all counties in the area (table 46).

During the period of 1995 to 2001 the unemployment rate for the National Forests in Mississippi analysis 

area was higher than the rate of Mississippi. Tombigbee, Homochitto, and Delta National Forest had 

unemployment rates that were higher than the forest average for 2001and 2010. Unemployment for the 

National Forests in Mississippi analysis area increased between 2001 and 2010, however the average for 

all Forest Counties and the Mississippi statewide average unemployment rate only differ by one-tenth of a 

percent.

Rates of poverty are displayed in table 47.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

152 National Forests in Mississippi

Table 47. Percentage of individuals in poverty

Forest 1980a 1990 2000

Bienville NF 15.5 25.8 20.2

Delta NF 19.7 26.4 21.5

De Soto NF 14.5 21.2 16.8

Holly Springs NF 22.6 23.6 18.5

Homochitto NF 26.2 31.4 25.3

Tombigbee NF 6.2 24.9 22.6

National Forests in 

Mississippi Counties 16.7 23.9 19.2

Mississippi 23.9 25.2 19.9

Source: U.S. Census Bureau from USDA NRIS HD Model

a - Data for some counties not available for this year

Four forests in the National Forests in Mississippi analysis area had poverty rates in 2000 greater than the 

weighted average for the State. Bienville, Delta, Tombigbee, and Homochitto National Forest had the 

highest poverty rates of all forests in the analysis area. De Soto National Forest had the lowest rate in 

2000 of 16.8 percent. All of the Forests experienced declining poverty rates from 1990 to 2000. The 

average for the Forests in 2000 was comparable to the state average of 19.9 percent. Since 1980 the 

poverty rate has risen, and then declined for both the National Forests in Mississippi and the state of 

Mississippi. 

Table 48. Federal transfer payments to individuals

Forest 1970 1980 1990 2000 2002 2010

Bienville NF 97,963 187,718 242,549 384,069 445,947 1,446,406

Delta NF 67,631 133,724 166,519 247,620 283,202 204,109

De Soto NF 438,811 1,020,230 1,523,063 2,456,267 2,885,227 3,010,883

Holly Springs NF 141,719 313,460 417,660 671,645 787,626 1,078,476

Homochitto NF 164,832 338,148 442,055 644,025 749,711 2,178,914

Tombigbee NF 79,524 161,973 201,794 314,987 367,467 406,172

National Forests in Mississippi

Counties 969,020 2,108,571 2,936,121 4,623,941 5,407,444 8,005,896

Mississippi 5,357,515 11,340,625 15,344,316 23,864,304 27,925,492 29,920,170

Source: U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis 

Note: Pontotoc County is in both Tombigbee and Holly Springs NF. National Forests in Mississippi has Pontotoc in Tombigbee 

subtracted from total.

Transfer payments from the federal government to the states and their citizens are another indicator of 

relative poverty in an area. Transfer payments are payments to persons for which no current services are 

performed. As a component of personal income, they are payments by government and business to 

individuals and nonprofit institutions. Although most of transfer payments are made in cash, they also 

include payments for services such as Medicare, Medicaid, and food stamps. There is often an inverse 

relationship between earnings and transfer payments. A high dependency in an economy on transfer 

payments can reflect few employment opportunities or a popular retirement area.

Table 48 displays the analysis area average and the state receipts of transfer payments from the Federal 

Government. Counties associated with the De Soto National Forest have received the highest level of 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 153

transfer payments, while the counties associated with the Delta National Forest have received the lowest 

level of payments. For 2010, all of the National Forests in Mississippi except the Delta had increased 

transfer payments resulting in an overall increase for National Forests in Mississippi counties.

Economy’s Diversity

Analyzing the major sectors of an economy allows insight into how diverse and what industries may be 

driving its growth. Table 49, below, shows for the manufacturing sector (which includes lumber) and the 

sub-sectors for wood based industries the industry labor income and employment for 1990, 2000 and 

2010. Recreation is not a sector of an economy but comprises several services and retail industries.

Table 49 shows that the National Forests in Mississippi area economy is becoming more diverse because 

of its decreasing reliance on the manufacturing sector. Its importance declined by almost seven percentage 

points for both the share of employment and the share of labor income from 1990 to 2010. Still, 

manufacturing is a sizable proportion of the local economy’s labor income, representing more than 

sixteen percent of the economy in 2000 and 2010.

Table 49. Economic diversity

1990 

Employment

2000 

Employment

2010 

Employment

1990 Labor 

Income

2000 Labor 

Income

2010 Labor 

Income

% of Total Economy % of Total Economy

Total 

Manufacturing 18.5 13.4 11.87 23.1 16.6 16.4

Total Wood 

Products 2.4 1.6 1.72 2.6 1.8 2.09

Wood Furn. and

Fixtures 2.3 1.8 0.25 2.4 1.9 0.19

Paper and Pulp 

Products 0.5 0.3 0.14 1.3 0.7 0.36

Total Economya $538,073 $21.182

Source: IMPLAN 1990 and 2000 Data

a – Interms of jobs or millions of dollars

Of the wood-manufacturing sector, total wood products maintained only a 1.7 percent share of the local 

economy’s labor employment in 2010. This is a decrease from the percent share that it had in 1990 (at 2.4 

percent). Labor income’s share diminished from a 2.6 percent share in 1990 to 2.1 percent share in 2010. 

Wood products comprise a very small share of this economy.

Background data shows employment, labor income, and industrial output, for the all nine sectors of the 

economy broken out by major standard industrial code and by important industry sub-sectors for wood 

products. The overall composition of the analysis area economy has not changed greatly from 1990. 

Services increased from 18.4 to 23.9 percent in 2000 as measured by employment change, or a 5.5 

percent annual increase. Other large sector share changes include wholesale and retail sales employment 

change of 2.4 percent per year, and government whose share increased slightly from 20.3 percent to 20.8 

percent over that decade. The economy’s main drivers are services and government. 

Another way to indicate diversity of an economy is with the Shannon-Weaver entropy indexes of 

diversity. This process allows a relative measure of how diverse a county is with a single number. The 

entropy method measures diversity of a region against a uniform distribution of employment where the 

norm is equal-proportional employment in all industries. All indices range between 0 (no diversity) and 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

154 National Forests in Mississippi

1.0 (perfect diversity). These two extremes would occur when there is only one industry in the economy 

(no diversity) and when all industries contribute equally to the region’s employment (perfect diversity). In 

most cases diversity would be registered somewhere between 0 and 1.0. Another factor affecting the 

magnitude of the index is the number of industries in a local economy; the greater number the larger the 

index. 

Table 50 contrasts the change in diversity for 1990, 2000 and 2010 at the four-digit standard industrial 

code, or at the individual industry level. For a point of reference Mississippi serves as comparison guide.

Table 50. Shannon-Weaver entropy indices

1990 Index 2000 Index 2010 Index Percent Change

1190 to 2010

Bienville NFa 0.55054 0.55312 0.62850 14.16%

De Soto NFa 0.60296 0.59816 0.69088 14.58%

Delta NFa 0.61395 0.62294 0.59524 3.05%

Holly Springs NFa 0.57419 0.57905 0.69242 20.59%

Homochitto NFa 0.60285 0.61712 0.70424 16.82%

Tombigbee NFa 0.54842 0.55942 0.65529 19.49%

National Forests in 

Mississippi Countiesa 0.59017 0.59218 0.71442 21.05%

Mississippia 0.72414 0.71913 0.72965 0.76%

Source: USDA Forest Service, Information Monitoring Institute

a - Weighted Average Estimate of Aggregated Counties. Weighted by full-time and part-time employment in their respective years.

The indices measuring diversity indicate slightly more diversity in the state than in the analysis area 

during the 1990 – 2010 decades. However, the Forests’ area became 21.05 percent more diverse while 

Mississippi only became 0.76 percent more diverse. This degree of change has made the Forests’ 

Counties nearly equivalent to the State as a whole. The only National Forest County that did not follow 

this positive trend was Sharkey County for the Delta National Forest. The Delta National Forest area 

index was down 3.05 percent from 1990 to 2010. 

As indicated by the analysis above of the National Forests in Mississippi cumulative economy, the overall 

change during the 1990 – 2010 decades was marginal. This is substantiated by these diversity indices 

which changed very little. 

Economy’s Trade

A principle way an economy grows is by export of goods and services. Most typically, manufacturing 

activity is thought of as providing most of this export related activity. However, services and retail trade 

can be considered export industries if significant visitors come in from outside in travel-related activities 

to bring in new dollars. A manufacturing industry can be a net importer if it imports more of a commodity 

that it exports. 

Table 51 below compares the exporting characteristics of the National Forests in Mississippi analysis area 

for 1990, 2000 and 2010.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 155

Table 51. Exporting of selected industries (in millions of dollars)

1990 Net Exportsa 2000 Net Exports 2010 Net Exports

Wood Furniture and Fixtures $782.2 $464.7 -$35.59

Paper and Pulp Products $524.7 $301.2 -$130.04

Wood Products $944.4 $1,021.4 $342.00

Total Manufacturing $1,509.0 $343.0 $6,071.71

Total of All Sectors -$2,033.1 -$11,085.9 -$15,789.79

Source: IMPLAN 1990, 2000 and 2010 Data

a - 1990 Dollars Converted to 2000 Dollars via GDP Price Deflator; 2010 data is in 2010 dollars

The background data shows that the National Forests in Mississippi local economy continues to be a net 

importing economy. From 1990 to 2000 the total economy’s reliance on imports increased tremendously, 

thereby becoming more reliant on other areas for its goods and services production. Wood products

showed net exporting decreases in the wood furniture and fixtures industry as well as the paper and pulp 

products industry to net negatives. Total lumber and wood products net exports increased slightly between 

1990 and 2000 but dropped significantly by 2010. Total manufacturing lost a significant share in net 

exporting by about $1,166 million from 1990 to 2000, but jumped significantly to $6,071 million in 2010.

In summary, the National Forests in Mississippi area’s economy became more reliant on imports during 

the 1990 – 2010 decades. More dollars, therefore, flowed out of the economy than flowed in, reducing the 

ability of enhancement of further economic activity through the multiplier effect.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

156 National Forests in Mississippi

Table 52. Revenue for the National Forests in Mississippi for fiscal years 205 through 2011

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Class 1 - Timber $3,101,710.41 $6,596,328.53 $1,719,560.84 $2,161,107.52 $967,023.39 $839,078.28 $1,957,900.95

Class 2 - Grazing East $200.84 $190.80 $78.12 $88.83 $108.15 $0.00 $108.15

Class 3 - Land Use $88,575.82 $101,807.32 $67,203.41 $88,103.57 $105,390.30 $125,983.78 $147,216.28

Class 4 - Recreation Spec. Uses $1,482.70 $0.00 $425.00 $891.95 $58.00 $59.00 $0.00

Class 5 - Power $14,196.86 $30,153.45 $26,429.19 $31,533.42 $53,914.97 $74,393.33 $65,766.16

Class 6 - Minerals $0.00 $375.00 $780.45 $5,580.33 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

Class 7 - Recreation User Fees $60.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

Total NFF Receipts $3,206,226.62 $6,728,855.10 $1,814,477.01 $2,287,305.62 $1,126,494.81 $1,039,514.39 $2,170,991.54

KV $3,943,621.05 $3,611,934.95 $3,372,316.44 $1,961,083.72 $1,882,963.69 $1,954,381.86 $4,332,906.91

Timber Purchaser Road Credits $7,136.88 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

Specified Road Credits $2,269,836.02 $1,243,384.36 $612,143.72 $1,293,325.26 $570,671.17 $789,680.75 $1,440,425.97

Salvage Sales $63,999.76 $11,085,999.84 $139,780.59 $109,450.03 ($7,375.45) $20,797.85 $2,144.43

TPTP Revenue $422,674.40 $24,131.67 $25,821.22

Grand Total $9,490,820.34 $22,670,174.25 $5,938,717.76 $5,651,164.63 $3,995,428.62 $3,828,506.52 $7,972,290.07

Table 53. Payments from the Secure Rural Schools Act to the National Forest in Mississippi Counties for fiscal years 2004 through 2011

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Bienville PNF $1,604,208 $1,641,104 $1,657,515 $1,654,113 $1,439,323 $1,413,105 $1,287,888 $1,080,767

De Soto PNF $3,057,466 $3,127,789 $3,153,308 $3,152,583 $3,100,158 $2,748,063 $2,551,554 $2,261,190

Holly Springs PNF $603,267 $617,141 $623,312 $622,033 $753,438 $737,649 $682,599 $601,468

Homochitto PNF $2,248,378 $2,300,091 $2,323,091 $2,318,324 $2,364,010 $2,201,958 $1,902,280 $1,693,894

Delta PNF $103,318 $105,695 $106,752 $106,532 $230,296 $173,851 $149,912 $150,991

Tombigbee PNF $404,061 $413,355 $417,488 $416,631 $469,104 $431,112 $383,137 $359,198

NFsMS Total $8,020,698 $8,205,173 $8,281,466 $8,270,217 $8,356,329 $7,705,738 $6,957,371 $6,147,508
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 157

National Forests in Mississippi Receipts

The resource management programs of the National Forests in Mississippi generate revenue from timber 

sales, grazing permits, land use permits, recreation special uses and user fees, power rights of way, and 

minerals extraction. These revenues are used as authorized by the Forest Service for National Forest 

management, submitted to the United States Treasury, or paid to the State of Mississippi in lieu of taxes 

not paid to the local counties. These receipts made a large increase in fiscal year 2006 due to the salvage 

of large quantities of timber damaged by Hurricane Katrina. The following years from 2007 till 2010 the 

revenue trends were declining. This was mostly due to declining timber sale receipts. This trend was 

reversed in 2011 with a doubling of revenue compared to 2010. This was again mostly due to increased 

timber revenue. Table 52 displays these revenues for fiscal years 2005 through 2011 for each revenue 

source.

Federal Payments

Counties receive two types of payments when federal lands are located within their boundaries. The first 

of these is the Payment in Lieu of Taxes (PILT). These payments are based on the acreage of National 

Forest System lands and other federal agency lands within each county. The second payment is based on 

revenue-producing activities (such as timber harvest, mineral extraction, special use permits) on National 

Forest System lands to compensate for loss of property tax revenue. The Secure Rural Schools and 

Community Self-Determination Act of 2000 (Public Law 106-393), was enacted to provide five years of 

transitional assistance to rural counties affected by the decline in revenue from timber harvests on federal 

lands. The last payment authorized under P.L. 106-393 was for FY 2006; however, this Act has been 

amended and reauthorized many times since, including an October 2013 reauthorization for an additional 

year. The Act gives Counties the option of receiving payments based on either: the Twenty-Five Percent 

Fund (25 percent of receipts from National Forest System revenue-producing activities generated within 

that County); or a funding amount that is based on several factors, including acreage of Federal land, 

previous payments, and per capita personal income. These funds can be used for improvements to public 

schools, roads, stewardship projects, watershed and ecosystem improvements, community protection and 

strengthening of local economies. Table 53 shows the payments from the Secure Rural Schools and 

Community Self-Determination Act (SRS Act) to the Counties with National Forest System lands in 

Mississippi for the years 2004 through 2011.

Trends in Secure Rural Schools Act funds and Payment in Lieu of Taxes are important to show a possible 

erosion of an area’s tax base. Table 54 shows the dollars received by the aggregated National Forests in 

Mississippi Counties in 1985 (the first year this data is available) and 1998 from the 25 Percent Fund, 

which was the source of funding to the counties from the Forest Service before the Secure Rural Schools 

Act.

Table 54. Twenty-five percent funds

1985a (2000 $s) 1998 (2000 $s) Real Average

Annual Change

National Forests in 

Mississippi Counties $8,032,900 $8,068,800 0.03%

Mississippi $8,109,600 $8,191,800 0.1%

Source: USDA Forest Service

a - Data adjusted to 2000 Dollars via Gross Domestic Price Deflator

Table 54 shows that County revenues from 25 Percent Fund, adjusted to 2000 dollars, were stable, 

growing only an average of 0.03 percent real rate per year from1985 to 1998.
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

158 National Forests in Mississippi

Table 55. Payment in lieu of taxes 

Payments-In-Lieu-Of-Taxes For the National Forests in Mississippi Counties

County

Total 

Federal

Agency 

Acres

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Average

Adams 16,375 $ 5,240 $ 5,345 $ 5,399 $ 5,398 $ 5,562 $ 5,389 

Amite 35,681 $ 11,419 $ 11,648 $ 11,764 $ 11,763 $ 12,120 $ 11,743 

Benton 55,362 $ 17,716 $ 18,070 $ 18,251 $ 18,250 $ 18,804 $ 18,218 

Chickasaw 26,897 $ 8,607 $ 8,779 $ 8,867 $ 8,867 $ 9,136 $ 8,851 

Choctaw 12,853 $ 4,113 $ 4,195 $ 4,237 $ 4,237 $ 4,366 $ 4,230 

Copiah 7,385 $ 2,363 $ 2,410 $ 2,435 $ 2,434 $ 2,509 $ 2,430 

Forrest 50,644 $ 16,206 $ 16,531 $ 16,697 $ 16,696 $ 17,202 $ 16,666 

Franklin 95,973 $ 30,711 $ 31,326 $ 31,640 $ 31,638 $ 32,599 $ 31,583 

George 16,804 $ 5,377 $ 5,485 $ 5,540 $ 5,539 $ 5,707 $ 5,530 

Greene 33,366 $ 10,677 $ 10,891 $ 11,000 $ 11,000 $ 11,333 $ 10,980 

Harrison 63,562 $ 20,397 $ 20,748 $ 20,956 $ 38,563 $ 21,590 $ 24,451 

Jackson 38,316 $ 15,165 $ 15,378 $ 48,111 $ 58,251 $ 52,543 $ 37,890 

Jasper 17,226 $ 5,512 $ 5,623 $ 5,679 $ 5,679 $ 5,851 $ 5,669 

Jefferson 10,653 $ 3,409 $ 3,447 $ 3,512 $ 3,511 $ 3,618 $ 3,499 

Jones 32,951 $ 10,544 $ 10,756 $ 10,863 $ 10,863 $ 11,192 $ 10,844 

Lafayette 102,999 $ 141,741 $ 146,888 $ 178,495 $ 184,465 $ 193,369 $ 168,992 

Lincoln 7,854 $ 2,513 $ 2,564 $ 2,589 $ 2,589 $ 2,667 $ 2,584 

Marshall 41,325 $ 50,302 $ 52,227 $ 53,256 $ 50,392 $ 56,574 $ 52,550 

Newton 3,341 $ 1,069 $ 1,091 $ 1,102 $ 1,102 $ 1,135 $ 1,100 

Oktibbeha 124 $ 40 0 0 0 0 $ 8 

Pearl River 4,050 $ 1,296 $ 1,322 $ 1,336 $ 1,336 $ 1,376 $ 1,333 

Perry 162,838 $ 52,108 $ 53,152 $ 53,685 $ 53,681 $ 55,310 $ 53,587 

Pontotoc 903 $ 289 $ 336 $ 485 $ 645 $ 793 $ 510 

Scott 85,299 $ 27,296 $ 27,843 $ 28,122 $ 28,120 $ 28,973 $ 28,071 

Sharkey 66,778 $ 91,464 $ 95,875 $ 27,741 $ 67,913 $ 89,897 $ 74,578 

Smith 72,755 $ 23,282 $ 23,748 $ 23,986 $ 23,984 $ 24,712 $ 23,942 

Stone 45,733 $ 14,635 $ 14,928 $ 15,077 $ 15,076 $ 15,534 $ 15,050 

Tippah 9,634 $ 3,083 $ 3,144 $ 3,176 $ 3,176 $ 3,273 $ 3,170 

Union 8,359 $ 2,675 $ 2,728 $ 2,755 $ 2,755 $ 4,536 $ 3,090 

Washington 3,986 $ 8,386 $ 8,585 $ 8,902 $ 8,976 $ 9,835 $ 8,937 

Wayne 90,319 $ 28,902 $ 29,480 $ 29,776 $ 29,774 $ 30,677 $ 29,722 

Wilkinson 22,820 $ 7,302 $ 7,449 $ 7,524 $ 7,523 $ 7,751 $ 7,510 

Winston 28,650 $ 9,168 $ 9,352 $ 9,446 $ 9,445 $ 9,731 $ 9,428 

Yalobusha 76,612 $ 132,179 $ 136,033 $ 139,944 $ 134,773 $ 143,859 $ 137,358 

TOTAL 1,348,427 $ 765,186 $ 787,377 $ 792,348 $ 858,414 $ 894,134 $ 819,492 

Source: www.doi.gov/pilt
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 159

The other payments made to Counties are the Payments In Lieu of Taxes program which is administered 

by the Bureau of Land Management. Like the 25 Percent Fund or the Secure Rural Schools Act funds, 

Payments In Lieu of Taxes funds are made to local governments that have federal lands within their 

borders to compensate for loss of property tax revenues. While the magnitude of Payments In Lieu of 

Taxes payments is much smaller than the 25 percent funds or Secure Rural Schools Act funds, Payments 

In Lieu of Taxes payments have tended to increase over time as timber harvests have decreased on the 

National Forests in Mississippi. Table 55 shows the Payments In Lieu of Taxes payments that the National 

Forests in Mississippi Counties have received between 2008 and 2012, along with the 5-year average.

Summary of Social and Economic Trends

National and local socioeconomic trends influence the ability of communities to adapt to changing 

circumstances. Trends identified in secondary and primary data analysis for the National Forests in 

Mississippi include demography, economy, community attitudes, and implications.

The population for the National Forests in Mississippi counties has increased from 1980 to 2009, but most 

have also shown some population fluctuations over time. It is projected that the counties in aggregate will 

increase another 3.3 percent from 2010 to 2015. Population growth appears to be mainly a result of a 

natural increase in the population which offsets the out-migration that has occurred in the state.

Mississippi as a whole has maintained a heterogeneous population of whites and blacks for the past 20 

years. An increase in the percentage of Hispanic residents and a subsequent projection for this trend to 

continue translates into changes in community attitudes, values, and beliefs concerning forest 

management and recreation preferences. Additionally, while the forest areas have maintained or increased 

their rural characteristics, nearby urban growth (e.g., Jackson, Memphis, and the Gulf Coast) means that 

demands on recreation resources as well as for land development will increase.

Community culture, lifestyles, local economies, and social structures are changing at different rates. One 

result is the changes can cause social disruptions or tensions about new residents, new economic 

activities, or changes in forest management policies. This social disruption can amplify disagreements 

within communities or groups or it can migrate to conflicts about forest management issues.

Current attitudes, beliefs, and values concerning Forest management were gathered during a telephone 

survey conducted by the USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station. Nearly 600 phone calls were 

made to over 139 counties within a 75 mile radius of each of the six National Forests in Mississippi forest 

boundaries. A general summary of the findings (see the following section 3.6.13) gives insight to attitudes 

toward national forest management. Residents of Mississippi and the surrounding areas participate in 

outdoor activities, the majority prefers viewing nature via walking or driving, fishing, hiking, gathering 

non-timber products, off-road vehicle driving, and developed camping. 

The forest management activities that are most important to the respondents include maintaining stream 

quality, providing habitat for fish and wildlife, and protecting endangered plants. The public was also 

asked questions about their perceptions of the most important management activities on public lands. The 

largest share of the public’s responses gave preference to forest management objectives that provide water 

sources, protect habitats, maintain the forests conditions, protect older forests, increase law enforcement, 

and prevent wildfires. The survey indicated that the local public has a fairly strong environmental 

conservation leaning. While extraction of natural resources is not completely discounted by the public, 

preservation and provision of wildlife and recreation services are highly desired.

The Forests’ economic health as measured by per capita income grew at a modest rate from 2000 to 2010, 

a 6.2 percent average annual rate over the ten-year period, which was a little more than that of 

Mississippi’s rate, which was 5.4 percent. The De Soto National Forest counties per capita income grew 
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

160 National Forests in Mississippi

at the greatest rate on the National Forests in Mississippi with a rate of increase of 7.82 percent. Still, per 

capita income in 2010 for Forest counties was about $1,057 less than that of the State. Income growth rate 

in this area has progressed steadily, indicating that the area is relatively economically strong. People with 

strong incomes and jobs are more likely to have free time and need an outlet for recreation. The national 

forest is a prime outlet for these people. However, during this time (2001 to 2010), the National Forests in 

Mississippi analysis area unemployment rate also increased from 6.3 percent in 2001 to 10.3 percent in 

2010. The rate in 2010 was slightly less than the rate for Mississippi, 10.4 percent.

Four forests in the National Forests in Mississippi analysis area had poverty rates greater than the 

weighted average for the State in 2000, while the De Soto and Holly Springs National Forests had poverty 

rates lower than the State average. Since 1980, the poverty rate has risen and then declined for both the 

National Forests in Mississippi and the state of Mississippi.

Transfer payments in the National Forests in Mississippi analysis area have been increasing over time, 

with counties associated with the De Soto and Homochitto National Forests receiving the highest levels of 

transfer payments and the counties associated with the Delta and Tombigbee National Forests receiving 

the lowest level of payments. These transfer payments give the local economies added economic support.

The services sector is a significant source of employment in the analysis area. The economy’s main 

drivers, in the labor income area, are services and government. Employment in the manufacturing sector, 

which includes lumber and wood products, is declining in the state of Mississippi. The area as a whole 

has become less reliant on the manufacturing sector. The Shannon-Weaver Entropy indexes indicate that 

overall, local and state economies are relatively diverse making the area less prone to economic 

recessions.

Overall, the economy and demography of this area appears to be healthy. Population has grown steadily 

and poverty has decreased. The economy’s composition has changed only marginally over the past

decades. It has become more reliant on importation of goods and services, rather than production of its 

own goods and services for export. The analysis area has a fairly diverse economy with resilient 

characteristics that may allow it to weather downturns in the economy. For the National Forests in 

Mississippi analysis area most of the economic and demographic variables looked at in this overview 

were comparable with those of Mississippi.

Payments to the Counties were relatively level through 2008, but the payments in 2009 through 2011 have 

trended downward. The National Forests in Mississippi revenue trends for the years 2007 through 2010 

have been down. This was mostly due to declining timber sale receipts. However this trend was reversed 

in 2011 with a doubling of revenue compared to 2010. This again was mostly due to increased timber 

revenue.

3.6.13 Values, Attitudes, and Beliefs Survey

As a part of forest planning, it is desirable to ask the public how they perceive national forest 

management, how they would like to see the national forests managed, and what recreation activities they 

enjoy. In the summer of 2004 the National Forests in Mississippi commissioned the USDA Forest Service

Southern Research station to conduct a values, attitudes, and beliefs random telephone survey of 

populations within 75 miles of each of the six National Forests in Mississippi forest boundaries to learn of 

the public’s general feeling for these issues. In conducting a random telephone survey, we are able to 

learn what the so-called silent majority (those who may not attend forest public involvement meetings) 

are thinking.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 161

Below is a general synopsis of the findings of the nearly 600 telephone calls made over 139 counties in 

the sample database. Summary results are described in the following tabulation. About 41 percent of the 

respondents were residents of Mississippi; approximately 18 percent of the respondents were from 

Louisiana, 18 percent from Tennessee; and 16 percent from Alabama. The survey had 56 percent female 

respondents; 65 percent white and 34 percent black; 73 percent high school education or higher, 28

percent with only a high school education, and 17 percent college educated; 54 percent employed; 45

percent retired; 30 percent with incomes in the $25,000 to 74,999 range; and 34 percent ages 16 to 34, and 

36 percent ages 35 to 54. 

Table 56 presents a “yes” response as to whether the surveyed person participates in given recreation 

activities:

Table 56. Respondent recreation activities

Forest Activities % of Participants Responding “Yes”

Mountain Biking 17%

Horseback Riding on Trails 14%

Day Hiking 19%

Backpacking 2%

Developed Camping 20%

Walking for Pleasure 81%

Gather Mushrooms, berries 23%

Nature Viewing/Photography 51%

Big Game Hunting 15%

Small Game or Waterfowl Hunting 18%

Driving for Pleasure 69%

Off-Road Vehicle Driving 25%

Freshwater Fishing 44%

Canoeing or Kayaking 11%

Rafting 15%

Horseback Riding on Trails 8%

Quite clearly, most people participate in the outdoors by walking for pleasure (81 percent) and in their car 

through driving- for-pleasure (69 percent); nature viewing was third most predominant (51 percent), while 

fishing was fourth (44 percent).

Table 57 indicates extremely important and important beliefs of respondents for given forest management 

objectives of the Forest Service:

Table 57. Respondents beliefs

Forest Management Activity % Extremely Important % Important

Maintaining Stream Quality 90% 6%

Providing Outdoor Recreation 59% 19%

Providing Habitat for fish and WL 71% 17%

Providing Quiet Places for Renewal 56% 17%

Leave Forest in Natural Appearance 66% 17%

Emphasizing Planting Trees for Timber 68% 16%

Provide Access to Raw Materials 33% 24%

Protect Endangered Plants and Animals 71% 12%

Emphasize Managing Vegetation 65% 19%
Chapter 3. Affected Environment

162 National Forests in Mississippi

Maintaining stream quality (90 percent), providing habitat for fish and wildlife (71 percent), and 

protecting endangered plants (71 percent) appear to be the most important management objectives of the 

overall public. 

Table 58. Respondents perception of forest management issues

Management Activity Very Important Important

Restrict Access for Motorized OHV 35% 29%

Develop and Maintain Trail System 44% 21%

Provide Challenging Trails 30% 14%

Develop New Paved Roads 36% 16%

Develop Primitive-Only Backcountry Areas 45% 22%

Protect Areas that are Sources of Water 78% 10%

Manage Forests for Historical Ecosystems 56% 18%

Manage Forests to Maintain Today’s Conditions 70% 19%

Protect Important Wildlife Habitats 72% 17%

Expand Commercial Recreation Services 27% 21%

Introduce Recreation Fees 42% 24%

Introduce a Rec. Fee for ORV to Maintain Trails 30% 18%

Increase Law Enforcement and Patrolling 65% 17%

Create Open Areas to Mange for Wildlife 38% 21%

Protect Older or Continuous Forest Areas 66% 16%

Use Controlled Fires to Reduce Threat of Wildfires 64% 18%

Control the Spread of Invasive Species 42% 22%

Encourage Timber Harvesting 43% 16%

Next, the public were asked questions about their perceived choices for forest management on public 

lands. Results indicating very important or important are listed in table 58.

The largest share of the public’s wishes dealt with forest management objectives that provide sources of 

water (78 percent), protect habitats (72 percent), manage forests to maintain today’s conditions (70

percent), protect older continuous forests (66 percent), increase law enforcement (65 percent), and prevent 

wildfires (64 percent). 

This survey of local publics indicates that people have a fairly strong environmental conservation leaning.

While extraction of natural resources is not completely discounted by the public, preservation and 

provision of wildlife and recreation services are desired for the most part.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 163

Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

4.1 Soils

4.1.1 Soil Direct and Indirect Effects

The National Forest Management Act (NFMA) requires that management activities not significantly

impair site productivity. Management activities can reduce soil productivity by compaction, loss of 

nutrients by removal of vegetation or loss of organic matter, soil erosion, loss of soil biota, and decreased 

water infiltration. Vegetative management (including timber removal and cultural treatments), developed 

recreation and other intensive land use (i.e. administrative sites), road and trail construction or 

reconstruction, and oil and gas development are the land management activities most likely to cause soil 

compaction, soil erosion, loss of nutrients, and loss of soil biota. Mechanically pushed and plowed fire 

breaks associated with prescribed burn management activities are likely to result in displaced soil surface 

and accelerated soil erosion. Road and trail construction or reconstruction, oil and gas development, 

developed recreation and other intensive land use, associated temporary roads and skid trails used for 

vegetative management, and artificially constructed fire breaks are the activities most likely to reduce 

long term soil productivity.

Quantifying potential changes in soil compaction, nutrient loss, soil erosion, soil biota loss, and reduced

water infiltration is, dependent on site-specific data and project-specific variables. The scale of this forest

plan makes it infeasible to quantify the impacts. However, impacts can be qualitatively described to 

indicate relative potential impacts on the soil resource. The acres of annual timber harvest by alternative

are shown in figure 26. Comparing the frequency and intensity of proposed management activities best 

illustrates likely effects to long term soil productivity. The frequency of harvest entries by alternative are 

seen in figure 32. All alternatives are considered as having extended periods between harvest entries, thus 

allowing adequate site recovery between harvest events. Generally, long rotations, with less frequent 

harvest entries, and combinations of low impact activities are more favorable in terms of maintaining 

long-term soil productivity. All alternatives are considered as having long silvicultural rotations. The 

exception would be the restoration of desired species conversions and salvage events resulting from storm 

damage and bug infestations. The relative effects of vegetation management activities on soil resources

are, from least to most, herbicides, fire, and mechanical. Lower risk mechanical techniques typically 

include mowing, mulching, stem only harvest, drum chop site preparation, and shear only site 

preparation. Moderate risk mechanical techniques may include, shear and pile site preparation, whole tree 

harvest, and biomass harvest. High risk mechanical techniques may include root raking, heavy disking, 

and soil bedding.

Direct effects are the alteration of physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil from changes in 

soil organic matter content, erosion of the soil, soil compaction, and nutrient leaching or displacement. 

Managing top soil (organic matter plus soil surface) is a key component of maintaining long-term site 

productivity. The primary factors used to evaluate long-term site productivity impacts are accelerated 

erosion, compaction, fertility, and extent of displacement of soil surface. Soil movement and soil 

compaction are primary soil productivity concerns associated with conventional timber harvest. Also, soil 

movement and compaction are closely related to water quality in terms of increased runoff and increased 

sedimentation. Mitigation measures, in the form of forest standards and guidelines, are used to minimize 

above impairment thus ensuring long-term site productivity.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

164 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 26. Annual timber harvest acres by alternative

Soil Compaction

The weight of heavy machinery used for harvesting, site preparation, temporary road construction, and 

road reconstruction can compact soils, decreasing soil productivity. Soil compaction affects soil 

productivity by increasing bulk density and decreasing soil porosity. Compaction can detrimentally 

impact both soil productivity and watershed conditions by causing increased overland flow during storm 

events; and reduced plant growth due to reduced amounts of water entering the soil and thus reduced 

availability for plant growth, a restricted root zone, and reduced soil aeration. Other forms of compaction, 

such as rutting and churning, disturb soil structure as well soil porosity and may have greater impact soil 

productivity (Tiarks 1990).

Compaction is most severe in top 3 inches of soil. The ease and degree of soil compaction and rutting is a 

function of soil moisture, soil type, pounds per square inch equipment displacement, ground cover, and 

the number of machine passes. Slash, litter and duff buffer the soil against vehicle pressures. Compaction 

increases with number of machine passes, although most is cause by the first three passes and little occurs 

after 10 passes (Burger et al. 1985). Soils are typically wetter for prolonged durations in the winter and 

early spring. Soils with high rutting susceptibility have water tables near surface or flooding that induce 

long periods of saturated conditions. Soil compaction susceptibility ratings are determined by the particle 

size fractionation of the surface horizon.

Soil resource inventories are used during project planning to identify soil suitability and management 

limitations in the project areas that could affect long-term productivity. The suitability and management 

limitations ratings do not indicate the ability to implement project activities; rather, they indicate the 

relative amount of mitigation needed to protect the soil resource and to successfully implement a chosen 

activity. These soil ratings are taken into account in the planning phase, or in the required mitigation 

measures. An example of this would be soils with a high rutting susceptibility. Soils with high rutting 

susceptibility are typically too wet for mechanized harvest equipment more than half of year and require 

sale administer to halt activities during these times. Usually, these soils are dry enough for harvest 

activities more than 3 months of year; however, a small percentage of these soils (i.e. organic soils and 

ponded units) are not compatible using conventional harvesting techniques. Figure 27 illustrates the 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 165

proportional extent of soil rutting susceptibility throughout the Forest. Soils with moderate rutting 

susceptibility are generally wet 3-6 months of year. Soils with low rutting susceptibility are generally wet 

less than 3 months of year. Figure 28 illustrates the proportional extent of soil compaction susceptibility

throughout the Forest.

Figure 27. Proportional extent of soil rutting susceptibility

Excessive compaction generally occurs on heavy traffic areas such as landings, primary skid trails, and 

temporary roads, particularly when the soils are wet. The smaller the percent area used for concentrated 

use of equipment the less impacts (compaction and erosion) there will be to the site. Forest monitored 

timber harvested areas to determine the percent area in skid roads, haul roads, log landings, and skid trails 

within conventional harvest (rubber tired skidder) sites on the National Forests in Mississippi. The 

monitoring was designed to estimate disturbance in associated timber harvesting and its relationship to 

potential erosion and soil compaction. The information obtained from the monitoring could then be 

compared to the threshold values identified in the soil quality standards. Disturbed areas (skid trails, 

roads, and landings) averaged less than 10 percent of the sale unit area. About 2 to 6 percent of sale areas 

were significantly disturbed, which is well within the soil quality standard threshold value of 15 percent

significantly disturbed. Historically, these areas have had various types of harvest activities such as 

clearcuts and thinnings. Harvested areas are not typically re-entered with harvest equipment for 20-30 

years outside of insect outbreak or other salvage events, thus providing time for the soil to recover. More 

often than not, historical skid roads, haul roads, and log landings are reused during most harvest activities.

Natural soil compaction recovery is accomplished chiefly through three mechanisms (Miwa et al. 2004). 

Generally, the most important process is process of wetting and drying (shrinking and swelling associated

with 2:1 expanding clays). The second process is through biological disturbance via root penetration and 

biopedoturbation (or mixing of soil materials by insects, worms, and other ground-dwelling organisms). 

The third, much less common in Mississippi, is freezing and thawing.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

166 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 28. Proportional extent of soil compaction susceptibility

Under all alternatives, measures to minimize compaction and displacement include operating heavy 

equipment when soils are dry to reduce slippage; operating over intact forest floor and downed woody 

debris; constructing as few firelines, roads, skid trails, and logging decks as possible; and redistributing 

topsoil back over areas where it has been removed. In addition, heavy equipment operation will be 

suspended, when conditions are conducive to excessive rutting. Given mitigation, soil compaction/rutting 

would be limited and is not expected to exceed soil productivity thresholds for any alternatives. Also, 

areas of heavy use, such as skid trails, would be re-vegetated to ameliorate compaction.

Soil Erosion

Ground-disturbing activities increase erosion primarily by removing ground cover or concentrating 

overland water flow. Soil erosion is the detachment and transport of individual soil particles by wind, 

water, or gravity. A key component of maintaining soil productivity is preserving top soil, including soil 

organic matter layer and the surface soil layer. A soil’s susceptibility to erosion varies by soil type and is 

affected by rainfall intensity, soil erodibility, soil cover conditions, and steepness and length of slope. The 

different erosion characteristics of the soils are to a large extent responsible for the variations in the 

topography of soil map units illustrated in figure 29.

Soil resource inventories are used during project planning to identify soil suitability and management 

limitations in the project areas that could affect long-term productivity. The suitability and management 

limitations ratings do not indicate the ability to implement project activities; rather, they indicate the 

relative amount of mitigation needed to protect the soil resource and to successfully implement a chosen 

activity. These soil ratings are taken into account in the planning phase, or in the required mitigation 

measures. An example of this would be a poor rating for access roads due to slope. One solution for this 

would be to locate the road on the ridgetop or along the contour of the slope, instead of locating the road 

straight up and down the slope. Another example is in the specifications for waterbar construction. Closer 

spacing is required for waterbars on moderately and highly erosive soils than is required for waterbars on 

slightly erosive soils. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 167

Figure 29. Proportional extent of district flood plains and slope phases

Figure 30 illustrates the proportional extent of soil erosion susceptibility throughout the Forest. Moderate 

or low erosion hazard indicates that standard erosion control measures, such as installing water bars, plus 

seeding and fertilizing are sufficient to prevent excessive erosion. Soils with severe erosion hazard ratings 

require more intensive efforts to reduce the potential for accelerated erosion both during and after the soil 

disturbing activity and in some cases eliminating higher risk activities such as mechanical site preparation 

on slopes greater than 20 percent. 

Natural erosion rates from undisturbed forest soils are very low and only increase minimally during most 

harvest events. Soil movement is not due to the removal of the tree canopy but from harvest operations 

that expose excessive amounts of bare soil or concentrate surface waters. The use of machinery during 

timber harvest, road construction, road reconstruction, and site preparation, has a potential to increase 

erosion by exposing bare soil. In forested watersheds, the most common cause of accelerated erosion is 

creation and use of forest roads, although timber harvest, site preparation, mineral activities, grazing, trail 

construction and use, and some recreation uses, such as OHV trails, also have the potential to remove or 

disturb the surface or cover of soils. Erosion rates tend to remain greater on these areas for many years 

following their use due to altered soil structure and loss of infiltration. Erosion is most effectively 

managed by leaving sufficient amounts of the forest floor (slash, and other onsite woody debris material) 

intact, not overly compacting soils (which would reduce water infiltration rates and result in increased 

overland flow), and not allowing water to concentrate and channel on roads or trails. 

Mitigation measures included under all alternatives are designed to keep erosion at acceptable levels 

under normal circumstances. These measures include: limiting activities when soils are wet, carefully 

locating and limiting roads and skid trails, seeding skid trails and landings after use, and limiting 

disturbance to the litter layer during site preparation activities. Use of erosion control measures is 

specified in forest plan standards and required for all projects. Experience has shown that these measures, 

when properly implemented, are effective at minimizing erosion. 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

168 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 30. Proportional extent of soil erosion susceptibility

Soil Fertility

Loss of nutrients occurs through loss of organic matter, soil erosion, removal of vegetation, and severe 

burns. The removal of forest products would result in some loss of nutrients. Soil nutrient losses would be 

negligible in terms of long-term site productivity. This loss would be minimal since the tops of the trees 

and their branches, which provide the majority of the available nutrients in a tree, would be left on site to 

provide some short-term nutrient recycling. Biomass removal in the form of timber harvest can result in 

nutrient deficits (mainly phosphorus). Nutrient depletion; however, is generally only a concern where 

soils are initially nutrient-poor, where whole-tree harvest (total biomass removal) is used, or where stand 

rotations are short, i.e., on the order of 20-35 years (Jorgenson and Wells 1986).

Prescribed burning could increase potential of nutrient loss. Adverse effects from a single light to 

moderate burn are minimal. Frequent burning (less than 3 year return interval) can reduce soil organic 

matter which subsequently reduces nitrogen mineralization and plant uptake. Return intervals greater than 

3 years causes very little change soil organic matter, temporarily enhance plant nutrient availability, and 

reduce soil acidity. Three year prescribed burn intervals allows the litter-duff biota to recover between 

burns and result in minimal nutrient loss because nutrients are quickly immobilized through plant uptake 

and sorption to soil particle. Light and moderate burns do not heat soil enough to significantly affect soil 

biota. Litter biota would be reduced but should quickly recover. The risk of affecting the soil productivity 

is minimal unless sites are burned more often than every 3 years or during high burning intensities.

Prescribed Fire

Prescribed fire has both positive and negative effects on soils. Prescribed fires can potentially result in the 

same types of impacts on soils as wildfires; however, these burns are generally planned to burn at low to 

moderate intensities, thus limiting adverse impacts. Frequency, duration, fire severity, and season, as well 

as moisture content of the duff layer are some of the more critical factors affecting long-term soil 

productivity. The majority of burning occurs during the cooler winter or early spring months when 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 169

moisture levels are high and under parameters that facilitate low and moderate fire intensities. Only the 

upper forest floor litter layer consisting of non-decomposed or semi-decomposed pine needles, leaves, 

and small twigs should be consumed. This will leave the underlying layer, which consists of more 

decomposed needles, leaves, and twigs, to protect the mineral soil. Maintaining this organic layer 

minimize soil movement and maintains soil productivity. These fires are often designed to reduce fuel 

loadings that diminish the likelihood of detrimental impacts from subsequent wildfires. Negative effects 

are principally associated with mechanically pushed/plowed control lines and severe burns, which may 

kill soil biota, alter soil structure, consume organic matter, and remove nutrients and lead to soil erosion 

and additional nutrient loss during later rainfall events.

Figure 31. Annual prescribed burning acres by alternative

High intensity burns, usually wildfires, can adversely affect long-term soil productivity. Generally, highseverity prescribed burns occur when slash is not evenly distributed (i.e. burning piled or windrowed 

debris) or when fuel or soil moisture conditions are extremely low. Excessive nutrient loss from severely 

burned areas may occur through atmospheric volatilization, deep leaching, and loss of soil organic matter. 

Even soil structure and infiltration rates can be seriously compromised, leading to accelerated erosion 

rates.

In contrast to high-severity burns, properly managed light and moderate-severity burns generate 

acceptable or beneficial effects on soil. Light to moderate-severity burns will result in little to no 

detectable change in the amount of organic matter in surface soils. These burns will not change the 

structure of mineral soils because the elevated temperatures are of brief duration. Light to moderate 

severity burns generally do not expose large areas of bare soil; therefore little chance of excessive 

erosion. Soil biota is reduced but recovers quickly. In addition, light to moderate severity fires accelerate 

the recycling process by releasing nutrients in the soil, thereby stimulating nutrient uptake by vegetation. 

Even though prescribed fires release some nitrogen gases, mainly from forest floor material, overall 

nitrogen budgets are not significantly affected. Post-burn, nitrogen is restored by atmospheric input from 

lightning, rain, and dust and through increased levels of nitrogen fixation by wild legumes and soil 

bacteria. Prescribed fires may also help in reducing rates of soil acidification. Because prescribed fire is 

planned, there are usually fewer firelines on steep slopes, which have a higher potential to erode. In some 

cases, especially along forest service boundary lines, it is necessary to push fire lines on steep slopes.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

170 National Forests in Mississippi

Firelines are stabilized with water bars and in some cases require re-vegetating after the burn to prevent 

erosion.

Herbicide

The use of herbicides for controlling vegetation competition and stand development can be beneficial to 

forest ecosystems, sustainability, and water quality by minimizing off-site soil loss, reducing on-site soil 

and organic matter displacement, and preventing deterioration of soil physical properties (Neary and 

Michael 1996). Herbicide applications to control competing vegetation do not disturb the nutrient rich 

topsoil layer, create additional bare soil, or adversely affect watershed condition when used responsibly 

(Neary and Michael 1996). Soils on recently harvested sites treated with herbicides have higher moisture 

contents due to the reduction of surface runoff and transpiration as compared to other mechanical site 

preparation methods. The soils are also better able to supply the nutrients needs for early growth of forest 

crops (Carter et al. 1984, Neary et al. 1990, Smethurst et al. 1993). Maxwell and Neary (1991) concluded 

in a review that the impact of vegetation management techniques on erosion and sedimentation of water 

resources occurs in this order, herbicides<fire<mechanical. They also concluded that sediment losses

during inter-rotation vegetation management could be sharply reduced by using herbicides and moderate 

burning instead of mechanical methods and heavy burning.

Herbicides could affect soil productivity through biotic impacts, soil erosion, and nutrient leaching.

Depending on the application rate and soil environment, herbicides can stimulate or inhibit soil 

organisms. Adverse effects can occur when herbicides are applied at higher rates than the label rate. Use 

of herbicides at the lowest effective rate required by mitigation measures does not reduce activity of soil 

biota (Fletcher and Friedman 1986). Forest standards have been developed to ensure that herbicides are 

applied correctly and pose no greater than minimal risk to soils and soils biota and do not accidentally 

contaminate surface waters. No herbicide will be mixed or used within 100 feet of perennial streams, 

lakes, or ponds, or within 30 feet of other streams with defined channels. Herbicides, carefully directed 

and foliar sprayed during late spring to summer at the minimum recommended application rate, should 

result in no detrimental effects to long-term soil productivity or impact water quality. With forest plan

standards in effect, all alternatives show acceptably low risk with respect to potential herbicide use.

4.1.2 Soil Cumulative Effects

The Forest Service recognizes vegetation management benefits a variety of forest resources and 

investments by protecting and improving forest health, forest growth, and wildlife habitat, plus 

maintenance of roads, trails, and utility lines. All alternatives provide a balance of resource management 

which favors prescribed fire and selective methods of herbicide, plus mechanical methods that cause low 

to moderate soil disturbances.

Most of soil productivity losses are generally associated with areas with greater soil disturbance such as 

firelines, trails, roads, landings, primary skid trails, and temporary roads. The smaller the percent area 

highly disturbed activities, the less impacts (compaction and erosion) there will be to the site. Highly 

disturbed areas typically averaged less than 10 percent of the forest. About 2 to 6 percent may be 

considered significantly disturbed, which is well within the soil quality standard threshold value of 15

percent significantly disturbed. These areas are typically dedicated to forestry management activities in 

that they are typically re-used every 20-30 years. Trails, roads, and firelines are re-used more frequently.

All alternatives are considered as having extended periods between harvest entries, thus allowing site to 

adequately recover between harvest events. The frequency of harvest entries are seen in figure 32.

However, figure 32 may not accurately address first thinning units which typically occur around 20-30 

years of age. When rotations are short than 20-35 years, cumulative depletion of nutrients can be a 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 171

concern (Jorgenson and Wells 1986). Generally, long rotations, with less frequent harvest entries, are 

more favorable in terms of maintaining long-term soil productivity. All alternatives are considered as 

having long silvicultural rotations. The exception would be the restoration of desired species 

“conversions” and salvage events resulting from storm damage and bug infestations.

Figure 32. Average years between harvest entries by alternative

Adverse effects from a single light to moderate burn are minimal. Frequent burning (less than 3 year 

return interval) can reduce soil organic matter which subsequently reduces nitrogen mineralization and 

plant uptake. Average burn return interval by alternative is illustrated in figure 33. All alternative showed 

average burn intervals are greater than 3 years. Some of the ecosystems guidelines in forest plan promote 

burn intervals ranging from 1-3 years. Burn intervals may be less than three years during restorations 

period; however, long-term maintenance on these site will most likely occur at three year intervals. Return 

intervals greater than 3 years causes very little change soil organic matter, temporarily enhance plant 

nutrient availability, and reduce soil acidity. Three to five year prescribed burn intervals allow the litterduff biota to recover between burns and result in minimal nutrient loss. Burn intervals greater than 5 often

result in increase soil organic matter. The risk of affecting the soil productivity is minimal unless sites are 

burned more often than every 3 years or during high burning intensities. Growing season burns result in 

2.5-4.5 times more nitrogen loss than dormant season burns. For this reason, it is advised not to have 

more than two growing season underburns in succession without an intervening dormant season burn. 

Nitrogen budgets have shown that timber harvest followed by light slash burns produces positive nitrogen 

budgets and allows for long-term nitrogen buildup. The same scenario with a moderate burn produced 

neutral nitrogen budgets. Severe burns produced negative nitrogen budgets.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

172 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 33. Average burn return interval by alternative

Implementation of the best management practices, proper mitigation measures, and monitoring by the sale 

administrator would result in minimal soil effects for all the action alternatives. The cumulative effects of 

all management actions over time are not expected to reduce soil productivity. Mitigation measures for 

past, present and reasonably foreseeable management activities (timber harvesting, site preparation and 

prescribed burning) are designed to keep the litter layer in place, or to replace the litter layer on exposed 

soils by seeding and fertilization; therefore, impacts associated with any one treatment would be 

completely recovered within three years. Upon completion of these treatments, timber harvesting 

activities would not occur in this analysis area for about 20-30 years, thus providing more than adequate 

time for the soil to recover. An exception to this could be an insect outbreak or other salvage events.

4.2 Air

The air quality program for the National Forests in Mississippi provides guidance for conducting forest 

management activities in a manner that complies with State and Federal standards, protects human health, 

promotes safety, and does not degrade air quality. Prescribed burning is the activity most likely to 

contribute air emissions, and the most frequent locations for prescribed burns are the national forests in 

the southern portion of the state. Use of prescribed burning moves the National Forests in Mississippi 

toward the desired conditions of restoring and maintaining fire-dependent ecosystems and reducing fuel 

loading to lessen the chances of catastrophic wildfires. Smoke emissions from prescribed fires are 

managed through best available smoke management practices. These practices are conducted in 

accordance with the Clean Air Act, the State Implementation Plan, and the Southern Smoke Management 

Guidebook. Since air issues are often regional in nature, the Forest Service also works cooperatively with 

State and Federal air management agencies and regional haze reduction organizations to improve air 

quality for the region.

In order to minimize the negative effects of smoke and associated pollutants on human health and 

visibility, smoke management plans are a required part of every prescribed fire burn plan. The negative

effects of smoke can be reduced by planning and executing prescribed fires on days that maximize smoke 

dispersion and avoid smoke-sensitive areas. For each prescribed burn conducted, the Forest Service 

determines smoke dispersion characteristics that must be met in the weather forecast for the day of the 

burn. These characteristics include the depth of the atmosphere available for smoke mixing (dispersion), 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 173

transport wind speed and direction, and the probability of air mass stagnation during the day. Forest 

Service smoke management guidelines include:

• Predicting smoke behavior for the weather conditions anticipated during the burn.

• Determining if there are smoke-sensitive targets (public or private ownership) within the probable 

smoke impact area and coordinating with them to avoid or mitigate problems.

• Monitoring the actual weather conditions and smoke behavior to make sure burn continues to be 

within the prescription.

• Being prepared to cease ignition or initiate suppression if the weather changes from the forecast and 

causes smoke behavior problems that cannot be mitigated.

• Application of the precautionary and mitigation measures described above will limit the risk and 

severity of any problems that might occur from prescribed fire smoke.

Alternatives A through E have progressively larger prescribed burning programs with alternative A having 

the smallest program and alternative E having the largest. The range is 121,000 to 251,000 acres. The 

greater the alternative’s program acres, the larger the likely air quality impacts. However, the program 

controls mentioned above should keep the impacts within acceptable standards for all alternatives.

4.3 Water 

4.3.1 Water Direct and Indirect Effects 

The Clean Water Act provides the primary regulatory framework for managing the National Forests in 

Mississippi water resources. In compliance with the above mandate, forest management activities are 

implemented in a manner that does not substantially or permanently impair water quality. Mitigation 

measures, in the form of State best management practices and forest standards and guidelines, are used to 

meet this requirement.

Vegetation management practices are known to potentially affect water quality, water quantity, channel 

morphology, and downstream beneficial uses. Cutting and thinning have the potential to cause the 

following direct effects: erosion, changes in ground cover condition, and changes in stand composition of 

streamside forest communities. Indirect effects could include sedimentation, changes in stream nutrient 

levels (particularly nitrates), increases in water yield, and changes in stream flow behavior (Brown and 

Binkley 1994).

Floodplains and Wetlands 

Approximately 22 percent of the forest is located in the floodplain. Generally, the larger and wider 

floodplains occur on larger drainage systems. All floodplains would be protected from harvesting and site 

preparation activities by restrictions on operating during wet periods. Since floodplains and wetlands are 

generally on predominately hardwood sites, the majority of ground disturbing activities will occur on 

upland pine sites (over 95 percent). The exception to this would be the use of floodplains and wetlands as 

natural fire breaks during prescribed burns. No effects on floodplain or wetland function are expected due 

to the minimal nature of these actions.

In large watersheds, peak flows from large storm events are natural, rather than a result of vegetation 

management practices due to scale of Forest Service vegetation operations. However, smaller watersheds 

have shown increased stormflow volumes and peak flows as well as increased summer base flows for one 

to three years after harvest. Increases in water yield are generally proportional to decreases in vegetative 

cover. Because vegetative cover would only slightly decrease under all alternatives, water yield increases 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

174 National Forests in Mississippi

are expected to be small. Forest streams are capable of withstanding small increases in flow. No 

discernible effects are expected under any alternative.

Water Quality 

Herbicides

Herbicides can work to protect water quality and maintain site productivity by not disturbing the forest 

floor, resulting in retention of nutrient-rich top soil and subsequently not contributing to additional stream 

sediment loadings (Neary and Michael 1996). In contrast, continued non-selective herbicide use can result 

in increased sedimentation by exposing bare soil. Selective herbicide treatments usually have lower 

potential effect to water quality than broadcast treatments. Aerial applications generally pose the greatest 

risk. Water pollution by an herbicide can occur during storage, transport, application, clean up or

container disposal. The direct effect of herbicide application is potential contamination of surface and 

ground water (Michael and Neary 1993). The indirect effects are potential increases in sediment and 

water yield. Slight increases in stream nutrients, particularly nitrates, may also occur as an indirect effect.

Herbicides have been found in surface water and ground water. However, concentrations are usually far 

below levels harmful to human health and the occurrence is infrequent (Larson et al. 1997).

Concentrations of herbicide in runoff water are generally of short duration with the peak concentrations 

occurring after the first runoff event. The highest concentration of herbicides in water bodies generally 

occurs when buffer strips are not used or as result of accidental spills. When buffer strips are used along 

with other mitigation techniques, herbicides generally do not pose a threat to water quality. Peak 

concentrations are usually low and do not persist for long periods of time (less than 6 months) (Neary and 

Michael 1996). Generally speaking, buffer strips of 15 meters (45 feet) or more are effective in 

minimizing pesticide residue contamination of stream flow (Neary et al. 1993). Using buffer strips can 

keep herbicide residue concentrations within water quality standards. They are not absolute; a buffer as 

large as 140 meters did not keep residues out of perennial streams in North Carolina. However, the peak 

concentration was 50 times lower than the water quality standard. Short-term, low-level stream 

contamination has been found in ephemeral to first order streams draining studied sites; the levels of 

herbicides in these streams has been neither of sufficient concentration nor of sufficient residence time to 

cause observable impacts on aquatic ecosystems (Michael et al. 2000). These studies have, with a few 

exceptions, confirmed the absence of significant contamination of surface water. Thus, herbicides, when 

used properly, can help protect water quality by reducing sediment in streams while accomplishing forest 

management goals.

Herbicides generally pose a low pollution risk to groundwater because of their use pattern. Applications 

of herbicide are used only a couple times in a stand’s rotation; once desired conditions are attained, then 

prescribe fire would typically be used to maintain desired site conditions. However, herbicides may be 

used more frequently for improving endangered species habitat. The greatest potential hazard to 

groundwater comes from stored concentrates, not operational application of diluted mixtures (Neary and 

Michael 1996). Additionally, regional, confined, groundwater aquifers are not likely to be affected by 

silviculture herbicides (Neary 1985). Unconfined surface aquifers in the immediate vicinity of herbicide 

application zones have the most potential for contamination. It is these aquifers which are directly 

exposed to leaching of residues from the root zone. The only known groundwater contamination incidents 

of an importance (contamination of bedrock aquifers, persisting more than 6 months, concentrations in 

excess of the water quality standard, etc.) in the southeastern United States, was where significant 

amounts of forestry herbicides were used, involving extremely high rates of application, or accidental 

spills of concentrates. In these situations, herbicide residue was detected in ground water 4 to 5 years after 

the contamination. These situations are no longer typical of current operational use of herbicides, 

established standards and guidelines minimize this contamination risk.. Proper handling precautions 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 175

during herbicide transport, storage, mixing-loading, and clean-up are extremely important for preventing 

groundwater contamination (Neary and Michael 1996).

Herbicides applied on the forest require comprehensive risk assessments that analyze human, wildlife and 

environmental risk. The Forest Service generally applies only low risk herbicides chosen to minimize risk 

to human and wildlife health, and often uses selective treatments over broadcast treatments, and 

technology that minimizes spray drift. Risk assessments estimate potential off-site movement by spray 

drift, percolating ground water, and surface water runoff, which must be minimal to un-measurable for 

approved pesticides and rates of active ingredient per acre. Approved herbicides have low toxicities and 

short persistence, and low risk of exposure. No significant offsite exposures for humans or wildlife were 

predicted for approved pesticides applied at approved rates and with required mitigations. Mitigation 

measures include applying herbicides according to labeling information, using formulations registered by 

EPA and approved by the Forest Service. Based on minimal offsite movement, short half-life, lack of 

bioaccumulation and infrequent applications there is no unreasonable potential for direct, indirect, and 

cumulative impacts.

Sedimentation 

Sediment is often the most appropriate measure to determine the effects of management activities on 

water quality (Coats and Miller 1981). Other contaminants, such as stream nutrients as result of 

management activities are considered minor (Beasley, Miller, and Lawson 1987).

Erosion, when delivered to streams, becomes sediment that clouds water and changes substrate 

characteristics. Sediment is one source of impact to water quality, specifically the amount of sediment 

delivered and stored within the stream channels. Sediment impacts are dependent on the amount of 

erosion produced by land disturbing activities, intensity and duration of storm events occurring during the 

activities, proximity of the activities to a stream course, and the amount of sediment actually moving into 

the stream channels and remaining stored. Sedimentation can adversely affect fish productivity and 

diversity (Alexander and Hansen 1986), degrade drinking water, and affect recreational values. Large 

sediment loads may block sunlight, impair photosynthesis by algae and aquatic plants, and erode gill 

filaments of fish and aquatic invertebrates. Once deposited, the sediment can bury aquatic plants and 

insects, smother eggs and prevent fry emergence in spawning gravels, and fill in deep pools that are vital 

for fish cover. 

Habitat quality within a freshwater ecosystem is determined by activities within the watershed (Abell et 

al. 2000; Scott and Helfman 2001). Therefore, the influence of these activities upon habitats, or 

waterbodies, can be described to determine the condition of the habitat. Using the no-action alternative 

(or current management) as a baseline to compare other alternatives, custodial management has the lowest 

potential for effects, 30 percent less potential for harvest effects compared to current management levels. 

Enhanced Forest Health has the highest potential for effects, which is nearly double the current 

management harvest level. Potential effects for all alternatives as compared to current management are 

seen in figure 34.

Under all alternatives, erosion control measures will be implemented to reduce the potential effects of 

proposed project work. To reduce soil loss from roads and improve water quality, erosion control 

measures may include re-shaping the road prism (where needed), scarifying roads to be closed to provide 

an effective seedbed, water barring, seeding and fertilizing, and gating roads to be closed. Erosion control 

measures will include proper timing of activities to avoid heavy equipment operation during wet weather, 

limit drainage crossings, and only allow necessary pre-selected drainage crossings that occur at right 

angles to the stream. Use of erosion control measures is specified in forest plan standards and required for 

all projects. 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

176 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 34. Percent change from current baseline management by alternative

4.3.2 Cumulative Effects 

A cumulative effect is the impact on the environment which results from 

the incremental impact of the action when added to other past, present, 

and reasonably foreseeable future actions, regardless of what agency 

(Federal or non-Federal) or person undertakes such other actions.

Cumulative effects can result from individually minor but collectively 

significant actions taking place over a period of time (40 CFR 1508.7).

Sediment is an appropriate measure to determine the effects of management activities on water quality 

and its associated beneficial uses on National Forest System lands (Coats and Miller 1981). 

Sedimentation can adversely affect fish productivity and diversity (Alexander and Hansen 1986), degrade 

drinking water and affect recreational values. There may be other cumulative impacts such as increased

water yield as a result of harvesting methods. However, water yield models do not characterize the 

impacts of all management activities such as road construction and the increase in water yield is generally 

less than the natural variability. Changes in water nutrients or nutrient fluxes within streams as a result of 

management activities are minor and not an appropriate indicator of cumulative effects at the forest plan 

level.

The Mississippi cumulative effects model uses predicted sediment yields as the surrogate for determining 

cumulative impacts for water quality. A valid cumulative effects analysis must be bounded in space and 

time. For the purposes of forest planning, 5th level watersheds (10 digit hydrologic units) are the 

appropriate spatial bounds for cumulative effects. The implementation period for a forest plan is 5 to 15 

years, however the appropriate time period captured for the sediment model is for 5 decades (50 years).
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 177

Changes in land use and disturbances were modeled to estimated increases in sediment and predicted 

cumulative impacts. The significance of predicted impacts are related to criteria designed to determine 

levels of watershed health or watershed condition rank as described in a following section.

Watershed condition rank is a measure that characterizes the condition of 5th level watersheds with 

respect to current and future sediment load increases. In order to establish watershed condition rank, the 

current sediment average annual yield is determined and expressed as a percent above the baseline 

conditions. This provides a relative measure to determine changes within watersheds. The next step in this 

process is determined by using fish community structure with respect to predicted sediment increases to 

create a fish assemblage – sediment profile. A more detailed discussion of this process is found in the 

supporting forest plan documentation, Determining Watershed Condition for Aquatic Sustainability and 

Cumulative Effects at the Planning Level for National Forests of Mississippi. This score is modified by a 

weighted average where the watershed occurs in more than one physiographic zone.

Figure 35. Proportional extent of 5th level watershed sedimentation risk by forest

Watershed condition is expressed in three categories of risk: high, medium and low. This does not 

necessarily translate into an excellent or poor watershed but categorizes the watersheds based on the 

sediment prediction/aquatic sustainability relationship. Where a watershed risk level is low, the 

probability (or potential) is low for adverse effects to aquatic species. If the results of planned forest 

actions remain within this range there should be no adverse effect on water quality with respect to 

beneficial uses (fish communities). Forest Service project planning objectives would be to maintain or 

improve aquatic health through the implementation of best management practices. Where a watershed risk 

level is moderate, the potential to adversely affect beneficial uses is moderate. Where a watershed risk 

level is high, the potential to adversely affect beneficial uses is high. In addition to ensuring that best 

management practices are implemented, the elements within the watershed that are contributing to the 

moderate or high ranking should be identified and evaluated during project planning. Priority should be 

placed on incorporating additional forest plan components during project planning that would seek to 

maintain or restore watershed health and aquatic systems. Emphasis should be placed on addressing the 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

178 National Forests in Mississippi

watershed stressors (for which the agency has control or jurisdiction) that promote healthy watershed 

conditions.

An evaluation based upon existing watershed conditions was evaluated then compared to a watershed 

evaluation which incorporated proposed and probable management activities (vegetation management,

prescribe fire, road, trail and fireline construction) to achieve forest plan objectives. A comparison of all 

alternatives indicated that none of the fifth-level watershed condition ranks changed as result of 

implementing the any of alternatives. Table 59 and figure 35 shows watershed risk level. This indicates 

that, at the forest level, the expected intensity of management activities planned will not result in 

measurable changes either beneficial or detrimental to overall watershed condition ranking.

Table 59. Predicted risk levels for all alternatives in first decade

District HUC 10 5th Level Watershed Name Risk Levels for Sediment

(Same Risk for all Alternative)

Bienville 0317000401 Tallabogue Creek-Leaf River Low

Bienville 0317000402 Quarterlian Creek-West Tallahala Creek Moderate

Bienville 0317000403 Hatchapaloo Creek-Oakohay Creek Moderate

Bienville 0317000501 Horse Creek-Tallahoma Creek High

Bienville 0318000108 Conehatta Creek-Tuscolameta Creek High

Bienville 0318000110 Shockaloo Creek-Tuscolameta Creek High

Bienville 0318000201 Coffee Bogue High

Bienville 0318000203 Pelahatchie Creek High

Bienville 0318000207 Raspberry Creek-Strong River High

Delta 0803020717 Silver Creek-Big Sunflower River High

Delta 0803020719 Big Sunflower River-Little Sunflower River High

Delta 0803020801 Collins Creek-Yazoo River Low

Delta 0806020302 Foster Creek-Bayou Pierre Moderate

Desoto 0317000301 Maynor Creek-Big Creek Moderate

Desoto 0317000302 Byrd Creek-Chickasawhay River Moderate

Desoto 0317000303 Mason Creek-Big Creek Moderate

Desoto 0317000304 Merrill-Chickasawhay River Moderate

Desoto 0317000504 Little Boque Homo-Boque Homo High

Desoto 0317000505 Buck Creek-Boque Homo Moderate

Desoto 0317000506 Beaumont-Leaf River High

Desoto 0317000507 Little Thompson Creek-Thompson Creek High

Desoto 0317000508 Piney Woods Creek-Gaines Creek Moderate

Desoto 0317000509 Atkinson Creek-Leaf River Moderate

Desoto 0317000601 Big Cedary Creek-Pascagoula River Moderate

Desoto 0317000602 Moungers Creek-Bluff Creek High

Desoto 0317000701 Little Black Creek-Black Creek High

Desoto 0317000702 Beaverdam Creek-Black Creek High

Desoto 0317000703 Flint Creek-Red Creek High

Desoto 0317000704 Bluff Creek-Red Creek Moderate

Desoto 0317000705 Hickory Creek-Big Black Creek Low

Desoto 0317000804 Rocky Creek-Escatawpa River Moderate
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 179

District HUC 10 5th Level Watershed Name Risk Levels for Sediment

(Same Risk for all Alternative)

Desoto 0317000905 Little Biloxi-Biloxi River Moderate

Desoto 0317000906 Tusachanie Creek-Tchoutacabouffa River Moderate

Desoto 0317000913 Crane Creek-Wolf River Moderate

Holly Springs 0801020706 Hurricane Creek-Muddy Creek Moderate

Holly Springs 0801020802 Piney Creek-Hatchie River Low

Holly Springs 0801021002 Indian Creek-Wolf River Moderate

Holly Springs 0803020103 Cane Creek-Mud Creek High

Holly Springs 0803020104 Hell Creek-Little Tallahatchie River Moderate

Holly Springs 0803020106 Snow Creek-Tippah River Low

Holly Springs 0803020107 Cypress Creek-Little Tallahatchie River Low

Holly Springs 0803020108 Big Spring Creek-Little Tallahatchie River Moderate

Holly Springs 0803020203 Tillatoba Creek-Panola Quitman Floodway Moderate

Holly Springs 0803020301 Yellow Leaf Creek-Yocona River Low

Holly Springs 0803020303 Bynum Creek-Yocona River Low

Holly Springs 0803020401 Upper Coldwater River High

Holly Springs 0803020503 Turkey Creek-Skuna River Low

Holly Springs 0803020506 Cane Creek-Yalobusha River Moderate

Homochitto 0806020306 Clarks Creek Moderate

Homochitto 0806020501 Hurricane Creek-McCall Creek Low

Homochitto 0806020504 Middle Fork Homochitto River Low

Homochitto 0806020506 Wells Creek-Homochitto River Low

Homochitto 0806020601 Little Buffalo River-Buffalo River Low

Homochitto 0806020602 Beaver Creek-Buffalo River Low

Homochitto 0807020202 West Fork Amite River High

Homochitto 0807020203 Woodland Creek-Beaver Creek High

Tombigbee 0316010202 Tallabinnela Creek High

Tombigbee 0316010401 Upper Chuguatonchee Creek High

Tombigbee 0316010402 Cane Creek-Houlka Creek Moderate

Tombigbee 0316010801 Little Noxubee River-Noxubee River Low

Tombigbee 0316010803 Yellow Creek-Noxubee River Moderate

Tombigbee 0318000101 Tallahaga Creek High

Tombigbee 0318000111 Tibby Creek-Yockanookay River Moderate

The National Forests in Mississippi are comprised of six national forests administered by seven ranger 

districts, these National Forest System lands are interspersed with private lands and other state and federal 

lands. Watershed conditions were evaluated across the entire watershed delineated by fifth-level 

hydrologic units. In Mississippi, a total of 63 fifth-level watersheds contain some portion of National 

Forest System lands. The fifth-level watershed hydrologic units containing National Forest System lands 

ranged in size from 39,000 to 291,000 acres. The total area of fifth-order watersheds evaluated was 

approximately 9,280,000 acres. Of this total watershed area evaluated approximately 1,200,000 acres are 

National Forest System lands or approximately 13% of the area evaluated. On an individual watershed 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

180 National Forests in Mississippi

basis, the National Forest System land percentage ranged from a low of less than 0.001 percent up to a 

high of approximately 54 percent.

The low percentage of National Forest System land within the watersheds and anticipated level of 

planned activities are two primary reasons watershed condition ranks did not change. Another important 

reason for there being little impact (or sensitivity) to change in watershed condition rankings is that, land 

use classifications (percent forested, percent agriculture/urban, percent riparian area that is forested) are 

major determinates in the watershed condition ranking. Forest Service management activities have very 

little, if any, influence on affecting a change in the land use classifications occurring within the 

watersheds evaluated. The land use classification for National Forest System lands are not expected to 

change and the Forest Service does not have jurisdiction or authority to directly affect land use changes 

on non-National Forest System lands. 

The only land use classification changes that planned Forest Service activities may influence would be the 

percent of forested riparian areas occurring on National Forest System lands. Attainment of forest plan 

desired conditions for ecological systems associated with riparian areas such as: floodplain forests, lower 

Mississippi River bottomland and floodplain forest, river and streams, lakes and permanent ponds, 

ephemeral ponds and emergent wetlands, cypress dominated wetlands, seeps, springs, and seepage 

swamps, and rare wetland systems, would contribute to sustaining and improving the conditions of 

forested riparian areas on National Forest System lands. While this may not change the overall watershed 

condition rank it would contribute to sustaining and improving watershed areas within national forest 

control.

Other important determinates (or metrics) in the watershed condition ranking include: sediment yields, 

point source pollutants (density of point sources), riparian habitat (road density in riparian areas, and 

percent forested in riparian area), altered stream flow (density of dams, road density in riparian, and 

density of road crossings). Forest plan components (desired conditions, objectives, and guidelines) are 

better suited for affecting measurable changes to these watershed condition rank determinants than to the 

broader land use classification determinants within any given watershed. Limited ownership and the 

actual location of National Forest System lands within a given watershed inhibit our ability to make 

measurable positive changes to the overall watershed condition ranking. However, interpretation of the 

watershed condition ranking analysis provides important information that aids in identifying and 

establishing priorities for implementation of key forest plan components that promote healthy watershed 

conditions.

During project design place priority on achieving watershed desired conditions to improve hydrologic 

conditions and provide refuge for associated species to the extent practicable given limited ownership 

within the watershed. All management activities should incorporate best management practices to 

minimize short-term impacts and expedite recovery of watershed conditions to promote water quality and 

enhance aquatic species viability.

The results of the watershed condition rank and other information can also be used to develop 

partnerships with other landholders or managers to improve overall watershed condition and improve 

aquatic health. This is one advantage of analyzing entire watersheds. Not only can Forest Service 

activities and contributing effects be isolated but other watershed effects can be identified as well.

4.4 Ecological Systems

Performance measures were identified for both terrestrial and aquatic systems, criteria were set for rating 

each performance measure as poor, fair, good, and very good relative to ecological sustainability. In 

general, poor and fair ratings indicated areas of concern for ecological system sustainability (table 60).
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 181

Rationale and sources used in making choices were recorded in the ecological sustainability evaluation 

tool. See Appendix G – Ecosystems and Species Diversity Report for additional information.

The primary key attributes and corresponding actions to assure the ecological sustainability of ecosystems 

are as follows: 

• Percent acres in appropriate system type (including acres restored from previously converted system 

types).

• Percent of occurrences in mature open canopy conditions.

• Percent acres burned at the desired interval and seasonality/intensity.

Sustainability of some systems is driven by only some of these or other attributes. Where this is the case, 

the key attributes are stated in the discussion below by system.

Algorithms in the ecological sustainability evaluation tool were developed taking into account all weights, 

rankings, and scores associated with this ecosystem to derive composite current scores and estimated 

scores by alternative for 1st and 5th decade intervals. These composite scores were calculated at both the 

unit level (appendix H) and aggregately across the Forest. Forestwide summaries of these scores for each 

ecosystem are presented by alternative below.

Table 60. Element condition scores

Range of 

Condition Score Condition Definition of Ecological Sustainability Evaluation Score Applied To Planning Elements

3.51 - 4.0 Very Good Element conditions are optimal; associated species’ populations should 

remain robust and potentially even expand.

2.51 - 3.50 Good Element conditions are acceptable; associated species’ populations 

should remain stable.

1.51 - 2.50 Fair

Element conditions are slightly inadequate; although associated species’ 

populations may persist for some time, they may be subject to gradual 

decline.

1.00 - 1.50 Poor

Element conditions are severely inadequate. Associated species’ 

populations are expected to severely decline; localized extirpations are 

occurring or are imminent.

Road and trail density is an important aspect of these data that is unlikely to change or improve over time. 

Many roads that cross National Forest System lands are administered under the jurisdiction of local, State, 

and other Federal entities and are therefore, outside of the control of the National Forests in Mississippi 

(Forests). Roads and trails administered by the Forests are in most cases considered essential to public 

access. While some roads and trails may be gated and rehabilitated if considered unessential to the public 

good, the overall road and trail density scores among all alternatives will change little due to the statistical 

weight of roads outside National Forest System jurisdiction. While road densities are a concern in some 

instances, in many cases road and trail scores are already in the good or very good range which is 

expected to continue to contribute to ecological sustainability on National Forest System lands.

4.4.1 Upland Longleaf Pine Forest and Woodland 

Upland Longleaf Pine Forest and Woodland Alternatives and Effects

Upland longleaf pine forest and woodland is native to the following units:

• Bienville 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

182 National Forests in Mississippi

• Chickasawhay

• De Soto

• Homochitto

A forestwide summary of ecological sustainability evaluation scores for upland longleaf by alternative is 

presented in figure 36.

It is important to note that these scores, particularly as they relate to ecological system abundance, are 

measured exclusively to address fully restored upland longleaf and do not take into account the high 

function slash and loblolly phases of restoration. As a result, scores may appear somewhat lower than the 

actual condition and functionality of the systems on the ground.

As shown in figure 36, alternatives A and B contribute little to the restoration and maintenance of upland 

longleaf. Alternatives C, D, and E are more successful, but will still require decades to achieve all 

restoration goals. Alternatives C, D, and E indicate acceptable rates of ecological sustainability by the 

fifth decade. Although alternatives C, D, and E are more successful, they will require decades to achieve 

all restoration goals.

Figure 36. Forestwide upland longleaf pine forest and woodland ecological sustainability 

evaluation scores

The acreage being restored to upland longleaf pine ecosystem only scores “good” in even the most 

ambitious alternatives. These scores are due in part to the fact that less than 3 percent of the original 

longleaf coverage remains range-wide due to forest management practices of the 20th century. While 

National Forest System lands, in general, harbor more longleaf than the surrounding landscape, the 

National Forests in Mississippi have not been immune to longleaf decline. The amount of restoration 

needed to achieve and maintain a “good” rating is likely to require intensive efforts well into the 22nd 

century (appendix H). 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 183

Upland Longleaf Pine Forest and Woodland Environmental Effects

Restoration of this ecosystem to appropriate acres that have been previously converted to other system 

types or allowed to degrade is a priority in alternatives C, D, and E. The future distribution of this 

ecosystem on the Forests will vary across all alternatives based on management intensity and scale (acres 

restored through time). Restoration and maintenance activities will include prescribed fire, thinning, and 

offsite canopy species conversion to native longleaf.

Past management practices have favored less fire-tolerant communities normally associated with fire

suppression and the introduction of offsite canopy species. Prescribed fire will alter both overstory and 

understory composition in favor of fire-tolerant and fire-dependent vegetative assemblages at the expense 

of species not normally associated with pyrogenic uplands. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less 

fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community structures normally found in 

association with upland longleaf. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are 

not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire to 

longleaf-associated species and communities will far outweigh any losses incurred during 

implementation.

Forest thinning and harvests of offsite species may expose species and communities to direct mortality 

related to vehicle and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil 

compaction and disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition 

and structure. Negative direct impacts are expected to be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be 

mitigated by best management practices. The benefits to those species by managing or restoring the 

habitat will far outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals should be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat restoration.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during restoration and maintenance 

activities may inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and 

understory conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives are expected to mitigate 

these effects to an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization 

does occur, invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control 

measures may require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

The proposed thinnings would reduce the average basal area of pine stands in the project area, thus 

reducing the risk of southern pine beetle infestation on National Forest System and private lands.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, thus lessening the risk of catastrophic 

fires. Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity restoration activity due to loss of important 

structural components (canopy levels within the Forests and down woody material) and fragmentation of 

habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components are expected to increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 

composition can be expected as restoration sites progress through successional stages. These changes are 

expected to be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics and 

components provided by multiple seral stages.

In some cases, prescribed fire will be the only restoration method required to gradually transition mature 

open offsite canopies to more fire-tolerant longleaf pines. In these cases, a variety of age classes and 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

184 National Forests in Mississippi

successional stages should be present providing multiple habitat and micro-habitat opportunities for a 

diverse assemblage of species.

In alternatives C, D, and E the long-term effects of restoration, management, and maintenance of the 

ecosystem are expected to be critical to the sustainability of these communities and associated species.

Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability concern will become increasingly 

sustainable. In both the 1st and 5th decades of alternative A, conditions remain slightly inadequate; 

although associated species’ populations may persist for some time, they may be subject to gradual 

decline. Alternative B, on the other hand, provides adequate conditions in the first decade before 

degrading considerably by the fifth decade.

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other 

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under alternatives C, D, and E. At 

any given point in time, a mosaic of structural and compositional conditions is spread across the forest 

landscape providing habitat for the full range of native species. These positive impacts are less 

pronounced in alternative A. In alternative B, the system is expected to gradually become excessively 

congested with overstory and midstory densities resulting in large scale losses in abundance and diversity 

of important groundcover vegetation.

Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be occurring within the Forests, and 

which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and communities, negative cumulative 

impacts of alternatives C, D, and E will be minor while the positive impacts will be substantial.

4.4.2 Shortleaf Pine-Oak Forest and Woodland

Shortleaf Pine-Oak Forest and Woodland Alternatives and Effects

Shortleaf pine-oak forest and woodland is native to the following units:

• Ackerman

• Bienville

• Holly Springs

• Trace

• Yalobusha

A forestwide summary of ecological sustainability evaluation scores for shortleaf pine-oak forest and 

woodland by alternative is presented in figure 37.

Figure 37. Forestwide shortleaf pine-oak forest and woodland ecological sustainability evaluation 

scores
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 185

As shown in figure 37 alternative A contributes little to the restoration and maintenance of shortleaf-oak 

while alternatives B and E, shows some improvement over time but still all show a fair overall ecological 

sustainability evaluation score. Alternatives C and D are more successful, but will still require decades to 

achieve all restoration goals. Only alternatives C and D show acceptable rates of ecological sustainability 

by the fifth decade.

Alternative A does not increase the coverage of this ecosystem over time. In alternatives B and C, 

however, coverage does increase somewhat by the fifth decade. Alternatives D and E, on the other hand, 

contribute significantly to the increased abundance of this system (See appendix H for unit specific 

details).

Estimated outcomes regarding mature open conditions (appendix H) vary widely by alternative and unit.

Overall, alternative D and to a lesser extent alternative E, provide the best canopy and age class 

conditions by the fifth decade due to more extensive thinning activities. Alternative C also provides some 

improvements in both decades while alternative B provides only modest improvements. Alternative A 

shows degradation to the system by the fifth decade.

Herbaceous-dominated understories, including grasses and forbs, are important attributes of healthy 

shortleaf-oak ecosystems best achieved by the application of frequent growing season fire, ideally once 

every one to three years (desired interval).

Shortleaf Pine-Oak Forest and Woodland Environmental Effects

Restoration of this ecosystem to appropriate acres that have been previously converted to other system 

types or allowed to degrade is a priority in alternatives C, D, and E. The future distribution of this 

ecosystem on the Forests will vary across all alternatives based on management intensity and scale (acres 

restored through time). Restoration and maintenance activities will include prescribed fire, thinning, and 

offsite canopy species conversion to native shortleaf-oak.

Past management practices have favored less fire-tolerant communities normally associated with fire 

suppression and the introduction of offsite canopy species. Prescribed fire will alter both overstory and 

understory composition in favor of fire-tolerant and fire-dependent vegetative assemblages at the expense 

of species not normally associated with pyrogenic uplands. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less 

fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community structures normally found in 

association with shortleaf-oak. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are not 

protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire to 

shortleaf-oak-associated species and communities will far outweigh any losses incurred during 

implementation.

Forest thinning and harvests of offsite species may expose species and communities to direct mortality 

related to vehicle and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil 

compaction and disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition 

and structure. Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated 

by best management practices. The benefits to those species by managing or restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat restoration.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during restoration and maintenance 

activities may inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and 

understory conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

186 National Forests in Mississippi

imported fire ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives are expected 

to mitigate these effects to an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where 

colonization does occur, invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, 

control measures may require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native 

species. The proposed thinnings would reduce the average basal area of pine stands in the project area, 

thus reducing the risk of southern pine beetle infestation on National Forest System and private lands.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, thus lessening the risk of catastrophic 

fires. Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity restoration activity due to loss of important 

structural components (canopy levels within the Forests and down woody material) and fragmentation of 

habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components are expected to increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 

composition can be expected as restoration sites progress through successional stages. These changes are 

expected to be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics and 

components provided by multiple seral stages.

In some cases, prescribed fire will be the only restoration method required to gradually transition mature 

open offsite canopies to more fire-tolerant shortleaf-oak systems. In these cases, a variety of age classes 

and successional stages should be present providing multiple habitat and micro-habitat opportunities for a 

diverse assemblage of species.

In alternatives C, D, and E the long-term effects of restoration, management, and maintenance of the 

ecosystem are expected to be critical to the sustainability of these communities and associated species.

Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability concern will become increasingly 

sustainable. In both the first and fifth decades of alternative A, conditions are inadequate. Alternatives B 

and E provide “Fair” conditions in the first and fifth decades without achieving “good” or “very good” 

ratings in the foreseeable future. Alternatives C and D, on the other hand, achieve sustainable levels by 

the fifth decade.

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other 

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under alternatives C and D. At any 

given point in time, a mosaic of structural and compositional conditions is spread across the forest 

landscape providing habitat for the full range of native species. These positive impacts are not present in 

alternative A. In alternatives B and E, ecosystem health is expected to remain relatively static with 

gradual declines of associated species likely.

Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be occurring within the forest, and 

which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and communities, negative cumulative 

impacts of alternatives C and D will be minor while the positive impacts will be substantial.

4.4.3 Loblolly Forest 

Loblolly Forest Alternatives and Effects

While loblolly pine trees are native to the southern and central portions of Mississippi, pure loblolly 

forests are historically rare and usually non-native on upland site types. Loblolly pine forest, introduced in 

most cases, is currently found on the following units:
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 187

• Ackerman

• Bienville

• Chickasawhay

• De Soto

• Holly Springs

• Homochitto

• Trace

• Yalobusha

A forestwide summary of ecological sustainability evaluation scores for loblolly pine forest by alternative 

is presented in figure 38.

As shown in figure 38, alternatives A and B contribute little to the restoration loblolly pine forest to native 

ecosystems while alternatives C, D, and E, are more successful achieving acceptable ratings forestwide by 

the first decade, but will still require decades to achieve all restoration goals. The intention of the 

attributes and indicators used to derive these scores is the reduction of this ecosystem’s coverage and the 

restoration to native systems. Positive trends in these scores should reflect progress towards these goals.

Figure 38. Forestwide loblolly pine forest ecological sustainability evaluation scores

As loblolly forests are restored to native ecosystems, the remaining loblolly forest acreage decreases 

becoming easier to manage for desired structural conditions. Where loblolly forest currently exists or is 

not yet restored at any given time, the desired condition of occurrences is canopy closure of less than 80 

percent and trees 60 years old and older in order to achieve high function conditions that emulate mature 

native ecosystem types such as longleaf. Under all alternatives, occurrences extant at any given time are 

in most cases not meeting the criteria for mature open conditions based on thinning, with the exception of 

the Chickasawhay Unit. Due to the massive spatial extent of loblolly pine forest on most units, thinning 

operations are unlikely to be completed prior to restoration to longleaf. Thinned loblolly pine forest tends 

to revert to closed canopy conditions over time if not periodically re-thinned thus creating a cycle of 

thinning needs that is extremely difficult to successfully meet at the scale required. 

Fire frequency and seasonality/intensity goals also become easier as loblolly forest coverage decreases.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

188 National Forests in Mississippi

Loblolly Forest Environmental Effects

Restoration of loblolly forest to native ecosystems is a priority in alternatives C, D, and E. The future 

distribution of this ecosystem on the Forests will vary across all alternatives based on management 

intensity and scale (acres restored through time). Restoration and maintenance activities will include 

prescribed fire, thinning, and restoring to native ecosystems.

Loblolly pine is less fire-tolerant, especially when young, than native upland pines. Prescribed fire will 

alter both overstory and understory composition in favor of fire-tolerant and fire-dependent vegetative 

assemblages at the expense of species not normally associated with pyrogenic uplands. Accordingly, 

some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species, including loblolly, is both expected and desired to 

achieve community structures normally found in association with native ecosystems. Where rare species 

sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses 

can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire will far outweigh any losses incurred during 

implementation.

Forest thinning and loblolly harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to 

vehicle and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure.

Negative direct impacts are expected to be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing or restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat restoration.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during restoration and maintenance 

activities may inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and 

understory conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and redimported fire ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives are expected 

to mitigate these effects to an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where 

colonization does occur, invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, 

control measures may require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native 

species. The proposed thinnings would reduce the average basal area of pine stands in the project area, 

thus reducing the risk of southern pine beetle infestation on National Forest System and private lands.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, thus lessening the risk of catastrophic 

fires. Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of restoration activity due to loss of important 

structural components (canopy levels within the Forests and down woody material) and fragmentation of 

habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components are expected to increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 

composition can be expected as restoration sites progress through successional stages. These changes are 

expected to be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics and 

components provided by multiple native ecosystem stages.

In some cases, prescribed fire will be the only restoration method required to gradually transition mature 

open loblolly to more fire-tolerant native systems. In these cases, a variety of age classes and successional 

stages should be present providing multiple habitat and micro-habitat opportunities for a diverse 

assemblage of species.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 189

In alternatives C, D, and E the long-term effects of restoration, management, and maintenance of the 

ecosystem are expected to be critical to the sustainability of native communities and associated species.

Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability concern will become increasingly 

sustainable as loblolly acreage decreases and the remaining acres of loblolly are managed in a high 

function, mature open condition. 

In both the first and fifth decades of alternative A and B, conditions are inadequate. Alternatives C, D, and 

E, on the other hand, achieve and maintain sustainable levels in both decades.

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other 

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under alternatives C, D, and E. At

any given point in time, a mosaic of structural and compositional conditions is spread across the forest 

landscape providing habitat for the full range of native species. These positive impacts are not present in 

alternatives A or B, where gradual declines of associated species are likely.

Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be occurring within the forest, and 

which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and communities, negative cumulative 

impacts of alternatives C, D, and E will be minor while the positive impacts will be substantial. 

4.4.4 Southern Loblolly-Hardwood Flatwoods

Southern Loblolly-Hardwood Flatwoods Alternatives and Effects

While loblolly pine trees are native to the southern and central portions of Mississippi, pure loblolly 

forests are historically rare and usually non-native on upland site types. Loblolly pine forest, introduced in 

most cases, is currently found on the following units:

• Bienville

Figure 39. Forestwide southern loblolly-hardwood flatwoods forest ecological sustainability 

evaluation scores
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

190 National Forests in Mississippi

The primary key attributes and corresponding actions to assure the ecological sustainability are as 

follows: 

• Percent of occurrences in mature open canopy conditions (figure 40)

• Percent acres burned at the desired interval and seasonality/intensity (figure 41 and figure 42).

A forestwide summary of ecological sustainability evaluation scores for loblolly pine forest by alternative 

is presented in figure 39.

As shown in figure 39, all alternatives are successful achieving acceptable ratings forestwide by the first 

and fifth decades.

The Bienville Unit contains red-cockaded woodpecker populations in loblolly forest which takes 

precedence over longleaf restoration. In this case, loblolly forest should not be removed until suitable 

mature longleaf stands are available nearby for red-cockaded woodpecker.

The number of acres in the system already meets and perhaps exceeds the desired acreage based on site 

type. Any overages can likely be attributed to woody encroachment from this system onto what would 

likely be Jackson Prairie soils. Restoration of the Jackson Prairie ecosystem may reduce coverage of 

southern loblolly pine-hardwood flatwoods. Any reductions in coverage will be minor and the spatial 

extent is expected to remain in “very good” condition across all alternatives and decades.

Figure 40. Southern loblolly-hardwood flatwoods forest percent mature open

The mature open canopy attributes of this ecosystem are in “fair” condition across all alternatives in the 

first decade (figure 40). Because the pine dominated occurrences of this ecosystem are being managed for 

red-cockaded woodpecker, the mature open attribute is expected to score “very good” in all alternatives 

by the fifth decade.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 191

Figure 41. Percent of southern loblolly-hardwood flatwoods forest burned at desired 

interval by alternative

Figure 42. Percent of southern loblolly-hardwood flatwoods forest burned in the growing 

season by alternative

As shown in figure 41 and figure 42, fire frequency is “good” in alternatives A, B, C, and D for all 

decades. “Very good” status is achieved for alternative E for both decades. Fire seasonality is “fair” in 

alternatives A and B for both decades and “good” in alternatives C, D, and E.

Southern Loblolly-Hardwood Flatwoods Environmental Effects

Management of this ecosystem’s sustainability is a priority in all alternatives. Management activities will 

include prescribed fire, thinning, and regeneration as stands reach senescence.

Prescribed fire is assumed to be essential to maintenance of structural and compositional attributes of this 

ecosystem. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species, including loblolly, is both 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

192 National Forests in Mississippi

expected and desired to achieve community structures normally found in association with native 

ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are not protected by 

localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any 

losses incurred during implementation.

Forest thinnings and loblolly harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to 

vehicle and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure.

Negative direct impacts are expected to be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing or restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and understory 

conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives are expected to mitigate 

these effects to an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization 

does occur, invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control 

measures may require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Thinnings would reduce the average basal area of pine stands in the project area, thus reducing the risk of 

southern pine beetle infestation on National Forest System and private lands.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, thus lessening the risk of catastrophic 

fires. Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of restoration activity due to loss of important 

structural components (canopy levels within the Forests and down woody material) and fragmentation of 

habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components are expected to increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 

composition can be expected as regeneration sites progress through successional stages. These changes 

are expected to be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics 

and components provided by multiple native ecosystem stages.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management are expected to be critical to the 

sustainability of native communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as 

well as of local viability concern are expected to remain sustainable.

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under all alternatives. At any given 

point in time, a mosaic of structural and compositional conditions is spread across the forest landscape 

providing habitat for the full range of native species.

Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be occurring within the forest, and 

which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and communities, negative cumulative 

impacts of all alternatives will be minor while the positive impacts will be substantial.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 193

4.4.5 Slash Pine Forest

Slash Pine Forest Alternatives and Effects

While slash pine trees are native to the southern portions of Mississippi, pure slash forests are historically 

very rare and non-native on upland site types. Slash pine forest, introduced in most cases, is currently 

found on the following units:

• Ackerman

• Chickasawhay

• De Soto

• Trace

• Yalobusha

The primary key attributes and corresponding actions to assure the ecological sustainability are as 

follows: 

• Percent acres in appropriate system type (including acres restored to native system types.

• Percent of occurrences in mature open canopy conditions.

A forestwide summary of ecological sustainability evaluation scores for slash pine forest by alternative is 

presented in figure 43.

The intention of the attributes and indicators used to derive these scores is the reduction of this 

ecosystem’s coverage and the restoration to native systems. Positive trends in these scores should reflect 

progress towards these goals.

Figure 43. Forestwide slash pine forest ecological sustainability evaluation scores

As shown in figure 43, alternative A contributes little to the restoration of slash pine forest to native 

ecosystems while alternatives B, C, D, and E, are more successful achieving acceptable ratings forestwide

by the 1st decade, but will still require decades to achieve all restoration goals.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

194 National Forests in Mississippi

As slash pine forests are restored to native ecosystems, the remaining slash pine forest acreage decreases 

becoming easier to manage for desired structural conditions. Where slash pine forest currently exists or is 

not yet restored at any given time, the desired condition of occurrences is canopy closure of less than 80

percent and trees 60 years old and older in order to achieve high function conditions that emulate mature 

native ecosystem types such as longleaf. Under all alternatives, occurrences extant at any given time do 

not, in most cases, meet the criteria for mature open conditions based on thinning, with the exception of 

the Chickasawhay Unit in the fifth decade of alternative E (appendix H). Due to the massive spatial extent 

of slash pine forest on some southern units, thinning operations are unlikely to be completed prior to 

restoration of longleaf. Thinned slash pine forest tends to revert to closed canopy conditions over time if 

not periodically re-thinned thus creating a cycle of thinning needs that is extremely difficult to 

successfully meet at the scale required. 

Fire frequency and seasonality/intensity goals also become easier as slash pine forest coverage decreases.

Frequency goals are met with all alternatives on both units scoring “good” or “very good” with the 

highest scores concentrated in alternatives C, D, and E. Alternative A meets “good” status by the fifth 

decade for seasonality/intensity. Alternative B achieves only “fair” status for fire seasonality and 

intensity. All other alternatives show general improvement in fire seasonality and intensity by the first 

decade achieving “good” scores and in some cases “very good” by the fifth decade (appendix H).

Slash Pine Forest Environmental Effects

Restoration of slash pine forest to native ecosystems is a priority in alternatives C, D, and E. The future 

distribution of this ecosystem on the Forests will vary across all alternatives based on management 

intensity and scale (acres restored through time). Restoration and maintenance activities will include 

prescribed fire, thinning, and restoring to native ecosystems.

Slash pine is less fire-tolerant, especially when young, than native upland pines. Prescribed fire will alter 

both overstory and understory composition in favor of fire-tolerant and fire-dependent vegetative 

assemblages at the expense of species not normally associated with fire-dependent uplands. Accordingly, 

some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species, including slash pine, is both expected and desired to 

achieve community structures normally found in association with native ecosystems. Where rare species 

sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses 

can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire will far outweigh any losses incurred during 

implementation.

Forest thinning and slash pine harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to 

vehicle and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure.

Negative direct impacts are expected to be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing or restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat restoration.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during restoration and maintenance 

activities may inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and 

understory conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and redimported fire ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives are expected 

to mitigate these effects to an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where 

colonization does occur, invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 195

control measures may require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native 

species. The proposed thinnings would reduce the average basal area of pine stands in the project area, 

thus reducing the risk of southern pine beetle infestation on National Forest System and private lands.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, thus lessening the risk of catastrophic 

fires. Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of restoration activity due to loss of important 

structural components (canopy levels within the Forests and down woody material) and fragmentation of 

habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components should increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 

composition can be expected as restoration sites progress through successional stages. These changes 

should be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics and

components provided by multiple native ecosystem stages.

In some cases, prescribed fire will be the only restoration method required to gradually transition mature 

open slash pine to more fire-tolerant native systems. In these cases, a variety of age classes and 

successional stages should be present providing multiple habitat and micro-habitat opportunities for a 

diverse assemblage of species.

In alternatives B, C, D, and E the long-term effects of restoration, management, and maintenance of the 

ecosystem are expected to be critical to the sustainability of native communities and associated species.

Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability concern will become increasingly 

sustainable as slash pine acreage decreases and the remaining acres receive appropriate fire frequency and 

seasonality/intensity. No alternative meets the percent mature open canopy requirements based on 

estimated thinning.

In both the first and fifth decades of alternative A, conditions are inadequate. Alternatives B, C, D, and E, 

on the other hand, achieve and maintain sustainable levels in both decades.

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other 

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under alternatives B, C, D, and E.

At any given point in time, a mosaic of structural and compositional conditions is spread across the forest 

landscape providing habitat for the full range of native species. These positive impacts are not present in 

alternative A, where gradual declines of associated species are possible.

Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be occurring within the forest, and 

which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and communities, negative cumulative 

impacts of alternatives B, C, D, and E will be minor while the positive impacts will be substantial. 

4.4.6 Northern Dry Upland Hardwood Forest 

Northern Dry Upland Hardwood Forest Alternatives and Effects

Northern dry upland hardwood forest is currently found on the following units:

• Ackerman

• Holly Springs

• Trace

• Yalobusha

A forestwide summary of ecological sustainability evaluation scores for northern dry upland hardwood 

forest by alternative is presented in figure 44.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

196 National Forests in Mississippi

As shown in figure 44, alternatives A and E will only rate as “fair” for both decades and contribute little 

to the management of northern dry upland hardwood forest. Alternatives B, C, and D will all reach a 

rating of “good” by the fifth decade with alternative C having the highest overall score value.

Figure 44. Forestwide northern dry upland hardwood forest ecological sustainability 

evaluation scores

Northern dry upland hardwoods are generally intermingled among the dominant pine ecosystems. As a 

result, this system will be exposed to prescribed fire with the same frequency and seasonality/intensity. 

Because this system burns less readily than the surrounding pine dominated systems, it is difficult to 

predict whether or not upland hardwoods will actually burn when exposed to fire. While it is fairly easy to 

predict interval of fire exposure, the actual burn rates may vary. It is especially difficult to predict 

seasonality and intensity due to the differences in ground cover moisture regimes between upland 

hardwoods and surrounding pine systems. It is considered natural and an ecologically appropriate 

attribute of fire behavior for embedded hardwood communities to burn at rates lower than fire exposure 

rates. Due to the challenges described above, fire frequency and seasonality cannot be predicted with 

confidence and is not estimated. Alternative A includes no prescribed fire for this ecosystem. Alternative 

B meets the lower end of “fair” on the Holly Springs and Yalobusha Units while meeting the upper end of 

“fair” on the Ackerman and Trace Units concerning burn interval. Alternative C allows for increased fire 

frequency compared to the latter alternatives but only reaches the upper end of “fair” value. Alternative D 

meets the upper end of “fair” on the Holly Springs and Yalobusha Units while meeting “good” on the 

Ackerman and Trace Units concerning burn interval. Alternative E meets “good” on all units (appendix 

H).

Northern Dry Upland Hardwood Forest Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire, thinning, and regeneration. Prescribed fire is assumed 

to be essential to maintenance of structural and compositional attributes of this ecosystem. Accordingly, 

some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community 

structures normally found in association with native ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive to fire 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 197

injury are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected.

The benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.

Forest thinnings and harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle 

and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure.

Negative direct impacts are expected to be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing and restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and understory 

conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives are expected to mitigate 

these effects to an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization 

does occur, invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control 

measures may require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, thus lessening the risk of catastrophic 

fires. Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important 

structural components (canopy levels within the Forests and down woody material) and fragmentation of 

habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components are expected to increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 

composition can be expected as regeneration sites progress through successional stages. These changes 

are expected to be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics 

and components provided by multiple native ecosystem stages.

In alternatives B, C, and D, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should be sustainable for 

native communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local

viability concern are expected to remain sustainable. In alternatives A and E, this system will not achieve 

sustainability of native communities and associated species.

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other 

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under all alternatives except 

alternative A which includes no management to this system. At any given point in time, a mosaic of 

structural and compositional conditions is spread across the forest landscape providing habitat for the full 

range of native species in alternatives B, C, and D.

Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be occurring within the forest, and 

which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and communities, negative cumulative 

impacts of alternatives B, C, and D will be minor while the positive impacts will be substantial. 

Alternatives A and E will have negative impacts on species and communities in the long run due to little 

management of the system in alternative A and too much regeneration in alternative E.
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198 National Forests in Mississippi

4.4.7 Southern Dry Upland Hardwood Forest 

Southern Dry Upland Hardwood Forest Alternatives and Effects

Southern dry upland hardwood forest is currently found on the following units:

• Bienville

• Chickasawhay

• De Soto

• Homochitto

The primary key attributes and corresponding actions to assure the ecological sustainability are as 

follows: 

• Percent acres in appropriate system type (including acres restored from previously converted system 

types).

A forestwide summary of ecological sustainability evaluation scores for southern dry upland hardwood 

forest by alternative is presented in figure 45.

As shown in figure 45, all alternative scores by decade remain with a “good” overall ecological 

sustainability evaluation score despite little management due to few management needs for this system.

The percent of southern dry upland hardwood forest in appropriate system does not change in each unit 

by alternative and time (appendix H). This ecosystem is not the highest priority to restore to appropriate 

system on the Forests. The Bienville, Chickasawhay, and De Soto Units are all rated “very good” for this 

attribute. The Homochitto will remain poor concerning percent of ecosystem in appropriate system due to 

priority on this unit is upland longleaf restoration.

Figure 45. Forestwide southern dry upland hardwood forest ecological sustainability 

evaluation scores

Southern Dry Upland Hardwood Forest Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire and maintaining the ecosystem at its current abundance 

across the Forests over time. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both 

expected and desired to achieve community structures normally found in association with native 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 199

ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are not protected by 

localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any 

losses incurred during implementation.

Regeneration will be primarily allowed to occur naturally or as a result of salvage operations in the wake 

of natural disturbances. In cases where managed regeneration may be required, harvests may expose

species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle and machinery use, which may also result 

in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to 

manage this ecosystem (including invasive species control) to establish acceptable understory 

composition and structure. Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will 

be mitigated by best management practices. The benefits to those species by managing or restoring the 

habitat will far outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals should be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire may also create overstory and understory conditions 

favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire ants. Best 

management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to an extent 

but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, invasive 

species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may require the 

application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires. Habitat quality 

could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural components 

(canopy levels within the Forests and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat which could 

cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural components should

increase in coverage and quality.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should result in sustainable native 

communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability 

concern are expected to remain sustainable. 

4.4.8 Southern Loess Bluff Forest 

Southern Loess Bluff Forest Alternatives and Effects

Southern loess bluff forest is currently found on the following unit:

• Homochitto

The primary key attribute and corresponding action to assure ecological sustainability for this ecosystem 

is as follows:

• Percent acres in appropriate system type (including acres restored from previously converted system 

types).

A forestwide summary of ecological sustainability evaluation scores for southern loess bluff forest by 

alternative is presented in figure 46.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

200 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 46. Forestwide southern loess bluff forest ecological sustainability evaluation 

scores by alternative

As shown in figure 46, all alternative scores by decade remain with a good overall ecological 

sustainability evaluation score despite little management due to few management needs for this system. 

The percent of southern loess bluff forest in appropriate system (figure 47) remains in poor condition for 

all alternatives in the first decade. By the fifth decade, however, alternative A is the only alternative that 

remains in the same state because the alternative’s management strategy favors natural succession and 

low intensive forest health management strategies. Alternative B increases its rating to fair while 

alternative C improves to a good rating and alternatives D and E both increase to a rating of very good.

By the fifth decade, alternative B has begun to increase in acres while this attribute has become 

sustainable in alternative C. Alternatives D and E have reached overall percent in appropriate system 

goals due to each alternative’s increased restoration activities compared to other alternatives.

Figure 47. Percent of southern loess bluff forest at appropriate system by alternative

Southern Loess Bluff Forest Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire and maintaining ecosystem abundance across the 

Forests over time. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 201

desired to achieve community structures normally found in association with native ecosystems. Where 

rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, 

some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during 

implementation.

Regeneration will be primarily natural or as a result of salvage operations in the wake of natural 

disturbances. In cases where managed regeneration may be required, harvests may expose species and 

communities to direct mortality related to vehicle and machinery use, which may also result in some 

micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to manage this 

ecosystem (including invasive species control) to establish acceptable understory composition and 

structure. Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by 

best management practices. The benefits to those species by managing or restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals should be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire may also create overstory and understory conditions 

favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire ants. Best 

management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to an extent 

but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, invasive 

species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may require the 

application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires. Habitat quality 

could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural components 

(canopy levels within the Forests and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat which could 

cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural components are 

expected to increase in coverage and quality.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should result in sustainable native 

communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability 

concern should remain sustainable. 

4.4.9 Southern Mesic Slope Forest 

Southern Mesic Slope Forest Alternatives and Effects

Southern mesic slope forest is currently found on the following units:

• Bienville

• Chickasawhay

• De Soto

• Homochitto

The primary key attribute and corresponding action to assure ecological sustainability for this ecosystem 

is as follows:

• Percent acres in appropriate system type (including acres restored from previously converted system 

types).

A forestwide summary of ecological sustainability evaluation scores for southern mesic slope forest by 

alternative is presented in figure 48.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

202 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 48. Forestwide southern mesic slope forest ecological sustainability evaluation scores

All alternative scores by decade remain with a good overall ecological sustainability evaluation score 

despite little management due to few management needs for this system.

The ratings for percent of southern mesic slope forest in appropriate system do not change from fair on 

the Chickasawhay and Homochitto Units by alternative and time. This ecosystem is not a high priority to 

restore to appropriate system on these units. This attribute remains poor in alternatives A and B on the 

Desoto Unit and becomes fair in alternatives C, D, and E which can be attributed to conversion from slash 

pine forest to appropriate systems in the latter alternatives. On the Bienville Unit, alternatives A, B, and C 

are all rated as good for each time interval because the system on this unit is already in good condition 

and no change is expected. Alternatives D and E become very good through time since both alternatives 

are driven by increased restoration or increased timber management (appendix H).

Southern Mesic Slope Forest Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire and maintaining ecosystem abundance across the 

Forests over time. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and 

desired to achieve community structures normally found in association with native ecosystems. Where 

rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, 

some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during 

implementation.

Regeneration will be primarily allowed to occur naturally or as a result of salvage operations in the wake 

of natural disturbances. In cases where managed regeneration may be required, harvests may expose 

species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle and machinery use, which may also result 

in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and disturbance. Herbicides may also be used during 

management of this ecosystem (including invasive species control) to establish acceptable understory 

composition and structure. Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will 

be mitigated by best management practices. The benefits to those species by managing or restoring the 

habitat will far outweigh those few casualties.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 203

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals should be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire may also create overstory and understory conditions 

favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire ants. Best 

management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to an extent 

but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, invasive 

species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may require the 

application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, thus lessening the risk of catastrophic fires. Habitat 

quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural 

components (canopy levels within the Forests and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat 

which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components should increase in coverage and quality.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should result in sustainable native 

communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability 

concern should remain sustainable. 

4.4.10 Northern Mesic Hardwood Forest 

Northern Mesic Hardwood Forest Alternatives and Effects

Northern mesic slope forest is currently found on the following units:

• Ackerman

• Holly Springs

• Trace

• Yalobusha

The primary key attribute and corresponding action to assure ecological sustainability for this ecosystem 

is as follows:

• Percent acres in appropriate system type (including acres restored from previously converted system 

types).

A forestwide summary of ecological sustainability evaluation scores for northern mesic slope forest by 

alternative is presented in figure 49.

All overall ecological sustainability evaluation alternative scores by decade remain with a good overall 

ecological sustainability evaluation score despite little management due to few management needs for this 

system (figure 49).

The primary key attribute and corresponding action to assure ecological sustainability for this ecosystem 

is percent acres in appropriate system type (including acres restored from previously converted system 

types).

The ratings for percent of northern mesic slope forest in appropriate system do not change from poor in 

alternative A while changes are seen with this attribute to fair in alternatives B, C, D, and E on the 

Ackerman and Trace Units in the fifth decade. This attribute remains very good in all alternatives on the 

Holly Springs and Yalobusha Units through time since the percent of this system in appropriate acres 

goals have already been reached and will not significantly change by alternative and time (appendix H). 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

204 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 49. Forestwide northern mesic hardwood forest ecological sustainability evaluation 

scores

Northern Mesic Hardwood Forest Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire and maintaining ecosystem abundance across the 

Forests over time. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and 

desired to achieve community structures normally found in association with native ecosystems. Where 

rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, 

some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during 

implementation.

Regeneration will be primarily allowed to occur naturally or as a result of salvage operations in the wake 

of natural disturbances. In cases where managed regeneration may be required, harvests may expose 

species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle and machinery use, which may also result 

in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and disturbance. Herbicides may also be used in the

management of this ecosystem (including invasive species control) to establish acceptable understory 

composition and structure. Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will 

be mitigated by best management practices. The benefits to those species by managing or restoring the 

habitat will far outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals should be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire may also create overstory and understory conditions 

favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire ants. Best 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 205

management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to an extent 

but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, invasive 

species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may require the 

application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Prescribed burning would reduce the forest fuel, thus lessening the risk of catastrophic fires. Habitat 

quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural 

components (canopy levels within the Forests and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat 

which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components should increase in coverage and quality.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should result in sustainable native 

communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability 

concern are expected to remain sustainable. 

4.4.11 Floodplain Forest 

Floodplain Forest Alternatives and Effects

Floodplain forest is currently found on the following units:

• Ackerman

• Bienville

• Chickasawhay

• De Soto

• Holly Springs

• Homochitto

• Trace

• Yalobusha

The primary key attribute and corresponding action to assure ecological sustainability for this ecosystem 

is as follows:

• Percent acres in appropriate system type (including acres restored from previously converted system 

types).

A forestwide summary of ecological sustainability evaluation scores for floodplain forest by alternative is 

presented in figure 50.

All overall ecological sustainability evaluation alternative scores by decade remain with a good overall 

ecological sustainability evaluation score despite little management due to few management needs for this 

system (figure 50).

The ratings for percent of floodplain forest in appropriate system do not change from poor in all 

alternatives on the Ackerman, De Soto, and Trace Units and remain fair on the Bienville for all 

alternatives. These units show no change by alternative because floodplain forest restoration is not a 

priority for these units. On the Holly Springs and Yalobusha Units, this attribute remains at poor in 

alternatives A, B, and C while and becomes fair condition in alternatives D and E which shows that some 

offsite pine will be restored to this ecosystem in these accelerated restoration and enhanced forest health 

alternatives. Alternative C shows changes in the Homochitto and Chickasawhay Units from poor to fair 

which is expected with the all of the offsite pine being restored to natural systems. The Homochitto Unit 

also shows a rating of fair in alternative D for the same reason. Since priorities are to restore offsite pine 

to appropriate systems in alternatives C, D, and E and to some extent in alternative B, this ecosystem is 

not expected to change much in relation to this attribute in the next half century (appendix H). 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

206 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 50. Forestwide floodplain forest ecological sustainability evaluation scores

Floodplain Forest Environmental Effects

Management activities will include low intensity prescribed fire over a relatively long interval and 

maintaining ecosystem abundance across the Forests over time. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less 

fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community structures normally found in 

association with native ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are 

not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire will 

outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.

Regeneration will be primarily allowed to occur naturally or as a result of salvage operations in the wake 

of natural disturbances. In cases where managed regeneration may be required, harvests may expose 

species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle and machinery use, which may also result 

in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and disturbance. Herbicides may also be used during 

management of this ecosystem (including invasive species control) to establish acceptable understory 

composition and structure. Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will 

be mitigated by best management practices. The benefits to those species by managing or restoring the 

habitat will far outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals should be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire may also create overstory and understory conditions 

favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire ants. Best 

management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to an extent 

but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, invasive 

species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may require the 

application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 207

Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires. Habitat quality 

could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural components 

(canopy levels within the Forests and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat which could 

cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural components should

increase in coverage and quality.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should result in sustainable native 

communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability 

concern should remain sustainable. 

4.4.12 Lower Mississippi River Bottomland and Floodplain Forest 

Lower Mississippi River Bottomland and Floodplain Forest Alternatives and 

Effects

Lower Mississippi bottomland and floodplain forest is currently found on the following unit:

• Delta

The primary key attributes and corresponding actions to assure ecological sustainability for this 

ecosystem are as follows:

• Percent occurrence in regeneration 

• Percent occurrence in mature forest

A forestwide summary of ecological sustainability evaluation scores for lower Mississippi bottomland 

and floodplain forest by alternative is presented in figure 51.

Figure 51. Forestwide lower Mississippi bottomland and floodplain forest ecological 

sustainability evaluation scores
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

208 National Forests in Mississippi

As shown in figure 51, alternative scores by decade remain with a good overall ecological sustainability 

evaluation score in alternative A, while rated as very good by the fifth decade in alternatives B, C, D, and 

E. This change is can be correlated to differences in percent regeneration and percent mature forest 

between these alternatives.

As seen in figure 52, the ratings for percent regenerating lower Mississippi bottomland and floodplain 

forest remain poor in alternative A. This system is not a priority in alternative A which can also be seen in 

figure 53 where it is shown that the percent of system in mature forest is also in poor condition by the 

fifth decade showing the trend that no management is being accomplished and age diversity decreases 

with time. Alternative B shows an increase in regeneration shifting from poor in the first decade to good 

by the fifth decade thus allowing for age diversity which is portrayed with a very good rating in the 

percent mature attribute. Alternatives C, D, and E all rate very good by the fifth decade for both attributes 

showing balanced management in the system creating regenerating forest and age diversity.

Figure 52. Forestwide lower Mississippi bottomland and floodplain percent regeneration by 

alternative

Lower Mississippi River Bottomland and Floodplain Forest Environmental Effects

Management activities will include a variety of regeneration practices and maintaining ecosystem 

abundance across the Forests over time. Accordingly, some direct mortality may occur to achieve 

community structures normally found in association with native ecosystems. Regeneration will be 

allowed to occur naturally and through thinnings, gap creation, irregular even-aged regeneration, and 

uneven-aged management regeneration were identified as important management activities to promote 

and maintain the desired ecological system structural conditions. In cases where managed regeneration is 

required, harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle and 

machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and disturbance. 

Herbicides may also be used during management of this ecosystem (including invasive species control) to 

establish acceptable understory composition and structure. Negative direct impacts should be temporary 

and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best management practices. The benefits to those species 

by managing or restoring the habitat will far outweigh those few casualties. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 209

Figure 53. Forestwide lower Mississippi bottomland and floodplain percent mature forest 

by alternative

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals should be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native 

invasives mitigate these effects to an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected.

Where colonization does occur, invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. 

However, control measures may require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss 

of native species.

Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural 

components (canopy levels within the Forests and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat 

which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components should increase in coverage and quality.

In alternative A, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should result in sustainable native 

communities and associated species. In alternatives B, C, D, and E, the long-term effects of management 

for this system are optimal; associated species’ populations should remain robust and potentially even 

expand locally and aid with the species’ sustainability regionally. 

4.4.13 Near-coast Pine Flatwoods 

Near-coast Pine Flatwoods Alternatives and Effects

Near-coast pine flatwoods is currently found on the following unit:

• De Soto

A forestwide summary of ecological sustainability evaluation scores for near-coast pine flatwoods by 

alternative is presented in figure 54.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

210 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 54. Forestwide near-coast pine flatwoods forest ecological sustainability evaluation 

scores

As shown in figure 54, alternatives A and B remain in good condition as are current conditions while 

alternatives C, D, and E, are more successful achieving very good overall ecological sustainability 

evaluation scores by the fifth decade. Although good and very good ratings are reached by all alternatives 

in overall ecological sustainability evaluation scores, this system will still require decades to achieve all 

restoration goals such as percent open canopy (figure 55) which remains in poor condition for all 

alternatives although alternatives C, D, and E seem to show a trend of increasing percent open canopy 

through thinning operations and ecosystem restoration. 

Figure 55. Percent of near-coast pine flatwoods in mature open canopy condition
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National Forests in Mississippi 211

Figure 56. Percent of near-coast pine flatwoods forest burned at desired interval by 

alternative

Figure 57. Percent of near-coast pine flatwoods forest burned during the growing season 

by alternative

Figure 56 and figure 57 show fire regime variables by alternative. Herbaceous-dominated under-stories, 

including grasses and forbs, are important attributes of healthy near-coast pine ecosystems best achieved 

by the application of frequent growing season fire, ideally once every one to three years (desired interval). 

These data show that both fire frequency and seasonality and intensity, in most cases, are well within the 

good to very good range except alternative B which only reaches a fair growing season burn condition. 

Growing season prescribed fire is in good condition in alternatives A, C, and D while alternative E 

reached a very good condition. 

Near-coast Pine Flatwoods Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire, thinning, and regeneration. Prescribed fire is assumed 

to be essential to maintenance of structural and compositional attributes of this ecosystem. Accordingly, 

some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community 

structures normally found in association with native ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive to fire 

injury are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected.

The benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

212 National Forests in Mississippi

Forest thinnings and harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle 

and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure.

Negative direct impacts are expected to be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing or restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals should be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and understory 

conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to 

an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, 

invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may 

require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burning would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires.

Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural 

components (canopy levels within the Forests and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat 

which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components should increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 

composition can be expected as regeneration sites progress through successional stages. These changes 

are expected to be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics 

and components provided by multiple native ecosystem stages.

In alternatives A and B, the long-term effects of ecosystem management are expected to result in 

sustainable native communities and associated species. In alternatives C, D, and E, the long-term effects 

of management for this system are optimal; associated species’ populations should remain robust and 

potentially even expand locally and aid with the species’ sustainability regionally. 

4.4.14 Xeric Sandhills 

Xeric Sandhills Alternatives and Effects

Xeric sandhills are native to the following units:

• Chickasawhay

• De Soto

The primary key attributes and corresponding actions to assure the ecological sustainability are as 

follows: 

• Percent acres burned at the desired interval and seasonality/intensity.

A forestwide summary of ecological sustainability evaluation scores for xeric sandhills by alternative is 

presented in figure 58.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 213

Figure 58. Forestwide xeric sandhills ecological sustainability evaluation scores

As shown in figure 58, alternatives A, B, C, and D contribute to the restoration and maintenance of this 

system with overall ecological sustainability evaluation scores of good. Alternative E is even more 

successful, but will still require decades to achieve all restoration goals. All alternatives show acceptable 

rates of ecological sustainability by the fifth decade. 

Herbaceous dominated under-stories, including grasses and forbs, are important attributes of healthy 

longleaf ecosystems best achieved by the application of frequent growing season fire, ideally once every 

one to three years (desired interval). Data show that both fire frequency and seasonality and intensity, in 

most cases, are well within the good to very good range and increase respectively from alternatives C thru 

E.

Xeric Sandhills Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire, thinning, and regeneration. Prescribed fire is assumed 

to be essential to maintenance of structural and compositional attributes of this ecosystem. Accordingly, 

some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community 

structures normally found in association with native ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive to fire 

injury are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected.

The benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.

Forest thinnings and harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle 

and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure.

Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing or restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

214 National Forests in Mississippi

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals should be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and understory 

conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives should mitigate these 

effects to an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does 

occur, invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures 

may require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burning would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires.

Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural 

components (canopy levels within the Forests and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat 

which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components should increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 

composition can be expected as regeneration sites progress through successional stages. These changes 

should be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics and 

components provided by multiple native ecosystem stages.

In alternatives A, B, C, and D, the long-term effects of ecosystem management are expected to result in 

sustainable native communities and associated species. In alternative E, the long-term effects of 

management for this system are optimal; associated species’ populations should remain robust and 

potentially even expand locally and aid with the species’ sustainability regionally. 

4.4.15 Rock Outcrops 

Rock Outcrops Alternatives and Effects

Rock outcrops are native to the following units:

• Ackerman

• Bienville

• Holly Springs

• Homochitto

• Trace 

• Yalobusha

All overall ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated as very good for this system for all 

alternatives and all time intervals, but there are many data needs for this system including distribution, 

frequency, and occurrence across the Forests. 

Rock Outcrops Environmental Effects

Management activities will include low intensity prescribed fire over a relatively long interval at the same 

frequency as the surrounding matrix community and maintaining ecosystem abundance across the Forest 

over time. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to 

achieve community structures normally found in association with native ecosystems in which this 

community is embedded. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are not 

protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire will 

outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 215

Where timber operations including thinning, regeneration, and salvage operations in the wake of natural 

disturbances in the surrounding matrix community may be required, harvests may expose species and 

communities to direct mortality related to vehicle and machinery use, which may also result in some 

micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and disturbance. Herbicides may also be used during 

management of this ecosystem (including invasive species control) to establish acceptable understory 

composition and structure. Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will 

be mitigated by best management practices. The benefits to those species by managing or restoring the 

habitat will far outweigh those few casualties. Note that where this embedded ecosystem is found, it will 

be protected by National Forests in Mississippi.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals should be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities in 

surrounding matrix communities may inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire may also create 

overstory and understory conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, 

and red-imported fire ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives are 

expected to mitigate these effects to an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be 

expected. Where colonization does occur, invasive species control measures should minimize negative 

impacts. However, control measures may require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in 

unintended loss of native species.

Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires. Habitat quality 

could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural components 

(canopy levels within the Forests and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat which could 

cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural components are 

expected to increase in coverage and quality.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should result in sustainable native 

communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability 

concern should remain sustainable. 

4.4.16 Black Belt Calcareous Prairie and Woodland 

Black Belt Calcareous Prairie and Woodland Alternatives and Effects

Black belt calcareous prairie and woodland is native to the Trace Unit.

The primary key attributes and corresponding actions to assure the ecological sustainability are as 

follows: 

• Percent acres in appropriate system type (including acres restored to native system types) 

• Percent acres burned at the desired interval, seasonality and intensity 

A forestwide summary of ecological sustainability evaluation scores for black belt calcareous prairie and 

woodland by alternative is presented in figure 59.

As shown in figure 59, alternative A contributes little to the restoration of black belt calcareous prairie and 

woodlands while alternatives B, C, D, and E, are more successful achieving acceptable ratings. 

Alternative A does not allow for any restoration of the system through time. All other alternatives will 

completely restore this prairie system to appropriate acres by the first decade (figure 60).
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

216 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 59. Forestwide black belt calcareous prairie and woodland ecological sustainability 

evaluation scores

Figure 60. Black belt calcareous prairie and woodland acres by alternative

Prescribed fire, as stated previously, plays an integral part of restoring this ecosystem. Again, alternative 

A does not accomplish objectives concerning this attribute. No management of this ecosystem will be 

attempted in this alternative. All other alternatives show this system as a priority in respect to burn 

interval attaining a score of very good (figure 61). Growing season prescribed fire (figure 62), however, 

differs between alternatives. Alternatives B and C both score fair although alternative C’s actual value of 

40 percent does meet minimum desired condition. Both alternatives D and E obtain a good rating for this 

attribute.

Black Belt Calcareous Prairie and Woodland Environmental Effects

Restoration of this ecosystem to appropriate acres that have been previously converted to other system 

types or allowed to degrade, is a priority in alternatives B, C, D, and E. The future conditions of this 

ecosystem will vary little based on management intensity and scale (acres restored through time) 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 217

excluding alternative A which shows no restoration goals. Restoration and maintenance activities will 

include prescribed fire and offsite species conversion to native vegetation. 

Figure 61. Black belt calcareous prairie and woodland percent acres burned at desired 

interval

Figure 62. Black belt calcareous prairie and woodland percent acres burned during the 

growing season

Past management practices have favored less fire-tolerant communities normally associated with fire 

suppression and the introduction of offsite canopy species. Prescribed fire will alter both overstory and 

understory composition in favor of fire-tolerant and fire-dependent vegetative assemblages at the expense 

of species not normally associated with fire-adapted uplands. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less 

fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community structures normally found in 

association with this system. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are not 

protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire to 

prairie associated species and communities, will far outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.

Forest harvests of offsite species may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to 

vehicle and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure.

Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

218 National Forests in Mississippi

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing or restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals should be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat restoration.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during restoration and maintenance 

activities may inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and 

understory conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and redimported fire ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate

these effects to an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization 

does occur, invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control 

measures may require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Wildlife would benefit from restoration activities and prescribed fire through increased soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of restoration activity due to loss of 

important structural components (canopy levels within the Forests and down woody material) and 

fragmentation of habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, 

essential structural components should increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal 

community composition can be expected as restoration sites progress through time. These changes should 

be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics.

In alternatives B, C, D, and E the long-term effects of restoration, management, and maintenance of the 

ecosystem are critical to the sustainability of this system and associated species. Over time, associated 

species of regional as well as local viability concern will become increasingly sustainable. In both the first 

and fifth decades of alternative A, conditions are inadequate. 

4.4.17 Jackson Prairie and Woodland 

Jackson Prairie and Woodland Alternatives and Effects

Jackson prairie and woodland is native to the Bienville Unit.

The primary key attributes and corresponding actions to assure the ecological sustainability are as 

follows: 

• Percent acres in appropriate system type (including acres restored to native system types) 

• Percent acres burned at the desired interval, seasonality and intensity 

A forestwide summary of ecological sustainability evaluation scores for Jackson prairie and woodland by 

alternative is presented in figure 63.

As shown in figure 63, all alternative scores by decade increase to a good overall ecological sustainability 

evaluation score from a fair current score. As shown in figure 64, alternative A contributes some to the 

restoration of Jackson prairie and woodlands changing from poor overall score of percent in appropriate 

system by acres to fair by the fifth decade. Although restoration goals are met by the fifth decade, 

alternative B does not reach this attribute goal by the first decade while alternatives C, D, and E, are more 

successful achieving this by the end of the first decade.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 219

Figure 63. Forestwide Jackson prairie and woodland ecological sustainability evaluation 

scores

Figure 64. Jackson prairie and woodland acres in appropriate system by alternative

Figure 65 and figure 66 show fire regime variables by alternative. Herbaceous dominated under-stories, 

including grasses and forbs, are important attributes of healthy prairie ecosystems best achieved by the 

application of frequent growing season fire, ideally once every one to three years (desired interval). These 

data show that fire frequency and seasonality/intensity, in most cases, are well within the good to very 

good range and increase respectively from alternatives C thru E.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

220 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 65. Jackson prairie and woodland percent acres burned at desired interval by 

alternative

Figure 66. Percent Jackson prairie and woodland burned during the growing season

Prescribed fire, as stated previously, plays an integral part of restoring this ecosystem. Again, alternative 

A only reaches a good status, while all other alternatives show this system as a priority in respect to burn 

interval attaining a score of very good (figure 65). Growing season prescribed fire (figure 66), however, 

differs between alternatives. Alternatives A, B and C score fair although alternative C’s actual value of 40 

percent does meet minimum desired condition. Both alternatives D and E obtain a good rating for this 

attribute.

Jackson Prairie and Woodland Environmental Effects

The future conditions of this ecosystem will vary little based on overall score of the system when all 

variables are taken in account. Restoration of this ecosystem to appropriate acres that have been 

previously converted to other system types or allowed to degrade, though, is a priority in alternatives C, 

D, and E in the first decade while alternative B does not meet restoration goals until the fifth decade.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 221

Restoration and maintenance activities will include prescribed fire and offsite species conversion to native 

vegetation.

Past management practices have favored less fire-tolerant communities normally associated with fire 

suppression and the introduction of offsite canopy species. Prescribed fire will alter both overstory and 

understory composition in favor of fire-tolerant and fire-dependent vegetative assemblages at the expense 

of species not normally associated with fire-adapted uplands. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less 

fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community structures normally found in 

association with this system. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are not 

protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire to 

prairie associated species and communities, will far outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.

Forest harvests of offsite species may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to 

vehicle and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure.

Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing or restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals should be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat restoration.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during restoration and maintenance 

activities may inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and 

understory conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and redimported fire ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate

these effects to an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization 

does occur, invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control 

measures may require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Wildlife would benefit from restoration activities and prescribed fire through increased soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of restoration activity due to loss of 

important structural components (canopy levels within the Forests and down woody material) and 

fragmentation of habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, 

essential structural components should increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal 

community composition can be expected as restoration sites progress through time. These changes should

be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of restoration, management, and maintenance of the ecosystem 

are critical to the sustainability of this system and associated species. Over time, associated species of 

regional as well as local viability concern will become increasingly sustainable. 

4.4.18 Ephemeral ponds and emergent wetlands 

Ephemeral ponds and emergent wetlands Alternatives and Effects

Ephemeral ponds and emergent wetlands are native to the following units:

• Ackerman

• Bienville

• Chickasawhay

• De Soto
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

222 National Forests in Mississippi

• Holly Springs

• Homochitto

• Trace 

• Yalobusha

A forestwide summary of ecological sustainability evaluation scores for ephemeral ponds and emergent 

wetlands by alternative is presented in figure 67. 

Figure 67. Forestwide ephemeral ponds and emergent wetlands ecological sustainability 

evaluation scores

All overall ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated as very good for this system for all 

alternatives and all time intervals, but there are many data needs for this system including distribution, 

frequency, and occurrence across the Forests (figure 67).

Ephemeral Ponds and Emergent Wetlands Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire at the same frequency and intensity as the surrounding 

matrix community and maintaining ecosystem abundance across the Forests over time. Accordingly, some 

direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community structures 

normally found in association with native ecosystems in which this community is embedded. Where rare 

species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some 

losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during 

implementation.

Where timber and restoration operations including pond creation or restoration, thinning, and 

regeneration; and salvage operations in the wake of natural disturbances in the surrounding matrix 

community may be required; harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 223

vehicle and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used during management of this ecosystem (including invasive 

species control) to establish acceptable understory composition and structure. Negative direct impacts 

should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best management practices. The 

benefits to those species by managing or restoring the habitat will far outweigh those few casualties. Note 

that where this embedded ecosystem is found, it will be protected by the National Forests in Mississippi.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals should be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire may also create overstory and understory conditions 

favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire ants. Best 

management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to an extent 

but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, invasive 

species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may require the 

application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires. Habitat quality 

could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural components 

and fragmentation of habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, 

however, essential structural components should increase in coverage and quality.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management and protection should result in 

sustainable native communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well 

as local viability concern are expected to remain sustainable.

4.4.19 Cypress Dominated Wetlands 

Cypress Dominated Wetlands Alternatives and Effects

Cypress dominated wetlands are native to the following units:

• Bienville

• Delta

• Holly Springs

• Homochitto

• Yalobusha

A forestwide summary of ecological sustainability evaluation scores for cypress dominated wetlands by 

alternative is presented in figure 68.

All overall ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated as very good for this system for all 

alternatives and all time intervals, while units where data was available are rated as good. There are many 

data needs for this system including distribution, frequency, and occurrence across the Forests (figure 68). 

Cypress Dominated Wetlands Environmental Effects

Where restoration operations including system creation or restoration, regeneration, harvest of offsite 

species, and salvage operations in the wake of natural disturbances in the surrounding matrix community 

may be required, harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle and 

machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and disturbance. 

Herbicides may also be used during management of this ecosystem (including invasive species control) to 

establish acceptable understory composition and structure. Negative direct impacts are expected to be 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

224 National Forests in Mississippi

temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best management practices. The benefits to 

those species by managing and restoring the habitat will far outweigh those few casualties. Note that 

where this embedded ecosystem is found, it will be protected by the National Forests in Mississippi.

Figure 68. Forestwide cypress dominated wetlands ecological sustainability evaluation 

scores

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals should be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native 

invasives mitigate these effects to an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected.

Where colonization does occur, invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. 

However, control measures may require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss 

of native species.

Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural 

components and fragmentation of habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long 

term, however, essential structural components are expected to increase in coverage and quality.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management and protection should result in 

sustainable native communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well 

as local viability concern should remain sustainable. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 225

4.4.20 Wet Pine Savanna 

Wet Pine Savanna Alternatives and Effects

Wet pine savanna is native to the De Soto Unit.

The primary key attributes and corresponding actions to assure the ecological sustainability are as 

follows: 

• Percent acres in appropriate system type (including acres restored to native system types) Percent 

acres burned at the desired interval and seasonality/intensity 

A forestwide summary of ecological sustainability evaluation scores for wet pine savanna by alternative is 

presented in figure 69.

Figure 69. Forestwide wet pine savanna ecological sustainability evaluation scores

Although restoration work does begin in the first decade in some alternatives, the overall ecological 

sustainability evaluation scores were calculated as fair for all alternatives in this time frame (figure 69).

Differences between alternatives can truly be seen in the overall scores by the fifth decade showing 

alternatives A and B to be fair, alternatives D and E good, while alternative C shows the greatest 

restoration reaching very good. These values seem to be directly correlated to the primary key attributes 

and corresponding actions shown in figure 70, figure 71, and figure 72.

As stated earlier, restoration work begins in the first decade in some alternatives, but ratings did not 

change from poor during this time frame concerning percent of ecosystem in appropriate system (figure 

70). Differences between alternatives are apparent in the fifth decade showing alternatives A and B 

remaining poor, alternatives D and E increasing restoration acres to fair, while alternative C shows the 

greatest restoration efforts and reaches very good with all acres.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

226 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 70. Wet pine savanna acres in appropriate system by alternative

Figure 71. Percent of wet pine savanna burned at desired interval by alternative

Figure 71 and figure 72 show fire regime variables by alternative. Low density long leaf pine and 

herbaceous dominated under-stories, including grasses and forbs, are important attributes of healthy wet 

pine savanna ecosystems best achieved by the application of frequent fire, ideally once every one to three 

years (desired interval). Figure 71 shows that fire frequency is well within the very good range in 

alternatives B thru E while alternative A only reaches Fair. 

Prescribed fire, as stated previously, plays an integral part of restoring this ecosystem. Growing season 

prescribed fire (figure 72), however, differs between alternatives. Alternatives A, B and C score fair 

although alternative C’s actual value of 40 percent does meet minimum desired condition. Both 

alternatives D and E obtain a good rating for this attribute.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 227

Figure 72. Percent of wet pine savanna burned in the growing season by alternative

Wet Pine Savanna Environmental Effects

Restoration of this ecosystem to appropriate acres that have been previously converted to other system 

types or allowed to degrade, is a priority for this system in alternatives C, D, and E with alternative C 

having the greatest amount of restoration. The future distribution of this ecosystem on the Forests will 

vary across all alternatives based on management intensity and scale (acres restored through time). 

Restoration and maintenance activities will include prescribed fire, thinning, and offsite canopy species 

conversion to native longleaf, native herbaceous understory, and protection and in some cases restoring 

hydrologic function. 

Past management practices have favored less fire-tolerant communities normally associated with fire 

suppression and the introduction of offsite canopy species. Prescribed fire will alter both overstory and 

understory composition in favor of fire-tolerant and fire-dependent vegetative assemblages at the expense 

of species not normally associated with fire-adapted uplands. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less 

fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community structures normally found in 

association with wet pine savanna. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are 

not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire to 

longleaf-associated species and communities will far outweigh any losses incurred during 

implementation.

Forest thinning and harvests of offsite species may expose species and communities to direct mortality 

related to vehicle and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil 

compaction and disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition 

and structure. Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated 

by best management practices. The benefits to those species by managing and restoring the habitat will 

far outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat restoration.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

228 National Forests in Mississippi

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during restoration and maintenance 

activities may inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and 

understory conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to 

an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, 

invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may 

require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species. The proposed 

thinnings would reduce the average basal area of pine stands in the project area, thus reducing the risk of 

southern pine beetle infestation on National Forest System and private lands.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning, harvest, restoration and prescribed fire through increased hard and 

soft mast production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous 

expansion in response to fire and change in hydrology of the system. Prescribed burning would reduce the 

forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires. Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of 

restoration activity due to loss of important structural components (canopy levels within the Forests and 

down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term.

In the long term, however, essential structural components and hydrology should increase in coverage and 

quality. Changes in floral and faunal community composition and hydrology can be expected as 

restoration sites progress through successional stages. These changes should be gradual and are 

considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics and components provided by 

multiple seral stages.

In alternatives C, D, and E the long-term effects of restoration, management, and maintenance of the 

ecosystem are expected to be critical to the sustainability of these communities and associated species.

Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability concern will become increasingly 

sustainable and become robust and potentially expand under alternative C. In both alternatives A and B, 

conditions remain slightly inadequate; although associated species’ populations may persist for some 

time, they may be subject to gradual decline. 

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other 

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under alternatives C, D, and E. At 

any given point in time, a mosaic of structural and compositional conditions is spread across the forest 

landscape providing habitat for the full range of native species. In alternative B, the system would

gradually become excessively congested with overstory and midstory densities resulting in large-scale 

losses in abundance and diversity of important groundcover vegetation.

Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be occurring within the forest, and 

which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and communities, negative cumulative 

impacts of alternatives C, D, and E will be minor while the positive impacts will be substantial.

4.4.21 Seeps, Springs, and Seepage Swamps 

Seeps, Springs, and Seepage Swamps Alternatives and Effects

Seeps, springs, and seepage swamps are native to the following units:

• Ackerman

• Bienville

• Chickasawhay

• De Soto

• Holly Springs

• Homochitto

• Trace

• Yalobusha
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 229

A forestwide summary of ecological sustainability evaluation scores for seeps, springs, and seepage 

swamps by alternative is presented in figure 73.

All overall ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated as good for this system for all 

alternatives and all time intervals, while units where data was available are rated as good and very good 

with no differences for each between alternatives (appendix H). There are many data needs for this system 

including distribution, frequency, and occurrence across the Forests. 

Seeps, Springs, and Seepage Swamps Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire at the same frequency and intensity as the surrounding 

matrix community and maintaining ecosystem abundance across the Forests over time. Accordingly, some 

direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community structures 

normally found in association with native ecosystems in which this community is embedded although fire 

in this system would only occur during periods of drought. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are 

known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The 

benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during implementation. 

Figure 73. Forestwide seeps, springs, and seepage swamps ecological sustainability 

evaluation scores

Where timber and restoration activities in surrounding matrix communities are warranted, this ecosystem 

and its hydrology should be protected using guidelines and best management practices. Where thinning, 

regeneration, and salvage operations in the wake of natural disturbances in the surrounding matrix 

community may be required, harvests may expose some species and communities, especially those in 

transition zones, to direct mortality related to vehicle and machinery use, which may also result in some 

micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and disturbance. However, this system will be protected from 

machinery disturbance due to soil moisture and protection measures aimed at maintaining hydrologic 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

230 National Forests in Mississippi

integrity. Herbicides may also be used during management of this ecosystem (including invasive species 

control) to establish acceptable understory composition and structure. Negative direct impacts would be 

temporary and, to the extent possible, mitigated by best management practices and guidelines. The 

benefits to those species by managing and restoring the habitat will far outweigh those few casualties.

Note that where this embedded ecosystem is found, it will be protected by the National Forests in 

Mississippi.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire may also create overstory and understory conditions 

favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire ants. Best 

management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to an extent 

but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, invasive 

species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may require the 

application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires. Habitat quality 

could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural components 

and fragmentation of habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, 

however, essential structural components are expected to increase in coverage and quality.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management and protection should result in 

sustainable native communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well 

as local viability concern should remain sustainable. 

4.4.22 Herbaceous Seepage Bogs and Flats 

Herbaceous Seepage Bogs and Flats Alternatives and Effects

Herbaceous seepage bogs and flats are native to the following units:

• Chickasawhay

• De Soto

A forestwide summary of ecological sustainability evaluation scores for herbaceous seepage bogs and 

flats by alternative is presented in figure 74.

All overall ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated as very good for this system for all 

alternatives and all time intervals, while units (where data was available) are rated as good with no 

differences between alternatives (appendix H). There are many data needs for this system including 

distribution, frequency, and occurrence across the Forests.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 231

Figure 74. Forestwide herbaceous seepage bogs and flats ecological sustainability 

evaluation scores

Figure 75. Percent of herbaceous seepage bogs and flats burned at desired interval by 

alternative

Figure 75 and figure 76 show fire regime variables by alternative. Open canopy and herbaceous 

dominated understories, including grasses and forbs, are important attributes of healthy herbaceous 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

232 National Forests in Mississippi

seepage bogs and flats best achieved by the application of frequent fire, ideally once every one to three 

years (desired interval). Figure 75 shows that fire frequency is well within the very good range in 

alternatives B thru E while alternative A only reaches fair. 

Figure 76. Percent of herbaceous seepage bogs and flats burned in the growing season by 

alternative

Prescribed fire, as stated previously, plays an integral part of restoring this ecosystem. Growing season 

prescribed fire (figure 76) differs between alternatives. Alternatives A, B and C score fair although the 

actual value of alternative C, of 40 percent, does meet minimum desired condition. Both alternatives D 

and E obtain a good rating for this attribute.

Herbaceous Seepage Bogs and Flats Environmental Effects

Protection of this ecosystem is a priority in all alternatives. Restoration will be based on management 

intensity and scale (acres restored through time). Restoration and maintenance activities will include 

prescribed fire, thinning, and offsite canopy species conversion to native canopy species, native 

herbaceous understory, restoring hydrologic function, and protection of the system.

Past management practices have favored less fire-tolerant communities normally associated with fire 

suppression and the introduction of offsite canopy species. Prescribed fire will alter both overstory and 

understory composition in favor of fire-tolerant and fire-dependent vegetative assemblages at the expense 

of species not normally associated with fire-adapted uplands. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less 

fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community structures normally found in 

association with this system. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are not 

protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire to 

longleaf-associated species and communities will far outweigh any losses incurred during 

implementation.

Forest thinning and harvests of offsite species within this system and within the surrounding matrix 

communities may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle and machinery 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 233

use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and disturbance. Use of 

herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure. Negative direct 

impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best management practices. 

The benefits to those species by managing and restoring the habitat will far outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat restoration.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during restoration and maintenance 

activities may inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and 

understory conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives should mitigate these 

effects to an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does 

occur, invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures 

may require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species. The 

proposed thinnings would reduce the average basal area of pine stands in the project area, thus reducing 

the risk of southern pine beetle infestation on National Forest System and private lands.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning, harvest, restoration and prescribed fire through increased hard and 

soft mast production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous 

expansion in response to fire and change in hydrology of the system. Prescribed burning would reduce the 

forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires. Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity 

restoration activity due to loss of important structural components (canopy levels within the Forests and 

down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term.

In the long term, however, essential structural components and hydrologic function should increase in 

coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community composition and hydrology can be 

expected as restoration sites progress through successional stages. These changes should be gradual and 

are considered natural responses to the variety of habitat characteristics and components provided by 

multiple seral stages.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management and protection should result in 

sustainable native communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well 

as local viability concern should remain sustainable.

4.5 Threatened and Endangered Species 

This section covers threatened and endangered species which may require protection under the 

Endangered Species Act (36 CFR 219.16). Ecological conditions that are needed to conserve threatened 

and endangered species are provided by the forest plan components for ecosystem diversity.

The US Fish and Wildlife Service is responsible for listing proposed, threatened and endangered species.

The Forest Service cooperates with that agency’s efforts in conserving these species through protection 

and habitat management. The Forest Service conducts activities and programs to assist in the 

identification, conservation, and protection of proposed, threatened, and endangered species and their 

habitats. Site specific evaluations are conducted for any proposed activity that may take place within 

habitat for these species or near known populations. The National Forests in Mississippi threatened and 

endangered species program priorities include: 

• Implementing Forest Service actions as recommended in recovery plans for federally listed species. 

In the absence of an approved recovery plan, implement and, if necessary develop interim Forest 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

234 National Forests in Mississippi

Service guidelines and species conservation plans. Update interim guidelines and conservation plans 

as needed when new science becomes available.

• Working with the US Fish and Wildlife Service and other conservation partners to develop recovery 

plans for federally listed species and candidate conservation agreements for species proposed for 

listing.

• Coordinating with partners to implement measures to resolve conflicts with proposed, threatened, and 

endangered species and their habitats.

• Monitoring trends in population or habitat of federally listed species.

The National Forests in Mississippi used species groups as an evaluation and analysis tool to improve 

planning efficiency and for development of management strategies. Each species was grouped according 

to its habitat needs, limiting factors, threats, and specific associated habitat elements. All federally listed 

threatened and endangered species are included in species groups because although they have individual 

species requirements for management, their management is connected by ecosystem and species diversity. 

Because of the diverse habitat and protection needs of each species, an individual species may occur in 

multiple groups.

Using the ecological sustainability evaluation process, key ecological attributes and indicators were 

determined for each species group associated with this species. Algorithms were developed taking into 

account all weights, rankings, and scores associated with this species to derive composite current scores 

and estimated scores by alternative for first and fifth decade intervals. These composite scores were 

calculated aggregately across the Forests.

4.5.1 Dusky Gopher Frog 

Dusky Gopher Frog Effects and Alternatives

The dusky gopher frog is currently associated with the following species groups:

• Species sensitive to soil disturbance

• Species dependent on fire to maintain habitat

• Mature open pine-grass associates

• Terrestrial and non-riverine aquatic species sensitive to recreational traffic

• Ponds and emergent wetlands associates

• Species sensitive to hydrologic modification of wetlands

• Downed wood associates

• Stump and stump-hole associates

• Species needing occurrence protection

All overall ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated as very good for this species for all 

alternatives and all time intervals (figure 77).
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 235

Figure 77. Forestwide ecological sustainability evaluation scores for the dusky gopher frog

Dusky Gopher Frog Environmental Effects

Ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated for this species based on habitat needs and 

protection measures associated with species groups that this species was linked to. All alternatives would 

create optimal habitat conditions for the species. Direct effects of all alternatives could include mortality 

of individuals from ground disturbing activities associated with habitat management. Ground disturbing 

activities that could potentially harm Dusky gopher frogs include tree harvest during thinning operations 

and ecosystem restoration activities including longleaf conversion and creation of ephemeral ponds, 

fireline maintenance or construction, and road maintenance. Prescribed fire can also cause direct mortality 

to individuals. Direct effects to individuals can be minimized through protection of escape cover such as 

stumps and stump-holes and associated gopher tortoise burrows and following guidelines created for 

associated species groups. Timing prescribed fire to when individuals are less likely to be moving during 

a breeding period will also minimize effects to the species. A burn matrix within gopher frog habitat has 

been developed to minimize effects of prescribed fire (table 61).

Table 61. Dusky gopher frog burn matrix

Forest Service burn conditionsa Burn uplands Burn pond basin

Adult Frogs not in pond (Jan – Mar) YES NO

Adult Frogs in pond NO NO

Adult Frogs not in pond (Apr – Sep) YES YES

Burning Oct-Dec NO NO

Most (> 75%) Adult frogs left pond (>7 days since 

last movement at drift fence) YES NO

Tadpoles present and after April 1st NO NO

a - Burn parameters to be defined by Forest Service using existing standards

Generally, the indirect effects of forest management activities will be beneficial to the dusky gopher frog 

in all alternatives. In those alternatives that include the cooperative management unit, detrimental habitat 

isolation and fragmentation effects will be reduced as suitable areas enlarged and joined within the 

cooperative management unit. Population expansion will be fostered by restoration of off-site pine 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

236 National Forests in Mississippi

species, thinning of mid-successional and mature pine, prescribed fire to remove encroaching woody 

vegetation and restore herbaceous groundcover, chemical and mechanical treatment of encroaching midstory where fire is not a viable management tool. Capturing, tagging, and monitoring individuals and egg 

masses will facilitate monitoring of the population and translocation of frogs as necessary will optimize 

reproduction and population expansion.

Cumulative effects to dusky gopher frog populations over the long-term in all alternatives are expected to 

be population growth, and ultimately, recovery of the species. Management of this species and its habitat 

will be in accordance with the Endangered Species Act, cooperation with the US Fish and Wildlife 

Service, Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Parks and the Dusky Gopher Frog Recovery 

Team. When a recovery plan is written, it will be incorporated into management of this species on the 

National Forests in Mississippi.

Dusky Gopher Frog Cooperative Management Unit Alternatives and Effects

Alternative B does not incorporate the dusky gopher frog cooperative management unit while all other 

alternatives adopt the cooperative management unit described above. Establishing a cooperative 

management unit in alternatives A, C, D, and E allows an ecosystem approach to this species’ recovery.

There should be no direct and indirect effects of establishing boundaries of a cooperative management 

unit. Direct and indirect effects of management within the cooperative management unit will not change 

by alternative although management intensity may. Effects of ecosystem management will be further 

discussed within ecosystem and species sections of this document. Cumulative effects of establishing a 

cooperative management unit should be positive for all alternatives. The ecosystem approach would 

provide needed habitat restoration and species management at the landscape level which should help in 

successful dispersal of the species.

Dusky Gopher Frog Critical Habitat Effects and Alternatives

All alternatives would create optimal habitat conditions for the dusky gopher frog and designated critical 

habitat. Direct effects of all alternatives on critical habitat could include habitat alteration associated with 

habitat management. Ground disturbing activities include tree harvest during thinning operations and 

ecosystem restoration activities including longleaf conversion and creation of ephemeral ponds, fireline 

maintenance or construction, and road maintenance. Prescribed fire can also directly affect critical habitat

through creation of grassy understory and minimizing a woody midstory thus creating a more open 

condition. Any negative direct effects can be minimized through protection of escape cover such as 

stumps and stump-holes and associated gopher tortoise burrows and following guidelines created for 

associated species groups.

Generally, the indirect effects of forest management activities will be beneficial to the dusky gopher frog 

in all alternatives. Detrimental habitat isolation and fragmentation effects will be reduced as suitable areas 

are enlarged and joined within critical habitat. Population expansion will be fostered by restoration of offsite pine species, thinning of mid-successional and mature pine, prescribed fire to remove encroaching 

woody vegetation and restore herbaceous groundcover, chemical and mechanical treatment of 

encroaching mid-story where fire is not a viable management tool. 

Cumulative effects to dusky gopher frog critical habitat over the long-term in all alternatives are expected 

to be conversion of areas to suitable habitat for the species and management of this critical habitat, and 

ultimately, recovery of the species. Management of this habitat will be in accordance with the Endangered 

Species Act, cooperation with the US Fish and Wildlife Service, Mississippi Department of Wildlife, 

Fisheries and Parks and the Dusky Gopher Frog Recovery Team. When a recovery plan is written, it will 

be incorporated into management of critical habitat on the National Forests in Mississippi.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 237

Mississippi Sandhill Crane Effects and Alternatives

The Mississippi sandhill crane is currently associated with the following species groups:

• Terrestrial and non-riverine aquatic species sensitive to recreational traffic

• Wet pine savanna associates

• Ponds and emergent wetlands associates

• Species sensitive to hydrologic modification of wetlands

• Species dependent on fire to maintain habitat

• Species needing occurrence protection

All overall ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated for Mississippi sandhill crane for 

all alternatives and time intervals (figure 78). All alternatives rate as good for sandhill crane by the first 

decade while alternatives C, D, and E obtain a very good rating by the fifth decade.

Figure 78. Forestwide ecological sustainability evaluation scores for the Mississippi sandhill 

crane

Mississippi Sandhill Crane Environmental Effects

Although breeding populations of this species do not currently occur on the Forests, it is possible that 

some areas of the southeastern portion of the De Soto Ranger District have been used for foraging 

purposes. Ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated for this species based on habitat 

needs and protection measures associated with species groups that this species was linked to. All 

alternatives would create acceptable habitat conditions during the first decade while alternatives C, D, and 

E would create optimal habitat conditions for the species. Direct effects to Mississippi sandhill crane, in 

the form of fatalities to individual birds, are not likely to occur through management actions and activities 

occurring on the National Forests in Mississippi.

Generally, the indirect effects of forest management activities will be beneficial to the Mississippi sandhill 

crane in all alternatives. In those alternatives that include the cooperative management unit, detrimental 

habitat isolation and fragmentation effects could be reduced as suitable areas are enlarged and joined 

within the cooperative management unit. Population expansion to the National Forests in Mississippi 

could be fostered by restoration of off-site pine species, thinning of mid-successional and mature pine to 

desired wet pine savanna conditions, protection of hydrologic function, prescribed fire to remove 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

238 National Forests in Mississippi

encroaching woody vegetation and restore herbaceous groundcover, and chemical and mechanical 

treatment of encroaching mid-story where fire is not a viable management tool.

Cumulative effects to Mississippi sandhill crane populations over the long-term in all alternatives are 

expected to be population expansion, and ultimately, recovery of the species. Management of this species 

and its habitat will be in accordance with the Endangered Species Act and the most current US Fish and 

Wildlife Service recovery plan will be incorporated into management of this species on the National 

Forests in Mississippi as populations occur.

Mississippi Sandhill Crane Cooperative Management Unit Alternatives and Effects

Alternative B does not incorporate the Mississippi sandhill crane cooperative management unit while all 

other alternatives adopt the cooperative management unit described above. Establishing a cooperative 

management unit in alternatives A, C, D, and E allows an ecosystem approach to this species’ recovery.

There should be no direct and indirect effects of establishing boundaries of a cooperative management 

unit. Direct and indirect effects of management within the cooperative management unit will not change 

by alternative and effects of ecosystem management will be further discussed within ecosystem and 

species sections of this document. The amount of restoration within this cooperative management unit 

does change between alternatives and is shown in the ecosystem section of this document. Cumulative 

effects of establishing a cooperative management unit should be positive for all alternatives. The 

ecosystem approach would provide for nesting and foraging habitat and should allow Mississippi sandhill 

crane social interaction at the landscape level which should help in successful dispersal of the species.

Inclusion of private in holdings within cooperative management unit boundaries may lead to some habitat 

fragmentation, but it should not lead to demographic isolation.

4.5.2 Red-cockaded Woodpecker 

Red-cockaded Woodpecker Effects and Alternatives

The red-cockaded woodpecker is currently associated with the following species groups:

• Mature open pine-grass associates

• Den tree associates

• Xeric sandhill associates

• Terrestrial and non-riverine aquatic species sensitive to recreational traffic

• Species dependent on fire to maintain habitat

• Species needing occurrence protection
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 239

Figure 79. Forestwide ecological sustainability evaluation scores for the red-cockaded 

woodpecker

All overall ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated as good for this species for all 

alternatives and all time intervals except alternative A which exhibits a fair rating by the fifth decade 

(figure 79).

Red-cockaded Woodpecker Environmental Effects

Ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated for this species based on habitat needs and 

protection measures associated with species groups that this species was linked to. All alternatives would 

create acceptable habitat conditions for the species during the first decade. Each alternative maintains this 

condition except for alternative A where conditions are slightly inadequate. Direct effects to red-cockaded 

woodpeckers could include mortality of individuals during capture, handling, translocation, or prescribed 

fire. Prescribed fire, even when employed within prescription and revised recovery plan guidelines, could 

result in the loss of individuals if nest trees are burned during nesting season. The revised recovery plan 

increases the protection standard (area raked around each roost tree); therefore, the potential for mortality 

to red-cockaded woodpeckers during nesting season due to prescribed fire is deemed insignificant and 

discountable, with standard mitigations given in the recovery plan. Losses of individual cavity trees to fire 

can be compensated by installation of artificial cavities. Avoidance of prescribed fires during the nesting 

season is not recommended, since nesting season coincides with timing favorable for other important 

ecological fire effects.

Indirect effects to red-cockaded woodpeckers occur at the landscape level and at the population level.

There will be beneficial effects from the habitat management actions to red-cockaded woodpecker 

habitats and populations. Detrimental habitat isolation and fragmentation effects will be reduced as 

suitable habitat areas are enlarged and joined across the habitat management areas. Population expansion 

will be fostered by: restoration of off-site pine stands with native pine species; regeneration of limited 

mature pine stands with retention of potential roost trees; thinning of mid-successional and mature pine 

and pine-hardwood stands; prescribed fire to remove encroaching woody vegetation and restore 

herbaceous groundcovers; chemical and mechanical treatment of encroaching mid-story where fire is not 

a viable management tool; installation of artificial roosting and nesting cavities; protection of artificial 

and natural cavities from competitors through the installation of excluder devices; capture, banding and 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

240 National Forests in Mississippi

monitoring of individual birds to facilitate monitoring of the population; and translocation of birds as 

necessary to optimize annual reproduction.

Cumulative effects to red-cockaded woodpecker populations over the long-term (all alternatives) are 

expected to be population growth at rates prescribed in the recovery plan, recovery plan population 

objective attainment, and ultimately, recovery of the species. Management of red-cockaded woodpecker 

populations will be according to the most recent recovery plan and will not vary by alternative. Habitat 

management areas for red-cockaded woodpeckers have been established through direction in the EIS 

Record of Decision and the most current recovery plan. 

Beneficial management actions required to implement the current recovery plan include:

• Harvesting timber, including thinning and regeneration; 

• Using mechanical and chemical methods and prescribed fire for control of mid-story and hardwood 

encroachment; 

• Installing artificial roosting and nesting cavities; 

• protecting artificial and natural cavities from competitors through the installation of excluder devices; 

• capturing, banding, and monitoring individual birds; 

• translocating birds from donor populations to recipient populations; and 

• Translocating birds intra-population, as necessary to optimize annual reproduction.

Protective measures required under the recovery plan for habitat management include: 

• Protecting active and inactive cavity trees within burn units; 

• Establishing rotation ages of not less than 120 years for shortleaf pine; 

• limiting regeneration area size; and 

• limiting the operable season to avoid nesting and brood-rearing periods in active clusters. 

Potential risks to individuals after full implementation of protective measures are insignificant and 

discountable. Additional site-specific analysis would be conducted on all projects with the potential to 

affect this species.

Red-cockaded Woodpecker Habitat Management Areas

Red-cockaded Woodpecker Habitat Management Area Alternatives and Effects

The red-cockaded woodpecker has become a symbol of the native, mature and old growth, fire 

maintained open pineland ecosystems that previously covered much of the landscape in the southeastern 

states. Over the last 20 years, the habits and habitat of the red-cockaded woodpecker have been 

extensively studied, and scientists have found that it is one of the best, and to the trained eye, most visible 

indicators of a healthy longleaf pine forest. Presence of the red-cockaded woodpecker is a good sign that 

other plant and animal species native to these forests, such as the gopher tortoise, the pine snake, 

Bachman’s sparrow, and the brown-headed nuthatch to name just a few, will most likely be present as 

well.

Much of the vegetative manipulation (prescribed burning, timber harvest or thinning, hardwood mid-story 

control, etc.) done in pine forests on the National Forests in Mississippi is done specifically to benefit redcockaded woodpeckers. Assuring that the most appropriate management is utilized in planning and 

implementing these projects is critical to optimizing habitat for red-cockaded woodpeckers and for 

associated residents of longleaf pine communities.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 241

Alternative B retains and establishes the tentative habitat management area boundaries described in the 

Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Management of Red-cockaded Woodpecker and it’s habitat 

on National Forest lands in the Southern Region (1995) while all other alternatives adopt the revised 

habitat management area delineations described above. Establishing habitat management areas in all 

alternatives allows an ecosystem approach to red-cockaded woodpecker recovery. Habitat management 

area size is dependent on population objectives and habitat quality. Habitat management areas should 

contain contiguous blocks of suitable habitat. This is why, for example, in alternatives A, C, D, and E, the 

entire Chickasawhay District is included, excluding only the habitat not conducive to the species and its 

survival. The continuity of red-cockaded woodpecker habitat over large areas should preclude isolation of 

clusters and allow for dispersal of red-cockaded woodpecker across the landscape. Since the delineation 

of tentative habitat management areas included in alternative B, better information concerning redcockaded woodpecker population demographics and understanding of ecosystem management and 

sustainability on the National Forests in Mississippi has been acquired; which is why the tentative habitat 

management areas were revised for all other alternatives. There should be no direct and indirect effects of 

establishing boundaries of habitat management areas. Direct and indirect effects of management within 

habitat management areas will not change by alternative and effects of ecosystem management will be 

further discussed within ecosystem and species sections of this document. Cumulative effects of 

establishing habitat management areas should be positive for all alternatives. The ecosystem approach 

would provide for nesting and foraging habitat and should allow red-cockaded woodpecker social 

interaction at the landscape level which should help in successful dispersal of sub-adults. Inclusion of 

private in holdings within habitat management area boundaries may lead to some habitat fragmentation, 

but it should not lead to demographic isolation.

4.5.3 Gulf Sturgeon 

Gulf Sturgeon Effects and Alternatives

The Gulf sturgeon is currently associated with the following species groups:

• Aquatic species sensitive to stream sediment 

• Aquatic species sensitive to stream toxins 

• Species sensitive to modification of instream flow

• Aquatic species sensitive to non-point source pollution

• Aquatic species sensitive to non-native invasive species

• Riverine aquatic species sensitive to recreational traffic

All overall ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated as good for this species for all 

alternatives and all time intervals (figure 80).
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

242 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 80. Forestwide ecological sustainability evaluation scores for the Gulf sturgeon

Gulf Sturgeon Environmental Effects

Ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated for this species based on habitat needs that the 

National Forests in Mississippi can actually provide for this species and protection measures associated 

with species groups that this species was linked to. All alternatives are conducive to acceptable habitat 

conditions for the species during all time intervals.

No direct effects from management in all alternatives are anticipated. Most hydrologic alterations on 

National Forests in Mississippi watersheds occur on privately owned adjacent lands and are outside of 

Forest Service control. The National Forests in Mississippi are not expected to contribute negative 

impacts to hydrologic regimes. The National Forests in Mississippi do not contribute to nor manage for 

non-point source pollution therefore no effects to this species are anticipated. Forest activities, such as 

thinning, regeneration, prescribed fire, and oil and gas leasing may contribute temporary low levels of 

sediment risk. Maintenance of National Forest System roads contribute varying levels of elevated 

sediment depending on slope, elevation, aspect, soil type, and road management regimes. Since many 

National Forest System roads are important for public and intra-agency access, these effects are unlikely 

to abate significantly. In other cases, National Forest System roads may fall under shared jurisdiction with 

other agencies and entities. Here again, these impacts are unlikely to abate significantly. Some forest 

management practices may require the application of herbicides and pesticides which may impact aquatic 

systems. In most watersheds, the Forests’ sediment contributions are minor when compared to 

neighboring land uses. Cumulatively, sedimentation and herbicide and pesticides from the National 

Forests in Mississippi are predicted to have no or discountable effects on Gulf sturgeon habitat due to 

forestwide standards and guidelines designed to protect water quality and aquatic habitats. In all cases, 

best management practices and guidelines intended to minimize sediment risk levels should minimize 

risks to this species. With protective measures and guidelines implemented, all alternatives will have no 

direct effects and insignificant indirect and cumulative effects on the Gulf sturgeon.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 243

4.5.4 Pallid Sturgeon 

Pallid Sturgeon Effects and Alternatives

The Pallid sturgeon is currently associated with the following species groups:

• Aquatic species sensitive to stream sediment 

• Aquatic species sensitive to stream toxins 

• Species sensitive to modification of in-stream flow

• Aquatic species sensitive to non-point source pollution

• Aquatic species sensitive to non-native invasive species

• Riverine aquatic species sensitive to recreational traffic

All overall ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated as fair for this species for all 

alternatives and all time intervals (figure 81).

Figure 81. Forestwide ecological sustainability evaluation scores for the pallid sturgeon

Pallid Sturgeon Environmental Effects

Ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated for this species based on habitat needs that the 

National Forests in Mississippi can actually provide for this species and protection measures associated 

with species groups that this species was linked to. The resulting scores of the analysis described above, 

which are measured watershed-wide regardless of ownership profiles, result in a fair rating for current 

status and all alternatives. These scores were calculated based on the spatial extent of each watershed in 

non-forested land uses, particularly urban and agricultural areas. These scores are at a lower level due to 

non-point source pollution and stream toxin levels. While neighboring landowners may contribute 

varying and unpredictable levels of risk to watershed health, the National Forests in Mississippi will 

continue to maintain a positive contribution to aquatic sustainability. As a result, watershed health is 

expected to remain relatively stable, at least to the extent that the National Forests in Mississippi can 

control based on ownership profiles. National Forests in Mississippi lands do not contribute to non-point 

source or stream toxin risk levels therefore no effects are anticipated.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

244 National Forests in Mississippi

No direct effects from management in all alternatives are anticipated. Most hydrologic alterations on the 

Forests watersheds occur on privately owned adjacent lands and are outside of Forest Service control. The 

National Forests in Mississippi are not expected to contribute negative impacts to hydrologic regimes.

The Forests do not contribute to nor manage for non-point source pollution therefore no effects to this 

species from Forest Service activities are anticipated. Forest activities, such as thinning, regeneration, 

prescribed fire, and oil and gas leasing may contribute temporary low levels of sediment risk.

Maintenance of National Forest System roads contribute varying levels of elevated sediment depending 

on slope, elevation, aspect, soil type, and road management regimes. Since many National Forest System 

roads are important for public and intra-agency access, these effects are unlikely to abate significantly. In 

other cases, National Forest System roads may fall under shared jurisdiction with other agencies and 

entities. Here again, these impacts are unlikely to abate significantly. Some forest management practices 

may require the application of herbicides and pesticides which may impact aquatic systems. In most 

watersheds, the Forests’ sediment contributions are minor when compared to neighboring land uses.

Cumulatively, sedimentation and herbicide and pesticides from the National Forests in Mississippi is 

predicted to have no or discountable effects on pallid sturgeon habitat due to forestwide standards and 

guidelines designed to protect water quality and aquatic habitats. In all cases, best management practices 

and guidelines intended to minimize sediment risk levels should minimize risks to this species. With 

protective measures and guidelines implemented, all alternatives will have no direct effects and 

insignificant indirect and cumulative effects on the pallid sturgeon.

4.5.5 Louisiana Black Bear 

Louisiana Black Bear Effects and Alternatives

The Louisiana black bear is currently associated with the following species groups:

• Den tree associates

• Mature riparian forest associates

• Terrestrial and non-riverine aquatic species sensitive to recreational traffic

All overall ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated as good for this species for all 

alternatives and all time intervals (figure 82). Although small fluctuations do occur between the first and 

fifth decades in all alternatives, the differences are insignificant and are expected over time with varying 

management strategies.

Louisiana Black Bear Environmental Effects

Ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated for this species based on habitat needs that the 

National Forests in Mississippi can actually provide for this species and protection measures associated 

with species groups that this species was linked to. All alternatives are conducive to acceptable habitat 

conditions for the species during all time intervals. 

Direct effects of all alternatives could include temporary disturbance, possible displacement of bears and 

prey species, and loss of potential den trees during forest management activities. Direct effects to 

individuals will be minimized through protection of the species, following the most current recovery plan, 

and following guidelines created for associated species groups. Guidelines to protect this individual 

species were also created and are as follows:

• For as long as they remain suitable, known black bear den sites should be protected by prohibiting 

vegetation management and ground-disturbing activities within a minimum of 100 feet around the 

den.
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National Forests in Mississippi 245

• Potential black bear den trees should be retained during all vegetation management treatments 

occurring in habitats suitable for bears. Potential den trees are those that are greater than 36 inches 

d.b.h. containing visible cavities.

Figure 82. Forestwide ecological sustainability evaluation scores for the Louisiana black 

bear

Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of development activity due to loss of important structural 

components (canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat 

which could cause indirect effects. The benefits to Louisiana black bears by managing and restoring the 

habitat will far outweigh any negative effects.

Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of development activity due to loss of important structural 

components (canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat 

which could cause indirect effects. Cumulatively, implementation of any alternative is predicted to have 

no or discountable negative effects on Louisiana black bear due to forestwide standards, guidelines, and 

direction which were designed to protect the species and restore its habitat. With protective measures and 

guidelines implemented, all alternatives will have insignificant negative direct, indirect, and cumulative 

effects on the Louisiana black bear. 

4.5.6 Gopher Tortoise 

Gopher Tortoise Effects and Alternatives

The gopher tortoise is currently associated with the following species groups:

• Species sensitive to soil disturbance

• Species dependent on fire to maintain habitat

• Mature open pine-grass associates

• Terrestrial and non-riverine aquatic species sensitive to recreational traffic

• Xeric sandhill associates

• Species needing occurrence protection
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

246 National Forests in Mississippi

All overall ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated as good for this species for all 

alternatives and all time intervals (figure 83). Although small fluctuations do occur between the first and 

fifth decades in all alternatives, the differences are insignificant and are expected over time with varying 

management strategies.

Figure 83. Forestwide ecological sustainability evaluation scores for the gopher tortoise

Gopher Tortoise Environmental Effects

Ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated for this species based on habitat needs and 

protection measures associated with species groups that this species was linked to. All alternatives would 

create acceptable habitat conditions for the species. Direct effects of all alternatives could include 

mortality of individuals from ground disturbing activities associated with habitat management. Ground 

disturbing activities that could potentially harm gopher tortoises include tree harvest during thinning 

operations and ecosystem restoration activities including longleaf conversion, fireline maintenance and 

construction, and road maintenance. Prescribed fire can also cause direct mortality to individuals. Direct 

effects to individuals can be minimized through protection of escape cover such as gopher tortoise 

burrows and following guidelines created for associated species groups.

Generally, the indirect effects of forest management activities will be beneficial to the gopher tortoise in 

all alternatives. Population expansion will be fostered by restoration of off-site pine species, thinning of 

mid-successional and mature pine, prescribed fire to remove encroaching woody vegetation and restore 

herbaceous groundcover, and chemical and mechanical treatment of encroaching mid-story where fire is 

not a viable management tool.

Cumulative effects to gopher tortoise populations over the long-term in all alternatives are expected to be 

population growth, and ultimately, recovery of the species. Management of this species and its habitat will 

be in accordance with the Endangered Species Act, cooperation with the US Fish and Wildlife Service, 

Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Parks and the Mississippi National Guard on Camp 

Shelby. The most current recovery plan will be incorporated into management of this species on the 

National Forests in Mississippi.
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National Forests in Mississippi 247

4.5.7 Louisiana Quillwort 

Louisiana Quillwort Effects and Alternatives

The Louisiana quillwort is currently associated with the following species groups:

• Species sensitive to soil disturbance

• Mature riparian forest associates

• Seeps, springs, and seepage swamp associates

• Terrestrial and non-riverine aquatic species sensitive to recreational traffic

• Aquatic species sensitive to stream sediment

• Species sensitive to modification of in-stream flow

• Aquatic species sensitive to non-point source pollution

• Aquatic species sensitive to non-native invasive species

• Pine flatwood associates

• Species sensitive to hydrologic modification of wetlands

• Species dependent on fire to maintain habitat

• Species sensitive to canopy cover modifications

• Species needing occurrence protection

All overall ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated as good for this species for all 

alternatives and all time intervals (figure 84).

Louisiana Quillwort Environmental Effects

Ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated for this species based on habitat needs and 

protection measures associated with species groups that this species was linked to. All alternatives would 

create acceptable habitat conditions for the species. No direct effects from management in all alternatives 

are anticipated. Louisiana quillwort would be protected according to measures in the most current 

Louisiana Quillwort Recovery Plan and site-specific conditions based upon input from the US Fish and 

Wildlife Service. 

Figure 84. Forestwide ecological sustainability evaluation scores for the Louisiana quillwort
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

248 National Forests in Mississippi

Most hydrologic alterations on the National Forests in Mississippi watersheds occur on privately owned 

adjacent lands and are outside of Forest Service control. The Forests are not expected to contribute 

negative impacts to hydrologic regimes. The Forests do not contribute to nor manage for non-point source 

pollution therefore no effects to this species are anticipated. Forest activities, such as thinning, 

regeneration, prescribed fire, and oil and gas leasing may cause indirect effects contributing temporary 

low levels of sediment risk. Maintenance of National Forest System roads also contribute varying levels 

of elevated sediment depending on slope, elevation, aspect, soil type, and road management regimes.

Since many National Forest System roads are important for public and intra-agency access, these effects 

are unlikely to abate significantly. In other cases, National Forest System roads may fall under shared 

jurisdiction with other agencies and entities. Here again, these impacts are unlikely to abate significantly.

Some forest management practices may require the application of herbicides and pesticides which also 

may impact aquatic systems. In most watersheds, the Forests’ sediment contributions are minor when 

compared to neighboring land uses. Cumulatively, the Forests’ management is predicted to have no or 

discountable effects on Louisiana quillwort habitat due to forestwide standards and guidelines designed to 

protect water quality and aquatic habitats, minimize sediment risk levels, and protect species occurrence 

should minimize risks to this species. With protective measures and guidelines implemented, all 

alternatives will have no direct effects and insignificant indirect and cumulative effects on the Louisiana 

Quillwort.

4.5.8 Pondberry 

Pondberry Effects and Alternatives

The pondberry is currently associated with the following species groups:

• Species sensitive to soil disturbance

• Mature riparian forest associates

• Terrestrial and non-riverine aquatic species sensitive to recreational traffic

• Species sensitive to canopy cover modification

• Species sensitive to hydrologic modification of wetlands

• Species needing occurrence protection

All overall ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated as good for this species for all 

alternatives and all time intervals (figure 85).
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 249

Figure 85. Forestwide ecological sustainability evaluation scores for the pondberry

Pondberry Environmental Effects

Ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated for this species based on habitat needs and 

protection measures associated with species groups that this species was linked to. All alternatives would 

create optimal habitat conditions for the species. No direct effects from management in all alternatives are 

anticipated. Pondberry would be protected according to measures in the most current recovery plan and 

site-specific conditions based upon input from the US Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Direct effects of all alternatives could include mortality of individuals from ground disturbing activities 

associated with habitat management. Ground disturbing activities that could potentially harm pondberry 

include tree harvest during thinning operations and restoration during ecosystem management operations.

Direct effects to individuals can be minimized through protection of individuals and following guidelines 

created for associated species groups and the species’ recovery plan guidance.

Generally, the indirect effects of forest management activities will be beneficial to pondberry due to the 

increase of forest health and habitat quality through ecosystem management.

Cumulative effects to pondberry populations over the long-term in all alternatives are expected to be 

population growth, and ultimately, recovery of the species. Management of this species and its habitat will 

be in accordance with the Endangered Species Act and cooperation with the US Fish and Wildlife Service

and Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Parks. The most current recovery plan will be 

incorporated into management of this species on the National Forests in Mississippi.

With protective measures and guidelines implemented, all alternatives will have insignificant direct, 

indirect, and cumulative effects on the pondberry.

4.5.9 Indiana Bat 

Indiana Bat Effects and Alternatives

The Indiana bat is currently associated with the following species groups:
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

250 National Forests in Mississippi

• Species sensitive to fire injury

• Mature riparian forest associates

• Terrestrial and non-riverine aquatic species sensitive to recreational traffic

• Species sensitive to canopy cover modification

• Species needing occurrence protection

• Snag associates

• Den tree associates

• Bat roost structure group

• Open water associates

• Cypress dominated wetlands associates

• Mature mesic deciduous forest associates

• Mature open pine-grass associates

• Ponds and emergent wetlands associates

All overall ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated as good for this species for all 

alternatives and all time intervals (figure 85).

Figure 86. Forestwide ecological sustainability evaluation scores for the Indiana bat

Indiana Bat Environmental Effects

Ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated for this species based on habitat needs and 

protection measures associated with species groups that this species was linked to. All alternatives would 

create optimal habitat conditions for the species. Indiana bat would be protected according to measures in 

the most current recovery plan and site-specific conditions based upon input from the US Fish and 

Wildlife Service. 

This analysis is programmatic in that it deals only with revised Forest Plan direction, as established within 

various Prescription Areas including; Desired Future Conditions, Goals, Objectives and associated 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 251

Standards and Guidelines that provide limitations on management activities for the protection or 

enhancement of threatened and endangered species, their habitats and other resource needs. All actions 

authorized and proposed under the revised Forest Plan are subject to second level, site-specific analysis 

and subsequent Endangered Species Act Section 7 consultation with the US Fish and Wildlife Service

through the Biological Assessment/Biological Evaluation process. 

Potential habitat (forests with trees having exfoliating bark) exists and contains tree species of the size 

and type known to be used by the Indiana bat. The retention of snags, shagbark hickory, and hollow trees 

will allow for potential Indiana bat roost sites. Decreasing canopy closure as occurs with timber 

management and prescribed fire activities will increase the degree of exposure of some potential 

maternity roost trees to solar radiation, providing improved thermal conditions for raising young during a 

wide range of weather conditions. Pond/waterhole construction and management will increase the number 

of upland water sources available for Indiana bats. Persistence of early successional habitats and forests 

with an open understory and patchy overstory would create insect-rich foraging areas and flight corridors 

leading to any potential roost trees. Harvesting would produce a mosaic of regeneration areas intermixed 

with mature and late successional forests. Likewise prescribed fire would also create a mosaic of forest 

habitat conditions resulting from varying fire intensities. This will indirectly benefit Indiana bats by 

providing feeding areas since bats are known to forage within the canopy openings of upland forests, over 

clearings with early successional vegetation, and over ponds. 

The direction contained in the Forest Plan should provide programmatic, long-term benefits to Indiana bat 

populations on the National Forests in Mississippi. While the Holly Springs Ranger District is recognized 

as potentially providing suitable habitat, long term management actions on the District should move the 

habitat conditions toward the desired future condition and provide beneficial effects to the Indiana bat. 

Forest Plan Standards and Guidelines provide additional protective measures and/or habitat enhancement 

direction. 

Potential negative impacts to the Indiana bat could occur from the slight chance that individuals or small 

groups of roosting bats (including summer maternity colonies) could be unintentionally taken by the 

intentional felling of live trees harboring undetected roosts (e.g. dead limbs with loose bark, small cavities 

in the boles, or naturally occurring exfoliating plate bark conditions exhibited by some tree species), or by 

the accidental felling of occupied snags, or damaged or hollow trees during timber harvest or other 

activities. Although the likelihood is very low, tree-cutting activities could result in the inadvertent loss of 

individual Indiana bats or small groups of Indiana bats, via removal of some large-diameter trees 

occupied by bats during the period from approximately April 1 to September 15. 

Potential negative impacts to the Indiana bat could also occur from prescribed burning activities on the 

National Forests in Mississippi. Prescribed burning activities have increased over the past several years 

and this activity will become more prevalent during the next decade. The revised Forest Plan anticipates 

this increase to continue with perhaps between 13,000 to 24,000 acres being burned each year. Most of 

these burns will occur during the winter and spring with some occurring during the late summer and early 

fall. Indiana bats roosting in trees could be negatively affected by either smoke or heat from the 

prescribed burn. 

Cumulative effects are those effects of future State, local, or private actions that are reasonably certain to 

occur within the action area of the National Forests in Mississippi. This environmental impact statement

addresses only those activities that are authorized by the revised Forest Plan on lands that are under the 

jurisdiction of the USDA Forest Service. Thus, any future State, local or private actions that could 

potentially occur on the National Forests in Mississippi would require a permit from the USDA Forest 

Service and will require compliance with the consultation provisions of Section 7 of the Endangered 

Species Act. There are no State, local or private actions reasonably certain to occur as a result of 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

252 National Forests in Mississippi

implementation of the revised Forest Plan. Therefore, cumulative effects, as defined by the Endangered 

Species Act, will not occur.

4.6 Terrestrial Species Groups Covered by Ecological 

System Sustainability Forest Plan Components

The National Forests in Mississippi used species groups as an evaluation and analysis tool to improve 

planning efficiency and for development of management strategies. Species were grouped according to 

their habitat needs, limiting factors, threats, and specific habitat elements (snags, den trees, woody debris, 

etc.). All federally listed threatened and endangered species are included in species groups because 

although they have individual species requirements for management, their management is connected with 

ecosystem and species diversity. Many threatened and endangered, regional forester’s sensitive, locally 

rare, and demand species occurred in multiple groups.

Initial groupings of species were at a broad spatial scale and were based on similar habitats associated 

with ecological systems. Each group was analyzed by species, and determinations made on whether 

species needs were fully met by forest plan components for the associated ecological systems. The 

ecological system sustainability components were described in section 3.5.1. These groups and the 

ecological system(s) with which they are associated are listed in appendix G. Species to group 

relationships were weighted from “very high” to “low” with higher ratings indicative of indispensable 

relationships between species and the habitat attributes targeted by a given group.

Road and trail density is an important aspect of these data that is unlikely to change or improve over time.

Many roads that cross the Forests’ lands are administered under the jurisdiction of local, State, and other 

Federal entities and are therefore, outside of the control of the National Forests in Mississippi. Roads and 

trails administered by the Forests are in most cases considered essential to public access. While some 

roads and trails may be gated and rehabilitated if considered unessential to the public good, the overall 

road and trail density scores among all alternatives will change little due to the statistical weight of roads 

outside the Forests’ jurisdiction. While road densities are a concern in some instances, in many cases road 

and trail ecological sustainability evaluation scores are already in the good or very good range which is 

expected to continue to contribute to ecological sustainability on National Forest System lands. 

4.6.1 Cypress Dominated Wetlands Associates

These species are generally associated with swamps that are dominated by cypress and require intact 

hydrologic function of this system. A list of targeted species associated with this species group can be 

found in appendix G. Of the listed species, only the cypress-knee sedge is dependent on the presence of 

cypress trees. Headcutting is threatening hydrologic integrity of two of the better known examples on the 

Forests (Holly Springs and Homochitto National Forests). It is assumed that sustainable populations will 

continue as long as there is permanently flooded cypress-gum forest with hydrologic integrity.

Headcutting or other events leading to drainage and sedimentation from adjacent uplands may prevent 

management for sustainable populations of these species, and rapid assessment protocols should be 

designed to measure sustainability of cypress dominated wetland associates. Relative abundance of 

cypress dominated wetland ecological systems and restoration and maintenance of hydrologic integrity 

are key characteristics for this species group. Planting of cypress may be necessary to restore some of 

these sites. Forest plan components include desired conditions for cypress dominated wetlands and 

guidelines for vegetation and wildlife; soil and water; roads; herbicides; and administration, facilities, and 

recreation.

Depending on past history of disturbance and other factors, bald cypress may occur with other species 

such as black gum, water tupelo, green ash, ironwood and red maple. Cypress dominated wetlands may be 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 253

found throughout the Forests, but due to inconsistencies in past mapping practices there is no current 

accurate estimate of the amount of acreage in this type. Current condition of this type on the forest is 

probably relatively young forest growing back from harvest in the early part of this century. Several key 

locations are at risk due to headcutting of streams threatening to drain the wetland, while other locations 

have been harvested without successful cypress regeneration and await restoration.

Algorithms in the ecological sustainability evaluation tool were developed taking into account all weights, 

rankings, and scores associated with this species group to derive composite current scores and estimated 

scores by alternative for first and fifth decade intervals. These composite scores were calculated at both 

the unit level and aggregately across the Forests. A forestwide species group by alternative summary of 

these scores is not presented since composite scores did not change across alternatives or time interval.

Due to small amount of acreage of this rare community and inadequate mapping (they are usually mapped 

as inclusions inside a larger stand) and that stands containing cypress are to be managed as old growth, 

effects are the same across all alternatives. No charts are presented because there is no change across 

alternatives for the species in this group.

Cypress Dominated Wetlands Associates Alternatives and Effects

All overall ecological sustainability evaluation scores were calculated as very good for this system for all 

alternatives and all time intervals, while units where data was available are rated as good. There are many 

data needs for this system including location and aerial extent of occurrences of the system across the 

Forest. 

Cypress Dominated Wetlands Associates Environmental Effects

Restoration operations including system creation and restoration, regeneration, harvest of offsite species, 

and salvage operations in the wake of natural disturbances in the surrounding matrix community may be 

required in some cases. Where restoration occurs, harvests may expose species and communities to direct 

mortality related to vehicle and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to 

soil compaction and disturbance. Herbicides may also be used during management of this ecosystem 

(including invasive species control) to establish acceptable understory composition and structure.

Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing and restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties. Note that where this embedded ecosystem is found, it will be protected by 

the National Forests in Mississippi as a designated old-growth area.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native 

invasives are expected to mitigate these effects to an extent but some invasive species colonization can 

still be expected. Where colonization does occur, invasive species control measures should minimize 

negative impacts. However, control measures may require the application of pesticides possibly resulting 

in unintended loss of native species.

Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural 

components and fragmentation of habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long 

term, however, essential structural components are expected to increase in coverage and quality.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

254 National Forests in Mississippi

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management and protection should result in 

sustainable native communities and associated species, especially as management is expected to be as 

designated old growth. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability concern are 

expected to remain sustainable. 

4.6.2 Herbaceous Seepage Bogs and Flats Associates

Herbaceous seepage bogs and flats are rare communities and provide unique habitats for many species. A 

list of targeted species associated with this species group can be found in appendix G. Various species of 

pitcher-plants are often dominant in these areas. Inventory and mapping of herbaceous seepage bogs are 

important to help understand and manage these species. It is assumed that sustainable populations of the 

associated species will continue in conjunction with maintenance of hydrologic regime, regular prescribed 

burning, and protection from human disturbance (vehicular and foot traffic). Some of these areas have 

grown up in woody vegetation and may require mechanical clearing. Although guidelines generally 

prohibit management activities within rare communities, exceptions can be made for restoration of the 

system. When management activities occur within a rare community, the species associated with it should 

be considered at the project level.

Algorithms in the ecological sustainability evaluation tool were developed taking into account all weights, 

rankings, and scores associated with this species group to derive composite current scores and estimated 

scores by alternative for first and fifth decade intervals. These composite scores were calculated at both 

the unit level and aggregately across the Forests. A forestwide species group by alternative summary of 

these scores is presented in figure 87.

Herbaceous Seepage Bogs and Flats Associates Alternatives and Effects

As shown in figure 87, all alternative scores by decade remain with a good overall ecological 

sustainability evaluation score for this species association. Management focus and intensity does not 

change across alternatives in the ecosystem related to this species association.

Figure 87. Herbaceous seepage bogs and flats associates, current and estimated ecological 

sustainability evaluation scores forestwide
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National Forests in Mississippi 255

Herbaceous Seepage Bogs and Flats Associates Environmental Effects

Protection of this ecosystem is a priority in all alternatives. Restoration will be based on management 

intensity and scale (acres restored through time). Restoration and maintenance activities will include 

prescribed fire, thinning, and offsite canopy species conversion to native canopy species, native 

herbaceous understory, restoring hydrologic function, and protection of the system.

Past management practices have favored less fire-tolerant communities normally associated with fire 

suppression and the introduction of offsite canopy species. Prescribed fire will alter both overstory and 

understory composition in favor of fire-tolerant and fire-dependent vegetative assemblages at the expense 

of species not normally associated with pyrogenic uplands. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less 

fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community structures normally found in 

association with this system. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are not 

protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire to 

longleaf-associated species and communities will far outweigh any losses incurred during 

implementation.

Forest thinning and harvests of offsite species within this system and within the surrounding matrix 

communities may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle and machinery 

use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and disturbance. Use of 

herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure. Negative direct 

impacts are expected to be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best management 

practices. The benefits to those species by managing or restoring the habitat will far outweigh those few 

casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat restoration.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during restoration and maintenance 

activities may inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and 

understory conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives are expected to mitigate 

these effects to an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization 

does occur, invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control 

measures may require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

The proposed thinnings would reduce the average basal area of pine stands in the project area, thus 

reducing the risk of southern pine beetle infestation on National Forest System and private lands.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning, harvest, restoration and prescribed fire through increased hard and 

soft mast production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous 

expansion in response to fire and change in hydrology of the system. Prescribed burnings would reduce 

the forest fuel, thus lessening the risk of catastrophic fires. Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity 

restoration activity due to loss of important structural components (canopy levels within the Forest and 

down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term.

In the long term, however, essential structural components and hydrologic function should increase in 

coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community composition and hydrology can be 

expected as restoration sites progress through successional stages. These changes should be gradual and 

are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics and components provided by 

multiple seral stages.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

256 National Forests in Mississippi

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management and protection are expected to result in 

sustainable native communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well 

as local viability concern should remain sustainable. 

4.6.3 Mature Mesic Deciduous Forest Associates

Mature mesic deciduous forest communities are located on cool north-facing slopes with rich soils and 

thick layers of fertile leaf litter. They can be considered to be patches within a matrix of more xeric forest 

types. Each patch is only a small portion of the overall landscape and is generally removed from other 

mesic deciduous forest by 100 meters or more. A list of targeted species associated with this species 

group can be found in appendix G. Species dependent upon this forest type generally require closed 

canopy forest with moist organic soils and thick leaf litter. Abundance of mast-producing trees provides 

food for many species and downed wood, snags, and other refuge are a key requirement within this group 

(appendix G). Species should remain sustainable if a mature, closed canopy mesic deciduous forest is 

maintained on the landscape and appropriate guidelines are followed. It is important that only low 

intensity fire creep into these areas to maintain the duff and organic layer.

Algorithms in the ecological sustainability evaluation tool were developed taking into account all weights, 

rankings, and scores associated with this species group to derive composite current scores and estimated 

scores by alternative for first and fifth decade intervals. These composite scores were calculated at both 

the unit level and aggregately across the Forests. A forestwide species group by alternative summary of 

these scores is presented in figure 88.

Mature Mesic Deciduous Forest Associates Alternatives and Effects

As shown in figure 88, all alternative scores by decade remain with a good overall ecological 

sustainability evaluation score despite little management due to few management needs for systems 

related to this species association.

Figure 88. Mature mesic deciduous forest associates current and estimated ecological 

sustainability evaluation scores forestwide

Mature Mesic Deciduous Forest Associates Environmental Effects

Management activities will include infrequent, low intensity prescribed fire and maintaining this species 

association at its current abundance across the Forests over time. Accordingly, some direct mortality of 

less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community structures normally found in 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 257

association with native ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are 

not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire will 

outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.

Regeneration will primarily occur naturally or as a result of salvage operations in the wake of natural 

disturbances. In cases where managed regeneration may be required, harvests may expose species and 

communities to direct mortality related to vehicle and machinery use, which may also result in some 

micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and disturbance. Herbicides may also be used during 

management of the associated ecosystems (including invasive species control) to establish acceptable 

understory composition and structure. Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent 

possible, will be mitigated by best management practices. The benefits to these species by managing or

restoring the habitat will far outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire may also create overstory and understory conditions 

favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire ants. Best 

management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to an extent 

but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, invasive 

species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may require the 

application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires. Habitat quality 

could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural components 

(canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat which could 

cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural components are 

expected to increase in coverage and quality.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should result in sustainable native 

communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability 

concern are expected to remain sustainable. 

4.6.4 Mature Open Pine-Grass Associates

Mature upland pine forests and woodlands support a diversity of species and provide critical habitat for 

several rare and endangered species. A list of targeted species associated with this species group can be 

found in appendix G. Pine-grass associated species are dependent on mature open canopy, fire-maintained 

forests or woodlands across multiple ecosystem types. Frequent fire is critical to maintaining these 

systems, and in the absence of fire, chemical or mechanical means may be needed to maintain the 

herbaceous grass/forb layer. Abundant, diverse ground cover provides food and shelter for a variety of 

wildlife species. By providing for healthy and abundant upland pine forests, species in this group should 

continue to thrive on the National Forests in Mississippi.

Algorithms in the ecological sustainability evaluation tool were developed taking into account all weights, 

rankings, and scores associated with this species group to derive composite current scores and estimated 

scores by alternative for first and fifth decade intervals. These composite scores were calculated at both 

the unit level and aggregately across the Forests. A forestwide species group by alternative summary of 

these scores is presented in figure 89.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

258 National Forests in Mississippi

Mature Upland Open Pine-Grass Associates Alternatives and Effects

Alternatives A and B provide slightly inadequate conditions for this species association, while alternatives 

C, D, and E should provide sustainable conditions over the next half century (figure 89).

Figure 89. Mature open pine-grass associates current and estimated ecological sustainability 

evaluation scores forestwide

Mature Open Pine-Grass Associates Environmental Effects

Restoration of ecosystems contributes to the health of this species association is a priority in alternatives 

C, D, and E. The future distribution of the associated ecosystems on the Forests will vary across all 

alternatives based on management intensity and scale (acres restored through time). Restoration and 

maintenance activities will include prescribed fire, thinning, and offsite canopy species conversion to 

native ecosystems.

Past management practices have favored less fire-tolerant communities normally associated with fire 

suppression and the introduction of offsite canopy species. Prescribed fire will alter both overstory and 

understory composition in favor of fire-tolerant and fire-dependent vegetative assemblages at the expense 

of species not normally associated with pyrogenic uplands. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less 

fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community structures normally found in 

association with mature pine-grasslands. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur 

and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed 

fire this species association will far outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.

Forest thinning and harvests of offsite species may expose species and communities to direct mortality 

related to vehicle and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil 

compaction and disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition 

and structure. Negative direct impacts are expected to be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be 

mitigated by best management practices. The benefits to those species by managing or restoring the 

habitat will far outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat restoration.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during restoration and maintenance

activities may inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 259

understory conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives are expected to mitigate 

these effects to an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization 

does occur, invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control 

measures may require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

The proposed thinnings would reduce the average basal area of pine stands in the project area, thus 

reducing the risk of southern pine beetle infestation on National Forest System and private lands.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, thus lessening the risk of catastrophic 

fires. Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity restoration activity due to loss of important 

structural components (canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of 

habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components are expected to increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 

composition can be expected as restoration sites progress through successional stages. These changes are 

expected to be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics and 

components provided by multiple seral stages.

In some cases, prescribed fire will be the only restoration method required to gradually transition mature 

open offsite canopies to more fire-tolerant pines. In these cases, a variety of age classes and successional 

stages should be present providing multiple habitat and micro-habitat opportunities for a diverse 

assemblage of species.

In alternatives C, D, and E the long-term effects of restoration, management, and maintenance of the 

ecosystem are expected to be critical to the sustainability of this species association. Over time, associated

species of regional as well as local viability concern will become increasingly sustainable. In both 

decades of alternative A and B, conditions remain slightly inadequate; although associated species’ 

populations may persist for some time, they may be subject to gradual decline. 

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other 

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under alternatives C, D, and E. At 

any given point in time, a mosaic of structural and compositional conditions is spread across the forest 

landscape providing habitat for the full range of native species. These positive impacts are less 

pronounced in alternative A and B.

Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be occurring within the forest, and 

which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and communities, negative cumulative 

impacts of alternatives C, D, and E will be minor while the positive impacts will be substantial.

4.6.5 Mature Riparian Forest Associates

These species are dependent upon adequate soil moisture and closed canopy deciduous forest in riparian 

areas. An abundance of mast producing trees and shelter in the form of downed wood, snags, and tree 

cavities must be available for species occurring within this system. A list of targeted species associated 

with this species group can be found in appendix G. It is assumed that sustainable populations will persist 

if the riparian areas contain a mature, closed canopy forest with little or no unnatural disturbance, and the 

hydrologic function remains intact.

Algorithms in the ecological sustainability evaluation tool were developed taking into account all weights, 

rankings, and scores associated with this species group to derive composite current scores and estimated 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

260 National Forests in Mississippi

scores by alternative for first and fifth decade intervals. These composite scores were calculated at both 

the unit level and aggregately across the Forests. A forestwide species group by alternative summary of 

these scores is presented in figure 90.

Mature Riparian Forest Associates Alternatives and Effects

All alternatives continue as good for this species association and are expected to provide sustainable 

conditions over the next half century (figure 90).

Figure 90. Mature riparian forest associates current and estimated ecological sustainability 

evaluation scores forestwide

Mature Riparian Forest Associates Environmental Effects

Management activities will include infrequent, low intensity prescribed fire and maintaining this species 

association at its current abundance across the Forest over time. Accordingly, some direct mortality of 

less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community structures normally found in 

association with native ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are 

not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire will 

outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.

Regeneration will be primarily allowed to occur naturally or as a result of salvage operations in the wake 

of natural disturbances. In cases where managed regeneration may be required, harvests may expose 

species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle and machinery use, which may also result 

in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and disturbance. Herbicides may also be used during 

management of the associated ecosystems (including invasive species control) to establish acceptable 

understory composition and structure. Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent 

possible, will be mitigated by best management practices. The benefits to these species by managing and 

restoring the habitat will far outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire may also create overstory and understory conditions 

favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire ants. Best 

management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to an extent 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 261

but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, invasive 

species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may require the 

application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires. Habitat quality 

could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural components 

(canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat which could 

cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural components are 

expected to increase in coverage and quality.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should result in sustainable native 

communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability 

concern are expected to remain sustainable. 

4.6.6 Mature Upland Pine-Hardwood Associates

These species are associated with xeric stands of hardwood although pine may be intermingled with the 

oaks. A list of targeted species associated with this species group can be found in appendix G. These 

forests occur on sandy, porous, nutrient-poor soils typically found on southern and western slopes or on 

hilltops dominated by oaks and hickories. The irregular canopy creates openings for sunlight to penetrate 

to the forest floor, where a variety of saplings develop, opening the way for succession. Oak leaves are 

low in nutrients, high in acid and slow to decay. Oaks “stump-sprout” following a fire further perpetuating 

their species. Shrub diversity is highly variable throughout this extensive landscape area, providing a 

variety of food sources and habitat for animal species. The ground layer under this relatively sunny 

canopy tends to bloom in mid-summer. Some of the native flowers that occur in this community include 

orchids, rattlesnake plantain, smooth bedstraw, wild geranium, and false Solomon's seal.

Algorithms in the ecological sustainability evaluation tool were developed taking into account all weights, 

rankings, and scores associated with this species group to derive composite current scores and estimated 

scores by alternative for first and fifth decade intervals. These composite scores were calculated at both 

the unit level and aggregately across the Forests. A forestwide species group by alternative summary of 

these scores is presented in figure 91.

Mature Upland Pine-Hardwood Associates Alternatives and Effects

Alternative A provides slightly inadequate conditions for this species association, while alternatives B, C, 

D, and E are expected to provide sustainable conditions over the next half century (figure 91).
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

262 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 91. Mature upland pine-hardwood associates current and estimated ecological 

sustainability evaluation scores forestwide

Mature Upland Pine-Hardwood Associates Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire, thinning, and regeneration. Prescribed fire is essential 

to maintenance of structural and compositional attributes critical to this species association. Accordingly, 

some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community 

structures normally found in association with native ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive to fire 

injury are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected.

The benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.

Forest thinning and harvest may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle and 

machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and disturbance.

Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure. Negative direct 

impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best management practices. 

The benefits to those species by managing and restoring the habitat will far outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and understory 

conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to 

an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, 

invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may 

require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burning would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires.

Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural 

components (canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat 

which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components should increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 263

composition can be expected as regeneration sites progress through successional stages. These changes 

are expected to be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics 

and components provided by multiple native ecosystem stages.

In alternatives B, C, D, and E, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should be sustainable 

native communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local 

viability concern are expected to remain sustainable. In alternative A, the associated systems will not 

achieve sustainability of native communities and this associated species group.

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other 

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under all alternatives; except 

alternative A which includes no management of associated systems. At any given point in time, a mosaic 

of structural and compositional conditions is spread across the forest landscape providing habitat for the 

full range of native species in alternatives B, C, D, and E.

Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be occurring within the forest, and 

which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and communities, negative cumulative 

impacts of alternatives B, C, D, and E will be minor while the positive impacts will be substantial. 

Alternative A will have negative impacts on species and communities in the long run due to little 

management of the associated systems.

4.6.7 Pine Flatwoods Associates

Species in this group inhabit sparse woodlands dominated by longleaf and slash pine with scattered 

loblolly pine, located predominately on non-riverine hydric soil site types. A list of targeted species 

associated with this species group can be found in appendix G. Fire is necessary to maintain this habitat 

as well as intact hydrologic regimes. Past agricultural practices have altered the habitat and efforts should 

be made to restore it to its original form. Management activities are frequently needed to restore nearcoast pine flatwood forests, historical fire regimes, and characteristic grass-forb understories. 

Algorithms in the ecological sustainability evaluation tool were developed taking into account all weights, 

rankings, and scores associated with this species group to derive composite current scores and estimated 

scores by alternative for first and fifth decade intervals. These composite scores were calculated at both 

the unit level and aggregately across the Forests. A forestwide species group by alternative summary of 

these scores is presented figure 92.

Pine Flatwoods Associates Alternatives and Effects

As shown in figure 92, all alternative scores by decade remain sustainable throughout the next 50 years.

Alternatives A and B with a good overall ecological sustainability evaluation score, and alternatives C, D, 

and E achieving very good scores with alternative E having the highest score.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

264 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 92. Pine flatwoods associates current and estimated ecological sustainability evaluation 

scores forestwide

Pine Flatwoods Associates Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire, thinning, and regeneration. Prescribed fire is essential 

to maintenance of structural and compositional attributes critical to this species association. Accordingly, 

some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community 

structures normally found in association with native ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive to fire 

injury are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected.

The benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.

Forest thinnings and harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle 

and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure.

Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing and restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and understory 

conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to 

an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, 

invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may 

require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires.

Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural 

components (canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat 

which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 265

components should increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 

composition can be expected as regeneration sites progress through successional stages. These changes 

should be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics and 

components provided by multiple native ecosystem stages.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should be sustainable native 

communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability 

concern should remain sustainable. Alternatives C, D and E will hasten the recovery of the ecosystem and 

have better effects on the species group sooner.

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other 

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under all alternatives except 

alternative A which includes no management of associated systems. At any given point in time, a mosaic 

of structural and compositional conditions is spread across the forest landscape providing habitat for the 

full range of native species in all alternatives.

Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be occurring within the forest, and 

which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and communities, negative cumulative 

impacts of all alternatives will be minor while the positive impacts will be substantial. 

4.6.8 Ponds and Emergent Wetlands Associates

The species associated with this wetland system utilize a wide array of seasonally flooded depression 

wetlands, freshwater marshes, and ephemeral ponds. A list of targeted species associated with this species 

group can be found in appendix G. Included here are ponds of various geomorphic origins in a variety of 

substrates including lime sinks and Grady ponds which may hold areas of shallow open water for 

significant portions of the year. Many of these have been altered or destroyed as a result of agricultural 

practices or erosion from disturbance on adjacent uplands. Past management actions in these areas may 

have resulted in woody plant encroachment and drainage of the wetlands. The few remaining examples 

are vulnerable to OHV use, ditching and drainage, and invasion by non-native plants and animals.

Information on location and size of this community type is not well known or documented.

Since they are of small size and often dry up during the year, they are valuable as breeding sites for 

amphibians and are invaluable for Mississippi sandhill crane breeding on the De Soto National Forest. 

These habitats are also important for dusky gopher frog breeding and survival. Many of the species in this 

group thrive in a fishless environment as fish are known predators of larval amphibians. Species in this 

group generally migrate to ponds and emergent wetlands for breeding and are susceptible to hazards 

caused by crossing roads. Species in this group are also susceptible to damage caused by trampling and 

hydrologic modification cause by OHVs or other human disturbance.

Algorithms in the ecological sustainability evaluation tool were developed taking into account all weights, 

rankings, and scores associated with this species group to derive composite current scores and estimated 

scores by alternative for the first and fifth decade intervals. These composite scores were calculated at 

both the unit level and aggregately across the Forests. A forestwide species group by alternative summary 

of these scores is presented in figure 93. However, since these unique wetlands are small and not easily 

identified during large portions of the year, no meaningful inventory by location or size currently exists.

The composite scores are dependent on adherence to guidelines.

Ponds and Emergent Wetlands Associates Alternatives and Effects

The sustainability of this species group is dependent on mapping current and historic occurrences and 

undertaking management activities as necessary to restore and enhance the ecosystem. These activities 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

266 National Forests in Mississippi

may include restoration of hydrologic function, removal of predator fish species, thinning and or removal 

of the overstory, and prescribed burn to maintain habitat conditions. These activities are easily achieved 

and sustainability of the species group readily assured.

Figure 93. Ponds and emergent wetlands associates current and estimated ecological 

sustainability evaluation scores forestwide

Ponds and Emergent Wetlands Associates Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire at the same frequency and intensity as the surrounding 

matrix community and maintaining ecosystem abundance across the Forests over time. Accordingly, some 

direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community structures 

normally found in association with native ecosystems in which this community is embedded. Where rare 

species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some 

losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during 

implementation. Some direct mortality of competing fish species is expected and desired.

Where timber and restoration operations including pond creation and restoration, thinning, regeneration,

and salvage operations in the wake of natural disturbances in the surrounding matrix community may be 

required, harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle and 

machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and disturbance.

Herbicides may also be used during management of this ecosystem (including invasive species control) to 

establish acceptable understory composition and structure. Negative direct impacts should be temporary 

and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best management practices. The benefits to those species 

by managing and restoring the habitat will far outweigh those few casualties. Note that where this 

embedded ecosystem is found, it will be protected by the National Forests in Mississippi.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire may also create overstory and understory conditions 

favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire ants. Best 

management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to an extent 

but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, invasive 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 267

species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may require the 

application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires. Habitat quality 

could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural components 

and fragmentation of habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, 

however, essential structural components are expected to increase in coverage and quality.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management and protection are expected to result in 

sustainable native communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well 

as local viability concern are expected to remain sustainable. 

4.6.9 Prairie Associates

These species are associated with two rare ecological systems (Jackson prairie and black belt) and occupy 

open grassy areas with highly calcareous, high pH soils. The herbaceous and grass species are dominated 

by characteristic prairie species. A list of targeted species associated with this species group can be found 

in appendix G. Known sites are now in woodland or sparsely forested due to past land use practices.

Many may show signs of erosion such as gullies. Plant species diversity in these understories has likely 

been adversely affected by past intensive grazing, and use of the prairie openings as wildlife food plots, 

roads and log landings. Management activities are frequently needed to restore prairie vegetation, enlarge 

present openings, and restore damage done by past management actions (remove food plots, log landings, 

etc.), historical fire regimes. Locations of this rare community should be identified and mapped on the 

National Forests in Mississippi. Rapid assessment protocols should be developed to determine 

sustainability of these species, and species in this group should be protected from ground disturbance, 

human disturbance, and habitat loss. 

Algorithms in the ecological sustainability evaluation tool were developed taking into account all weights, 

rankings, and scores associated with this species group to derive composite current scores and estimated 

scores by alternative for the first and fifth decade intervals. These composite scores were calculated at 

both the unit level and aggregately across the Forests. A forestwide species group by alternative summary 

of these scores is presented in figure 94.

Prairie Associates Alternatives and Effects

As shown in figure 94, all alternative scores for this species group by decade with the lone exception of 

alternative A remain with a good overall ecological sustainability evaluation score.

Prairie Associates Environmental Effects

The future conditions of this ecosystem will vary little based on overall score of the system when all 

variables are taken in account. Restoration of this ecosystem to appropriate acres that have been 

previously converted to other system types or allowed to degrade, though, is a priority in alternatives C, 

D, and E in the first decade while alternative B does not meet restoration goals until the fifth decade. 

Restoration and maintenance activities will include prescribed fire and offsite species conversion to native 

vegetation. 

Past management practices have favored less fire-tolerant communities normally associated with fire 

suppression and the introduction of offsite canopy species. Prescribed fire will alter both overstory and 

understory composition in favor of fire-tolerant and fire-dependent vegetative assemblages at the expense 

of species not normally associated with pyrogenic uplands. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less 

fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community structures normally found in 

association with this system. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are not 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

268 National Forests in Mississippi

protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire to 

prairie associated species and communities, will far outweigh any losses incurred during implementation. 

Figure 94. Prairie associates current and estimated ecological sustainability evaluation scores 

forestwide

Forest harvests of offsite species may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to 

vehicle and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure.

Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing and restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat restoration.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during restoration and maintenance 

activities may inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and 

understory conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and redimported fire ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate

these effects to an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization 

does occur, invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control 

measures may require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Wildlife would benefit from restoration activities and prescribed fire through increased soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of restoration activity due to loss of 

important structural components (canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and 

fragmentation of habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, 

essential structural components should increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal 

community composition can be expected as restoration sites progress through time. These changes should

be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of restoration, management, and maintenance of the ecosystem 

are critical to the sustainability of this system and associated species. Over time, associated species of 

regional as well as local viability concern will become increasingly sustainable.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 269

4.6.10 Rock Outcrop Associates

Rock outcrops are rare, localized features of the landscape which mainly occur along steep hill slopes, 

ravines, or river channels where soils have eroded away. They are usually embedded in a larger ecological 

system and rely heavily on surrounding habitats for landscape scale functions and processes. There are an 

estimated 500 acres of this habitat in the entire state of Mississippi. Distribution on the National Forests 

in Mississippi is unknown; however, rock outcrops may occur on all National Forests except the De Soto 

Chickasawhay and Delta Units. Although of minor aerial extent, the rock outcrops provide unique quality 

habitat for several species of animals and plants including Webster’s salamander and hairy lipfern.

The primary species associated with rock outcrops on the National Forests in Mississippi is Webster’s 

salamander. A list of targeted species associated with this species group can be found in appendix G.

Webster’s salamander is found in association with this system and is dependent upon it for thermal refuge.

Webster’s salamanders are not considered fully covered by ecological diversity plan components as they 

have needs in addition to those covered by their associated ecological systems. Many other herpetofaunal 

and plant species also depend upon this rare habitat as rock outcrops provide thermal refuge and foraging 

opportunities for associated species. General management strategy for this species group includes 

completion of inventory and mapping of the ecological system as part of project planning, training on 

recognition and ecological function of rare ecosystems, and development of rapid assessment criteria. 

Management activities are frequently needed to restore hardwood overstories and healthy hydrologic 

regimes such as springs and seeps that often co-occur with rock outcrops. The inclusion of rock outcrops 

in designated old-growth or botanical areas should be a priority of the National Forests in Mississippi.

Rock Outcrop Associates Alternatives and Effects

Retention of rock outcrop ecosystems is a priority across all alternatives. These small, localized 

ecosystems are not currently mapped; and identifying and mapping outcrops is a high priority.

Management activities would mainly consist of avoiding any damage to outcrops and actions to restore 

shade to outcrops where necessary over time.

Rock Outcrop Associates Environmental Effects

Management activities will include low intensity prescribed fire over a relatively long interval at the same 

frequency as the surrounding matrix community and maintaining ecosystem abundance across the Forests

over time. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to 

achieve community structures normally found in association with native ecosystems in which this 

community is embedded. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are not 

protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire will 

outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.

Where timber operations including thinning, regeneration, and salvage operations in the wake of natural 

disturbances in the surrounding matrix community may be required, harvests may expose species and 

communities to direct mortality related to vehicle and machinery use, which may also result in some

micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and disturbance. Herbicides may also be used during 

management of this ecosystem (including invasive species control) to establish acceptable understory 

composition and structure. Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will 

be mitigated by best management practices. The benefits to those species by managing and restoring the 

habitat will far outweigh those few casualties. Note that where this embedded ecosystem is found, it will 

be protected by the National Forests in Mississippi.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

270 National Forests in Mississippi

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities in 

surrounding matrix communities may inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire may also create 

overstory and understory conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, 

and red-imported fire ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives are 

expected to mitigate these effects to an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be 

expected. Where colonization does occur, invasive species control measures should minimize negative 

impacts. However, control measures may require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in 

unintended loss of native species.

Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires. Habitat quality 

could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural components 

(canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat which could 

cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural components are 

expected to increase in coverage and quality.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should result in sustainable native 

communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability 

concern are expected to remain sustainable. 

4.6.11 Seeps, Springs, and Seepage Swamps Associates

Species occurring in this group require forested wetlands in acidic, seepage-influenced habitats. These 

habitats are usually in deciduous forests or herbaceous communities and are generally found at the base of 

slopes where seepage flow is concentrated and resulting moisture conditions are saturated or inundated. A 

list of targeted species associated with this species group can be found in appendix G. The vegetation is 

characterized by black gum, tupelo gum, and red maple. Due to excessive wetness, historically these sites 

have not been as highly disturbed as adjacent upland areas and are protected from fire except during 

extreme droughty periods. Currently, they are susceptible to damage from hydrologic changes, canopy 

cover reduction, and human disturbance. Local lowering of water tables has caused many seeps and 

springs to dry during part of the year. Maintenance of saturated to inundated soil conditions are essential 

to maintenance of the unique forb, grass, and sedge community dependent upon these sites. Without wet 

conditions, the site would soon be dominated by more xeric species from surrounding habitats.

Management activities are frequently needed to maintain canopy closure as appropriate over these 

communities and to ensure maintenance of the water table. Current information on location and size of

this community type is not well documented.

Seeps, Springs, and Seepage Swamps Associates Alternatives and Effects

Retention of the ecosystem is a priority across all alternatives. These small, localized ecosystems are not 

currently mapped and identifying and mapping occurrences is a high priority. Management activities 

would mainly consist of avoiding any damage to this ecosystem and actions to restore shade to this 

ecosystem where necessary over time. Sustainability is estimated as good across all alternatives (figure 

95).

Seeps, Springs, and Seepage Swamps Associates Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire at the same frequency and intensity as the surrounding 

matrix community and maintaining ecosystem abundance across the Forests over time. Accordingly, some 

direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community structures 

normally found in association with native ecosystems in which this community is embedded although fire 

frequency in this system is expected to only occur during periods of drought. Where rare species sensitive 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 271

to fire injury are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be 

expected. The benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during implementation. 

Figure 95. Seeps, springs and seepage swamps associates current and estimated ecological 

sustainability evaluation scores forestwide

Where timber and restoration operations of surrounding matrix communities are warranted, this 

ecosystem and its hydrology should be protected using guidelines and best management practices. Where 

thinning, regeneration, and salvage operations in the wake of natural disturbances in the surrounding 

matrix community may be required, harvests may expose some species and communities, especially those 

in transition zones, to direct mortality related to vehicle and machinery use, which may also result in 

some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and disturbance although this system will be protected 

from machinery disturbance due to soil moisture and protection measures aimed at maintaining 

hydrologic integrity. Herbicides may also be used during management of this ecosystem (including 

invasive species control to establish acceptable understory composition and structure. Negative direct 

impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best management practices 

and guidelines. The benefits to those species by managing and restoring the habitat will far outweigh 

those few casualties. Note that where this embedded ecosystem is found, it will be protected by the 

National Forests in Mississippi.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire may also create overstory and understory conditions 

favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire ants. Best 

management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives are expected to mitigate these 

effects to an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does 

occur, invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures 

may require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires. Habitat quality 

could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural components 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

272 National Forests in Mississippi

and fragmentation of habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, 

however, essential structural components should increase in coverage and quality.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management and protection should result in 

sustainable native communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well 

as local viability concern are expected to remain sustainable. 

4.6.12 Wet Pine Savanna Associates

These species occupy rare wetland systems of open savannas dominated by grasses, sedges, orchids, and 

carnivorous plants. A list of targeted species associated with this species group can be found in appendix 

G. Occurrences on the National Forests in Mississippi typically have too much canopy closure, causing

negative impacts on the hydrologic regime.

Carnivorous plants are diagnostic, especially pitcher plants. Pitcher plants range from dominant or codominant to sparse, and several species may be present. Where ephemeral ponds and emergent wetlands 

are interspersed, this is habitat for the endangered Mississippi sandhill crane. Frequent fires, including 

growing-season burns, are essential for stimulating rich understories of grasses and forbs. Inventory, 

mapping, and developing rapid assessment protocols are priorities for species sustainability. 

Many wet pine savanna sites have been converted to forest or support only depauperate communities due 

to a long history of exploitation, system drainage and fire suppression. Management activities are 

frequently needed to restore healthy hydrologic function, historical fire regimes, and characteristic grassforb understories.

Algorithms in the ecological sustainability evaluation tool were developed taking into account all weights, 

rankings, and scores associated with this species group to derive composite current scores and estimated 

scores by alternative for the first and fifth decade intervals. These composite scores were calculated at 

both the unit level and aggregately across the Forests. A forestwide species group by alternative summary 

of these scores is presented in figure 96. Since the species group occurs on only one unit, only one figure 

is presented.

Wet Pine Savanna Associates Alternatives and Effects

As shown in figure 96, all alternative scores by decade remain with a good overall ecological 

sustainability evaluation score for this species association, with the exception of alternative A which is 

fair. Management focus and intensity does not change across alternatives in the ecosystem related to this 

species association.

Wet Pine Savanna Associates Environmental Effects

Protection of this ecosystem is a priority in all alternatives. Restoration will be based on management 

intensity and scale (acres restored through time). Restoration and maintenance activities will include 

prescribed fire, thinning, and converting offsite canopy species to native canopy species, native 

herbaceous understory, restoring hydrologic function, and protecting the system. 

Past management practices have favored less fire-tolerant communities normally associated with fire 

suppression and the introduction of offsite canopy species. Prescribed fire will alter both overstory and 

understory composition in favor of fire-tolerant and fire-dependent vegetative assemblages at the expense 

of species not normally associated with fire-adapted uplands. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less 

fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community structures normally found in 

association with this system. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are not 

protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire to 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 273

longleaf-associated species and communities will far outweigh any losses incurred during 

implementation. 

Figure 96. Wet pine savanna associates current and estimated ecological sustainability 

evaluation scores forestwide

Forest thinning and harvests of offsite species within this system and within the surrounding matrix 

communities may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle and machinery 

use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and disturbance. Herbicides 

may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure. Negative direct impacts 

should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best management practices. The 

benefits to those species by managing or restoring the habitat will far outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat restoration.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during restoration and maintenance 

activities may inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and 

understory conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to 

an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, 

invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may 

require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species. The proposed 

thinnings would reduce the average basal area of pine stands in the project area, thus reducing the risk of 

southern pine beetle infestation on National Forest System and private lands.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning, harvest, restoration and prescribed fire through increased hard and 

soft mast production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous 

expansion in response to fire and change in hydrology of the system. Prescribed burnings would reduce 

the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires. Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity 

restoration activity due to loss of important structural components (canopy levels within the Forest and 

down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term.

In the long term, however, essential structural components and hydrologic function should increase in 

coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community composition and hydrology can be 

expected as restoration sites progress through successional stages. These changes should be gradual and 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

274 National Forests in Mississippi

are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics and components provided by 

multiple seral stages.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management and protection should result in 

sustainable native communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well 

as local viability concern are expected to remain sustainable. 

4.6.13 Xeric Sandhill Associates

Xeric sandhills are a unique habitat type in Mississippi and are a vital component of many species 

ecological needs. For planning purposes, they have been defined as gopher tortoise priority soils and are 

the driest of the upland sites occurring on the Chickasawhay and De Soto National Forests. All 

management decisions made within these areas should focus on sustainability of the federally threatened 

gopher tortoise. A list of all targeted species associated with this species group can be found in appendix 

G. The tortoise serves as a keystone species for many species on this list. Its burrows provide habitat 

otherwise unavailable for many of these species.

Algorithms in the ecological sustainability evaluation tool were developed taking into account all weights, 

rankings, and scores for the species associated with this ecosystem to derive composite current scores and 

estimated scores by alternative for the first and fifth decade intervals. These composite scores were 

calculated at both the unit level and aggregately across the Forests. A forestwide and ecosystem by 

alternative summary of these scores is presented in figure 97.

Xeric Sandhill Associates Alternatives and Effects

As shown in figure 97, alternatives A, B, C, and D contribute to the restoration and maintenance of this 

system with overall ecological sustainability evaluation scores of good. Alternative E is even more 

successful, but will still require decades to achieve all restoration goals. All alternatives show acceptable 

rates of ecological sustainability by the fifth decade.

Figure 97. Xeric sandhills associates forestwide xeric sandhills ecological sustainability 

evaluation scores
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 275

Figure 98 and figure 99 show fire regime variables by alternative. Herbaceous-dominated understories, 

including grasses and forbs, are important attributes of healthy xeric sandhill ecosystems best achieved by 

the application of frequent growing season fire, ideally once every one to three years (desired interval).

These data show that fire frequency, seasonality and intensity are; in most cases; well within the good to 

very good range and increase respectively from alternatives C thru E.

Xeric Sandhill Associates Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire, thinning, and regeneration. Prescribed fire is essential 

to maintenance of structural and compositional attributes critical to this species association. Accordingly, 

some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community 

structures normally found in association with native ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive to fire 

injury are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. 

The benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during implementation. 

Forest thinnings and harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle 

and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure. 

Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing and restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties. 

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and understory 

conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to 

an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, 

invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may 

require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species. 

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires. 

Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural 

components (canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat 

which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components are expected to increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 

composition can be expected as regeneration sites progress through successional stages. These changes 

are expected to be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics 

and components provided by multiple native ecosystem stages. 

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should be sustainable native 

communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability 

concern are expected to remain sustainable. 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

276 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 98. Percent of xeric sandhills burned at desired interval by alternative and unit

Figure 99. Percent of xeric sandhills burned in the growing season by alternative and unit

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other 

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under all alternatives. At any given 

point in time, a mosaic of structural and compositional conditions is spread across the forest landscape 

providing habitat for the full range of native species in alternatives B, C, D, and E.

Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be occurring within the forest, and 

which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and communities, negative cumulative 

impacts of all alternatives will be minor while the positive impacts will be substantial. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 277

4.7 Terrestrial Species Groups Requiring Additional Forest 

Plan Components

This section provides details on groups of species that required further forest plan components in addition 

to those already provided by ecological diversity. Management strategies and appropriate forest plan

components are described for each group. Species groups contain threatened and endangered, regional 

forester’s sensitive species, and locally rare species arranged together for analysis purposes. These groups 

represent small spatial scales and groups of species associated with localized conditions and features that 

cross ecosystem boundaries. A list of targeted species groups needing additional forest plan components 

can be found in table 62. Targeted species within each group are in a table as each group is discussed.

Table 62. Species groups requiring additional forest plan component

Species Group Species Group

Bat Roost Structure Group Species Sensitive to Hydrologic Modification of Wetlands

Den Tree Associates Species Sensitive to Recreational Traffic 

(Terrestrial and Non-riverine Aquatic)

Downed Wood Associates Species Needing Occurrence Protection

Forest Interior Birds Stump and Stump-hole Associates

Species Sensitive to Fire Injury Calciphiles

Snag Associates Species Sensitive to Canopy Cover Modifications

Species Dependent on Fire to Maintain Habitat Species Sensitive to Soil Disturbance

4.7.1 Bat Roost Structure Group

Bat species generally live in mature riparian areas on the National Forests in Mississippi. They utilize 

bridges, cisterns, culverts, old abandoned houses, leaf litter, snags, and branches, bark, and cavities of live 

trees as roosts. They are insectivores and require some proximity to water. A list of targeted species 

associated with this species group can be found in appendix G.

Bat Roost Structure Group Alternatives and Effects

Bat Roost Structure Group Environmental Effects

Management activities effecting members of this species group will be dependent on the ecosystem in 

which they occur. Depending on the ecosystem, prescribed fire will vary in intensity and frequency, 

depending on the restoration goals of the ecosystem. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less firetolerant species is both expected and desired as community structures normally found in association with 

native ecosystems are achieved. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are not 

protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire will 

outweigh any losses incurred during implementation. 

In cases where managed regeneration may be required, harvests may expose species and communities to 

direct mortality related to vehicle and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss 

due to soil compaction and disturbance. Herbicides may also be used during management of the 

associated ecosystems (including invasive species control to establish acceptable understory composition 

and structure. Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated 

by best management practices and management guidelines. The benefits to this species group by 

managing and restoring the habitat will far outweigh those few casualties. 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

278 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 100. Bat roost structure group current and estimated ecological sustainability evaluation

scores forestwide

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire may also create overstory and understory conditions 

favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire ants. Best 

management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to an extent 

but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, invasive 

species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may require the 

application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires. Habitat quality 

could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural components 

(canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat which could 

cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural components are 

expected to increase in coverage and quality.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of proposed ecosystem management should result in sustainable 

native communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local 

viability concern are expected to remain sustainable. 

4.7.2 Den Tree Associates 

Den trees include cavities in both dead and live trees that are found in a variety of hardwood and 

softwood tree species. The species in this group require cavities or den trees for reproduction, shelter, and 

hibernation. A list of targeted species associated with this species group can be found in appendix G.

Large diameter hollow trees provide important denning habitat for the federally threatened black bear in 

Mississippi. Den trees are also important for sustaining the red-cockaded woodpecker and provide refuge 

for many other species including bats, small mammals, and amphibians and reptiles. It is necessary to 

recruit and retain these trees in areas where those species occur (appendix G). Several bat species that are 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 279

regional forester’s sensitive species or locally rare species are included under the “bat roost structure 

group” description.

Figure 101. Den tree associates current and estimated ecological sustainability evaluation scores 

forestwide

Den Tree Associates Alternatives and Effects

Den Tree Associates Environmental Effects

Management activities effecting members of this species group will be dependent on the ecosystem in 

which they occur. Depending on the ecosystem, prescribed fire will vary in intensity and frequency, 

depending on the restoration goals of the ecosystem. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less firetolerant species is both expected and desired as community structures normally found in association with 

native ecosystems are achieved. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are not 

protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire will 

outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.

In cases where managed regeneration may be required, harvests may expose species and communities to 

direct mortality related to vehicle and machinery use, which may also result in some microhabitat loss due 

to soil compaction and disturbance. Herbicides may also be used during management of the associated 

ecosystems (including invasive species control) to establish acceptable understory composition and 

structure. Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by 

best management practices and management guidelines. The benefits to this species group by managing 

or restoring the habitat will far outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire may also create overstory and understory conditions 

favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire ants. Best 

management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to an extent 

but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, invasive 

species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may require the 

application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

280 National Forests in Mississippi

Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires. Habitat quality 

could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural components 

(canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat which could 

cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural components are 

expected to increase in coverage and quality.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management are expected to result in sustainable 

native communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local 

viability concern are expected to remain sustainable. 

4.7.3 Downed Wood Associates

Species in this association require downed and decaying wood for some vital part of their life history. A 

list of targeted species associated with this species group can be found in appendix G. Downed wood 

provides shelter for many species and their prey items. Dusky gopher frog, Webster’s salamander, ornate 

chorus frog, mud salamander, and pine woods snake are all tied to downed wood for some portion of their 

life cycle. The Trachyxiphium moss grows on permanently wet downed wood and cannot survive without 

it.

Downed Wood Associates Alternatives and Effects

No charts analyzing effects of different alternatives are presented because there is no change across 

alternatives for the species in this group. The abundance of habitat elements in the forest plan will provide 

sustainable amounts of habitat for the species in this group.

Downed Wood Associates Environmental Effects

Management activities, depending on the ecosystem in which the species group occurs, may include 

prescribed fire, thinning, and regeneration. Some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both 

expected and desired to achieve community structures normally found in association with native 

ecosystems. Where downed wood associates are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire 

exclusion, some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire, such as increasing mortality of 

less tolerant tree species thus increasing downed wood in the long run will outweigh any losses incurred 

during implementation.

Forest thinnings and harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle 

and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure.

Negative direct effects should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing and restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and understory 

conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to 

an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, 

invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may 

require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 281

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, thus lessening the risk of catastrophic 

fires. Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important 

structural components (canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of 

habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components are expected to increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 

composition can be expected as regeneration sites progress through successional stages. These changes 

are expected to be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics 

and components provided by multiple native ecosystem stages.

In all alternatives the long-term effects of ecosystem management are expected to sustain native 

communities and associated species since downed wood retention is a priority. Over time, associated 

species of regional as well as local viability concern are expected to remain sustainable. 

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other 

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under all alternatives. At any given 

point in time, a mosaic of structural and compositional conditions is spread across the forest landscape 

providing habitat for the full range of native species. 

Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be occurring within the forest, and 

which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and communities, negative cumulative 

impacts of all alternatives will be minor while the positive impacts will be substantial. 

4.7.4 Forest Interior Birds

Forest-interior birds require intact mature forests with no permanent fragmentation by agricultural or 

urban development. A list of targeted species associated with this species group can be found in appendix 

G. Some fragmentation may be present as a result of timber harvesting, however this may only cause a 

temporary reduction in habitat for forest-interior species. In most large landscapes, the needs of early 

successional species can be met quickly through various sources of disturbance, including timber 

harvesting. Much more time, however, is required to develop suitable habitat for species that require 

mature forest (appendix G). Effective conservation strategies must focus on maintaining adequate 

amounts of mature forest at any point in time.

Forest Interior Birds Alternatives and Effects

Forest Interior Birds Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire, thinning, and regeneration as the needs of the 

ecosystem dictate. Prescribed fire is essential to maintenance of structural and compositional attributes 

critical to this species association within the context of the surrounding ecosystem. Accordingly, some 

direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community structures 

normally found in association with native ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are 

known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The 

benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during implementation. 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

282 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 102. Forest interior birds group current and estimated ecological sustainability evaluation

scores forestwide

Forest thinnings and harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle 

and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure.

Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing or restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and understory 

conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to 

an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, 

invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may 

require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, thus lessening the risk of catastrophic 

fires. Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important 

structural components (canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of 

habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components should increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 

composition can be expected as regeneration sites progress through successional stages. These changes 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 283

should be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics and 

components provided by multiple native ecosystem stages.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management are expected to sustain native 

communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability 

concern are expected to remain sustainable. 

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other 

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under all alternatives. 

Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be occurring within the forest, and 

which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and communities, negative cumulative 

impacts of all alternatives will be minor while the positive impacts will be substantial. 

4.7.5 Species Sensitive to Fire Injury

Individuals of these species are sensitive to fire injury. A list of targeted species associated with this 

species group can be found in appendix G. Gopher frogs can be injured by effects of direct fire and fire 

can harm red-cockaded woodpecker cavity trees and fledglings. Atlantic white cedar has no fire tolerance 

and should be protected from fire. Oglethorpe oak, butternut, and big shellbark hickory have thin bark 

which makes them susceptible to negative effects from fire. Argos skippers are both dependent upon fire 

to maintain their habitat and sensitive to injury of individuals and populations caused by fire. The rest of 

the species in this group occur in areas where only low intensity fires should occur, however, fires can 

occur in these areas resulting in death of individuals.

Species Sensitive to Fire Injury Alternatives and Effects

No charts analyzing effects of different alternatives are presented because there is no change across 

alternatives for the species in this group. The abundance of habitat elements in the forest plan will provide 

sustainable amounts of habitat for the species in this group.

Species Sensitive to Fire Injury Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire, thinning, and regeneration as required for the 

surrounding ecosystem. Prescribed fire is essential to maintenance of structural and compositional 

attributes critical to maintenance of the overall landscape. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less firetolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community structures normally found in 

association with native ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are 

not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The overall benefits of prescribed 

fire will outweigh any losses incurred during implementation as long as the applicable guidelines are 

followed.

Forest thinnings and harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle 

and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure.

Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing and restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

284 National Forests in Mississippi

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and understory 

conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to 

an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, 

invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may 

require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, thus lessening the risk of catastrophic 

fires. Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important 

structural components (canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of 

habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components should increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 

composition can be expected as regeneration sites progress through successional stages. These changes 

should be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics and 

components provided by multiple native ecosystem stages.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management are expected to sustain native 

communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability 

concern are expected to remain sustainable. 

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other 

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under all alternatives. At any given 

point in time, a mosaic of structural and compositional conditions is spread across the forest landscape 

providing habitat for the full range of native species in all alternatives.

Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be occurring within the forest, and 

which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and communities, negative cumulative 

impacts minor while the positive impacts will be substantial. 

4.7.6 Snag Associates

If retention and recruitment guidelines and other guidelines pertinent to creation of downed wood and 

snags are followed, and there is a forestwide level of 30 percent mature and 10 percent old-growth forest 

that is within good or very good rating criteria, then we assume that we are providing adequate downed 

wood and snags to sustain dependent species. Ecological system sustainability plan components include 

desired conditions for all associated ecological systems and specific guidelines. A list of targeted species 

associated with this species group can be found in appendix G.

Snag Associates Alternatives and Effects

No charts analyzing effects of different alternatives are presented because there is no change across 

alternatives for the species in this group. The abundance of habitat elements in the forest plan will provide 

sustainable amounts of habitat for the species in this group.

Snag Associates Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire, thinning, and regeneration. Prescribed fire is essential 

to maintenance of structural and compositional attributes critical to this species association. Accordingly, 

some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community 

structures normally found in association with native ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive to fire 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 285

injury are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected.

The benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.

Forest thinnings and harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle 

and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure.

Negative direct impacts are expected to be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing and restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and understory 

conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to 

an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, 

invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may 

require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires.

Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural 

components (canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat 

which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components should increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 

composition can be expected as regeneration sites progress through successional stages. These changes 

should be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics and 

components provided by multiple native ecosystem stages.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management are expected to sustain native 

communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability 

concern are expected to remain sustainable. 

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other 

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under all alternatives. At any given 

point in time, a mosaic of structural and compositional conditions is spread across the forest landscape 

providing habitat for the full range of native species. 

4.7.7 Species Dependent on Fire to Maintain Habitat 

Many species of the southeastern forest depend on fire to maintain the health and well-being of their 

habitat. Prescribed burning is an important management tool in a healthy fire-adapted ecosystem by 

recycling nutrients back to the soil and increasing plant diversity and growth patterns. The season, 

frequency, frequency, and intensity of fire are critical variables that should be used based on the existing 

and desired vegetative communities and featured species. A list of targeted species associated with this 

species group can be found in appendix G.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

286 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 103. Species dependent on fire to maintain habitat current and estimated ecological 

sustainability evaluation scores forestwide

Species Dependent on Fire to Maintain Habitat Alternatives and Effects

Species Dependent on Fire to Maintain Habitat Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire, thinning, and regeneration. Prescribed fire is essential 

to maintenance of structural and compositional attributes critical to this species association. Accordingly, 

some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community 

structures normally found in association with native ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive to fire 

injury are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected.

The benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.

Forest thinnings and harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle 

and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure.

Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing or restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and understory 

conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to 

an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, 

invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may 

require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 287

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, thus lessening the risk of catastrophic 

fires. Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important 

structural components (canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of 

habitat which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components should increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 

composition can be expected as regeneration sites progress through successional stages. These changes 

should be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics and 

components provided by multiple native ecosystem stages.

In alternatives B, C, D, and E, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should be sustainable 

native communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local 

viability concern are expected to remain sustainable. In alternative A, the associated systems will not 

achieve sustainable native communities and associated species.

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other 

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under all alternatives except 

alternative A which includes no management of associated systems. At any given point in time, a mosaic 

of structural and compositional conditions is spread across the forest landscape providing habitat for the 

full range of native species in alternatives B, C, D, and E.

Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be occurring within the forest, and 

which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and communities, negative cumulative 

impacts of alternatives B, C, D, and E will be minor while the positive impacts will be substantial. 

Alternative A will have negative impacts on species and communities in the long run due to little 

management of the associated systems.

4.7.8 Species Sensitive to Hydrologic Modification of Wetlands

Species in this group are associated with wetlands, including, but not limited to seeps, springs, bogs, 

swamps, wet flatwoods and ephemeral ponds and are dependent on hydrological integrity in these 

habitats. A list of targeted species associated with this species group can be found in appendix G.

Species Sensitive to Hydrologic Modification of Wetlands Alternatives and Effects

Species Sensitive to Hydrologic Modification of Wetlands Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire, thinning, and regeneration. Prescribed fire is essential 

to maintenance of structural and compositional attributes critical to ecosystems. Accordingly, some direct 

mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community structures 

normally found in association with native ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are 

known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The 

benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during implementation. 

Forest thinnings and harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle 

and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure. 

Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing and restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties. 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

288 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 104. Species sensitive to hydrologic modification of wetlands current and estimated 

ecological sustainability evaluation scores forestwide

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and understory 

conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to 

an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, 

invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may 

require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires.

Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural 

components (canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat 

which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components should increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 

composition can be expected as regeneration sites progress through successional stages. These changes 

should be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics and 

components provided by multiple native ecosystem stages.

In alternatives B, C, D, and E, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should be sustainable 

native communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 289

viability concern are expected to remain sustainable. In alternative A, the associated systems will not 

achieve sustainable native communities and associated species.

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other 

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under all alternatives except 

alternative A which includes no management of associated systems. At any given point in time, a mosaic 

of structural and compositional conditions is spread across the forest landscape providing habitat for the 

full range of native species in alternatives B, C, D, and E.

Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be occurring within the forest, and 

which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and communities, negative cumulative 

impacts of alternatives B, C, D, and E will be minor while the positive impacts will be substantial. 

Alternative A will have negative impacts on species and communities in the long run due to little 

management of the associated systems.

4.7.9 Species Sensitive to Recreational Traffic 

(Terrestrial and Non-riverine Aquatic)

Species in this group are sensitive to excessive human disturbance such as trampling, harassment, 

vehicular mortality, and direct mortality. Reptile species are especially sensitive to being harmed, 

harassed, and killed by humans. This interaction with humans can have long-term negative effects on 

population sizes and sustainability. The black bear is sensitive to high road densities. Dusky gopher frog, 

gopher tortoise, and snake and plant species on this list are especially sensitive to harm due to off-road 

vehicles, heavy equipment, horses, and human traffic. Some species are collected commercially and used 

for a variety of purposes including but not limited to food, medicine, decoration, gardening, landscaping, 

and the pet trade. A list of targeted species associated with this species group can be found in appendix G.

There are no measurable performance measures for this species group. However, direct effects of 

mortality for this species group could be limited by the implementation of guidelines which protect 

species from direct take, and intentional killing or harassment; and limit access to sensitive populations of 

these species. Providing habitat for these species is not enough to ensure long-term sustainability of 

populations. The following actions could reduce impacts to these species by adopting them as Forest 

policy:

• design roads to avoid highly populated areas of these species; 

• design roads to include safe passage for these species; 

• provide educational materials to the public to increase knowledge and awareness of species needs;

• work collaboratively with state agencies to limit take of fish species in this group on National Forest 

System lands;

• limit recreational access to sensitive habitats associated with species on this list; and

• require regulations on collecting permits to limit collections to approved scientific purposes only. 

These actions include but are not limited to direct impacts from off-road vehicles, horses, mountain bikes, 

and other conveyances as well as direct impacts caused by the activities of persons utilizing said 

conveyances.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

290 National Forests in Mississippi

Species Sensitive to Recreational Traffic (Terrestrial and Non-riverine Aquatic) 

Alternatives and Effects

No charts analyzing effects of different alternatives are presented because there is no change across 

alternatives for the species in this group. The abundance of habitat elements in the forest plan will provide 

sustainable amounts of habitat for the species in this group.

Species Sensitive to Recreational Traffic (Terrestrial and Non-riverine Aquatic) 

Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire, thinning, and regeneration. Prescribed fire is essential 

to maintenance of structural and compositional attributes critical to this species association. Accordingly, 

some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community 

structures normally found in association with native ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive to fire 

injury are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected.

The benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.

Forest thinnings and harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle 

and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure.

Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing and restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and understory 

conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to 

an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, 

invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may 

require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires.

Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural 

components (canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat 

which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components should increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community

composition can be expected as regeneration sites progress through successional stages. These changes 

should be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics and 

components provided by multiple native ecosystem stages.

In alternatives B, C, D, and E, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should be sustainable 

native communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local 

viability concern are expected to remain sustainable. In alternative A, the associated systems will not 

achieve sustainable native communities and associated species.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 291

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other 

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under all alternatives except 

alternative A which includes no management of associated systems. At any given point in time, a mosaic 

of structural and compositional conditions is spread across the forest landscape providing habitat for the 

full range of native species in alternatives B, C, D, and E.

Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be occurring within the forest, and 

which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and communities, negative cumulative 

impacts of alternatives B, C, D, and E will be minor while the positive impacts will be substantial. 

Alternative A will have negative impacts on species and communities in the long run due to little 

management of the associated systems.

4.7.10 Species Needing Occurrence Protection 

Species in this group are rare on the National Forests in Mississippi although habitat is widespread. 

Habitat assessments cannot accurately predict the presence of these species. Most of these species occur 

in less than five populations on the Forests and are sensitive to management actions. Those species which 

have more than five known occurrences represent populations which are critical to the survival of the 

species and have limited occurrence outside of the National Forests in Mississippi. A list of targeted 

species associated with this species group can be found in appendix G.

Species Needing Occurrence Protection Alternatives and Effects

No charts analyzing effects of different alternatives are presented because there is no change across 

alternatives for the species in this group. The abundance of habitat elements in the forest plan will provide 

sustainable amounts of habitat for the species in this group.

Species Needing Occurrence Protection Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire, thinning, and regeneration. Prescribed fire is essential 

to maintenance of structural and compositional attributes critical to this species association. Accordingly, 

some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community 

structures normally found in association with native ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive to fire 

injury are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected.

The benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.

Forest thinnings and harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle 

and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure.

Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing and restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and understory 

conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives are expected to mitigate 

these effects to an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization 

does occur, invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control 

measures may require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

292 National Forests in Mississippi

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burning would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires.

Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural 

components (canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat 

which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components should increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 

composition can be expected as regeneration sites progress through successional stages. These changes 

should be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics and 

components provided by multiple native ecosystem stages.

In alternatives B, C, D, and E, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should be sustainable 

native communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local 

viability concern are expected to remain sustainable. In alternative A, the associated systems will not 

achieve sustainable native communities and associated species. Use of the “life-boat” system will insure 

the survival of even the rarest species in sustainable numbers.

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other 

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under all alternatives except 

alternative A which includes no management of associated systems. At any given point in time, a mosaic 

of structural and compositional conditions is spread across the forest landscape providing habitat for the 

full range of native species in alternatives B, C, D, and E.

Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be occurring within the forest, and 

which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and communities, negative cumulative 

impacts of Alternatives B, C, D, and E will be minor while the positive impacts will be substantial. 

Alternative A will have negative impacts on species and communities in the long run due to little 

management of the associated systems.

4.7.11 Stump and Stump-hole Associates 

Stumps and stump holes provide a network of underground chambers that support many species 

throughout their life cycle. Past forestry practices in Mississippi included removing stumps during 

vegetative management treatments. A list of targeted species associated with this species group can be 

found in appendix G.

Stump and Stump-hole Associates Alternatives and Effects

No charts analyzing effects of different alternatives are presented because there is no change across 

alternatives for the species in this group. The abundance of habitat elements in the forest plan will provide 

sustainable amounts of habitat for the species in this group.

Stump and Stump-hole Associates Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire, thinning, and regeneration. Prescribed fire is essential 

to maintenance of structural and compositional attributes critical to this species association. Accordingly, 

some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community 

structures normally found in association with native ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive to fire 

injury are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected.

The benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.

Forest thinnings and harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle 

and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 293

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure.

Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing and restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and understory 

conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to 

an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, 

invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may 

require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires.

Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural 

components (canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat 

which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components should increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 

composition can be expected as regeneration sites progress through successional stages. These changes 

should be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics and 

components provided by multiple native ecosystem stages.

In alternatives B, C, D, and E, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should be sustainable 

native communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local 

viability concern are expected to remain sustainable. In alternative A, the associated systems will not 

achieve sustainable native communities and associated species.

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other 

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under all alternatives except 

alternative A which includes no management of associated systems. At any given point in time, a mosaic 

of structural and compositional conditions is spread across the forest landscape providing habitat for the 

full range of native species in alternatives B, C, D, and E.

Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be occurring within the forest, and

which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and communities, negative cumulative 

impacts of alternatives B, C, D, and E will be minor while the positive impacts will be substantial. 

Alternative A will have negative impacts on species and communities in the long run due to little 

management of the associated systems.

4.7.12 Calciphiles

Calciphiles are “calcium loving” vascular plant species that are dependent upon high levels of calcium in 

the soil to thrive. A list of targeted species associated with this species group can be found in appendix G.

They generally occur in the black belt, Jackson prairie and loess hills regions of Mississippi (Holly 

Springs, Tombigbee, and Bienville National Forests). These areas are relatively small portions of the 

respective forests and offer excellent opportunities for biological reserves. Relative abundance of black 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

294 National Forests in Mississippi

belt and Jackson prairie are indicator performance measures for calciphiles (appendix G). The 

management strategy for these species is to protect the soil on which they occur from degradation, as the 

assumption is that protecting the soil sustains the species.

Figure 105. Calciphiles associates current and estimated ecological sustainability evaluation

scores forestwide

Calciphiles Alternatives and Effects

As shown in figure 105, all alternatives attain good overall ecological sustainability evaluation scores

with few management needs for systems related to this species association. Alternative A remains fair 

through the first 50 years. Species in this group are tied to particular soil chemistry. Prescribed fire will be 

applied as necessary. The effects of soil on species can be modified by prescribed fire in both positive and 

negative manners, depending upon particular species need. Maintaining soil profiles by preventing soil 

erosion is critical. 

Calciphiles Environmental Effects

Management activities may include prescribed fire as needed to sustain the matrix community in which 

the species group occurs and maintaining this species association at its current abundance across the 

Forest over time. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is expected to achieve 

community structures normally found in association with native ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive 

to fire injury are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be 

expected. The benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.

Regeneration will be primarily allowed to occur naturally or as a result of salvage operations in the wake 

of natural disturbances. In cases where managed regeneration may be required, harvests may expose 

species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle and machinery use, which may also result 

in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and disturbance. Use of herbicides during management 

of the associated ecosystems (including invasive species control) may also be used to establish acceptable 

understory composition and structure. Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent 

possible, will be mitigated by best management practices. The benefits to these species by managing and 

restoring the habitat will far outweigh those few casualties.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 295

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire may also create overstory and understory conditions 

favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire ants. Best 

management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to an extent 

but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, invasive 

species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may require the 

application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires. Habitat quality 

could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural components 

(canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat which could 

cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural components are 

expected to increase in coverage and quality.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should result in sustainable native 

communities and associated species. The amount of available habitat is determined by the location and 

extent of suitable soils. Habitat quality can be increased by management activities, but not the amount of 

habitat. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability concern are expected to remain 

sustainable. 

4.7.13 Species Sensitive to Canopy Cover Modifications

Species sensitive to canopy cover reduction generally occur in areas with closed canopy desired 

conditions, especially hardwood dominated ecological systems; however, some of these areas may be 

targeted for vegetative management treatments. A list of targeted species associated with this species 

group can be found in appendix G. When conducting projects where species sensitive to canopy cover 

reduction are known or suspected to occur, consideration should be given to maintaining closed canopy 

conditions to provide for sustainable species populations. Project level surveys may be necessary to 

determine species presence; however suitable habitat for the species may serve as a surrogate for surveys.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

296 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 106. Species sensitive to canopy cover modifications current and estimated ecological 

sustainability evaluation scores forestwide

Species Sensitive to Canopy Cover Modifications Alternatives and Effects

Species Sensitive to Canopy Cover Modifications Environmental Effects

Management activities may include prescribed fire, thinning, and regeneration depending on the 

characteristics of the matrix community. Prescribed fire is essential to maintenance of structural and 

compositional attributes critical to this species association. Accordingly, some direct mortality of less firetolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community structures normally found in 

association with native ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive to fire injury are known to occur and are 

not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected. The benefits of prescribed fire will 

outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.

Forest thinnings and harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle 

and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure.

Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing and restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and understory 

conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to 

an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, 

invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may 

require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 297

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires.

Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural 

components (canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat 

which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components should increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 

composition can be expected as regeneration sites progress through successional stages. These changes 

should be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics and 

components provided by multiple native ecosystem stages.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should sustain native communities and 

associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability concern are 

expected to remain sustainable. 

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other 

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under all alternatives. 

Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be occurring within the forest, and 

which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and communities, negative cumulative 

impacts of alternatives B, C, D, and E will be minor while the positive impacts will be substantial. 

Alternative A will have negative impacts on species and communities in the long run due to little 

management of the associated systems.

4.7.14 Species Sensitive to Soil Disturbance 

These are species considered to be especially impacted by excavation or blading of roads and trails, 

compaction of soil, soil erosion, soil sedimentation and others. A list of targeted species associated with 

this species group can be found in appendix G. If a project has ground disturbing activities planned, than 

these species should be reviewed for occurrence and mitigation. Implementation monitoring and use of 

guidelines are the management tools used in ensuring sustainability of these species. Guidelines specific 

to this group can be found in vegetation and wildlife, and soil and water guideline sections in chapter 4 of 

the revised Forest Plan. 

Species Sensitive to Soil Disturbance Alternatives and Effects

No charts analyzing effects of different alternatives are presented because there is no change across 

alternatives for the species in this group. The abundance of habitat elements in the forest plan will provide 

sustainable amounts of habitat for the species in this group.

Species Sensitive to Soil Disturbance Environmental Effects

Management activities will include prescribed fire, thinning, and regeneration. Prescribed fire is essential 

to maintenance of structural and compositional attributes critical to this species association. Accordingly, 

some direct mortality of less fire-tolerant species is both expected and desired to achieve community 

structures normally found in association with native ecosystems. Where rare species sensitive to fire 

injury are known to occur and are not protected by localized fire exclusion, some losses can be expected.

The benefits of prescribed fire will outweigh any losses incurred during implementation.

Forest thinnings and harvests may expose species and communities to direct mortality related to vehicle 

and machinery use, which may also result in some micro-habitat loss due to soil compaction and 

disturbance. Herbicides may also be used to establish acceptable understory composition and structure.

Negative direct impacts should be temporary and, to the extent possible, will be mitigated by best 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

298 National Forests in Mississippi

management practices. The benefits to those species by managing and restoring the habitat will far 

outweigh those few casualties.

In all cases, short-term negative effects to individual plants and animals are expected to be minimal and 

discountable compared to the long-term positive effects of habitat sustainability.

Vehicle and machinery use and other ground disturbing activities during management activities may 

inadvertently introduce invasives. Prescribed fire and thinning also create overstory and understory 

conditions favorable for some invasive species, particularly cogongrass, kudzu, and red-imported fire 

ants. Best management practices and guidelines regarding non-native invasives mitigate these effects to 

an extent but some invasive species colonization can still be expected. Where colonization does occur, 

invasive species control measures should minimize negative impacts. However, control measures may 

require the application of pesticides possibly resulting in unintended loss of native species.

Wildlife would benefit from thinning treatments and prescribed fire through increased hard and soft mast 

production and proliferation of wildlife browse from increased light levels and herbaceous expansion in 

response to fire. Prescribed burnings would reduce the forest fuel, lowering the risk of catastrophic fires.

Habitat quality could be reduced in the vicinity of management activity due to loss of important structural 

components (canopy levels within the Forest and down woody material) and fragmentation of habitat 

which could cause indirect effects in the short term. In the long term, however, essential structural 

components should increase in coverage and quality. Changes in floral and faunal community 

composition can be expected as regeneration sites progress through successional stages. These changes 

should be gradual and are considered natural in response to the variety of habitat characteristics and 

components provided by multiple native ecosystem stages.

In all alternatives, the long-term effects of ecosystem management should be sustainable native 

communities and associated species. Over time, associated species of regional as well as local viability 

concern are expected to remain sustainable. 

The cumulative effect of vegetation management practices in combination with timber harvest and other 

management is that a variety of vegetation types and structures result under all alternatives.

Considering the total amount of disturbance that has, is, and will be occurring within the forest, and 

which ultimately affects the status and distribution of species and communities, negative cumulative 

impacts of alternatives B, C, D, and E will be minor while the positive impacts will be substantial. 

Alternative A will have negative impacts on species and communities in the long run due to little 

management of the associated systems.

4.8 Aquatic Species Associations 

Species occurring in these groups require healthy watersheds and good water quality for survival. 

Implementation of streamside management zones and consideration of effects to water quality at the 

project level and management of riparian and floodplain forests should be sufficient to sustain these 

species.

4.8.1 Aquatic Coarse Woody Debris Associates

These species (appendix G) are dependent on quantities of coarse woody debris located in the stream or 

riparian area. Coarse woody debris plays a vital role in the life history for many of these species or their 

prey. Coarse woody debris is measured as a byproduct of a mature riparian area enclosing the stream. A 

sustainable amount of debris will enter the stream if the surrounding riparian area contains a mature, 

closed canopy forest with little or no unnatural disturbance. Trees and other woody debris should not be 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 299

removed from streams unless it is for safety or transportation needs. If removed for transportation 

requirements, only those trees in the area adjacent to the road or causing direct impacts to roads, trails, or 

bridges should be removed.

Algorithms in the ecological sustainability evaluation tool were developed taking into account all weights, 

rankings, and scores associated with this species group to derive composite current scores and estimated 

scores by alternative for the first and fifth decade intervals. These composite scores were calculated at 

both the unit level and aggregately across the Forests. A forestwide species group by alternative summary 

of these scores is presented below (figure 107).

Road and trail density is an important aspect of these data that is unlikely to change or improve over time. 

Many roads that cross National Forest System lands are administered under the jurisdiction of local, state, 

and other federal entities and are therefore, outside of the control of the National Forests in Mississippi. 

Roads and trails administered by the Forests are in most cases considered essential to public access. 

While some National Forest System roads and trails may be gated and rehabilitated if considered 

unessential to the public good, the overall road and trail density scores among all alternatives will change 

little due to the statistical weight of roads outside the Forests’ jurisdictions. While road densities are a 

concern in some instances, in many cases road and trail scores are already in the good or very good range 

which is expected to continue to contribute to ecological sustainability on National Forest System lands. 

Figure 107. Species association current (watershed-wide) and predictive status based on National 

Forest System land management and activities

The resulting scores of the analysis described above, which are measured watershed-wide regardless of 

ownership profiles, result in a good rating for current status and all alternatives. While neighboring 

landowners may contribute varying and unpredictable levels of risk to watershed health, the National 

Forests in Mississippi will continue to maintain a positive contribution to aquatic sustainability. As a 

result, watershed health should remain relatively stable, at least to the extent that Forests can control 

based on ownership profiles. In many watersheds, depending on ownership and land-use profiles, the 

National Forests in Mississippi may be a primary contributor to coarse woody debris associates due to 

riparian forest management practices and guidelines.

Aquatic Coarse Woody Debris Associates Environmental Effects

Retention and protection of riparian forests should have no negative effects. Positive effects will include 

maintenance of hydrologic and hydrothermal regimes along with increases in the abundance of coarse 

woody debris. 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

300 National Forests in Mississippi

4.8.2 Open Water Associates

These species (appendix G) require areas of open water. On National Forest System land, the largest 

bodies of water are often developed for various outdoor recreational activities. Open water surrounded by 

National Forest System land may be a rare commodity and the Forests provide opportunities for some 

species that are losing habitat elsewhere. Species needs should be incorporated into management of open 

areas with water, especially large lakes, ponds and rivers.

Abundance is the vital key factor for this species group. As the limiting factor for these species is the 

presence of extensive open bodies of water, Forest Service management should focus on maintaining 

quality and extent of existing habitat (appendix G). If new opportunities become available to create 

habitat, these species should be considered in all planning processes. Desired conditions and objectives 

for lakes and permanent ponds, both floodplain ecological systems, and rivers and streams will help to 

sustain these species.

Algorithms in the ecological sustainability evaluation tool were developed taking into account all weights, 

rankings, and scores associated with this species group to derive composite current scores and estimated 

scores by alternative for the first and fifth decade intervals. These composite scores were calculated at 

both the unit level and aggregately across the Forests. A forestwide species group by alternative summary 

of these scores is presented below (figure 108).

Figure 108. Species association current (watershed-wide) and predictive status based on National 

Forest System land management and activities

The resulting scores of the analysis described above, which are measured watershed-wide regardless of 

ownership profiles, result in a very good rating for current status and all alternatives. While neighboring 

landowners may contribute varying and unpredictable levels of risk to watershed health, the National 

Forests in Mississippi will continue to maintain a positive contribution to aquatic sustainability. As a 

result, watershed health is expected to remain relatively stable, at least to the extent that the Forests can 

control based on ownership profiles.

Open Water Associates Environmental Effects

The creation and retention of manmade impoundments can disrupt sediment, hydrologic, and thermal 

regimes as well as migration patterns of some riverine aquatic species. Positive effects include the 

creation of nesting, foraging, breeding, and roosting habitat for some bird and bat species.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 301

Recreational traffic exposes the public to the outdoors and ideally raises conservation awareness. On the 

other hand, high levels of recreational traffic can negatively impact native species via excessive take, 

direct persecution, and disturbance of sensitive populations. Excessive recreational traffic may also 

contribute to litter and pollution. 

The balance between negative impacts and positive impacts will vary from case to case.

4.8.3 Aquatic Species Sensitive to Modification of In-stream Flow 

Species in this group are sensitive to in-stream flow modifications which include channelization, 

dredging, dams, road crossings, and culverts. In many cases, hydrologic modification impedes or 

completely prevents natural migration and dispersal strategies. In other cases, hydrologic alteration may 

change water temperature regimes and water chemistry variables such as dissolved oxygen levels. Other 

more subtle impacts of hydrologic alteration include unnatural fluctuations in hydro period that may 

impede reproduction or other phases in the life history of associated species.

Algorithms were developed taking into account all weights, rankings, and scores associated with this 

species group to derive composite current scores and estimated scores by alternative for the first and fifth

decade intervals. These composite scores were calculated at both the unit level and aggregately across the 

Forest. A forestwide species group by alternative summary of these scores is presented below (figure 

109).

Figure 109. Aquatic species sensitive to modification of in-stream flow. Species 

association current (watershed-wide) and predictive status based on National Forest 

System land management and activities

An important and common impact vector for aquatic species is road and trail density. Sections 4.8.3 -

4.8.9 all share this common relationship. That is, road and trail density is an important aspect that is

unlikely to change or improve over time. Many roads that cross the National Forests in Mississippi are 

administered under the jurisdiction of local, State, and other Federal entities and are therefore, outside of 

the control of the Forests. National Forest System roads and trails are in most cases considered essential 

to public access. While some roads and trails may be gated and rehabilitated if considered unessential to 

the public good, the overall road and trail density scores among all alternatives will change little due to 

the statistical weight of roads outside the Forests’ jurisdiction. While road densities are a concern in some 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

302 National Forests in Mississippi

instances, in many cases road and trail scores are already in the good or very good range which is 

expected to continue to contribute to ecological sustainability on National Forest System lands.

The resulting scores of the analysis described above, which are measured watershed-wide regardless of 

ownership profiles, result in a good rating for current status and all alternatives. While neighboring 

landowners may contribute varying and unpredictable levels of risk to watershed health, the Forests will 

continue to maintain a positive contribution to aquatic sustainability. As a result, watershed health should

remain relatively stable, at least to the extent that the Forests can control it based on ownership profiles.

Dam densities, channelization, ditching, dredging, and stream crossings, a large majority of which are on 

neighboring privately owned lands, play a major role in elevating risk levels to hydrological integrity.

Aquatic Species Sensitive to Modification of In-stream Flow Environmental 

Effects

Most hydrologic alterations on the Forests watersheds occur on privately owned adjacent lands and are 

outside of Forest Service control. Other than man-made impoundments and stream crossings, National 

Forest System lands should not contribute negative impacts to hydrologic regimes. In some cases, the 

Forests may actually restore hydrologic regimes, particularly through stream enhancement and restoration 

projects. Stream crossings may increase sediment loads and modify hydraulic processes as well as serve 

as an impediment to species migration and dispersal. The creation and retention of manmade 

impoundments can also disrupt flow regimes as well as migration patterns and dispersal of some riverine 

aquatic species.

4.8.4 Aquatic Species Sensitive to Non-native Invasive Species 

Non-native invasive species (appendix G) negatively impact native communities in a number of ways. In 

some cases, invasives compete with native species for resources and space. Some invasive species may 

also prey directly upon native species. Still others may temporarily or even permanently alter habitats and 

community structures. The species in this association are susceptible to competition, predation, 

displacement, and habitat alteration.

Algorithms were developed taking into account all weights, rankings, and scores associated with this 

species group to derive composite current scores and estimated scores by alternative for the first and fifth

decade intervals. These composite scores were calculated at both the unit level and aggregately across the 

Forest. A forestwide species group by alternative summary of these scores is presented below (figure 

110).
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National Forests in Mississippi 303

Figure 110. Aquatic species sensitive to non-native invasive species; species association 

current (watershed-wide) and predictive status based on National Forest System land

management and activities

The resulting scores of the analysis described above, which are measured watershed-wide regardless of 

ownership profiles, result in a very good rating for current status and all alternatives. While neighboring 

landowners may contribute varying and unpredictable levels of risk to watershed health, the National 

Forests in Mississippi will continue to maintain a positive contribution to aquatic sustainability. As a 

result, watershed health should remain relatively stable, at least to the extent that the Forests can control it 

based on ownership profiles. These scores are measured exclusively by the National Forests in 

Mississippi compliance with guidelines addressing invasive species.

Aquatic Species Sensitive to Non-native Invasive Species Environmental Effects

Invasive species control measures may result in direct mortality to small numbers of native species. 

Proper application of control measures and guidelines are intended to minimize direct loses. Indirect and 

cumulative effects, however, includes the enhancement to the abundance and diversity of native species 

and communities.

4.8.5 Aquatic Species Sensitive to Non-Point Source Pollution 

Urban and agricultural land uses generate a wide variety of toxins that often find their way into aquatic 

systems. While no one source may contribute large levels, when aggregated at the watershed scale, these 

toxins may alter water chemistry to a detrimental extent. Species in this association (appendix G) are 

highly susceptible to alterations in water chemistry resulting from high levels of urban and agricultural 

land uses in a given watershed. Runoff from non-forested land uses can accumulate to levels toxic to 

species in this association.

Algorithms in the ecological sustainability evaluation tool were developed taking into account all weights, 

rankings, and scores associated with this species group to derive composite current scores and estimated 

scores by alternative for the first and fifth decade intervals. These composite scores were calculated at 

both the unit level and aggregately across the Forests. A forestwide species group by alternative summary 

of these scores is presented below (figure 111).
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

304 National Forests in Mississippi

Figure 111. Aquatic species sensitive to non-point source pollution; species association 

current (watershed-wide) and predictive status based on National Forest System land 

management and activities

The resulting scores of the analysis described above, which are measured watershed-wide regardless of 

ownership profiles, result in a fair rating for current status and all alternatives. While neighboring 

landowners may contribute varying and unpredictable levels of risk to watershed health, the Forests will 

continue to maintain a positive contribution to aquatic sustainability. As a result, watershed health should

remain relatively stable, at least to the extent that the Forests can control it based on ownership profiles.

These scores were calculated based on the spatial extent of each watershed in non-forested land uses, 

particularly urban and agricultural areas. National Forest System lands do not contribute to non-point 

source risk levels.

Aquatic Species Sensitive to Non-Point Source Pollution Environmental Effects

The National Forests in Mississippi do not contribute to or manage for non-point source pollution 

therefore no effects are anticipated.

4.8.6 Aquatic Species Sensitive to Stream Sediment 

Suspended sediments may adversely impact respiration and other biological functions necessary to the 

survival of some species in this association. As heavier sediments settle to stream bottoms, important 

foraging and spawning habitat may also degrade. Excessive deposits of sediment may disrupt 

photosynthesis in some plant species or even completely bury occurrences.

Algorithms in the ecological sustainability evaluation tool were developed taking into account all weights, 

rankings, and scores associated with this species group (appendix G) to derive composite current scores 

and estimated scores by alternative for the first and fifth decade intervals. These composite scores were 

calculated at both the unit level and aggregately across the Forests. A forestwide species group by 

alternative summary of these scores is presented below (figure 112).
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 305

Figure 112. Aquatic species sensitive to stream sediment; species association current 

(watershed-wide) and predictive status based on National Forest System land 

management and activities

The resulting scores of the analysis described above, which are measured watershed-wide regardless of 

ownership profiles, result in a good rating for current status and all alternatives. While neighboring 

landowners may contribute varying and unpredictable levels of risk to watershed health, the Forests will 

continue to maintain a positive contribution to aquatic sustainability. As a result, watershed health should

remain relatively stable, at least to the extent that the Forests can control it based on ownership profiles.

While some forest management activities on National Forest System lands may contribute occasional and 

temporary relatively low levels of elevated sediment risk, these activities are usually minor when 

compared to neighboring landowners and, in the long term, often contribute more to ecosystem health 

than to risk levels. 

Aquatic Species Sensitive to Stream Sediment Environmental Effects

Forest management activities, such as thinning, regeneration, and prescribed fire, may contribute 

temporary low levels of sediment risk. These short term risks are more than offset by the positive 

ecological benefits of these activities. 

Maintenance of National Forest System roads contribute varying levels of elevated sediment depending 

on slope, elevation, aspect, soil type, and road management regimes. Since many National Forest System 

roads are important for public and intra-agency access, these effects are unlikely to abate significantly. In 

other cases, National Forest System roads may fall under shared jurisdiction with other agencies and 

entities. Here again, these impacts are unlikely to abate significantly.

In most watersheds, the Forests’ sediment contributions are minor when compared to neighboring landuses. In all cases, best management practices and guidelines are intended to minimize sediment risk levels 

to the extent possible. 

4.8.7 Aquatic Species Sensitive to Stream Toxins 

Unlike non-point source pollution, this association is especially susceptible to point source pollution.

While permitted point sources may not adversely impact this group when compliant; spills, discharges, 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

306 National Forests in Mississippi

and other accidents may precipitate spikes in stream toxin levels sufficient to extirpate entire occurrences.

Extreme alterations in water chemistry from any source can be highly detrimental to these species.

Algorithms in the ecological sustainability evaluation tool were developed taking into account all weights, 

rankings, and scores associated with this species group (appendix G) to derive composite current scores 

and estimated scores by alternative for the first and fifth decade intervals. These composite scores were 

calculated at both the unit level and aggregately across the Forests. A forestwide species group by 

alternative summary of these scores is presented below (figure 113).

Figure 113. Aquatic species sensitive to stream toxins; species association current (watershedwide) and predictive status based on National Forest System land management and activities

The resulting scores of the analysis described above, which are measured watershed-wide regardless of 

ownership profiles, result in a fair rating for current status and all alternatives. While neighboring 

landowners may contribute varying and unpredictable levels of risk to watershed health, the Forests will 

continue to maintain a positive contribution to aquatic sustainability. As a result, watershed health is 

expected to remain relatively stable, at least to the extent that the Forests can control it based on 

ownership profiles. These scores reflect risk levels primarily derived from point source permit densities 

and vehicle emissions and residues. Point source densities are entirely out of the Forests’ control and 

vehicle traffic is often a result of local, State, and other Federal jurisdictions.

Aquatic Species Sensitive to Stream Toxins Environmental Effects

Some forest management practices may require the application of herbicides and pesticides which may 

impact aquatic systems via direct mortality and indirectly via temporarily altered water chemistry.

Guidelines and best management practices should minimize risks to native species and communities. In 

most cases, the long-term benefits will outweigh any short term negative effects. Otherwise, the National 

Forests in Mississippi do not contribute to nor manage for stream toxins, therefore no effects are 

anticipated.

4.8.8 Aquatic Species Sensitive to Water Temperature Regime 

These species (appendix G) are highly dependent on specific water temperature regimes for all or part of 

their life history. Thermal alteration most often occurs when riparian areas are deforested exposing water 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 307

surface to increased levels of direct sunlight. Other sources of thermal alteration, such as accidental 

industrial discharge, are much rarer and usually temporary.

Algorithms in the ecological sustainability evaluation tool were developed taking into account all weights, 

rankings, and scores associated with this species group to derive composite current scores and estimated 

scores by alternative for the first and fifth decade intervals. These composite scores were calculated at 

both the unit level and aggregately across the Forests. A forestwide species group by alternative summary 

of these scores is presented below (figure 114).

Figure 114. Aquatic species sensitive to water temperature regime; species association current 

(watershed-wide) and predictive status based on National Forest System land management and 

activities

The resulting scores of the analysis described above, which are measured watershed-wide regardless of 

ownership profiles, result in a good rating for current status and all alternatives. While neighboring 

landowners may contribute varying and unpredictable levels of risk to watershed health, the Forests will 

continue to maintain a positive contribution to aquatic sustainability. As a result, watershed health is 

expected to remain relatively stable, at least to the extent that the Forests can control it based on 

ownership profiles. Riparian forest cover is the primary ecological variable contributing to healthy aquatic 

thermal regimes. In many watersheds, the National Forests in Mississippi are a primary contributor to 

thermal integrity when compared to neighboring landowners. In all cases, the Forests make a positive 

contribution to aquatic thermal regimes due to protection of riparian areas. 

Aquatic Species Sensitive to Water Temperature Regime Environmental Effects

Retention and protection of riparian forest communities has a strong positive impact on hydrothermal 

regimes. No negative impacts are expected. 

4.8.9 Species Sensitive to Recreational Traffic

Species in this group (appendix G) are sensitive to excessive human disturbance such as trampling, 

harassment, vehicular mortality, excessive collection, breeding or nest disturbance, and direct mortality.

Many species are collected commercially and used for a variety of purposes including food, medicine, 

decoration, gardening, landscaping, the pet trade, bait, and trophy fishing. Reptile species are especially 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

308 National Forests in Mississippi

sensitive to being harmed, harassed, and killed by humans. This interaction with humans can have longterm negative effects on population sizes and sustainability.

Algorithms in the ecological sustainability evaluation tool were developed taking into account all weights, 

rankings, and scores associated with this species group to derive composite current scores and estimated 

scores by alternative for the first and fifth decade intervals. These composite scores were calculated at 

both the unit level and aggregately across the Forests. A forestwide species group by alternative summary 

of these scores is presented below (figure 115).

Figure 115. Species sensitive to recreational traffic; species association current (watershedwide) and predictive status based on National Forest System land management and activities

The resulting scores of the analysis described above, which are measured watershed-wide regardless of 

ownership profiles, result in a fair rating for current status and all alternatives. While neighboring 

landowners may contribute varying and unpredictable levels of risk to watershed health, the Forests will 

continue to maintain a positive contribution to aquatic sustainability. As a result, watershed health is 

expected to remain relatively stable, at least to the extent that the Forests can control it based on 

ownership profiles. Recreational access is an important function of the National Forest System 

appreciated by the public, and ideally, contributes more to conservation awareness than is lost to 

recreational casualties.

Species Sensitive to Recreational Traffic Environmental Effects

Recreational traffic exposes the public to the outdoors and ideally raises conservation awareness. On the 

other hand, high levels of recreational traffic can negatively impact native species via excessive take, 

direct persecution, and disturbance of sensitive populations. Excessive recreational traffic may also 

contribute to litter and pollution. 

The balance between negative impacts and positive impacts will vary from case to case.

4.9 Management Indicator Species

4.9.1 Environmental Effects

Future trends in management indicator species are discussed in various sections of this document. These 

are identified in table 63. Within specific major forest ecosystems and species groups there is discussion 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 309

of expected response to each alternative. The mix of habitat components, by alternative, will influence the 

degree to which increases or decreases are expected for management indicator species.

In summary, six species have been selected as management indicator species for the revised forest plan. 

They will be used to assess effects of alternatives and to help monitor effects of implementing the selected 

alternative.

Table 63. Location of discussion of management indicator species management and effects

Species

Common Name

Location of Management Indicator Species and

Discussion of Management and Effects

Red-cockaded 

Woodpecker

Associated with all pine dominated ecological systems occurring on the Bienville, 

Chickasawhay, De Soto, and Homochitto Ranger Districts. It is also discussed in the 

threatened and endangered portion of the EIS and is associated with mature open pinegrass associates, den tree associates, xeric sandhill associates, terrestrial and nonriverine aquatic species sensitive to recreational traffic, and species dependent on fire to 

maintain habitat species groups

Pileated

Woodpecker

Associated with den tree associates, forest associates mature mesic deciduous, mature 

riparian forest associates, and mature upland pine-hardwood associates species groups

Wood Thrush Associated with forest interior birds

Longleaf Pine Associated with upland longleaf pine and woodland ecosystem

Sothern Pine 

Beetle Associated with all pine dominated ecological ecosystems on the forest and forest health

Largemouth 

Bass Associated with recreational fisheries

4.10 Forest Health and Protection

Our overall strategy for achieving healthy forests is to use a combination of vegetation management 

practices and prescribed burning to restore and maintain resilient native ecosystems. The emphasis in this 

forest plan on thinning; converting loblolly and slash pine stands that are not on appropriate sites to 

longleaf and shortleaf pine forests; and restoring rare communities and old growth; is expected to not only 

improve native species diversity but also improve resilience of ecological communities to non-native 

invasive species, disease and insect outbreaks, extreme weather disturbances associated with climate 

change, and other stressors. In addition to resilience, a variety of age classes, including old growth, is 

needed for ecological sustainability. The three most important forest health issues for the National Forests 

in Mississippi are non-native invasive species, southern pine beetle and the need to improve old-growth

composition. These three issues are covered in more detail in the following sections. There are numerous 

other forest health issues, but these are normally addressed by vegetation management practices in the 

proposed action such as thinning, prescribed burning and regeneration. Alternatives C, D and E will 

positively influence overall forest health. Alternative A would allow overall forestwide forest health to 

deteriorate.

4.10.1 Non-native Invasive Species

The Forests’ objective is to protect native populations of plants and animals through the timely treatment 

of non-native invasive infestations and to prevent or reduce the spread of infestations to high quality 

natural habitats. In selecting treatment methods, minimizing effects to native species and natural 

communities is a priority.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

310 National Forests in Mississippi

One of the goals of National Forests in Mississippi Forest Plan is to maintain and enhance the diversity of 

plant and animal communities of Mississippi. The integrity of natural communities on the Forests will be 

compromised if non-native invasive species infestations are allowed to continue to spread and invade 

previously unaffected areas. In addition, management of non-native invasive species infestations sites will 

help slow the spread of non-native invasive species in Mississippi by minimizing the degree to which the 

Forests are a source of infestations for surrounding lands, both public and private. 

To fulfill the goals of Executive Order 13112, non-native invasive species treatments are intended to be 

adaptive in nature and allow the use of integrated methods for the future treatment of infestations. The 

Forests recognize that prevention is critical in non-native invasive species management. Prevention 

includes educational efforts as well as forest plan standards and guidelines that reduce the probability of 

non-native invasive species being spread by Forest management activities.

The following guidelines were developed specifically for species in this group or address specific needs 

for this group and are incorporated into chapter 4 of the revised Forest Plan:

1. All ground disturbing activities should be designed and implemented using practices for prevention of 

spread of non-native invasive species. 

2. Contracts and permits should include provisions to prevent the introduction and spread of non-native 

invasive species on National Forest System lands and resources. 

3. National Forests in Mississippi facilities, including administrative sites, campgrounds, offices, etc., 

should be maintained to be free of non-native invasive species. 

4. Gravel and other soil or fill products used on National Forest System lands should come from pits 

that are free of non-native invasive species. 

5. Noxious weed-seed-free materials should be used for erosion control, mulch, and other purposes. 

6. Native or non-invasive non-native species should be used when seeding temporary openings 

(temporary roads, skid trails, and log landings), wildlife food plots, or for use in erosion control. 

7. Treatment of non-native invasive species should be considered in all project planning. Authorized 

uses of timber sale receipts should include needs for non-native invasive species monitoring and 

treatment, as appropriate. 

8. Personnel involved in non-native invasive plant treatments should be able to identify federally listed 

species, species of concern, and species of interest to minimize or eliminate the risk of damage to 

these non-target plant populations. 

9. Non-native invasive species should be controlled where they are causing negative effects to rare 

ecological systems. (See table 9 for a list of ecological systems in the Forests). Non-native invasive 

plants should not be introduced in or near these communities, except where their influence is 

expected to be beneficial to the community’s composition, structure, or function. 

10. Opportunity for introduction of non-native invasive species during road construction and associated 

timber harvest should be minimized including washing equipment after use and before moving to the 

next site.

Non-native Invasive Plants

A list of the high priority invasive plant species across the Forests has been developed and listed below 

(table 64). The exact infested acreage within the Forests is unknown and changes annually. Most of the 21 

species identified in table 64 are prevalent across the region and are continuing to spread, actively 

impacting biodiversity. These species were assigned a relative priority for treatment based on their known 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 311

impacts on rare species and communities, their ability to rapidly spread, and their ability to persist in the 

forest. These species have been identified as the highest priority species on the Forests at the present time 

but the list will be updated as needed, based on new information regarding species’ spread, invasion by 

new species, and infestation characteristics.

Non-native Invasive Plants Environmental Effects

While not all non-native species are known to disrupt native ecosystems, of particular concern are those 

that are successful at invading and rapidly spreading through natural habitats. Invasive plants create a host 

of harmful environmental effects to native ecosystems including: displacing native plants; degrading or 

eliminating habitat and forage for wildlife; extirpating rare species; impacting recreation; affecting fire 

frequency; altering soil properties; and decreasing native biodiversity. Invasive plants spread across 

landscapes, unimpeded by ownership boundaries. Infested areas represent potential seed sources for 

continuation of the invasion on neighboring lands. Alternative A places limited emphasis on control of 

invasive species due to reduced resource capabilities. Although this alternative would result in the least 

amount of ground disturbance which could reduce the potential for non-native invasive plant infestations, 

the decrease in resource capabilities would result in less aggressive treatment of infestations. Alternatives 

B, C, D, and E all have similar language regarding pre-treatment of areas that will be disturbed. 

Therefore, the potential for non-native invasive plant infestations from ground disturbing activities could 

be offset by aggressive treatments. 

Table 64. Invasive species

Scientific Name Common Name Prioritya

Triadica sebifera Chinese tallow 1

Albizia julibrissin Mimosa 1

Melia azedarach Chinaberrytree 1

Paulownia tomentosa Princesstree 1

Ligustrum sinense Chinese Privet 2/3

Ligustrum vulgare European Privet 2/3

Ligustrum lucidum Glossy Privet 2/3

Ligustrum japonicum Japanese Privet 2/3

Nandina domestica Sacred bamboo 1

Lonicera japonica Japanese Honeysuckle 4

Pueraria Montana Kudzu 1

Wisteria sinensis Nonnative Wisteria 1

Wisteria floribunda Nonnative Wisteria 1

Lolium arundinaceum Tall Fescue 3

Microstegium vimineum Nepalese Browntop 1

Imperata cylindrica Cogongrass 1

Miscanthus sinensis Chinese Silvergrass 1

Rottboellia cochinchinensis Itchgrass 1

Lespedeza cuneata Chinese Lespedeza 3

Lygodium japonicum Japanese Climbing Fern 3

Lespedeza bicolor Shrubby Lespedeza 2

a - Priority:

1=high, eradicate wherever found

2=medium, control source populations and eradicate outliers

3=low, prevent invasion of last areas not invaded; eradicate high priority areas
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

312 National Forests in Mississippi

Left unmanaged, non-native invasive species infestations will continue to spread. Even without active 

management invasive plant infestations will occur across the Forests. Insect and disease outbreaks, 

wildfires, and storm events (including wind thrown trees, flooding, landslides, and ice damage) encourage 

non-native invasive plant establishment. More areas of the Forests will be affected and the areas that are 

affected now will grow in size. Native species diversity and the integrity of natural communities will 

decline. Some threatened, endangered, sensitive or locally rare species may be extirpated from the 

Forests. Wildlife species will lose food sources and habitat structure will be modified. Forest plan 

alternatives that limit accessibility and management will reduce somewhat the likelihood of non-native 

invasive plant infestations, but they will also reduce the ability to actively restore and maintain habitat 

using fire and timber management. Private land, state and federal roads, and streams adjacent to the 

Forests are all potential sources for non-native invasive plants that can affect the Forests. It can be 

expected during the life of the forest plan that development will occur near the Forests that will facilitate 

the spread of non-native invasive plants onto the Forests.

Non-native Insects and Disease

Insects and diseases of most concern for the purposes of this analysis include emerald ash borer, sudden 

oak death, redbay ambrosia beetle which is associated with laurel wilt disease, Asian longhorned beetle, 

sirex noctilio, and red-imported fire ant.

Emerald Ash Borer

The emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) is an insect pest of recent concern for the National Forests in 

Mississippi. Since there are no known occurrences of emerald ash borer, control measures should focus 

on regulation (quarantines), detection, and education. Federal and State entities are continuing to monitor 

detection throughout the Country for new cases of emerald ash borer. When new infestations are 

discovered, extensive eradication and quarantines should be enacted.

Emerald Ash Borer Environmental Effects

As there are few management actions or treatments identified that can prevent emerald ash borer

susceptibility or risk, it is difficult to display differences in impacts amongst the alternatives. At this time 

the most effective activities in combating emerald ash borer on the National Forests in Mississippi

involve continued detection, cooperating with enforcement of quarantines (administered by the Animal 

and Plant Health Inspection Service), and perhaps restrictions on the importation of firewood. We expect 

all these activities would continue under all alternatives.

In the event that an infestation is discovered on the Forests, removing the infested trees is about the only 

tactic that would prevent further spread. It is expected that all alternatives would utilize this approach.

Perhaps the only difference between alternatives that can be expected is that if a silvicultural management 

tool is developed, alternative A may be less likely to implement measures.

Similar to the discussion above, there is a concern about the potential impact of this insect in our 

ecosystems. Fortunately, this species has not yet been found on the Forests. We cannot identify any 

cumulative actions or activities that would combine with the National Forests in Mississippi activities to 

alter the impacts of the emerald ash borer.

Sudden Oak Death Phytophthora ramorum

Since there is no known cure for oaks infected with P. ramorum, control measures should focus on 

regulation (quarantines), detection, and education. Federal and State entities are continuing to monitor 

nurseries throughout the country for new cases of sudden oak death. When new infestations are 

discovered, extensive eradication and quarantines should be enacted.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 313

Sudden Oak Death Environmental Effects

As there are few management actions or treatments identified that can prevent sudden oak death

susceptibility or risk, it is difficult to display differences in impacts amongst the alternatives. At this time 

the most effective activities in combating sudden oak death on the National Forests in Mississippi involve 

continued detection, cooperating with enforcement of quarantines (administered by the Animal and Plant 

Health Inspection Service), and perhaps restrictions on the importation of firewood and exotic 

ornamentals. We expect all these activities would continue under all alternatives.

In the event that an infestation is discovered on the Forests, removing the infested trees is about the only 

tactic that would prevent further spread. It is expected that all alternatives would utilize this approach.

Perhaps the only difference between alternatives that can be expected is that if a silvicultural management 

tool is developed, alternative A may be less likely to implement measures.

Similar to the discussion above, there is a concern about the potential impact of this fungus in our 

ecosystems. Fortunately, this species has not yet been found on the Forests. We cannot identify any 

cumulative actions or activities that would combine with the National Forests in Mississippi activities to 

alter the impacts of P. ramorum.

Redbay Ambrosia Beetle

An integrated management strategy is needed to limit the spread and impact of laurel wilt. This strategy 

may take various forms depending on the area of interest. As yet, there are no proven silvicultural or 

arboricultural treatments for mitigating the impact of laurel wilt. The most reasonable management 

response where laurel wilt is established may be to simply let the disease run its course. “Recovery” from 

laurel wilt in redbay and other forest species could be considered in terms of the following general 

courses of action:

• Slow the long distance, human-assisted spread of the disease. 

• Improve our understanding of the biology, host associations, and impacts of the disease and its vector. 

• Protect individual, high-value landscape trees with pesticides when feasible. 

• Develop other tools for management of the disease and its vector, possibly to include sanitation, other 

silvicultural methods, trap-out or attract-and-kill techniques, use of resistant genotypes, and biological 

control. 

• Assess the need for, and possibly pursue, a germplasm conservation program for threatened hosts. 

• Continue to monitor the geographic spread of the disease, assess its impacts on host species as its 

spreads to new ecosystems, and educate the public about the issue. 

Redbay Ambrosia Beetle Environmental Effects

As there are few management actions or treatments identified that can prevent redbay ambrosia beetle and 

associated laurel wilt susceptibility or risk, it is difficult to display differences in impacts amongst the 

alternatives. At this time the most effective activities in combating redbay ambrosia beetle and laurel wilt 

on the National Forests in Mississippi involve continued detection, cooperating with other agencies, and 

perhaps restrictions on the importation of firewood and mulch. We expect all these activities would 

continue under all alternatives. Perhaps the only difference between alternatives that can be expected is 

that if a silvicultural management tool is developed, alternative A may be less likely to implement 

measures.

Similar to the discussion above, there is a concern about the potential impact of this disease in our 

ecosystems. Unfortunately, very little is known regarding the potential impacts redbay ambrosia beetle or 

possible treatments to manage this disease at this time. We cannot identify any cumulative actions or 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

314 National Forests in Mississippi

activities that would combine with the National Forests in Mississippi activities to alter the impacts of 

redbay ambrosia beetle and associated laurel wilt.

Asian Longhorned Beetle 

Since there are no known occurrences of Asian longhorned beetle, control measures should focus on 

regulation (quarantines), detection, eradication, and education. Federal and State entities are continuing to 

monitor detection throughout the Country for new cases of Asian longhorned beetle. When new 

infestations are discovered, extensive eradication and quarantines should be enacted. Currently, the only 

effective means to eliminate Asian longhorned beetle is to remove infested trees and destroy them by 

chipping or burning. Early detection of infestations and rapid treatment response are crucial to successful 

eradication of the beetle.

Asian Longhorned Beetle Environmental Effects

At this time the most effective activities in combating Asian longhorned beetle on the National Forests in 

Mississippi involve continued detection, cooperating with enforcement of quarantines (administered by 

the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service), and perhaps restrictions on the importation of firewood. 

We expect all these activities would continue under all alternatives.

In the event that an infestation is discovered on the Forests, removing the infested trees is about the only 

tactic that would prevent further spread. It is expected that all alternatives would utilize this approach.

Perhaps the only difference between alternatives that can be expected is that if a silvicultural management 

tool is developed, alternative A may be less likely to implement measures.

Similar to the discussion above, there is a concern about the potential impact of this insect in our 

ecosystems. Fortunately, this species has not yet been found on the Forests. We cannot identify any 

cumulative actions or activities that would combine with the National Forests in Mississippi activities to 

alter the impacts of the Asian longhorned beetle.

Sirex Woodwasp

Since there are no known occurrences of sirex woodwasp, control measures should focus on regulation 

(quarantines), detection, eradication, and education. Federal and State entities are continuing to monitor 

detection throughout the country for new cases. When new infestations are discovered, extensive 

eradication and quarantines should be enacted. Sirex woodwasp has been successfully managed using 

biological control agents. The key agent is a parasitic nematode, Deladenus siricidicola, which infects 

sirex woodwasp larvae, and ultimately sterilizes the adult females. These infected females emerge and lay 

infertile eggs that are filled with nematodes, which sustain and spread the nematode population. In 

addition to the nematode, hymenopteran parasitoids have also been introduced into sirex woodwasp 

populations in the Southern Hemisphere, and most of them are native to North America. Early detection 

of infestations and rapid treatment response are crucial to successful eradication of this insect.

Sirex Woodwasp Environmental Effects

At this time the most effective activities in combating sirex woodwasp on the National Forests in 

Mississippi involve continued detection, cooperating with enforcement of quarantines (administered by 

the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service), and perhaps restrictions on wood packing materials. We 

expect all these activities would continue under all alternatives.

In the event that an infestation is discovered on the Forest, control by use of biological agents and 

silvicultural practices would be implemented. It is expected that all alternatives would utilize this 

approach. Perhaps the only difference between alternatives that can be expected is that if a silvicultural 

management tool is developed, alternative A may be less likely to implement measures.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 315

Similar to the discussion above, there is a concern about the potential impact of this insect in our 

ecosystems. Fortunately, this species has not yet been found on the Forests. We cannot identify any 

cumulative actions or activities that would combine with the National Forests in Mississippi activities to 

alter the impacts of the sirex woodwasp.

Red-Imported Fire Ant

An integrated management strategy is needed to limit the spread and impact of red-imported fire ant. This 

strategy may take various forms depending on the area of interest. As yet, there are no proven treatments 

for mitigating the impact of red-imported fire ant at a landscape level. The National Forests in Mississippi 

will cooperate with Federal, State, and private entities as a means to control this species across the 

landscape is developed.

Red-Imported Fire Ant Environmental Effects

At this time the most effective activities in combating red-imported fire ant on the National Forests in 

Mississippi involve continued cooperation with Federal, State, and private entities to find a cost efficient 

control method to be applied across the landscape. We expect all activities would continue under all 

alternatives.

In the event that a landscape-wide control method is feasible, control by use of biological agents and 

silvicultural practices would be implemented. It is expected that all alternatives would utilize this 

approach. Perhaps the only difference between alternatives that can be expected is that if a silvicultural 

management tool is developed, alternative A may be less likely to implement measures.

Similar to the discussion above, there is a concern about the potential impact of this insect in our 

ecosystems. We cannot identify any cumulative actions or activities that would combine with the National 

Forests in Mississippi activities to alter the impacts of red-imported fire ant.

Non-native Fauna

Feral Hogs

Wild pigs are highly mobile and freely move across land ownership boundaries. Attempts to reduce wild 

pig impacts to National Forest System land and water must be considered within the context of what 

occurs on adjacent private, tribal, or other governmental land. Coordination of control efforts across 

boundaries is imperative. Reducing or eliminating impacts of wild non-native pigs can be both 

challenging and expensive. It is difficult to remove all members of a population. Even if all pigs were to 

be removed, the potential for wild pigs repopulating the area remains. Hunting and trapping of these 

animals remains the most viable method of control. The National Forests in Mississippi will cooperate 

with Federal, State, and private entities as a means to control this species across the landscape is 

developed.

Feral Hogs Environmental Effects

At this time the most effective activities in combating wild hogs on the National Forests in Mississippi

involve continued cooperation with Federal, State, and private entities to find a cost efficient control 

method to be applied across the landscape. We expect all activities would continue under all alternatives.

In the event that a landscape-wide control method is feasible, control would be implemented. It is 

expected that all alternatives would utilize this approach. Perhaps the only difference between alternatives 

that can be expected is that if a management tool is developed, alternative A may be less likely to 

implement measures.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

316 National Forests in Mississippi

Similar to the discussion above, there is a concern about the potential impact of feral hogs in our 

ecosystems. We cannot identify any cumulative actions or activities that would combine with the National 

Forests in Mississippi activities to alter the impacts of feral hogs.

4.10.2 Southern Pine Beetle 

Southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis) infestations have occurred cyclically throughout recorded 

history in the South. Factors that determine southern pine beetle hazard include the proportion of the 

stand in susceptibility host trees (primarily the southern yellow pine species) and the radial growth of 

those trees over the past five years. Trees with a relatively high radial growth are less susceptible to 

southern pine beetle-related mortality. While we do not have individual tree radial growth data to estimate 

susceptibility, we can use the culmination of mean annual increment as a proxy for radial growth. Trees 

within stands that have passed beyond culmination of mean annual increment are growing relatively 

slower and radial growth should be slower. Previous modeling using the forest vegetation simulator 

indicates that culmination of mean annual increment for the yellow pine working group ranges from 35 to 

50 years old depending upon site productivity. For the purpose of this analysis we will consider stands 

equal to or older than 60 years old to be of a higher susceptibility to southern pine beetle. 

Currently, approximately 75 percent of the National Forests in Mississippi are in pine dominated 

ecological systems. Of these systems, over 70 percent are considered to be in medium or high southern 

pine beetle hazard categories. Natural enemies, such as diseases, parasites, predators and weather, help 

maintain beetle populations and bring cyclic outbreaks under control. When southern pine beetle 

outbreaks occur, direct suppression would need to be implemented using integrated pest management 

strategies. Integrated pest management may be achieved through rapid salvage and utilization of infested 

trees, piling and burning of infested materials, chemical control in high value resources, and cut-andleave.

Good forest management is the most effective method of preventing losses from the southern pine beetle.

Proactive prevention treatments, such as thinning, are known to effectively reduce a southern pine beetle 

hazard and are best implemented in periods between southern pine beetle outbreaks. Thinning is the 

preferred practice for reducing a forest stand’s susceptibility to southern pine beetles. Thinning stands to a 

threshold of about 80 square feet per acre of basal area decreases the frequency and severity of southern 

pine beetle infestations, reduces intraspecific competition and provides trees with enhanced ability to 

ward off southern pine beetle attacks via increased resin flow. Reducing stand density through thinning 

also disrupts southern pine beetle pheromone communication by increasing the amount of air flow within 

the stand (Ayers et al. 2009). Planting pine species that are less susceptible to southern pine beetle such as 

longleaf pine is also a management focus. Treatments associated with southern pine beetle prevention 

have multiple benefits, including improving fire condition class, enhancing wildlife habitat, and 

increasing recreational opportunities.

Prescribed burning is a forest management tool commonly used in southern pine forests to reduce 

understory competition. It can be used to treat large areas at a relatively low cost relative to mechanical 

treatments. Limited literature exists on the relationships between prescribed burning and bark beetles in 

the eastern United States, including southern pine beetles. Prescribed fire to reduce competition may 

influence the stand’s microenvironment and help disrupt the pheromone plume in the stand (Kneble and 

Wentworth 2007). Additional studies are needed to understand the complex interactions between 

prescribed fire and bark beetle activity.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 317

Southern Pine Beetle Environmental Effects

Managers can control both the proportion of susceptible species and the radial growth of trees through 

vegetation manipulation activities. Thinning and regeneration harvests can alter both species composition 

and radial growth of the trees within a stand (table 65).

Table 65. Acres in pine dominated ecological systems regenerated and thinned and at risk from 

southern pine beetle effects at the end of the next decade by alternative

Activity in Susceptible Types Alternative (acres)

Alt. A Alt. B Alt. C Alt. D Alt. E

Acres Regenerated by Harvest 847 12,072 17,693 32,850 23,957

Acres Thinned by Harvest 77,598 90,887 132,239 109,142 172,317

Total Acres Mature (60+) Pine 516,616 488,790 468,510 449,511 461,210

Between 460,000 and 516,000 acres of the ecological systems of concern would be in a southern pine 

beetle susceptible condition under the various alternatives analyzed given the objectives for prescribed 

fire and timber harvesting under each alternative. Alternatives C, D, and E would reduce southern pine 

beetle risk the most as it is projected that these alternatives will utilize thinning and regeneration the most 

due to the alternatives’ focus on ecological restoration and maintenance objectives which also decreases 

total susceptible acres. Alternative B includes less regeneration and thinning activities than alternatives C, 

D and E; leaving higher total acres vulnerable to southern pine beetle. Alternative A does the least of all 

the alternatives to improve southern pine beetle susceptibility. Regeneration is not a high priority and 

thinning is much lower than all other alternatives which will cause a higher number of vulnerable acres 

which are more susceptible to southern pine beetle outbreaks.

When considering actions on private and other agency lands within or directly adjacent to the National 

Forests in Mississippi, cumulative impacts regarding southern pine beetle hazard is somewhat mixed.

Management actions on privately held lands vary quite a bit depending upon the objectives and beliefs of 

individual landowners. The role of fire in lowering susceptibility to southern pine beetle on private lands 

is expected to be negligible since the majority of private landowners do not use fire frequently enough to

impact southern pine beetle. Certainly those forested acres held by private industry are likely to be 

intensively managed and southern pine beetle outbreaks aggressively fought using timber harvest. 

However, many acres of privately held lands would remain unmanaged and likely increase the probability 

of southern pine beetle outbreaks no matter what alternative is chosen by the Forests. Alternatives C, D, 

and E would help decrease southern pine beetle outbreaks on National Forest System land thus decreasing

southern pine beetle spread from the Forests to adjacent lands while alternatives A and B would likely 

compound the problem over time.

4.10.3 Old Growth

The National Forests in Mississippi have developed old-growth management guides based on guidance 

provided by the regional forester (Guidance for Conserving and Restoring Old-Growth Forest 

Communities on National Forests in the Southern Region, Report of the Region 8 Old-Growth Team, June 

1997). The National Forests in Mississippi old growth management strategy is documented in appendix D 

of the revised plan. Forest plan alternatives C, D and E all include the same desired old-growth 

conditions, strategy and guidance for old-growth that was the result of compliance with regional guidance 

and the ecological sustainability evaluation. Alternatives A and B differ in that the Forests would 

primarily be dependent on natural events and chance for old-growth development. Alternative B would 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

318 National Forests in Mississippi

retain existing wilderness, special area designations and late serial management which contribute to old 

growth.

Under alternatives C, D or E, each ecological system will contribute to a network of well-distributed oldgrowth. The guidance establishes a forestwide strategy to create this network that cuts across all 

ecological systems to maintain, or where necessary identify for restoration, ten percent of all forested 

lands to an old-growth condition. Alternatives C, D or E should increase each unit’s identified old-growth 

management acres from the preliminary percentages to at least ten percent.

Under alternatives C, D or E, the old-growth network will consist of both small and medium sized areas.

In addition to the ten percent goal stated above, each district would evaluate current medium sized 

possible old-growth and the ecological need for medium sized old-growth areas and designate a minimum 

of one percent of the unit’s forested acres to manage as medium sized old-growth.

Alternatives A and B would not have the ten percent old-growth goal or a goal to designate medium sized 

old-growth areas.

Areas selected to manage for old growth will be not suitable for timber production. However, harvests 

could occur in these areas if needed to protect and promote old-growth values.

Old Growth Environmental Effects

The most obvious effect of old-growth management will be beneficial effects to flora and fauna

dependent on “late-successional” conditions. There will also be an increase in aesthetic appeal of the 

forest due to the increased visual variety and developed unique landscapes. There would be an increase in 

mature age classes in all alternatives. The trend by alternative would generally be based on the level of 

regeneration achieved by alternative. At higher regeneration levels less mature forest would be retained. 

Alternative A would therefore produce the most mature forest. However, alternatives C, D and E would 

provide greater resources for identification, inventory and monitoring. The use of these resources could 

provide better distribution of stands identified to manage for old-growth character across systems and 

administrative units on the Forests. Alternative B would maintain current status and trends. See the 

following section (4.10.4) on forest age class distribution differences by alternative for more details on 

the alternatives’ management actions on forest age. 

When considering actions on private and other agency lands within or directly adjacent to the National 

Forests in Mississippi, cumulative impacts regarding old-growth management is somewhat mixed.

Management actions on privately held lands vary quite a bit depending upon the objectives and beliefs of 

individual landowners. Some other public lands are managed for amenity values while others (such as 

sixteenth section lands) are managed to generate revenue. The role of old growth on private lands is 

expected to be negligible since the majority of private landowners do not benefit monetarily from oldgrowth conditions. Alternative A would increase the percentage of old growth on National Forest System 

lands more than the other alternatives due to reduced harvest while alternatives B through E would likely 

have smaller increases in old growth due to greater regeneration activity. However, a major part of the 

old-growth management strategy is inventory, identification, protection and monitoring. The alternatives 

with higher outcome objectives for timber harvest and vegetation management practices will have 

programs with greater funding and resources available to accomplish these identification, inventory and 

monitoring activities.

Old-growth management in alternatives C, D and E does forgo some timber productivity. However, 

timber production is limited by budget constraints to levels well below growth and biological potential.

By designating old growth, the areas not receiving harvest treatments are better focused on areas with 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 319

ecologically valuable old-growth character. Alternatives A and B do not provide this structured old 

growth benefit and depend more on chance and lack of management activity for this ecological benefit. 

4.10.4 Age Class Changes for Each Alternative

One of the results of the restoration and regeneration harvests implemented under each alternative would 

be changes in the age class distribution across the Forests. Without disturbance, either man caused or 

natural, more acres in each vegetation type get older. The regeneration management actions taken in each 

alternative shifts acres back to zero. Balanced age classes are desirable because both young and old 

vegetation provide benefits. Also, it would be highly disruptive for large portions of the forest to decline 

or die at the same time. This could happen based on higher disease and insect risks with older trees. From 

a timber resource perspective, balanced age classes help assure an even flow of commodities from the 

Forests. 

Table 66 below displays age class information from each alternative modeled. The table displays acres 

within three age groups at the end of the first and fifth decades. The three groups used are 0-10 years, 11-

59 years and 60 years and above. These groupings are used because acres in 0-10, and 60 plus age classes 

were important components of the ecological evaluations done on each alternative developed for forest 

plan revision. Also, the acres that each alternative creates each decade and the acres reaching mature 

condition provide the information needed to evaluate the flow of forest products over time as well as 

provide information to evaluate forest health. 

Table 66, acres by age classes, is based on likely regeneration for all alternatives at the end of the first and 

fifth decades.

Table 66. Acres by age class and alternative

Age Class End of Decade 1 End of Decade 5

Alternative 0-10 11-59 60 + 0-10 11-59 60 +

Custodial Alternative (A) 847 427,776 724,728 6,019 56,310 1,090,064

No-action Alternative (B) 16,173 425,290 711,679 25,194 126,041 1,001,628

Proposed Action (C) 25,230 424,821 701,699 35,925 167,823 944,561

Accelerated Restoration (D) 43,701 417,784 690,781 34,224 213,391 902,998

Enhanced Forest Health (E) 37,770 420,487 697,506 57,194 205,295 889,063

Across all vegetation types the overall forest age shifts to older age classes for all alternatives.

The effects of changing age classes on systems and species was included in the evaluation of alternatives 

discussed in sections 4.4 through 4.7 above.

Within individual vegetation types, there are only two alternatives where 60 plus age class acreage was 

less Forest wide after the fifth decade than it was after the first decade. These occurred in the model 

outcomes for shortleaf pine-oak forest and woodland in the alternatives C and E. This also occurred for 

dry upland hardwood forest in alternative E. For alternative C, at the project development and decision 

level of planning for implementation, a focus on increasing and enhancing shortleaf pine-oak forest and 

woodland and dry upland hardwood forest would likely result in a different outcome than these model 

results. In alternative E these reductions in older age classes was an attempt to model healthier forest 

conditions. Project level implementation of this emphasis would likely have similar results. 

Details on age class by vegetation types for each alternative are shown in appendix B.
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320 National Forests in Mississippi

The regeneration harvest acres for the overall forest would result in 0 to 10 year age class acres of 

approximately one percent for alternative A, two percent for alternative B, three percent for alternatives C 

and D, and five percent for alternative E. This results in effective rotation ages of 1000 years, 500 years, 

333 years, 333 years and 200 years respectively.

In alternative A most stands would die naturally several times within a 1000 year time frame. The 

alternative’s regeneration would be focused on restoration to benefit threatened and endangered species 

on the Bienville, Chickasawhay, DeSoto, and Homochitto Districts. So, loblolly pine and slash pine on 

those units would be harvested at a rate of 1 to 6 percent rate or 166 to 1000 year rate. Many stands of 

loblolly and slash on these units will face natural mortality before managed harvest for restoration could 

occur. On the Holly Springs, Tombigbee and Delta Districts only natural mortality and time will affect the 

age class distribution.

In alternative B most stands would die naturally several times within a 500 year time frame. Shorter 

effective rotations would occur for pine stands where there is harvest. This would still not prevent many 

stands from breaking up naturally before managed harvest could occur. For example, loblolly and slash 

pine stands on the DeSoto District would be harvested at a rate of 5 percent per decade or effectively 

every 200 years. This is longer than intact stands of these pines survive. For the Homochitto District 

loblolly would be harvested at a rate of 9 percent per decade or effectively a 100 year rotation length. This 

is slightly better but many stands would have to reach ages approaching 200 prior to harvest because 

many stands are already over 70 years old.

Alternatives C, D and E deal with liquidating off site pines at a quicker rate than alternatives A and B.

However for alternative E (which has the highest regeneration rate) the overall pine harvest rate is 7

percent and effective rotation length is 143 years. This would require some stands to be over 200 years 

old prior to harvest. Alternatives C and D would have a pine harvest rate of about 4 percent or an 

effective rotation of 250 years. Again it should not be expected that pine stands will remain intact without 

significant mortality at this harvest rate.

Based on this analysis, forest health issues related to forest age will increase in all alternatives. However, 

management actions in each alternative will reduce forest health risks. The positive effect will increase 

from alternative A to alternative E in that order.

4.11 Fire Management

A concern for forest health and its relationship to the risks of catastrophic fire has resulted in a number of 

government-wide initiatives, including the National Fire Plan, the Healthy Forest Initiative, and Healthy 

Forest Restoration Act. These initiatives recognize the natural role of fire in ecosystems and the problems 

that decades of fire exclusion in these ecosystems have created as it relates to hazardous fuel build-ups 

and the risk of catastrophic fire. Based on fire ecology research, ecosystems have been classified 

according to fire regime condition classes (condition classes). Assessments of fire regime condition class 

can help managers determine where fuels mitigation activities and ecosystem management work is most 

needed.

4.11.1 Wildland and Prescribed Fire

Fire management on the National Forests in Mississippi encompasses a wide variety of activities 

including wildfire prevention efforts, wildfire suppression, hazardous fuel reduction (prescribed fire and 

mechanical treatments), ecosystem management including restoration, maintenance and enhancement of 

fire-adapted ecological communities, firefighter training, community assistance in dealing with wildfires, 

and dispatching of firefighting resources to both fire and non-fire (or “allrisk”) incidents.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 321

Prescribed Fire

The rationale for prescribed fire varies and can include ecological restoration, fuels management, 

silvicultural or wildlife habitat improvement, control of non-native invasive species, or other objectives. A 

prescribed fire often meets multiple objectives. Prescribed fires are also conducted to help meet specific 

wildlife habitat objectives, to facilitate silvicultural operations, and to aid in the control of non-native, 

invasive species. All prescribed fires require the completion and approval of a prescribed fire plan. These 

plans clearly state the objective(s) of the fire, document compliance with regional weather parameters and 

identify prescribed conditions needed to accomplish objectives (e.g. fuel moisture, wind direction, speed, 

relative humidity, mixing heights, transport winds, drought index). Screening is done to identify potential 

smoke sensitive targets up to 100 miles from planned fires. An emission model, fire behavior model, and 

smoke dispersion model are run prior to fire ignition to ensure compliance with State and Federal 

standards and to predict fire intensity in response to specific burn objectives. A complexity analysis is 

done for fires where special integration or coordination is required. Specific mitigation (public 

notification, need for smoke warning signs, or other needed coordination) is documented. Weather is 

monitored periodically throughout the day of the burn. Other monitoring is conducted before, during, and 

after burns for implementation, effectiveness, and validation monitoring. 

Prescribed Fire Environmental Effects

While suppression strategies and resources needed to combat wildland fires will not vary by alternative, 

the level of prescribed fire for hazardous fuel mitigation and ecosystem management will vary (table 67).

Alternatives C, D, and E, because of the projected level of prescribed fires (220,000; 240,000 and 251,000 

acres annually respectively), will provide the highest level of hazardous fuels reduction and ecological 

restoration and maintenance in fire-adapted ecosystems with an emphasis on growing season burning. A 

variety of other vegetation management tools (mechanical, herbicide, etc.) will likely also be used to 

restore rare ecological communities that are fire-dependent (e.g. bogs and prairies). As needed, fire will 

be used to help control non-native, invasive vegetation whenever and wherever it is practical to do so.

Alternative B, at an average annual prescribed fire program of 190,000 acres, will likewise contribute to 

fuels management and ecological restoration, but will likely relegate some restoration of rare ecological 

communities and control of non-native invasive plant species to occurrences embedded in larger 

landscape burns as has been done in the past with less emphasis on growing season burning. The level of 

prescribed fire in alternative A, (121,000 acres), will be restricted to four districts. Priorities will be 

established based on the need for burning for threatened and endangered species habitat areas and 

minimal fuels management. This level of prescribed burning will likely decrease viability trends for a 

number of flora and fauna, and hamper any effort to maintain condition class at or near desirable levels.

As more acres are restored to condition class 1 in ecological communities adapted to low-intensity 

periodic fire, a grass and forb dominated understory would prevail over a larger part of the landscape. In 

this condition, surface fuels are the primary component contributing to fire behavior. There would not be 

as much of a woody live and dead fuels component to contribute to either flaming or smoldering fire 

behavior. In prescribed fires and wildfires, the grassy component would burn more easily, faster, and 

produce fewer smoke emissions (both in concentration and duration) as compared to current fuel 

conditions. Fire intensity would be less and there would be less likelihood (risk) of stand replacement 

burns. Suppression efforts would be less costly while providing a higher degree of safety to both the 

public and firefighters. Although the role of fire in fire-adapted ecosystems has been studied in recent 

years, it is not possible to know the exact role that fire has played over time. Also, the role of fire may 

appear different depending on which years or time periods are compared. Given these uncertainties, the 

cumulative effect of prescribed fire will likely not restore the role of fire to the level it would have been in

all fire-adapted ecosystems. Of the alternatives being considered, alternatives C, D, and E place the most 

emphasis on ecological restoration and maintenance, while alternative B places the least emphasis on 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

322 National Forests in Mississippi

ecosystem management. Alternative A is inadequate by comparison for both ecosystem and fuels 

management as its focus is primarily threatened and endangered habitat maintenance.

The effects of prescribed fires are usually short-lived and cumulative impacts are generally ascribed to 

impacts to soil and potential for smoke accumulation. Prescribed fire can have short-term negative effects 

on air quality. These effects may be mitigated by burning at certain times of the year, at certain fuel 

moisture thresholds, and under meteorological conditions that promote smoke dispersion. This 

information is provided in the burn plan prepared for each prescribed fire. A smoke management plan is 

required for each burn plan. The impacts of prescribed fire on soils and air are expected to stay within 

established limits for all alternatives. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 323

Table 67. Annual prescribed burning programs by district by alternative

Alternative A Alternative B Alternative C Alternative D Alternative E

Burn 

Acres

Growing 

Season

Burn 

Acres

Growing 

Season

Burn 

Acres

Growing 

Season

Burn 

Acres

Growing 

Season

Burn 

Acres

Growing 

Season

Bienville 25,000 9,200 30,000 7,500 33,000 14,000 35,000 20,000 40,000 21,000

De Soto 55,000 22,000 81,000 24,000 84,000 35,000 91,000 46,000 93,000 56,000

Homochitto 19,000 5,500 26,000 7,800 36,000 13,000 40,000 24,000 44,000 25,000

Chickasawhay 22,000 8,500 31,000 9,000 33,000 14,000 38,000 20,000 38,000 20,000

Holly Springs 0 0 13,000 2,000 23,000 9,000 24,000 12,000 24,000 12,000

Tombigbee 0 0 9,000 1,000 11,000 4,500 12,000 6,000 12,000 6,000

Total 121,000 45,200 190,000 51,300 220,000 89,500 240,000 128,000 251,000 140,000
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

324 National Forests in Mississippi

Wildland Fire Suppression

Each year, Mississippi experiences hundreds of wildfires. Many of these fires threaten rural homes and 

other structures. Federal, state, and local rural fire departments are primarily responsible for controlling 

these wildfires. Firefighting forces suppress most wildfires while they are small. These fires often occur at 

times of the year and under conditions so that fire intensities are low or moderate resulting in little 

damage. Without prompt suppression, many of these fires would grow in size and eventually threaten 

homes and property. Some fires occur on “high fire danger” days, where low relative humidity and wind 

result in larger, more potentially destructive wildfires. These are most often springtime events. When 

summer and fall droughts occur, wildfires can be very destructive, though infrequent. 

A full range of wildland fire suppression strategies may be utilized. Direct attack is most often the 

costliest, and is used whenever safety is a concern or to minimize acreage burned and resource values 

lost. With indirect attack the fire often becomes larger because it is allowed to spread out to pre-existing 

barriers in exchange for reduced suppression costs. The option of simply monitoring the fire, both its 

behavior and effects, may be the most cost efficient strategy in those areas where the effects of the fire are 

desirable and the risk to safety or resource values is manageable. Firefighter and public safety is always 

the primary consideration for all suppression actions. Strategies and tactics for the fire should secondarily 

be commensurate with resource values at risk.

Wildland Fire Suppression Environmental Effects

While the firefighting resources would remain stable regardless of alternative, the effects of wildfire 

(wildfire intensity, duration, and resistance to control) would change over time based on alternative. 

Alternatives C, D, and E would lead to conditions with lower fuel loading occurring on a significant 

portion of the forested landscape. All wildland-urban interface areas would be maintained as condition 

class 1. Snags would likely be less of a problem in treated stands and firefighter safety would be better 

addressed. Fire suppression costs would likely go down in alternatives C, D, and E over time as fuels are 

reduced. Alternative B would be intermediate in response to fuels mitigation and firefighter and public 

safety by comparison. Alternative A would provide the least responsiveness to these concerns (fuels 

mitigation, suppression costs, and firefighter and public safety).

Wildland Urban Interface/Intermix

As the populations increase and private lands within the Forests’ boundaries become populated with 

single structures, small farms, poultry operations, and other developments, the wildland-urban interface is 

becoming more of an issue. Many rural residents typically like to live in wooded surroundings and desire 

to maintain a natural vegetative setting around structures, which blends property into the adjacent forested 

environment. While aesthetically pleasing, an unmanaged forest setting on private land or on Federal land 

adjacent to private structures can become a hazardous fuel issue in the event of a wildfire. Nationally, the 

direction is to increase hazardous fuel treatment either with prescribed fire or mechanical treatments in 

wildland-urban interface areas. These areas pose the greatest threat to public and firefighter safety as well 

as being the most complex and expensive areas to suppress wildland fires. A variety of methodologies 

were assessed to provide an estimate of wildland-urban interface on the Forests.

Wildland Urban Interface/Intermix Environmental Effects

All the alternatives focus attention on fuels mitigation projects in the wildland-urban interface and near 

communities at risk. All the alternatives call for enough prescribed fire to accomplish the task of lowering 

condition class in the immediate vicinity of these areas. Alternatives calling for 200,000 acres or more of 

prescribed fire (alternatives C, D, and E) provide the best potential benefit of treating even larger 

landscapes intersecting the wildland-urban interface and treating fuels surrounding communities at risk.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 325

Over time, fuels reduction by prescribed fire will reduce the fire hazard in the wildland-urban interface 

leading to less damage to private properties than fires with heavy fuel loads. Also, fuel reduction will, 

over time, benefit fire control by reducing resistance to control. Overall, risk to communities should be 

significantly reduced as a result of fuel reduction in the wildland-urban interface.

4.12 Outdoor Recreation

4.12.1 Outdoor Recreation Opportunities

This section examines changes across alternatives for recreation opportunities and management impacts 

associated with or influencing outdoor recreation opportunities, wilderness and wild and scenic rivers and 

scenery.

General Effects

General themes were developed for alternatives that emphasize different resource management objectives 

for improving the ecological sustainability of the national forest. Alternative B – is the “Current 

Management” alternative and will provide the baseline for evaluating other alternatives.

In the future, additional opportunities for outdoor recreation (including the flexibility to offer to a broader 

range of people and more people) will most likely not come from building more facilities. Rather services 

and benefits provided by strong partnerships will provide the greatest gains in future recreation 

opportunities. Opportunities will be found by tapping into unused capacity of existing facilities and trails.

Improvements will be seen to preserve quality natural and cultural settings and to provide safe, and 

enjoyable areas and trails that appeal to a broad range of the state’s population demographics– age, race 

and ethnically.

The management actions related to recreation are discussed below and the following assumptions are 

applicable to all alternatives. 

• Other special area designations may provide destinations of interest; these designation themselves 

will not increase forest wide use but should create a better program for dispersed area use and perhaps 

attract a new visitor audience.

• The partnerships will improve and increase recreation opportunities forest wide.

• There are no new large land purchases anticipated. 

• There are no new sizeable designations of wilderness or wild and scenic river acres.

• As population increases, recreational use will increase on national forests.

• Many roads that cross National Forest System lands are under the jurisdiction of local, state or other 

federal agencies and are outside control of the National Forests in Mississippi. Therefore, in many 

places, closing National Forest System routes will not increase remoteness to create semi-primitive 

nonmotorized opportunities due to these other routes. Overall road and trail density scores among 

alternatives will change little due to the statistical weight of roads outside the Forests’jurisdiction.

However, local spots with between 1000 to 2500 acres may develop with low road densities. 

Description of Recreation across Alternatives:

Alternative A – Custodial Management

• Eliminates many recreation opportunities because activities and access are reduced greatly. Public 

Access is curtailed as most roads are closed or are not managed for recreation access. Hiking is the 
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326 National Forests in Mississippi

only trail use; some trailheads are available for remaining. Trail miles are reduced to about half of 

current levels.

• Visitor information is focuses only on regulations and prohibitions. 

• Acceptable activities include hiking, hunting, fishing, nature observation, watching wildlife, relaxing 

and other passive activities where the user does not want and the activity does not require facilities or 

supervision. This alternative will over time close all facilities. It will decommission and remove them, 

restoring native habitat to all recreation facilities (day use and overnight) except boat ramps on large 

lakes and the wild and scenic river.

• Trails and scenery are not actively maintained. Repair of, and removing hazards, along trails or 

waterways will not occur as frequently or may be too large of scale for custodial care. Partners are 

few and limited. Special use permits could be issued for outfitters or recreational and volunteer 

groups for hiking trail care, natural observation and exploration due to limited funding and staffing 

levels. 

• The dispersed recreation opportunities under alternative A will be more primitive and would require 

visitors to have more outdoor skills. Although there may be more remote settings as old-growth forest 

acres increase, the forest will be more difficult to access as remaining trails and roads are not 

regularly available and understory vegetation will be very thick in some places due to reduced 

burning. A basic assumption is that visitation would be cut in half due to more difficult assess.

Alternative B – No-action

• The recreation emphasis is to provide a variety of high-quality recreation opportunities. The 

assumptions are that established financial resource will continue to be limited and diminishing.

Therefore there will be a challenge managing growing and changing recreation demands. 

Alternatives (C) Restoration; (D) Accelerated Restoration; and (E) Forest Health 

• A new backcountry designation on the Tombigbee National Forest and acquisition next to Black 

Creek Wilderness provides approximately 4600 acres of more remote outdoor experiences. Mountain 

bike trails would be allowed as a way for people to tour the undeveloped area but outdoor skills are 

emphasized. Management options that could be explored are primitive hunting and other use 

experiences.

• Special area designations may require additional trail segments for public access and site protection 

which may in some locations provide distinctive destinations for forest visitors, improving visitor 

experience and discovery of unique natural and cultural heritage. The total amount of trails will 

remain approximately the same or have a slight increase.

• Developed recreation sites would stay approximately the same number and size. Low occupancy 

periods will be targeted for higher visitation. 

• All developed site use would quickly increase moderately due to better marketing and visitor 

information. 

• Focus on expanding opportunities for wildlife observation and environmental learning through 

partner programs. Site management and other activity oversight may also be transferred to skilled 

businesses and dedicated communities through concessions or permits.

• Maintain most current developed activities unless they are no longer of substantial interest to the 

public, conflict with natural linkages, or amount of use overwhelms capacity of the program or the 

integrity of the land. 

• Emphasis on aquatic habitats will improve anglers catch. Maintenance or enhancement of habitats for 

some game species may increase hunting opportunities. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 327

Changes in use by Alternative

Across the five alternatives, current and future recreation demand and supply is evaluated using 

projections from the Southern Forest Futures Project and from the 2010 Resource Planning Act 

Assessment.

The change in overall sites visitation across the alternatives are shown below. The greatest change factor 

is population growth, not direct management decisions. However, it is estimated that initial changes 

spurred by new partnerships and improving communication will cause a moderate increase in visits.

Table 68. Estimated change in national forest site visits by alternative (1000s)

Alt. A Alt. B Alt. C,D,E

2015

-30% 0% +10%

2030

1,723.63 3,526.88 3,879.57

+59% 121% 133%

2060

2,046.80 4,196.98 4,616.68

70% 144% 158%

Alternative A will have the least amount and variety of outdoor opportunities yet visitor use is still 

forecasted to increase more than the average anticipated population growth of 44 percent. 

Changes in Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) by Alternative

There is forest-wide difference in alternatives on opportunities for recreation as indicated by recreation 

opportunity spectrum class, and developed sites and trail miles for alternative A, custodial management, 

but only slight forest wide differences for C, D and E alternatives.

During the forest plan revision analysis for potential wilderness designation (appendix C), a forest wide 

GIS analysis identified 16 areas over 1,000 acres with a road density of less than 1/2 miles per 1000 acres.

That study revealed 1 area which was proposed for a new recreation opportunity spectrum class on the 

Forests – remote roaded natural

From that study, the following areas would be managed for remote roaded natural under alternatives C, D

and E:

Table 69. Areas for recreation opportunity spectrum class, remote roaded natural

acres

Tombigbee NF Hawk’s Nest 4431

Desoto NF Bordering Black Creek Wilderness 252

Under alternative A, more primitive recreational experiences would be possible as the area would require 

more outdoor skills from visitors, as there would be no visitor services or facilities, excepting where 

access would have to be provided. There will be significantly less visits, activity choices and access for 

recreation, under the custodial alternative, as the management is minimal. Settings become more 

primitive; however access may be difficult due to storm debris clogging trails, as maintenance is limited 

to visitor safety needs. Most access through the forest is by foot only. All other trail uses are prohibited as 

consistent maintenance is required. Few interior National Forest System roads will remain open. No 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

328 National Forests in Mississippi

facilities are available for outdoor recreation use. Moderate high maintenance activities are eliminated.

Historic structures may be rented, leased, or put under long term special use permit but accumulated use 

will not be significant on a forest basis.

Alternative A would create the greatest change in recreation opportunity spectrum settings, increasing the 

more remote and rustic settings. Effects of this change in settings will be positive for those visitors 

seeking a more remote experience and less positive for those visitors who prefer a more developed 

experience. However, since annual and periodic maintenance of hiking trails and boat ramps will be 

limited, facilities may not be available throughout the year. Scenic conditions will vary across the forest 

as storm clean up and prescribed burning activities are reduced. In some places old-growth patches are 

larger (greater than 2500 areas) resulting in a more of a primeval forest setting. However, the thick 

vegetation on national forest lands, especially with reduced burning, may make the forest impenetrable in 

some places.

More remote settings may be associated with road closures in some areas, both seasonal and permanent.

Obviously road closure decreases access by motorized vehicles. Closing roads increases the satisfaction 

of visitors who prefer solitude and fewer disturbances (such as dust and noise) by motorized vehicles.

Changes in travel routes and motorized game retrieval would still be decided for each site specific area 

through the travel management process. Road closure often reduces wildlife poaching and litter. No 

permanent, highly developed hunt camps would be built. Fewer roads would be needed under Alternative 

A, and the greatest need for open roads would be in Alternatives C, D and E with management activity 

increases.

The remote roaded natural setting for Hawks Nest under Alternatives C, D and E could provide a more 

primitive hunting opportunity; it sits within the Choctaw Wildlife Management Area.

Developed Recreation Capacity

Examining the change in infrastructure dedicated to recreational pursuits, table 70 shows the high 

decrease in trails in alternative A, however under the remaining 3 alternatives there are no activities that 

would directly increase or decrease trail systems over the long term. Table 70 displays allocation of 

capacity in terms of ‘people at one time’ by alternative to existing developed site capacity. Alternatives 

C,D and E, have little change from the baseline alternative B in the amount and capacity, or development 

level of developed recreation sites on the forest, but do emphasize changes to upgrade the accessibility of 

existing sites, which are considered high priority improvements.

Table 70. Estimated change in capacity of developed recreation areas by alternative

Type of Development Alt A Alt B Alt C, D, E

Overnight Camping Areas Eliminate 4360 Same

Picnic Areas Eliminate 160 Same

Boating Ramps Same 300 Same

Shooting Ranges Eliminate 45 Same

Trail Miles Approximately 210 435 Same

Horse Camps Eliminate 381 Same

Total ----- 5,681 ------

People at one time will decrease substantially in alternative A, because only trails and boat ramps will 

remain. Visitors that like the rustic woods may enjoy this. With roads closed, those who like to travel by 

foot and explore will be more satisfied but at minimum the current developed sites and non-hiking trail 

use will be displaced. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 329

General Effects by Alternative of other Program Actions

Other forest activities and actions will effect developed recreation and dispersed recreation activities in 

alternatives A, C, D, and E and effects will depend on the proximity and magnitude of the activity.These 

activities include construction of roads, vegetation management (including thinning, conversion, 

regeneration, insect and disease control, prescribed burning and pesticide use), reconstruction and 

maintenance of roads and trails and mineral exploration.

Some activities have short term effects such as prescribed burning or pesticide use that decrease the 

satisfaction of the visitors in the area for a short time. Other activities such as road construction, 

regeneration, and energy well development may influence satisfaction on a long-term basis. Other natural 

causes such as wildfires or tornadoes can greatly affect developed recreation areas long-term or 

permanently.

Also across the alternatives from A to E the average years between harvest activities within stands 

decreases and the burn cycle is more frequents. Annual timber activity is 63 percent of current average 

under alternative A, and 51 percent over current in alternative C, 68 percent increase in alternative D and 

98 percent in alternative E.

Based on management actions there will be the potential for the most disruption and possible 

displacement of recreation activities in alternative E, and the least in alternative A. Mitigation will be 

done to protect recreation infrastructure and settings. Note that deer and turkey habitat increase as 

openings increase across the alternatives, promising to increase favorite hunting opportunities. 

Under alternative A, there will be less hunting and fishing as discussed in the wildlife and aquatic 

sections. Under the last three alternatives, the Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks 

and the National Forests in Mississippi will continue their cooperative relationship in the management of 

Wildlife Management Areas providing a wide choice of habitats for game species. The habitats created by 

restoration activities will increase naturally certain populations that are hunter’s favorites.

The most dramatic management actions brought forward are the forest harvest associated with the 

conversion of loblolly and slash to native long leaf and shortleaf ecosystems. Regeneration harvests, the

follow up frequent thinning and the associated prescribed burning will create short-term impacts for 

recreationists with in the vicinity of such harvest and burning operations. Forest-wide the effects of the 

actual harvesting and burning operations (dust, noise, and presence of machinery) will be temporary and 

short term. In the longer term, the improvement of naturalness by removing off-site species and increase 

in native forest conditions, particularly open forest types with grassland components will improve 

visibility and scenery. 

Other actions encouraging specific wildlife populations like Mississippi sandhill crane may increase 

chances for observation of unique wildlife for dedicated watchers in specific locals, but not necessarily 

provide a forest wide increase in opportunities.

4.13 Scenery

The scenic resource is affected by management activities altering the appearance of what is seen in the 

landscape. Short-term scenic effects are usually considered in terms of degree of visual contrast with 

existing or adjacent conditions that result from management activity. The scenic landscape can be 

changed over the long term or cumulatively by the alteration of the visual character. Management 

activities which result in visual alterations inconsistent with the assigned scenic integrity objectives, even 

with mitigation, affect scenery. Management activities that have the greatest potential of affecting scenery 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

330 National Forests in Mississippi

are road construction, vegetation management, insect and disease control, special use utility rights-ofways, and mineral extraction.

Other management activities that also can affect the scenic resource at a lesser degree are threatened and 

endangered species habitat management, prescribed burning, fire suppression, land exchange, old-growth 

forest management, recreation, and administrative site facility construction, and wildlife management. 

Except for alternative A, where the resources will not be expended beyond the minimal legal 

requirements, the scenic integrity objective acreages of the alternatives do not vary directly across the 

Current Management (alternative B) and alternatives (C, D and E). What varies across the alternatives is 

amount of impact, most directly due to the restoration and ecological sustainability activities, total volume 

of timber cutting, the percentage of restoration harvests, and the location of vegetation management 

activities. The primary theme of forest plan revision is restoration of native forest ecosystems; vegetation 

management, and the application of prescribed fireare the principal management tools utilized to achieve 

this objective. Vegetation management has the greatest potential to alter the landscape and impact the 

scenic resource. These activities increase across all alternatives, from Alternative A, which is less than 

current management, up to alternative E which is two times more activeOf the management applications, 

even-aged management may be the most impacting. Among the even-aged regenerations methods clear 

cutting and seed-tree harvest produces the highest visual contrasts because they remove the most forest 

canopy and create openings. These openings would vary in their effects on scenery depending on size, 

shape, location, and nearness to other openings. Openings that repeat the size and general character of 

surrounding natural openings and the landscape character would impact scenery the least. 

Group selection harvests are normally less evident because they do not cause large openings in the 

canopy. Uneven-aged regeneration methods can affect scenery, causing contrasts in form, line, color, and 

texture from slash production. All impacts as a result of timber harvest are short-term because of rapid 

vegetation growth. 

Site preparation activities affect scenery by exposing soil and killing other vegetation. These effects are 

generally short-term. Site preparation usually improves the appearance of the harvest area by removing 

the non-merchantable trees and most of the broken stems. Stand improvement work can affect scenery by 

browning the vegetation, reducing visual variety through elimination of target species.

Specific species habitat work also requires vegetation management and fire. Forestwide prescribed 

burning and midstory manipulation in red-cockaded woodpecker cluster sites are common wildlife 

management practices. Midstory removal and prescribed burning reduce overstory diversity, often 

resulting in the loss of valued scenic resources such as flowering dogwoods. Midstory removal and 

prescribed burning in time produces stands with open understories allowing views into the landscape. 

This work is common across all alternatives.

All alternatives propose prescribed burning. The frequency and time of year vary with the ecological 

community. Drifting smoke and blackened vegetation and charred tree trunks would be the main negative 

visual effect. Visual contrast from fire line construction would also be evident. The contrast levels and 

duration vary with fire intensity. Blackened vegetation usually last a short time but hot fire charring of 

trees may be evident for many years. Repetitive burning reduces overall visual diversity. It often results in 

loss of valued mid- and understory species such as flowering dogwood, but tends to promote herbaceous 

flowering species. Prescribed fire repeated over time produces stands with open understories allowing 

views farther into the landscape. Public comments indicate that open long leaf pine forests are pleasing 

landscape to most visitors. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 331

Alternative E has the most acres in the prescribed burning program and therefore the greatest potential for 

altered scenery. Implementation guides will reduce the impacts.

Road construction can cause a permanent change in the scenery. Due to the high density of roads, no new 

road construction is expected. Road maintenance, especially rights-of-way maintenance, affects scenery.

Mowing frequency and timing alters the appearance of the landscape. Road construction introduces 

unnatural visual elements into the landscape and causes form, line, color, and texture contrasts. The travel 

management program determines how much of the landscape is seen by having roads open or closed to 

public access. Road construction and management does not vary across the alternatives. 

There will be no change in landscape character themes across the alternatives. Most acres are naturally 

appearing forest, with its structure depending on the specific ecosystem involved. Insect infections and 

diseases can cause strong, unattractive contrasts in the landscape. Management efforts to control insect 

infestations and diseases can minimize or reduce effects. Control efforts that include removal of infected 

trees and buffer areas often appear as clearcutting to forest visitors. These impacts can occur in areas of 

high scenic value. These impacts will not differ across alternatives.

Utility rights-of-way have a high potential of affecting the scenic resource for a long duration. Cleared 

rights-of-way, utility structures contrast and may be incongruent with existing landscape. Cleared rightsof-way create a contrast in form, line, color, and texture when compared to a natural appearing landscape.

There are no differences among the alternatives with respect to right-of-way management.

Mineral management and development activities can involve landform alteration, as well as form, line, 

color, and texture contrasts, causing scenic impacts. Oil and gas wells have a scenery impact, therefore 

criteria for approval of their placement includes mitigation measures to reduce visual impacts. Recreation 

facilities are also deviations to the natural landscape. Forest Service recreation facilities are designed to 

blend into the landscape without major visual disruption. In the custodial alternative, most all facilities 

would be removed and therefore increase naturalness.

4.14 Recreational Fisheries Management

The National Forests in Mississippi strategy for restoring, maintaining, and enhancing lakes and 

permanent ponds emphasizes maintaining water quality and lake and permanent pond enhancement. 

Fisheries management is practiced on the Forests to provide fishing opportunities to the public. 

Management practices include liming and fertilization, fish habitat improvement, aquatic weed control, 

angler access improvement, fish population management, and nuisance animal control. 

Largemouth bass is the principal predator in most Forest lakes. As the principal predator, largemouth bass 

presence or absence strongly influences the population structure of other fish species in a lake. For this 

reason, largemouth bass was selected as the management indicator species to represent the effectiveness 

of Forest Service recreational fisheries management activities.

4.14.1 Recreational Fisheries Management Environmental Effects 

Alternative A – Custodial Management

Limited resources and budgets would favor reduced/ minimal recreational fisheries management. As a 

result, this action would have following direct and indirect effects:

• Poor water quality

• Poor productivity
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

332 National Forests in Mississippi

• Poor and deteriorated spawning habitat

• Poor and deteriorated fish cover

• Poor angler access

• Increased aquatic weed problems

• Increased nuisance animal problems

• Unbalanced and unhealthy fish populations

The cumulative effect of reduced/minimal fisheries management would be overall reduced recreational 

fishing opportunities for the public. Angler catch rates would be reduced thus resulting in lower angler 

satisfaction. 

Alternatives (B) No-action; (C) Restoration; (D) Accelerated Restoration; and (E) 

Forest Health 

Fisheries management would be conducted to improve recreational fishing opportunities for the public.

The proposed recreational fisheries management activities on the National Forests in Mississippi would 

have the following direct and indirect effects:

• Improved water quality (buffered pH and increased total alkalinity)

• Increased productivity from fertilization

• Improved spawning habitat

• Improved fish cover

• Improved and increased angler access

• Reduced aquatic weed problems

• Reduced nuisance animal problems

• Balanced and healthy fish populations

The cumulative effect of these activities would be improved recreational fishing opportunities for the 

public. Angler catch rates would increase resulting in improved angler satisfaction. Suitable habitat for 

aquatic threatened and endangered species does not occur in the Forests’lakes or immediately 

downstream, and it should not be affected by proposed management actions. The proposed management 

activities do not contribute to other unconnected actions within the vicinity that would create 

unacceptable levels of cumulatively negative impacts.

Liming

Liming is the addition of agricultural lime, primarily calcium carbonate (CaCO3), or hydrated lime, 

calcium hydroxide (CaOH) to neutralize acidic waters and buffer them from rapid fluctuations in pH.

Generally, lakes in the southeastern part of the United States are limed in conjunction with a fertilization 

program.

Based on individual situations such as manpower, budgets, size of lake, flushing rate, etc. one type of 

lime may be more efficient to use than the other. 

Liming Environmental Effects 

The direct effect of liming of lakes and ponds is increased total alkalinity of the water. The threshold of 

whether lime is needed is 20 parts per million (ppm), or 20 milligrams per liter (mg/l) of total alkalinity.

Less than 20 parts per million indicates a need for lime in conjunction with a fertilization program (Boyd 

1990).
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 333

Agricultural lime is made of particles of differing size taking several months to dissolve and increase the 

total alkalinity to the desired level. Approximately 3 to 5 tons per acre every 3 to 5 years is needed to raise 

and maintain total alkalinity at the desired level. Liming rates above this will not do any harm; rather, the 

lime will just last longer. Only the surface of the lime will react with the water and go into solution.

Higher rates will give a thicker coat of lime causing the initial lime application to last longer. As fresh 

water enters the lake from water runoff over the un-limed watershed, the concentration of lime will 

continue to react with the water. This allows a slow release of lime over a number of years. Generally, a 5 

ton per acre rate of lime will last approximately 10 exchanges of water volume. Coating the bottom of a 

lake or pond with agricultural lime protects or buffers the nutrients in the water from being absorbed by 

ions in the bottom mud and allows them to be more readily available for phytoplankton. Phosphorus is a 

key element that mud absorbs from the water and is the most critical for good fish growth.

Another direct effect of lime is neutralizing acidic water. The ability of agricultural lime to neutralize 

acidic water is based on the relative neutralizing value. Relative neutralizing value is an expression of 

agricultural lime effectiveness based on the combined effect of the calcium carbonate equivalent and 

fineness of grind. The following guideline should be used for the selection of agricultural lime:

The minimum relative neutralizing value of agricultural lime used for 

liming lakes shall be 63 percent. This minimum value is per Mississippi 

state regulations (Regulations Under the Mississippi Agricultural Liming 

Materials Act of 1993).

When hydrated lime is used, approximately 50 – 75 pounds per acre is generally needed to raise total 

alkalinity to the desired level. Unlike agricultural lime, hydrated lime dissolves quickly increasing total 

alkalinity in a short period of time. Because hydrated lime is suspended in the water column, the benefits 

are usually lost after one exchange of water volume. Therefore, additional applications may be needed 

during periods of high rainfall.

The potential negative effect of hydrated lime is that if used improperly the water pH can rise to levels 

toxic to fish (Boyd 1990). However, when used with the following guidelines, it should cause no negative 

effect to the environment: 

Hydrated lime will be applied a using water pump system where it is 

slowly washed into the lake as slurry from a raft or boat. It should be 

applied in the open water area of the lake away from the littoral zone 

(shallow water). Hydrated lime is of a caustic nature and should only be 

used at the specific recommendation and guidance of a Fisheries 

Biologist. 

The first indirect effect from increase in total alkalinity is increased availability of phosphorus, which, in 

turn, leads to increased phytoplankton productivity, which, in turn leads to increased fish production and 

growth. The second indirect effect from increase in total alkalinity is increased availability of carbon 

dioxide, which, in turn, is used for photosynthesis by phytoplankton. The last indirect effect from increase 

in alkalinity is increased buffering capacity (resist rapid fluctuations in pH) of the water.

There are no anticipated cumulative effects on the environment from the use of agricultural lime or from 

hydrated lime within the lake it was applied or downstream. The retention time of both types of lime is 

based on the flushing rate or amount of water flow through the lake. Hydrated lime has been used under 

the strict guidance of fisheries biologists on the National Forests in Mississippi for over 20 years with no 

negative effects on fish populations or the environment.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

334 National Forests in Mississippi

Fertilization

Several types of fertilizer are be used, and all can be effective if the lake total alkalinity is at the desired 

level. Fertilizers used are in liquid, granular, and powdered forms. Liquid fertilizers dissolve most readily, 

followed by powders, then granular types. The key ingredient in each of these types of fertilizer is 

phosphorus. Phosphorus is the element most needed for phytoplankton growth. Typical formulations for 

each type are:

• Liquid – 10-34-0 and 11-37-05

• Powdered – 12-49-6 and 10-52-4

• Granular – 0-46-0 and 0-20-0

Based on individual situations such as manpower, budgets, size of lake, flushing rate, etc. one type of 

fertilizer may be more efficient to use than the other. 

Fertilization Environmental Effects 

A direct effect of the addition of fertilizer to lakes is the stimulation of growth of microscopic plants, 

called phytoplankton. Phytoplankton makes the water turn green, or bloom.

One indirect effect from increased phytoplankton productivity is increased fish production and growth.

Phytoplankton forms the base of the food chain, and small animals eat these small plants, which serve as 

food for bream (bluegill and redear), which in turn are eaten by bass. Proper fertilization significantly 

increases the total weight of fish produced in a lake, often by as much as three to four times.

Phytoplankton blooms also shade the bottom which tends and discourage submersed aquatic weed 

growth. 

The potential negative effect of fertilizer is that if used improperly a dense phytoplankton bloom can 

form. During periods of cloudy weather or after a heavy rain the phytoplankton bloom can die causing an 

oxygen depletion which can lead to a fish kill. However, with the following protective measures and 

guidelines implemented, fertilization should have no negative effects:

Liquid fertilizer should be applied at a rate of 0.5 - 1 gallon per surface 

acre per application. Powdered fertilizer should be applied at a rate of 2 –

8 pounds per surface acre per application. Granulated fertilizer should be 

applied at a rate of 4 - 12 pounds per surface acre per application. Secchi 

disc visibilities should be maintained between 18 inches and 24 inches 

on non-swimming lakes, and between 24 and 30 inches on lakes with 

swimming.

There are no anticipated cumulative effects on the environment from the use of fertilizer within the lake it 

was applied or downstream. There are concerns of agricultural fertilizers on the eutrophication (nutrient 

loading) of stream communities and the Gulf of Mexico. However, when compared to inputs of nutrients 

from large-scale agriculture, lake fertilization contributions are minimal. Lake fertilization has been 

practiced under the strict guidance of fisheries biologists on the National Forests in Mississippi for over 

20 years with no negative effects on fish populations or the environment.

 5 The three-number sequence for fertilizer formulation reflects the percentages of nitrogen, phosphorous, and 

potassium respectively.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 335

Spawning Habitat Improvement

Lakes with poor spawning habitat can be enhanced by the placement of gravel. The mechanical action of 

fish fanning the beds, however, makes the gravel spread out laterally over time, causing it to become thin 

and ineffective. Therefore, gravel spawning beds should be constructed or boxed in. Spawning beds can 

vary in size, averaging 20 feet by 20 feet and approximately 12 inches deep. The actual size of each bed 

will depend on the amount of level ground available at each spawning bed site.

Spawning Habitat Improvement Environmental Effects 

A direct effect of creating gravel spawning beds is that the gravel improves water circulation allowing

more oxygen to get to the bottom of the egg mass, resulting in higher hatch results from each egg mass. In 

addition, Bain and Helfrich (1983) found that survival of bluegill larvae was directly correlated with the 

proportion of coarse substrate in the nest. Substrate with larger particles provided interstitial space that 

allowed bluegill larvae to escape predation.

Gravel spawning bed construction sometimes requires the use of mechanical equipment to level sloped 

areas and to deliver gravel to the site. This construction may involve some soil disturbance. Any soil 

erosion resulting from this activity would be temporary and would be minimized by the installation of 

erosion control measures such as temporary vegetation around the shoreline until the lake is flooded.

There are no anticipated cumulative effects on the environment from spawning habitat improvement 

within the lake or downstream.

Fish Attractors

One of the best ways to enhance the fishing experience is to provide cover or structures at strategic 

locations. Fish such as largemouth bass, bluegill, and redear sunfish are attracted to cover or shelter of all 

types (Managing Mississippi Ponds and Small Lakes 2011).

A variety of structures can serve as fish attractors such as submerged trees, rootwads, ledges and 

channels, rock piles, and artificial structures. 

Fish Attractors Environmental Effects 

The direct effect of fish attractors in lakes is that they provide adequate refuge cover for fish. Largemouth 

bass are ambush predators and prefer to hide in cover and ambush their prey.

Submerged trees and rootwads provide interstices for smaller fish to hide in and attachment sites for 

aquatic invertebrates. A major advantage to using submerged trees is low cost. These structures are 

readily available around most of the Forests’ lakes. Species of trees used is important. Cedar and oak tend 

to last longer than pine. All submerged trees, however, will deteriorate with age, so fish use will decrease 

over time. The rate of deterioration is dependent upon the trees exposure to air. Those exposed 

periodically from fluctuating water levels will deteriorate more rapidly than those that are not.

Ledges and channels provide irregular features in lake bottoms that are attractive to fish. Ledges and 

channels are not to be confused with the availability of deep water. While it is true that ledges and 

channels will, by their very definition, provide deeper water, it is the fact that this deeper water is 

immediately adjacent to significantly shallower water that makes ledges and channels such an important 

addition to fisheries habitat. Fish will tend to congregate around this structure at various depths at 

different times of the year. While it is expected that ledges and channels may slowly deteriorate with age 

due to sediment deposition, these structures are anticipated to last at least 20 years.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

336 National Forests in Mississippi

Rockpiles provide irregular features in lake bottoms that are attractive to fish. They also provide 

interstices for aquatic invertebrates and smaller fish to hide in. Rockpiles are usually made of rip-rap, 

large boulders, or broken concrete/brick. These structures deteriorate very little if any, and should last 

indefinitely.

Artificial structures provide interstices for smaller fish to hide in and provide attachment sites for 

aquatic invertebrates. A major advantage to using artificial structures is durability. These structures 

deteriorate very little if any, and should last indefinitely. Artificial structures vary in configuration and 

size and are constructed from some of the following materials: PVC pipe, rubber tires, plastic streamers, 

wooden pallets, and wooden stakes. Another advantage is that lures tend not to snag on them as much as 

submerged trees and brush. Disadvantages are that commercially produced structures can be expensive 

and prone to vandalism during exposure in lakes with fluctuating water levels.

The indirect effect of fish attractors is improved fishing opportunities. Fish are attracted to the structures 

by the presence of cover and food, and they are concentrated so that anglers can better harvest them. 

Additionally, ledges and channels at the right location can attract or lead fish toward adjacent shorelines, 

which will be convenient for bank anglers, potentially making for some great fishing opportunities.

Boxrucker (1983), Cofer (1991) and Glenn (1983) reported increased angler catch rates of largemouth 

bass, crappie, bluegill, and channel catfish around fish attractors.

Fish attractor placement or construction sometimes require use of heavy equipment when lakes have been 

drained. During this process, some soil may be disturbed. Any soil erosion resulting from this activity 

would be temporary and would be minimized by the installation of erosion control measures such as 

temporary vegetation around the shoreline until the lake is flooded.

There are no anticipated cumulative effects on the environment from fish attractors within the lake treated 

or downstream.

Shoreline Deepening

The purpose of shoreline deepening is to reduce the amount of shallow water. This process deepens the 

lake edge in selected places by taking the current shoreline that is silted and rebuilding it with sediment 

deposits from the lake bed. This not only rebuilds the shoreline but also deepens the water next to the 

shoreline so that the depth drops quickly to three feet. This deepening process also includes the shallow 

flats located primarily in the upper end of lakes, where the excess soil is formed into islands.

Shoreline Deepening Environmental Effects 

The direct effect of shoreline deepening in lakes is the reduction of shallow water that contributes to 

aquatic weed growth. Aquatic weeds need sunlight to grow. In most waters, sunlight is filtered out by 

three feet of depth.

Shoreline deepening requires use of heavy equipment when lakes have been drained. During this process, 

some soil will be disturbed. Loose soil that is exposed along the shoreline, islands, and land access piers 

would be mulched and seeded to establish temporary vegetation to reduce erosion. The minimal soil 

erosion that does occur would be temporary and contained with the lake basin.

Section 404 of the Clean Water Act requires a permit from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers before 

dredged or fill material may be discharged into the waters of the United States. Before the permit is 

issued, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ensures that the proposed project has taken steps to avoid 

wetland impacts, or minimize potential impacts on wetlands. This permit is an essential part of protecting 

wetlands.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 337

The indirect effect of shoreline deepening is improved fishing opportunities. The reworked shoreline 

extends on average 10 to 20 feet farther out in the lake and the depth of water increases approximately 

one to three feet. In addition, land piers are constructed from the excess soil extending bank angler access 

farther out in the lake near deeper water.

There are no anticipated cumulative effects on the environment from shoreline deepening within the lake 

deepened or downstream.

Aquatic Weed Control

There are four categories of aquatic weed control methods: chemical, mechanical, biological, and habitat 

manipulation. At the time when aquatic weed control is needed, the control method chosen will depend on 

type of plants, quantity of plants, area of coverage, control methods available, funding, work force, and 

managers choices. Aquatic weed control will be conducted where applicable.

Aquatic Weed Control Environmental Effects 

The direct effect of aquatic weed control in lakes is the reduction of nuisance aquatic weeds. This is 

expected to cause no significant effects. The following discussion discloses the specific effect of each 

control method.

Chemical control involves the use of aquatic herbicides that have met strict Environmental Protection 

Agency standards for use in an aquatic environment. Improper use of chemicals could result in serious 

environmental damage, fish kills, contaminated water supplies, and danger to human health. If chemical 

treatment is used, the shallow water conditions conducive to aquatic vegetation growth would remain and 

the vegetation would become a problem again in two or three years. Therefore, a consistent treatment 

with chemicals would be required to keep the nuisance aquatic weeds under control. Low dissolved 

oxygen levels can result from the natural decay of treated (killed) aquatic weeds. Fish kills may result if 

the dissolved oxygen level becomes too low. However, with the following protective measures and 

guidelines implemented, chemical control should have no negative effects:

Herbicides will be applied according to guidelines, rates, and restrictions 

specified on the label. Rates and methods of application would be 

controlled in order to prevent non-target species from exposures. Any 

herbicide used in swimming or fishing areas will be labeled for that use.

A certified applicator will supervise application. Equipment and 

containers will be cleaned or disposed of according to label instructions.

To avoid dissolved oxygen depletions, no more than half of the lake 

should be treated at one time. 

Mechanical control is the actual removal of aquatic weeds by tools or machines. Mechanical removal of 

aquatic weeds is a very short term treatment. Most methods of mechanical control fragment aquatic 

vegetation and may in fact increase the problem in the future, since many species of aquatic vegetation 

reproduce vegetatively. Mechanical control is usually slower and more costly than other methods of 

control. There may be some significant biological impacts. Plant fragments left in a water body may 

deplete dissolved oxygen if they die and decompose. Dissolved oxygen depletion in turn may cause a fish 

kill. If mechanical treatment is used, the shallow water conditions conducive to aquatic weed growth 

would remain and the weeds would become a problem again in two or three years.

Biological control measures have potential for effective, economical, and permanent control of aquatic 

weeds. Biological controls are not intended to eliminate nuisance plant species but rather to reduce them 

to a non-nuisance density. Control is successful if the predator and nuisance plant reach a state of 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

338 National Forests in Mississippi

equilibrium. Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) is a non-native species of fish that consumes 

vegetation almost exclusively after they reach 10 inches in length. During warm weather, grass carp can 

consume 30 to 40 percent of their body weight in aquatic vegetation every day. When stocked at the 

proper rate, these fish can provide effective control of most types of submerged aquatic weeds. Compared 

to other methods of aquatic weed control, the grass carp is relatively inexpensive and may provide longlasting effects. Unlike the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) found in Mississippi waters, grass carp feed 

primarily on submersed vegetation and do not stir up bottom mud. The possibility of grass carp having an 

adverse environmental impact on native aquatic plant communities is contingent upon their reaching 

streams, spawning successfully and the young surviving in large enough numbers to bring about harmful 

changes. Reproduction, however, normally does not occur in lakes because these fish need flowing water 

to successfully spawn. When stocked at recommended rates, displacement of or interference with existing 

fish species should not occur. With the following protective measures and guidelines implemented, grass 

carp should have no negative effects:

Only certified triploid (sterile or non-reproducing) grass carp from 

licensed distributors will be stocked into National Forests in Mississippi

lakes. Grass carp should only be used at the specific recommendation 

and guidance of a fisheries biologist. 

Habitat manipulation limits plant growth by altering one or more of the physical or chemical factors 

critical to growth, such as, light, or physiological processes factors of the plant. Fertilization is an 

effective method of control for submersed aquatic weeds. Organic turbidity caused by increasing fertility 

increases phytoplankton and reduces visibility and water clarity which shades the submerged plants so 

they cannot photosynthesize. The effects of fertilization are discussed in the fertilization section. Water

level manipulation is an effective method of control for rooted species of aquatic weeds. Drawdowns 

during the fall and winter can expose the aquatic weeds to drying winds and freezing temperatures thus 

reducing it to acceptable levels. A winter drawdown would have the least significant impact because: 1) 

fishing during this time of year would be at a minimum; 2) there would be greater predator-prey 

interaction in the lake because of concentration of fish. Flooding may reduce certain species of rooted 

aquatic vegetation if the water is raised and kept above the plants exposed leaf zone. If water level 

manipulation is used, the shallow water conditions conducive to aquatic weed growth would remain and 

the weeds would become a problem again in two or three years.

There are no anticipated cumulative effects on the environment from aquatic weed control within the lake 

treated or downstream.

Angler Access Improvement

Fishing piers and boat ramps may be provided. These structures enable the lake sport fish population to be 

managed for optimal recreational benefits. Access to angling opportunities should increase with the 

installation of these structures.

Angler Access Improvement Environmental Effects 

The direct effect of installing fishing piers and boat ramps in lakes is that they improve angler access. 

Fishing piers provide bank anglers with access to deeper water. Many wooden piers in recreation area 

lakes are constructed to allow use by physically challenged anglers. Boat ramps are constructed to allow 

anglers to launch boats on trailers with minimal difficulty.

The construction of fishing piers and boat ramps sometimes requires use of heavy equipment when lakes 

have been drained. During this process, some soil may be disturbed. Any soil erosion resulting from this 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 339

activity would be temporary and would be minimized by the installation of erosion control measures such 

as temporary vegetation around the shoreline until the lake is flooded.

There are no anticipated cumulative effects on the environment from angler access improvement within 

the lake receiving the improvements or downstream.

Fish Population Management

There are three means of fish population management: stocking, removal, and harvest restrictions. At the 

time when fish population management is needed, management method chosen will depend on current 

population assessment, funding, work force, and managers choices.

Fish Population Management Environmental Effects 

The direct effect of fish population management in lakes is the establishment and maintenance of the 

proper species balance and size structure. 

Stocking – Renovated lakes or newly constructed lakes are typically stocked with a combination of 

largemouth bass, bluegill, redear, and channel catfish. In addition, species such as threadfin shad and 

fathead minnows are sometimes stocked to provide additional forage for largemouth bass.

Supplemental stocking involves replacing a segment of the fish population that is absent. In some 

instances, a species may experience poor recruitment of young fish into the population. This would 

require supplemental stocking to replace that missing year-class of fish.

Removal – This involves removing part or all of the fish population in a lake to restore balance. In some 

instances a non-native invasive species or an undesirable species has become established and all the fish

in the lake will need to be eradicated and the lake restocked with desirable species. Eradication of the 

entire population may also be needed when it has become unbalanced beyond recovery. Partial removal 

may be needed when a particular species has become overabundant thus impacting the rest of the fish 

population.

The most efficient means of fish removal is rotenone, an Environmental Protection Agency approved 

pesticide. Rotenone is a natural substance contained in the stems and roots of certain tropical plants, such 

as the jewel vine or flame tree (Derris spp.), Lacepod (Lonchocarpus spp.), or hoary pea (Tephrosia spp.).

Brand names include Chem-Fish, Cube', Derrin, Derris root, Fish-Tox, Niclulins, Nusyn Nox-Fish, 

Prentox, Noxfish, and rotenone dust. Rotenone works by inhibiting a biochemical process in the fish cells, 

resulting in an inability of fish to use oxygen in the release of energy during normal body processes. In 

effect, the fish suffocate due to lack of oxygen. But contrary to popular belief, rotenone does not remove 

oxygen from the water. It is an unstable compound that, when exposed to light, heat, oxygen and alkaline 

water, will ultimately break down into carbon dioxide and water. At 80 degrees Fahrenheit, treated water 

will detoxify naturally in less than four days. At cooler water temperatures this breakdown process slows 

down and takes more time. Because of its rapid breakdown, most waters are safe for re-stocking within 

five to six weeks (Mississippi Cooperative Extension Service 1997). Rotenone is non-persistent so there 

is no accumulation in the soil, water, plants, or surviving animals. No secondary effect from consumption 

of rotenone killed fish is anticipated at any level of the food chain. If allowed to flow downstream of the 

lake, rotenone could impact non-target species of fish.

Treatment rate would depend upon whether total eradication or partial removal is the desired outcome.

For total eradication, the treatment rate would be 3.0 parts per million, a concentration lethal to all fish 

species. The treatment area would be the entire lake. This would entail the re-stocking of largemouth 

bass, bluegill, redear sunfish, and channel catfish and allow the new fish population to be restructured in a 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

340 National Forests in Mississippi

manner that would provide the angler with quality fishing in the future. The lake would have to be closed 

for a minimum of two years to allow for the growth of the restocked fish.

Partial removal of overabundant species of fish generally involves the use of rotenone at lower treatment 

rates less than 3.0 parts per million) in specific habitat zones where the target species is located. The 

treatment would be lethal to the target species but should have a minimal effect on other species of fish.

Treatment would be done in one or two days, beginning early in the morning and gradually building up to 

the desired level. Generally this buildup requires from six to eight hours each day, and should avoid 

excessive loss of sportfish. Loss of some sportfish in this type of operation is inevitable; however, weight 

percentages should not be significant. The reduction of the target species within the overall population of 

fish will restructure the target species population into a smaller size class that sportfish can more readily 

utilize. Thus, the ratio of sportfish species and the average size and numbers of sportfish in the angler's 

harvest should increase, thereby improving the quality of the angling experience by the public.

Regardless of whether total eradication or partial removal is implemented, there will be some temporary 

adverse effect on the recreational use of the lake treated. The lake would be closed to the public for 7 to 

10 days to minimize the negative aesthetic effects from fish decomposition. It is estimated that the 

residual odor and visual effects will persist for this length of time also. With the following protective 

measures and guidelines implemented, the use of rotenone should have no negative effect on the 

environment: 

Rotenone will be applied according to guidelines, rates, and restrictions 

specified on the label. A certified applicator will supervise application.

Equipment and containers will be cleaned or disposed of according to 

label instructions. Prior to treatment, the lake will be drawn down to 

prevent water flow through the spillway or outflow structure. The 

drainage structure would also be closed to prevent water flow 

downstream. If rotenone escapes the treated area, potassium 

permanganate (KMnO4) should be used to neutralize it. Fish pickup (to 

the extent possible) and disposal should be done on the day of treatment.

While less efficient, electrofishing may also be used for partial removal. This will require an 

electrofishing boat with two people dipping fish and a boat operator. The lake would be periodically 

electrofished until the desired population balance and size structure is achieved. Shocker efficiency, depth 

of the target species within the lake, underwater visibility, and sheer numbers of the target species present 

will all play a role in removal success. It is unlikely that more than twenty percent of the target species 

population would be removed. Negative impacts to sportfish would be minimal; however, some sportfish 

would be lost. No downstream areas would be impacted.

Harvest Restrictions – This involves the use creel and length limits for designated species of fish to 

maintain balanced fish populations and quality fishing. Forest Supervisor Order (2007-00-1) provides for 

flexible creel limits and closures based upon the management needs of each individual body of water.

Nuisance Animal Control

Beavers, muskrats, nutria, otters, and alligators can be a nuisance or even cause damage. Burrowing and 

damming activities can cause dam failure or flood adjacent landowners. Angler access and fish habitat 

improvements can also be flooded. A family of otters can virtually eliminate catchable-size fish in a small 

lake. Alligators can present a safety concern in lakes with swimming. Trapping and removal will be 

practiced to maintain nuisance animal populations at acceptable levels.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 341

Nuisance Animal Control Environmental Effects 

There are no anticipated direct, indirect, or cumulative effects on the environment from nuisance animal 

control within the lake treated or downstream.

4.15 Wilderness

Based on findings in the wilderness evaluations (FEIS appendix C), no areas were found on the National 

Forests in Mississippi that qualified for placement on the potential wilderness inventory. At this time there 

are no recommended additions to the wilderness system. Wilderness management will not vary by 

alternative.

4.15.1 Re-evaluation of RARE II Study Areas

In the RARE II evaluation for Mississippi in 1979, Sandy Creek was identified for “further planning.” In 

2008, as part of the forest plan revision process, Sandy Creek was again re-evaluated and the area did not 

meet the statutory definition of wilderness based upon FSH 1909.12 Chapter 70, section 71 inventory 

criteria. However, approximately 300 acres of the Sandy Creek area is being proposed for designation as a 

special botanical area. This designation is incorporated in alternatives C, D and E. Also, the deferred 

decision on oil and gas leasing availability on the Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area (also 

identified as an inventoried roadless area) is being evaluated and addressed in this environmental impact 

statement. Alternatives A and B would not authorize oil and gas leasing in the Sandy Creek RARE II 

Further Study area. Alternatives C, D, and E would permit oil and gas leasing in the Sandy Creek RARE 

II Further Study area subject to the 2001 Roadless Area Conservation Rule restrictions. See the minerals 

affected environment section on oil and gas on page 120 for additional background and 4.20 for an 

analysis of the effects of a leasing availability decision.

4.15.2 Wilderness Environmental Effects 

The wilderness areas will contribute positively to providing medium (100-2499 acre) and large (2500 acre 

and over) potential old-growth areas.

Wilderness has many positive effects. Wilderness preserves natural systems and provides places of 

solitude for visitors. There are no expected direct effects across alternatives to influence the amount of 

total existing acres for wilderness. Additionally there is no expectation for new acres to become eligible 

for wilderness study in the near future. Future purchases should include the mineral rights as well as 

surface rights. 

Generally, recreational use can pose negative impacts to the quality, character and integrity of the 

wilderness resource due to overuse. However, these two areas are not overused and increase in use to 

critical levels is not anticipated. In fact the opposite is expected. The current forest recreation and health 

challenge is that 60 percent of trees were damaged in recent hurricanes. Wilderness use was not recorded 

in the latest national visitor use monitoring studies. Monitoring as set up under the limits of acceptable 

change will continue.

There are environmental effects within wilderness boundary that can rise from many sources, such as 

insect infestations or wildfire. Other environmental effects which impact the integrity of the natural 

systems in wilderness include air pollution from outside sources, interruption of natural functioning 

ecosystems by fire suppression, and threats to native plant species from the introduction and spread of 

noxious weeds.

However the increase in remote roaded natural and semi-primitive nonmotorized buffers around these 

properties may increase remoteness; however, even over time, the low wilderness visitation in 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

342 National Forests in Mississippi

Mississippi, recreational use is not expected to change much due to the large amounts of blow down in 

the wilderness forest.

4.16 Wild and Scenic Rivers

As required during the forest plan revision process, staff review indicated that further investigation was 

warranted to determine if recent land acquisitions, which increased the percent of public ownership within 

the Black Creek Scenic Corridor, improved the possibilities for additions to the current designation. 

During the forest plan revision process, no public suggestions were made to add potential wild and scenic 

rivers. (See appendix C for more details on the evaluation for potential wild and scenic rivers).

No change is planned from current management in any alternative. However, the additional reaches of 

Black Creek within the DeSoto National Forest will continue to be managed (for all alternatives) to 

protect the character that would make them eligible for designation as wild and scenic. Therefore, 

management of wild and scenic river designation will not vary by alternative. The current allocation of 

this stream corridor management area, to promote and preserve the wild and scenic river characteristics, 

does contribute to development and protection of a large sized old-growth area. This area is contiguous 

with the Black Creek Wilderness and comprises an area of approximately 10,000 acres of potential old 

growth.

No rivers outside the Black Creek Scenic Corridor are identified at this time as eligible for further study.

Portions within the corridor may be studied as a result of this forest plan but are protected by the 

prescription managing it like the designated section. 

However, the river does not suffer, nor is close to, overuse and increase in use reaching critical levels is 

not anticipated.

In all alternatives, protection is provided within 0.25 miles of the river bank of the Black Creek corridor 

which includes the designated sections of the Black Creek Scenic River and non-designated sections of 

the Black Creek River on National Forest System lands. Management activities within the corridor are 

designed to meet the minimum protection requirements, given the rivers’ classification system.

4.17 Special Areas

Special area designations include distinct defined geographic areas that have special charcertistics which 

include a varity of distinctive uses or settings with exceptional or uncommon botanical, scenic, research, 

wilderness, recreational, or archaeological values. Some of these designated geographic areas are mature 

examples of desired ecosystems and serve as the best location of mid-sized or larger expanses of old 

growth conditions.

Special area designations or management do not negatively affect other resource areas to an unreasonable 

degree. Additional designations are analyzed in alternatives C, D and E. Alternatives A and B do not 

provide for these designations. Additional botanical areas and research natural areas remove acres from 

the land base suitable for timber production. However, the additional 3,881 acres of special area 

designations (3,447 acres of botanical areas and 434 acres of research natural areas) will not have a 

significant effect on timber production in any alternative. Timber production is limited by budget 

constraints to levels well below growth and biological potential. Therefore, many areas would have 

limited sale activity.

By designating special areas, management focus is placed on maintaining and preserving areas with 

unique character. The old-growth management guidance for region 8 requires the protection of medium 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 343

sized (100 – 2499 acre) old-growth areas. Botanical area and research natural area designations contribute 

to development and protection of medium sized old-growth areas. 

One effect of placing unique areas in special area designations under alternative C, D or E is that it 

encourages visits to the area by individuals interested in natural history, observing rare plants or other 

scenic values. This can result in damages due to trampling or other impacts such as littering or 

recreational plant collecting in the areas. The National Forests in Mississippi have had special areas 

designated since shortly after land acquisition in the 1930s and these kinds of impacts have not surfaced 

as a problem during this time.

Under alternatives A or B where the 18 new areas are not designated, the unique character of the area 

would remain largely unrecognized by the public. The areas would lack special protection from normal 

management activities, and may suffer from lack of management designed to enhance the unique 

character of the areas. Delay in designation could be precluded by activities such as road building, 

harvests or the effects or response to natural events such as fire, wind or flood.

4.18 Cultural Resources

Cultural resources are potentially affected by ground disturbing activities. Management activities that 

have the greatest potential of affecting cultural resources are road construction, vegetation management, 

insect and disease control, utility rights-of-ways, and mineral extraction. Other management activities that 

affect cultural resources to a lesser degree are habitat improvement projects, prescribed fire, fire 

suppression, land adjustment, developed recreation facilities, and elements of dispersed recreation.

Some activities affecting cultural resources would vary by alternative and some are unlikely to change. 

Those activities that are not likely to vary by alternative are: insect and disease control, fire suppression, 

land adjustment, management of developed recreation facilities, special use utility rights-of-way and 

mineral extraction. When such activities occur it could impact management’s ability to protect cultural 

resources in an area. Vegetation management, habitat improvements, prescribed fire, and road 

maintenance potential impacts to cultural resources would vary by alternative. Alternatives A through E 

would have progressively higher levels of ground disturbing activities with A being the least and E having 

the most ground disturbing activity.

The following standards and guidelines to minimize negative impacts to cultural resources are

incorporated into the forest plan:

• If previously undocumented cultural resources are encountered during ground disturbing activities, 

those activities should be halted until site significance is determined.

• Access to cemeteries should meet or exceed the type that existed when it became Federal property.

• Land ownership adjustments should not dispose of significant historical or archeological sites within 

the boundaries of the national forest except with another Federal or State agency or a tribal 

government with equivalent responsibility for cultural resources.

The potential for impacts will increase from alternative A to alternative E based on the increased levels of 

vegetation management, habitat improvements, prescribed fire, and road maintenance. However, 

compliance with the forest plan guidelines will result in no unreasonable impacts under any alternative.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

344 National Forests in Mississippi

4.19 Forest Products

4.19.1 Forest Products Markets and the National Forests in 

Mississippi’s Timber Supply Role

The National Forests in Mississippi comprise one to six percent of the forest lands in their market areas.

However, these National Forest System lands account for proportions of growing stock greater than its 

proportion of acreage within the market area. Also, projections were that these growing stock proportions 

would increase. Pine growing stock proportions on National Forests were two to eighteen percent of pine 

growing stock in their market areas. Hardwood growing stock proportions for National Forests ranged 

from two to seven percent. Hardwood growing stock proportion increases was projected to be greater than 

the increases in pine growing stock proportions.

Despite these projected increases in growing stock proportions on the National Forests in Mississippi, the 

proportions are still small percentages of the total growing stock in each market area.

Based on the percentage of firms in each market area actively bidding on the Forests’ timber the demand 

for the Forests’ timber was limited. Five of the market areas had participation by four to seventeen percent 

of the forest products firms in their market areas. One Forest, the Homochitto National Forest, had 

participation of 39 percent of the firms in the Homochitto market area. 

Documentation identifying the market areas for the six National Forests in Mississippi was provided by 

McConnell (1997) in a report titled Timber Supply and Demand Analysis for National Forests in 

Mississippi. This assessment made projections of the National Forests in Mississippi market share based 

on growing stock on the Forests and industry utilization as compared to other ownerships. Though this 

information is from a 1997 analysis, the Forests’ role in their market areas as providers of timber products 

is relatively the same. It is likely that the recent economic recession and depressed housing market has 

lowered the demand for products of which the National Forests in Mississippi were a minor provider. In 

Mississippi’s Assessment of Forest Resources and Forest Resource Strategy (Mississippi Forestry 

Commission 2010), it was reported that there have been no new wood utilization mills since 1989.

Further it is stated that in the five years prior to the report 19 percent of the State’s forest product mills 

had closed or were idle.

The report indicated that though there was insufficient information to validate it, the general opinion of 

forest products industries in Mississippi was that the National Forests in Mississippi timber would 

become increasingly important to their operations.

Despite the recent worldwide recession and depressed construction market in the United States, the 

National Forests in Mississippi have been able to successfully place all offered timber sales under 

contract at current market prices. 

4.19.2 Forest Land Suitability for Timber Production

Most of the land base on the National Forests in Mississippi (97 percent) is considered tentatively suitable 

for timber production. Exceptions to that include areas administratively or congressionally withdrawn 

from such practices and non-forest land.

The tentative classifications were reviewed for accuracy and appropriateness for the various forest 

ecosystem vegetation types. As a result of this review, acres in the near coast flatwoods system and areas 

identified on the National Forests in Mississippi preliminary list of possible old growth were identified as 

not appropriate for timber production. Timber production is not compatible with the open woodland 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 345

savanna and bog or old growth desired condition of these sites. Other areas were also identified as not 

appropriate for timber production due to site characteristics, uses, barriers to management or redcockaded woodpecker management guides. There have also been areas nominated for special area 

designation and reviewed for appropriateness for the designation. The plan alternatives which move most 

of these designations forward will allow them to be moved to Reserved Withdrawn (300) land class. Both 

400 and 300 land class designations are Unsuitable for Timber Production. Two of the deferred withdrawn 

areas (see the FEIS section 3.5.5 discussion of the 186 acre Lee Creek Proposed Research Natural Area 

and the 80 acre Singleton Prairie Proposed Botanical Area for rationale) were dropped from further 

consideration. These were dropped from all alternatives. Therefore each alternative analyzed, utilizes the 

same allocation of acres to the land base suitable for timber management. 

Most of the land base on the National Forests in Mississippi (81 percent) is considered suitable for timber 

production after identifying lands not appropriate for timber production. 

Table 71. National Forests in Mississippi timber suitability total acres

Classification Approximate Acres

Total National Forest System Land 1,172,524

Non-forest lands 18,826

Lands that have been withdrawn from timber production 14,426

Lands where technology is not available to ensure timber production would not cause 

irreversible resource damage

Lands where there is no reasonable assurance they can be adequately restocked

Lands Tentatively Suitable for Timber Production 1,139,272

Lands where timber production is not compatible with achieving desired conditions and 

objectives (Lands not appropriate for timber production) 185,017

Lands Suitable for Timber Production 954,255

Lands Not Suitable For Timber Production 218,269

Table 71 summarizes acres for the timber land classification categories. The table quantifies lands that are 

suitable for timber production and those lands that are not appropriate for timber production. These land 

classifications are subject to change based on field inventory and subsequent classifications.

4.19.3 Vegetation Management and Timber Production 

Consequences of Alternatives

The implementation under each alternative evaluated would be based on the same desired conditions and 

vegetation management priorities. The basic difference between alternatives is program level determined 

by funding and staffing levels. Alternative C is the proposed action alternative which would be an 

increase in vegetation management over alternative B (the no-action alternative based on current 

management program levels). Alternative A, the custodial management alternative, would be a strategy to 

focus very limited resources on threatened species and their critical habitat needs under a minimal 

program level. Outcomes for programs based on increased funding are analyzed in two alternatives.

Alternatives D and E utilize stepped up funding for increased restoration emphasis in D and increased 

thinning emphasis in alternative E for forest health improvement.

Estimated Vegetation Management Practices

Table 72 shows the estimated acres of harvests for vegetation treatment to implement the forest plan

objectives and priorities for the first decade under five alternatives. These likely program acres are 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

346 National Forests in Mississippi

provided in the tables below for lands suitable for timber production, or where timber harvests are needed 

to meet other resource objectives on lands not suitable for timber production.

The harvest acre outcomes from these alternatives represent a range likely to occur based on alternative 

emphasis or funding and resources available. The custodial management alternative (A) reflects an 

outcome of approximately 79,000 acres total harvest in the first decade of implementation. This 

alternative represents a management strategy resulting from reduced funding and program 

implementation resources. Emphasis under this alternative would be placed on meeting legal mandates for 

threatened and endangered species by accomplishing vegetation management through timber harvest 

where needed for species recovery. The harvests under this alternative would primarily be thinning to 

maintain or improve condition of exiting habitat. The no-action alternative (B) total harvest of 

approximately 114,000 acres represents an outcome likely from current funding and resources available to 

achieve timber management. The proposed action (C) represents a program increase to around 168,000 

acres of total harvest. This represents about a 50 percent increase to a more desirable program level. 

These three previously described alternatives emphasize thinning as a priority to attain optimal ecological 

conditions for species recovery. The accelerated restoration alternative (D) represents an increased timber 

harvest program level with about 164,000 acres harvested. This alternative emphasizes restoring historical 

vegetation types. This resulted in slightly lower thinning acres at the program level modeled. The 

enhanced forest health alternative (E) represents a higher but biologically sustainable level program of 

both thinning, regeneration and restoration harvests of 223,000 acres. The emphasis of the alternative is to 

improve the health of the forest through thinning, restoration of historical forest types and an improved 

mix of age classes. More details related to these harvest treatments can be seen in section 3 of appendix 

B.

Table 72. Estimated vegetation management practices

Likely Acre Accomplishments for First Decade

Practice Alternative A 

Custodial

Alternative B 

No-action

Alternative C 

Proposed 

Action

Alternative D 

Accelerated 

Restoration

Alternative E 

Enhanced 

Forest 

Health

Lands where Timber Production Achieves, or is Compatible with Desired Conditions and Objectives

Regeneration Cutting 

(even- or two-aged) 1,061 16,095 25,063 42,885 33,633

Uneven-aged

Management 83 82 83

Intermediate Harvest

Commercial Thinning 77,599 97,103 140,708 117,213 186,470

Salvage / Sanitation

Other Harvest 531 799 1211 1178

Subtotal Acres 78,660 113,729 166,653 161,391 221,364

Lands Not Suited for Timber Production

Regeneration Cutting 

(even- or two-aged) 73 79 160 999 160

Uneven-aged 

Management

Intermediate Harvest

Commercial Thinning 125 184 478 1435 478

Salvage / Sanitation

Other Harvest Cutting 33 1168 47 1168

Subtotal Acres 198 296 1806 2,481 1806

Grand Totals Acres 78,858 114,025 168,459 163,872 223,170
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 347

Allowable Sale Quantity; Timber Sale Program Quantity; Long Term Sustained 

Yield

Each alternative results in different levels of forest products being made available for harvest and 

utilization. The following tables show the estimated outputs in MMBF (million board feet), and MMCF 

(million cubic feet) from the harvesting described in the previous section for the first decade of forest plan

implementation for five alternatives. The allowable sale quantity (ASQ) is the maximum volume that can 

be harvested on lands suitable for timber production over the first decade. The timber sale program 

quantity (TSPQ) is the volume harvested from lands suitable for timber production, along with the 

estimate of volume harvested to meet other resource objectives on lands not suitable for timber 

production. Timber sale program quantity is the quantity of timber that is likely to be removed by 

implementing the direction in the alternatives. 

Harvesting may occur on lands that are not suitable for timber production. This harvesting is included in 

the timber sale program quantity estimate to provide info on possible ecological restoration and 

management needs within experimental forests, harvests to restore prairies or other special areas and 

habitat improvement within possible old growth.

Timber sale program quantity for the first decade is displayed by alternative in table 73. For additional 

info the timber sale program quantity is displayed by estimated products likely to be produced by 

alternative in table 74.

Table 73. Timber sale program quantity (first decade)

Likely Volume Outputs for First Decade (MMBF and MMCF) 

Alternative A 

Custodial

Alternative B 

No-action

Alternative C 

Selected 

Alternative

Alternative D 

Accelerated 

Restoration

Alternative E 

Enhanced Forest 

Health

On lands where timber production achieves, or is compatible with desired conditions (MMBF and MMCF)

Volume

(MMBF) 373.0 599.5 893.5 1000.0 1178.5

Volume 

(MMCF) 74.6 119.9 178.7 200.0 235.7

On lands not suited for timber production

Volume

(MMBF) 0.5 1.5 12.5 11.5 6

Volume 

(MMCF) 0.1 0.3 2.5 2.3 1.2

All lands for First Decade

Total 

Volume 

(MMBF)

373.5 601.0 906.0 1011.5 1184.5

Total 

Volume 

(MMCF)

74.7 120.2 181.2 202.3 236.9

In the context of the current market for wood products, the alternative harvest levels may have effects on 

other timber land owners and wood utilization mills. These effects would generally be small because of 

the minor contribution to the total timber supply from National Forests in Mississippi.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

348 National Forests in Mississippi

The custodial management alternative (A) may provide more opportunity for non-Forest Service timber to 

be marketed at a higher demand due to reduced Forest Service timber supply. This effect would vary by 

unit because this alternative would execute timber sales only on units in central and south Mississippi 

with threatened and endangered species habitat improvement needs, resulting in no planned volume offer 

on the Holly Springs, Tombigbee and Delta National Forests. This alternative’s reduced volume offer 

would likely have minimal effect on the wood utilization mills in the current depressed market. However, 

the reduced supply may have an increased but still small effect on these mills in the future as the 

construction demand for wood products increases.

Conversely the proposed action (C), accelerated restoration (D) and enhanced forest health (E)

alternatives would have the opposite effects on the demand for private timber and volume available to 

wood utilization mills. At the no-action alternative (B) volume offer level, there is adequate demand 

resulting in all sales for several years being successfully placed under contract. In the currently depressed 

market for construction materials, the higher timber offer levels might result in low interest for some sale 

offers.

The custodial alternative (A) harvest levels would result in reduced revenue to the U.S. Treasury or that 

could be used to fund resource improvement projects. Conversely, each alternative with higher volumes 

would result in increased revenue.

Table 74. Timber sale program quantity product mix (first decade)

Alternative A 

Custodial

Alternative B 

No-action

Alternative C 

Proposed 

Action

Alternative D 

Accelerated 

Restoration

Alternative E 

Enhanced 

Forest 

Health

Timber Sale Program 

Quantity (MMCF) 75 120 181 204 237

Products Product Mix 

Percentagea

Pine 

Sawtimber 46 % 35 55 83 94 109

Pine 

Pulpwood 40 % 30 48 72 82 95

Hardwood 

Sawtimber 4 % 3 5 7 8 9

Hardwood 

Pulpwood 9 % 7 11 16 18 21

a - Product mix percentages do not total 100% due to rounding.

The long term sustained yield is calculated to provide a base line from which to evaluate sustainability of 

timber harvests. The long term sustained yield calculations are based on the amount of timber that could 

be harvested assuming the desired conditions were achieved and the silvicultural management strategy for 

the desired condition was being implemented. This estimate was based on the amount of timber that could 

be removed in perpetuity on an annual basis. The long term sustained yield for the National Forests in 

Mississippi is the same for all alternatives. The long term sustained yield does not change by alternative 

because desired future condition and silvicultural strategies for management, and acres suited for timber 

production are the same in all alternatives. The alternatives differ mostly in level of program based on 

resources available and some variation in which harvest methods to utilize in moving toward the desired 

conditions. The following chart depicts a long-term sustained yield of 307 million cubic feet. The Timber 

Sale Program Quantity of each alternative analyzed for the National Forests in Mississippi are projected 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 349

to be almost level and less than the long term sustained yield for the 5 decades modeled. The Timber Sale 

Program Quantities are level in the alternative projections because the program level is constrained to an 

assumed level budget and program implementation capability for each alternative. The proposed action

Timber Sale Program Quantity is approximately 181 million cubic feet per decade. The custodial alternative

Timber Sale Program Quantity is approximately 75 million cubic feet per decade. The no-action alternative

Timber Sale Program Quantity is approximately 120 million cubic feet per decade. The accelerated 

restoration alternative Timber Sale Program Quantity is approximately 204 million cubic feet per decade.

The enhanced forest health alternative Timber Sale Program Quantity is approximately 237 million cubic

feet per decade. 

The USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station Forest Inventory and Analysis 2006 report on 

Mississippi’s Forests indicates that the National Forest Lands in Mississippi have an average net annual 

growth of 71.4 million cubic feet (Oswalt et al. 2009). This same report estimated average annual 

removals at 42.2 million cubic feet. Therefore the gross growth per decade for National Forest System 

lands in Mississippi based on Southern Research Station Forest Inventory and Analysis has been 1,136 

million cubic feet. This is well above all alternatives. The enhanced forest health alternative (E), with the 

highest analyzed harvest is 21 percent of this estimated growth. The proposed action (C) is 16 percent of 

growth. 

Figure 116. Long term sustained yield (LTSY), and timber sale product quantity (TSPQ)

This excess of growth over the harvest removals in all alternatives is likely to result in higher densities 

and older stands. High density and older age results in reduced forest health and increased mortality. This 

density and age based stress and mortality will be greatest in alternatives with lower harvest volumes. Of 

course, a positive effect of older stands resulting from an excess of growth over removals is an increase in 

conditions beneficial to ecosystem components dependent on older, less disturbed forest conditions.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

350 National Forests in Mississippi

Anticipated Changes for Key Vegetation Types to Accomplish Restoration 

This section provides a summary of priority pine regeneration outcomes for the first decade from 

modeling. Changes in total acres and age structure for longleaf and shortleaf pine are displayed for each 

alternative. Based on the priority to be placed on longleaf and shortleaf restoration these vegetation types 

will have the greatest positive changes in acres and associated effects on age classes. Upland loblolly, 

mesic loblolly and slash pine will have the greatest negative changes in acres because these vegetation 

types will be cut to allow for longleaf and shortleaf restoration. Acres of harvest for these three vegetation 

types for restoration purposes are also displayed. There will be some restoration of loblolly and slash pine 

acreage to hardwood systems as well. However, hardwood restoration is lower priority than longleaf and 

shortleaf. Data for these hardwood acreages are not displayed in this section. The comparison between the 

alternatives for hardwood would be similar to the outcomes in longleaf and shortleaf, just of a smaller 

magnitude. Historically hardwood has been increasing in comparison to pine types. This is likely 

primarily due to natural succession, and the effects of storm events and insects. More details on 

vegetation changes can be seen in section 6 in appendix B.

Upland Longleaf Pine and Shortleaf Pine Forest

Restoration of the longleaf and shortleaf pine forest ecological systems to appropriate sites is the highest 

priority for long-term sustainability of these ecological systems. The acres of forest in regeneration (0-10 

years) and mature condition (age 60 years and over) are important for evaluating ecological conditions of 

each system. For longleaf, the acres in regeneration are all the result of conversion from loblolly and slash 

pine. Shortleaf regeneration acres represent acres converted from loblolly pine as well as even-aged 

regeneration of shortleaf pine. The values represent conditions at the end of the first decade of forest plan

implementation.

Table 75. Age structure of longleaf pine and shortleaf pine forests after first decade

Longleaf Pine Forest Age Structure 

After 1st Decade 

Shortleaf Pine Forest Age Structure 

After 1st Decade 

Acres of 

Longleaf 

Pine

Acres in 

Regeneration

Acres of 

Mature 

Forest

Acres of 

Shortleaf 

Pine

Acres in 

Regeneration

Acres of 

Mature 

Forest

Existing: 238,027 11,018

(5%)

140,386

(59%) 59,139 3,543 (6%)

36,862 

(62%)

Alternative A

Custodial 238,876 847 (.4%)

152,776 

(64%) 59,139 0 48,960 (83%)

Alternative B

No-action 246,660 8,632 (3.5%)

152,775 

(62%) 60,819 2,346 (3.9%)

50,368 

(83%)

Alternative C

Proposed 

Action

251,152 13,125 

(5.2%)

152,775 

(61%) 61,815 4,033 (6.5%)

41,121 

(67%)

Alternative D

Accelerated

Rest.

261,285 23,256 

(8.9%)

152,775 

(58%) 68,049 9,281 (13.6%)

48,589 

(71%)

Alternative E

Enhanced 

Forest Health

251,705 13,678 

(5.4%)

152,775 

(61%) 66,616 10,279 (15.4%)

46,159 

(69%)

Upland Loblolly, Mesic Loblolly and Slash Pine Forest

Overabundance of the loblolly and slash pine forest ecological systems on the landscape is the most 

important characteristic of these systems. Conversion of most of the loblolly and slash pine forest 

ecological systems to appropriate ecological systems is a high priority for long-term sustainability of the 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 351

forest. table 76 projects the proposed level of acres converted by regeneration to appropriate ecological 

systems during the first decade for each of the alternatives. The values represent a decadal total.

Table 76. First decade pine forest conversions (acres converted)

Upland Loblolly Pine Mesic Loblolly Pine Slash Pine Totals

Alternative A Custodial 431 60 571 1062

Alternative B No-action 8,728 696 4,099 13,523

Alternative C Proposed Action 14,246 1,183 5,307 20,736

Alternative D Accelerated Restoration 29,928 2,424 9,219 41,571

Alternative E Enhanced Forest Health 22,890 1,983 4,296 29,169

Jackson Prairie and Woodland

This rare ecological system represents open grassy areas dominated by characteristic prairie species.

Jackson prairie occurs as calcareous islands (less than 1 to 160 acres) on gently sloping uplands 

surrounded by pine and hardwood forest on generally acid soils. It occurs on the Bienville Ranger 

District. Restoration and maintenance of this system is likely to require tree removal. Noncommercial 

woody vegetation removal is expected on 381 acres in addition to the commercial restoration shown 

below. Table 77 displays proposed harvests in the first decade converting forested prairie soils to open 

Jackson prairie for each of the alternatives:

Table 77. Conversion to Jackson prairie and woodland (acres converted)

Upland Loblolly Shortleaf Pine Upland Hardwood Totals

Alternative A Custodial 288 0 0 288

Alternative B No-action 507 28 29 564

Alternative C Proposed Action 789 28 33 849

Alternative D Accelerated Restoration 789 28 29 846

Alternative E Enhanced Forest Health 789 28 29 846

Restoration work in other rare systems is needed, but was deemed lower priority than Jackson prairie 

restoration. The acres of restoration of other rare systems would be lower in the first decade but, would be 

similarly affected by alternatives.

4.20 Minerals

The management activities which vary by alternative such as vegetation management, habitat 

improvements, prescribed fire, and road maintenance are not likely to have any effect on minerals 

resources or their utilization. Minerals exploration and extraction has the possibility to impact air, soil, 

water, and ecological resources. The same standards and guides included in this document to protect other 

natural resources for activities which disturb ground or vegetation should be used when there are minerals 

activities on National Forest System lands.

Reserved or special areas must be provided protection for exploration or extraction impacts as appropriate 

for the purpose of their designation.

In August 2010, the National Forests in Mississippi renewed its decision for Lands Available for Oil and 

Gas Leasing (USDA Forest Service 2010). The 2010, oil and gas leasing decision authorized all lands on 

the National Forests in Mississippi, except for congressionally designated wilderness areas (Black Creek 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

352 National Forests in Mississippi

and Leaf) and the Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area, to be available for Federal oil and gas 

leasing through the Bureau of Land Management (BLM). These lands, approximately 1.2 million acres, 

would be administratively available subject to 1) management direction in the National Forests in 

Mississippi Forest Plan, 2) oil and gas lease stipulations, 3) the wide range of laws and regulations that 

require environmental protections for oil and gas exploration and development and 4) site-specific 

environmental analysis as detailed exploration or development proposals are made by lease holders. 

Additionally, all administratively available lands will be available for lease by the BLM, subject to the 

stipulations identified in the analysis, the standard USDA stipulation, and the environmental requirements 

of the standard federal lease terms detailed in appendix B of the National Forests in Mississippi Lands 

Available for Oil and Gas Leasing Environmental Assessment, August 2010.

The August 2010 oil and gas leasing decision, as described above, is being incorporated into the revised 

forest plan. All alternatives incorporate the 2010 oil and gas leasing decision as continuation of 

management direction. The deferred decision on oil and gas leasing availability on the Sandy Creek 

RARE II Further Study Area (also identified as an inventoried roadless area) is addressed in this 

environmental impact statement. Alternatives A and B would not authorize oil and gas leasing in the 

Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area. Alternatives C, D, and E would permit oil and gas leasing in 

the Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area subject to the 2001 Roadless Area Conservation Rule 

restrictions. The restrictions include no new road construction or reconstruction permitted in the 

inventoried roadless area; therefore existing system roads would have to be utilized as access for new 

lease activities.

Alternatives C, D, and E would add 2,558 acres to the total acres being available for leasing on the 

National Forests in Mississippi. Making the lands in the Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area not 

available for leasing in alternatives A and B would result in no federal oil and gas activities occurring in 

the area and the potential for any resource impacts from federal oil and gas exploration/development 

activities would not occur. However any potential revenues to the government and contributions to the 

energy supply from this area would be foregone. By having the lands in the Sandy Creek RARE II 

Further Study Area available for leasing in alternatives C, D, and E, there is the potential for impacts to 

the resources in the area, however these impacts should be mitigated through the application of the 

standard USDA stipulations, the requirements of the federal lease terms, and the requirements to meet the 

set of environmental laws that are applicable to all national forest system lands, which will be applied 

when a site-specific application for proposal to drill is received. Refer also to the August 2010 leasing 

analysis for a more detailed examination of the resource impacts and the trade-offs involved in making 

lands available for oil and gas leasing within the National Forests in Mississippi.

The Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area was identified in the 2001 Roadless Area Conservation 

Rule Environmental Impact Statement, and the Roadless Area Conservation Rule restrictions are 

applicable to this area. These Roadless Area Conservation Rule restrictions are meant to protect areas to 

maintain their “roadless” characteristics. However, as is documented in appendix C, this area no longer 

contains “roadless” characteristics (i.e., does not meet the criteria for it to be considered as a potential 

wilderness area). As such, should any exploration/development activities take place in the Sandy Creek 

RARE II Further Study Area; these activities will not create an adverse impact on this area’s “roadless” 

characteristics. The area would, however, continue to be subject to the Roadless Area Conservation Rule 

restrictions that preclude new system road construction or reconstruction. The existing road system that is 

currently in place is capable of providing sufficient access for oil and gas development in the area. New 

well sites would be located adjacent to existing roads, no new system roads would be authorized to 

facilitate oil and gas exploration/development within the Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 353

4.21 Infrastructure

The effect of vegetation management which varies by alternative on infrastructure is that alternatives C, D 

and E which have higher levels of timber harvests will provide higher levels of funding to upgrade and 

maintain existing roads. Alternative A because of being a minimal level of timber harvest would provide 

less funding for road maintenance.

Because there is very little need for new road construction under any alternative, road infrastructure is 

expected to have little impact on other resources based on alternative. However, road maintenance and 

reconstruction would vary by alternative with greater need for these activities as vegetation management 

activities increase from alternative A through E. Projects which include road maintenance and 

reconstruction may have impacts on threatened and endangered, sensitive, and locally rare species. Under 

alternatives with low levels of vegetation management lower road maintenance may increase 

sedimentation because of reduced road surface stability. Road closures will reduce this impact and will be 

most necessary under alternative A. 

Management of structural facilities and trails should only be minimally effected by alternative. The 

primary effect would be to overall Forest funding resources under alternatives C, D and E. The plans for 

managing these facilities do not vary by alternative except as may be dictated by funding. 

The following guidelines should prevent unreasonable impacts from infrastructure development or 

maintenance:

• Planning and implementation of road construction, fireline construction, wildlife pond and opening 

construction, timber harvests, and other ground disturbing projects should include measures to 

provide protection for threatened and endangered, sensitive, and locally rare species that are 

susceptible to damage or extirpation from ground disturbance. These are referred to as species 

sensitive to soil disturbance and species sensitive to recreational traffic.

• Before buildings, bridges, wells, cisterns, and other man-made structures are structurally modified or 

demolished, they should be surveyed for bats. If significant bat roosting is found, these structures 

should be maintained where consistent with multiple use objectives, or alternative roosts suitable for 

the species and colony size should be provided prior to adverse modification or destruction when 

feasible.

• New road bridge construction should include bat friendly technology and construction materials to 

provide roosting habitat for bats. 

• New communication tower installation and ridge-top developments should be designed to mitigate 

collision impacts to migratory birds through coordination of project planning and implementation 

with the USDI Fish and Wildlife Service.

• When planning new structures, they should be as maintenance free, aesthetically pleasing and energy 

efficient as reasonably possible while optimally located to serve their intended purpose. All structures 

should be monitored to ensure they are necessary to support recreation or administrative activities on 

the National Forests in Mississippi.

• OHVs may be used for administrative uses such as maintenance and inspection of trails, open lands 

and prescribed fire, and emergencies such as wildfire and search and rescue.

• If unacceptable resource damage is identified in a section of any trail, that section should be closed 

for mitigation, rerouted or obliterated.

• OHV use by the public may occur on routes and areas specifically designated as open to such vehicles 

on the National Forests in Mississippi motor vehicle use map. Permits may be issued for special 

events according to appropriateness and timing of the event.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

354 National Forests in Mississippi

• Planning and development of trails, campsites, and other recreational facilities should include 

measures to provide protection for known occurrences important to conservation of threatened and 

endangered, sensitive or locally rare species that are susceptible to damage or extirpation from 

trampling or other forms of human disturbance.

• Where recreational uses are negatively affecting rare ecological systems, and wetland systems, the 

use should be modified to reduce or eliminate negative effects. New recreational developments 

should be designed to avoid adverse effects to rare ecological systems, and wetland systems.

• Trail marking should be considered and evaluated as part of routine trail condition surveys.

4.22 Land Use and Ownership

Land exchange, procurement or disposal will not vary by alternative, nor will the implementation of any 

alternative effect the government’s ability to pursue any of these land adjustment opportunities. Areas 

identified for disposal could contain areas with important biological diversity or habitat for threatened and 

endangered species. Likewise, areas identified for disposal could contain areas with historical or 

archeological importance.

Special use authorizations are issued for multiple purposes to individuals, corporations, and other 

government agencies. The predominant uses are for public roads, communication facilities, and utility 

rights-of-way. Special use authorizations for personal use are a minor land commitment such as private 

road easements and permits. Neither these uses nor their impacts will vary by alternative. Areas identified 

for use could contain areas with important biological diversity or habitat for threatened and endangered 

species. Likewise, areas identified for use could contain areas with historical or archeological importance.

The following forest plan guidelines will reduce or mitigate impacts to natural resources associated with 

implementation of special use and/or land ownership adjustment activities:

• Land exchanges should not detract from the biological diversity of the forest, as determined in the 

biologist reports associated with the land exchange.

• Land ownership adjustments should not dispose of habitat for threatened and endangered species 

within the boundaries of the National Forests in Mississippi except with another agency or a tribal 

government with equivalent responsibility for the species’ protection.

• Land ownership adjustments should not dispose of significant historical or archeological sites within 

the boundaries of the National Forests in Mississippi except with another Federal or State agency or a 

tribal government with equivalent responsibility for cultural resources.

• Special use authorizations for utilities should generally utilize the existing corridors across the 

National Forests in Mississippi.

• New land acquisitions should generally be managed according to the adjacent or surrounding area’s 

forest plan direction.

4.23 Other Effects

4.23.1 Benefits and Costs

Revenues and costs were calculated in an Excel spreadsheet for all alternatives. The revenues were 

derived from various Forest Service data sources. Minerals revenues were from recent Minerals 

Management Agency receipt reports. Recreation values were calculated from Forest Service National 

Visitor Use Monitoring estimates for the National Forests in Mississippi recreational uses. Timber sale 

revenue was calculated based on recent timber sale bid values and estimates of volume from the 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 355

vegetation model Excel spreadsheet. Costs were developed based on each resource area’s budgeted costs 

in the fiscal year 2012 budget year. (Refer to FEIS appendix B for more information.)

Costs and revenues were estimated for five decades of plan implementation and discounted to present 

values. The present net value of these revenues and costs are displayed in the table below for each 

alternative as decadal totals.

All alternatives have very positive present net values based on this analysis. Most of the benefit value is 

derived from recreational uses, primarily hunting and fishing. These resource areas use research 

determined values based on user values placed on their experiences as well as actual revenue from 

developed use areas. The minerals program is a positive contributor to the Forest present net value 

because of high revenue compared to a relatively low agency cost to administer the program. Timber is a 

negative contributor to present net value at the program levels of alternative A (custodial) and alternative 

B (no-action). Timber becomes positive at the program level of alternative C the proposed action 

alternative. Timber is increasingly positive at the higher program levels of alternative D (accelerated 

restoration) and alternative E (enhanced forest health).

Table 78. Cumulative Decadal Present Values of Costs and Benefits in $M Alternative A Custodial Alternative B No-action Alternative C Proposed Action

Alternative D 

Accelerated 

Restoration

Alternative E 

Enhanced 

Forest Health

Cumulative Total Present Net Value $3,004,322 $5,556,813 $6,109,475 $6,049,826 $6,041,772 

Present Value benefits by Program:

Range $0 $0 $0 $0 $0

Timber $75,374 $120,431 $179,981 $202,576 $235,579

Minerals $73,384 $73,384 $73,384 $73,384 $73,384

Recreation $1,278,868 $2,218,825 $2,411,057 $2,411,057 $2,411,057

Wildlife $2,244,271 $3,929,540 $4,266,602 $4,266,602 $4,266,602

Present Value of Benefits $3,671,897 $6,342,181 $6,931,023 $6,953,618 $6,986,622

Present Value costs by Program:

Range $87 $109 $109 $131 $131

Timber $108,128 $127,198 $133,075 $146,376 $153,038

Roads/Engineering $183,275 $215,602 $225,551 $248,126 $259,402

Minerals: $6,313 $7,423 $7,750 $8,534 $8,925

Recreation $39,729 $46,739 $48,894 $53,792 $56,230

Wildlife $63,087 $74,211 $77,629 $85,401 $89,276

Soil, Water, Air $15,064 $17,720 $18,526 $20,376 $21,312

Protection/Forest Health $218,802 $257,421 $269,285 $296,236 $309,689

Lands $15,826 $18,634 $19,483 $21,443 $22,422

Planning, Inv., Monitoring $17,263 $20,311 $21,247 $23,380 $24,425

Present Value Costs $667,575 $785,368 $821,549 $903,793 $944,850
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

356 National Forests in Mississippi

4.23.2 Social and Economic Effects

The management of the National Forests in Mississippi has the potential to affect jobs and income within 

its area of influence. The Forest Service uses IMPLAN (impact for planning) software and FEAST (forest 

economic analysis spreadsheet tool) to estimate these impacts and contributions. The database in 

IMPLAN represents Census information for 528 economic sectors. On the Forests, effects are based on 

changes in six major Forest-level outputs – the amount of timber volume and type of product to be 

harvested, payments to counties, Forest Service expenditures, recreation use, and minerals. For purposes 

of estimating the socio-economic impact, counties that contain forest acreage were selected as the impact 

area. The input / output analysis is based on the interdependencies of the production and consumption 

elements of the economy within the impact area. Industries purchase from primary sources (raw 

materials) and other industries (manufactured goods) for use in their production process. These outputs 

are sold to either other industries for use in their production process or to final consumers. The structure 

of interdependencies between the individual sectors of the economy forms the basis of the input/output 

model. The flow of industrial inputs can be traced through the input/output accounts of the IMPLAN 

model to show the linkages in the impact area economy. This allows the determination of estimated 

economic effects (in terms of employment and income). (See appendix B for more information on 

IMPLAN and FEAST).

Table 79 below illustrates the percentage contribution of the National Forests in Mississippi current 

management program to the area’s economy. The National Forests in Mississippi are associated with 0.33 

percent of the total local economy’s jobs, and 0.34 percent of the labor income. Agriculture, mining, retail 

trade, accommodation and food services, and government are the sectors of the economy that show the 

most benefit from the forest’s activities.

Table 79. Current role of Forest Service-related contributions to the area economy

Employment (jobs) Labor Income 

(Thousands of 2011 $)

Value Added 

(Thousands of 2011 $)

Industry Area

Totals

FS -

Related Area Totals FS -Related Area Totals FS -

Related

Agriculture 19,561 138 $542,771 $5,438 $628,614 $5,473

Mining 7,133 208 $385,962 $7,774 $837,501 $21,121

Utilities 3,282 7 $277,810 $530 $1,083,188 $2,035

Construction 36,054 36 $1,212,558 $1,210 $1,506,580 $1,499

Manufacturing 63,881 68 $3,521,495 $3,938 $6,059,229 $6,942

Wholesale Trade 9,344 62 $567,411 $3,710 $1,005,484 $6,568

Transportation and Warehousing 16,503 42 $789,624 $1,817 $985,475 $2,306

Retail Trade 55,301 293 $1,421,845 $6,912 $2,064,781 $10,491

Information 4,770 9 $191,787 $329 $548,766 $843

Finance and Insurance 21,995 38 $747,830 $1,357 $1,333,620 $2,289

Real Estate and Rental and

Leasing 14,913 37 $179,512 $544 $3,688,459 $8,393

Prof, Scientific, and Tech Services 18,215 38 $917,624 $2,004 $1,124,145 $3,538

Management of Companies 2,604 4 $176,712 $276 $206,714 $328

Admin, Waste Management and

Removal Services 25,987 33 $568,743 $700 $728,002 $895

Educational Services 6,965 10 $173,537 $248 $157,352 $224

Health Care and Social Assistance 39,872 74 $1,814,620 $3,203 $1,954,965 $3,497
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 357

Employment (jobs) Labor Income 

(Thousands of 2011 $)

Value Added 

(Thousands of 2011 $)

Industry Area

Totals

FS -

Related Area Totals FS -Related Area Totals FS -

Related

Arts, Entertainment, and Rec 8,563 85 $155,624 $1,379 $344,899 $3,153

Accommodation and Food 

Services 40,653 230 $761,788 $3,702 $1,247,539 $5,614

Other Services 28,351 46 $840,434 $1,339 $882,584 $1,453

Government 113,334 321 $6,204,177 $26,892 $7,479,663 $27,426

Total 537,280 1,778 $21,451,862 $73,301 $33,867,557 $114,088

FS as Percent of Total --- 0.33% --- 0.34% --- 0.34%

The impacts of the current direction and the alternatives on employment and income in the local 

economies are shown in table 80 through table 83.

Table 80 illustrates how employment varies by alternative, defined as the average annual number of 

workers, be they part time, full time, seasonal, or temporary. Due to possible substitution effects from 

competing non-government sources (such as similar volume of timber harvesting which may occur on 

private lands if national forest timber is not offered to the market), these jobs are characterized as being 

associated with local economic activity initiated by Forest Service programs and activities, rather than 

caused by these activities.

Alternatives A and E are the alternatives that show the greatest change in employment across all 

programs.

Table 80. Employment by program by alternative (average annual, first decade)

Total Number of Jobs Contributed

Resource Current A C D E

Recreation 249 168 264 264 264

Wildlife and Fish 385 269 409 409 409

Grazing 0 0 0 0 0

Timber 257 159 387 432 506

Minerals 288 288 288 288 288

Payments to States/Counties 147 147 147 147 147

Forest Service Expenditures 452 384 461 506 530

Total Forest Management 1,778 1,416 1,955 2,046 2,143

Percent Change from Current -- - 20.4% 10.0% 15.1% 20.6%

Employment and income found in table 80 and table 81, respectively, are divided into the major sectors of 

the National Forests in Mississippi economy in table 82 and table 83. For each alternative, agriculture, 

manufacturing, retail trade, and accommodation and food are the sectors most affected by Forest Service 

programs and expenditures. Labor income in the form of wages and proprietors’ earnings follows a 

similar pattern, with the aforementioned sectors benefitting the most as well.

Labor income (employee compensation, being the value of wages and benefits, plus income to sole 

proprietorships) shows the same pattern as employment, with alternatives A and E showing the greatest 

change in labor income.
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

358 National Forests in Mississippi

Table 81. Labor income by program by alternative (average annual, first decade; $1,000)

Thousands of 2011 dollars

Resource Current A C D E

Recreation $6,168 $4,162 $6,549 $6,549 $6,549

Wildlife and Fish $10,381 $7,253 $11,010 $11,010 $11,010

Grazing $0 $0 $0 $0 $0

Timber $11,081 $6,887 $16,705 $18,650 $21,840

Minerals $10,495 $10,495 $10,495 $10,495 $10,495

Payments to States/Counties $5,858 $5,858 $5,858 $5,858 $5,858

Forest Service Expenditures $29,318 $24,921 $30,670 $33,737 $35,271

Total Forest Management $73,301 $59,575 $81,287 $86,299 $91,022

Percent Change from Current --- - 18.7% 10.9% 17.7% 24.2%

Alternative A would create a decrease in employment opportunities, while alternative E would provide the 

greatest increase in opportunities. Overall, the economic impacts of changing the management of the 

National Forests in Mississippi would have a limited impact on the total economy in the Forest’s area of 

influence, but this analysis does show which sectors would be affected the most from changes in Forest 

Service management.

Table 82. Employment by major industry by alternative (average annual, first decade)

Total Number of Jobs Contributed

Industry Current A C D E

Agriculture 138 94 194 213 244

Mining 208 208 208 208 208

Utilities 7 5 8 8 9

Construction 36 34 38 38 39

Manufacturing 68 44 99 109 127

Wholesale Trade 62 44 67 68 70

Transportation and Warehousing 42 31 47 49 51

Retail Trade 293 218 314 322 329

Information 9 7 10 10 10

Finance and Insurance 38 31 43 45 47

Real Estate and Rental and Leasing 37 30 40 42 44

Prof, Scientific, and Tech Services 38 32 41 44 46

Management of Companies 4 3 5 5 5

Admin, Waste Management and Removal Services 33 25 38 40 42

Educational Services 10 8 11 12 12

Health Care and Social Assistance 74 61 82 87 92

Arts, Entertainment, and Rec 85 59 90 91 92

Accommodation and Food Services 230 166 247 251 255

Other Services 46 37 52 56 59

Government 321 277 322 348 362

Total Forest Management 1,778 1,416 1,955 2,046 2,143

Percent Change from Current -- - 20.4% 10.0% 15.1% 20.6%

While the impact to the local communities may be limited, the implementation of alternatives C, D, or E 

would still add jobs and income for the Counties around the National Forests in Mississippi, helping the 

area’s unemployment. These alternatives would also contribute jobs and income to the wood-related 

industries in the area which would help the area’s manufacturing sector which has been in a general 

decline.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 359

Table 83. Labor income by major industry by alternative (average annual, first decade)

Thousands of 2011 dollars

Industry Current A C D E

Agriculture $5,438 $3,614 $7,810 $8,632 $9,973

Mining $7,774 $7,770 $7,777 $7,778 $7,780

Utilities $530 $419 $613 $652 $699

Construction $1,210 $1,138 $1,262 $1,288 $1,317

Manufacturing $3,938 $2,535 $5,776 $6,413 $7,453

Wholesale Trade $3,710 $2,678 $4,023 $4,101 $4,188

Transportation and Warehousing $1,817 $1,344 $2,056 $2,139 $2,246

Retail Trade $6,912 $5,185 $7,417 $7,610 $7,773

Information $329 $262 $362 $377 $394

Finance and Insurance $1,357 $1,107 $1,504 $1,575 $1,653

Real Estate and Rental and Leasing $544 $476 $581 $601 $622

Prof, Scientific, and Tech Services $2,004 $1,709 $2,155 $2,279 $2,378

Management of Companies $276 $224 $314 $327 $346

Admin, Waste Management and Removal Service $700 $545 $793 $832 $879

Educational Services $248 $203 $274 $289 $304

Health Care and Social Assistance $3,203 $2,634 $3,537 $3,745 $3,942

Arts, Entertainment, and Rec $1,379 $970 $1,470 $1,479 $1,488

Accommodation and Food Services $3,702 $2,683 $3,970 $4,038 $4,100

Other Services $1,339 $1,078 $1,517 $1,607 $1,707

Government $26,892 $23,003 $28,078 $30,536 $31,780

Total Forest Management $73,301 $59,575 $81,287 $86,299 $91,022

Percent Change from Current --- - 18.7% 10.9% 17.7% 24.2%

People are affected by the management of the National Forests in many ways. Some are affected because 

their jobs and income are either directly reliant on products from the National Forests or indirectly 

associated with products and uses of the National Forests. Those job and income impacts are described 

above. Others are affected because their lifestyles are being impacted or certain values or beliefs that are 

important to them are being impacted. For some, their lifestyle includes spending time away from urban 

settings and enjoying outdoor activities in natural settings. The National Forests in Mississippi will be 

experiencing increased demands on the Forests’ recreation facilities because of both the population 

increases locally, as well as the increasing number of visitors to the Forests from the nearby urban areas 

such as Jackson, Memphis, Mobile and the coastal areas around Biloxi. In addition, with the average age 

of the population in the area generally getting older, there are going to be more demands for recreational 

opportunities such as driving or walking for pleasure, nature viewing, and fishing. In responding to those 

demands, alternatives C, D and E would maintain or slightly improve the recreational opportunities on the 

National Forests.

For other people, their association with the National Forests goes beyond experiencing recreational 

activities, it is also important that they know the quality of the water in the streams is good (see section 

4.3 of this FEIS), that endangered species are being protected (see section 4.5 of this FEIS), that the 

forests are healthy (see section 4.10 of this FEIS) , that there will be “old growth” in the forests (see 

section 4.10.3 of this FEIS), and that wildfires will be suppressed (see section 4.11 of this FEIS). 

Generally, alternatives C, D and E would be better at addressing forest health and endangered species, 

while alternative A would have the least impact on stream quality and provide the most old growth 

opportunities. All alternatives will address wildfire suppression equally. 

Lastly, another indicator of effects to local communities is the Federal payments made to the Counties. 

Table 52 and table 53 in chapter 3 show the revenue received by the National Forests in Mississippi and 

the payments that have been made to the Counties from the Secure Rural Schools and Community Self-
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

360 National Forests in Mississippi

Determination Act. Should the Secure Rural Schools Act payments be discontinued because of a lack of 

Congressional reauthorization, the payments to Counties will likely return to being based on a percentage 

of the returns to the United States Treasury. If that were to happen, alternative E would produce the 

highest revenues, followed by alternative D, then alternative C.

4.23.3 Environmental Justice

The concerns of environmental justice encompass specific considerations of equity and fairness in 

resource decision-making. As required by Executive Order 12898, all federal actions must consider 

potentially disproportionate effects on minority or low-income communities. The principles for 

considering environmental justice outlined in Environmental Justice Guidance under the National 

Environmental Policy Act (Council on Environmental Quality 1997) were considered in this analysis. 

Chapter 4 of this EIS discloses the environmental effects of the alternatives. The social and economic 

overview of chapter 3 identifies the demographics of the local area. The Executive Order also requires 

agencies to work to ensure effective public participation and access to information.

To fulfill these principles, environmental justice was considered throughout the land management 

planning process in the following phases:

1. Scoping and public participation – Efforts were made by the Forests to reach as many people in the 

area as possible, through mailings, newspaper articles, news releases, radio interviews and contacts 

with federal, state, and local governments, libraries, non-profit organizations, civic associations, 

industries, academia, and other types of organizations. Participation was sought in various locations 

and formats throughout the planning area.

2. Determining the Affected Environment – The social and economic environment section of chapter 3

of this EIS presents information related to population growth, minority populations, population 

density, income, unemployment, and economic diversity in the area directly affected by the National 

Forests in Mississippi management and compared this with a more regional context when appropriate. 

There were no segments of the population identified that depend on subsistence consumption of fish, 

wildlife, or vegetation within the planning area.

Benefits to the economy from National Forests in Mississippi management would accrue to all Counties 

where the National Forests occur, and are demonstrated in the social and economic environment sections 

of this document. There are no disproportionate negative environmental or health effects to minority or 

low-income populations anticipated from any alternative. Public involvement during forest plan revision 

was inclusive and provided ample opportunity for issues of environmental justice to be raised.

4.23.4 Relationship of Short‐Term Use and Long‐Term Productivity

The relationship between the short-term uses of the environment and the maintenance and enhancement 

of long-term productivity is complex. Short-term uses are generally those that occur irregularly on parts 

of the Forests, such as prescribed burning. Long-term refers to a period greater than ten years. 

Productivity is the capability of the land to provide market and amenity outputs and values for future 

generations. Soil and water are the primary factors of productivity and represent the relationship between 

short-term uses and long-term productivity. The quality of life for future generations would be determined 

by the capability of the land to maintain its productivity. By law, the Forest Service must ensure that land 

allocations and permitted activities do not significantly impair the long-term productivity of the land.

The alternatives considered in detail, including the selected alternative, incorporate the concept of 

sustained yield of resource outputs while maintaining the productivity of all resources. The specific 

direction and mitigation measures included in the forest-wide management standards ensure that long-
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 361

term productivity would not be impaired by the application of short-term management practices. Each 

alternative was analyzed using an EXCEL spreadsheet model (See Appendix B – The Planning and

Analysis Process), to ensure that the minimum standards could be met. The alternative was changed if 

some aspect did not meet any of the minimum standards. Through this analysis, long-term productivity of 

the Forests’ ecosystems is assured for all alternatives. 

As stated earlier, the effects of short-term or long-term uses are extremely complex, and depend on 

management objectives and the resources that are emphasized. No alternative would be detrimental to the 

long-range productivity of the National Forests in Mississippi. The management prescriptions and the 

effects of implementing the proposed action will be monitored. Evaluation of the data collected will 

determine if standards for long-term productivity are being met, or if management practices need to be 

adjusted.

4.23.5 Irreversible and Irretrievable Commitment of Resources

Irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources are normally not made at the programmatic level 

of a forest plan. Irreversible commitments are decisions affecting nonrenewable resources such as soils, 

minerals, plant and animal species, and cultural resources. Such commitments of resources are considered 

irreversible because the resource has been destroyed or removed, or the resource has deteriorated to the 

point that renewal can occur only over a long period of time or at a great expense. While a forest plan can 

indicate the potential for such commitments, the actual commitment to develop, use, or affect nonrenewable resources is normally made at the project level. Irretrievable commitments represent resource 

uses or production opportunities, which are foregone or cannot be realized during the planning period. 

These decisions are reversible, but the production opportunities foregone are irretrievable. An example of 

such commitments is the allocation of management prescriptions that do not allow timber harvests. For 

the period of time during which such allocations are made, the opportunity to produce timber from those 

areas is foregone, thus irretrievable.

The forest plan decision includes elements related to land allocations which will include irretrievable 

forgone production opportunities. There are designations for research natural areas and botanical areas for 

which the decision will forgo opportunities to extract timber resources commercially. This will not have 

an unreasonable effect on timber harvest opportunities. In the vegetation management section 2.5.3 the 

data indicates that the timber harvest under alternative C (proposed action) will only be 16 percent of 

growth. Allocation of these unique areas to these designations will simply be making a determination that 

some of the harvest forgone mostly due to budgetary constraints will be in areas to be protected for their 

unique natural resource values.

In the case of the decision to make portions of the Sandy Creek RARE II Further Study Area available for 

oil and gas leasing, as discussed in section 4.20, actual extraction of oil and gas would be considered an 

irreversible commitment, since this is a non-renweable resource. However, the decision to actually permit 

this extraction will occur following receipt of an Application for Permit to Drill.

4.23.6 Effects on Wetlands and Floodplains

No significant adverse impacts on wetlands or floodplains are anticipated. Wetlands values and functions 

would be protected in all alternatives through the implementation of management area prescriptions and 

standards and guidelines. Under the requirements of Executive Order 11990 and the Clean Water Act, 

Section 404, wetland protection would be provided by ensuring that new construction would not have an 

adverse effect on sensitive aquatic habitat or wetland functions. In addition, wetland evaluation would be 

required before land exchanges or issuance of special-use permits in areas where conflicts with wetland 

ecosystems may occur. Forest plan components have been designed to conserve riparian areas and protect 
Chapter 4. Environmental Consequences

362 National Forests in Mississippi

floodplains through the management area prescriptions or standards and guidelines. Executive Order 

11988 also requires site-specific analysis of floodplain values and functions for any project occurring 

within the 100-year floodplain zone, and prior to any land exchange involving these areas. Effects to 

wetlands are also discussed in soils, water, ecological systems, and aquatic species associations sections 

of chapter 4.

4.23.7 Unavailable or Incomplete Information

The National Forests in Mississippi have used the most current scientific information available and stateof-the-art analytical tools to evaluate management activities and to estimate their environmental effects. 

However, gaps will always exist in our knowledge. The Council on Environmental Quality regulations 

present the process for evaluating incomplete and unavailable information (40 CFR 1502.22 (a) and (b)). 

Incomplete or unavailable information is noted in this chapter for each resource, where applicable. Forest 

plan monitoring is designed to evaluate assumptions and predicted effects. Should new information 

become available, the need to change management direction or amend the forest plan would be 

determined through the monitoring and evaluation process.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 363

Chapter 5. Preparers, Contributors, and Recipients

5.1 Preparers and Contributors

Paul Arndt, Regional Planner

Steve Bingham, Forest Engineer

Bob Bradford, Environmental Coordinator

Sam Brooks, Forest Archeologist (retired)

Alan Clingenpeel, Ouachita National Forest Hydrologist

James Curtis, Soil Scientist

Rick Dillard, Wildlife Program Manager, Fisheries 

Biologist

Mary Frye, Regional Recreation Specialist

Jeff Gainey, Forest Recreation Program Manager

Gala Goldsmith, Soil/ Water/ Air Program Manager

Ken Gordon, Forest Botanist

Bob Heinsch, Forest Fire Management Officer (retired)

Richard Hokans, Regional Economist

Jeff Holmes, Ecological Model Developer

Hunter Howell, Forest Minerals Manager (retired)

Jeff Johnson, Ecological Model Database Designer

Sandy Kilpatrick, Forest Ecologist

Nicole Kitchens (May), Forest Fire Planner

Kevin Leftwich, Regional Aquatic Specialist

Mary Long, Regional Biologist

Jeff Long, Planning Team Leader (retired)

David Meriwether, Regional Monitoring Coordinator

Tim Mersmann, Regional Biologist

Jim Michael, Forest Geologist

Brenda Miller, Forest GIS Coordinator

Babatunde Oyewole, Forest Landscape Architect

Clare Redmond, Regional Economist (retired)

Jane Rodrigue, Ecologist, Writer / Editor

Carolyn Shedd, Public Affairs Specialist (retired)

Kim Slyter, GIS Data Analyst

Kim Smith, Recreation Specialist (retired)

Cliff Sommers, Forest Lands Specialist (retired)

Delories Stanley, Writer Editor (retired)

Kristin Whisennand, Writer / Editor

Shaun Williamson, Forest Threatened and Endangered 

species Coordinator

Roberta Willis, Regional Planner

Jerry Windham, Forest Silviculturist (retired)

Susan Winter, Washington Office Economic Support 

(Implan)

Judith York, Writer / Editor

5.2 Recipient List

ACHP, Director, Planning 

and Review, DC

Adams, Lem, MS

Adams, Nick, MS

Adams, William, MS

Ainsworth, Harold B., MS

Alexander, Al, MS

Alexander, Wynn, MS

Alonzo, Chris, MS

Altman, Kory, MS

Andermann, Ken, MS

Andermann, Ken, LA

Anderson, Chief Phyliss J., MS

Anderson, Cloyce E., MS

Anderson, Jean, MS

Anderson, Thad D., MS

Anding, Skipper, MS

Andrews, Chester, MS

Andrews, Fred, MS

Anglin, Elizabeth, MS

Anoatubby, Governor Bill, OK

Appleton, Mrs. W. F., MS

Arinder, Deckie, MS

Arledge, Henry, MS

Arrechea, John, MS

Arrington, Duncan, MS

Artman, Jr., Paul C., MS

Ashcraft, Carey, MS

Aurby, Mike, MS

Avary, Mark, MS

Backstrom, Doug, MS

Bales, Don, MS

Banbury, Scott, TN

Banks, Bob, MS

Banks, Monica, MS

Bankston, W. H., MS

Barbry, Sr., Chairman Earl, LA

Barlow, Jr., Jan, MS

Bass, Fred, LA

Bassle, John D., MS

Batson, Brax H., MS

Batton, Chief Gary, OK

Beach, Buck, MS

Bean, Toby, LA

Bedingfield, John H., TN

Behan, Sr., John M., MS

Bell, Mary S., MS

Bergin, Charles, MS

Berk, AIA, Michael A., MS

Bilbo, B., MS

Bishop, Gail, MS

Black, Les, MS

Blake, Marilyn K., MS

Blake, Jr., Edward L., MS

Bolton, Bobby R., MS

Bond, John, MS

Bond, Tony, MS

Bonner, Lisa, MS

Booker, Ken, MS

Boreing, Clay, AR

Bosarge, Mitch, MS

Bostick, William, MS

Boucher, Carla, VA

Boutwell, Cynthia, MS

Boutwell, Tommy S., AL

Bowling, Dale R., MS

Boyll, Jamie, MS

Bracey, Donny, MS

Braddock, Lavelle, MS

Bradford, Bob, MS

Bradshaw, Gaylon, MS

Bradshaw, Irvin M., MS

Brame, Bill, MS

Bray, Eric, MS

Breland, Keith, MS

Breland, Margaret, MS

Breland, William H., MS

Brewer, Terri, MS

Brewer, Ph.D., J. Stephen, MS

Broadaway, Joe, MS

Brooke, Judd, MS

Brookes, Sam, MS

Brown, Ed, MS

Brown, Richard L., MS

Brown, Stella A., MS

Brown, Tom, MS

Bruce, Mike, MS

Bryant, James H., MS

Bryant, Jr., James H., MS

Bucci, Jr., Richard M., MS

Buchanan, Malone, MS

Buie, Elmer, MS

Burchell, PhD, CLP, Charles, MS

Burchfield, Chris, MS

Burger, Wes, MS

Burke, Porter A., MS

Burks, Bob, MS

Burris, Jilton, MS

Bustin, Bill, MS

Bustin, Rosa, MS

Cagle, Renny, MS

Cake, Edwin W., MS

Calcote, W. Dennis, MS

Caldwell, Ricky, MS

Call, Michael, MS

Callahan, David A., MS

Callahan, Ramon, MS

Cameron, Gary, MS

Campbell, Chris & 

Jerrell, LA

Campbell, Susan McCraine, LA

Campbell, Sr., David E., MS

Cantrell, Mark, NC

Cardinal, Pamela, LA

Carleton, Ken, MS

Carpenter, Bob, MS

Carr, David, MS

Carter, Gloria J., MS

Cashner, Mollie, MS

Castle, Larry, MS

Causey, Nelson, MS

Causey, Steve, LA

Chabreck, Robert H., LA

Chapman, Charles, MS

Chapman, Wren, MS

Chapman's, The, MS

Cimprich, David, MS

Clark, David, MS

Clark, Jim, MS

Clark, Jo Ann, MS

Clay, Kay H., MS

Clayton, Joe, MS

Clements, Joel, MS

Cochran, Burke V., MS

Cochran, The Honorable Thad, 

MS

Cody, Andy, MS

Coker, Gary, MS

Coker, John, MS

Coley, Allen T., MS

Coley, Roger, MS

Coley, Wesley T., MS

Colie, Stuart, MS

Collier, Willie F., MS
Chapter 5. Preparers, Contributors and Recipients

364 National Forests in Mississippi

Collins, George, MS

Collins, Josh, MS

Collums, Reggie, MS

Commission, MS Forestry, MS

Conway, Kenneth, MS

Cook, Jeremy, MS

Cook, Louis, MS

Cook, Trey, MS

Cook, Willena, MS

Cooley, Richard & 

Deborah, MS

Cooper, Chas W., TX

Copeland, Jim and 

Susie, MS

Copeland, Margaret, MS

Corban, Marvin, MS

Corbitt, Steve, MS

Costner, Jeff, MS

Cotton, Milam S., MS

Cox, Ron, MS

Craft, Johnny, MS

Craft, Stephen A., MS

Craft, Jr., Randall E., MS

Craig, Jimmy Lee, MS

Crawford, Roxane, MS

Crim, Ben, MS

Culberson, Jim, MS

Cunningham, Stanley, MS

Dalremple, Martha, MS

Damms, Greg, AL

Dana, Caleb, MS

Dana, T., MS

Dana, Jr., Caleb H., MS

Daniels, Bob, MS

D'Aquilla, Carolyn M., MS

Davenport, Sandy, MS

Davidson, Joel D., MS

Davis, Alex, MS

Davis, Billy, MS

Davis, David, MS

Davis, Mr. Kelly, MS

de Hoop, Niels, LA

Dean, Robert, MS

Dearman, G.L., MS

Dedeaux, Randle J., MS

Delmas, Charley, MS

Dennis, E. J., MS

Dennis, Thomas F., MS

Denson, Jimmy, MS

Denson, Marty, MS

Denton, Dalton, MS

DeReamer, Steve, MS

Deviney, Susanna, MS

Diamond, Joe, MS

Dickson, H. A., MS

Dilworth, Bob, MS

DOE, Director, 

NEPA Compliance, DC

Dongarra, Vincent, MS

Donham, Mark, IL

Douglas, Neil, LA

Downey, B. B., MS

Dubuisson, Janet T., MS

Duckworth, Joe, MS

Duff, David, MS

Dunkelberg, Kendall, MS

Dunnam, Norma, MS

Dutho, Angela S., LA

Duvic, David, LA

Duvic, Sr., Maurice V., MS

Dwyer, Colleen, MS

Dyess, Billy, MS

Dykes, George, MS

Earby, Reginald, MS

Earby, Wyatt, MS

Eaton, Lee, MS

Edwards, Keith, MS

Ehbree, John & Joan, MS

Eichelberger, W. C., MS

Ellard, Allen, MS

Emerich, Donald and 

Evelyn, MS

England, Archie, MS

EPA, Region 4, GA

Ervin, Grady T., MS

Estes, James L., MS

Eubanks, Efird, MS

Eubanks, Ivan Q., MS

Evans, Tim, MS

Ezell, M. L., MS

Fahl, C., MS

Felder, David, MS

Ferenstein, Jennifer, MT

Ferrell's, The, LA

Fisher, Robbie, MS

Fitzgerald, Kenny, MS

Flowers, Edward, MS

Folsom, Mary A., MS

Foreman, Gary, MS

Forman, Craig, MS

Fossler, Louanne H., MS

Fossler, Louanne H., MS

Foster, Marlon K., LA

Foster, Rodney, MS

Franklin, Grant, Lee, 

Mark, and Sandra, MS

Free, Jay, MS

Freeman, Tommy, MS

Friedrichs, Drew, LA

Frith, Bobby, MS

Frith, Jimmy, MS

Fulmer, Louise, MS

Gaddis, Ruth, MS

Gardiner, Emile S., MS

Garner, Jim, MS

Garner, Jim, MS

Garner, Tippy, MS

Garrott, Anne, MS

Gaskin, Joe R., MS

Geddie, John, NM

Gellette, Becky, MS

Gibbs, Pat & Terry, MS

Gibson, James M., MS

Gibson, Steve, MS

Gilbert, Jill, MS

Gillie, Doris & Kim, MS

Gillie, Nathan & 

Marie, MS

Glenn, Onzie, MS

Godbold, Brant, MS

Godbold, Horace, MS

Godbold, Wilmer, MS

Godwin, David, MS

Gooch, Carl, MS

Gordon, Harold, MS

Gordon, Jack, MS

Gordon, Ken, MS

Gordon, Marcus, MS

Goss, Roger, MS

Grado, Dr. Stephen C., MS

Grantham, Wayne, MS

Graves, Hal, MS

Graves, K., MS

Gray, Lenal, MS

Greaud, Joe and 

Dawn, LA

Green, Rick, MS

Gregory, Jay, MS

Griffin, Brad, MS

Griffin, George, MS

Griffin, Jay, MS

Grimes, William J., MS

Grishman, Milt & 

Roberta, MS

Guillotte, Ed, TN

Gusa, Mikel, MS

Hallman, Wilson, MS

Hamel, Paul, MS

Hamm, Buster, MS

Hammack, Marcus, MS

Hammond, Joe, MS

Hamrick, Bill, MS

Hanchey, James, MS

Hardee, Herky, MS

Harper, John, MS

Harper, Lin, MS

Harper, The Honorable Gregg, 

MS

Harrell, Britt, MS

Harrell, Chris & 

David, MS

Harrell, Eugene (Buck) & James 

D., MS

Harrell, Jeff, MS

Harrell, Larry & 

Lath, MS

Harrell, Mark, MS

Harrell, Michael, MS

Harrell, Sammie, MS

Harrell, Todd, MS

Harrell, Victor, MS

Harris, Kent, MS

Harrison, Charles R., MS

Harrison, Eric D., MS

Harrison, Johnnie, MS

Harrison, Willie Earl, MS

Hart, Mr. L. E., TN

Hartsfield, Libby, MS

Harvey, Terrell, MS

Hatten, Avery P., MS

Hatten, Brent, MS

Hatten, Budge, MS

Hatten, Duncan, MS

Hatten, Virginia, MS

Hayes, Henry, MS

Haynes, Jack A. Q., MS

Heath, Jim, AL

Hebert, David P., LA

Heinz, Robert E., MS

Helms, Billy, MS

Hemphill, Daniel, MS

Hendry, Darrell and 

Talitha, MS

Henry, Alison, MS

Herndon, Ernest, MS

Herndon, Ernest, MS

Herndon, Kyle, MS

Herrin, Glen, MS

Herring, Dexter, MS

Higginbotham, Josh, MS

Higginbotham, Robert, MS

Hill, Don, MS

Hill, Morris, MS

Hill, Jr., Lee E., MS

Hill, Ph.D., Marianne, MS

Hines, Charlie R., MS

Hines, Gary, MS

Hines, James, CA

Hodge, Ronisha, MS

Hodges, Rod, LA

Hodges, Tim, MS

Holden, Chris, TN

Holder, Chris, TN

Holder, Earnest, MS

Holifield, Kyle, MS

Holifield, Trina, MS

Holifield,Jr., Floyd, MS

Holland, Donald, MS

Holland, Farrell, MS

Hollingsworth, Chad W., MS

Holloway, Jack, MS

Holmes, Daniel, MS

Holmes, Dearl R. & Jiles, MS

Honeycutt, Jane, LA

Hopkins, Matt, MS

Howell, Jerry Lynn, MS

Hudson, Angie, MS

Huey, Landon W., MS

Hughes, Allen, MS

Hughes, PhD, Glenn, MS

Hughes, PhD, H. Glenn, MS

Humphrey, Henry S., MS

Hunt, Chester, MS

Hunting Club, 

Two Wheel Drive, MS

Hurst, Geroge, MS

Hurst, Ronald A., MS

Hutcheson, Susan, MS

Inglis, G. Douglas, MS

Ivey, Carl, MS

Jackson, Dr. Jerome A., FL

Jackson, Ed, MS

Jefcoat, Jason, MS

Jefferson, Casey, MS

Jenkins, Larry, MS

John, Lisa, OK

Johnson, Bill, MS

Johnson, Brett, MS

Johnson, Charles, MS

Johnson, Chris, IL

Johnson, Douglas, MS

Johnson, Gloria, LA

Johnson, Isidora R. & 

Jamie, LA

Johnson, Johnny E., MS

Johnson, Robin, MS

Johnson, Seth, LA

Johnson, W, MS

Johnston, Autumn, MS

Jones, Bart, MS

Jones, Bettye Jo, MS

Jones, Claude, MS

Jones, Eddie, MS

Jones, Gary, MS

Jones, H. W. (Sonny), MS

Jones, Jimmy W., LA

Jones, Joyce, MS

Joyner, Joyce, MS

Kaldahl, Chris, MS

Kaminski, Richard, MS

Kay, Robert & 

Stephen D., MS

Keith, Terry and 

Sheila, MS

Kemp, Jonathan, LA

Kennedy, Henry S., MS

Kennedy, Sam, MS

Kenney, Jimmy & 

June, MS

Keys, Merlin P., MS

Keys, Walter, MS

Kiewit, Scott, MS

Kilgore, Lois, MS

Kilgore, Robert L., MS

Kilgore, Shannon, MS

Kimbrough, Johnny, MS
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 365

King, Dale and 

Rebecca, MS

King, Laura, MS

Kissell, Rob, MS

Koenig, Mark, LA

Koske, Patty, LA

Koske, Tom, LA

Kulivan, Jr., David, LA

Kutack, Jason, MS

LaClaire, Linda, MS

Ladd, Skyler, MS

Ladner, Jerry, MS

Ladnier, Brian, MS

Laird, Sam, MS

Lamb, Michael, MS

Lambert, John S., MS

Lambert, Judson, MS

Lambert, Lee, MS

Landrum, Donnie R., MS

Landrum, Ronnie, MS

Landrum, U. G., MS

Langford, David & 

Joseph, MS

Langley, Kenny, MS

Larosche, Ed, AL

Lassetter, Dan, MS

Latham, Richard, MS

Laura, Cagle, MS

Lawrence, Charlean, MS

Lawrence, Ramey and 

Shirley, MS

Le Fan, Buster, MS

Lebow, PhD, Jeanne, MS

Lee, David, MS

Lee, Donna, MS

Lee, Jim, MS

Lehman, Carl Ray, MS

LeNoir, Dennis, MS

Lewis, Carolyn, MS

Lewis, Donnie, MS

Liddell, Jr., Lewis, MS

Linda, Braun, MS

Lindsey, Brad, MS

Lindsey, Brett, AZ

Linville, Junior, MS

Little, Gary, MS

Littleton, Arthur, MS

Littleton, Gary, MS

Livingston, Randal, MS

Lockhart, Louis, MS

Lofton, Robert, MS

Long, Jeff, MS

Long, Ricky, MS

Loper, Robert L., MS

Lunceford, Kathy, MS

Lunsford, Mary, MS

Lyman, Melinda, MS

Lynch, Melissa, MS

Lyon, Diana S., MS

Mabry, Sam, MS

MacDermott, T. J., MS

MacGown, Joseph, MS

Mack, Melvin, MS

Madden, Jr., Petus R., MS

Magee, Charles, MS

Magee, Ruby L., MS

Mann, Thomas M., MS

Manning, John S., MS

Maples, Scott, MS

Mapp, Kevin, MS

Marchand, Charles, LA

Marr, Sr., Danny J., GA

Marshall, Thomas C., MS

Martin, Jerry, MS

Martin, Noah, MS

Martin, Victor, MS

Martin, Jr., William, MS

Mason, Robert & 

Betty, MS

Matlack, Glenn, MS

May, Billy, MS

May, Robert, LA

McArew, Bobby, MS

McBride, Bud, MS

McCaughn, Richard, MS

McCrory, Oliver, MS

McCrory, Tommy, MS

McCrory, Jr., Eddie, MS

McCurdy, Dennis Ray, MS

McCurdy, Ollie B., MS

McCurdy, Robert, MS

McCurdy, Terry, MS

McCurdy's, The, MS

McDaniel, Sidney, MS

McDill, John A., MS

McDonald, Kristen, DC

McDonald, Michael, MS

McElhenney, Angela, MS

McEwen, William D., MS

McGee, Glenn, MS

McGee, H. D., MS

McGee, Joseph M., MS

McGehee, B. Mayes, MS

McGehee, Bobby, MS

McGehee, Dorothy, MS

McGinnis, Helen, WV

McKee, Tracey, LA

McKenzie, Donald F., AR

McKinnon, Don, MS

McLemore, Clyde, MS

McLemore, L. F., MS

McLemore, Paul, MS

McLemore, Tim, MS

McMillan, Will, MS

McNeal, Leslie, MS

McPhail, Barry J., AL

McPhail, Ricky, MS

McSwain, Dwain C., MS

McWhorter, Van, MS

Meek, M. G., MS

Mercer, Larry, TX

Miller, Darren, MS

Miller, Debbie, MS

Miller, Howard, MS

Miller, Louie, MS

Miller, Randy, LA

Miller, Tommy, MS

Miller, Tommy, MS

Mills, Johnny R., MS

Mitchell, Maurice, MS

Mitchell-Holt, Dana, MS

Mobile District, COE

Commander, AL

Mockler, Patrick, MS

Moffett, Kyle, MS

Monk, J. D., MS

Monroe, Mark, MS

Moon, Jonathan, MS

Moore, Doyle L., MS

Moore, Gerald, MS

Moore, Julie H., MD

Moore, Ph.D., Frank, MS

Moseley, Henry, MS

Moseley, Ken, MS

Moss, Hushel Lamar, MS

Mounger, Davis, TN

MS AR National Guard, MS

Murphy, M. R., LA

Myatt, Bryant, MS

Myatt, Henry, MS

Myers, Larry G. & 

Jane, MS

Myers, Tommy E., MS

Myrick, Brodie A., MS

NAL, Acquisitions and 

Serials Branch, MD

Napier, J. E. & Reba, MS

Napier, Wenda G., MS

Nasakaitis, Micheal, MS

Nations, Wayne, MS

Neil, Jr., Jesse A., LA

Nelson, Julie, TX

Nesmith, Gene & 

Joyce, MS

Nevelett, Tritta, MS

Newman, James, MS

Nichols, Gary W., MS

Nickens, Bob, LA

Nielsen, Glenn & 

Gloria R., MS

NOAA, Habitat 

Conservation Division, FL

NOAA, Office of Policy 

and Planning, DC

Nolan, James, AL

Norquist, Cary, MS

Novick, Kathy B., MS

Nunelee, The Honorable Alan, 

MS

Ochs, Clifford, MS

Office of Environmental 

Management, U.S. Coast Guard, 

CG-47, DHS, DC

O'Quin, Rickey, MS

O'Quinn, Darrell, LA

Osborne, Jay, MS

Ott, Paul, Ms

Overstreet, Hal, MS

Owen, Robert W., MS

Page, Millie, MS

Palazzo, The Honorable Steve, 

MS

Palmer, James, MS

Palmer, Jerry, MS

Palmer, Rayland, MS

Palmer, Robert M., MS

Palmisano, Morgan, LA

Parinio, Donny, MS

Parke, Randy, MS

Parker, Christopher D., MS

Parker, Larry, MS

Parker, Roy C. and 

Veronica, MS

Parkman, Louie, MS

Patterson, Dianne, MS

Patterson, President Brian, TN

Patton, Jr., Wendell W., MS

Payne, Robert L., MS

Peacock, Evan, MS

Pearce, Jr., William J., MS

Pease, JoRee, MS

Pedersen, Joel, SC

Perdue, Tammy, MS

Pettigrew, Gary, MS

Pettigrew, Johnny, MS

Pettigrew, Joseph, MS

Petty, Ken, MS

Phillippi, PhD, Ann, MS

Phillips, Jody, MS

Phillips, Lacey, MS

Pickering, J., MS

Piner, Ken, MS

Pipkins, Angela, MS

Pittman, Fred, MS

Pitts, Josh, MS

Pitts, Keith, MS

Pitts, Sue, MS

Pitts, Thomas, MS

Polk, Charlie, MS

Polk, John D., MS

Polk, Kevin, MS

Pollan, Gayden L., MS

Polles, Ph.D., Sam, MS

Pope, Billy, MS

Pope, Richard, MS

Pope, Sebastian, MS

Porter, Jerry, MS

Powe, Willie Fred, MS

Price, Thomas L., MS

Prine, Thomas, MS

Pry, Darryl, LA

Puckett, James F., MS

Pugh, Billy & 

Ollie, MS

Purvis, Dale, MS

Quinney, S. J., UT

Ramsey, Herbert, MS

Rarita, Joseph, MS

Ratcliff, J., MS

Ratcliff, Ted, MS

Rath, Henry, MS

Rawls, Ed, MS

Rawls, Ed, MS

Ray, Ruthann, MS

Redd, Gordon, MS

Reddock, Cody, MS

Reeves, Wesley, MS

Reid, Daymon, MS

Reid, Lee, MS

Reid, Pedo, MS

Reid, Shannon & 

Thomas, MS

Reinecke, John, MS

Reul, Johnny Ray, MS

Revette, Clyde, MS

Reynolds, Jr., Les, MS

Ricks, Stephen, MS

Riddle, Davis, MS

Risk, Jason, MS

Risk, II, Nick, MS

Robbins, Ben, MS

Roberts, Charles R., MS

Roberts, W. P., MS

Rockco, Robert R., MS

Roederer, David, MS

Rogers, Albert, MS

Rogers, Lydia, MS

Rogers, Patty, MS

Rogers, Roy, MS

Rollins, Avery & 

Jackie, MS

Ross, Dr. Stephen T., MS

Ross, Semmes, MS

Ross, Sidney, MS

Rossilli, Mario, MS

Rosso, Sam W., MS

Rowell, William, MS

Ruffin, William R., MS

Rural Utilities Service, , DC

Rushing, Richard, MS

Russell, Cathy, MS

Russell, Jr., Jessie, MS

Rutland, Nelson, MS

Rutland, Travis J., MS

Sashy, Alexa, MS

Schalski, Alan, MS
Chapter 5. Preparers, Contributors and Recipients

366 National Forests in Mississippi

Schiefer, Randall N., MS

Schiefer, Terence Lee, MS

Schnieder, John C., MS

Schoenwolf, Walter, MS

Schultz, Cherie, MS

Schweizer, Peter E., MS

Scoggin, Robert, MS

Scott, Susan, MS

Seiss, Ron, MS

Self, Joseph A., LA

Selman, Cory, MS

Selman, Kay, MS

Selman, Wayne, MS

Sessums, Greg, MS

Shank, Brett, MS

Sharp, Julian, MS

Shaw, Phillip C., MS

Shehane, Lyle, MS

Shell, Matt, MS

Shell, Wilber C., MS

Shepard, Steve, MS

Shepherd, James, MS

Sherman, Ross A., MS

Shoemake, Sam O., MS

Shows, Glenn, MS

Shows, Jacqueline, MS

Shropshire, Cathy, MS

Siegfried, Ed, MS

Sills, Bob, MS

Sims, John R., MS

Singleton's, The, MS

Singley, Joseph, AL

Sirmon, Gene, MS

Sledge, Jim, MS

Smistik, Robert, IA

Smith, A., MS

Smith, A. J., MS

Smith, B. J., MS

Smith, Benita, MS

Smith, Brad, MS

Smith, Brian, NJ

Smith, Chief B. Cheryl, LA

Smith, Chris R., MS

Smith, Clyde, MS

Smith, Donald, MS

Smith, Donny, MS

Smith, J. Larry & 

Linda B., MS

Smith, Larry J., TN

Smith, Pam G., MS

Smith, Patrick O., MS

Smith, Richard, MS

Smith, Roy, MS

Smith, Steve, MS

Smith, Walter, MS

Snyder, David, LA

Snyder, Mark, LA

Southerland, David, MS

Spence, Scott, MS

Spivey, Grady, MS

Spradley, Danny, MS

Springfield, Bill, MS

Stanford, Linday, DC

Steadman, Billy, MS

Stegall, Gary, MS

Stegall, Maurice, MS

Stegall, Stacey, MS

Stegall, Thomas W., MS

Stennis, Mildred H., MS

Sterling, Dale, MS

Stewart, Doug, MS

Stewart, Harold D. & 

Peggy, MS

Stewart, Russell R., MS

Stile, John, MS

Stokes, Billy, MS

Stokley, Roger, MS

Stokly, Donna, MS

Stonecypher, Susan & 

Richie, MS

Stowe, Becky, MS

Strawn, Kenny, MS

Stribling, Jack, MS

Stuart, Rev. Leon, MS

Suarez, Esq., Emma T., CA

Sudduth, Kenny, AL

Sullivan, Edward G., MS

Sullivan, Sue, MS

Sulser, Floyd, MS

Sumrall, Sam, MS

Swanson, John, MN

Tadlock, Paul, MS

Tadlock, Roger D., MS

Tang, Juliet D., MS

Tanner, Rick, MS

Taylor, Ester, MS

Taylor, George R., MS

Taylor, John, MS

Taylor, Paul, MS

Taylor, Robert, MS

Taylor, Ronny, MS

Temple, Matthew, MS

Thames, Bill, MS

Thibodeaux, Don, LA

Thomas, David, MS

Thomas, Lona B., MS

Thompson, Dr. Ian, OK

Thompson, Earnestine, MS

Thompson, Frances, MS

Thompson, Keith, MS

Thompson, Lowell, MS

Thompson, Michael, MS

Thompson, Sidney W. and 

Zena, MS

Thompson, The Honorable 

Bennie G., MS

Thornton, Donnie Pat, MS

Thornton, Tommy Lynn, MS

Thrash, Dewayne, MS

Threadgill, Don, MS

Tindle, Greg, MS

Tingle, Lynette, MS

Todd, Sally, MS

Tolbert, Chad, MS

Tolbert, Rod, MS

Torrey, James, MS

Touchstone, Jessica, MS

Townsend, Jennifer, MS

Trousdale, Austin W., MS

Troyka, Robbie & 

Jeff, MS

Tubbs, Elisa E., LA

Turnage, Rollin, MS

Turner, George, MS

Turner, Russell, MS

Turner, Wayne, MS

TVA, Manager, 

NEPA Administration, TN

Tynes, Paul, MS

Tyson, Dr. Robert E., MS

U. S. Army COE, MS

Ukeiley, Lawrence, MS

Ulmer, Josh, MS

US Navy, Chief of 

Naval Operations (N45), DC

USDA APHIS, Deputy Director 

APHIS PPD/EAD, MD

USDA NRCS, 

National NEPA Coordinator, DC

USDI, Director OEPC, DC

Valentine, Alec, MS

Van Fossen, Eric, MS

Varnado, Mike, MS

Verdey, Christopher, MS

Vicksburg District, Commander, 

MS

Vines, Buddy, MS

Waggoner, Guy, MS

Waite, Cile, MS

Walker, Michael, MS

Walker, Scott, MS

Wallace, Craig & 

Dale T., MS

Wallace, Ernest & 

Patrick W., MS

Wallace, John Paul, MS

Waller, Pauline, MS

Walley, J. D., MS

Walley, Jamie, MS

Walley, Pete, MS

Walley, Reggie, MS

Walling, Rick, MS

Walls, Eddie, MS

Warren, James, MS

Washington, Lee A., MS

Watkins, Bryant, MS

Watkins, Christopher, MS

Watkins, Jeff, MS

Watkins, Randy, MS

Watson, Charles E., MS

Watson, Ray, MS

Watts, Donald, MS

Watts, Lee, MS

Weathersby, Tony, MS

Weaver, Gerald, MS

Webb, Bob and Anita, MS

Webb, David, MS

Webb, Mary, MS

Webb, Terry, MS

Webster, Ed, AL

Wegman, Ken, MS

Welborn, Larry, MS

Wells, Ray G., MS

Wesley, John, MS

West, R. M., MS

West, Jr., Roy V., MS

Westbury, William, MS

Whisler, Sandra L., MS

White, Anthony, MS

White, David, MS

White, David H., MS

White, Mark, MS

Whitehead, Kim, MS

Whitfield, Robin, MS

Whitt, Scott, MS

Whittiger, Elie, MS

Whittington, Andy, MS

Whittington, Jackie, MS

Whittington, Russell, MS

Whitworth, Bill, MS

Wicker, Joe, MS

Wicker, The Honorable Roger, 

MS

Wieland, Ron, MS

Wieland, Ronald, MS

Wilkinson, James M., MS

Wilkinson, Rodney & 

Karen, MS

Williams, Adam, MS

Williams, Beachman, MS

Williams, Donald F., MS

Williams, James E., MS

Williams, Jimmy & 

John, MS

Williams, Marda, MS

Williams, Mitch, MS

Williamson, David & 

Brenda, MS

Williamson, Greg, MS

Wilson, Bobby, MS

Wilson, Christine, MS

Wilson, David, MS

Wilson, Earl, MS

Wilson, Randy, MS

Wilson, Tony, MS

Wimberly, JoAnn, MS

Windham, Dale, MS

Windham, Donald M., MS

Windhan, Jerry, MS

Wirletski, Margaret, MS

Wirth, Peter, MS

Wolfe, Elizabeth, MS

Wolgemuth, Andrew, MS

Wollard, Mark, MS

Wood, Forrest, MS

Wood, James, MS

Wood, Joe, MS

Woodard, Allen, MS

Woodard, Susan, MS

Woodard, PA, Allen S., MS

Woolley, Randy, Ms

Woolworth, Stevi, MS

Yates, Lori D., MS

Yeager, Lisa, MS

Young, Bruce, MS

Yount, Janette and 

Lester, MS

Yount, Ken, MS

Zimmerman, Karl, FL
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 367

Glossary

A

activity: A measure, course of action, or 

treatment that is undertaken to directly or 

indirectly produce, enhance, or maintain forest 

and rangeland outputs or achieve administrative 

or environmental quality objectives. 

affected environment: The relationship of the 

physical environment to the changes that will or 

may take place as a result of human activity. 

analysis area: A collection of lands, not 

necessary contiguous, sufficiently similar in 

character, that they may be analyzed at the 

forest plan level. 

appropriate management response: The 

response to a wildland fire based on an 

evaluation of risks to firefighter and public 

safety. Evaluation includes the consideration of 

circumstances under which the fire occurs, 

including weather and fuel conditions, natural 

and cultural resource management objectives, 

protection priorities, and values to be protected. 

The evaluation must also include an analysis of 

the context of the specific fire within the overall 

logic, geographic area, or national wildland fire 

situation.

aquatic ecosystem: System that includes 

streams, lakes, the stream channel, lake and 

estuary beds, water, biotic community, and 

associated habitat features. 

arterial roads: Roads that provide service to 

large land areas and usually connect with public 

highways or other forest arterial roads to form an 

integrated network of primary travel routes. The 

location and standard are often determined by a 

demand for maximum mobility and travel 

efficiency rather than specific resource 

management service. They are usually 

developed and operated for long-term land and 

resource management purposes and constant 

service. These roads generally serve areas 

more than 40,000 acres. 

B

basal area (BA): the area, in square feet, of the 

cross section of a single tree measured at 4.5 

feet above ground, usually expressed as square 

feet per acre. 

best management practices (BMP): A series 

of guidelines or minimum standards for proper 

application of forestry operations, designed 

primarily to prevent soil erosion and water 

pollution, and to protect certain wildlife habitat 

values in riparian and wetland areas. 

biodiversity: The variety of life, including the 

variety of gene pools, species, plant and animal 

communities, ecosystems, and the processes 

through which individual organisms interact with 

one another, and their environments. 

C

calcareous: Composed of, containing, or 

characteristic of calcium carbonate, calcium, or 

limestone; chalky. 

canopy cover: The percent of a fixed area 

covered by the crown of an individual plant 

species or delimited by the vertical projection of 

its outermost perimeter. Small openings in the 

crown are included. Used to express the relative 

importance of individual species within a 

vegetation community, or to express the canopy 

cover of woody species. Canopy cover may be 

used as a measure of land cover change or 

trend. Often used for wildlife habitat evaluations. 

capability: The potential of a land area to 

produce resources, supply goods and services, 

and allow resource uses under an assumed set 

of management practices and a given level of 

management intensity. Note: capability depends 

upon the current condition and site conditions 

including climate, slope, landform, soil and 

geology, and the application of management 

practices and protection from fire, insects, and 

disease. 

cluster: The aggregate of cavity trees used by 

one group of red-cockaded woodpeckers for 

nesting and roosting. This includes all active and 

inactive cavity trees plus at least a 60 meter 

(200-foot) zone around them. If this area is less 

than 4 hectares (10 acres), additional area of the 

best nesting habitat contiguous with the cavity 

trees is delineated to establish the minimum 4-

hectare stand.

Coastal Plain: In the United States, an 

ecoregion or physiographic province located 

near the Atlantic Ocean or Gulf of Mexico.
Glossary

368 National Forests in Mississippi

collector road: Roads that serve smaller land 

areas and are usually connected to a forest 

arterial or public highway. They collect traffic 

from forest local roads or terminal facilities. The 

location and standard are influenced by longterm multi-resource service needs, and travel 

efficiency. Forest collector roads may be 

operated for constant or intermittent service, 

depending on land-use and resource 

management objectives for the area served by 

the facility. These roads generally have two or 

more local roads feeding into them and 

generally serve an area exceeding 10,000 

acres. 

commercial thinning: Any type of thinning 

producing merchantable material at least equal 

to the value of the direct cost of harvesting. 

condition class: The dominant existing 

vegetation or physical features found on a unit of 

land. Forested condition classes are described 

by the dominant existing timber species and size

class. 

Continuous Inventory of Stand Conditions 

(CISC): the USDA Forest Service, Southern 

Region’s forest stand database containing 

descriptive and prescriptive data about mapped 

stands of forest land. 

conversion (forest management): A change 

from one forest type to another in a stand on 

land that has the capability of both forest types. 

cooperative management unit: 

critical habitat: Habitat as defined by the U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service to be essential to meet 

the needs of an endangered species. 

cultural resources: Physical remains of 

districts, sites, structures, buildings, networks or 

objects that were used by humans. They may be 

historic, prehistoric, archaeological, 

architectural, or spiritual in nature. Cultural 

resources are nonrenewable. 

D

demand species: Wildlife species with high 

social, cultural, or economic values.

den tree: A tree with cavities that provide shelter 

and nesting sites for various wildlife species.

developed recreation site: Relatively small, 

distinctly defined area where facilities are 

provided for concentrated public use. Examples 

include campgrounds, picnic areas, and 

swimming areas. 

developed recreation: Recreation that requires 

facilities that in turn result in concentrated use of 

an area. Examples of recreation areas are 

campgrounds and ski areas; facilities in these 

areas might include roads, parking lots, picnic 

tables, toilets, drinking water, and buildings. 

diameter at breast height (d.b.h.): the 

standard method for measuring tree diameter at 

4.5 feet from the ground. 

dispersed recreation: A general term referring 

to recreation use outside a developed recreation 

site, this includes activities such as scenic 

driving, rock climbing, boating, hunting, fishing, 

backpacking, and recreation in primitive 

environments. 

disturbance (ecology): Any relative discrete 

event in time that disrupts the ecosystem, 

community, or population structure and changes 

resources, substrate availability, or the physical 

environment. 

diversity: The distribution and abundance of 

different plant and animal communities and 

species within the area covered by a forest plan. 

dominant: Trees with crowns extending above 

the general level of the main canopy of evenaged groups of trees. They receive full light from 

above, and partly from the sides. 

E

early successional habitat: Vegetative 

condition typically characterized by low density 

to no canopy cover and an abundance of 

herbaceous ground cover. May include forest 0 

to 10 years of age, maintained openings, 

pastures, balds, or open woodlands. 

ecosystem management: An ecological 

approach to natural resource management to 

assure productive, healthy ecosystem by 

blending social, economic, physical and 

biological needs and values. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 369

ecosystem/cover type: The native vegetation 

ecological community considered together with 

nonliving factors of the environment as a unit. 

The general cover type occupying the greatest 

percent of the stand location. Based on tree or 

plant species forming a plurality of the stocking 

within the stand. May be observed in the field, or 

computed from plot measurements. 

endangered species: Any species of animal or 

plant that is in danger of extinction throughout all 

or a significant portion of its range. Plant or 

animal species identified or proposed by the 

Secretary of the Interior as endangered in 

accordance with the 1973 Endangered Species 

Act. 

endemic: Species restricted to a particular 

geographic area. Usually limited to one or a few 

small streams or a single drainage. 

environment: All the conditions, circumstances, 

and influences surrounding and affecting the 

development of an organism, or group of 

organisms. 

environmental analysis: An analysis of 

alternative actions and their predictable short 

and long-term environmental effects, which 

include physical, biological, economic, social 

and environmental design factors and their 

interaction. (36 CFR 219.3) 

environmental consequence: The result or 

effect of an action upon the environment. 

environmental impact: Used interchangeably 

with environmental consequence or effect. 

ephemeral stream: A watercourse that may or 

may not have a well-defined channel, and which 

flows only for short periods (less than 10 percent 

of an average year) during and following 

precipitation. Ephemeral stream bottoms are 

usually above the water table and do not contain 

fish or aquatic insects with larvae that have 

multi-year life cycles.

essential habitat: Habitat in which threatened 

and endangered species occur, but which has 

not been declared as critical habitat. Occupied 

habitat or suitable unoccupied habitat necessary 

for the protection and recovery of a federally 

designated threatened or endangered species. 

even-aged: A forest (stand) composed of trees 

having no, or relatively small, differences in age. 

even-aged management: The application of a 

combination of actions that results in the 

creation of stands in which trees of essentially 

the same age grow together. Managed evenaged forests are characterized by a distribution 

of stands of varying ages (and, therefore, tree 

sizes) throughout the forest area. The difference 

in age between trees forming the main canopy 

level of a stand usually does not exceed 20 

percent of the age of the stand at harvest 

rotation age. Regeneration in a particular stand 

is obtained during a short period at or near the 

time that a stand has reached the desired age or 

size for regeneration and harvested. Clearcut, 

shelterwood, or seed tree cutting methods 

produce even-aged stands. (36 CFR 211.3) 

existing road system: All existing roads, owned 

or administered by various agencies, which are 

wholly or partly within or adjacent to and serving 

the national forests and other areas 

administered by the Forest Service, or 

intermingled private lands (FSM 7705.21). 

These roads may or may not be included on the 

current Forest transportation inventory, but are 

evident on the ground as meeting the definition 

of a road. 

F

federally listed: Any plant or animal species 

listed as threatened or endangered under the 

Endangered Species Act. 

filter strips: Belts of grass, shrubs, or trees 

maintained along streams to trap sediment and 

chemicals before they enter waterways.
Glossary

370 National Forests in Mississippi

fire condition class: Based on coarse scale 

national data, classes measure general wildfire 

risk:

• class 1: Fire regimes are usually within 

historical ranges. Vegetation composition 

and structure are intact. The risk of losing 

key ecosystem components from the 

occurrence of fire is relatively low.

• class 2: Fire regimes on these lands have 

been moderately altered from their historical 

range by increased or decreased fire 

frequency. A moderate risk of losing key 

ecosystem components has been identified.

• class 3: Fire regimes on these lands have 

been significantly altered from their historical 

return interval. The risk of losing key 

ecosystem components from fire is high. 

Fire frequencies have departed from 

historical ranges by multiple return intervals. 

Vegetation composition, structure, and 

diversity have been significantly altered.

fire management plan: Strategic plans that 

define a program to manage wildland fires 

based on an area’s approved forest plan. They 

must address a full range of fire management 

activities that support ecosystem sustainability, 

values to be protected, protection of firefighter 

and public safety, public health, and 

environmental issues, and must be consistent 

with resource management objectives and 

activities of the area. 

fire regime: A set of recurring conditions of fire 

that characterizes a given ecosystem. A specific 

range of frequency, fire behavior, severity, 

timing of burn, size of burn, fire spread pattern, 

and pattern and distribution of burn circumscribe 

those conditions 

flatwoods: Mesic pine communities on the Gulf 

and Atlantic coastal plains with a well-developed 

woody shrub or midstory layer. 

floodplains: The lowland and relatively flat area 

adjoining inland waters, including at a minimum, 

that area subject to a one percent or greater 

chance of flooding in any given year, and soil 

inundated by the 100-year flood. 

forage: All browse and non-woody plants that 

are available to livestock or game animals used 

for grazing or harvested for feeding. 

forest health: The perceived condition of a 

forest derived from concerns about factors as its 

age, structure, composition, function, vigor, 

presence of unusual levels of insects or disease, 

and resilience to disturbance. 

Forest Service handbook (FSH): A handbook 

that provides detailed instructions for proceeding 

with specialized phases of programs or activities 

for Forest Service use. 

Forest Service manual (FSM): Agency 

manuals that provide direction for Forest Service 

activities. 

forest supervisor: The official responsible for 

administering the National Forest System lands 

in a Forest Service administrative unit. This may 

consist of two or more national forests or all the 

forests within a state. The forest supervisor 

reports to the regional forester. 

forest type: A descriptive term used to group 

stands of similar composition and development 

because of given ecological factors, by which 

they may be differentiated from other groups of 

stands. 

fragmentation: Habitat loss that results in 

isolated patches of remaining habitat.

fuel loading: The amount of fuel (flammable 

natural materials) expressed quantitatively in 

terms of weight of fuel per unit area. 

fuel treatment: The rearrangement or disposal 

of fuels to reduce fire hazard. Fuels are defined 

as living and dead vegetative materials 

consumable by fire. 

fuels management: The planned treatment of 

fuels to achieve or maintain desired fuels

conditions. 

G

game species: Any species of wildlife or fish for 

which seasons and bag limits have been 

prescribed, and which are normally harvested by 

hunters, trappers, and fishermen under state or 

federal laws, codes, and regulations. 

groundwater: Subsurface water in a saturated 

zone or geologic stratum. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 371

growing-season burn: A prescribed fire that 

generally occurs during the time period of leaf 

expansion to leaf off of deciduous tree species. 

Growing seasons vary depending on local 

climate and geography. It can also vary by crop, 

as different plants have different freezing 

thresholds and leaf retention.

H

habitat: The native environment of an animal or 

plant in which all the essentials for its 

development, existence, and reproduction are 

present. 

hydric soils: Soils developed in conditions 

where soil oxygen is limited by the presence of 

saturated soil for long periods during the 

growing season. 

hydrologic function: The natural behavioral 

characteristics (water quality, water quantity, 

and timing) of surface water and ground water 

that maintain channel capacity, protect native 

aquatic organisms, sustain riparian habitats and 

communities, protect wetlands and other unique 

or uncommon communities, and provide for 

recreational, scenic, and research purposes.

hydrologic unit code (HUC): A cataloging 

system developed by the U.S. Geological 

Survey and the U.S. Natural Resource 

Conservation Service to identify watersheds and 

to standardize hydrological unit delineations for 

geographic description and data storage 

purposes. They are typically reported at a large 

river basin or smaller watershed scale.

I

instream flow: The volume of surface water in a 

stream system passing a given point at a given 

time. 

integrated pest management (IPM): The 

maintenance of destructive agents, including 

insects at tolerable levels, by the planned use of 

a variety of preventive, suppressive, or 

regulatory tactics and strategies that are 

ecologically and economically efficient and 

socially acceptable. IPM is a decision making 

and action process which includes biological, 

economic, and environmental valuation of pesthost systems to manage pest populations. IPM 

strategies apply a comprehensive systems 

approach to silvicultural, wildlife, range, 

recreation and corridor management practices. 

These strategies consist of a range of practices 

that include prescribed burning, manual, 

mechanical, biological, and chemical tools that 

may be used alone or in combination.

intermittent streams: Streams that flow in 

response to a seasonally-fluctuating water table 

in a well-defined channel. The channel will 

exhibit signs of annual scour, sediment 

transport, and other stream channel 

characteristics, absent perennial flows. 

Intermittent streams typically flow during times of 

elevated water table levels, and may be dry 

during significant periods of the year, depending 

on precipitation cycles. 

interpretive (trails, sites, signs): Visitor 

information services designed to present 

inspirational, educational, and recreational 

values to forest visitors in an effort to promote 

understanding, appreciation, and enjoyment of 

their forest experience. 

invasive species: A species that is non-native 

to the ecosystem under consideration and 

whose introduction causes or is likely to cause 

economic or environmental harm or harm to 

human health. 

L

landscape character: Particular attributes, 

qualities, and traits of a landscape that give it an 

image and make it more identifiable or unique. 

Levels include Natural Evolving, Natural 

Appearing, Pastoral/Agricultural, Historic, 

Transitional, Suburban, and Urban. 
Glossary

372 National Forests in Mississippi

landscape: An area composed of interacting 

ecosystems that are repeated because of 

geology, land form, soils, climate, biota, and 

human influences throughout the area. 

Landscapes are generally of a size, shape, and

pattern that are determined by interacting 

ecosystems. 

loess: a light-colored fine-grained accumulation 

of clay and silt particles that have been 

deposited by the wind; usually yellowish and 

calcareous, common in the Mississippi Valley. 

M

maintenance: The upkeep of facilities, 

buildings, or roads. Maintenance is not for 

upgrading a facility, but rather, to bring it to the 

originally constructed or subsequently 

reconstructed condition. 

management action: A set of management 

activities applied to a land area to produce a 

desired output. 

management area: An area with similar 

management objectives and a common 

management prescription. 

management concern: An issue, problem, or a 

condition which constrains the range of 

management 

management type: The tree species or species 

group that should be grown on a specific site, 

whether or not it presently occupies the site that 

best suits the particular site soil, aspect, 

elevation, and moisture provided by the area 

and the forest plan’s objectives. 

mast: a general term that refers to the 

reproductive bodies of plants and is often 

associated with wildlife food sources. Mast is 

often divided into categories of "hard mast" and 

"soft mast". "Hard mast" is the production of 

hard-shelled seeds, such as acorns and hickory

nuts. "Soft mast" describes seeds that are 

covered with fleshy fruit, as in apples and 

berries. Mast may also include seeds and fruits 

of all other plants such as grasses, herbs 

(forbs), pines, hardwoods, and fungi.

mesic: Sites or habitats characterized by 

intermediate moisture conditions, i.e., neither 

decidedly wet nor dry. 

midstory: A stratum of smaller trees that occur 

under the dominant overstory. The midstory can 

include small pines, but it is usually associated 

with hardwoods such as oaks and sweetgum.

mineral exploration: The search for valuable 

minerals on lands open to mineral entry. 

mineral resource: A known or undiscovered 

concentration of naturally occurring solid, liquid, 

or gaseous material in or on the earth’s crust in 

such form and amount that economic extraction 

of a commodity is currently or potentially 

feasible. 

mineral soil: Weathered rock materials without 

any vegetative cover. 

minerals, leasable: Coal, oil, gas, phosphate, 

sodium, potassium, oil shale and geothermal 

steam on public domain and acquired status 

lands, and hard rock minerals on acquired lands. 

minerals, locatable: Hard rock minerals on 

public domain status land. May include certain 

nonmetallic minerals and uncommon varieties of 

mineral materials. 

minimum level: The minimum level of 

management which complies with applicable 

laws and regulations, including prevention of 

significant or permanent impairment of the longterm productivity of the land, and which would 

be needed to maintain the land as a national 

forest, and to manage uncontrollable outputs, 

together with associated costs and inputs. 

mitigation: Actions to avoid, minimize, reduce, 

eliminate, or rectify the impact of a management 

practice. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 373

multiple use: Management of all the various 

resources of the National Forest System so that 

they are utilized in the combination that will best 

meet needs of the American people; making the 

most judicious use of the land for some or all of 

these resources or related services over areas 

large enough to provide sufficient latitude for 

periodic adjustments in use to conform to 

changing needs and conditions; that some lands 

will be used for less than all of the resources 

and services; and coordinated management of 

the various resources, each with the other, 

without impairment of the productivity of the 

land, with consideration being given to the 

relative values of the various resources, and not 

necessarily the combination of the uses that will 

give the greatest dollar return or the greatest 

unit output. (36 CFR 219.3) 

N

National Forest System land: Federal land that 

is within the National Forest System, which is 

defined at 16 USC 1609. 

national historic landmark: Cultural properties 

designated by the Secretary of the Interior as 

being nationally significant. These cultural 

properties may be buildings, historic districts, 

structures, sites, and objects that possess 

exceptional value in commemorating or 

illustrating the history of the United States. 

national recreation trails: Trails designated by 

the Secretary of the Interior or the Secretary of 

Agriculture as part of the national system of 

trails authorized by the National Trails System 

Act. National recreation trails provide a variety of 

outdoor recreation uses, in or reasonably 

accessible, to urban areas. 

National Register of Historic Places: The 

National Register of Historic Places is the 

Nation’s official list of cultural resources worthy 

of preservation. Authorized under the National 

Historic Preservation Act of 1966, the National 

Register is part of a national program to 

coordinate and support public and private efforts 

to identify, evaluate, and protect our historic and 

archaeological resources. Properties listed in the 

National Register include districts, sites, 

buildings, structures, and objects that are 

significant in American history, architecture, 

archaeology, engineering, and culture. The 

National Register is administered by the 

National Park Service, which is part of the U.S. 

Department of the Interior. 

National Visitor Use Monitoring: A systematic 

process to estimate annual recreation and other 

uses of National Forest System lands through 

user surveys. 

nonconsumptive use: That use of a resource 

that does not reduce its supply; for example, 

nonconsumptive uses of water include 

hydroelectric power generation, boating, and 

swimming. 

nongame: Species of animals which are not 

managed as a sport - hunting or trapping 

resource. 

nonmotorized recreation: A recreational 

opportunity provided without the use of any 

motorized vehicle. Participation in these 

activities is accomplished using foot or 

horseback travel. 

O

objective: A concise, time-specific statement of 

measurable planned results that respond to preestablished goals. An objective forms the basis 

for further planning to define the precise steps to 

be taken and the resources to be used in 

achieving identified goals. (36 CFR 219.3) 

off-highway vehicle (OHV): Any vehicles 

capable of being operated off established roads. 
Glossary

374 National Forests in Mississippi

old growth: Old-growth forests are ecosystems 

distinguished by old trees and related structural 

attributes. Old growth encompasses the later 

stages of stand development that typically differ 

from earlier stages in a variety of characteristics 

which may include tree size, accumulation of 

large wood material, number of canopy layers, 

species composition, and ecosystem function. 

The age at which old growth develops and the 

specific structural attributes that characterize old 

growth will vary widely according to forest type, 

climate, site conditions, and disturbance regime.

overstory: That portion of trees in a two or 

multi-layered forest stand that provides the 

upper crown cover. 

P

payments in lieu of taxes: Payments to local or 

state governments based on ownership of 

federal land, and not directly dependent on 

production of outputs or receipt sharing. 

perennial stream: Permanently present surface 

water. Flows occur throughout the year except 

during extreme drought or during cold when ice 

forms. 

physiographic region: A region of similar 

geologic structure and climate that has had a 

unified geomorphic history. 

population: A group of individuals of the same 

species occupying a given area. Methods of 

specifying such an area differ according to 

purpose. A common specification is the area 

within which gene flow is sufficient to avoid 

genetic differentiation.

population trend: Rate of change of a wildlife 

population. In general, populations that are 

increasing or decreasing by a rate less than 5% 

annually are considered to be stable.

potential breeding group: An adult female and 

adult male red-cockaded woodpecker that 

occupy the same cluster, whether or not they 

are accompanied by a helper, attempt to nest, or 

successfully fledge young.

precommercial thinning: The selective felling 

or removal of trees in a young stand primarily to 

accelerate diameter increment on the remaining 

stems, maintain a specific stocking or stand 

density range, and improve the vigor and quality 

of the trees that remain.

prescribed burning: Controlled application of 

fire to wildland fuels in either their natural or 

modified state, under such conditions of 

weather, fuel moisture, soil moisture, etc. as 

allow the fire to be confined to a predetermined 

area and at the same time to produce the 

intensity of heat and rate of spread required to 

further certain planned objectives of silviculture, 

wildlife management, grazing, fire hazard 

reduction, etc. NOTE: It seeks to employ fire 

scientifically to realize maximum net benefits 

with minimum damage and at acceptable cost. 

prescribed fire plan: A written statement 

defining the objectives to be attained as well as 

the conditions of temperature, humidity, wind 

direction and speed, fuel moisture and soil 

moisture under which a prescribed fire will be 

allowed to burn. 

prescribed fire: Any fire ignited by management 

actions to meet specific objectives including 

disposal of fuels, and controlling unwanted 

vegetation. The fires are conducted in 

accordance with prescribed fire plans, and are 

also designed to stimulate grasses, forbs, 

shrubs, or trees for range, wildlife, recreation, or 

timber management purposes. 

primary core population: A population 

identified in recovery criteria that will hold at 

least 350 potential breeding groups at the time 

of and after delisting. In Mississippi, the Bienville 

National Forest and Chickasawhay Ranger 

District contain primary core populations of redcockaded woodpeckers.

primitive: A classification of the recreation 

opportunity spectrum that characterizes an 

essentially unmodified natural environment of a 

size or remoteness that provides significant 

opportunity for isolation from the sights and 

sounds of man, and a feeling of vastness of 

scale. Visitors have opportunity to be part of the 

natural environment, encounter a high degree of 

challenge and risk, and use a maximum of 

outdoor skills but have minimum opportunity for 

social interaction. 

program: Sets of activities or projects with 

specific objectives, defined in terms of specific 

results and responsibilities for accomplishments. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 375

project: A work schedule prescribed for a 

project area to accomplish management 

prescriptions. An organized effort to achieve an 

objective identified by location, activities, 

outputs, effects, time period, and responsibilities 

for execution. 

public access: Usually refers to a road or trail 

route over which a public agency claims a rightof-way for public use. 

R

ranger district: Administrative subdivision of the 

national forest, supervised by a district ranger 

who reports to the forest supervisor. 

rare communities : Communities that are 

naturally small in scale or distribution relative to 

the broader systems they occur within because 

the sites they occur on are of limited extent or 

have been reduced due to historical land uses. 

On the National Forests in Mississippi these 

systems are: xeric sandhills; rock outcrops; 

black belt calcareous prairie and woodland; 

Jackson prairie and woodland; ephemeral ponds 

and emergent wetlands; cypress dominated 

wetlands; wet pine savanna; seeps, springs, and 

seepage swamps; and herbaceous seepage bog 

and flats.

recreation: Any socially desirable leisure activity 

in which an individual participates voluntarily and 

from which he derives satisfaction. 

recruitment cluster: A recruitment stand that 

has artificial cavities located in suitable nesting 

habitat. When possible, recruitment clusters 

should be located within 1.2 km (0.75 mi) of 

existing active clusters. Foraging habitat must 

be provided now and in the future around 

recruitment clusters. Recruitment clusters will 

contain at least 4 suitable cavities or 3 suitable 

cavities and 2 start holes. Recruitment clusters 

should be provided at the rate of 10 percent of 

the total active clusters per management unit.

recruitment stand: A stand of pine trees at 

least 4 ha (10 ac) in size identified and managed 

as potential nesting habitat. The number 

required equals the population objective minus 

the number of active clusters. They are located 

within 1⁄4 to 3⁄4 mile of an active cluster or another 

recruitment stand.

regeneration: Young trees (seedlings and 

saplings) which will grow to become older trees 

of the future forest (i.e. reproduction). Also, the 

process of forest replacement or renewal, which 

may be done artificially by planting or seeding, 

or through natural seed fall and sprouting.

region: An administrative unit within the 

National Forest system. The United States is 

divided into nine geographic regions. Each 

region has a headquarters office and is 

supervised by a Regional Forester. Within each 

region are located National Forests and other 

lands of the Forest Service. 

regional forester: The official responsible for 

management of National Forest System and 

within a Forest Service region. 

relative abundance: The number of organisms 

at one location or time relative to the number of 

organisms at another location or time. Generally 

reported as an index of abundance.

research natural area: An area set aside by the 

Forest Service specifically to preserve a 

representative sample of an ecological 

community, primarily for scientific and 

educational purposes. Commercial exploitation 

is not allowed and general public use is 

discouraged. 

riparian: Land areas directly influenced by 

water. They usually have visible vegetative or 

physical characteristics showing this water 

influence. Streamside, lake borders, and 

marshes are typical riparian areas. 

riparian areas: Areas with three-dimensional 

ecotones of interaction that include terrestrial 

and aquatic ecosystems that extend down into 

the groundwater, up above the canopy, outward 

across the floodplain, up the near-slopes that 

drain to the water, laterally into the terrestrial 

ecosystem, and along the watercourse at a 

variable width. 

riparian ecosystem: A transition between the 

aquatic ecosystem and the adjacent terrestrial 

ecosystem identified by soil characteristics 

(alluvial soils inundated by a 100-year flood, 

wetland soils) and distinctive vegetative 

communities that require free and unbound 

water. 

riparian-dependent species: Species 

dependent on riparian areas during at least one 

stage of their life cycle. 
Glossary

376 National Forests in Mississippi

roaded natural: A classification of the 

recreation opportunity spectrum that 

characterizes a predominantly natural 

environment with evidence of moderate 

permanent alternate resources and resource 

utilization. Evidence of the sights and sounds of 

man is moderate, but in harmony with the 

natural environment. Opportunities exist for both 

social interaction and moderate isolation from 

sights and sounds of man. 

roads analysis process (RAP): Roads analysis 

is an integrated ecological, social, and economic 

science based approach to transportation 

planning that addresses existing and future road 

management options. The intended effects are 

to ensure that decisions to construct, 

reconstruct, or decommission roads will be 

better informed by using a roads analysis. 

Roads analysis may be completed at a variety of 

different scales, but generally begins with a 

broad forest-scale analysis to provide a context 

for future analyses. 

runoff: The total stream discharge of water from 

a watershed including surface and subsurface 

flow, but not groundwater. Usually expressed in 

acre-feet. 

rural: A recreation opportunity spectrum 

classification for areas characterized by a 

substantially modified natural environment. 

Sights and sounds of man are evident. 

Renewable resource modification and utilization 

practices enhance specific recreation activities 

or provide soil and vegetative cover protection. 

S

scenery management system (SMS): A 

system for the inventory and analysis of the 

aesthetic values of the National Forest Lands. It 

replaces the visual management system (VMS) 

as defined in Agricultural Handbook #462. 

scenic attractiveness: The scenic importance 

of a landscape based on human perceptions of 

the intrinsic beauty of landform, rockform, 

waterform, and vegetation pattern. Classified as 

A (Distinctive), B (Typical or Common), or C 

(Undistinguished). 

scenic integrity: A measure of the degree to 

which a landscape is visually perceived to be 

“complete.” The highest scenic integrity ratings 

are given to those landscapes that have little or 

no deviation from the character valued for its 

aesthetic appeal. Scenic integrity is used to 

describe an existing situation, standard for 

management, or desired condition. 

scenic integrity objectives: A desired level of 

excellence based on physical and sociological 

characteristics of an area. Refers to the degree 

of acceptable alterations to the valued attributes 

of the characteristic landscape. Objectives 

include very high, high, moderate, and low. 

These categories are defined below:

• Very High – Generally provides for only 

ecological changes in natural landscapes 

and complete intactness of landscape 

character in cultural landscapes.

• High – Human activities are not visually 

evident to the casual observer. Activities 

may repeat attributes of form, line, color, 

and texture found in the existing landscape.

• Moderate – Landscapes appear slightly 

altered. Noticeable human created 

deviations remain visually subordinate to the 

landscape character being viewed.

secondary core population: A population 

identified in recovery criteria that will hold at 

least 250 potential breeding groups at the time 

of and after delisting. In Mississippi, the De Soto 

Ranger District and the Homochitto National 

Forest contain secondary core populations of 

red-cockaded woodpeckers.

sediment: Solid mineral and organic material 

that is in suspension, is being transported, or 

has been moved from its site of origin by air, 

water, gravity, or ice. 

seep: A wet area where a seasonal high water 

table intersects with the ground surface. Seeps 

that meet the definition of a wetland are included 

in the Riparian Corridor. 

silviculture: The theory and practice of 

controlling the establishment, composition, 

structure, and growth of forests to achieve 

management objectives. 

snag: A standing, dead tree.

seral stage: a developmental, transitory stage in 

the ecological succession of a biotic community. 
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 377

soil productivity: The capacity of a soil to 

produce a specific crop such as fiber, forage, 

etc., under defined levels of management. It is 

generally dependent on available soil moisture 

and nutrients and length of growing season. 

Southern Region: The Forest Service 

organizational unit consisting of thirteen 

southeastern states and Puerto Rico. 

spring: A water source located where water 

begins to flow from the ground due to the 

intersection of the water table with the ground 

surface. Generally flows throughout the year. 

Springs that are the source of perennial or 

intermittent streams are included in the Riparian 

Corridor. 

stand: An aggregation of trees occupying a 

specific area and sufficiently uniform in species 

composition, age, arrangement, and condition 

so as to be distinguishable from the forest on 

adjoining areas.

stream: A water course having a distinct natural 

bed and banks; a permanent source which 

provides water at least periodically; and at least 

periodic or seasonal flows at times when other 

recognized streams in the same area are 

flowing. 

suitability: The appropriateness of applying 

certain resource management practices to a 

particular area of land, as determined by an 

analysis of the economic and environmental 

consequences and the alternative uses 

foregone. A unit of land may be suitable for a 

variety of individual or combined management 

practices. 

suitable for timber production: National Forest 

System land allocated by a forest plan decision 

to be managed for timber production on a 

regulated basis. Regulated basis means a 

systematic relationship between tree growth and 

timber harvest such that a specific timber 

volume objective level can be sustained 

indefinitely. 

suppression (fire suppression): Any act taken 

to slow, stop or extinguish a fire. Examples of 

suppression activities include line construction, 

backfiring, and application of water or chemical 

fire retardants. 

T

terrestrial: Of, or pertaining to, land as distinct 

from water. 

thinning: A silvicultural treatment removing 

some trees in a stand to reduce tree density.

threatened species: Any species that is likely to 

become an endangered species within the 

foreseeable future throughout all or a significant 

portion of its range. Designated or proposed as 

a threatened species in the Federal Register by 

the Secretary of Interior. 

timber production: The purposeful growing, 

tending, harvesting, and regeneration of 

regulated crops of trees to be cut into logs, bolts, 

or other round sections for industrial or 

consumer use. 

topography: The configuration of a land surface 

including its relief, elevation, and the position of 

its natural and human-made features. 

trail: A general term denoting an access route 

for purposes of travel by foot, stock or trail 

vehicle. (A trail vehicle is one which is 40 inches 

or less in width and is designated for trail use.)

trailheads: The parking, signing, and other 

facilities available at the terminus of a trail. 

U

understory: The trees and other vegetation 

growing under a more or less continuous cover 

of branches and foliage formed collectively by 

the upper portion (overstory) of adjacent trees 

and other woody growth. 

V

vertical structure: Division of an ecosystem 

type into distinguishable layers on the basis of 

height of the vegetation creating understory, 

midstory, and overstory and divisions within 

each.

viable population: Population of plants or 

animals that has the estimated numbers and 

distribution of reproductive individuals to ensure 

its continued existence is well distributed in the 

planning area. 

viewshed: The total landscape seen, or 

potentially seen, from all or a logical part of a 

travel route, use area, or waterbody. 
Glossary

378 National Forests in Mississippi

visual resource: The composite of basic terrain, 

geological features, water features, vegetative 

patterns, and land-use effects that typify a land 

unit and influence the visual appeal the unit may 

have for visitors. 

W

water rights: Rights given by State or Federal 

governments for the diversion and use of water. 

watershed: The entire area that contributes 

water to a drainage system or stream. 

wetlands: Those areas that are inundated by 

surface or ground water with a frequency 

sufficient to support that, and under normal 

circumstances, do or would support, a 

prevalence of vegetation or aquatic life that 

requires saturated or seasonally saturated soil 

conditions for growth and reproduction. 

Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, 

bogs, and similar areas such as sloughs, 

potholes, wet meadows, river overflows, and 

natural ponds. 

wild and scenic river: A river or section of river 

designated as such by congressional action 

under the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of Oct. 2, 

1968, as supplemented and amended, or those 

sections of a river designated as wild, scenic, or 

recreational by an act of the legislature of the 

state or states through which it flows. 

wilderness: Any federal land designated by 

Congress as part of the National Wilderness 

Preservation System.

wildland fire: Any nonstructural fire on 

wildlands other than one intentionally set for 

management purposes. Confined to a 

predetermined area. Not to be confused with 

“fire use,” which includes prescribed fire. 

wildland-urban interface: The line, area, or 

zone where structures and other human 

development meet or intermingle with 

undeveloped wildland or vegetative fuels. 

wildlife habitat improvement: The 

manipulation or maintenance of vegetation to 

yield desired results in terms of habitat suitable 

for designated wildlife species or groups of 

species. 

X

xeric: Pertaining to sites or habitats 

characterized by decidedly dry conditions.
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 379

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Jackson, Mississippi.

USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station. 2011. Southern Forests Future Project website. 

http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/futures/ accessed 2012/09/12. 
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U.S. Department of Interior. Bureau of Land Management. 2005. Mississippi National Forests -

Reasonable Forseeable Development Scenario. Final Report, October 14, 2005. Eastern States, 

Milwaukee Field Office.

Walsh, S.W., N.W. Burkhead, and J.D. Williams. 1995. Southeastern Freshwater Fishes. Pages 144-147 in 

E.T. LaRoe, ed. Our living resources. A report to the nation on the distribution, abundance, and 

health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems. U.S. Department of Interior, national Biological 

Service, Washington, D.C.

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Forest Service Southern Research Station, Tallahassee, Fl. 79 pgs.

Weaver, K. M. 2000. Black bear ecology and the use of prescribed fire to enhance bear habitat. Pp 89-86 

in Proceedings: Workshop On Fire, People, and the Central Hardwoods Landscape. U.S. Forest 

Service, Richmond.

Whitlock, Carol. 2008. Turning up the Heat....On a Bubbling Cauldron of Forest Threats. Compass, Issue 

10. Southern Research Station, Forest Service, USDA. February 2008.

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species in the United States, BioScience, 48, 607-615. 

Williamson, S., L. W. Burger, Jr., S. Demarais, and M. Chamberlain. 2002. Effects of northern bobwhite 

habitat management practices on red-imported fire ants. In: Proceedings of the National Quail 

Symposium 5:151-155.

Willis, D. 2005. Bluegill nesting. P. 22-23. Pond Boss November/December.

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Museum Bulletin 471, pp. 176-179.
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National Forests in Mississippi

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Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 387

Index

A

accelerated restoration alternative, 13, 20, 346, 349

access management, i, xi, 8

air quality, xii, 38, 172, 173, 322

allowable sale quantity (ASQ), 2, 17, 347

aquatic resources, i, xi, 8, 70

aquatic species, ix, xii, 14, 39, 70, 177, 180, 234, 237, 238, 

241, 243, 244, 245, 247, 248, 250, 300, 301, 302, 303, 

304, 305, 306, 307, 309, 362

archaeological areas, 25

B

back country special emphasis area, 20, 21, 23, 27

benchmark analysis, 11

Bienville National Forest, i, ii, vii, 4, 31, 53, 57, 59, 60, 61, 

66, 70, 76, 78, 81, 99, 103, 104, 119, 148, 149, 293, 374, 

381

biodiversity, i, xi, 1, 6, 29, 43, 67, 310, 311, 367

black belt calcareous prairie and woodland, iii, viii, 52, 54, 

65, 215, 216, 217, 375

Black Creek Scenic River, 9, 100, 136, 342

Black Creek Wilderness Area, 98, 100, 137

botanical area, xiv, 9, 19, 21, 23, 25, 33, 65, 97, 98, 99, 

102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 138, 269, 341, 342, 343, 

345, 361

C

climate change, i, v, xi, xiii, 9, 15, 29, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 

50, 51, 98, 99, 102, 107, 127, 309, 380, 381, 383, 384

commercial harvest, 6, 7

cultural resources, i, ii, iv, xiv, 98, 101, 102, 142, 343, 354, 

361, 368, 373

custodial management alternative, xv, 13, 15, 345, 346, 

348

cypress dominated wetlands, iii, viii, 52, 54, 66, 67, 180, 

223, 224, 250, 252, 253, 375

D

De Soto National Forest, i, ii, 4, 9, 32, 38, 42, 50, 59, 64, 66, 

67, 68, 70, 71, 73, 76, 83, 85, 86, 87, 99, 100, 101, 104, 

105, 116, 119, 121, 122, 123, 136, 137, 148, 150, 152, 

159, 265, 274

Delta National Forest, i, ii, 4, 31, 32, 34, 43, 58, 63, 67, 70, 

84, 85, 87, 88, 101, 105, 129, 139, 145, 146, 148, 150, 

151, 153, 154, 348

demography, 150, 159, 160

developed recreation, vi, 15, 25, 32, 126, 127, 128, 131, 

132, 135, 136, 163, 326, 328, 329, 343, 368

dispersed recreation, 8, 12, 15, 17, 32, 126, 128, 132, 326, 

329, 343, 368

E

ecological communities, v, xiii, 6, 7, 9, 15, 18, 20, 21, 26, 

27, 51, 52, 69, 99, 100, 101, 102, 117, 124, 309, 320, 

321, 330, 369, 375

ecological systems, i, ii, iii, v, vi, xii, 6, 13, 14, 31, 34, 38, 51, 

52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 

68, 93, 104, 107, 180, 182, 208, 252, 267, 269, 284, 295, 

300, 309, 310, 316, 317, 318, 350, 351, 354, 362

economic benefits, i, xi, 10, 15, 49

economy, vii, xvi, 15, 117, 120, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 

155, 159, 160, 356, 357, 358, 360

endangered species, ii, iii, v, xii, xiii, xvi, 6, 7, 12, 13, 14, 15, 

24, 32, 50, 69, 71, 76, 83, 88, 89, 90, 97, 117, 118, 125, 

174, 233, 234, 236, 238, 246, 249, 251, 252, 257, 320, 

321, 330, 332, 346, 348, 354, 359, 368, 369, 377

enhanced forest health alternative, 13, 21, 205, 346, 349

environmental justice, v, xvi, 360

ephemeral ponds and emergent wetlands, iii, viii, 49, 66, 

67, 180, 221, 222, 272, 375

experimental forests, 25, 33, 98, 99, 100, 102, 135, 347

F

facilities, xiii, xvi, 8, 9, 12, 14, 15, 16, 27, 50, 97, 100, 120, 

122, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 131, 132, 135, 136, 252, 

310, 325, 326, 327, 328, 331, 343, 353, 354, 359, 368, 

372, 377

fire management, i, ii, iv, xi, xiii, 7, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 23, 

27, 46, 99, 107, 115, 116, 117, 123, 320, 363, 370

fire-dependent species, 7, 27

fisheries management, i, ii, iv, xiv, 70, 97, 139, 140, 331, 

332

floodplain forest, iii, viii, 13, 24, 49, 52, 54, 56, 63, 66, 85, 

88, 99, 104, 180, 205, 206, 207, 208, 298

forest health, i, ii, iv, xi, xiii, xv, 6, 7, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 

20, 22, 24, 26, 44, 50, 94, 107, 111, 118, 170, 175, 200, 

249, 309, 319, 320, 326, 332, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 

350, 351, 355, 359, 370, 381

forest products, i, iv, xv, 5, 7, 26, 123, 133, 168, 319, 344, 

347

G

goals and objectives, 2, 4, 5, 11, 19, 20, 23, 27, 137

gopher tortoise, iii, viii, 7, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 26, 27, 32, 50, 

64, 69, 71, 85, 86, 105, 235, 236, 240, 245, 246, 274, 

289, 383

groundwater, 38, 42, 43, 174, 370, 375, 376

Gulf sturgeon, iii, viii, 69, 83, 100, 241, 242, 381, 383, 384
Index

388 National Forests in Mississippi

H

habitat

red-cockaded woodpecker, v, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 25, 26, 

27, 77, 78, 240

restoration, 7, 9

hardwoods, iii, ix, 6, 14, 16, 17, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 

30, 31, 32, 33, 46, 49, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 

62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 78, 85, 87, 88, 89, 93, 96, 98, 100, 

101, 105, 106, 108, 109, 115, 116, 118, 137, 138, 173, 

189, 190, 191, 196, 239, 240, 261, 262, 269, 278, 295, 

309, 319, 344, 348, 350, 351, 372, 385

herbaceous seepage bogs and flats, iii, viii, 49, 52, 68, 230, 

231, 232, 254, 255

herbicides, 163, 170, 174, 175, 183, 185, 188, 192, 194, 

197, 199, 201, 202, 204, 206, 208, 212, 213, 215, 217, 

221, 223, 227, 230, 233, 242, 244, 248, 252, 253, 255, 

257, 258, 260, 262, 264, 266, 268, 269, 271, 273, 275, 

277, 279, 280, 282, 283, 285, 286, 287, 290,291, 293, 

294, 296, 297, 306, 337, 380, 382

Holly Springs National Forest, i, ii, 4, 9, 17, 33, 59, 66, 102, 

105, 106, 119, 121, 124, 128, 146, 160

Homochitto National Forest, i, ii, vii, 4, 9, 10, 16, 17, 19, 20, 

22, 25, 30, 33, 38, 52, 53, 60, 61, 70, 76, 82, 106, 125, 

129, 146, 147, 152, 160, 252, 344, 376

I

infrastructure, i, ii, v, xv, 5, 14, 15, 27, 49, 50, 122, 130, 

132, 328, 329, 353

J

Jackson prairie and woodland, vii, viii, 65, 218, 219, 220, 

351, 375

K

kudzu, 6, 50, 61, 107, 108, 109, 185, 188, 192, 194, 197, 

199, 201, 203, 204, 206, 212, 214, 215, 218, 221, 223, 

230, 257, 260, 262, 264, 266, 268, 270, 271, 275, 278, 

279, 280, 282, 284, 285, 286, 288, 290, 291, 293, 295, 

296, 298, 311

L

land acquisition, 9, 138, 342, 343, 354

land ownership, xvi, 8, 9, 39, 70, 123, 124, 138, 315, 343, 

354

largemouth bass, 70, 90, 97, 139, 140, 141, 309, 331, 335, 

336, 339, 379

Leaf Wilderness Area, 101, 137

loblolly forest, iii, 58, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190

loblolly pine, vii, 6, 16, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 31, 49, 52, 54, 56, 

57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 93, 99, 100, 104, 106, 186, 

187, 188, 189, 190, 263, 320, 350, 351, 379, 380, 383

longleaf pine, vi, 6, 12, 13, 19, 20, 22, 25, 26, 32, 49, 51, 

53, 57, 58, 59, 60, 64, 67, 71, 72, 73, 85, 86, 87, 90, 93, 

98, 100, 104, 105, 112, 117, 182, 183, 240, 309, 316, 

350

long-term sustained yield (LTSY), ix, 12, 22, 107, 348, 349

Louisiana black bear, iii, viii, 32, 69, 84, 85, 100, 244, 245, 

383

Louisiana quillwort, iii, viii, 32, 69, 86, 87, 247, 248, 383

Lower Mississippi River bottomland and floodplain forest, 

iii, 24, 52, 54, 56, 63, 207, 208

M

management area prescriptions, xi, xvi, 24, 361

management areas, ii, v, vii, xi, xvi, 2, 12, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 

23, 24, 25, 27, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 127, 239, 240, 

241, 342, 361, 372

management indicator species (MIS), ii, iv, v, vi, xii, xiii, 89, 

90, 91, 139, 140, 308, 309, 331

minerals management, i, ii, xi, 10, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, 27, 

354

Mississippi gopher frog, 384

Mississippi sandhill crane, vii, viii, 32, 66, 67, 69, 73, 74, 75, 

237, 238, 265, 272, 329, 383

monitoring, xi, xvi, 1, 2, 42, 72, 76, 87, 89, 90, 92, 94, 98, 

107, 119, 129, 131, 132, 133, 137, 142, 148, 154, 165, 

172, 173, 234, 236, 240, 297, 310, 318, 321, 324, 341, 

354, 355, 362, 363, 373

motor vehicle use, 8, 353

N

National Hierarchical Framework of Ecological Units, 29, 

380

native ecological systems

restoration, 13, 26, 49, 53, 98

native ecosystem restoration, i, xi, 6, 7, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19, 

20, 22, 26

native ecosystems, i, xi, xiii, 6, 7, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 

22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 44, 50, 51, 97, 108, 110, 187, 188, 

192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 199, 201, 202, 204, 206, 

208, 211, 212, 213, 214, 222, 229, 257, 258, 260, 262, 

263, 264, 265, 266, 269, 270, 275, 277, 279, 280, 281, 

283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 

296, 297, 298, 309, 311

near-coast pine flatwoods, iii, viii, 49, 63, 64, 209, 210, 211

no-action alternative, 13, 15, 17, 26, 72, 74, 175, 319, 345, 

346, 348, 349

non-native invasive species, iv, ix, xiii, 6, 14, 25, 47, 48, 50, 

107, 108, 241, 243, 247, 302, 303, 309, 310, 312, 321, 

339

northern dry upland hardwood forest, iii, viii, 24, 52, 54, 

56, 59, 60, 195, 196

northern mesic hardwood forest, iii, viii, 24, 52, 54, 56, 62, 

203, 204
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 389

O

off-highway vehicle, 5, 66, 129, 130, 133, 135, 162, 167, 

265, 353, 373

oil and gas leasing, xv, 2, 10, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 27, 28, 

120, 121, 242, 244, 248, 341, 351, 352, 361, 384

old growth, i, iv, v, xi, xiii, xiv, 1, 7, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 

21, 22, 24, 61, 62, 64, 65, 93, 97, 98, 99, 102, 105, 106, 

107, 113, 114, 115, 117, 118, 135, 240, 253, 254, 269, 

284, 309, 317, 318, 326, 328, 330, 341, 342, 344, 347, 

359, 374

outdoor recreation, i, ii, iv, vi, xiii, 5, 15, 47, 125, 127, 129, 

130, 132, 133, 161, 300, 325, 328, 373

P

pallid sturgeon, iii, viii, 69, 83, 84, 243, 244, 383, 384

Payments in Lieu of Taxes (PILT), 157, 374

per capita income, vi, 150, 151, 159

pileated woodpecker, vii, 90, 91, 92, 309

pitcher plant bogs, 7, 78

pondberry, iii, viii, 32, 63, 69, 87, 88, 248, 249, 380, 383

prairies, iii, iv, ix, 7, 14, 31, 34, 51, 52, 54, 65, 66, 67, 98, 

99, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 190, 215, 217, 218, 219, 

220, 221, 267, 268, 293, 321, 345, 347, 351, 381

prescribed fires, iv, xiii, 6, 7, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 

23, 27, 71, 73, 89, 115, 116, 117, 168, 169, 170, 172, 

173, 183, 185, 186, 188, 191, 192, 194, 195, 196, 197, 

198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 206, 211, 212, 213, 

214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 220, 221, 222, 223, 226, 227, 

228, 229, 230, 232, 233, 235, 236, 237, 239, 240, 242, 

244, 246, 248, 251, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 262, 

264, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 275, 277, 

278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 

290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 305, 316,

317, 320, 321, 322, 324, 325, 330, 343, 351, 353, 371, 

374, 378, 385

proposed action alternative, xv, 13, 18, 20, 345, 355

R

range, 57, 58, 59, 65, 66, 119, 156, 157, 167, 267, 357, 358, 

370, 374

rare communities, xiii, 6, 7, 52, 54, 62, 93, 104, 254, 309, 

375

recreation management, ii, 16, 18, 20, 21, 27, 98

Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS), vi, 135, 327, 328, 

374, 376

red-cockaded woodpecker

habitat management areas, v, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 25, 26, 

27, 77, 78, 240

red-cockaded woodpecker (RCW), iii, v, vii, viii, 7, 9, 12, 16, 

18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 27, 31, 32, 33, 50, 57, 69, 75, 

76, 77, 78, 89, 90, 91, 113, 114, 190, 238, 239, 240, 241, 

278, 283, 309, 330, 345, 367, 374, 376, 384

regeneration, viii, 6, 7, 12, 14, 15, 20, 21, 23, 25, 26, 53, 

62, 67, 96, 99, 102, 112, 117, 118, 191, 192, 196, 197, 

199, 201, 202, 204, 206, 207, 208, 211, 212, 213, 214, 

215, 222, 223, 229, 239, 240, 242, 244, 248, 251, 253, 

257, 260, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 269, 271, 275, 277, 

279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 290, 

291, 292, 293, 294, 296, 297, 298, 305, 309, 317, 318, 

319, 320, 329, 330, 346, 350, 351, 369, 375, 377

research natural area, xiv, 9, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 32, 33, 97, 

98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 114, 135, 

342, 343, 345, 361, 375

restoration

habitat, 7, 9

native ecological systems, 13, 26, 49, 53, 98

revenue, vi, 10, 156, 157, 160, 318, 348, 354, 355, 359

riparian ecosystems, 8, 375

roads, i, ii, v, xi, xv, 2, 5, 8, 14, 15, 27, 49, 50, 122, 130, 132, 

328, 329, 353

rock outcrops, iii, 52, 54, 62, 64, 65, 214, 269, 375

route designation, 2

S

Scenery Management System (SMS), 142, 143, 144, 376

scenic areas, 25, 97, 98, 99, 135

seeps, springs, and seepage swamps, iii, iv, viii, 52, 54, 67, 

74, 180, 228, 229, 270, 375

shortleaf pine, iii, vi, vii, xiii, 6, 7, 13, 24, 30, 31, 51, 52, 54, 

56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 62, 64, 98, 99, 101, 102, 138, 184, 

185, 240, 309, 319, 350, 351

shortleaf pine-oak forest and woodland, iii, vii, 24, 52, 54, 

56, 57, 184, 185, 319

slash pine, iii, viii, xiii, 6, 13, 14, 24, 31, 49, 51, 52, 54, 56, 

57, 59, 63, 64, 67, 93, 99, 104, 105, 193, 194, 195, 202, 

263, 309, 320, 350, 351, 379, 383

Slash Pine Forest, iii, viii, 24, 51, 52, 54, 56, 59, 93, 193, 

194, 202, 350

social demographics, iii, 144

soil resource inventories (SRIs), 38, 164, 166

soils

acidic, 60, 65, 351

alluvial, 63, 375

biota, 163, 168, 169, 170

clay, 57, 85

compacted, vii, 163, 164, 165, 166, 183, 185, 188, 192, 

194, 197, 199, 201, 202, 204, 206, 208, 212, 213, 215, 

217, 221, 223, 227, 229, 233, 253, 255, 257, 258, 260, 

262, 264, 266, 268, 269, 271, 273, 275, 277, 279, 280, 

282, 283, 285, 286, 287, 290, 291, 292, 294,296, 297

erosive, 166

exposed, xii, 172

gopher tortoise, 64, 274

healthy, 38

high pH, 267

intact, 113

loam, 63

loess, 17, 33, 38, 61

mineral, 169, 372
Index

390 National Forests in Mississippi

nutrient-poor, 59, 67, 261

organic, 164, 256

poorly drained, 67

prairie, 190, 351

productive, 14

sandy, 32, 86

shallow, 38

unproductive, 38

southern dry upland hardwood forest, iii, viii, 24, 52, 54, 

56, 60, 198

southern loblolly-hardwood flatwoods, vii, viii, 59, 61, 189, 

190, 191

southern loess bluff forest, iii, viii, 24, 52, 54, 56, 60, 61, 

199, 200

southern mesic slope forest, iii, viii, 24, 49, 52, 54, 56, 61, 

62, 201, 202

southern pine beetle, iv, v, vi, xiii, 6, 16, 21, 24, 25, 26, 46, 

50, 90, 94, 95, 96, 112, 183, 186, 188, 192, 195, 228, 

233, 255, 259, 273, 309, 316, 317, 379, 381, 382

special area, i, ii, iv, v, xi, xiv, 9, 17, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25, 

55, 64, 97, 98, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 134, 318, 325, 

326, 342, 343, 345, 347, 351

species diversity, i, ii, xii, xiii, 6, 12, 13, 24, 49, 50, 51, 54, 

55, 57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 68, 86, 97, 107, 112, 

181, 234, 252, 267, 309, 312

species viability, i, ii, xi, 6, 13, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 26

standards and guidelines, xi, xii, xvi, 2, 38, 137, 163, 173, 

174, 242, 244, 248, 251, 310, 343, 361

T

thinning, xiii, xv, 6, 7, 12, 15, 21, 24, 25, 26, 32, 33, 53, 74, 

86, 91, 94, 96, 117, 118, 170, 173, 183, 185, 186, 187, 

188, 191, 192, 194, 195, 196, 197, 210, 211, 212, 213, 

214, 215, 218, 221, 222, 227, 228, 229, 232, 233, 235, 

236, 237, 239, 240, 242, 244, 246, 248, 249, 255, 258, 

259, 262, 264, 266, 268, 269, 271, 272, 273, 275, 280, 

281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 290, 291, 292, 

293, 296, 297, 298, 305, 309, 316, 317, 329, 345, 346, 

368, 374, 377

threatened species, xv, 345, 377

timber harvest

and vegetation management, i, ii, v, vi, xi, xiii, xiv, xv, 6, 

7, 10, 14, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 52, 83, 

84, 87, 92, 93, 97, 107, 117, 142, 163, 170, 173, 178, 

184, 186, 189, 192, 195, 197, 228, 244, 245, 259, 263, 

265, 276, 281, 283, 284, 285, 287, 289, 291, 292,293, 

297, 298, 309, 318, 321, 329, 330, 343, 345, 346, 351, 

353, 361, 382

annual, vii, 118, 163, 164

levels, xv, 353

objectives, 318

sustainability, 348

timber production

annual, 16, 17, 19, 20, 22, 25, 26

levels, 12

suitability, iv, 344

not suitable, xv, 17, 318, 344, 345, 346, 347

suitable, 345, 346, 347

withdrawal, 113, 345

Timber Sale Program Quantity (TSPQ), vi, ix, 347, 348, 349

Tombigbee National Forest, i, ii, vii, xiv, 4, 12, 19, 20, 21, 

22, 23, 27, 34, 39, 57, 59, 62, 65, 70, 102, 106, 107, 121, 

125, 129, 136, 139, 144, 147, 160, 326

trails, 33, 129, 130, 161, 162, 170, 326, 373

U

unique communities, 13

upland longleaf pine forest and woodland, iii, vii, 24, 52, 

54, 56, 57, 181, 182, 183

V

vegetation management, i, ii, v, vi, xi, xiii, xiv, xv, 6, 7, 10, 

14, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 52, 83, 84, 87, 

92, 93, 97, 107, 117, 142, 163, 170, 173, 178, 184, 186, 

189, 192, 195, 197, 228, 244, 245, 259, 263, 265, 276, 

281, 283, 284, 285, 287, 289, 291, 292,293, 297, 298, 

309, 318, 321, 329, 330, 343, 345, 346, 351, 353, 361, 

382

visual quality, vi, 142, 143, 144

W

water quality, xii, 8, 9, 12, 15, 17, 18, 20, 22, 39, 42, 43, 47, 

70, 71, 83, 125, 136, 139, 140, 163, 170, 173, 174, 175, 

176, 177, 180, 242, 244, 248, 298, 331, 332, 371, 379, 

382

watersheds, i, vii, xi, 5, 8, 9, 14, 38, 39, 41, 42, 49, 55, 59, 

83, 137, 167, 173, 176, 177, 179, 180, 242, 244, 248, 

298, 299, 302, 305, 307, 371

health, 14, 39, 177, 243, 299, 300, 302, 303, 304, 305, 

306, 307, 308

restoration, 8, 15, 17, 18, 20, 22, 38

wet pine savanna, iii, iv, viii, ix, 49, 52, 54, 56, 67, 74, 225, 

226, 227, 237, 272, 273, 375

wetlands, iii, iv, v, ix, xvi, 38, 39, 43, 47, 52, 54, 66, 67, 68, 

71, 74, 87, 103, 173, 222, 234, 237, 247, 248, 250, 265, 

266, 270, 277, 287, 288, 336, 361, 371, 378

wild and scenic rivers, i, ii, iv, xiv, 2, 9, 17, 25, 33, 50, 98, 

100, 101, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 325, 326, 342, 378

wilderness, i, ii, iv, xiv, xv, 2, 9, 10, 17, 18, 24, 25, 27, 33, 

49, 50, 97, 98, 100, 101, 114, 121, 124, 132, 134, 135, 

136, 137, 138, 139, 318, 325, 326, 327, 341, 342, 351, 

352, 378, 381

wildfire, 5, 50, 57, 117, 138, 320, 324, 341, 353, 359, 370

wildlife management areas (WMAs), vii, 15, 69, 126, 127, 

134, 328, 329

wood thrush, vii, 90, 92, 93, 309

X

xeric sandhills, iii, viii, ix, 49, 51, 52, 54, 64, 93, 212, 213, 

274, 276, 375
Land and Resource Management Plan Final Environmental Impact Statement

National Forests in Mississippi 391