"^ ' 10GGIN6 ROAD HANDBOOK

X -sáH^ ¡mi

THE EFFECT OF ROAD DESIGN ON HAULING COSTS

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 183 FOREST SERVICE ^i^lf
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Tlie original study upon which this publication is based was completed and reported in 1947. The

authoi-s express their appreciation to William T. Walters, Highway Engineer, and Seuben Kurtti,

Civil Engineer, of Region 6, U.S. Forest Service, for their revisions and additions to this original

work. They also express their appreciation to the following organizations which contributed time

and information essential to this publication:

Oregon

B. C. K. Co., Inc., Prineville Martin Bros. Container & Timber Products Corp.,

Brooks-Scanlon, Inc., Bend Oakland

Cascade Truck Co., Foster Ochoco Lumber Co., Prineville

Crown Zellerbach Corp., Portland Oregon Lumber Co., Bates

Doublas County Lumber Co., Eoseburg Oregon Pulp & Paper Co., Portland

Eastern Oregon Logging Co., Kinzua Oregon State Highway Commission, Salem

Edward Hines Lumber Co., Hines Pilot Rock Lumber Co., Pilot Rock

Ellingson Lumber Co., Klamath Falls Rex Higgins Truck Co., Portland

Endicott Logging Co., Prineville Stimson Lumber Co., Forest Grove

Griffey & Laird Logging, Langlois Stokes Truck Co., Sweet Home

Luiay Bros. Lumber Co., Scio

yfashington

Anderson J. Middleton Logging Co., Aberdeen Priest Logging & Equipment Co., Port k

J. Neils Lumber Co., Klickitat
CONTENTS

Page

Introduction 1

Size of truck and payload 3

Travel time factors 4

Example 1. Time of haul on sustained grades. __ 17

Example 2. Time on grade when truck is decelerating because of change in grade 19

Example 3. Effect of break in grade on adverse

grade 19

Hauling cost by elements 19

Hauling cost by shutdown, delay, and operating

periods 23

Example 4. Cost per M bd. ft. per mile when

hauling time is known 23

Approximation methods 31

Time of travel 31

HauHng cost 31

Method of calculating a cost index 40

Example 5. Determining cost index for 60,000- to

86,000-pound g.v.w. truck and trailer 40

M<'thod of calculating a cost index—Continued

P^xample (i. Determining cost index for 103,000-

to 122,000-pound g.v.w. truck and trailer.._

Generalized conclusions

Diesel versus gasoline trucks

Size of hauling unit

Advantage of paving

Effect of grade

Effect of undulating grade

Effect of alinement and roadway width

Need for correlation of alinement and grade

Symbols and abbreviations

Bibliography

Appendix 1. Travel time factors

Appendix 2. Hauling costs

Appendix 3. Cost of road maintenance

Appendix 4. State and Federal taxes and fees paid

for road use and maintenance

Pago

40

41

41

41

41

41

42

42

42

44

44

45

59

64

TABLES

TABLE 1.—Size of truck and trailer units, by gross

vehicle weight, Eastern and Western United

States

TABLE 2.—Weight of certain Eastern and Western

species per board foot of green logs, including

bark

TABLE 3.—Ratio (E) of effective horsepower to

rated horsepower at various elevations

TABLE 4.—Hauling cost, by elements, for various

sizes of gasoline truck and trailer combinations,

Western United States, 1957

TABLE 5.—Hauling cost, by elements, for various

sizes of diesel truck and trailer combinations.

Western United States, 1957

TABLE 6.—Hauling cost, by elements, for gasoline

trucks, Eastern United States, 1952

TABLE 7.—Hauling cost, by periods, for various

sizes of gasoline truck and trailer combinations,

' Western United States, 1957

I TABLE 8.—Hauling cost, by periods, for various

sizes of diesel truck and' trailer combinations,

Western United States, 1957

TABLE 9.—Hauling cost, by periods, for gasoline

trucks. Eastern United States, 1952

TABLE 10.—Travel time per round trip mile for "on

highway" trucks

TABLE 11.—Travel time per round trip mile for "on

highway" trucks

TABLE 12.—Approximate log hauling costs per M

bd. ft. per round trip mile for "on highway"

trucks, .Western United States, 1957

TABLE 13.—Approximate log hauling costs per M

bd. ft. per round trip mile for "off highway"

trucks, Western United States, 1957 --

TABLE 14.—Approximate log hauling costs per M

bd. ft. per round trip mile for "on highway"

: trucks, Eastern United States, 1952

Page

3

4

20

21

22

24

25

30

32

33

34

36

38

Page

TABLE 15.—Cost of major items in truck operation.

Western United States—1957, and Eastern

United Stat es— 1952 40

TABLE 16.—Proportion of total cost of major items

in truck operation, based on average hauling

conditions, Western United States—1957, and

Eastern United States—1952 41

TABLE 17.—Average speed of loaded truck {B =

1.75) on rolling grades, gravel-surfaced road 42

TABLE 18.—Values of E for each pair of field tests

considered 47

TABLE 19.—Values for R obtained on test section

of various surface types 48

TABLE 20.—Speed of empty truck on curves of

single-lane road (14' wide, 3' ditch; 1:1 back

slope ; 1 mile long) 56

TABLE 21.—Comparison of theoretical speed controlled by curvature with actual speed from field

tests 57

TABLE 22.—Percent increase in travel time, by

turnout spacing and a traffic density of 20

vehicles per hour 58

TABLE 23.—Breakdown of delay time, by size of

load - - - 58

TABLE 24.—Average delay time per M board feet,

by kind of delay 59

TABLE 25.—Round trip fuel consumption for

various sizes of gasoline and diesel trucks 61

TABLE 26.—Repair costs for diesel and gasoline

units, 1957 <^^ 1

TABLE 27.—Average repair cost for various sizes of

gasoline and diesel units 61

TABLE 28.—Tire costs per mile for various sizes of

truck and trailer units and types of surface (»2

TABLE 29.—Comparison of derived tire costs with

actual 1957 costs <^'^

Issued December, 1960
Logging Road Handbook: The Effect of Road Design

on Hauling Costs

By James J. Byrne, Director,

Chief, Roads

Engineer, Cal

^rTv^'-7^'cP''' ^'^^'^'^^'' ^f forest Products Research, Roger J Nelson

INTRODUCTION

This handbook is written for the use of logging

road engineers and logging engineers in estimating the effect of road geometry and surface on

the cost of hauling logs by motortruck and trailer.

The data provided will help the road designer to

evaluate alternative designs in terms of the cost

of hauling logs. The factors included may also

be used to estimate hauling cost on roads already

constructed.

It should be emphasized that the hauling costs

given herein do not include cost of road amortization and maintenance, or taxes and fees paid in

lieu of road amortization and maintenance. Some

assumptions and calculations were necessarily

made to supplement recorded and observed data,

but the results are as accurate as can be obtained

without costly experimentation that would extend

over years of operation.

The original study upon which this report is

based was started in March 1947 and completed

by August of that year. Most of the book records

of costs were for calendar year 1946. Later, in

1952, studies were made in Eastern United States

for small logging trucks. To insure up-to-date

basic cost data, a resurvey of operating costs for

22 commercial companies was made in Western

United States in the winter of 1958-59. These

costs were derived from book records for calendar

year 1957. As expected, the basic differences between 1947 and 1957 were found to be higher recent costs. An exception is the unit tire cost

which, on a cost-per-mile basis, is lower than for

1947. This difference is probably due to the present general use of better tires that have a prolonged life and to the shortage of tires that existed

during the original study.

The type of equipment observed was the conventional truck and trailer combination that is

used for hauling logs (fig. 1). Such equipment

has a carrying capacity that ranges from 28,400

pounds gross vehicle weight to approximately

207,000 pounds (table 1).

TABLE l.—Size of truck and trailer units, by gross vehicle weight, Eastern and Western United States

G.v.w. (pounds) Rated engine

Eastern United States: 28,400 to 34,700_

Western United States:

50,000 to 60,000

60,000 to 86,000

86,000 to 103,000

103,000 to 122,000

122,000 to 164,000 265 to 300

164,000 to 207,000-

Hp.

100 to 135-

146 to 200-

150 to 252_

185 to 265-

200 to 300_

Average

light

weight

Tires Maximum load ^

300 to 360-

Pounds

10, 000

12, 000

17, 000

22, 000

23, 100

26, 000

28, 000

42, 000

48, 000

61, 000

{

Size

^.25 X 20

).00 X 20

9 X 20

10 X 20

10 X 22

11 X 22

11 X 24

12 X 24

12 X 24

14 X 24

12 X 24

14 X 24

16 X 24

Number

10

10

14

18

18

18

18

18

2

16

2

Pounds

18, 400

27, 700

43, 000

46, 400

54, 800

68, 800

68, 800

80, 000

112,000

146, 000

Mbd.ft.

1. 84

2. 27

5. 40

5. 80

6. 97

8. 60

10. 07

14.00

18. 20

' Maximum loads in Eastern United States figured on basis of 10 pounds per board foot of logs, and in the Western United States on basis of 8 pounds.

1
HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

F-492832. 33, 34, 35

FuiUic- 1.—Truck and trniler : A, Single-axle drive ; B, double-axle drive ; O, 16-foot bunks. 25 M bd. ft. load ; D,

trailer mounted on truck for return trip.
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK

FIGURE 2.—Typical gravel-surfaced logging roads.

F-402837. 36

As a basis for time of travel estimates, tests

were conducted to obtain data on tlie operation of

trucks and trailers over paved, gravel-surfaced,

and dirt roads. The eiïects of roadway widths

and design wei-e observed. Figure 2 shows two

logging roads with well-consolidated surfaces.

They are typical of roads upon which on-theground measurements were made.

Loads were weighed either with portable scale

or fixed platform scales. A maximum speed of

45 miles an hour was used in calculations for

loaded trucks, and 50 miles an hour for empty

ones. This speed is consistent with present logging truck operation and highway speed limits.

Because fuel consumption could be calculated with

good accuracy, only one detailed measurement was

made.

The results of this study are believed to be reasonably accurate, the degree of accui'acy being dependent upon the validity of assumj^tions made in

extending the available cost data. Probably the

greatest chance for error is in maintenance costs,

because there was no data on the effect of extremely steep grades on such costs. Curves,

graphs, and tables that can be used in determining the cost of hauling logs are presented in the

main body of this report. Details of their derivation Avill be found in the appendix.

SIZE OF TRUCK AND PAYLOAD

The size of truck and trailer units classified by

gross vehicle weights are shown in table 1. Table

1 also shows the estimated maximum loads of

timber that can be carried, based on weights of

gross board feet of logs of 10 pounds and 8 pounds,

respectively, for Eastern anci Western conditions.

Actually, the weight of logs varies greatly by

species and by size of logs as well as by the method

of scaling, t'nfortunately, data on log weights

are not complete. Technical Note Xo. 218 of the

Forest Products Laboratory, INIadison, Wis., shows

a theoretical approach toward determiningweights of timber of A^arious woods grown in the

United States. Weights obtained by this method

majr not represent an average value for all localities, since the method is only approximate.

The density of timber of a species varies from

one area to another, between trees, and within

trees. Table 2 shows suggested values of unit log

weights for certain Eastern and Western species.

These should only be used in the absence of more

reliable local data. The table also shows some

variations actually measured in connection with

logging studies.

TABLE 2.—Weight of certain Eastern and Western

species per board foot of green logs, including bark

Species

Ash, white

Birch

Cedar (except Port Orford).

Cedar, Port Orford

Cherry, black

Douglas-fir

Fir (all species)

Hemlock (all species)

Larch (all species)

Maple, sugar

Oak (all species)

Pine, lodgepole

Pine, ponderosa

Pine, southern

Pine, sugar

Poplar (all species)

Redwood

Spruce (all)

Range in

weight '

Pounds

6. 0- 9. 0

6. 0-10. 3

5. 5-1.3. 5

8. 6-10. 0

8. 4-11. 8

6. 5-10. 0

6. 5-11. 5

"7."Ó-Í1.'5"

5. 0-19. 5

5. 0- 7. 5

Suggested

estimating

weight

Pounds

10. 0

10. 0

8. 0

10. Ü

8. 0

8.0

9.0

10. 0

8. 0

10. 0

10. 0

8.0

8.0

8. 0

10. 0

6. 5

10. 0

6. 5

I Some of these weights were obtained in the study reported liere, and others

were obtained by the State of Oregon and the Hammond Lumber Co.
4 HANDBOOK 18 3, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

TRAVEL TIME FACTORS

Travel time is influenced by grade, nature of

road surface, alinenient, width of roadway, sight

distance, and psychological factors. In addition,

it is affected by the ratio of effective engine horsepower to gross vehicle weight.

Figures 8 to 8, inclusive, show the travel time

for loaded and empty trucks over paved, graveled,

and diit surfaces as influenced by grade. In

these Hgures, the travel time is correlated wdth a

factor B.^

equation :

which is found from the following

B =

(np)xExifioo

GVW

where

Ä^P =Rated horsepower of engine

^=Ratio of effective horsepow^er to rated horsepower (from table 3), and

^'rT^Tr^ Gross Apellide weight in pounds, weight of

vehicle plus load, if any

The speed over concrete paved roads will not be

significantly different than over good asphalt

paved roads.

A dirt surface is considered suitable for average

speed if occasional rough spots appear where native rock projects, and if its bed is slightly less

firm than a graveled surface. A softer road surface would decrease the speed considerably.

The gravel surface is taken as a w^ell-bound surface with a solid roadbed, not springy under

traffic.

TABLE 3.—Ratio (E) oj effective horsepower to rated

horsepower at various elevations

Elevation above

(feet)

sea le^^el Engine

horsepower

output

Value of E

1 000 -

Percent

100

97

94

91

88

85

82

0.74

. 72

2,000 . 70

3 000 -_ _- - . 68

4 000 - -

. 66

5 000 - -

.63

6 000 -

. 61

1 A list of the symhols and abbreviations used in this

report is given on p. 44.

Figure 9 is included to show the average delay

time per M board feet for various sizes of payload. This delay time does not include that occasioned by road design, such as spacing of turnouts. It does include time for loading, unloading,

waiting for loads and unloader, fueling up, and

filling the water tank.

Figures 10 through 13 have been provided to

show the effect of curvature on travel time over

roads of various widths.

In using the time graphs (figs. 3-13), it is necessary to divide the road into sections according to

grade. First determine whether the speed for

loaded trucks is governed by grade or curvature

in the section considered. The greater time

governs. Then repeat the process for the returning empty truck. The round-trip time per mile

is the sum of these two governing time factors.

The round-trip time for the section is the product

of the section length in miles and the combined

round-trip time.

Figures 14 and 15 show the approximate speeds

obtained as controlled by curvature and grade on

logging roads. These figures are valuable to the

road designer in that there is nothing to be

gained in improving alinement to provide higher

speed if the speed is already controlled by grade.

The effect of turnout spacing and density of

traffic on travel time over single-lane and lane-andone-half roads is shown in figure 16. It should

be noted that the percentage increase in travel time

is applied only to empty trucks. Loaded trucks

are assumed to have the right-of-way. If traffic

and road design are uniform, the percentage

shown in the graph can be applied to the total

time. Otherwise the road must be divided into

sections, according to traffic density and turnout

spacing, and time determined separately for each

section.

The foregoing method is applicable to roads

with grades of a sustained, not rolling, nature.

Rolling grade complicates the figuring of time

and requires more refinement than is needed for

sustained grades. Deceleration and acceleration

of the vehicle play an important part in speed over

rolling grades.

Figure 17 shows the distance required, according to grade, for a loaded truck to accelerate and

decelerate from one speed to another.
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK

18

14

13

f^ 12

I"

\ \

\ \ \

/?D t/o Í

1 1 1

j_ (hpj xEx 1,000

\.A

Vo

g- V. W.

\

Vv5V \

5M.PH. \

\ \^

\

A\\

kVv\ ;:

\V\\V\\ 1

II

II

spunoi

\

V \\\Vi

^

^

KO ^ \^\\\

^5 >0

1OM.PJH.

\\\\v\

\X\^

^w ^^

^

\

^

^«^

i -^ 2 OM.Ph/.

\

^

i¡\ 1

-^

^

^

3OM.P.H.

^

^

^s:'l>

"^ 4

c

OM.PH,

OM.PH.

7 M.P.H. '

5

J 6L

+ 12 +10 +8 +6 +4 +-2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 -12 -14 -16

GRADE (PERCENT)

FIGURE 3.-Ei¥ec-t of grade on travel time-loaded trucks, asphalt paved roads (Ä=0.013).
HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

18

17

16

15

14

13

!ii 12 i

^ 10

^ 9

^ 8

1 1 ' ' . •

(hp.)x E X 1,000

Ratio B=

— 1 ïâi '

1 . nr.

1

/

/

/

/

/

f

-//

.

/«P/

/y

/

y

v^ /y$> ^

^

^

^^ /^

^^ y^^

^

"^ß.joji-

\^ .^ ^

^ ::^

4

3

2

I

-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 f2 +4 +6 +8 +10 +12 +14 +16

GRADE (PERCENT)

FiGiKK 4.—Effect of ifi-ade on travel time—empty trucks, a.sphalt paved roads (Ä=0.013).
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK

+ 4 +2 0 -2 -4

GRADE (PERCENT)

40M.P.H.

50M.P.H. 1

60M.P.H. '

-16

FIGURE 5.—Effect of grade on travel tini«^:

r.53561 ()—611 ^

loaded truck«, compactetl gravel roads (7?=0.()1S).
8 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

18

17

16

14

13

l„

ki

îJ 10

ft 9

Uj 8

I5

4

Ratio B- ""'>' '' '°°° l.w.

/

/

/

/

/

y

^^^

/

y

/

/ -^y/

y

y

/

/

/

^

^^ ///;^

^

\

^

v^ y^y.^

y^y^

^i^¡¿^

\

^^^

^

^

^^

I

-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 +2 +4 4-6 +8 +10 +12 +14 +16

GRADE (PERCENT)

FirxURE 6.—P]ffect of grade on travel time—empty trucks, compacted gravel roads (Ä=0.018).
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK 9

18

\ \ I

\

\ \

Ratio B- <>"> '"^"'000

\

^r \ \

y. V. W.

\ \ \^ V.

\

Ni )M^ \ \

I

ÎM.RH

\\\

a

MUM SPEED:

86,000 pounds g.i

22,000 "

64,000 "

V5^ \Vv\ \

\

\\ \

A\\

\

A

\

\\\'

\

1

"^s. ,^

\

^

VA

^\

\

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\^^:\\\\ 1/ N 1M.RH. Ak\A\\

IL

N

^AA\\i ^^

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AAM ^-^' 2C)M.P.H.

IMPH.

>

A;m r .. .^

^

3C ^^kv^^^^y^^y^

^S:s5dBs^^^ Kn RÉ D u

1 1 60 W.P.H.

+12 +10 +8 +6+4+2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 -12 -14 -16

GRADE (PERCENT)

FIGURE 7.—Effect of grade on travel time—loaded trucks, dirt roads (Ä=0.022).
10 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

18

17

16

15

14

^ 13

II

10

^ 8

5

4

3

2

r. ^. r. (hp.)xEx 1,000 Ratio B

/. w.

/

/

^

/

/

y

y

/

y

y

Á )X

/

^

y

/

/

y

(¡yy^

\

x^ 1 /

/

^<:

^

"v

^

^^ y.^

y^y"^y^ Vr

B=J23r"

"v

\^^

.^^

^

—

-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 +2 +4 +6 +8 +10 +12 +14 +16

GRADE (PERCENT)

FiGLTKE 8.—Effect of grade on travel time—empty trucks, dirt roads (JB=0.022).
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK 11

0 8 12 16 20

LOAD (M BD. FT)

FIGURE 9.—Delay time per round trip, not including delays due to road design.

24 28
12 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

7

I

I

^

¡

EMPTY TRUCK

1

\rja2iMs-'5^JÜ---'^ ——'

,^

AV£f^^ innjr. ^

^——

yy

^ .

200 i

300 /

^T

^T

400 FT.

^^^

500 FT

600 FT

800 FT.

LOADED

1

1

TRUCI <

/ivf^?^6£^DJUS^0 FT-

^^

-^

^^

—

10 0 FT

/.

z;:^ 200 FT, —

30(

40i

1

0 FT. —

^^

Finn) FT

600 FT,

800 FT.

0 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

CURVES PER MILE (NUMBER)

FiGtRE 10.—Efifect of curvature on travel time—double-lane roacl.s.

20 22
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK 13

EMP TY TRUCK

1

^

A\^E^

^^

^

^

^nn FT. __

-400 F

600 F

f.

^

^^^^^^

^

^

/.

T.

800 FI,

^

1,000 FT.

LOAIDED TRUC K _--

^v^e^

J^:^-^

lOOj.

:^ —

900 FT,

300 FT.

— 400 FT.

/A^^

/^^^^""^^:r 600 FT.

800 FT.

-^^^ 1,000 FT.

4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

CURVES PER MILE (NUMBER)

FIGURE 11.—Effect of curvature on travel tiiu^-lane^and-one-half roads.

20 22 24
14 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

kl

EMP TY 1"RUCK

< ^^-^

.-—

.li'i^

,ji^

^

A^

::ri:=

Too FT.

'ñooyr.

1.000 FT

^

LOA DED TRUC <

r-X

^

> ,ve^

H^

\oqJl. —

^^

^

200 j^

^

^

300 F

400 1

T.

^T.

y^^^ ^:^ZL 600 FT

800 FT.

1.000 FT.

—

4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

CURVES PER MILE (NUMBER)

FiGURK 12.—Effect of curvature on travel time—single-lane roads with ditch.

20 22 24
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK

I,

Uj

0

LOA DED

1

TRUC K

iii5 '

50>^^

A' 5^

ViÜ^

j2£^^—

—

\á

y^^^

600 F

T..

T.

M.1^ ^

800 FT.

1,000 FT.

4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

CURVES PER MILE (NUMBER)

FiGuiŒ 13.—Effect of curvature on travel time—single-lane roads without ditch.

20 22 24

)5;;r.<;i o—(;o ;!
16 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

^'—^

N

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A

-Xj ^

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Co

1/ N \\\

.9€^

of- f

.^1

4' 1;^^^

^ ^

^

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^SPEtool t

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50

40

O.' 30

g 20

to

10

+10 +8 +6 +4 +2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 -12 -14 -16

GRADE IN DIRECTION OF LOAD (PERCENT)

FIGURE 14.—Si>eecls of average logging truck on grades where speed is not controlled by alinenient—gravel roads.

(ß=1.75 for loaded trucks and 5.0 for empty. )

60

50

-X 40

3:

CL'

30

S;

0)

20

10

.„rw 4' DITCH, .

, fOOTROADS^^ —

TIÍALFJS^ •"T' ^i' DITCH ^—="=-'

I 23456789 10 II

RADIUS OF CURVE (HUNDRED FEET)

FIGURE 1.5.—Speeds of average logging truck on curves where speed is not controlled by grade.

12
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK

20

I 16 I

^ 12

I

I^ 8

to

i

Â /

»

4^.^

"^x 4py {f^- ^^fA

f

A

^ r [ß^

/

F

^

0 4 8 12 16 20

VEHICLES PASSING OVER ROAD PER HOUR (NUMBER)

FIGURE 16—Effect of turnout spacing and density of traffic

on travel time of empty trucks over single-lane and

lane-and-one-half roads.

Example 1. Time of Haul on Sustained Grades

In this example the problem is to find the time

of travel of a 66,000 g.v.w., 165-hp. truck and

trailer traveling over single-lane gravel road with

ditch at 2,000-foot average elevation. The traffic

density is 20 vehicles per hour, and the turnout

spacing is 1,000 feet. Grades and alinement for

sections of the road are as follows :

Section Grade i Distance Curves Curve

radius

1_.

Percent

+ 10

+ 6

-2

-10

-6

Miles

0. 20

.35

21.00

. 25

1. 10

Number

1

1

1

20

30

40

20

1

1

2

3

2

Feet

100

2._. 300

3_.._

300

150

4___

300

400

500

100

5...

300

200

300

400

17

Since this is a single-lane gravel road, figures 5

and 6 (pp. 7-8) are used to determine the time as

attected by grade:

B =

where

A/>X^XLOOO

gvio

E={).10 for 2,000-foo't elevation (see table 2, p. 3)

B (loaded) =

165X0.70X1,000

66,000 -=1.75

From table 1 (p. 1) Me find that the empty

weight of truck is 22,000 pounds. Therefore :

B (empty) =

165X0.70X1,000

22,000 = 5.25

With the values of B (loaded) and B (empty),

the time corresponding to each grade is found

from figures 5 and 6 for loaded and empty trucks,

respectively. These are entered in the following

tabulations:

Time per mile—

Section

As controlled by

grade

As controlled by

alinement

Loaded

truck

Unloaded

truck

Loaded

truck

Unloaded

truck

1

2 _

Minutes

i 10. 90

J 7.20

1.33

3. 24

2. 25

Minutes

Í 3.25

2.25

1.52

' 3. 70

2. 50

Minutes

3. 57

2. 92

Í 2. 75

Í 3. 48

1 3.00

Minutes

2.98

Í 2 53

3

4

5

J 2. 45

3. 08

Í 2. 63

1 Denotes governing time for the section—loaded and unloaded.

Section

Governing

unloaded

time X

1.162

Total time

per roundtrip mileDistance Time per

section

1 3.77

2. 94

2. 85

4.30

3.06

Minutes

14. 67

10. 14

5.60

7.78

6. 06

Miles

0. 20

. 35

21. 00

. 25

1. 10

Minutes

2. 93

?, 3. 55

3.

4.

5.

Total

117. 60

1. 95

6. 67

22.90 132. 70

' Grade is Indicated in the direction of travel with the load.

Where grade is not the governing condition

affecting speed, the effect of alinement is then

determined from figure 12, p. 14. An example of
18 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

10,000

8,000

6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

k 1,000 "^

800

iO

f; 600 ^

ci- 500

ki

ä

400

^"^t 300

«.'i

i-

<i 200

C^

i^

C^

Uj

^\ ^ 100 '^

^ 80

^ 60

i-;^ 50

20

j

1 —1— —/-

1 •i' 1 —4

<ol ^ 1 1

/

^r~ ^1 1 /

1 / /

:; 1 / / <^

5

1

1

/

-^— -^y

t) j

1

/

/

/

-^y

y

^1

1 -.1

1

^ 1

r

/

/

é

/

/

/

y

/"

^

^

'— o

-^ / / / y

1 / / y ^y- —-^

1 /

/ y X y^- .--^i1 / / >

/^ / ^y ^y^ ' 1

1 1 / / // y y ^^ y ' 1

—1—

1

—#—

;

/ / // yyr^y 3;|

1

1 // //.//'yzX <^

/

/ ///

Â<ÄKm4 1 %

7/ ii^

^

y

r

1

/////////x ß

^/ /J///vV/ «j ^/ //v// ri II 1 1 1

////v// Distance traveled during acceleration from any opprooch speed is the

nil.i

W/ in

seeds under considerotioa.

XAMPLE: A truck approaching a 2% favorable grade at ZOm.p.h.

^ V E

mw/ c an occelerote to 40m.p.h. In (2,150

1 1 1 1 1

-380) 1,770 ft.

1 1 1 1

ÍiV

i

20 22 24 26

SPEED (M. P. H.)

28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46

10.000

8,000

k.-

6,000

Í» 5,000

O

iC 4,000

|i:

kj 3,000

Ui ^>Ui ^ 2,000 ^-^

Í»

i*-

c>

l^

8

1,000

800 :^

? 600

500

Ui

^ 400

^

^ 300

Q

Il 1 1 1 1 Distance troveled during deceleration from any opprooch speed

is the intercept between the distances { shown on left ) correspc

J

to the two speeds under consideration. /I

EXAMPLE: A truck starting up o 2% grade at 45 m.p.h y\

will be Slowed down to 30 m.p.h. in (2,200-895) 1,305 ft. -^ 1 A

^^^^^ 1 y

1 ^e;5¿2>^[^''''''^^^ ^1

1^

^ A

^x""^ -,**'

^jj% ^ 1

1

u^^ y^ r^*"""''^ .--*-*"'*^6%,^i--^ ~ 1 ' H—— -q ^ y^ ^^'"''^ ..^^"""^^^ " 1 _ 1 ^^ 1 y^^^^-" """'"L--*'''''''''^ ^^^X-.^ _ 1 1

^^^^^^ ^^--''''''^^^J^^^ 5 1 1 1 11

^y'^^^^^"'^^^ ^^.^— j

1

« » <o _

Î2 r^^^.^-^ "^ ï^l Jo

= 1 jJhl^hl

^1 ^1 ^1 '1 Ti *i "1 'l

SPEED ( M.P.H.)

FiGUKE 1<.—Accelerating and decelerating distances for a loaded truck traveling over a crushed-gravel surface.
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK 19

how the average radius is obtained is shown below

for Section 3 :

(20X150)+ (30X300)+ (40X400)+ (20X500)

7'= =o46 ft.

20+30+40+20

The number of curves per mile for this section is :

20 + 30 + 40 + 20

21 - = 5.24

The speeds corresponding to these values for

Section 3 are found to be 2.75 and 2.45 minutes

for loaded and unloaded trucks, respectivelv. In

a similar manner, values are determined for otlier

sections and entered in the foregoing tabulations.

The effect of turnout spacing is now found from

ñgure li\ p. IT, whicli shows that a 16.2 percent

increase in travel time results from a turnout spacing of 1,000 feet with a traffic density of 20 vehicles per hour. Therefore the governing time for

unloaded trucks, as determined on the basis of

alinement and grade, must be multiplied by 1.162

to give the time unloaded for use in combining

Avith the time loaded to iind the total time per

round trip mile for a section. This is indicated in

the foregoing tabulations.

The total time is then found to be 132.70 minutes

which, for 22.90 miles, gives an average time per

round trip mile of

132.70 ..,,., ^^^^^ = o.(l)mmutes.

Example 2. Time on Grade When Truck Is

Decelerating Because of Change in Grade

Assume that a road has a 600-foot long, —1-percent grade approaching a 6-percent rise. Find the

speed at the top of the 6-percent rise, assuming

that 5= 1.75 on a gravel road.

From figure 5, p. 7, it is found that the speed

on a —1-percent grade is

60 minutes ^A -i i

^ : -.-=40 miles per hour.

1.;) minutes per mile

In figure 17, find the point where the 6-percentgrade line is intersected by the 40-mile-per-hour

line; this is at 625 feet. From this point, follow

the 6-percent grade line for 600 feet (the length

of the grade). The point of intersection is at

1,225 feet, and the final speed indicated is 21.8

miles per hour.

The average speed while ascending the 6-percent grade is

40 + 21.s ^

^ —oO.i) miles per liour.

Therefore, the time required to negotiate the short

grade is

60 ,, 600 X , ... -0.^21 minutes. 30.9 5,280

Example 3. Effect of Break in Grade on Adverse Grade

From figure 17, p. 18, it is possible to compute

and compare the time involved in traveling up

over a summit with that involved in negotiating a

uniform grade produced by cutting and filling.

As an example, consider a gravel road with a

grade; it could be constructed either by leveling

or by rolling the grade up over small hills, using

500 feet of adverse 4-percent grade and 400 feet

of favorable 5-percent grade in order to reduce

construction costs. The speed of a loaded truck

on the level grade, from figure 5 (p. 7), would

be 29.3 m.p.h. {t=2.05 minutes per mile). If the

truck approaches the 4-percent adverse grade at

this speed, it will be going 19.0 m.p.h. when it

reaches the top (see fig. 17, bottom). If the truck

is going 19.0 m.p.h. when it starts down the 5-percent favorable grade, it will be going 30.0 m.p.h.

when it reaches the bottom (see fig. 17, top). The

average speed going up is 24.15 m.p.h., and the

average speed going down is 24.5 m.p.h. Therefore, the average speed over the entire 900 feet

(adverse and favorable combined) would be 24.32

m.p.h. as compared with 29.3 if the level grade

were constructed.

This method does not give exact results, because

of the assumption that the rate of acceleration and

deceleration is uniform throughout the acceleration and deceleration periods: actually, these rates

are not uniform. However, results will be reasonably close to the actual speed.

HAULING COST BY ELEMENTS

Tables 4, 5, and 6 show the elements of hauling

cost for gasoline and diesel trucks, respectively.

It will be noted that these elements do not include

cost of highway amortization or maintenance, or

taxes and fees assessed for those purposes. Also,

property taxes are not included, since they are

either too small to be significant or are not charged

at all.

Fired cof^ts are figures for a total operating

period of 52 weeks per year, 5 days per week, 10

houi^ per dav. These costs include :

(a) Depreciation—figured on the cost of truck

and trailer, less tires—8-year life, 6-percent salvage value.

(b) Interest—?ig\\v^à at 6 percent on the cost

of truck and trailer with tires.
20 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 4 —Haulina cost by elements, for various sizes of gasoline truck and trailer combinations, Western

United States] 1957 '

FIXED COSTS PER MINUTE THROUGHOUT YEAR-10-HOUR DAY AND 5-DAY WEEK BASIS

Size of load—g.v.w.

Item

50,000-

60,000

lbs.

60,000-

86,000

lbs.

86,000-

103,000

lbs.

103,000-

122,000

lbs.

122,000-

164,000

lbs.

164,000-

207,000

lbs.

DpDreciation $0. 0105

. 0061

. 0007

.0013

.0027

$0. 0118

.0070

.0008

.0013

. 0027

$0. 0145

. 0089

.0010

. 0013

.0028

$0. 0188

. 0114

.0012

.0013

.0030

$0. 0248

. 0155

. 0016

.0013

.0033

$0. 0288

Interest .0182

Ins fire and theft _ - -

.0018

Ins P L & D _. _ - _ _ _ .0013

Ins collision .0034

Total --- -- -- .0213 .0236 .0285 . 0357 .0465 . 0535

OPERATING COSTS PER MINUTE DRIVING TIME

Fuel 2 _ _ $0.0195

.0027

. 0559

$0. 0285

. 0036

. 0869

$0. 0367

.0047

. 1017

$0. 0440

. 0056

. 1246

$0. 0560

.0072

. 1532

$0. 0727

Lubrication .0094

Reoairs . 1745

Total .0781 . 1190 . 1431 . 1742 . 2164 .2566

DEPENDENT COST PER MINUTE DRIVING TIME PLUS DELAY TIME

Driver's wage, including annual leave _ $0. 0438

.0007

.0011

.0085

. 0049

$0. 0438

. 0007

.0011

.0085

. 0049

$0. 0438

.0007

.0011

.0085

. 0049

$0. 0438

.0007

. 0011

.0085

.0049

$0. 0438

.0007

.0011

.0085

.0049

$0. 0438

Social security tax .0007

Unemployment compensation _ .0011

Administration _ _ __ .0085

Industrial insurance .0049

Total . 0590 .0590 .0590 .0590 .0590 .0590

riRE COST PER MILE

Pavement

Gravel

Dirt

$0. 0256

. 0776

. 1239

$0. 0310

. 0940

. 1500

$0. 0420

. 1274

.2033

$0. 0498

. 1512

. 2412

$0. 0813

. 2467

.3940

$0. 0974

.2953

.4712

1 Highway use fees, such as P.U.C. fees, fuel taxes, etc., are not included as part of hauling cost.

2 Cost of gasoline without State tax: $0,222 per gallon.
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK 21

TABLE b.—Haulinq cost, by elements, for various sizes of diesel truck and trailer combinations, Western

' United States, 1957 '

FIXED COSTS PER MINUTE THROUGHOUT YEAR-10-HOUR DAY AND 5-DAY WEEK BASIS

Item

Depreciation

Interest

Insurance, fire and theft_

Insurance, P.L. and D__

Insurance, collision

Total _

Size of load—g.v.w.

50,000-

60,000

lbs.

60,000-

86,000

lbs.

$0. 0163

. 0093

. 0013

, 0013

. 0029

.0298

86,000-

103,000

lbs.

$0. 0191

.0112

. 0015

. 0013

.0030

. 0361

103,000-

122,000

lbs.

$0. 0234

.0137

.0018

.0013

. 0032

. 0434

122,000-

164,000

lbs.

$0. 0287

.0178

.0022

. 0013

. 0034

. 0534

164,000-

207,000

lbs.

$0. 0327

.0207

.0025

. 0013

. 0036

0608

OPERATING COST PER MINUTE DRIVING TIME

Fuel 2 $0. 0140

.0040

. 1022

$0. 0182

. 0053

. 1197

$0. 0220

. 0064

. 1466

$0. 0283

.0082

. 1802

$0. 0368

Lubrication _ _ . 0106

Rp.nflirs _ _ __ . 2053 ^"^r- — --

Tntal . 1202 . 1432 . 1750 . 2167 . 2527

DEPENDENT COST PER MINUTE DRIVING TIME PLUS DELAY TIME

Driver's wage including annual leave $0. 0438

.0007

.0011

. 0085

. 0049

$0. 0438

. 0007

.0011

.0085

. 0049

$0. 0438

.0007

.0011

.0085

.0049

$0. 0438

.0007

.0011

.0085

.0049

$0. 0438

.0007

.0011

.0085

.0049

$0. 0438

Social securitv tax ,0007

Unemployment compensation. . 0011

Administration . 0085

Industrial insurance .0049

Total .0590 .0590 .0590 .0590 .0590 . 0590

TIRE COST PER MILE

PavementGravel

Dirt

$0. 0256 $0. 0310 $0. 0420 $0. 0498 $0. 0813 $0. 0974

0776 0940 . 1274 . 1512 .2467 2953

1239 1500 .2033 . 2412 .3940 4712

'Highway use fees such as P.U.C. fees, fuel taxes, etc., are not included as part of hauling cost.

2 Cost of diese! fuel without State tax: $0.16 per gallon.
22 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 6.—Hauhng cost^ by elevients.Jor gasoline trucks, Eastern United States, 1952

FIXED COSTS PER MINUTE THROLTailOUT YEAR-11-HOUR DAY AND 5-DAY WEEK BASIS

Item

Size of load—g.v.w.

Depreciation, 8-year life with 6-percent salvage value.

Interest

License

Insurance, fire and theft

Insurance, P.L. and D

Insurance, collision

Total.

OPERATING COSTS PER MINUTE OF DRIVING TIME

Fuel plus tax ^ _

Lubrication

Repairs

Total.

DEPENDENT COSTS PER MINUTE DRIVING PLUS DELAY TIME

Driver cost, including leave and overtime.

Social security

Unemployment compensation

Administration prorated_'

Industrial insurance

Total.

TIRE COSTS PER xMILE ONE WAY

Paved or asphalt

Crushed gravel, \" minus

Coarse pit run or native rock and dirt mixture.

28,400 lbs.

$0. 0020

. 0011

. 0007

. 0004

. 0007

.0009

. 0058

34,700 lbs.

$0. 0238 $0. 0238

.0004 .0004

.0006 .0006

.0047 .0047

.0019 .0019

0314

$0. 0281

.0704

. 0931

$0. 0025

.0011

. 0007

.0005

. 0007

.0009

0069

$0. 0148

.0010

.0234

. 0392

. 0314

$0. 0337

.0845

. 1120

' Cost of gasoline including tax: $0.23.
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK 23

(c) Proferty damage and personal liahility insurance—calculated on average fleet rates

in areas of low density of population, with

a coverage of $10,000/$20,000.

(d) Fire and theft insurance—figured on 80

percent of the average value of the unit

throughout its life at fleet rate.

(e) Collision insurance—based on "$250 deductible" on average value of truck less

trailer, at fleet rate in areas of low population density.

(f) Property ta,Tes (none figured).

Dependent costs include those which occur when

a truck is in operating status regardless of whether

it is hauling logs or standing idle because of delays in loading, unloading, etc. These costs include driver's wages, social security tax, unemployment compensation tax, industrial insurance,

vacation allowance of 2 weeks a year, and administration costs. Wages are figured at $2.32 per

hour with time-and-one-half for overtime. Dependent costs are figured on a per-minute basis.

Vehicle operation costs, less tires, include fuel,

lubrication, and repairs. They occur only when

vehicle is moving on road. These are figured per

minute.

Tire costs are figured on a per-mile unit.

HAULING COST BY SHUTDOWN, DELAY, AND OPERATING PERIOD

There are a number of methods that use cost

elements in calculating total hauling cost. Regardless of the method used, it is desirable that

the effect of shutdowns and delays on hauling cost

be shown. Accordingly, the total cost has been

broken down as follows :

(a) J=^Shutdown costs. Costs that go on during periods when the vehicle is inoperative

because of shutdowns, overhauls, and holidays. These are fixed costs only.

(b) N —Delay time costs. Costs that oc€ur

when vehicle is in operating status but is

not hauling logs. These include fixed costs

and dependent costs.

(c) (7 = Vehicle operating cost, less tires. Costs

that occur when vehicle is actually hauling

logs. These include fixed costs, dependent

costs, and vehicle operating costs.

(d) D = Tire cost.

Costs /, N^ and C per minute and cost T> per

mile are shown in tables 7, 8, and 9.

Figures 18 to 21, inclusive, show hauling cost

per round trip mile, based on a summation of

costs. Although these costs are for gasoline

trucks, for all practical purposes they are the same

for diesel trucks. To use these graphs, values for

Ci, 6^, (^3, and C\, are read directly and added.

The sum is the total cost per round trip mile. To

determine cost per M bd. ft. per mile or cost per

ton-mile, divide sum of C^, C^, and CU values by

M bd. ft. per load or tons per load, respectively.

It should be emphasized that,^ in most cases,

hauling cost per mile of road is appreciably dependent on working season and length of haul ; it

is not possible to work out costs with any reasonable degree of accuracy without considering these

two factors.

Example 4. Cost Per M Bd. Ft. Per Mile When

Hauling Time Is Known

Using the data from Example 1, p. 17, the round

trip hauling time for a 66,000-pound g.v.w. load

is 5.79 minutes per mile of route. The net load

is 66,000 minus *22,000, or 44,000 pounds. AVith

hemlock weighing 10 pounds per board foot, the

payload is 4.4 M. The length of haul is 22.9 miles.

Assuming an 8-month hauling season, the cost

per trip (from ñg. 18, bottom, p. 26) would be:

c\== $1.34

c..== ,28

c,== ,07

!^*== .04:

Total cost per round trip mile== $L.73

Cost per M bd. ft. per mile== $1,.73 = $0.393

4.4

553501 O—60-
24 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

T^BLE 7 -Hauling cosi^ by periods: for various sizes of gasoline truck and trailer combinations, Western

United States. 1957

Tire cost

Operating cost..

Dependent cost.

Fixed cost

Total.

Tire cost

Operating cost _

Dependent cost_

Fixed cost

Total.

50,000 TO 60,000 POUNDS O.V.V^

Item

Cost per minute Cost per mile D

/ .Y C Pavement Gravel Dirt

Tire cost <cn n7Äi

$0. 0256 $0. 0776 $0. 1239

Operating cost ~'$0. 0590'

. 0213

•pU- U / ol

. 0590

. 0213 Dependent cost $0. 0213 Fixed cost

Total . 0213 . 0803 . 1584 .0256 .0776 . 1239

60,000 TO 86,000 POUNDS G.V.W.

$0. 0236

0236

$0. 0590

. 0236

0826

$0. 1190

. 0590

. 0236

2016

$0. 0310

. 0310

$0. 0940

0940

86,000 TO 103,000 POUNDS G.V.W.

$0. 0285

. 0285

$0. 0590

. 0285

0875

$0. 1431

. 0590

. 0285

2306

$0. 0420

0420

$0. 1274

1274

122,000 TO 164,000 POUNDS G.V.W.

I ./=Cost for period when truck is shut down due to seasonal layoff, overhaul, or other causes.

iV=Cost for period when truck is in operating status but not actually hauling logs.

C'=Cost for period when truck is actually hauling logs—less tires.

/> = Tire cost.

$0. 1500

1500

$0. 2033

2033

103,000 TO 122,000 POUNDS G.V. vv.

Tire cost $0. 0498 $0. 1512 $0. 2412

$0. 1742

. 0590

. 0357

$0. 0590

$0. 0357 . 0357

Total - - - - - - - . 0357 .0947 . 2689 .0498 . 1512 .2412

Tire cost $0.0813 $0. 2467 $0. 3940

Or>prii tí TIP' cost $0. 2164

.0590

.0465

]~)pi-)prir]pTTf cost $0. 0590

Fixed cost $0. 0465 .0465

Total .0465 . 1055 . 3219 .0813 . 2467 .3940

164,000 TO 207,000 POUNDS G.V. \v.

Tire cost _ _ _ _ $0. 0974 $0. 2953 $0. 4712

Ooeratiner cost $0. 2566

.0590

. 0535

Denendent cost $0. 0590

Fixed cost $0. 0535 . 0535

Total . 0535 . 1125 . 3691 .0974 .2953 .4712
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK

TABLE 8.-—Hauling cost, by periods,^ for various KÍ::es of diesel truck and trailer combinations

United States, 1957

60,000 TO 86,000 POUNDS G.V.W.

25

Western

Item

Cost per minute Cost per mile D

J N C Pavement Gravel Dirt

Tire cost _ _ _ _ $0. 0310 $0. 0940 $0. 1500 Operating cost $0. 1202

. 0590

. 0298

Dependent cost _ _ $0. 0590

Fixed cost__ _____ $0. 0298 . 0298

TotHl . 0298 . 0888 . 2090 . 0310 . 0940 . 1500

Tire cost

Operating cost.

Dependent cost.

Fixed cost

TotaL

86,000 TO 103.000 POUNDS G.V.W.

Tire cost $0. 0420 $0. 1274 $0 2033

Operating cost _ _ _ _ _ $0. 1422

. 0590

.0361

Dependent cost $0. 0590

Fixed cost $0. 0361 . 0361

Total . 0361 . 0951 . 2373 . 0420 . 1274 . 2033

103,000 TO 122,000 POUNDS G.V. w.

Tire cost $0. 0498 $0. 1512 $0. 2412

Oneratinff cost $0. 1750

.0590

. 0434

Denendent cost $0. 0590

FiYpd eost $0. 0434 . 0434

Total . 0434 . 1024 . 2774 . 0498 . 1512 . 2412

122,000 TO 164,000 POUNDS G.V.W.

$0. 0534

0534

$0. 0590

. 0534

1124

$0. 2167

. 0590

. 0534

. 3291

$0. 0813

0813

$0. 2467

2467

1 J=Cost for period when truck is shut do^^^l due to seasonal layoff, overhaul, or other such causes.

Ar=Cost for^iiod when truck is in operating status but not actually hauling logs.

C=Cost for period when truck is actually hauling logs-less tires.

Z)=Tire cost.

$0. 3940

3940

164,000 TO 207,000 POUNDS G.V.W.

$0. 0974 $0. 2953 $0. 4712

$0. 2527

. 0590

. 0608

Operating cost $0. 0590

. 0608 Dependent cost

Fixed cost -

$0. 0608

Total . 0608 . 1198 . 3725 . 0974 . 2953 . 4712
26 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

17

16

15

14

13

Uj 12

I

I

10

O

^

Ö

50,000 TO 60,000 POUNDS G.V. W

COST OF OPERATING TIME

y

^^

/

^Á/

///

/

'//

/

/V//

/AV

Ü

f

^-

<%/

U'

f

w

///

yi

//v

///

///

f—

///

/

ADDITIONAL COST OF

DELAY TIME

75r

Ci

Q

^

O

^

Ci

CO

Ç^ o O O c^

O ^\j 'g- vo Ct)

cvi CVJ CVJ cvi CVJ

o

70

65

60 I

§55

^45

•-I 40

§35

^ 30

S

^ 25

20

is 15

-J 10

I

Based on

68 minutes

delay time

per round

trip

9

-

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ci

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ADDITIONAL COST OF

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I7r-|—I ti 75

15

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70

65

60

55

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45

40

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30

25

20

15

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Hauling

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(mos.)

^8

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Ci CVj ^j.

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COST PER ROUND TRIP MILE (DOLLARS)

60,000 TO 86,000 POUNDS G.V. W.

CD

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COST OF OPERATING TIME

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14

13

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ner rniinrl

trip

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COST

c^ Ci Ci Ci C> C> î^ ^ ^ Ci CVj ^h VO ^

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ÍIP MILE ( DOLLARS )

ADDITIONAL COST OF

NONOPERATING SEASON

16

13

12

Í 10

ÖG5

^ 60

1§55

B 50

LI /IK

1

Haüling_

season

. (mos.) _

^ an

1 35 1 ^8

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to 15

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5

/'D

\

1V

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ci

C2 C4

FIGURE 18.—Cost of log hauling per round trip mile for 50,000- to 60,000-lb. and 60,000- to 86,000-Ib. g.v.w. loads,

Western United States, 1957.
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK 27

1-3

5.

g 10

I' ^ 8

« 7

P: 6

Ci

Ci

COST

86,000 TO

OF OPERATING TIME

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75

70

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ADDITIONAL COST OF

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75

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(months)-

Ci

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16

15

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TIME

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TO 122,000 POUNDS G.V.W.

ADDITIONAL COST OF

DELAY TIME

75

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10

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COST PER ROUND TRIP MILE (DOLLARS)

ADDITIONAL COST OF

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75

1Ç^

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10 L-6

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FIGURE 19.--Cost of log hauling per round trip mile tor mm- to 103 000-lb. and 103,000- to 122,00(^lb. g. v. w. loads,

Western United States, 1957.
28 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

I

et

122,000 TO 164,000 POUNDS G.V. W.

ADDITIONAL COST OF

COST OF OPERATING TIME

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ADDITIONAL COST OF

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70

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164,000 TO 207,000 ROUNDS G.V. W

COST OF OPERATING TIME

ADDITIONAL COST OF

DELAY TIME

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02 03 04

FIGURE 20.—Cost of log hauling per round trip mile for 122,000- to 164,000-lb. and 164,000- to 207,000-lb. g.v.w. loads,

Western United States, li);")?.
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK 29

i

28,500 POUNDS G.V. W.

ADDITIONAL COST OF

COST OF OPERATING TIME

/<^

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19

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34,700 POUNDS G.V.W

21

19

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y y.<^

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COST PER ROUND TRIP MILE (DOLLARS]

cvj

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ADDITIONAL COST OF

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kl

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I 80

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FIGURE 21. -Cost of log hauling per round trip mile for 28,500- and 34,700-11). g.v.w. loads (avg. loads 1.S4 and

bd. ft., respectively). Eastern United States, lî)r>2.

M
30 HANDBOOK 18 3, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE ^.—Hauling cost, by penods\for gasoline trucks, Eastern United States, 1952

28,400 POUNDS G.V.W.

Item

Cost per minute Cost per mile D

/ A^ c Pavement Gravel Dirt

Tire cost $0. 0281 $0. 0704 $0. 0931

Oneratiner cost $0.0319

.0314

. 0058

Denendent cost $0.0314

FíYPH cost $0. 0058 .0058

Total .0058 . 0372 .0691 .0281 .0704 .0931

34,700 POUxNDS G.V.W.

Tire cost- $0. 0337 $0. 0845 $0. 1120

Operating cost $0. 0392

.0314

.0069

Dependent cost $0.0314

Fixed cost $0. 0069 .0069

Total .0069 . 0383 .0775 . 0337 .0845 . ir^

1 J=Cost for period when truck »is shut down due to seasonal layoff, overhaul, or other cause.

A''=Cost for period when truck is in operating status but not actually hauling logs.

C=Cost for period when truck is actually hauling logs, less tires.

X> = Tire cost.
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK Q.

(J U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE °"^

FOREST SERVICE ^,,,

Washington 25, D.C. ^ ^^'^'^'''^ ^'^"'HL fi£Cûflûs

Logging Road Handbook: The Effect of Road Design on Hauling Costs

Agriculture Handbook No. 183. December 1960.

ADDENDA -- December 1962

Page 32:

Table 10.--Travel time for round trip mile for "on highway" trucks

Class of road Percent of grade in direction of load

1. Highway (curves superele-

+3 +2 +1 O -1 -2 -3

vated) : Mins. Mins. Mins. Mins. Mins. Mins. Mins.

A. Alinement excellent:

1- Paved 5.10 4.07 3.40 2.88 2.53 2.83 3.15

-age 34;

Table 12. --Approximate log hauling costs per M bd. ft. per round trip

mile for "on highway" trucks, Western United States, 1957

Class of road Percent of grade in direction of load

+3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3

1. Highway (curves supérele- Dol- Dol- Dol- Dol- Dol- Dol- Dolvated) : lars lars lars lars lars lars lars

A. Alinement excellent:

1. Paved 0.213 0.172 0.146 0.124 0.113 0.124 0.137

GPO 937466
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK 31

APPROXIMATION METHODS

Time of Travel

Occasionally it is necessary to estimate the cost

f hauling logs before a road is designed. There3re, tables 10 and 11 were compiled for approxilating time of travel over various classes of roads,

rom these tables, the mileage for each class of

Dad can be determined and added up, and the total

mgth of haul and average time per mile calcuited. With this data, the cost per mile of haul

nd the total cost can be determined from figures

8 to 21, inclusive, pp. 26 to 29.

Hauling Cost

A simple method of determining approximate

hauling costs, but less accurate than the one for

time of travel, is given in tables 12 to 14, inclusive.

In order to present the data in such a simple form,

it was necessary to assume certain fixed conditions :

(1) an 8-month hauling season for all classes of

roads, and (2) a weight of 8 pounds per board foot

for logs in Western Ignited States and 10 pounds

in Eastern. Examples of the computation of approximate costs are given at the bottom of the

tables.

OSynfil o—60-
32 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK

'S IIX

39

25

-S -^ O en

Dollars

2.086

.836

1.172

.886

»o

cd

Cost per

M bd. ft.

per mile

Dollars

0.149

.209

.293

.443

!

<N 1 Section

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40

HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

METHOD OF CALCULATING A COST INDEX

A current and reasonably accurate cost index

for any specific size of truck can be determined by

using the cost data for major items in a recent

year. Table 15 shows the cost of such items m

1957 and 1952. The proportion of total cost for

each of these items will vary somewhat with speed,

road surface, and length of haul. However, for

average conditions table 16 is sufficiently accurate.

The use of tables 15 and 16 in determining a cost

index for any size of truck and for a current year

is demonstrated in Examples 5 and 6.

Example 5. Dctcrminins Cost Index for 60,000-

to 86,000-Pound G.V.W. Truck and Trailer

Cost of new truck and traUer now 23, 120

Cost of new truck and trailer in 1957

AVages of driver now

Wages of driver in 1957

Cost of new set of tires now

Cost of new set of tires in 1957

Cost of gaUon of fuel now '

Cost of gaUon of fuel in 1957 '

21, 609

2.44

2.32

2, 730

2,660

. 230

X33. 6=36. 0

X34. 8=36. 6

9.0

6.7

X 8.8=

1959 cost index, "off highway"

3 Includes Federal fuel tax of '6 cents per pailón.

X 6.5=

83^^

88.3^

8:^>. 7"

88. 3

= 1. 05

Example 6. Determining Cost Index for 103,-

000- to 1 22,000-Pound G.V.W. Truck and

Trailer

Cost of new truck and trailer now 33,100

Cost of new tnick and trailer in 1957 31, 000

Wages of driver njrw^_

Wages of driver in 1957

Cost of new set of tires now

X36. 0=38. 4

2. 44 ^^-^X30.6=32.2

4,780

Cost of new set of tires in 1957

Cost of gallon of fuel now '

Cost of gallon of fuel in 1957 '

4, 673

(.230)

(.222)

X10. 3=10.

X 7.5= 7.8

1959 cost index, "off highway"

1 Includes Federal fuel tax of 3 cents per gallon.

84. 4 88. 9

88.9

84.4

=1. 05

Although the above method results in a cost index based on a percentage of costs less than the

Avhole—in Example 5, <S?>.7 percent, and in Example 6, 84.4 percent—it is assumed that an increase in the remaining percentage will be in about

the same proportion.

The cost index relates to the 1957 study in which

no allowance was made for State fuel tax or

P.U.C. fees. It is for "off highway" costs only and

is applied directly to the values taken from table

12, p. H4. Note that index values for 1959 are

shown at the bottom of the table for both "off

highway'' and "on highway" costs.

TABLE 15. -Cost of major items in truck operation, Western United States—1957, and Eastern

United States—1952

WESTERN UNITED STATES

G \' \\^ Load Tires Tire size

Truck and

trailer, less

tires

Set of

tires

Wages of

driver

Fuel^

(pounds)

Gas Diesel

50,000-60,000

60,000-86,000

86,000-103,000

103,000-122,000

122,000-164,000

164,000-207,000

Afft. b. m.

5.40

6. 97

8. 60

10. 07

14.00

18. 20

Number

18

r 18

\ 18 Í 18

I 18

18

; 2

1 16

{ i

9 X 20

10x20

10x20

11 X 22

11 X 24

12 X 24

12 X 24

14 X 24

12 X 24

14 X 24

16 X 24

Dollars

13, 900

1 21, 609

1 25, 300

31, 000

} 38, 100

i 43, 400

Dollars

2,005

/ 2, 519

1 2, 660

/ 3, 130

1 3, 824

4, 673

8,300

10, 300

Dollars

2.32

} 2.32

1 2. 32

2.32

2.32

2.32

Dollars

0. 222

. 222

.222

.222

.222

. 222

Dollars

0. 10

. 16

. 10

. 16

. 10

. 16

EASTERN UNITED STATES

28,400_

34,700_

.\fft. b. m.

1. 80

2. 30

Number

10

10

8. 25 X 20

9 X 20

Dollars

2,920

3, 615

Dollars

980

1, 175

Dollars

1.25

1. 25

Dollars

0.23

.23

Dollars

' State tax excluded in Western United States costs, but included in those for Eastern United States.
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK 41

TABLE 16.—Proportion of total cost oi major items ui truck operation, based on average hauling conditions^

Wedern United ^States—1957, and Eastern United States~1952

WESTERN UNITED STATES

G.V.W.

(pounds)

50,000 to 60,000___

60,000 to 86,000. _-

86,000 to 103,000-_

103,000 to 122,000_

122,000 to 164,000.

164,000 to 207,000.

Load

M ft. b. m.

5. 4

6. 4

8. 6

10. 1

14. 0

18. 2

Amortization

of truck and

trailer plus

repair parts

Percent

25. 8

33. 6

34. 1

36. 0

36.0

36. 2

Wages of

driver

and

mechanic

Percent

35. 9

34. 8

32. 3

30. 6

27. 7

26. 2

Percent

9. 06

8. 8

10. 3

10. 3

13. 2

13. 4

Fuel and

lubrication ^

Percent

10. 4

6.5

7. 2

7. 5

7. 6

Miscellaneous

costs

Percent

18. 9

16.3

16. 2

15. 7

15. 5

15. 5

EASTERN UNITED STATES

28 400 -

A///. 6. m.

1.8

2. 2

Percent

14. 9

16. 2

Percent

36. 5

34. 2

Percent

23.0

23. 6

Percent

11.9

12. 6

Percent

13. 7

34 700 13. 4

I state tax e.xcluded in Western United States costs, but included in those for Eastern United States.

GENERALIZED CONCLUSIONS

Diesel Versus Gasoline Trucks Effect of Grade

There is small difference between the cost of Many conservative operators limit the grade of

hauling with gasoline-powered trucks and hauling main and secondary roads to 3 percent for adwith diesel-powered trucks. The higher repair, verse grades and 8 percent for favorable. From

lubrication, and fixed costs of diesels counterbal- the standpoint of hauling cost, it appeai-s that

anee their advantage of lower fuel cost. economies can be effected in some instances by

resorting to steeper grades. Consider a case

^ . LJ ,. , , .^ where there is a choice of constructing a road

bize o\ Mauling Unit ^^.j^j^ .^ grade of 5 percent for a distance of 2 miles,

. , ,. , ,, ^ or of putting in a switchback, reducing the grade

The amount of saving m hauling cost that re- ^^ ,^ . percent, and consequently lengthening the

suits from the use of heavy equipment rather than ^^^^,^^j distance to 4 miles. Assuming that the loglight must be determined for the specific ] ob in ^.^^^ trucks will have a ratio {B) of effective

general, however, hauling cost decreases with an g^i^^epower to g.v.w. (in thousands of pounds)

increase in the size of equipment used. Ihis de- ^ ^^^^ ^^ ^ ^^ ^^^^ ^j^^^ ^j^^ ^.^^^1 -g o^^avel surfaced,

crease is more apparent in short hauls and m hauls ^ji^ ^^^^^^ factors from figures 5 and 6, pp. 7-8, are

over slow roads. . .asfollows :

It is probable that the total cost of getting out

loo-S (hauling cost plus road costs) is favored m ^^on Mgh^vay" B=:1.9 loading Plan 1 Plan

most instances by the use of trucks in the 60,000- Length of road section, miles 2 4

to 80,000-pound class Such trucks, with 8-foot Ç-f^-^^^ ÍT5 S! 75

bunks, would require the least revision m road and ^!^^ ^^^ ^.^^; ^^^^^ minutes 2.00 i. 40

bridge design. Also, fixed and repair costs are rp^j^e per round trip mile, minutes- 7. 75 5.15

relatively low for these trucks, since parts are pro- Total time for section, minutes.— 15. 50 -u. bu

duced in fairly large quantities. ^j^j^ would indicate that for conditions requirin<r additional distance to gain elevation, steeper

A J 1 Í P^w.-r^r. o-rades are more economical than lighter ones.

Advantage of Paving .r.Kles^ "„Kloubteclly true up to the point where

There are md.cations that pavmg or binding j^^j---jÇ;-;:::';::; ::,X:Sf:;!I^];:^t";!

and smoothing a road surface may result m ^^^'U .e .ot . in n^^ m

greater savings in hauling costs than can be real- ^^J"^^'':^^^ ï./i ,' to .a.is. ex^'essi-., uu-.h:onized by increasing truck size, which increases road <uh ^^^il';l¡^^;'i;Xl^;,: Po,' T-- --'S, - '-'-

construction costs.
42 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

haiilincr is done during the dry summer months, a

steeper grade could undoubtedly be used.

Effect of Undulating Grade

The determination of speeds obtained on undulating grades presents a rather complicated problem. On a slightly rolling grade, speed is not

very different from that on a uniform grade.

However, as the length between breaks in grade

increases and the grade increases, the average

speed approaches more nearly the average speed

obtained for a sustained adverse followed by a

sustained favorable grade.

Table 17 shows the approximate speed of

travel over a break in a zero-percent grade for

various lengths of hump and steepness of hump.

This table was compiled for a gravel-surfaced

road as an indication of time lost because of

breaks in grade.

• TABLE 17.—Average speed of loaded truck {B=1.75) on rolling gradesi^ gravel-surfaced road

Grade (percent)

Distance between break in grade in feet (A to B & B to C)

200 300 400 500 600 700 800

0

M.p.h.

29. 26

28. 81

28.41

27. 81

27. 34

26. 84

25.77

M.p.h.

29. 26

28. 62

27. 99

27. 16

26. 19

25. 51

24.07

M.p.h.

29. 26

28. 36

27. 69

26. 21

25. 29

24. 16

22.27

M.p.h.

29. 26

28. 26

27.01

25. 84

24. 69

22. 51

20. 57

M.p.h.

29. 26

27.79

26. 96

25. 29

23. 94

21. 41

19. 68

M.p.h.

29. 26

27. 84

26. 54

24. 89

23. 31

20. 51

18.47

M.p.h.

29. 26

1 __ __ 27. 71

2 26. 26

3 _ ___ 24. 11

4 _ --- - 22. 99

5 - _- 19. 96

6 . 18. 22

> Speed on level surface without break in grade is 29.26 m.p.h.

Average speed from Point A to Point C—

0 % 0 7o

Effect of Alincment and Roadway Width Need for Correlation of Alinement and Grade

The effect of alinement on speed is more apparent for single-lane roads than for double lane.

This factor is of considerable importance on narrow roads with favorable ^rrades.

On single-lane roads and lane-and-one-half

roads, the factor governing speed around curves

is sight distance. The wider the road, the greater

the sight distance: consequently, the permissible

speed is greater. Anything that increases sight

distance will increase speed.

On double-lane roads, the factor governing

speed is slippage due to centrifugal force.

The speed on single-lane roads may be increased

by double laning the curves.

Except as it affects speed on curves, the effect

of roadway width is not appreciable.

There is nothing to be gained in improving the

alinement of a road where speed is already controlled by steepness of grade. However, in some

situations a saving in hauling cost can be had by

increasing speed through a better correlation of

alinement and grade. For example, a road over

somewhat broken terrain is sometimes located so

as to use a level grade from a ridge into the next

draw, a steep grade of about +10 percent to climb

to the next ridge, a level grade into the next draw,

and so forth for each succeeding ridge and draw.

The slope of ridges and draws in such terrain is

about ?>0 percent. Thus located, the road is slightly shorter than a road with a 5-percent sustained

grade, but the decrease in length is negligible.

Such a road reduces speed considerably for both
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK 43

empty and loaded trucks. Usually the alinenient

is satisfactory for about a 2'2 m.p.h. speed.

(^onsider a section of this road with a level j^rade

one-half mile lono; into a dra^v and another section

a half mile long to the next ridge on lO-percent

grade. The grade is favorable to loaded trucks.

The time required for the loaded truck would be

1.62 minutes on the 10-percent favorable grade and

\M minutes (limited by alinement) on the level

gi'ade, or a total of 2.98 minutes for the entire mile.

The time for the empty truck would be 1.36 minutes (limited by alinement) on the level grade and

1.92 minutes on the 10-percent adverse grade, or

a total of 3.28 minutes for the entire mile.

The round-trip time, under this condition, would

be 2.98+ o.28, or 6.26 minutes. If a 5-percent

grade were used instead of the lO-percent grade,

the time would be 2.72 minutes for the loaded truck

and 2.72 minutes for the empty, or a total of 5.44

minutes per round-trip mile, the trip both ways

being limited by alinement.

Assume a 3()-mi]e haul over gravel road and an

8-month hauling season, using trucks that haul 5

M bd. ft. per load. In dollars and cents, the 10-

l)ercent road location would cost $0.20-j!4 per M bd.

ft. per mile. The 5-percent road location for the

same condition would cost $0.1848, thus effecting a

saving of $0.0176 per M bd. ft. per mile. (See

fig. 18, top, p. 26.) If 100,000 M bd. ft. of lumber

were hauled over this road, the saving would be

$1,760 per mile of road.

Si)eed could be increased still further, in a case

of this kind, by steepening the road downhill from

the curves in the direction of haul and leveling off

a pro))ortionate amount on the uphill side. This

would not only allow the loaded truck to brake itself in a shorter distance when entering a curve,

but would also allow it to accelerate faster after

rounding the curve. The same thing would be

true of the empty truck on the return trip.
SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

^=Projected frontal area of vehicle and load

in square feet,

a=Acceleration in feet per second, per second.

5=Ratio of effective engine horsepower to

gross vehicle weight in thousands of

pounds.

C= Costs which occur when vehicle is actually

hauling logs, on a per-minute basis.

£)=Cost of tires on a per-mile basis.

d.i.b. =Diameter inside bark.

£'=Ratio between output horsepower and

rated horsepower.

7^= Force required to move vehicle, in pounds,

y=Side-skidding factor (usually 0.16 for hard,

smooth surfaces).

G^= Grade expressed as a ratio of vertical rise

to horizontal distance.

g.v.w. = Gross vehicle weight in pounds, weight of

vehicle plus load (if any).

hp. =Rated horsepower of engine.

J'=Costs which occur during nonoperating

periods; i.e., fixed costs, on a per-minute

basis.

ii=Air resistance coefficient.

Z=Length of total haul in miles from loading

station to dump.

Z.'w;.=Light weight of vehicle in pounds.

M=One thousand board feet.

A/'= Costs which occur when driver is on truck

but not hauling logs; i.e., cost of delay

time on a per-minute basis.

P=Total power required to move vehicle in

foot-pounds per second.

Pg = Power required to overcome grade

(gravity) in foot-pounds per second.

P^=Power required to overcome rolling resistance in foot-pounds per second.

Pa =Power required to overcome air resistance

in foot-pounds per second.

Ç=Total load on vehicle in thousand board

feet of timber.

Ä=Rolling resistance coefficient.

r=Radius of curvature in feet.

AS= Distance in feet.

5=Superelevation in feet per foot of roadway

width.

7"= Total hauling time per round trip (does

not include delay time).

/=Time per round-trip mile.

]7= Velocity of vehicle in feet per second.

¿5=Velocity in miles per hour.

Tí^= Gross vehicle weight (same as g.v.w.)

of vehicle plus load, if any, in pounds,

y=Operating season in months.

Z=Delay time per thousand board feet per

round trip.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BEAKEY, JOHN.

1937. THE EFFECT OF HIGHWAY DESIGN ON VEHICLE SPEED AND CONSUMPTION. Oreg.

State Highway Comn. Tech. Bui. 5,

115 pp., illus.

HEWîES, LAURENCE ILLSLEY.

1942. AMERICAN HIGHWAY PRACTICE. VOL. 1.

New York.

LiPETZ, A. I.

1941. GRAPHICAL METHOD FOR PLOTTING TIMESPEED-DISTANCE CURVE FOR RAILWAY

TRAINS. Amer. Soc. Mech. Engin.

Trans., p. 603.

NORMANN, O. K.

1942. RESULTS OF HIGHWAY-CAPACITY STUDIES.

Pub.Koads23 (4) : 57-81.

44

PAUSTIAN, R. G.

1934. TRACTIVE RESISTANCE AS RELATED TO ROADWAY SURFACES AND MOTOR VEHICLE OPERATION. Iowa State Col. Engin. Ext.

Dept. Bui. 119, 64 pp., illus.

SAAL, CARL C.

1942. HILL CLIMBING ABILITY OF MOTOR TRUCKS.

Pub. Roads 23 (3) : 33-54.

STEVENS, J. W.

1946. TRUCK SPEED AND TIME LOSS ON GRADES.

Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin. Proc. 72: 918-

938.

U.S. FOREST SERVICE, FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY.

1953. WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS WOODS GROWN IN THE

UNITED STATES. Forest Prod. Lab.

Tech. Note 218, 1 p.
APPENDIX 1. TRAVEL TIME FACTORS

A. Travel Tiine as Controlled hy^ Grade, Rolling

Resistance, and Air Resistance

1. Power Required

The power required to move a vehicle along a

road is made up of the following components :

(a) P^=Power to overcome gravity (grade resistance).

(b) Pr = Power to overcome rolling resistance.

(c) Pa^^Power to overcome air resistance.

The total power required to move the vehicle can

then be stated as :

a. Power required to overcome gravity

The force exerted by gravity against a vehicle

is the component of the weight of the vehicle

which is parallel to the grade. This component

is the weight multiplied by the percent of grade

(ratio of vertical rise to horizontal distance)

ovFç=WG.

The power required to move a vehicle against

this grade is the product of the force times the

velocity or Pg=FgV^WVG,

b. Power required to overcome rolling resistance

Rolling resistance depends on road surface

characteristics, type and condition of tires, and

friction of wheel bearings. From tests conducted by the various highway departments and

engineering schools, this force has been determined to be very nearly constant for all speeds,

and for any one surface type it can be expressed

as a coefficient corresponding to an adverse percent of grade. If this coefficient is R. the force

to overcome rolling resistance becomes Fr=WR^

and the required power to overcome it at any

given velocity becomes Pr=FrV=WRV.

c. Power required to overcome air resistance

The molecular impact causing normal air

pressure is assumed to be the same on all sides

of an object that is not in motion. When it is

in motion, there is an increased pressure on the

front and a decreased pressure on the rear.

Since the streamline eifect of the average logging truck is practically nil, the frontal surface

can, for practical purposes, be assumed to be at

right angle to the direction of travel.

The increased impact in the direction of

travel on the frontal area of the truck may then

be given as

where / is the force acting against the front

of the truck, lo is the weight of air per cubic

foot in pounds, g is 32.2 feet/second/second

and T'' is the velocity of the truck in feet per

second. The decreased impact in the direction

of travel on the rear of the truck will also be

g

Therefore, the total force to overcome air

resistance will be

Pa=2(i/2-F^)=-F2

g g

The Aveight of air can be determined by the

following equation taken from "Kent's Mechanical Engineers' Handbook" :

1.325 X&

\0'- 459.6+ z^

where & is the barometric pressure in inches

and t is the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.

For the purpose of this study, the barometric

pressure will be taken as 27.7 inches, which is

normal for a 2,000-foot altitude. This is about

the average altitude for logging operations in

the Northwest. The temperature will be assumed to be 70° F.

1.325X27.7

T^^^^ ''=^ 459.6 + 70

pounds per cubic foot.

= 0.0692

In equation (1),— can then be represented as a

constant

k-- w 0.0692

g

32.2 = 0.00215

This agrees closely with the value of 0.0021

recommended by K. G. Paustian in Iowa State

College of Engineering Extension Department

Bulletin 119 in 1934.

45
46 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

200

150

I

I

i

100

60 100

PROJECTED FRONTAL AREA (SQ.

140

FT)

FIGURE 22.—Projected frontal area of loaded and empty

trucks.

Equation (1) then becomes

Fa=0.00215 AV^- (2)

The power required to overcome the resistance

is the product of the force times the velocity

or Pa=FaV=kÄV' (3)

Figure 22 shows the approximate frontal

areas for loaded and empty trucks,

are based on field measurements.

These data

cl. Total poiver required

The total power required P~Pg+Pr+ Pa

then becomes P=^WGV+ 'WRV+KAV^ (4)

2. Poioer Available

The effective power that pushes a vehicle along

a road is the net power output of the engine less

power losses between the engine and the tires. If

the ratio between rated power and effective horsepower is represented as a factor, E, and since one

horsepower equals 550 foot-pounds per second, the

net power available expressed in foot-pounds per

second is HPXEX550, ^Yhen the engine is operating at maximum output, the speed obtained is

that at which required power equals available

power. Equation (4) then becomes

nPXEX550 = WGr+ WBV+ KAV' (5)

3. Ratio of Rated Horsepoa^er to Effective Horsepotoer

Since in the field tests all of the values in equation (5) are known except E and Ä, it is possible

to set up pairs of equations for different conditions

over the same type of surface and find the values

for E and R simultaneously. In using this

method, it is essential that neither of the test road

sections have alinement or other factors that will

reduce the speed below the maximum which the

engine can produce on that type surface. An example of this solution follows :

3/ Test Section No. 1—Compacted gravel surface, /4-

inch minus

Empty truck: HP=175

Tr=31,770 pounds

y=16.6 feet per second

G= + \l.3 percent

íí:-0.00215

^4=56 square feet

Test Section No. 2—Compacted gravel surface, %-

inch minus

Loaded truck: HP=175

Tr= 90,548 pounds

G^=+0.80 percent

Ji=0.00215

y=28.4 feet per second

^=70.5 square feet

Using equation (5), HPXEX550=WVG+WVR

+KAV'

and substituting the values from Test Section

No. 1; we have

175X£:x 550 =31,770X16.6X0.113 +31,770

X 16.6X Ä+0.00215X56X (16.6)^

or 96,250 = 59,594 + 527,382^+554.

Also substituting the values from Test Section

No. 2 in equation (5), we have

175X£:X550=90,548X28.4X0.008 +90,548

X28.4XÄ+0.00215X70.5

X(28.4)^

or 96,250£'= 20,572 +2,571,563/?+ 3,472.

Solving simultaneously with equations from Test

Section No. 1, we have

96,250E'=59,594 + 527,382Ä+554

96,250£:= 20,572 +2,571,563^+3,472

0=39,022-2,044,181Ä-2,918

Ä=0.0180

í:=0.7230

Table 18 gives the field condition and corresponding values of E for each pair of field tests

considered.
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK

TABLE 18. —Values of E for each pair offield tests considered ^

47

Test section HP TT^ G .4 V Loaded or

empty

Surface type R E

1 ._ 175

175

175

175

175

175

200

200

200

200

138. 7

130.5

265

265

265

265

Pounds

31, 770

90, 548

31, 770

90, 548

31, 770

90, 548

39, 000

117,000

39, 000

117, 000

55, 022

56, 080

38, 350

92, 783

38, 350

92, 783

Percent

+ 11. 30

+ 0. 80

+ 10. 20

-0. 55

+ 9.00

-0. 54

+ 0. 35

+ 2. 71

+ 5. 70

-0. 33

+ 6. 30

-0. 38

+10. 50

+ 1.38

+ 10. 70

+ 0. 27

Sguore

feet

56.0

70. 5

56. 0

70. 5

56.0

70. 5

62. 5

117. 0

62. 5

117.0

51.0

51. 0

62. 0

72.0

62.0

72.0

Feet per

second

16. 60

28. 40

17. 20

44. 20

19. 35

48.00

59. 00

14. 40

27. 70

47. 50

11.90

53. 70

20. 12

28. 85

20. 20

33.95

Empty

Loaded

Empty

Loaded

Empty

Loaded

Empty

Loaded

Empty

Loaded

Loaded

Loaded

Empty

Loaded

Empty

Loaded

P4-in. gravel)

(^+in. gravel)

(^/4-in. gravel)

(Compacted dirt)

{^4-in. gravel)

(Paved asphalt)

(2-in. gravel)

(2-in. gravel)

0. 0180

.0189

.0163

.0175

.0125

.0145

.0226

.0292

0.723

2

3 _- --- - .693

4

5 .693

6 __

7 -- .689

8 - - ---

9 708

10

11 688

12

13 . 683

14

15 . 731

16

Average . 701

1 The average elevation at which the field tests were made was 2,000 feet. The speeds, weights, and horsepower are the average of several trucks with one

or more trips for each truck. Test trips over each section varied from 5 to 21.

In general, truck manufacturers have found that

the elfective horsepower output of an engine is

reduced approximately 3 percent for each thousand feet of elevation above sea level. On this

basis, the value of E used in this report for various elevations above sea level is shown in table 3,

p. 4.

4. Rolling Resistance

Rolling resistance for various surface types may

also be determined by using equation (5). By

substituting known values from field tests in this

equation, the value for R can be computed for

various surface types. As an example, tlie following data from one test run are substituted in equation (5), and the value of R is computed:

Paved asphalt road

E=70 percent

Tr = 90,548 pounds

G = i) percent

A = 70,5 square feet

F= 47.4 feet per second

175 X 0.70 X 550 = 90,548 X 47.4 X 0 + 90,548 X 47.4

XÄ + 0.00215X70.5X (47.4)^

67,375 = 0 + 4,291,975/?+16,144

7? = 0.0119

Table 19 gives field for average weight, horsepower, and speed, and the resulting values for R

obtained on several of the test sections on various

surface types. In computing R. an average value

of 0.70 was used for E.

Other isolated sections of the roads which were

not well compacted or had weaving subgrades

gave values for R up to 0.041. One section on

which loose gravel had been placed and not compacted gave a value of 0.08.

5. Speed on Adverse Grade

By using the values of E from table 3, p. 4,

and R from table 19, it is possible to compute the

speed on any grade where power is the determining factor by solving equation (5), p. 46, for V.

Because this is a cubical equation and involves a

rather tedious computation to solve for T^, two

graphs were designed to provide quick solution

(figs. 23 and 24). For example, to determine the

speed over a 4-percent grade of a truck that has a

net engine horsepower of 120, superimpose 120

(fig. 23) over the zero Ordinate in figure 24; the

curve of figure 23 intersects the 4-percent grade

line of figure 24 at 14 m.p.h., the speed for that

grade.

6. Sjyeed on Favorable Grade

The speed at which a vehicle can safely descend

a grade is apparently dependent upon—

(a) Steepness of grade

(b) Ratio of brake capacity to gross load

(c) Sight distance

(d) Roughness of road surface

(e) Height of center of gravity with relation to

width between outside tires

(f) Personal element of driver

An equation that would include all of tlieso

items aud vet be practi^'al for p-nernl use would
48 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 19.—Values for R obtained on test sections of various surface types

PAVED ASPHALT SURFACE

Test section

17_

18_

19.

20_

21_

22_

Average _

HP

175

175

175

130, 5

160

104. 3

W

Pounds

90, 548

90, 548

90, 548

56, 080

67, 450

16, 000

G

Percent

0. 00

-. 20

-. 33

-. 38

+ 5. 00

+ 1. 20

A

Square

feet

70. 5

70. 5

70. 5

51. 0

81. 0

40. 0

V

Feet per

second

47. 4

48. 9

50. 25

53. 7

14. 3

59. 86

Loaded or empty

Loaded..

do_-

do__

do__

do__

Empty.

R

0. 0119

. 0132

. 0139

. 0149

. 0133

. 0107

0130

WELL-COMPACTED SMOOTH GRAVEL SURFACE, 3Í-INCH MINUS

23.

24.

25_

26.

27.

28.

Average175

175

175

175

175

200

Pounds

90, 548

90, 548

90, 548

31, 770

31, 770

39, 000

Percent

-0. 54

+ . 80

-. 55

+10. 20

+ 9.00

+ . 35

Square

feet

70. 5

70. 5

70. 5

56. 0

56.0

62. 5

Feet per

second

48. 0

28. 4

44. 2

17. 2

19. 34

59. 00

Loaded.

do.

do.

Empty.

do.

do.

0. 0170

.0168

.0191

. 0202

.0182

. 0180

.0182

FAIRLY WELL-COMPACTED GRAVEL SURFACE, 2-INCH MINUS

Square Feet per

Pounds Percent feet second

29 265 92, 783 + 0. 27 72 33. 95 Loaded 0. 0277

30 265 92, 783 +1. 38 72 28. 85 do .0235

31 265 92, 783 + 10. 5 62 20. 12 Empty .0258

Average .. . 0257

WELL-COMPACTED DIRT ROADS (NATIVE ROCK AND CLAY MIXTURE)

32.

33-

34.

35-

36-

37.

Average.

175

175

200

200

200

200

Pounds

90, 548

90, 548

117,400

31, 100

31, 100

31, 100

Percent

+ 4. 00

+ 3. 25

-. 59

+ 6.08

+ 9. 06

+ 5. 67

Square

feet

70. 5

70. 5

117. 0

56. 0

56. 0

56. 0

Feet per

second

11. 88

13. 75

34. 67

29. 27

21. 23

30. 48

Loadeddo.

do.

Empty.

do_

do.

0. 0224

.0213

. 0224

.0205

.0243

.0209

. 0220

WELL-COMPACTED DIRT ROADS (ALL DIRT, NO ROCKS)

38.

39-

Average.

200

200

Pounds

117,000

117,000

Percent

+ 2. 31

+ 2. 71

Square

feet

117

117

Feet per

second

16. 2

14. 4

Loadeddo.

0. 0173

.0182

.0177
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK 49

160

5j 120 I

80

g 40

0

^^

P^

^

0A1^

^^L^-^

8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40

SPEED (M.P.H.)

FIGURE 23.—Horsepower required to overcome air and rolling resistance (ß=0.018; 60,000 lbs. g.v.w., 48-foot logs;

gravel .surface, %-in. minus).

-80

-40

^ 0

5 +40

kl

îù +80

t¡+l20

+ 160

+200

/* r n di,-\%

^—

—"

0 %

^

-

-^Li% i^^ >v ^»S V V ^

^ —

"^1^sN^!^ "^

\\\x

\vV<\<xX

\

^\"\\\ \

\

8 12 16 20 24

SPEED (M.P. H.)

28 32 36 40

FIGURE 24.—Horsepower retiuired to overcome grade resistance ((50.000 lbs. g.v.w.).
50 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

be difficult to find. Therefore, the following empirical equation has been set up based on field

observations :

(0.03-^?)

where T^ is the velocity in miles per hour and G

is percent of grade.

The curve of this equation is shown in figure

25 with plotted points of actual speeds recorded

in field tests. These points were selected in order

to eliminate the effect of curvature as much as

possible.

It was determined in field tests that the faster

s])eeds were on sections where sight distance was

the greatest and where the road was in a very

smooth condition. It was also determined that an

increased load for any given size of vehicle results in an almost proportional decrease in speed

for the steeper grades.

There is no definite indication that speeds are

greater on a paved road tlian on one of gravel

or dirt, provided that the roads are all reasonably

smooth.

I

I

24 26 30

SPEED (M. P. H.)

FIGURE 25.—Speed of trucks on descending grades.
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK 51

7. Maximum i^peeds

The maximum speed at which a truck will

travel between the limits of adverse g-rade and

safety on favorable grade, is determined by a variety of factors, includino- alinement, sight distance, and tire i)erfo,rmance. Althougii the modern tires for on-liighwav and off-highway hauling

perform adequately at the speeds for which they

were designed, their performance is limited by the

user's attention to specific conditions. The vehicle load must be properly placed so that each

tire carries no more than its specified load; air

pressure in tire must be maintained according to

specifications; the wheel axle must be in ])roper

alinement : and dual tires must be properly matched and spaced.

Maximum speeds used in developing time of

travel charts m this study are consistent with

present practice and with the highway speed

limits generally in use in the Pacific Northwest.

The limiting speeds in figures 3 through S, ^^Eft'ect

of Grade on Travel Time," are as follows :

G.r.ir.—loaded Maximum speed

(pounds) (m.p.h.)

Up to 86,000 45

86,000-122,000 .'»."'»

12LM)0()-164,000 30

Over 164,000 30

Empty trucks 50

8. ('alcuhition of Speed Yerms Grude—Sustained

írvades

Relation of speed to grade was calculated according to the foregoing methods and considerations, and the results are shown on figures 3 to

8, inclusive. It will be noted that the symbol B

is used to denote ratio of effective horsepower to

gross vehicle weight in thousands of pounds.

^ GVW

(6)

Since the retarding eff'ect of air resistance is less

ill proportion to horsepower available for larger

trucks than it is for smaller trucks, there is a slight

error in the curves for liigher speeds, but the error

is so small that it would be barely discernible on

a graph.

Í). Acreleration or Deceleration (Udculations

Rate of acceleration or deceleration depends

upon horsepower available for driving the vehicle.

resistance of tlie veliicle (air, orade, and rollino),

and weight of the vehicle ])lus the load. If we

assume tliat the gear ratio permits full engine

hoi'sepower to lie applied at any speed, the acceleration can be expressed as

TFXT JJ)

This equation does not take into account power

required to set rotating parts of the vehicle in

motion. However, the error so introduced is insignificant.

Figure 17 (top, p. LS) shows tlie accelerating

distance between various speeds for several grades

on gravel roads, using a ratio B = 1.7:). These

curves vx^ere prepai'ed by first determining the

value of (/ l)y eijuation (7) for various grades and

velocities. After a was determined, the time increment between succeeding points on the cui've

was found by dividing the change in velocity by

the average value of a between the points considered. With the time increment known, tlie

distance increment was found by multiplying the

time increment by the average velocity between

the points considered.

Figure 17 (bottom, p. IS) shows the decelerating

distance between various speeds for several grades

on gravel roads, using a ratio ^ = 1.75. These

curves were calculated by first determining the

kinetic energy at several speeds and finding the

energy increments l)etween those speeds on the

grade considered. This is the kinetic energy to be

dissipated in decelerating down to each speed.

Power re([uired to propel the vehicle for the

average speed during each deceleration period is

also determined. Power in excess of tluit capable

of being supplied by the truck is then found. The

time for decelerating between various speeds is

found by dividing the kinetic energy to be dissil)ated by the power in excess of that supplied by

the truck. Distance traveled is found by multiplying time for the interval l)y average speed for

the interval.

An example of the method used to compute decelerating effect on adverse grades is shown in the

following tabulation for an <S-percent grade. This

example is based on a (>(>,()()()-pound ground load

and a lOH-hp. engine with a 70-percent mechanical efficiency operating over a gravel road. Normal speed of such a truck on a sustained S-percent

grade is ().67 m.p.h.
52 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Approach Kinetic A A\('i-a^(^ Power Less power Time Distance Distance

speed energy of Kin<'tic .speed during required at of truck required tra\'eled traveled

(m.p h.) approach pn<'rgv déceler;! (ion aN'crage

s})eed

(63,500) to use

momentum

(increment)

(cumulative)

(1) (2.1 (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

Foot-pounds per Foot-pounds per

Foot-pounds foot-poundft Miles per hour second second Seconds Feet Feet

G. 67 98. 022 1,325

10, 064 6. 8 65, 169 1, 669 6. 03 60

7. 0 108, 086 1,265

33, 336 7. 5 71, 508 8, 008 4. 16 46

8. 0 141, 422 1, 219

36, 893 8. 5 81, 133 17, 633 2. 09 26

9. 0 178, 315 1, 193

42, 232 9. 5 90, 719 27,219 1. 55 22

10.0 220. 547 1, 171

275, 456 12. 5 119, 793 56, 293 4. 89 90

15. 0 496, 003 1, 081

385, 581 17 5 169, 100 105, 600 3. 65 94

20. 0 88], 584 987

496. 454 22. 5 219, 675 156, 175 3. 18 105

25. 0 1, 378.038 882

605, 975 27. 5 271. 964 208, 464 2. 91 117

30. 0 1, 984, 013 765 716. 130 32. 5 326, 426 262, 926 2. 72 130

35. 0 2, 700, 143 635 827, 424 37. 5 383, 294 31!), 794 2. 59 142

40. 0 3, 527, 567 1

493 936, 462 42. 5 443, 019 379, 519 2. 47 154

45. 0 4, 464, 029 339 1, 046, 628 47. 5 506. 076 442, 576 2.36 164

50.0 5, 510, 657 175 1, 158, 331 52. 5 572, 668 509. 168 2. 27 175 55. 0 6, 668, 988 0

(Column o gives tlie increment of kinetic energy

to l)e dissipated between the varions a])proach

speeds. C olnmn 6 gives tlie rate at wliich tliis

kinetic enei-gy is nsed at tlie average speed during

the deceleration increment. Tlierefore, Column -^

divided by Column 6 gives the time involved in

using u]) the momentum, shown in Column 7. Column s is the distance traveled duiing this time

increment, (/olumn 9 then gives a summation of

these incremental distances from 55 m.p.h. to the

sustained speed. Any speed could have been

adopted for a calculation base; the intercepts of

speed^ vei-sus deceleration distance ai'e the important features of the tabulation.

Figure L>('> sho\\'s the distance required for acceleration of loaded and em]^ty trucks on a 2-percent grade.

B. Trat^el Tmtr as Adjected hy Curvature and

AH/Ir merit

1. Los.s of T'rme Fit ctors

The loss in time caused by cui-vature is made up

of the following ( ^»nponents :

a. Deceleratioit t'nrte Joss

Time lost while slowing down in order to negotiate a cnr\'esafelv.

b. Ctirrc time Joss;

Time lost while going around the curve.

c. ArreleratJon t'nne loss

Time lost while accelerating to the si^eed that

the grade will allow.

'2. Safe Speed on Curres

a. Douhle-lane roads

The limit on safe speed around curves in double-lane roads is the speed at which side slipping

wdl occur. This limit is based on the assumption that vehicles will be kept to the proper side

of the road and that the road is otherwise unoKstructed. The speed is given by the equation :

when

-Vr{s+f)

0.067

(8)

V = safe speed in miles per hour

/'=^ radius of curvature

'S' = superelevation in feet per

foot roadway w^idth

/=side-skid factor—usually about

0.16 for hard-compacted, smooth

roads

Most logging roads are built with little or no

superelevation in order to avoid side slipping
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK 53

15,000

10,000

8,000

6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

^ 2,000

i

I

1,000

800

600

500

400

300

200

100

80

60

50

40

30

20

10

t

<:

1

1

-

1 1 y

/ ^

^

L

/

^

y^

_^'

\ A'.^y ^

^

y^

-^^

^

^

5^

VL jV":7l—; x.^ ^

y^

,A/^ /

.'^ ^

x^

ri>^ / ^« ^

.«îM' .r-'^

y

^/ ,-.'i^

6 A

f r

/

\^^^

/

/

(

r

/

4'

/

/

y

/

^Af , /

/ xV y

/

'^/— /

/

^ /

à

r /]/

/

f^/

/

/

/

/

/ /'/

/

/

/

//

'/

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50

SPEED ( M. P. H.)

FIGURE 26.—Distance required for acceleration of loaded and empty trucks in the 60,000- to 86,000-pound class.

caused by icy conditions, particularly on adverse

grades. For icy conditions, the above formula be- fa

comes

or

0.067

^=1.55 V^ (9)

Computations for double-lane roads used m this

analysis are based on equation (9) for allowable

speed on curves. For main highways that are normally superelevated to a maximum of 0.10 teet per

foot of width, the safe speed on curves will be 30

percent greater than for roads not superelevated.

b. Sing]e-J(()ie roads

If the roadway is not wide enough to allow

vehicles to pass eiich other, the safe si)eed is limited by the sight distance that permits tw<>

trucks approaching: each otluM^ to stop without

colliding, or one truck to stop wiihout Jutting

an obstruction in the roa^l.

Figure '1^ irives the siiilit <lisiaB<;e h)V

ic^y i'O'u«.^ radium of curv^^iure ii)> to :J;!înO le

witli 12-, U-, and 20-foot widilis. .-^^^--

tance is assumed to be limited by back slope or^

Sigitt dii
54 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

4 6 8 10 12 14

RADIUS OF CURVE (HUNDRED FEET)

FIGURE 27.—Sight distance on horizontal curves.

the cut side of the road and by timber and brush

at an equivalent distance from the centerline

on the fill side of the road.

Distance required to stop

o'iven speed on level grade

equation.-

a vehicle from a

is given by the

is the speed in

30(/)

where d is the braking distance, r

miles per hour, and / is the friction coefficient

of the tire against the road; a value of /=0.40

is recommended as reasonably conservative. A

reaction time of 3 seconds between sighting an

obstacle and applying the brake has been found

- Source : L. I. Hewes.

tice. 1942.

Vol. 1 Amer. Hiírhway Tracto be necessary. Sight distance required for

each driver in order to stop would then be:

'^"^^-^3,600^ 30/

The combined sight distance required for two

drivers approaching each other w^ould then be

twice this amount, or

o

•2d=8.8v+ '

lof

The grade of the road does not affect this combined distance, because a favorable grade to one

driver will be adverse to the other. Figure 28,

based on this equation, shows the safe speed at

which a vehicle can travel for sight distances

up to 400 feet.

I

Co

5

800

600

400

200

0

0 8 16 20 24

SPEED (M. P. H.)

28 32 36 40

FIGURE 28.—Safe speeds as limited by sight distance, single-lane roads.
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK rr

3. Average Length of Curve on Logging Road, Total time and a\eraire velocity are tlien calcuObservations were made of several logging ''^*^':^-

roads to determine the radius of curvature in re- .• ^'g"i"«^s 10 tlirough 13 (pp. 12-15) give the

lation to central angle and its effect on travel time V"^ required tor one mile of travel for various

The average for mountain-tvpe roads is— almements on dilierent classes of road. Although

the computations for these charts are based on the

Rndhis Average central angle «ssumption that all curves are Uniformly spaced

'S *''"""' «- ;V"^ ^Y *^'', ^'"^^^ ^-«^^i"^ ^^ curvature^ is used

2W "::::::::" t tliroughout the mile, which condition would be

300 I 40 "»liKely, the results agree quite closely with com400 30 Piitations based on field tests in which the average

500 24 raduis of curvature for a section was used

600 20 For double-lane roads the average radius should

800 ]l Include only those curves with radii less than 700

1,000 II_"I _ 12 *^®*' ^^"'^^ t^^^i'e IS httle or no effect of such cm-ves

on speed until the maximum of 40 m.p.h. is

4. Calculation of Time for Negotiating Curves: I'eached.

It would be a prodigious time-consumino- iob ^i ^"^ ^"^g^^-l.'^?^® roads, the results will be reasonto calculate the effect on travel time of all possible ably accurate if the curves included in the average

combinations of grade and curvature. In this re- f-^"® limited to those with a radius of less than four

port, calculations were made on the basis of a r^}'^^^ "^^ shortest radius in the mile considered,

gravel-surfaced road with a -¿-percent grade in "^ i^ Y^&^on for this is that a sharp curve slows the

the direction of travel of the loaded truck. This ye^^i'^le so much that other curves of considerably

grade would give the greatest travel speed; con- ""P"" radius encountered during the deceleration

sequently, the effect of alinement would be most ^"^jl^^^.^f*\«^1 ^^'^^ance do not affect the speed,

apparent ^^"^® ^^' S^^'^^S examples taken from the field

Deceleration time was assumed to be one-third ^^^* sections, shows the actual speed attained as

of acceleration time, since ordinarily braking 7^^,^^!?,}^^^^^''^^'''^^^^^^^

horsepower is about three times engine horse^ í,fZ^^J,'^ Jf'"'f ^'"''-T)'^"'^'P^'í """"'"'^

power. Therefore, the combined acceleration plus .' 1 !,.!' rf! 11 ^ fl [/^'^ '''''' '' ^^?T

deceleration time was considered to be 1.33 times ZJI'T}' }^ ''^" \V that even though the

the acceleration time. ^ fe and other conditions are different than those

Figure 26 shows the acceleration distance for ^" \^",í ^^f calcula ions are based, there is a retypical empty and loaded trucks in the 60,000- to »"f^'kably close correlation between calculated and

86,000-pound class, with i? = 1.75 for loaded and oDservecl values.

5=5.0 for empty. This figure was computed by C. Effect of Spacing on Turnouts and Traffic

using the method described on p. 51. Density on Xpeed on Single-Lane Roads

Table 20 is an example of the method of cal- Tí. • ^.i i i.- • i i i •

dilating combined effect of deceleration, speed ^\ '\ ^^'^ "^"='' P^-actice on single-lane logging

on curves, and acceleration for various radii of ^'^f^s for an empty truck to stop on turnouts and

curvature and number of curves per mile. The ^"o^^' ^ loaded truck to pass without materially

first step in the calculation is to determine the reducing its speed or causing it to stop. Turnouts

length of curve from the radius and central angle are usually intervisible. Assuming this condition

iis described in Xo. 3 above. to exist, the time lost by an empty truck being

The length within the curves can then be de- passed by a loaded truck would be as follows:

termined, and the remainder, in the distance of 1 (a) The time required for the loaded truck to

mile, is the tangent distance. From figure 26, approach and pass the empty truck,

acceleration and deceleration distances are deter- (b) Reaction time for the driver of the em])ty

mined and their total subtracted from the total truck to start his vehicle after the loaded truck

tangent distance to get the length of tangent un- passes.

affected by the curves. The velocity on the curve (c) Time for empty truck to accelerate to

is found from figure 28, \). 54, for single lane normal speed less the time it would have taken for

roads. Average velocity while decelerating and empty truck to go the same distance at nornuil

accelerating is found as the mean of the velocity sj^eed.

on the curve and the velocity corresponding to a The time required for tlie empty tru.k to <le-

-2-percent grade, from Section A of this appen- celerate and ])aik on tlip turnont r- ossunied to l)t>

dix, p 45. The times for the curve distances, tlie the s:ime as the time required for ilie loaded a.'ck

deceleration plus decelerating distance, and for to cover one-lialf tlie distaiue ^K t^.een tun.oufs.

the tangent distance, are then found by dividing It is not neoessary to consider dereleiatu.n tune

those cli^ta,*^ces by the corresponding velocity. for tlie empty truck, because the time will norm-
56

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HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

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LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK 57

TABLE 21. -Comparison oj theoretical speed cordndled by curvature with adudl spt(d frotti field tests

Class of road

Truck

loaded or

empty

Grade

Length

of test

section

Curves

Equivalent curves

per mile

radius

Ft.

254

230

170

160

220

287

445

445

Theoretical time

required

Actual

time

required

Single lane without ditch

Single lane with ditch

Do

Lane and one-half with ditch .

Do

Loaded

Empty

__-do

__-do

Loaded

-_-do

.__do

Per

-5. 5

-. 7

-2. 1

- 3. 27

-2. 0

-3. 6

-1.0

+ 1.0

Ft.

7,500

10, 700

9, 000

8,800

11, 100

10, 500

14,600

14, 600

No.

14

13

18

10

16

24

21

21

No.

10

7

10

6

8

12

8

8

Min.¡mi.

3. 75

2. 80

3. 40

2. 70

3. 15

3. 15

1. 80

1. 70

.\ fin./mi.

3. 77

2. 75

3. 43

2. 68

3. 35

Do.---,

Double lane -

2. 85

1. 90

Do Empty 1. 76

ally be less than the time for tlie loaded truck to

travel one-half the distance between turnouts.

The distance required to accelerate the empty

truck back to normal speed (for the empty) can

be found in figure *2H, p. 54, if it is assumed that

the g;rade is a +L> percent against the empty truck.

(Tins grade was selected as representing an average condition.)

The number of passings per mile of road would

be equal to the number of loaded trucks per hour

divided by the normal speed in miles per hour.

Let ii= Number of loaded vehicles per hour

Si =Turnout spacing

Sa=Distance required for empty truck to

accelerate to normal speed

r„== Normal time per mile

Ti=Lost time per mile for the empty truck,

in minutes

r=Speed of loaded truck in miles per hour

r^^Velocity of loaded truck in feet per

second

T^,=Velocity of empty truck in feet per

second

2 Sa — Sa

..„ V2T;^^^ Ve ).

For simplicity of calculation, it is assumed that

Vi—Ve, in which case

H/St+2 So

''mX 2 Vi 0

The effect of this lost time for a traffic density of

20 vehicles is shown in table 22. Since the time

lost between turnouts is directl}" proportional to

traffic density, it was possible to construct figure

16, p. 17, by using the average increase in travel

time corresponchng to the various turnout

spacings.

D. Delay Time

Data were taken during field tests to determine

the relative time involved in delays for large

trucks as compared with delays for small ones.

Table 23 shows delay time in minutes per M board

feet or minutes per trip, whichever seems logical

for the particular operation.

In loading and scaling, the time involved is

gi-eater for large trucks than for small ones, since

it is directly in proportion to the number of M

board feet per load. In unloading, however, time

is not in proportion to load size, since only a part

of it is involved in the actual unloading. About

half the unloading time can be distributed on a per

M-board-foot basis and the other half on a per

trip basis. In all other delays, no more time is involved for large trucks than for small ones; these

delays can be distributed on a i>er trip basis.

Using average data from table 23, table 24

shows the average delay time per M board feet for

large trucks as compared with that for small

trucks.

Figure 9, p. IL shows the average delay time

per M board feet for loads ftx>m 4 to 20 M board

feet.
58 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OP^^TGETCIJLTTJRE

TABLE 22.—Percent increase in trace! time, by turnout spacing and a traßc density oj 20 vehicles per hour

Turnout spacing (feet) Speed of

loaded truck

Velocity of

loaded truck

Distance

for empty

truck to

accelerate

to normal

speed

Lost time

per mile

for empty

truck

Normal

travel time

per mile

Increase in

travel time

1,000

M.p.h.

( 30

25

< 20

15

I 10

Ft./Sec.

44

36. 7

29. 3

22

14. 7

Ft.

710

310

135

52

13

Min./mi.

0. 339

.335

. 410

. 621

1. 262

Min.

2.00

2. 40

3.00

4.00

6.00

Percent

16.9

14.0

13. 7

15.5

21.0

Average 16.2

750

( 30

25

< 20

15

I 10

44

36. 7

29. 3

22. 0

14. 7

710

310

135

52

13

. 307

. 289

. 340

. 497

. 979

2. 00

2. 40

3.00

4. 00

6.00

15.3

12. 1

IL 3

12.5

16. 3

Average 13.5

500

( 30

25

< 20

15

I 10

44

36. 7

29. 3

22. 0

14. 7

710

310

135

52

13

. 276

. 243

. 268

. 372

. 697

2. 00

2. 40

3. 00

4. 00

6. 00

13.8

10. 1

8.9

9.3

11. 6

Average

10. 7

250

( 30

25

20

15

I 10

44

36. 7

29.3

22.0

14. 7

710

310

135

52

13

.244

. 198

. 198

. 245

. 413

2.00

2. 40

3.00

4. 00

6. 00

12. 1

8.2

6.6

6. 1

6.8

Average

Í. 9

Company

1_

2_

3_

4_

5_

6_.

7_.

8_.

9_.

10_

Average.

TABLE 2S.—Breakdmvn of delay time, by size of load

Size of

load

ML

Waiting

for loader,

per trip

bd.ft. Minutes

9. 90 27. 89

6. 49 40. 05

11. 16 27. 72

7. 37 9. 68

6. 65 18. 01

6. 11 5.88

5. 38 16. 42

9. 60 7. 90

4. 48 9. 01

6. 30 13. 40

Loading,

per M

bd. ft.

17. 60

Scaling,

per M

bd. ft.

Waiting for

unloader,

per trip

One-half time

unloading;

Miscellaneous, per trip
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK

TABLE 24.—Average delay tifnc per M hoard jeet, by kind of delay

Kind of delay

Waiting for loader. _.

Loading

Scaling

Waiting for unloader

Unloading

Miscellaneous

TotaL4 M

Afin Utes

4. 40

3. 77

. 85

L 42

2. 18

2. 72

15. 34

Delay time when board-foot load is

6 M

Ai in ufes

2. 83

3. 77

. 85

. 94

1. 72

1. 81

11. í)2

8 M

Minutes

2. 20

3. 77

. 85

. 71

1. 48

1. 36

10. 37

10 M

Minutes

1. 76

3. 77

. 85

. 57

1. 36

1. 09

9. 40

12 M

Minutes

1. 47

3. 77

. 85

. 47

1. 27

. 90

8. 73

14 M

Minutes

1. 20

3. 77

. 85

. 40

1. 20

. 78

8. 26

16 M

Minutes

1. 10

3. 77

. 85

. 35

1. 15

• . 68

7. 90

18 M

Min

0

3,

Utes

98

77

85

31

11

60

7. 62

59

20 M

Minutes

0. 88

3. 77

. 85

. 28

1. 08

. 54

7. 40

APPENDIX 2. HAULING COSTS

A. Définition

Haulinp- costs as determined in this report include all costs except road amortization and maintenance costs and taxes or fees paid in lieu of these

costs.

B. Element,^ of Cost

1. Classification of Costs

The items that make up the total hauling cost

may be classified as follows :

a. Fixed costs

Costs paid for on an annual basis regardless

of the amount of driving that is done during

the year. They include the following :

(i) Depreciation on truck and trailer without tires

(2) Interest on money invested in truck,

trailer, and tires

(3) Fire and theft insurance

(4) Personal liability and damage insurance

(5) Collision insurance

b. Dependent costs

Costs that are chargeable against the hauling

operation while it is actually going on, but not

chargeable during the periods it is shut down.

These costs are as follows :

(1) Driver's wage, including annual leave

(2) Social security tax

(3) Unemployment compensation

(4) Administration

(5) Industrial insurance

c. Operating costs

Costs incurred by the operation of the truck.

These are

(1) Fuel ,

(2) Lubrication (including oil, grease, and

servicing)

(3) Repairs to truck and trailer

d. Tii^e costs

These include the initial cost of the tires and

the cost of repairs and labor to keep them serviceable during their useful life.

2. Distribution of Costs

In examining and comparing the costs of various

logging companies, it was found that the best correlation between costs could be obtained for some

on a tiine-of-oi)ei'ation basis and for others on a

mileage basis. Fixed costs and dependent costs

should definitely be considered on a time basis,

since that is the basis on which they are established.

Fuel consumption is a function of engine speed

and average percentage of maximum engine load

ca])acity during the time of operation. Because a

truck engine is usually operating at or near a constant r.p.m. and the speed on the road is varied

varied largely by shifting to higher or lower gears,

fuel consumption is more nearly constant on a

round-trip-a-minute-of-operation basis than on a

mileage basis.

Lubrication of the engine is a function of the

r.p.m. of the engine. SiiK*e the r.p.m. is more or

less constant, the amount of lubrication is more

nearly constant on a minute-of-operation basis

than a mile basis.

Fngine repairs are likewise a function of the

engine r.i).m. and should be considered on a nnnute-of-operation basis.

Lubrication and rei)aii- iov tlie engine MüJ < J'PSsis are probal>lv f1e|)en(lcnt ^n .r. ¡ueiM-y vf v.i entions in travel. Tins cnsr (ould be h^.ered^ee iiei

on a minute or a, mHe ]>avs. li^^ran-^ if is r^^at^^ ^

Ivsni.lhithaslitílrcíleri on total cost, regae<(]e^.

of which method IS used. ^^^^';^ ^'^r^V^l'' ^'^iw^n'iiî

gation between engio. and . .assis ^^^^^^

most of the company records upon ^^hH]l these
60 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

costs were based, they are ^ri'oiiped to<i:ether on a

miiiute-of-operation basis.

Tire costs should deñnitely be considered on a

mile basis; to consider tliem on a minute basis

would give a lower tire cost for high speeds than

for low speeds.

The distribution of total costs are considered in

this analysis as follows:

a. Ti)ne hams

(1) Fixed costs

(2) Dependent costs

(3) Operating costs

b. MUeaqe haMs

(1) Tire costs

3. Determination of Costs

a. Fibred costs

(1) Depreciation is computed on an 8-year

basis, assuming a 6-percent salvage at the end

of that time. The depreciation was considered

to be on the cost of the truck and trailer only,

because the cost of the tire is taken up under

''Tire cost/' The original cost of truck and

trailer was obtained from seven leading truck

manufacturers and four trailer manufacturers,

and the cost for each weight class, as determined by the tire capacity, is the average cost

of these different makes of trucks and trailers.

(2) Interest is computed at 6 percent for the

investment in truck and trailer including tires.

(3) Fire and theft insurance is figured from

data furnished by insurance companies and is

based on 80 percent of the average value of the

hauling unit throughout its usable life.

(*i) Personal UabiUty and property damage

insurance is computed on a basis of average

fleet rates in areas of low-density population

with a coverage of $10,000/$20,000.

(5) CoUision insurance is based on "$250 deductible'' on the average value of the truck less

trailer at fleet rates in areas of low-density

population.

Property taxes and license fees are not included in fixed costs, because they are usually

considered as a State revenue to cover road

maintenance.

The above fixed costs are distributed on a

basis of a 10-hour day, a 5-day week, and a 12-

month year. Thus, during the time when a

truck is delayed or when no hauling is being

done, these costs go on as usual. Since there

are, on this basis 60X lOX 5 X 52 = 156,000 working minutes per year, the cost per minute for

each of the above items would be

1

X annual cost for each item

b. Dependent costs

(1) Drivers wage is assumed to be $2.32 per

hour. Time-and-one-half is allowed for time in

excess of 40 hours per week, and 2 weeks' vacation with pay is allowed per year. The driver's

annual pay if he worked the full year would

be as follows :

Regular time = 40 X $2.32 X 50 =$4, 640. 00

Overtime =10X$2.32X50X 1.5= 1,740.00

Vacation = 40 X $2.32X2 = 185.60

156,000

6, 565. 60

During this time he works

60X l()xr>X50=ir)0,0()() minutes;

therefore, his rate of pay per minute is

$6,565.60 _

150,000 ~*"-"^'^^

(2) Social security is computed at 1.64 percent of the payroll.

(3) Unemployment compensation is assumed

to be equal to 2.7 percent of the payroll for the

average logging company.

(4) Administration, including supervising,

clerical, and other overhead, chargeable against

hauling, is assumed to be equal to 20 percent of

the payroll.

(5) Industrial insurance is assumed to be

equal to 11 percent of the payroll for the average logging company.

c. Operating costs

(1) Fuel cost.—Field tests indicate that the

fuel consumption per minute for round trip

travel can be assumed to be reasonably constant

for all grades. This seems reasonable, especially

for steep grades where the truck runs at full

throttle up grade and at or near a minimum on

the return trip. This assumption is further

justified by data published in Oregon State

Highway Commission's Technical Bulletin No.

5 (11)37). In the following tabulation, data for

columns (1), (2), and (3) are taken from figure

52 of that bulletin :

Fuel Rate offuel

ComposUe grade Speed consumption consumption

(pc^) (m.p.h.) (mi.fgal.) (gals./min.)

(1) (2) (3) (4)

0 36.0 5.6 0.107

1 34.0 5.5 .103

2-- 30.0 4.9 .102

3 24.0 4.0 .100

4 19.5 3.3 .099

5 16.0 2.7 .099

6 13.2 2.3 .096

Average . 101
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK 61

TABLE 25.—Round trip fuel consumption for various sizes of gasoline and diesel irveks ^

Truck sizes in pounds, g.v.w.—

Item

50,000-

60,000

60,000-

80,000

80,000-

96,000

96,000-

114,000

114,000-

207,000

Average size engine hp_ _

Gasoline consumed per round trip minute travel time__gals__

Diesel fuel consumed per round trip minute travel time

eals

100-125

0. 102

125-150

0. 121

.071

150-200

- 0. 162

. 096

200-265

0. 215

. 126

265-300

0. 243

. 143

1 Based on field tests.

Table 25 is based on round trip fuel consumption with the truck loaded one way and empty

the other. It is therefore representative of the

average percentage of full-load engine output

for the round trip for existing road conditions.

For highways Avith an alinement that does not

limit speed, it seems reasonable to assume that

the percentage of full-load engine output for

the round trip would be increased and that the

TABLE 2^.—Repair costs for diesel and gasoline

units, 1957

DIESEL rxiTs

Company

2

Dollars

0. 0595

3 . 1572

8 __ - . 1590

14 --- --- -

. 1460

15 __ - - -- . 1320

16 -- ---

.0833

17 .0756

18 - .0481

21 . 2040

22 .0742

23 .0940

Average.

Repair

cost per

minute

driving

time

Actual

g.v.w.

Pounds

57, 000

107, 760

140,010

91,080

103, 120

99, 124

70, 375

105, 400

60, 108

123, 240

Average cost

new

truck

and

trailer

Dollars

18, 100

25, 900

38, 100

20, 200

20, 200

27, 300

22, 500

25, 900

19, 500

30, 000

Repair

cost per

minute

per $1,000

initial

cost

Dollars

0. 00329

. 00607

.00417

. 00723

. 00653

. 00305

. 00214

. 00788

. 00381

. 00313

. 00473

GASOLINE UNITS

4

6.

Dollars

0. 0293

. 1720

.0859

.0611

. 0693

. 1130

Pounds

65, 210

106, 810

115,835

66, 515

56, 200

98, 000

Dollars

13, 500

25, 900

25, 000

13, 900

13, 500

25, 960

Dollars

0. 00217

. 00664

7

. 00344

10 . 00440

.00513

. 00436 19

20

. 00402

Average

fuel consumption per minute would therefore

be somewhat greater. For roads with poor

alinement or roads where the speed is otherwise

reduced below that which the engine is capable

of, the fuel consumption per minute would be

somewhat decreased. Such variations were ol)-

served in the field data, but they were relatively

small. Therefore, it is believed that table '25

shows fuel consumption for all types of road

conditions with reasonable accuracy. In this

analysis, fuel costs per gallon were 16 cents for

diesel oil and 22.2 cents for gasoline. This does

not include the tax.

(2) Luhrication costs.—According to data

compiled from logging companies' records, the

average lubrication cost is equal to 13 percent

of the fuel cost for gasoline trucks and 29 percent of the fuel cost for diesel trucks.

(3) Repairs for truck and trailer,—The data

in table 26, compiled from logging company

records for 1957, are for repair costs that included parts and labor. Assuming that the cost

of keeping a truck and trailer in operating condition during the unit's useful life will be in

proportion to the original cost of the unit, table

27, which is based on table 26, shows the average

repair cost for gasoline and diesel units.

TABLE 27.—Average repair cost for various sizes of

gasoline and diesel units

G.v.w. (pounds)

50,000 to 60.000

60,000 to 86.0(Hi

86,000 to lOilOOO

103,000 to 12li,000-

122,000 to 164,000.

164 000 to 207,000 _

Cost,

new truck

and trailrr.

less tires

Repair cost per minute

of driving time

Gasoiint

UDí!"

Di.'~el

1111 i I

'Olhtr

i;:,'Í00 0. 055^i

L>1 i\{)9 . 086i^

25, 300 . 1017

31,000 . ] 246

38, 100 . 1 532

43, 400 . 1745

1022

1 1 97

1 466

1802

2053
Q2 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

d Tire costs ^^^^ ^^^^ comes into contact with the road surface

1 1 1 .1 ^ • J.^ 4- P^r mile: Few records are available that give the cost contacts

of tires operated over any one type of surface. ^ ^, ^^, Jl;^'^^^^ ^.^^^ ^^¡;^^¡

In order to determine the relative cost over {pounds) used {number) {number) Ratio

paved, dirt, and gravel surfaces, the followin- ^O'""»-««'«!]»- - \''^^f> \l J?f '500

Urd was taken from three companies using SS-ISSo.;- I? x 22 ¡8 IS l ?32!!

on-the-hifi'hwav trucks: 103,000-122,000. _ 12x24 18 432 .8670

122,000-1 (i4,000_. 14x24 18 396 .7950

Company Tire cost Paved Gravel Dirt 164,000-207,000.. 16x24 18 355 .7130

per mile road road road

{dollars) {percent^ {percent) {percent) Based OU the ratios in the preceding tabula1 0. 0316 95 3 2 tion, table 28 shows tire cost per mile tor var2 .0583 57 43 0 ^^^^^g gj^^g ^f truck and trailer units and types

3 . 0926 48 0 ^^ surface. In using this method of calculating

T . . 1 ^ .lo /^;i^.i oor^KoU r^r tire cost, it íS assuined that such cost íS íU direct

Let r^cost on paved roads (oiled, asphalt, oi p.^p^.tion to the cost of a new set of tires and

y^cosTToiavel roads (crushed to 1-inch that the vehicle load is properly placed so that

y ^wöL v^ ^ V the tires carry no more than the load specihed minimum) i xi / 4.

«;=cost on dirt roads (native clav and rock I'.V ^l^e manufacturer

• , ^ ^ • The vahies m table 28 are compared with

then the Suowing equation can be set up for values in table 29 which were taken from the

each of the above companies: book records of 11 logging companies. .Note

the closeness oi computed and actual tire cost

.95/+ .03y+.02^=0.0316 p^^ j-^^jl^ Xhe cost of tires operated over dirt.

.57J^+ .43?/+0 =0.0583 roads that have no rock material in them larger

.48r+.0 +.52u?=0.0926 ^.j^^j.^ would be found in a gravel surface (1 inch

Solving these equations, the following values minus) is the same or slightly less than that

are obtained: shown for the gravel surface.

7/=0 094 ^' Tabulation of Eléments of Cost

w=0.\bO Tables 4 and 5, pp. 'li) and lil, show hauling costs

Pavement c.ravei Dirt for gasoHuc aiid dicscl uiiits accordiiig to the folValue $0.031 $0.094 $0. 150 lowing classifications :

Ratio 1.00 3.03 4.84 (a) Fixed costs per minute

The following tabulation is based on the assump- (b) Dependent fixed costs per minute

tion that the wear on tires is in proportion to (c) Operating cost, less tires, per minute

the number of times any spot on the tread of (d) Tire cost per mile

- Tire costs per mile for varioU's sizes of truck and trailer units and types of surface

\iimber and size of tires

Maximum

allowable

load

Cost of set

of tires

Tire cost per mile of—

Paving Gravel Dirt

18—9 X 20

Po\Lnds

72, 900

86, 040

90, 900

91,800

106, 380

112,860

133, 740

169,200

1 221,400

Dollars

2, 005. 00

2, 519. 00

2, 925. 00

2, 660. 00

3, 130. 00

3, 824. 00

4, 673. 00

8, 337. 00

11,097. 00

Dollars

0. 0256

. 0310

. 0351

.0314

. 0358

. 0420

. 0498

. 0813

. 0974

Dollars

0. 0776

. 0940

. 1062

. 0951

. 1086

. 1274

. 1512

. 2467

. 2953

Dollars

0 1239

18 10x20 . 1500

18—11 X 20

18^10 X 22,

18—11 X 22 . - . _ __

. 1645

. 1518

1733

18—11 X 24 2033

18—12 X 24

18—14 X 24 .

2—12 X 24_ _ .

.2412

. 39-Î0

2—16 X 24 . 4712
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK

TABLE 29.—Comparison of derived tire costs ivith actual 1957 costs

63

Company

1.

2.

3-.

4.

5-

6_.

7..

8..

9..

10

11

Number and size of tires

8—10 X 20

8— 9 X 20.

8—10 X 20

8—11 X 24.

8—11 X 22.

8—10 X 22.

8—10 X 22.

8—10 X 20.

8—12 X 24.

8—10 X 20.

8—11 X 24

G.v.w.

Pounds

57, 000

65, 200

59, 800

106, 800

98, 500

71, 800

70, 400

56, 200

98, 000

60, 200

107, 500

Tire cost per mile ofPavement Gravel

Percent

57

95

64

0

0

70

77

48

45

75

65

Percent

43

3

28

100

91

30

20

0

44

0

35

Dirt

Percent

0

2

8

0

9

0

3

52

11

25

0

Computed

cost per

mile

Dollars

0. 0581

. 0316

. 0582

. 1274

. 1144

. 0505

. 0475

. 0920

. 1155

. 0607

. 0719

Actual

cost per

mile

Dollars

0. 0583

. U316

. 0664

. 1220

. 1000

. 0529

. 0419

. 0926

. 1260

. 0735

. 0810

C. Hauling Cost by Period

To enable ready calculation of hauling; cost

when length of haul, time of haul, delay time, and

length of shutdown period are known, tables 7 and

8, pp. 24 and 25, were prepared to show the cost

by periods for gasoline and diesel units, respectively. In these tables the following symbols are

used :

/=Costs that occur during shutdown periods; these are made up of fixed costs only.

.V=Costs that occur when the truck is in service but not hauling logs. This cost occurs

when the truck is being loaded and unloaded, or is waiting to be loaded or unloaded, or when it is held up for similar

delays. This item includes fixed costs

and dependent costs.

i^=Costs that occur only when the vehicle is

traveling, less tire costs. This item includes fixed costs, dependent costs, and

vehicle operation costs.

/> = Tire cost.

Costs /, N. and C are shown in minutes, and costs

D are shown in miles.

D. Hauling Cost—Total

Based on the breakdown of costs by periods,

figures 18 to 21, inclusive, (pp. 26 to 29) can be

used to simplify the determination of hauling cost.

It will be noted that total cost is determined b}'

adding together the separate costs C Co, G,

and Ci.

These values were determined as follows:

C^ =2D+Ct

^, J^OZ

(\=j(^-\)t

where

t/, A^, r\ and D are as defined in Section C above

and are as shown in tables 7 and 8

and

¿=Time per round trip mile

i-Total length of haul

y= Months of working season per year

Q=Total M board feet per load

Z=Delay time per M board feet in minutes

(fig. 9, p. 11)

Because hauling cost for gasoline and diesel

units is approximately the same, figures 18 to 21,

inclusive, are for gasoline trucks oiilv.
64 HANDBOOK 183, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

APPENDIX 3. COST OF ROAD MAINTENANCE

This report does not include a determination of

road maintenance costs. For the handbook user's

convenience, the following tabulation shows maintenance costs in Oregon for roads with heavy log

haul during calendar years 1955-57:

East of Cascade Range West of Cascade Ranqe

Average cost Average cost

Ailles per mile . Miles per mile

{number) (dollars) {number) (dollars)

Surface:

Bituminous

macadam 14 608 15 1,439

Oil macadam 250 701 21 775

Asphaltic pavement 21 302 22 587

Untreated

macadam 45 1,439 14 777

Concrete pavement 1408

1 408 miles at $394 per mile for maintenance—statewide data not available

for this type of road with heavy log hauling.
LOGGING ROAD HANDBOOK 65

APPENDIX 4. STATE AND FEDERAL TAXES AND FEES PAID FOR ROAD USE AND

MAINTENANCE

Although costs as determined in this report do gallon. Average gasoline consumption and State

not include highway-use taxes, this appendix has tax for tliese trucks are as follows:

been prepared to indicate the approximate amount

01 Lllt^e LtlAtîo. sumed per round State tax per

, f: V w trip mile round trip mile

Federal fax tor highway ii.se {pounds) (gallons) {doiiars)

« « . 60 000 0.402 0.0241

Federal tax for fuel is 3 cents per gallon. Based 72Í000] _ ! ! ^'.. -. 48-1 . 02*)0

on average gasoline-use figures, as determined elsewhere in this report, the tax per round trip mile Public Utility Coniinission fees in Oregon are

is as follows: based on gross vehicle weight. The tax for gasFederal tax per oliue trUcks is aS folloWS :

G;V,w. round trip mile

{pounds) (dollars) P.U.C.feeper

60,000 0.0120 Rated q.v.w. round trip mile

79 000 . 0144 (pounds) (dollars)

60,000 loaded 0. 0340 Truck and traiUr.

State tax for highway use 22,000 .mpty_.___,--_ .0095 Truck only.

state taxes vary for highway use in both amount TotaL . 0435 ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^^

and method of assessment. In general, these taxes ^^'^^5 ^^^^p^^, ; 0150 Truck only.

are made up of both limip-sum assessments and ' ' ' "

sales tax on fuel consumed. For the purpose of Total 0580

this appendix, only the State of Oregon is con- ^ , , . ;

sidered. Total Federal plus State hujhiray use tax j^er round

Oregon has made an extensive study of high- trip mile in Oregon

way costs occasioned by hea^^^ trucking, and since œ,ooo-pound 72.000-pound

January 1, 1952, the tax has been based on the size ""'' """

of unit as well as the total number of miles hauled. Federal fuel tax $0. 0^20 so 0144

Limiting loads are approximately 60,000 pounds ||^|^ ^^'"^^ ^^^^y^-^ ; ^^.^- ; ^¿go

for single axle-driven trucks and 72,000 for dual

axle-drÍA-en trucks. The State tax is 6 cents per Total . OTmi . ioi4

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1960 O—553561