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WIC and the Nutrient Intake of Children

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Craig Gundersen

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Table 1--Socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of children by WIC status

WIC Income-eligible Income 

All children recipients nonparticipants ineligibles

(n=2,280) (n=439) (n=767) (n=1,074)

Individual characteristics

Percent

Race/ethnicity:

White (non-Hispanic) 62.7 44.41 49.21 79.0

Black (non-Hispanic) 16.6 29.21 22.51 7.8

Hispanic 15.2 19.61 23.11 8.2

Other (non-Hispanic) 5.4 6.8 5.2 5.1

Age:

1 year 24.2 33.61,2 19.41 23.8

2 year 24.9 28.8 23.5 24.4

3 year 24.5 20.5 26.1 25.0

4 year 26.4 17.21,2 30.9 26.9

Sex:

Male 50.9 50.9 52.0 50.1

Female 49.1 49.1 48.0 49.9

Household characteristics

Mean

Annual income $38,656 $17,9431 $18,9671 $59,917

Percent of poverty 194.1 103.81 111.51 284.7

Percent

Own their home 55.3 30.51 34.21 79.2

Have assets over $5,000 34.3 4.71 8.51 63.3

Persons

Household size 4.4 4.71 4.71 4.1

Percent

Receive Food Stamps 21.0 54.91,2 32.51 0.13

Dollars

Monthly value of Food 

Stamps 262 263 260 NA

Region: Percent

Northeast 18.8 18.1 14.8 21.7

South 33.7 34.6 32.3 34.3

Midwest 23.9 27.0 22.2 23.9

West 23.6 20.4 30.6 20.1

Urbanization:

Central city 34.1 40.9 39.4 27.9

Suburbs 47.5 34.41 40.51 57.4

Rural 18.3 24.71 20.1 14.6

Household structure:

Dual headed 80.4 61.81 69.71 94.6

Single head 19.6 38.21 30.31 5.4

Years of schooling

Education of head 12.7 11.11 11.51 14.1

Percent

Completed high school 82.0 65.61 70.61 95.8

Notes: Weighted data.

NA=Not applicable.

1Significantly different from income ineligibles at the 95-percent confidence level.

2Significantly different from income eligible nonparticipants at the 95-percent confidence level.

3Households in which someone other than the child received food stamps.

Source: 1994-96 CSFII based on 2-day nutrient intake.
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Table 2--Nutrient intake by WIC status

Income-eligible

Nutrient WIC nonpar- Income

All children recipients ticipants ineligibles

(n= 2,280 ) (n=439) (n=767) (n=1,074)

Percent of RDA

Mean

Iron 112.0 121.71 110.2 109.4

(1.34) (3.94) (2.00) (1.88)

Calcium 100 102 97.3 101.2

(1.34) (3.50) (1.32) (1.97)

Vitamin C 227.5 245.6 216.9 227.7

(4.25) (8.85) (6.15) (5.94)

Vitamin A 173.7 181.6 159.21 180.5

(3.44) (15.43) (4.66) (3.31)

Protein 285.2 301.91 290.7 275.0

(2.93) (8.23) (4.60) (4.32)

Vitamin B-6 127.7 133.2 127.4 125.9

(1.52) (4.45) (2.05) (1.81)

Folate 344.8 371.31 348.9 331.7

(5.15) (12.35) (7.53) (5.91)

Zinc 76.5 81 78.4 73.4

(.96) (2.56) (1.12) (1.38)

Food energy 98.8 101.7 99.0 97.5

(.89) (2.44) (1.59) (1.12)

Percent of children failing to meet

100 percent of the RDA

Percent

Iron 48.7 40.51, 2 50.1 50.9

(1.31) (2.56) (1.86) (2.05)

Calcium 55.2 54.5 56.9 54.2

(1.39) (3.71) (1.70) (2.14)

Vitamin C 19.0 15.9 22.1 18.0

(1.24) (2.27) (1.89) (1.73)

Vitamin A 24.5 24.2 29.31 21.3

(1.05) (2.41) (1.73) (1.54)

Protein 1.2 0.6 1.3 1.4

(.28) (.44) (.49) (.46)

Vitamin B-6 33 30.1 34.2 33.4

(1.37) (3.76) (1.91) (1.72)

Folate 1.7 1.7 2.0 1.5

(.31) (.83) (.59) (.37)

Zinc 82.2 77.4 79.8 85.6

(1.27) (2.67) (1.67) (1.55)

Food energy 57 54.1 56.4 58.5

(1.14) (2.93) (2.31) (2.01) 

Notes: Weighted data. Numbers in parentheses are the standard errors of the mean.

1Significantly different from the corresponding coefficient for income ineligibles at the 95-percent confidence level.

2Significantly different from the corresponding coefficient for income-eligible nonparticipants at the 95-percent confidence level.

Source: 1994-1996 CSFII based on 2-day nutrient intake.
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Table 3—Results of multiple regression models on WIC income-eligible children

Food

Iron Calcium Vit. C Vit. A Protein Vit. B-6 Folate Zinc energy

Intercept 107.86* 103.78* 223.27* 137.22* 226.26* 127.76* 262.60* 73.07* 79.02* 

(10.70) (12.29) (7.35) (5.40) (11.35) (11.61) (7.32) (11.74) (13.62)

WIC recipient 17.33* 3.21 29.54* 28.20* -5.05 9.49* 28.00* 1.34 -0.75

(4.88) (1.08) (2.76) (3.15) (.72) (2.45) (2.21) (.61) (.37)

Percent of poverty .01 -0.03 -0.15 -0.03 -.14* -0.00 0.08 -0.03 -0.04

(.35) (1.15) (1.38) (.38) (2.01) (.02) (.68) (1.62) (1.74)

Food Stamp recipient -6.47 -2.01 -17.93 -9.71 5.50 -7.20 -23.98 1.41 -0.06

(1.60) (.60) (1.47) (.95) (.69) (1.63) (1.67) (.57) (.03)

Assets of $5,000 .22 3.60 4.79 10.02 -2.70 -1.48 13.63 1.14 -2.15

(.03) (.65) (.24) (.60) (.21) (.20) (.58) (.28) (.56)

Homeownership -6.74 .38 -2.37 -13.22 -1.32 -4.13 -10.89 -1.84 1.96

(1.81) (.12) (.21) (1.41) (.18) (1.02) (.82) (.80) (.91)

Male 5.79 4.18 4.84 8.42 12.48* 4.47 14.57 2.52 5.63*

(1.80) (1.55) (.50) (1.04) (1.97) (1.28) (1.28) (1.27) (3.05)

Black 3.30 -10.36* 1.42 -35.07* 3.22 -5.77 -12.04 3.70 -1.86

(.69) (2.59) (.10) (2.91) (.34) (1.10) (.71) (1.25) (.68)

Hispanic -10.62* -2.06 22.28 4.43 1.50 4.15 21.94 -3.98 -4.69

(2.31) (.53) (1.61) (.38) (.16) (.83) (1.34) (1.40) (1.77)

Other racial/ethnic -21.41* -4.33 12.99 .44 -14.72 -7.76 -21.09 -5.95 -10.66*

(2.92) (.71) (.59) (.02) (1.02) (.97) (.81) (1.32) (2.53)

Midwest 1.22 -2.59 -3.90 18.31 15.77 3.03 11.92 7.43* 6.24*

(.22) (.57) (.24) (1.34) (1.47) (.51) (.62) (2.21) (1.99)

South -4.59 -10.07* -27.20 1.76 -5.59 -7.15 -11.43 -0.59 -2.65

(.91) (2.39) (1.80) (.14) (.56) (1.30) (.64) (.19) (.92)

West -2.23 -3.70 -27.67 -2.22 -6.68 -4.56 3.35 1.59 -3.66

(.42) (.82) (1.71) (.16) (.63) (.78) (.18) (.48) (1.19)

Metro-central city 3.48 -3.36 11.90 -4.71 -10.84 0.06 9.42 -.32 0.61

(.89) (1.03) (1.01) (.48) (1.40) (.01) (.68) (.13) (.27)

Nonmetro -8.45 -10.02* -18.47 -42.30* -5.00 -15.13* -45.38* -2.05 -2.25

(1.95) (2.76) (1.41) (3.87) (.58) (3.19) (2.94) (.77) (.90)

Age-1 year -19.92* 15.38* 15.86 15.56 76.69* -2.74 63.32* -10.33* 13.80*

(4.27) (3.94 ) (1.13) (1.32) (8.31) (.54) (3.81) (3.59) (5.14)

Age-2 years -11.24* -7.46* 47.24* 10.21 86.11* 6.74 108.23* -6.93* 21.80*

(2.48) (1.96) (3.45) (.89) (9.60) (1.36) (6.71) (2.47) (8.35)

Age-3 years -1.43 -5.53 37.40* 16.45 91.61* 12.11* 143.05* -2.92 27.71*

(.29) (1.34) (2.52) (1.33) (9.40) (2.25) (8.16) (.96) (9.77)

Head’s education (years) .90 0.62 -0.26 2.45 1.87 0.46 .76 0.58 0.60

(1.65) (1.37) (.16) (1.79) (1.73) (.78) (.39) (1.74) (1.93)

Single headed household 6.60 -6.12 -13.27 5.64 -.03 2.92 6.12 1.34 2.35

(1.58) (1.75) (1.05) (.54) (.00) (.64) (.41) (.52) (.97)

Year95 2.66 1.03 19.08 .95 -6.26 -2.81 2.40 7.36* .26

(.70) (.32) (1.66) (.10) (.83) (.68) (.18) (3.13) (.12)

Year96 .02 3.30 13.33 -.64 -.83 -3.21 -5.73 5.99* 1.80

(.01) (.97) (1.09 ) (.06) (.10) (.73) (.40) (2.40) (.77)

Notes: The dependent variable is the nutrient intake of children expressed as a percentage of the RDA. Numbers in 

parentheses are the t values. *=Significant at the 95-percent confidence level. Sample size=1,135 observations.
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Table 4—Possible biases affecting the full-sample regression model

Cause of bias Type of bias Expected direction Adjusted for in the 

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1. Parent is not aware that child Self-selection Upward Yes

is eligible for WIC

2. Parent chooses not to enroll Self-selection Upward Yes

eligible child in WIC due to

stigma, costs, or time involved

3. Parent chooses not to enroll Self-selection Downward Yes

eligible child in WIC because

parent perceives child not to be 

at a high level of risk

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eligible child in WIC because 

parent anticipates future increase

in income

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because child does not 

demonstrate nutritional risk

6. Child is eligible for WIC Rationing Downward No 

but cannot participate due to 

a lack of available slots 


			
 
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Table 5—Results of multiple regression models on WIC income-eligible children residing in households in

which another adult or infant household member participates in WIC

Food

Iron Calcium Vit. C Vit. A Protein Vit. B-6 Folate Zinc energy

Intercept 26.68 97.42* 56.00 72.50 213.87* 47.43 -33.14 50.43* 65.28*

(.94) (5.04) (.72) (1.60) (4.56) (1.65) (.33) (3.39) (4.68)

WIC recipient 20.67* 12.67 48.75 26.01 .20 23.49* 91.06* -3.07 -1.83

(2.10) (1.88) (1.81) (1.65) (.01) (2.34) (2.61) (.59) (.38)

Percent of poverty .07 .00 -.11 .21 -.22 .09 .21 -.08 -.04

(.74) (.02) (.45) (1.44) (1.46) (.92) (.66) (1.57) (.94)

Food Stamp recipient 1.21 -.59 -41.97 -.89 22.57 1.75 -25.76 3.50 2.07

(.12) (.08) (1.50) (.05) (1.33) (.17) (.71) (.65) (.41)

Assets of $5,000 -17.41 -41.01 89.39 17.12 -69.21 -7.93 57.26 -11.57 -11.20

(.55) (1.89) (1.03) (.34) (1.32) (.25) (.51) (.69) (.72)

Homeownership -10.05 -1.61 8.51 -27.73 7.72 -6.71 -51.97 -3.40 .94

(.95) (.22 ) (.29) (1.63) (.44) (.62) (1.38) (.61) (.18)

Male 1.33 21.83* -21.33 12.18 20.20 12.85 55.37 4.03 8.80*

(.15) (3.59) (.88) (.85) (1.37) (1.42) (1.75) (.86) (2.01)

Black 31.36* 6.19 104.55* -15.70 57.94* 11.29 37.07 11.16 19.00*

(2.30) (.67) (2.81) (.72) (2.56) (.81) (.77) (1.56) (2.83)

Hispanic 11.92 6.75 134.74* 20.44 47.63* 33.93* 160.57* 9.57 14.08*

(.98) (.82) (4.06) (1.05) (2.37) (2.75) (3.73) (1.50) (2.36)

Other racial/ethnic -16.14 -36.69* 146.64* -6.84 -42.94 -13.41 20.43 2.65 -17.01

(.90) (2.99) (2.98) (.24) (1.44) (.73) (.32) (.28) (1.92)

Midwest 6.55 -33.05* 58.04 4.46 -43.49 .52 60.13 13.68 -6.37

(.35) (2.60) (1.14) (.15) (1.41) (.03) (.91) (1.40) (.70)

South -.37 -25.79* 39.96 -19.96 -69.48* -3.26 45.98 -5.89 -15.19*

(.02) (2.49) (.96) (.82) (2.76) (.21) (.86) (.74) (2.03)

West 14.02 -14.38 7.68 -24.31 -65.78* -7.35 30.75 -7.77 -17.91*

(.93) (1.40) (.19) (1.01) (2.63) (.48) (.58) (.98) (2.41)

Metro-central city 16.01 -1.71 34.10 13.73 -19.70 11.53 62.67 3.21 3.78

(1.50) (.24) (1.17) (.80) (1.11) (1.06) (1.66) (.57) (.72)

Nonmetro 1.97 3.46 -13.73 -5.74 -.75 -3.24 8.03 1.15 3.80

(.15) (.40) (.39) (.28) (.04) (.25) (.18) (.17) (.60)

Age-1 year -6.35 17.90 42.17 36.30 82.09* 13.96 138.99* -2.10 21.36*

(.45) (1.85) (1.09) (1.60) (3.50) (.97) (2.77) (.28) (3.07)

Age-2 years 10.45 -7.67 85.04* 41.49* 106.76* 28.40* 178.47* 7.17 29.71*

(.80) (.87) (2.40) (1.99) (4.96) (2.15) (3.88) (1.05) (4.65)

Age-3 years 6.64 -7.40 70.60 42.20 99.91* 23.58 167.94* 3.97 31.12*

(.44) (.73) (1.73) (1.76) (4.03) (1.55) (3.17) (.51) (4.23)

Head’s education (years) 4.20* .26 1.99 2.59 5.07* 2.26 6.89 1.85* 1.68*

(3.27) (.29) (.57) (1.26) (2.38) (1.73) (1.52) (2.75) (2.66)

Single-headed household -5.52 -14.91 -24.67 1.27 8.05 .02 -1.09 4.96 .21

(.45) (1.77) (.73) (.06) (.39) (.00) (.03) (.77) (.04)

Year95 5.30 -2.07 64.98* 2.06 -19.14 -5.73 -17.54 9.54 -3.13

(.51) (.29) (2.29) (.12) (1.11) (.54) (.48) (1.74) (.61)

Year96 4.09 -12.34 -3.78 -20.62 -40.04 -20.30 -42.21 3.69 -7.15

(.33) (1.46) (.11) (1.04) (1.95) (1.61) (.96) (.57) (1.17)

The dependent variable is the nutrient intake of children expressed as a percentage of the RDA. Numbers in parenthesis are

the t values. *=Significant at the 95-percent confidence level. Sample size=180 observations.

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Appendix A

Variable Names and Definitions 

Used in the Regression Model

Variable Definition

Child characteristics

WIC recipient Equals 1 if child participates in WIC, else 0

Male Equals 1 if child is male, else 0

Black Equals 1 if child is a non-Hispanic black, else 0

Hispanic Equals 1 if child is Hispanic, else 0

Other racial/ethnic Equals 1 if child is a non-Hispanic other, else 0

White Omitted base group—child is a non-Hispanic white

Age-1 year Equals 1 if child is 1 year of age, else 0

Age-2 year Equals 1 if child is 2 years of age, else 0

Age-3 year Equals 1 if child is 3 years of age, else 0

Age-4 year Omitted base group—child is 4 years of age

Household characteristics

Percent of poverty Household income as a percent of poverty threshold

Homeowner Equals 1 if household head owns home, else 0

Assets of $5,000 Equals 1 if household has assets of $5,000 or more, else 0 

(Assets include cash, savings or checking accounts, stocks, bonds, 

and certificates of deposit.)

Food Stamp recipient Equals 1 if household receives Food Stamps, else 0

Single-headed household Equals 1 if a single-headed household, else 0

Geographic characteristics

Midwest Equals 1 if household is in the Midwest, else 0

South Equals 1 if household is in the South, else 0

West Equals 1 if household is in the West, else 0

Northeast Omitted base group—household is in the Northeast

Central city Equals 1 if household is in metropolitan area-central city, else 0

Nonmetro Equals 1 if household is outside a metropolitan area, else 0

Metro-outside Omitted base group—household is in metropolitan area, outside central city

Characteristics of head of household

Head’s education Years of schooling completed by head. (In dual-headed households,

the head’s education refers to the female head.) 

Year of survey

Year95 Survey conducted in 1995

Year96 Survey conducted in 1996

Year94 Omitted base group—survey conducted in 1994
77  	



	

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Appendix table 2—Nutrient intake of children

residing in households in which an adult or infant

participates in WIC, by WIC status of the child

WIC NonparAll children partifcipant ticipant

(n=180) (n=110) (n=70)

Nutrient adequacy ratio

Mean

Iron 114.0 119.7 106.4

(5.19) (4.33) (7.42)

Calcium 91.8 94.7 88.0

(2.46) (2.03) (3.22)

Vitamin C 246.4 276.41 206.3

(10.36) (11.10) (17.44)

Vitamin A 147.6 151.2 142.7

(7.24) (6.45) (15.17)

Protein 291.6 304.3 274.7

(8.34) (4.41) (8.88)

Vitamin B-6 119.5 126.41 110.1

(3.90) (3.75) (3.27)

Folate 339.9 372.21 296.6

(15.26) (11.61) (15.26)

Zinc 75.5 76.9 73.8

(3.06) (1.82) (3.03)

Food energy 99.9 101.5 97.9

(3.16) (2.01) (3.44)

Percent of children failing to 

meet 100 percent of the RDA

Percent

Iron 45.1 40.3 51.5

(4.57) (4.35) (5.95)

Calcium 66.9 64.2 70.6

(3.51) (3.53) (4.93)

Vitamin C 20.1 17.1 24.1

(3.38) (3.77) (4.41)

Vitamin A 36.3 34.8 38.2

(4.76) (3.19) (6.99)

Protein 0.7 0.6 0.8

(.53) (.05) (.87)

Vitamin B-6 35.6 28.6 44.9

(4.25) (3.98) (5.17)

Folate 3.1 4.21 1.7

(1.89) (.34) (.21)

Zinc 82.3 79.9 85.5

(3.34) (3.60) (3.67)

Food energy 54.0 48.5 61.3

(3.88) (3.99) (5.18) 

Note: Weighted data.

1Significantly different from the corresponding nonparticipant coefficient at the 95-percent confidence level.

Appendix table 1—Socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of children residing in

households in which an adult or infant participates

in WIC, by WIC status of the child

WIC NonparAll children participant ticipant

(n=180) (n=110) (n=70)

Individual characteristics

Percent

Race/ethnicity:

White (non-Hispanic) 35.2 36.4 33.6

Black (non-Hispanic) 26.7 31.7 19.9

Hispanic 28.5 19.3 40.7

Other (non-Hispanic) 9.7 12.6 5.7

Age:

1 year 24.5 27.8 20.1

2 years 32.6 40.81 21.7

3 years 21.1 16.9 26.8

4 years 21.7 14.51 31.4

Sex:

Male 50.6 53.5 46.7

Female 49.4 46.5 53.3

Household characteristics

Mean

Annual income $16,685 $15,034 $18,898

Percent of poverty 94.7 87.1 104.8

Percent

Own their home 29.6 28.9 30.5

Have assets over $5,000 1.4 1.4 1.5

Persons

Household size 5.3 5.1 5.5

Percent

Receive Food Stamps 54.1 60.0 46.3

Dollars

Monthly value 283.8 288.4 275

of Food Stamps

Region: Percent

Northeast 11.5 13.3 9.0

South 38.3 38.6 37.8

Midwest 10.6 15.81 3.5

West 39.7 32.2 49.7

Metropolitan status:

Central city 46.4 43.6 50.2

Metro-outside 32.1 30.7 34

Nonmetro 21.5 25.7 15.7

Household structure:

Dual headed 71.2 68.2 75.2

Single head—female 28.8 31.8 24.8

Years of schooling

Education of head 10.0 9.7 10.5

Percent

Completed high school 54.2 53.3 55.3

Note: Weighted data.

1Significantly different from the corresponding nonparticipant coefficient at the 95-percent confidence level.
		


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