Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

60 Nowelo Street, Suite 100

Hilo, Hawai‘i 96720

Phone: 808/443-2300

Fax: 808/443-2304

http://www.fws.gov/hakalauforest

National Wildlife Refuge System Information

1 800/344 WILD

July 2012

All cover photos ©Jack Jeffrey unless otherwise noted

Front Cover Photos: Back Cover Photo:

Pueo ‘Apapane

‘A ̄kepa

O ̄pe‘ape‘a

Ne ̄ne ̄/USFWS






Land Protection Plan and 

Environmental Assessment

for the Proposed Additions to 

Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

Hawai‘i County, Hawai‘i

July 2012

Prepared By:

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Pacific Region, National Wildlife Refuge System

Division of Planning, Visitor Services, and Transportation 

911 NE 11th Avenue 

Portland, OR 97232 

(503) 231-2096 

www.fws.gov/pacific/planning 

and 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

60 Nowelo Street, Suite 100 

Hilo, HI 96720 

(808) 443-2300 

www.fws.gov/hakalauforest 

Approved by:

_____________________________________ _________________________ 

Regional Director, Pacific Region Date

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Concurrence:

Signed by Dan Ashe July 10, 2012 n 

Director Date

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

CITATION. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2012. Land Protection Plan, Proposed Additions to Hakalau 

Forest National Wildlife Refuge. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Region, Portland, Oregon. 25 pp.
Citation: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2012. Land Protection Plan and Environmental 

Assessment for the proposed additions to Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge, Hawai‛i County, 

Hawai‛i. Pacific Region, Portland, Oregon. 26 pp., plus appendices.
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan 

i 

Table of Contents

1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... ii

1.2 Project Description............................................................................................................... 1

1.3 Threat to or Status of the Resource ...................................................................................... 2

1.3.1 Habitat Loss, Degradation, and Fragmentation ................................................................ 2

1.3.2 Invasive Plant and Animals Species ................................................................................. 2

1.3.3 Infectious Diseases............................................................................................................ 3

1.3.4. Climate Change ................................................................................................................. 3

1.4 Purpose of the Proposed Expansion ..................................................................................... 4

1.5. Biological Standards ............................................................................................................... 4

1.5.1 Conservation of Priority Conservation Targets ................................................................ 4

1.5.2 Provides Habitat Connections ........................................................................................... 5

1.5.3 Promotes Biological Integrity ........................................................................................... 6

1.5.4 Invests in Healthy Lands ................................................................................................... 6

1.5.5 Anticipates or Responds to Climate Change .................................................................... 6

1.5.6 Provides Adequate Water ................................................................................................. 7

1.5.7 Urban Refuges .................................................................................................................. 7

1.6 Strategic Habitat Conservation ................................................................................................ 7

1.7 Land Protection Alternatives ................................................................................................. 11

1.7.1 Willing Seller Policy ....................................................................................................... 11

1.7.2 Habitat Protection Methods ............................................................................................ 11

1.8 Land Protection Priorities ...................................................................................................... 12

1.9 Coordination .......................................................................................................................... 12

1.10 Socioeconomic Impacts ........................................................................................................ 13

References Cited
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan 

ii

Tables

Table 1. Land proposed for addition to Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge ........................2 

Table 2. Priority conservation targets, status, and likelihood of occurrence within study areas ....6 

Table 3. Lands proposed for inclusion within the approved acquisition boundary of the Refuge 

arranged by their priority for acquisition ........................................................................ 13 

Figures

Figure 1. Location of areas proposed for addition to Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge . 15 

Figure 2. Lands managed, in part, for conservation on the Island of Hawai‘i .............................. 17 

Figure 3. Lands proposed for acquisition in vicinity of the HFU and at the McCandless Ranch 

adjacent to the KFU for addition to the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge ...... 19 

Figure 4. Predicted native forest passerine richness on Hawai‛i Island near the HFU and KFU . 21 

APPENDIX A. Conceptual Management Plan

APPENDIX B. Environmental Assessment 

APPENDIX C. List of Preparers

APPENDIX D. Responses to Public Comments 

APPENDIX E. Other Compliance Documents 

APPENDIX F. Director’s Approval
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan 

1 

1.1 Introduction 

In this Land Protection Plan (LPP), the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) describes the habitat 

protection methods that could take place for lands within Alternative B (Preferred Alternative) 

described in the Environmental Assessment (EA) for the Proposed Additions to the Hakalau Forest 

National Wildlife Refuge (NWR or Refuge). The plan also includes a priority listing of private lands 

to be considered for acquisition within the proposed boundary.

1.2 Project Description

The Refuge is located on the Island of Hawai‘i, which comprises Hawai‘i County, Hawai‘i (Figure 

1). It has two units, the Hakalau Forest Unit and the Kona Forest Unit. The Hakalau Forest Unit 

(HFU) includes 33,946 acres (ac) on the wetter, windward side of Mauna Kea and was established in 

1985. The Kona Forest Unit (KFU), established in 1997, includes 5,300 acres on the drier, leeward 

side of the island. The Service is proposing to protect additional habitat for endangered forest birds, 

waterbirds, plants, and other native species and special habitats by expanding the Refuge acquisition 

boundary by up to 29,973 acres of land to the HFU and KFU (Table 1). Lands under consideration 

for addition to the HFU include the 13,130-acre Koa Forest property, the 2,230-acre Maulua Gulch 

property, and the 4,469-acre Kūka‘iau Ranch property. Lands under consideration for addition to the 

KFU include the Honokua and Kahuku lots of the McCandless Ranch, a total of 10,143 acres. 

Table 1. Land proposed for addition to Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge.

Hakalau Forest Unit Parcels

Parcel Name Acres Based on County Assessor Records

Koa Forest Property 13,130

Maulua Gulch 2,230

Kūka‘iau Ranch 4,469

Hakalau Forest Unit Subtotal 19,829

Kona Forest Unit Parcels

McCandless Ranch Honokua Lots 3,887

McCandless Ranch Kahuku Lots 6,256

Kona Forest Unit Subtotal 10,143

Proposed Expansion Total 29,973

1 Total differs from combined subtotals due to rounding.

The proposed action would further several Hakalau Forest Refuge goals identified in its 

Comprehensive Conservation Plan (CCP) (Service 2011), including: 

Pahuhopu 1: E ho‘opalekana, mālama, a ho‘ōla hou i ka waonahele ma Mauna Loa ma ke ‘ano he 

wahi noho no nā mea a pau i mea e kū‘ono‘ono hou ai ka nohona o nā mea ‘ane make loa ‘o ia nō ‘o 

‘oe ‘o nā manu, nā ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, nā mea kanu, a me nā mea kolokolo ‘āina. 

Goal 1: Protect, maintain, and restore subtropical rainforest community on the leeward slope of 

Mauna Loa as habitat for all life-history needs to promote the recovery of endangered species (e.g., 

forest birds, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, plants, and invertebrates).
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan 

2 

Pahuhopu 2: E ho‘opalekana a mālama i nā ana kahe pele a me ke ola i ka puka mālamalama o nā 

ana kahe pele ma ka waonahele o Kona, e kālele ana ho‘i i ke ola o nā lā‘au ‘ōiwi. 

Goal 2: Protect and maintain lava tube and lava tube skylight habitat throughout the Kona Forest 

Unit, with special emphasis on their unique and endemic flora and fauna. 

Pahuhopu 3: E ho‘opalekana, mālama, a hō‘ola hou i ka waonahele ma ka ‘ao‘ao ko‘olau o Mauna 

Kea ma ke ‘ano he wahi noho no nā mea a pau a me ko lākou pono ‘oia nō ‘oe ‘o nā manu, nā 

‘ōpe‘ape‘a, nā mea kanu, a me nā mea kolokolo ‘āina. 

Goal 3: Protect, maintain, and restore subtropical rainforest community on the windward slope of 

Mauna Kea as habitat for all life-history needs of endangered species (e.g., forest birds, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, 

plants, and invertebrates).

Pahuhopu 4: E ho‘opalekana a mālama i ka ‘āina nenelu ma Hakalau. 

Goal 4: Protect and maintain wetland and aquatic habitats (e.g., streams and their associated riparian 

corridors, ponds, and bogs) on the Hakalau Forest Unit. 

The proposed action would implement objectives 1.5 and 5.3 of the CCP to investigate and initiate 

landscape-level habitat conservation measures for the KFU and HFU, respectively. The strategies to 

achieve these objectives include: identify habitat to support focal species; develop protection and 

management strategies; and work with partners, neighbors, and private landowners to meet 

conservation goals and develop specific proposals for land acquisition, cooperative agreements, 

and/or conservation easements (Service 2011). 

1.3 Threat to or Status of the Resource 

Native Hawaiian ecosystems face many threats including habitat loss, degradation, and 

fragmentation, invasive plant and animal species, and climate change. Native species are directly and 

indirectly affected by these threats, as well as infectious diseases such as avian pox and malaria to 

which most native birds have no resistance. These factors, all of which are operative on the Island of 

Hawai‘i and affect the resources that the Refuge was established to protect, are discussed.

1.3.1 Habitat Loss, Degradation, and Fragmentation. The ecology of Hawai‘i’s native 

ecosystems has been severely altered. Native plants and animals are generally absent and exotics 

predominate in nearly all low-elevation areas except for a few relatively undisturbed beach strands, 

steep-sided gulches, and lava tube skylights, etc., that excluded ungulates. Large areas of native 

forest at all elevations have been cleared for crop agriculture and livestock grazing. 

1.3.2 Invasive Plant and Animals Species. The intentional and accidental introduction of alien 

plants and animals to Hawai‘i has been ongoing for over 1,000 years. Significant changes occurred 

from Polynesian settlement, but since the arrival of Europeans, an estimated 12,000 plant species 

have been introduced to the Hawaiian Islands, compared with the 27 or so that the Polynesians 

brought with them. Feral pigs destroy understory vegetation and spread alien weeds. They consume

groundcover plants and significantly contribute to erosion, stream sedimentation, and sediment 

transfer to the ocean that can smother coral reefs. The intentional introductions were accompanied by 

accidental species introductions such as the Polynesian rat, which, due to its high reproductive rate, 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan

3 

had a devastating effect on ground-nesting birds, native land snails, and some tree species (Burney 

2001). Other stowaways have included the black rat (Rattus rattus), Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus), 

house mouse (Mus musculus), various geckos and skinks, land snails, various arthropods such as rat 

parasites, and other mosquitoes (genera Culex, Aedes, and Wyeomyia). 

1.3.3 Infectious Diseases. Pigs also facilitate mosquito-breeding through their rooting and 

wallowing. Hawai‘i has no native mosquitoes, but the Southern house mosquito (Culex 

quinquefasciatus) was introduced from Mexico in 1826 by the crew of the whaling vessel, 

Wellington, while replenishing their water barrels in freshwater streams on Maui. This introduction 

has devastated endemic bird species by spreading avian malaria and avian pox, diseases to which 

they have no natural immunity (Henshaw 1902). 

1.3.4. Climate Change. Small island groups are particularly vulnerable to climate change due to 

their small land area compared to the large expanses of surrounding ocean; limited natural resources; 

high susceptibility to natural disasters; and inadequate funds to mitigate impacts (IPCC 2001). Thus, 

Hawai‘i is considered to have a limited capacity to adapt to future climate changes. 

Recent changes in the climate of Hawai‘i include a rise in air and sea surface temperatures, decreases 

in rainfall and stream flow, and increases in rain intensity, sea level, and ocean acidification (Fletcher 

2010). Changes due to increased air and sea surface temperatures and decreased precipitation are 

most likely to directly affect the Refuge and the study areas. 

An analysis of temperature changes in the Hawaiian Islands for the past approximately 85 years 

based on an index of 21 stations has shown a relatively rapid rise in surface temperature in the last 

approximately 30 years, with stronger warming at the higher elevations. Minimum temperatures 

increased about three times as much as maximum temperatures, resulting in a narrower range of daily 

temperatures; the warming trend was greater at higher elevations (Giambelluca and others 2008). The 

average ambient temperature at sea level is projected to increase by about 4.1o

F by 2100 (IPCC 

2007). These changes would increase the monthly average temperature to between 77o

F and 86oF. 

The rate of increase at low elevation (0.16o

F per decade) is below the observed global temperature 

rise of 0.32o

F per decade (IPCC 2007). However, a recent analysis of high elevation temperature data 

collected at the Mauna Loa Observatory between 1959 and 2006 has shown higher warming trends in 

mean annual and December air temperatures by 0.47o

F and 0.79oF per decade, respectively (Juvik 

and others 2011). Warming temperatures would also tend to increase atmospheric stability and 

strengthen the trade wind inversion (Cao and others 2007). 

Precipitation in Hawai‘i has declined by about 15 percent over the last 15-20 years (Diaz and others 

2005, Chu and Chen 2005). Stream flow has also been in steady decline since in the early 1940s (Oki 

2004). However, rain intensity, which contributes to stream overflow and flooding and is not 

beneficial for aquifer replenishment, increased by about 12 percent between 1958 and 2007 (Fletcher 

2010). Global climate models project that net precipitation at sea level near the Hawaiian Islands will 

decrease in winter by about 4-6 percent, with no significant change during summer (IPCC 2007). 

Downscaling of global climate models suggest that wet-season (winter) precipitation will decrease by 

5 to 10 percent, while dry-season (summer) precipitation will increase by about 5 percent by the end 

of the century under a moderate emissions scenario (Timm and Diaz 2009). 

 

Most climate projections suggest that more intense wind speeds and precipitation amounts will 

accompany more frequent tropical typhoons/cyclones and increased tropical sea surface temperatures 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan 

4 

in the next 50 years. The intensity of tropical cyclones is likely to increase by 10-20 percent in the 

Pacific region when atmospheric levels of CO2 reach double pre-industrial levels (McCarthy and 

others 2001). 

Climate change has the potential to influence two interrelated ecological issues in the State of 

Hawai‘i: endangered species and pest species. Species response to climate change will depend on the 

life history, distribution, dispersal ability, and reproduction requirements of the species (DBEDT and 

DOH 1998, Middleton 2006, Giambelluca 2008). Climate change may exacerbate pest species issues 

because alterations in the environment may increase the dispersal ability of introduced weeds or 

animals, including infectious disease vectors such as mosquitoes.

1.4 Purpose of the Proposed Expansion

The Service identifies the purpose(s) of a refuge when it is established or when new land is added to 

an existing refuge. The purposes of the proposed Hakalau Forest NWR additions reflect the core 

mission of the Service to protect wildlife resources of national importance and the purposes for 

which the units of the existing Refuge were established. 

Under National Wildlife Refuge System (Refuge System) policy, lands acquired for an existing 

refuge must incorporate the primary purposes for which the existing refuge was established. Thus, 

the primary purposes for the Hakalau Forest NWR would also apply to the proposed additions, if 

they are acquired by the Service. The purposes of Hakalau Forest NWR, established on October 29, 

1985, are “. . . to conserve (A) fish or wildlife which are listed as endangered species or threatened 

species . . . or (B) plants . . .” (Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, 16 U.S.C. 1534). 

Acquisition of the currently proposed lands would have additional benefits including: 

• Conservation, enhancement, and restoration of aquatic resources, including streams and bogs; 

• Protection, enhancement, and restoration of other native habitats, including lava tubes and 

lava tube skylights; and 

• Potential enhancement of opportunities for compatible wildlife-dependent visitor uses. 

Conservation of lowland coastal habitats would also help maintain the rural character of Hawaii’s 

north shore by precluding subdivision and development of the lands that are ultimately purchased for 

inclusion in the Refuge. 

 

The Refuge expansion would protect, enhance, and restore native montane forests, bogs, streams, 

lava tubes, and lava tube skylights in perpetuity. Protection and management of these areas would 

allow the Service to contribute to the recovery of endangered and threatened species and to support 

other native plants and animals. 

1.5. Biological Standards

1.5.1 Conservation of Priority Conservation Targets. The priority conservation targets for this 

LPP are endangered forest birds, endangered waterbirds, an endangered mammal, an endangered 

invertebrate, and endangered, threatened, and candidate plant species. A summary of these species 

and their historical, known, and potential occurrence on the properties proposed for acquisition is 

provided in Table 1. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan

5 

Table 2. Priority conservation species, their status, and likelihood of occurrence within study 

areas. 

Status Koa 

Forest

Maulua 

Gulch

Kūka‘iau

Ranch

McCandless 

Ranch

Birds

‘Akiapōlā‘au (Hemignathus munroi) E N H

Hawai‘i ‘ākepa (Loxops coccineus coccineus) E H

Hawai‘i creeper (Oreomystis mana) E P

‘Ō‘ū (Psittirostra psittacea) E H N

‘Alalā (Corvus hawaiiensis) E N

‘Io (Buteo solitarius) E P P P P

Palila (Loxioides bailleui) E N,C

Nēnē (Branta sandvicensis) E P

Koloa maoli (Anas wyvilliana) E P P P

‘Alae ke‘oke‘o (Fulica alai) E P P P

Mammals

‘Ōpe‘ape‘a (Lasiurus cinereus semotus) E P P P P

Plants

Asplenium peruvianum var. insulare (=A. 

fragile var. insulare)

E P 

Clermontia lindseyana E

Clermontia peleana E A A

Cyanea hamatiflora ssp. carlsonii E A

Cyanea platyphylla E P A

Cyanea shipmanii E

Cyanea stictophylla E H

Nothocestrum breviflorum E H

Phyllostegia racemosa E

Phyllostegia velutina E H H

Portulaca sclerocarpa E A

Sicyos macrophyllus C P,A A

Silene hawaiiensis T A A

Invertebrates

Drosophila heteroneura E A

Status: E = Endangered; T = Threatened; C = Federal candidate; P = likely present; H = historically 

occurred (up to the mid-1970s), no recent observations, but may still be present; N = historically occurred 

(up to the mid-1970s) but no longer present; A = known to occur in adjacent areas of similar habitat; C = 

critical habitat

1.5.2 Provides Habitat Connections. There is an extensive network of managed lands on Hawai‘i 

Island (Figure1). Although fish and wildlife conservation is not the priority use of some of these 

managed areas, due to the predominance of federally listed plant and animal species on many of the 

managed areas, habitat conservation is typically taken into consideration, especially on Federal lands. 

The proposed acquisitions would all provide habitat connectivity among managed areas. The addition 

of the Koa Forest property to the HFU would extend the current Refuge boundary makai (toward the 

sea) to include lower montane wet and mesic forest, as well as lower reaches of major streams that 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan 

6 

flow from the HFU. The Maulua Gulch property, if acquired, would extend Refuge protection makai 

to sea level. Upslope from the HFU, the lands are managed by the Department of Hawaiian Home 

Lands (DHHL). The ‘Āina Mauna Legacy Program, which provides management guidance for this 

area, includes areas that will be managed for native forest as well as the Kanekaleonui Bird Corridor 

and the Wailuku River Corridor, both of which provide direct habitat connectivity mauka (toward the 

mountain) between the HFU and the higher elevation māmane forest that provided potential habitat 

for the endangered palila (DHHL 2011). The Kūka‘iau Ranch property, if acquired, would be added 

to the HFU; it is also an important tract of land for recovery of the palila and lies between State lands 

that are also being restored to provide for palila recovery. At McCandless Ranch, the higher elevation 

Kahuku lots provide direct habitat connectivity between the KFU and the mauka Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park. All of these properties, therefore, would provide migratory corridors for priority 

conservation targets, including endangered forest birds, waterbirds, and plants. 

1.5.3 Promotes Biological Integrity. The properties proposed for acquisition, if acquired, would 

nearly double the total area of lands protected by the Refuge for priority conservation targets, 

including endangered forest birds, waterbirds, and plants. They would also extend the elevation 

gradient of Refuge lands, both makai and mauka by several thousand feet. The Refuge has 

demonstrated that forest restoration is both possible and effective in increasing the availability and 

use by endangered forest birds. Although the endangered forest birds may be limited makai by the 

infectious diseases spread by introduced mosquitoes, at least one native forest bird has shown 

resistance to avian malaria. Aquatic habitats within the Koa Forest and Maulua Gulch properties also 

provide migratory, resting, and feeding habitat for endangered waterbirds, including the koloa maoli 

and the ‘alae ke‘oke‘o. Protection of all of these properties would prevent their development for uses 

that could impact the existing Refuge, such as commercial timber operations and incompatible 

grazing practices. They would also provide a buffer area in which ongoing efforts to control invasive 

species, including plants and ungulates, could be extended, thereby decreasing the likelihood of 

reinvasion of the core areas of the Refuge once control efforts have succeeded there.

1.5.4 Invests in Healthy Lands. There are no known contaminant issues on any of the properties 

under consideration. No nearby contaminated sites were found in a records search of the 

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) database for 

the Island of Hawai‘i. All of these areas are relatively remote with difficult access and are highly 

unlikely to have contaminant issues. 

1.5.5 Anticipates or Responds to Climate Change. All of the proposed additions anticipate or 

respond to the potential effects of climate change. As explained above, they all increase habitat 

connectivity and enhance migratory corridors. The Koa Forest, Maulua Gulch, and McCandless 

Ranch properties increase the spatial extent of protected native forests and over the long-term will 

provide additional habitat into which propagated endangered plants can be outplanted, thereby 

increasing population sizes, extending spatial distribution, and increasing the resiliency of these 

plants to the effects of climate change. Koa Forest and Maulua Gulch would also increase the 

protection of aquatic ecosystems that provide habitat for endangered waterbirds. Protection of these 

areas also maintains their ecological functions within the watershed by enhancing water quality and 

aquifer recharge. They also serve as buffer areas to the current Refuge. The Kūka‘iau Ranch and 

McCandless Ranch properties both include higher elevation habitats above the current Refuge 

boundaries that will allow for the migration of species if climate change causes the inversion layer to 

shift the higher precipitation zones upward or temperature increases result in the upward migration of 

avian disease-carrying mosquitoes. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan

7 

1.5.6 Provides Adequate Water. No additional water resources are likely to be needed for any of 

the proposed Refuge additions. Catchment ponds are known to exist on the Kūka‘iau Ranch and the 

Koa Forest properties. Streams on the wetter side of the island, within the study areas adjacent to the 

HFU, are intermittent but channel large amounts of water during the rainy season. Even during the 

dry season, spring-fed pools and rock ledges hold water and provide aquatic habitat and sources of 

water for wildlife, including endangered waterbirds. Protection of these lands would also benefit 

downstream water uses. The McCandless Ranch properties have no surface water. Conservation of 

all these parcels would also contribute to recharge of local aquifer systems. 

1.5.7 Urban Refuges. The Refuge is not located in an urban area. One of the proposed additions, 

the Maulua Gulch property, is located next to the coast highway on the Hāmākua Coast of Hawai‘i 

Island. It, therefore, could provide opportunities for public education and interpretation that the 

otherwise remote Refuge units do not. 

1.6 Strategic Habitat Conservation. Strategic Habitat Conservation (SHC) is a science-based 

framework for making management decisions about where and how to deliver conservation 

efficiently to achieve specific biological outcomes and focuses on the ability of the landscape to 

sustain species as expressed in measurable objectives. Developing a strategy to attain a biological 

outcome, such as a population objective, requires documented and testable assumptions to determine 

whether the objective is met (National Ecological Assessment Team (NEAT) 2006)). This is an

iterative process of developing and refining a conservation strategy, making efficient management 

decisions, and using research and monitoring to assess accomplishments and inform future iterations 

of the conservation strategy (Service 2008a). 

Land protection planning includes both biological planning and conservation design. Biological 

planning is the systematic application of scientific knowledge about species and habitat management 

and requires that we articulate measurable population objectives for selected species, consider what 

may be limiting populations to less than objective levels, and compile models that describe how 

populations are expected to respond to habitat management. Conservation design is predicated on the 

belief that the potential to affect populations varies in space in response to site characteristics and 

landscape context. Accurate maps that predict patterns in the ecosystem are critical to conservation 

design because maps that are not based on the systematic application of science can be misleading 

and may impede conservation success. Maps used in SHC apply empirical or experience-based 

models to spatial data. Such maps represent spatially-explicit models that relate species to limiting 

habitat factors and are the essence of the SHC framework (Service 2008b). 

Because the Hakalau Forest NWR was established to protect endangered species, in particular, forest 

birds and plants, endangered species comprise our priority conservation targets (Table 2). The 

Hawaiian Forest Bird Survey began in 1976 with the objectives of determining the distribution, 

population size, density by vegetation type and elevation, habitat response, and geographical areas 

where more detailed studies were needed to clarify distributional anomalies and to identify limiting 

factors of various species (Scott and others 1986). The study area on the Island of Hawai‘i included 

montane forests on all but the northern slopes of Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea, including the Hāmākua 

and Kona areas where the HFU and KFU, respectively, are located. All of the listed forest birds that 

are the priority conservation targets were included in this study as well as the non-listed native forest 

birds. The results of this study showed that the native avifauna on the Island of Hawai‘i was most 

intact in four refugia: the Mauna Kea māmane/naio woodland, the windward rainforest, the Ka‘u 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan 

8 

forest, and the mesic forest on the north slopes of Hualālai. They also noted that the main population 

of the ālāla (at the time) and very low populations of other endangered species inhabit the mesic to 

wet forest of central Kona. Among the top priorities identified for endangered forest bird 

conservation on the Island of Hawai‘i was a recommendation to secure ownership of, conservation 

easements to, or management agreement for these koa/‘ōhi‘a forest areas that were essential for the 

survival of the alāla, ‘akiapōlā‘au, Hawai‘i creeper, and Hawai‘i ‘ākepa (Scott and others 1986). It 

was on the basis of these studies and recommendations that the HFU and KFU, located within the 

windward rainforest and the mesic to wet forest of central Kona, were established (Service 1985, 

Service 1997). 

Twenty-five years have now passed and much has changed. On the Island of Hawai‘i, endemic 

passerine populations and efforts to recover them are mostly restricted to montane and higher 

elevation forest because lowland areas have less remaining native habitat and more problems 

associated with alien species and disease (Scott and others 1986, van Riper III and others 1986). 

Therefore, opportunities for avian recovery have been limited to areas that for many species represent 

the upper range of their historical distribution. Some of these areas may be marginal due to cooler 

temperatures and lower richness of food resources. The limiting factors are well understood and 

include habitat changes, human predation, nonhuman predation, avian competition, avian parasites 

and diseases, and abiotic factors (van Riper III and Scott 2001). 

Based on the Revised Recovery Plan for Hawaiian Forest Birds (Service 2006), the primary recovery 

objectives for each avian taxon are to:

1. Restore populations to levels that allow the taxon to persist despite demographic and 

environmental stochasticity and that are large enough to allow natural demographic and 

evolutionary processes to occur; 

2. Protect enough habitat to support these population levels; and 

3. Identify and remove the threats responsible for its decline. 

The forest bird recovery plan includes goals and objectives for ‘ō‘ū, palila, ‘akiapōlā‘au, Hawai‘i 

creeper, and Hawai‘i ‘ākepa. Specific population objectives have not been identified for the forest 

birds (Service 2006). Recovery criteria for these birds focus on the interim objective of stabilization 

of current populations with a shift to recovery of viable, self-sustaining populations once stabilization 

has been achieved. Survey efforts for forest birds are constrained by their breeding season, which is 

limited to only a few months each year, and the limited number of personnel trained to survey them. 

For these reasons, forest bird surveys are conducted on only one of the five main Hawaiian Islands 

each year. The Island of Hawai‘i is divided in halves because of its larger size, so it takes two years 

to survey. It is anticipated that after 15 years, this survey schedule will produce four data points on 

each island which is the minimum required to conduct a meaningful population trend analysis. 

The original range maps based on survey data and habitat response models for Hawaiian birds (Scott 

and others 1986) have been updated and incorporated as recovery areas into the revised forest bird 

recovery plan (Service 2006). Recovery areas in this plan are defined as those areas that will allow 

for the long-term survival and recovery of endangered Hawaiian forest birds. The identification of 

recovery areas is the result of an evaluation of habitat that is potentially important for the recovery of 

Hawaiian forest birds from a biological standpoint only. Recovery areas are intended to help guide 

recovery efforts to emphasize those areas with the greatest potential to achieve recovery. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan

9 

The foremost consideration in identifying recovery areas for the majority of endangered Hawaiian 

forest birds is existing habitat and restorable habitat at higher elevations, because the cooler 

temperatures at these elevations are less suitable for the parasite that causes avian malaria and the 

introduced mosquito that is the primary vector of malaria and pox virus. Recovery areas in most 

cases encompass existing endangered forest bird populations, as well as habitat areas from which 

these species have disappeared in the recent past, but which still provide or could provide the 

conditions and resources necessary to support populations of endangered forest bird species. The 

elevation boundaries of recovery areas were based on the need to include areas that lie above the 

mosquito zone and within elevations that can be expected to support suitable forest habitat. 

Acquisition of the Kūka‘iau Ranch property is most likely to directly benefit the priority avian 

species included in the revised forest bird recovery plan. The Kūka‘iau Ranch property includes 

designated critical habitat for palila. This property is located at a higher elevation and, once restored, 

should also provide suitable habitat for ‘ō‘ū, ‘akiapōlā‘au, Hawai‘i creeper, and Hawai‘i ‘ākepa. 

Bird surveys at HFU from 1987 to 2007 have shown stable or increasing trends for ‘elepaio, ‘ōma‘o, 

Hawai‘i ‘amakihi, ‘akiapōlā‘au, Hawai‘i creeper, Hawai‘i ākepa, ‘i‘iwi, and ‘apapane over that time 

span, although there were short-term trajectories in the densities of five native species in open forests 

and three native species in closed forests from 1999 to 2007 (Camp and others 2010). The cause of 

the recent decline and its significance for interpreting the long-term trend are disputed (Camp and 

others 2010, Freed and Cann 2010). More importantly from a land acquisition and forest restoration 

perspective is the finding that in areas that were pasture in 1987, but have been the focus of ongoing 

reforestation, the Hawai‘i ‘amakihi, ‘apapane, and ‘i‘iwi show strong or very strong evidence of 

increasing densities (Camp and others 2010). Also of note is the finding that, in general, bird 

populations appear to be doing better at the HFU than elsewhere on Hawai‘i Island (Camp and others 

2010). 

The Service has also produced a Revised Recovery Plan for the ‘Alalā (Service 2009c). Because 

much of the biological and demographic data necessary to determine the population size and 

parameters needed for recovery of the species do not exist, the recovery plan establishes only general 

recovery criteria. The ultimate recovery goal is to restore multiple self-sustaining populations within 

the historical range, and subsequently to delist the ‘alalā. Because recovery will be based on releases 

of captive-bred ‘alalā to the wild, quantitative determination of the population sizes and parameters 

necessary to consider downlisting and delisting cannot be accomplished until more complete data on 

the species’ biology and threats are generated as part of a future release program. No ‘alalā remain in 

the wild, although captive propagation has been successful. However, to sufficiently increase the size 

of the captive population, restore habitat at repatriation sites, successfully repatriate birds to the wild, 

and manage and monitor the repatriated population so that recovery criteria are met will require at 

least several decades. So, although captive breeding has proven successful, repatriation protocols 

remain experimental. The recovery plan specifies that release sites must be at least 2,471 acres, 

making the current KFU nearly twice the minimum size required. The acquisition of the Honokua 

lots of the McCandless Ranch would add about 3,887 acres of montane forest to the Refuge, thereby 

potentially benefiting the ‘alalā as well as ‘ō‘ū, ‘akiapōlā‘au, Hawai‘i creeper, and Hawai‘i ‘ākepa, 

all of which occurred there historically. 

The direct value of the Koa Forest and Maulua Gulch properties to endangered forest birds is 

uncertain. Much of these properties lie at lower elevation, and therefore are more suitable for the 

parasite that causes avian malaria and the introduced mosquito that is the primary vector of malaria 

and pox virus. There is evidence, however, that some lower elevation populations of a more common 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan 

10 

forest bird, the ‘amakihi, are tolerant to malaria, which suggests that the future of its populations lies 

in the resurgence of low-elevation populations (Foster and others 2007). Both properties, however, 

provide suitable habitat for endangered waterbirds, including the koloa maoli and ‘alae ke‘oke‘o as 

well as habitat for the endangered ‘io and ‘ōpe‘ape‘a. The addition of these lower elevation areas to 

the Refuge would also provide indirect benefits to forest birds on the current Refuge by allowing for 

management and control of invasive species in a contiguous source area for such species. 

All of the properties under consideration also provide additional opportunity for the recovery of 

endangered plant species. Recovery goals and objectives for listed plant species on the Island of 

Hawai‘i are identified in the Recovery Plan for the Big Island Plant Cluster (Service 1996) and the 

Addendum to the Recovery Plan for the Big Island Plant Cluster (Service 1998). The interim 

objective is to stabilize all existing plant populations. To be considered stable, the following 

conditions must be met: 

• Each taxon must be managed to control threats (e.g., fenced) and be represented in an ex situ 

(at other than the plant’s natural location, such as a nursery or arboretum) collection. 

• In addition, a minimum total of three populations of each taxon should be documented on the 

Island of Hawai‘i, and, if possible, at least one other island where they now occur or where 

they occurred historically. 

• Each of these populations must be naturally reproducing and increasing in number, with a 

minimum of 25 mature individuals per population (minimum of 75 mature plants) for longlived perennials, and a minimum of 50 mature individuals per population (minimum of 150 

mature plants) for short-lived perennials. 

Hakalau Forest NWR has a highly successful propagation and outplanting program for endangered 

plant species; they have outplanted almost 4,000 endangered plants on the HFU since 1987. Nearly 

25 percent of which were outplanted in 2007 alone (Service 2011). No outplantings have been 

conducted on the KFU due to the lack of ungulate control. The KFU is currently being fenced and 

once ungulates have been controlled, it is likely that similar recovery efforts for listed plants will be 

directed there. Over time, we anticipate that recovery efforts, including ungulate control and 

outplanting, will be extended to any lands acquired and added to the Refuge. The biological 

outcomes will depend on the extent to which the requisite habitat requirements for each species are 

present on a particular acquisition. This will require extensive survey to document the presence and 

abundance, or potentially suitable habitat for each target plant species. 

In summary, spatially-explicit models for priority forest birds are available and were the basis for 

locating the existing HFU and KFU (Figure 4; Camp and others 2010, Scott and others 1986). The 

McCandless Ranch property is contiguous with the KFU and has long been known to have 

documented high biological values and was identified as a potential expansion area for the KFU. The 

Kuka‘iau Ranch property includes designated critical habitat for the palila, as well as high potential 

for forest restoration that would benefit endangered forest birds. The Koa Forest and Maulua Gulch 

properties, while mostly too low in elevation for endangered forest birds due to the presence of 

mosquitos, would benefit other endangered birds and plants. Insufficient biological data exists to 

extrapolate from the existing habitat models to specific population outcomes. The experience at the 

HFU over the past 25 years, however, has demonstrated that when native forest canopy is restored, 

along with management to control other limiting factors, forest bird populations can be stabilized 

and, in some cases, show a positive trend (Service 2008a). Similar success has been demonstrated by 

the HFU endangered plant restoration program (Service 2011). 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan

11 

1.7 Land Protection Alternatives 

1.7.1 Willing Seller Policy. It is the policy of the Service to acquire land only from willing sellers 

under general authorities such as the Endangered Species Act, the Migratory Bird Conservation Act, 

the Fish and Wildlife Act of 1956, and the Emergency Wetland Resources Act. Landowners within 

the approved acquisition boundary who do not wish to sell their property or any other interest in their 

property are under no obligation to negotiate with or sell to the Service. In all acquisitions, the 

Service is required by law to offer 100 percent of fair market value, as determined by an approved 

appraisal that meets professional standards and Federal requirements. 

The Service, like other Federal agencies, has the power of eminent domain. Eminent domain allows 

the use of condemnation to acquire land and other interest in land, such as easements, for the public 

good. The Service very rarely uses this power. The Service normally acquires land from willing 

participants and is seldom compelled to buy specific habitats within a rigid time frame.

Under the Uniform Relocation Assistance and Real Property Acquisition Policies Act, landowners 

who sell their property to the Service may be eligible for the following benefits and payments: 

• Reimbursement of reasonable moving and related expenses. 

• Replacement housing payment benefits under certain conditions. 

• Relocation assistance services and counseling to help locate replacement housing, farmland, 

or businesses. 

• Reimbursement of certain necessary and reasonable expenses incurred in selling real property 

to the Federal government, such as certain escrow and closing costs, proration of property 

taxes, and conveyance taxes.

• Relocation benefits to eligible tenants.

1.7.2 Habitat Protection Methods. A variety of habitat protection methods could be used to 

conserve fish and wildlife habitat. The actual method selected for any individual parcel will depend 

on what the landowner and the Service agree upon. If a mutual agreement cannot be reached, the 

landowner retains full use, control, and responsibility for the property. 

Cooperative Agreements. The Service can enter into cooperative agreements with landowners to 

improve wildlife habitat management. Cooperative agreements may specify shared responsibilities, 

or a transfer of funds from the Service to another entity or vice-versa for management purposes. 

Cooperative agreements could be applied to land under any type of ownership in the study area. 

Conservation Easements. Conservation easements are a type of acquisition where the landowner 

permanently transfers some, but not all, property rights to the Service as specified by mutual 

agreement. Under a conservation easement, a landowner would still hold title to the land with certain 

restrictions on his/her use of that land, spelled out in the easement language. The Service can acquire 

easements through purchase, donation, or exchange, depending on the terms of the easement. The 

property owner pays any applicable property taxes. 

Fee Title Acquisition. A fee title interest is normally acquired when (1) the fish and wildlife 

resources on a piece of property require permanent protection that is not otherwise available; (2) the 

property is needed for development associated with public use; (3) a pending land use could 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan 

12 

otherwise harm wildlife habitats; or (4) purchase is the most practical and economical way to 

assemble small tracts into a manageable unit. Fee title acquisition transfers any property rights owned 

by the landowner, including mineral and water rights, to the Federal government. A fee title interest 

may be acquired by purchase, donation, or exchange. 

1.8 Land Protection Priorities. Our land protection priorities within the proposed expansion areas 

are provided in Table 3, which includes Service tract numbers, ownership information, acreage based 

on the Hawai‘i County Assessor records, Tax Map Key (TMK) numbers, and our preferred means of 

land protection. Landowners within the proposed boundary expansion may or may not wish to 

participate in the Service’s habitat protection objectives. For this reason, the final configuration of 

the acquisition boundary may change. Because the parcels have been identified and the potential 

effects of bringing those lands into the Refuge System have been assessed in the accompanying EA

(Appendix A), the proposed expansion boundary will provide the Service with future habitat 

protection options if willing sellers and available funds present themselves in the future. The 

properties proposed for acquisition are shown in Figure 3. 

Table 3. Lands proposed for inclusion within the approved acquisition boundary of the Refuge 

arranged by their priority for acquisition.

Figure 3 ID 

Number

Priority Tract Name Owner TMK No. Acres Preferred 

Protection 

Method

Proposed Additions to the Kona Forest Unit

1 1 Honokua Lot 5 McCandless Land and Cattle Co. 386001001 641 Fee Title

2 1 Honokua Lot 7 McCandless Land and Cattle Co. 641 Fee Title

3 1 Honokua Lot 10 McCandless Land and Cattle Co. 1,344 Fee Title

4 1 Honokua Lot 11 McCandless Land and Cattle Co. 1,261 Fee Title

5 1 Kahuku Lot 2 McCandless Land and Cattle Co. 392001077 1,439 Fee Title

6 1 Kahuku Lot 3 McCandless Land and Cattle Co. 392001078 1,689 Fee Title

7 1 Kahuku Lot 1 McCandless Land and Cattle Co. 392001003 1,439 Fee Title

8 1 Kahuku Lot 4 McCandless Land and Cattle Co. 392001079 1,689 Fee Title

Proposed Additions to the Hakalau Forest Unit

1 2 Kūka‘iau Ranch Kūka‘iau Ranch LLC 342008008 2,524 Fee Title

2 2 Kūka‘iau Ranch Kūka‘iau Ranch LLC 342008021 1,945 Fee Title

5 2 Koa Forest Finance Factors Limited 328001002 1,735 Fee Title

6 2 Koa Forest Finance Factors Limited 327001001 11,395 Fee Title

3 3 Maulua Gulch Maulua Investments LLC 334002004 1,237 Fee Title

4 3 Maulua Gulch Maulua Investments LLC 337001011 994 Fee Title

1.9 Coordination. This document was prepared in compliance with the National Environmental 

Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA), as amended (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.). The Service worked closely with a 

number of government agencies, nongovernmental conservation organizations, affected landowners, 

Refuge neighbors, and other interested stakeholders and citizens to identify issues and develop this 

proposal. 

In July 2011, a planning update was distributed to 292 interested parties. This mailing was 

accompanied by a press release. The planning update informed members of the public about the 

project and solicited their comments. The planning update also provided a map of the study areas and 

described potential management actions. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan

13 

The Refuge Manager presented information on the Refuge proposal at an open house in Hilo held on 

August 17, 2011. Twenty-two community member attendees were presented with an overview of the 

proposed study, and their comments were recorded. In addition, comments from the public were 

submitted by e-mail during the scoping period, which ended September 16, 2011. The public 

identified a range of issues regarding the proposed land acquisitions and their management by the 

Hakalau Forest NWR if the lands were acquired. Specifically, public concerns were expressed 

regarding the effects of the acquisition on the following: 

• Acquisition and management costs and funding; 

• Access and public use;

• Invasive plant and species management;

• Removal of land from agricultural and livestock use; 

• Water rights; 

• Short-term versus long-term conservation benefits; and, 

• Public education. 

These issues and the effects of the land acquisition on other features of the affected environment, 

including endangered species and other native wildlife, the local economy, and conceptual 

management of any acquired lands are addressed in the draft EA and Conceptual Management Plan 

that accompanies this LPP. 

Our EA considered the effects of a no action alternative under which the Refuge acquisition 

boundary would not be expanded, and a full protection alternative which would expand the 

acquisition boundary to include the Koa Forest, Maulua Gulch, Kūka‘iau Ranch, and McCandless 

Ranch properties. We propose that with the acquisition of at least two key additional tracts at the 

KFU. a new Kona Forest National Wildlife Refuge would be established, thus providing a more 

significant management presence and capacity for addressing habitat and species management issues. 

1.10 Socioeconomic Impacts. The analysis in our EA shows that property tax losses to the County 

of Hawai‘i would largely be offset by payments to the County through the Refuge Revenue Sharing 

Act. The Environmental Impact Statement prepared for the proposed commercial timber operation on 

the Koa Forest property projected that it would produce $12.3 million per year in direct and indirect 

economic activity, about 49 direct and indirect jobs with a payroll of $1.6 million per year, and tax 

revenues to the State of Hawai‘i of about $263,000 per year (Koa Timber, Inc. 2003). The value of 

koa and ‘ōhi‘a timber on the 10,143 acres at the McCandless Ranch is estimated at $7,915,914 

(McCandless Ranch 2010). We have no information on the value of the timber on the approximately 

700 forested acres at Maulua Gulch. The Kūka‘iau Ranch property has little, if any, commercial 

timber value. Acquisition of these lands would preclude their use for alternative purposes, including 

timber harvest and residential development. The additions to the Refuge would benefit wildlife and 

habitat protection efforts on the Island of Hawai‛i and further recovery efforts for endangered 

species, thereby satisfying the purpose and need of our proposed action. Because of the intensive 

restoration and management needs and the ongoing challenges of endangered species recovery, 

invasive species control, and climate change, these benefits are likely to accrue slowly over the longterm. Other beneficial effects of the proposed Refuge expansion include enhanced water supply 

protection and replenishment and the preservation of cultural or historic resources that may occur on 

any acquired land. The benefits to water supply would further a new plan to replenish the State’s 

sources of water through invasive species control and reforestation (DLNR 2011). 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan 

14 

 

This page intentionally left blank 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan

15 

Figure 1. Location of areas proposed for addition to the Hakalau Forest and Kona Forest Units

of Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan 

16 

This page intentionally left blank.
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan

17 

Figure 2. Lands managed, in part, for conservation on the Island of Hawai‘i. Not all managed 

areas shown have fish, wildlife, and plant conservation as their highest priority. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan 

18 

This page intentionally left blank.
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan

19 

Figure 3. Lands proposed for acquisition in vicinity of the HFU (top) and at McCandless Ranch 

adjacent to the KFU (bottom) for addition to Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge.
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan 

20 

This page intentionally left blank. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan

21 

Figure 4. Predicted native forest passerine richness on Hawai‛i Island near the HFU and 

KFU. 

Darker shading indicates higher richness; also shown are the long-term trends based on 

monitoring from 1987-2007 (from Camp and others 2010). Upward- and downwardpointing triangles indicate increasing or decreasing trends, respectively; d, S=stable, 

X=recent extirpation, and a ? indicates uncertainty due to high variability in density 

estimates. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan 

22 

This page intentionally left blank. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan

23 

REFERENCES CITED

Camp, R.J., T.K. Pratt, P.M. Gorresen, J.J. Jeffrey, and B.L. Woodworth. 2010. Population trends of 

forest birds at Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge, Hawai‘i. The Condor 112(2):196-212. 

Cao, G., T.W. Giambelluca, D.E. Stevens, and T.A. Schroeder. 2007. Inversion variability in the 

Hawaiian trade wind regions. Journal of Climate 20:1145-1160. 

Carver, E., and J. Caudill. 2007. Banking on Nature 2006: the economic benefits to local 

communities of National Wildlife Refuge visitation. Division of Economics, U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. 435 pp. 

Chu, P.S. and H. Chen. 2005. Interannual and interdecadal rainfall variations in the Hawaiian Islands. 

Journal of Climate. Vol.18:4796-4813. 

Diaz, H.F., P.Chu, and J.K. Eischeid. 2005. Rainfall changes in Hawai`i during the last century. 16th 

Conference on Climate Variability and Change, American Meteorological Society, Boston, MA. 

Fletcher, C. 2010. Hawai‘i’s Changing Climate, Briefing Sheet. University of Hawai‘i Sea Grant 

College Program, Center for Island Climate Adaptation and Policy. Available at: 

http://icap.seagrant.soest.hawaii.edu/hawaii%E2%80%99s-changing-climate-briefing-sheet, 

accessed November 16, 2011. 

Foster, J.T., B.L. Woodworth, L.E. Eggert, P.J. Hart, D. Palmer, D.C. Duffy, and R.C. Fleischer. 

2007. Genetic structure and evolved malaria resistance in Hawaiian honeycreepers. Molecular 

Ecology 16:4738-4746. 

Freed, L.A., and R.L. Cann. 2010. Misleading trend analysis and decline of Hawaiian forest birds. 

The Condor 112(2):213-221’ 

 

Giambelluca, T.W., H.F. Diaz, and M.S.A. Luke. 2008. Secular temperature changes in Hawai‘i. 

Geophysical Research Letters 35. 5 pp. 

Hawai‘i Department of Hawaiian Home Lands (DHHL). 2011. Āina Mauna Legacy Program Draft 

Environmental Assessment. Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 298 pp., plus appendices. Available at: 

http://oeqc.doh.hawaii.gov/Shared%20Documents/EA_and_EIS_Online_Library/Hawaii/2010s/2

011-10-23-DEA-Aina-Mauna-Legacy.pdf, accessed November 15, 2011. 

Hawai‘i Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism (DBEDT). 2011. 

Hawai‛i Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism (DBEDT) and Department of 

Health (DOH). 1998. Hawai‛i Climate Change Action Plan. Various pagination. Available at: 

http://ase.tufts.edu/polsci/faculty/portney/climatePlan/HawaiiActionPlan1998.pdf. 

Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR). 2011. The Rain Follows the Forest: a 

Plan to Replenish Hawai‘i’s Source of Water, Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 21 pp. Available at: 

hawaii.gov/dlnr/chair/pio/nr/2011/The-Rain-Follows-the-Forest.pdf, accessed November 30, 

2011. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan 

24 

Henshaw, H.W. 1902. Birds of the Hawaiian Possessions. T.G. Thrum Publisher, Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 

146 pp. 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2007. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. 

Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Available at: 

http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_ipcc_fourth_assessment_report_synthesi

s_report.htm, accessed November 14, 2011. 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2001. Climate Change 2001: the Scientific 

Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Available at: 

http://www.grida.no/publications/other/ipcc_tar/?src=/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/index.htm, accessed 

November 14, 2011. 

McCarthy, J.J, F. Osvaldo, F. Canziani, N.A. Leary, D.J. Dokken, and K.S. White. 2001. Climate 

change 2001: impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Contribution of working group II to the 

third assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge 

University Press, UK.

Middleton, B.A. 2006. Invasive Species and Climate Change. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 2006-1153. 

National Ecological Assessment Team. 2006. Strategic Habitat Conservation: final report of the 

National Ecological Assessment Team. U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. 45 pp. 

Available at: http://www.fws.gov/nc-es/habreg/NEAT_FinalRpt.pdf. 

Oki, D.S. 2004. Trends in Streamflow Characteristics at Long-Term Gaging Stations, Hawaii: U.S. 

Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2004-5080, 120 pp. 

Scott, M.J., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler. 1986. Forest bird communities of the 

Hawaiian Islands: their dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Cooper Ornithological Society, 

Studies in Avian Biology No. 9. 431 pp. 

Timm, O. and H.F. Diaz. 2009. Synoptic-statistical approach to regional downscaling of IPCC 

twenty-first century climate projections: seasonal rainfall over the Hawaiian Islands. Journal of 

Climate. Vol. 22:4261-4280. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 2011. Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge 

Comprehensive Conservation Plan. Big Island National Wildlife Refuge Complex, 60 Nowelo 

Street, Suite 100, Hilo, Hawai‘i and Pacific Islands Planning Team, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, 

Room 5-231, Honolulu, Hawai‘i. Various pagination. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 2009. Revised recovery plan for the ‘Alalā (Corvus 

hawaiiensis). Region 1, Portland, Oregon. Various pagination. Available at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile.action?spcode=B004#recovery, accessed 

November 17, 2011. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan

25 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 2009. 5-Year Review: Palila (Loxioides bailleui). Pacific 

Islands Fish and Wildlife Office, Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 18 pp. Available at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile.action?spcode=B00K#recovery, 

accessed November 17, 2011. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 2008a. Forest bird workshop report, October 8-10, 2008. 

Hilo, Hawai‘i . 12 pp. (Appendix E in Service 2011) 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 2008b. Strategic Habitat Conservation Handbook: a 

guide to implementing the technical elements of Strategic Habitat Conservation (Version 1.). 

Washington, D.C. 22 pp. Available at: 

http://www.fws.gov/science/doc/SHCTechnicalHandbook.pdf. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 2006. Revised recovery plan for Hawaiian forest birds. 

Region 1, Portland, Oregon. Various pagination. Available at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile.action?spcode=B044, accessed 

November 17, 2011. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 1998. Big Island II: Addendum to the Recovery Plan for 

the Big Island Plant Cluster. Region 1, Portland, Oregon. 69 pp., plus appendices. Available at: 

http://www.fws.gov/ecos/ajax/docs/recovery_plan/980511a.pdf. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 1997. Final environmental assessment for the proposed 

Kona Forest Unit of the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge, South Kona District, Hawai‘i 

County, Hawai‘i. Region 1, Portland, Oregon. Various pagination. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 1996. Recovery Plan for the Big Island Plant Cluster. 

Region 1, Portland, Oregon. 176 pp., plus appendices. Available at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/960926a.pdf. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 1985. Proposal to establish an Upper Hakalau Forest 

Environmental Assessment, Island of Hawai‘i, Hawai‘i. Region1, Portland, Oregon. 41 pp. 

van Riper III, C., and J. Michael Scott. 2001. Limiting factors affecting Hawaiian native birds. Pp. 

221-233 in, J.T. Rotenberry, ed., Evolution, ecology, conservation, and management of Hawaiian 

birds: a vanishing avifauna. Cooper Ornithological Society Studies in Avian Biology No. 22. 

van Riper III, C., S.G. van Riper, M.L. Goff, and M. Laird. 1986. The epizootiology and ecological 

significance of malaria in Hawaiian land birds. Ecological Monographs 56:327-344. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan 

26 

This page intentionally left blank. 
APPENDIX A

Conceptual Management Plan

Proposed Additions to Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

Hawai‘i County, Hawai‘i 

April 2012

Prepared By:

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Division of Planning, Visitor Services, and Transportation 

911 NE 11th Avenue

Portland, OR 97232 

(503) 231-2096 

www.fws.gov/pacific/planning 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge 

60 Nowelo Street, Suite 100 

Hilo, HI 96720 

(808) 443-2300 

www.fws.gov/hakalauforest 

CITATION. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2012. Conceptual Management Plan, Proposed 

Additions to Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge. U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Region, Portland, Oregon. 11 pp. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Conceptual Management Plan

2 

This page intentionally left blank. 
Conceptual Management Plan

Proposed Additions to Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

Hawai‘i County, Hawai‘i 

April 2012

Prepared By:

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Division of Planning, Visitor Services, and Transportation 

911 NE 11th Avenue

Portland, OR 97232 

(503) 231-2096 

www.fws.gov/pacific/planning 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge 

60 Nowelo Street, Suite 100

Hilo, HI 96720 

(808) 443-2300 

www.fws.gov/hakalauforest

CITATION. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2012. Conceptual Management Plan, Proposed 

Additions to Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and 

Wildlife Service, Pacific Region, Portland, Oregon. 12 pp. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Conceptual Management Plan

2 

This page intentionally left blank. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Conceptual Management Plan

1 

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This Conceptual Management Plan (CMP) provides a general description of the management 

approaches being considered for the 29,973-acre Hakalau Forest Conservation Study Area (HFCSA), 

a potential boundary expansion of Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge (NWR or Refuge)

(Figure 1). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) developed this CMP during the planning 

process to provide landowners, governmental agencies, and the interested public with a general 

understanding of anticipated management approaches for the proposed boundary expansion. The 

purpose of this CMP is to present a broad overview of the Service’s proposed management of 

wildlife and habitats, public uses, law enforcement, facilities, interagency coordination, and public 

outreach. 

The Service has prepared a Land Protection Plan (LPP) (Service 2012a) and an Environmental 

Assessment (EA) (Service 2012b) for the HFCSA. The LPP describes habitat protection methods and 

lists private lands to be considered for acquisition. The EA analyzes the environmental consequences 

of protecting fish and wildlife habitat by expanding the Refuge boundary. 

The Service has completed a Comprehensive Conservation Plan (CCP) for (Service 2011). The CCP 

details Refuge operations, specifies the types and locations of public use activities, strategies for 

monitoring and recovery of endangered and rare species, and other operational needs. The proposed 

boundary expansion would further several Refuge goals identified in the CCP and follows the 

management direction in that document. 

2.0 NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE SYSTEM 

The National Wildlife Refuge System (Refuge System) is the world’s largest network of public lands 

and waters set aside specifically for conserving wildlife and protecting ecosystems. From its 

inception in 1903, the Refuge System has grown to encompass 556 national wildlife refuges in all 50 

states, 4 U.S. territories, and a number of unincorporated U.S. possessions, and waterfowl production 

areas in 10 states, covering more than 154 million acres of public lands. It also manages four marine 

national monuments in the Pacific in coordination with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA) and affected state/territories. More than 40 million visitors annually fish, 

hunt, observe and photograph wildlife, or participate in environmental education and interpretive 

activities on these refuges. 

Refuges are guided by various Federal laws and Executive orders, Service policies, and international 

treaties. Fundamental are the mission and goals of the Refuge System and the designated purposes of 

the refuge unit as described in establishing legislation, Executive orders, or other documents 

establishing, authorizing, or expanding a refuge. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Conceptual Management Plan

2 

Figure 1. Location of areas proposed for addition to the Hakalau Forest and Kona Forest Units 

of the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Conceptual Management Plan

3 

Key concepts and guidance for the Refuge System derive from the National Wildlife Refuge System 

Administration Act of 1966, as amended (16 U.S.C. 668dd)(Administration Act), the Refuge 

Recreation Act of 1962 (16 U.S.C. 460k-460k-4), as amended, Title 50 of the Code of Federal 

Regulations (CFR), and the Fish and Wildlife Service Manual. The Administration Act is 

implemented through regulations covering the Refuge System, published in Title 50, subchapter C of 

the CFR. These regulations govern general administration of units of the Refuge System. 

2.1 Mission of the National Wildlife Refuge System

The mission of the Refuge System is “to administer a national network of lands and waters for the 

conservation, management, and where appropriate, restoration of the fish, wildlife, and plant 

resources and their habitats within the United States for the benefit of present and future generations 

of Americans” (Administration Act). 

2.2 Guiding Principles of the National Wildlife Refuge System

• Fish and wildlife will not prosper without high-quality habitat, and without fish and wildlife, 

traditional uses of refuges cannot be sustained. The Refuge System will continue to conserve 

and enhance the quality and diversity of fish and wildlife habitat within refuges. 

• The Refuge System provides important opportunities for compatible wildlife-dependent 

public use activities, including wildlife observation and photography, environmental 

education and interpretation, fishing, and hunting. 

• America’s fishing and hunting enthusiasts were among the first partners who insisted on 

protecting valuable wildlife habitat within wildlife refuges. Conservation partnerships with 

other Federal, state, and local government agencies, tribes, non-profit organizations, private 

industries, businesses, and members of the general public can make significant contributions 

to the growth and management of the Refuge System. 

• The public should be given a full and open opportunity to participate in decisions regarding 

acquisition and management of our national wildlife refuges. 

2.3 Goals of the National Wildlife Refuge System

Wildlife conservation is the fundamental mission of the Refuge System. The goals of the Refuge

System, as articulated in the Mission, Goals, and Refuge Purposes Policy (601 FW1) are: 

• Conserve a diversity of fish, wildlife, and plants and their habitats, including species that are 

endangered or threatened with becoming endangered; 

• Develop and maintain a network of habitats for migratory birds, anadromous and 

interjurisdictional fish, and marine mammal populations that is strategically distributed and 

carefully managed to meet important life-history needs of these species across their ranges; 

• Conserve those ecosystems, plant communities, wetlands of national or international 

significance and landscapes and seascapes that are unique, rare, declining, or 

underrepresented in existing protection efforts; 

• Provide and enhance opportunities to participate in compatible wildlife-dependent recreation 

(hunting, fishing, wildlife observation and photography, and environmental education and 

interpretation); and

• Foster understanding and instill appreciation of the diversity and interconnectedness of fish, 

wildlife, and plants and their habitats. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Conceptual Management Plan

4 

2.4 Purpose and Goals of the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2.4.1 Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge Purposes

Established on October 29, 1985, the purposes of Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge are “... to 

conserve (A) fish or wildlife which are listed as endangered species or threatened species. . . or (B) 

plants . . .” (Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, 16 U.S.C. 1534). 

2.4.2 Overall Refuge Goals

The following goals were developed during the planning process for Hakalau Forest NWR’s recently 

completed CCP. These goals enable the Refuge to identify and focus management priorities, resolve 

issues, and tie into Refuge purposes, Service policy, and the Refuge System mission. 

Pahuhopu 1: E ho‘opalekana, mālama, a ho‘ōla hou i ka waonahele ma Mauna Loa ma ke ‘ano he 

wahi noho no nā mea a pau i mea e kū‘ono‘ono hou ai ka nohona o nā mea ‘ane make loa ‘o ia nō ‘o 

‘oe ‘o nā manu, nā ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, nā mea kanu, a me nā mea kolokolo ‘āina. 

Goal 1: Protect, maintain, and restore subtropical rainforest community on the leeward slope of 

Mauna Loa as habitat for all life-history needs to promote the recovery of endangered species (e.g., 

forest birds, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, plants, and invertebrates). 

Pahuhopu 2: E ho‘opalekana a mālama i nā ana kahe pele a me ke ola i ka puka mālamalama o nā 

ana kahe pele ma ka waonahele o Kona, e kālele ana ho‘i i ke ola o nā lā‘au ‘ōiwi. 

Goal 2: Protect and maintain lava tube and lava tube skylight habitat throughout the Kona Forest 

Unit, with special emphasis on their unique and endemic flora and fauna. 

Pahuhopu 3: E ho‘opalekana, mālama, a hō‘ola hou i ka waonahele ma ka ‘ao‘ao ko‘olau o Mauna 

Kea ma ke ‘ano he wahi noho no nā mea a pau a me ko lākou pono ‘oia nō ‘oe ‘o nā manu, nā 

‘ōpe‘ape‘a, nā mea kanu, a me nā mea kolokolo ‘āina. 

Goal 3: Protect, maintain, and restore subtropical rainforest community on the windward slope of 

Mauna Kea as habitat for all life-history needs of endangered species (e.g., forest birds, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, 

plants, and invertebrates). 

Pahuhopu 4: E ho‘opalekana a mālama i ka ‘āina nenelu ma Hakalau. 

Goal 4: Protect and maintain wetland and aquatic habitats (e.g., streams and their associated riparian 

corridors, ponds, and bogs) on the Hakalau Forest Unit. 

Pahuhopu 5: E ho‘opalekana a mālama i ka ‘āina mau‘u i mea e kāko‘o ai i ka ho‘ōla hou ‘ana i ka 

hui manu nēnē. 

Goal 5: Protect and maintain grassland habitat to support nēnē population recovery. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Conceptual Management Plan

5 

Pahuhopu 6: E ‘ohi‘ohi i ka ‘ikepili ‘epekema (waihona ‘ike, nānā pono, ‘imi noi‘i, ana ‘ike) e pono 

ai ka ho‘oholo ‘ana i ke ‘ano o ka ho‘okele ‘ana iā Hakalau ma Mauna Kea a me Mauna Loa. 

Goal 6: Collect scientific information (inventories, monitoring, research, assessments) necessary to 

support adaptive management decisions on both units of the Hakalau Forest NWR. 

Pahuhopu 7: E kipa mai ka po‘e malihini a me ka po‘e maka‘āinana no ka hana manawale‘a ‘ana i 

mea e kama‘āina ai lākou i ka nohona o ka waonahele a me ka ‘oihana mālama ma Hakalau. 

Goal 7: Visitors, with a special emphasis on experience gained through volunteer work groups and 

local residents, understand and/or value the native forest environment and management practices at 

Hakalau Forest NWR. 

Pahuhopu 8: E ho‘opalekana a mālama i nā kumu waiwai a me nā wahi pana Hawai‘i no ka 

ho‘ona‘auao ‘ana i nā hanauna o kēia wā a me ka wā e hiki mai ana. 

Goal 8: Protect and manage cultural resources and historic sites for their educational and cultural 

values for the benefit of present and future generations of Refuge users and communities. 

3.0 REFUGE ADMINISTRATION

As lands are acquired from willing sellers, funding for the operations and maintenance of these new 

lands would be needed. Management funds would be needed for new staff, administrative support, 

program and facilities development, and maintenance. The development of Refuge staff, programs, 

and facilities would be phased in over time as the land base and management responsibilities expand. 

Refuge program and staff development are expected to take several years and would reflect the 

availability of funds appropriated by Congress to support the Refuge. Because of the lag time 

between acquisition and funding for Refuge operations and maintenance, it may appear that the 

Service is more interested in acquiring land than implementing programs for wildlife stewardship and 

public use. However, the interim start-up period provides both the Service and the public with an 

opportunity to ensure that the Refuge is developed with sound planning to conserve wildlife and to 

meet community and national long-term expectations for quality programs. 

The budget for the Hakalau Forest NWR, including the newly acquired lands, will include funds for 

salaries, facilities, capital improvements, equipment and infrastructure maintenance, biological 

surveys, habitat restoration, and supplies. The Refuge is part of the Big Island National Wildlife 

Refuge Complex, whose staff would be available to provide administrative, biological, law 

enforcement, public use, environmental education, and maintenance expertise. Whenever possible, 

the talents and skills of volunteers would be used for specific Refuge management projects. 

A visitor contact station and educational facilities may be developed in one of the newly acquired 

parcels. The Service may seek to build a visitor kiosk, a loop trail, or other suitable structures to 

provide environmental education, interpretation, and wildlife viewing opportunities. 

4.0 KEY AREAS OF MANAGEMENT FOCUS

The key management focus area for the lands within the boundary expansion would be habitat and 

wildlife management. The Service’s primary goal for a majority of these lands would be to protect 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Conceptual Management Plan

6 

wildlife and restore forest bird habitat through active restoration of native plant communities and 

controlling threats such as feral ungulates, invasive weed species, predator mammals, and other pests. 

Other key areas of management focus could include monitoring wildlife and plant populations, 

wildlife-dependent recreational activities, interagency and public coordination, law enforcement, and 

facilities development and management.

4.1 Habitat Management

Active management of invasive species within all of the parcels in the study area would be needed to 

conserve and enhance native habitats. Plant surveys would be conducted to provide distribution and 

abundance patterns for rare, endangered, threatened, and/or common native plants. Wildlife 

management could include surveys to determine baseline distribution, abundance, and population 

trends of forest birds and invertebrates. Surveys would also need to be conducted to collect data on 

the occurrence of invasive plants and animals. Monitoring of populations of native and non-native 

species could be accomplished through additional systematically scheduled surveys. These data 

could then be used to develop strategies and set management priorities.

Two key components of habitat management for HFU and KFU are fencing and ungulate removal. 

Foraging activity by non-native ungulates (cattle, pigs, sheep, etc.) has contributed to significant 

degradation of native forest habitat quality and impacted populations of rare species. Presence of 

ungulates on the landscape is detrimental to the recovery of threatened and endangered species, for 

which the Refuge was established. Management units of < 2,000 acres are typically established in 

forested habitat through construction of ungulate-proof fencing, and subsequent eradication of 

ungulates. Thereafter, regular fence checks and repairs are required as well as a vigilant, systematic 

ungulate control scheme due to eventual ingress from surrounding unmanaged or less intensively 

managed landscapes. Breaches in fences are common due to tree and limb falls in forested areas, 

constant pressure from remaining ungulates outside fencelines, as well as vandalism. In managed 

units, natural or assisted revegetation by native plant understory species quickly improves the habitat 

quality in the absence of grazing and foraging pressures. 

Ungulate removal and fence maintenance also limit the establishment of larval mosquito 

microhabitats created by pig foraging behavior when native hāpu‘u ferns are toppled and eaten, 

leaving standing water in the remaining tree trunk. Avian malaria can quickly decimate native forest 

bird populations where it is present, so minimizing this threat by maintaining pig-free areas is a key 

recovery strategy. 

Our expectation is to expand upon the Hakalau Forest NWR management model with regard to 

establishing ungulate management units through fencing and removal, as well as appropriate habitat 

restoration work in establishing native forest understory and canopy species on any new lands 

acquired or managed in cooperation with other land management partners within the HFCSA. 

Traditionally this has been accomplished through a mixture of staff, contractor, partner, and 

volunteer efforts.
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Conceptual Management Plan

7 

Habitat types within the HFCSA.

Island of Hawai‘i habitats are determined primarily by elevation, temperature, and rainfall. As noted 

previously, all habitats have been affected to some degree by agriculture, logging, ungulates, and 

cattle ranching. Lower elevation habitats are highly degraded due to the presence of an array of 

nonnative species and coastal development, while the higher elevations have been used for ranching, 

logging, and agricultural experimentation, and subsequently these altered habitats have been 

degraded by ungulates. Despite this habitat degradation, numerous native species persist. Pockets of 

intact forest are interspersed within degraded habitat. Both the HFU and KFU lie between 2,000 and 

6,500 feet (ft) and are predominantly forested. Habitats that occur above 9,500 ff are not addressed in 

the following discussion because they are outside of our study areas. Because the Koa Forest and 

Maulua Gulch study areas extend makai to 1,500 feet and sea level, respectively, lower elevation 

habitats are discussed.

Windward Slope of Mauna Kea Habitats. Five main habitats characteristic of the windward, 

wetter, eastern side of the island occur in this area, which includes the HFU and the Koa Forest, 

Maulua Gulch, and Kūka‘iau Ranch study areas. From lowest to highest elevation, they are: 

Coastal Communities (Sea level–2,500 ft): Subject to marine influences, these communities can be 

dry, mesic, or wet and include stream outlets. The lower edge of the Koa Forest property lies at 1,500 

ft. It has been cleared and was used as farmland (Koa Timber, Inc. 2003). Between 1,500 and 3,000 

ft, the Koa Forest property is a sub-montane rain forest dominated by ‘ōhi‘a and koa, with koa 

occupying only the better drained positions, often heavily invaded by strawberry guava (Koa Timber, 

Inc. 2003). Maulua Gulch extends makai from the current Refuge boundary to sea level; the lower 

portion consists largely of agriculture lands with open pasture and lower-elevation forest that is 

largely comprised of invasive species. Native wildlife includes terrestrial invertebrates and 

waterbirds. 

Montane wet ‘ōhi‘a/‘uluhe forest (2,500–4,000 ft): This area is characterized by gently sloping hills 

and steep streams. Poorly drained volcanic soils and bogs also occur here. This low-elevation area is 

the most comprised of nonnative plant and animal species, especially mosquitoes and pigs. 

Historically, this forest type supported native birds, many of which have been eliminated by avian 

malaria and pox. The koloa maoli still frequents the bogs. Other common groundcover plants include 

ferns, sedges, and sphagnum moss. Portions of the Koa Forest property extending upwards to its 

boundary with the Refuge at about 3,600 feet are described as dominated by ‘ōhi‘a trees and large 

patches of ‘uluhe fern (Koa Timber, Inc. 2003). Upper portions of the Maulua Gulch property and the 

lowest portions of the HFU are within this ecological zone.

Montane wet ‘ōhi‘a forest (4,000–5,000 ft): The ‘ōhi‘a forest occurs on more moderate slopes than 

the lower elevation forest and has intermittent streams. It has more native bird diversity because it is 

above the range of most mosquitoes. A mature closed canopy of ‘ōhi‘a reaches 60 to 90 feet above a 

middle canopy of trees and tree ferns. The understory is dominated by shrubs, mixed ferns, and 

sphagnum moss. This forest type predominates in lower portions of the HFU and remnants may exist 

in the upper portions of the Maulua Gulch and Koa Forest properties. 

Montane wet koa/‘ōhi‘a forest (5,000–6,000 ft): The koa/‘ōhi‘a forest is characterized by moderate 

slopes, intermittent streams, and substantial native and endangered species populations. Much of this 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Conceptual Management Plan

8 

habitat has been used for grazing. Trees, shrubs, and mixed ferns dominate below a mixed age-class 

forest canopy of koa and ‘ōhi‘a. The wet koa/‘ōhi‘a forest is potential habitat for koloa maoli,

‘ōpe‘ape‘a, and most species of native forest birds. This forest type generally occurs above the 

elevation of the Maulua Gulch and Koa Forest properties but it may occur in ravines and protected 

sites.

Montane mesic koa forest (6,000–6,600 ft): Much of this forest has been converted to nonnative 

grassland, where historically it was composed of koa, shrubs, ferns, epiphytes, and native grasses. 

This type dominated the upper portion of the HFU and has been the focus of forest restoration 

efforts. It provides potential habitat for nēnē (Hawaiian goose), ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, and ‘io (Hawaiian hawk). 

Several species of native forest birds are found in the reforested areas. This forest type is above the 

elevation of the Maulua Gulch and Koa Forest properties, but was likely a dominant type on the 

lower portions of the Kūka‘iau Ranch study area, an area that was cleared for rangeland and planted 

to non–native pasture grasses. However, at Kūka‘iau Ranch, remnant koa trees occur in ravines and 

would provide a local seed source for forest restoration. Much of the lower elevation pasture is 

infested with Madagascar ragwort (Senecio madagascariensis); restoration efforts are likely to be 

complicated by this invasive weed that is poisonous to livestock (Motooka and others 2004). 

Māmane forest (5,900–9,500 ft): The māmane forest, occurring on Mauna Kea, supports the palila, a 

federally endangered bird. This rare forest type is threatened by ungulates. Minor amounts of 

māmane forest occur on the HFU, and the palila is not currently known from the HFU. The upper 

part of the western parcel at Kūka‘iau Ranch between 5,900 and 8,400 feet has māmane forest; upper 

areas of both parcels are currently dominated by Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum) and are 

potentially restorable to māmane forest. Remnant māmane trees would provide a local seed source 

for restoration, and a viable seed bank likely remains in the soil (Pacific Forestry Consultants 2010). 

Leeward Slope of Mauna Loa Habitats. Three main habitats characteristic of the leeward, drier, 

western side of the island occur in this area, which includes the KFU and the McCandless Ranch 

study area. From lowest to highest elevation, they are: 

Montane wet ‘ōhi‘a forest (2,000–3,000 ft and 3,500–4,500 ft): This forest type occurs in two 

elevation bands which differ in three main respects. The upper band receives less rainfall, has higher 

plant diversity in the mid–canopy, and the ground cover is dominated by grasses, compared to herbs 

in the lower band. Due to the lack of mosquitoes and increased plant diversity, the upper portion of 

this forest type supports a diverse native forest bird community. The ‘ōpe‘ape‘a and several 

endangered plants occur in this forest habitat (Service 2011). 

Montane mesic koa/‘ōhi‘a forest (4,500–5,800 ft): Forest habitat in this elevation range is dominated 

by mixed age trees of koa and ‘ōhi‘a. The middle canopy is dominated by a mix of trees; ferns, tree 

ferns, and epiphytes also occur (Service 2011). The montane mesic forest provides potential habitat 

for several endangered species including ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, the ‘alalā (Hawaiian crow), picture-wing flies, 

and various plants (Service 2011). 

Native dry koa/‘ōhi‘a/māmane forest (5,800–6,100 ft): This dry forest occurs at the upper elevations 

of the KFU on Honokua lot 4 and on the Kahuku lots mauka of the unit. It is potential habitat for the 

‘alalā, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, endangered plants, and endangered invertebrates. Native birds including the 

‘akiapōlā‘au, Hawai‘i ‘ākepa, and Hawai‘i creeper occur in this habitat (Service 2011). 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Conceptual Management Plan

9 

Lava Tubes and Lava Tube Skylights (subterranean): While not known to have any endangered 

obligate species, lava tubes and skylights contain ferns, birds, mammals, and rare invertebrates. 

These habitats are less susceptible to non–native species because of the specialization required to 

exist in them, but the entrance and twilight zones are still affected by non–native species (Service 

2011). 

Conservation Study Area Habitat Types: Virtually all of the 13,130 acres of the Koa Forest property 

are forested with the lower portion being a mixed koa/‘ōhi‘a forest and the upper portion being 

predominantly ‘ōhi‘a forest. About one-third, or about 700 acres, of the Maulua Gulch property is 

forested, with the remaining makai 1,400 acres having been cleared for agriculture (Figure 6). The 

Kūka‘iau Ranch parcels were largely cleared of trees when it was converted to pasture, although 

about 250 acres of a lower-stature ‘ōhi‘a forest with koa and māmane remains mauka, primarily in 

the uppermost paddock (Figure 6, Pacific Forestry Consultants 2010). In addition, patches of trees 

remain in gulches throughout both parcels. At McCandless Ranch, all of the Honokua lots, in total 

about 3,887 acres, are heavily forested with either ‘ōhi‘a or a mixed koa/‘ōhi‘a forest. The mauka 

Kahuku lots, about 6,256 acres in total, at McCandless Ranch include dry subalpine 

koa/‘ōhi‘a/māmane forest mixed with a native shrubland with sparse ‘ōhi‘a. At the highest elevations 

on the Kahuku lots, vegetation is very sparse to absent, especially on the lava flows.

4.2 Population Monitoring

The HFCSA encompasses a variety of habitats that support a number of endangered, threatened, or 

rare plant and animal species. One of the goals of the boundary expansion is to protect, restore, and 

enhance native habitats for the conservation and recovery of endangered, threatened, and rare 

species. To help achieve this goal, biological surveys will be conducted to: 

• Determine the abundance and distribution of endangered, threatened, and rare plant and 

animal species; 

• Establish baseline population information for forest birds, vegetation, and invertebrates; 

and, 

• Monitor resource responses to restoration and management, both in the short- and long-term. 

These surveys would create opportunities for partnership with other Federal and State agencies, nonprofit groups such as The Nature Conservancy, Three Mountain Alliance, universities, local school 

groups, and volunteers. 

4.3 Public Use and Wildlife-Dependent Recreational Activities

All public entry and use of refuge lands is at the discretion of the Refuge Manager. Wildlifedependent public use is generally encouraged on national wildlife refuges, as long as those uses are 

compatible with the primary purposes of the refuge and those uses are consistent with other 

management programs and uses. 

We expect to develop programs for public involvement on any new lands acquired or cooperatively 

managed through partnerships in a manner consistent with the established programs at Hakalau 

Forest NWR, which have relied heavily on volunteer support through work programs contributing to 

reforestation and greenhouse operations under the direction of Refuge staff. Other public 

involvement is offered through membership in the Friends of Hakalau Forest NWR, a non-profit 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Conceptual Management Plan

10 

citizen support group, and through special use permitting for guided tours provided on a limited basis 

by commercial entities.

4.3.1 Refuges are Primary-Use Areas

Units of the Refuge System are managed as primary-use areas; that is, primarily for the benefit of 

fish, wildlife, and their habitats. In addition, refuges are closed to other uses unless specifically and 

formally opened. This contrasts with units of other Federal land management systems that are 

managed under a multiple-use mandate (e.g., national forests administered by the U.S. Forest Service 

and public lands administered by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management). Hunting, fishing, wildlife 

observation and photography, and environmental education and interpretation are priority public uses 

of the Refuge System. These uses must receive enhanced consideration over other uses in refuge 

planning and management when determined to be compatible with the purpose(s) for which a refuge 

was established. 

4.3.2 The Compatibility Standard

Before any uses are allowed on a national wildlife refuge, Federal law requires a formal 

compatibility determination. A compatible use is defined as a use that, in the sound professional 

judgment of the refuge manager, will not materially interfere with or detract from the fulfillment of 

the Refuge System mission or the purpose(s) of the affected refuge. Sound professional judgment is 

defined as a decision that is consistent with the principles of fish and wildlife management and 

administration, available science and resources (funding, personnel, facilities, and other 

infrastructure), adherence to the requirements of the Administration Act, and other applicable laws. If 

resources are not available to design, operate, and maintain an activity, the refuge manager will take 

reasonable steps to obtain outside assistance from the state and other conservation interests. If 

adequate funding or staffing assistance cannot be identified, then the activity cannot be allowed.

4.3.3 Interim Compatibility Determination 

The Service is required by the Administration Act to identify, prior to acquisition of new refuges or 

refuge additions, existing owner-authorized, wildlife-dependent recreational activities that would be 

allowed to continue on an interim or temporary basis following Service acquisition. The Service is 

not required to complete interim compatibility determinations for uses that did not previously exist 

and were not owner-authorized on the proposed refuge. We are not aware of any such uses.

4.4 Law Enforcement

Enforcement of Federal and State laws on the refuges is important to conserve and protect natural 

resources, safeguard visitors, staff, and protect public and private property. Refuge Law Enforcement 

works cooperatively with local law enforcement agencies to control trespass, violations of wildlife 

laws, and other violations of law on refuge lands. 

4.5 Facilities Development and Management

Any land acquired within the boundary expansion would be administered as part of the Big Island 

National Wildlife Refuge Complex headquartered in Hilo, Hawai‘i. The development of the Refuge 

facilities, program, and staff would be phased in over time as the land base and management 

responsibilities expand. Refuge program and staff development are expected to take several years 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Conceptual Management Plan

11 

and would reflect the availability of funds appropriated by Congress to support the Hakalau Forest 

NWR. Boundaries of any lands acquired by the Service will be posted with refuge signs at regular 

intervals to provide the public knowledge of specific boundary locations. 

4.6 Interagency and Public Coordination

The lands within the potential boundary expansion area lie adjacent to private, State, and federally

owned or managed lands, creating a unique opportunity to work closely with private landowners, 

various public groups, and other agencies to initiate a coordinated resource management approach. 

Opportunities include, but are not limited to, cooperative research activities, public education and 

interpretation programs, and other public use-oriented programs. 

Established watershed-based partnerships on Hawai‘i Island, such as the Mauna Kea Watershed 

Alliance and Three Mountain Alliance, include many of the neighboring land management agencies 

and provide a forum for communication and awareness of needs across larger landscapes. Our 

participation in these groups helps to foster and coordinate joint conservation efforts across 

jurisdictional boundaries and helps to promote public and agency awareness. 

The Service will pursue additional partnerships with local communities, other Federal, State, and 

local agencies, conservation and nonprofit groups, and private landowners to meet mutual goals and 

objectives whenever possible. 

References Cited

Koa Timber, Inc. 2003. Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Koa Timber Commercial 

Forestry Operations. Koa Timber, Inc., Kapolei, HI. 58 pp., plus appendices. 

Mootooka, P., G. Nagat, K. Onuma, M. DuPonte, A. Kawabata, G. Fukumoto, and J. Pauley. 2004. 

Control of Madagascar ragwort (Senecio madagascariensis). College of Tropical Agriculture 

and Human Resources, Cooperative Extension Service. University of Hawai‘i at Manoa. 2 

pp. 

Pacific Forestry Consultants. 2010. Amended and restated conservation easement baseline 

documentation report for upper Kūka‘iau Ranch. Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 14 pp., plus exhibits. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2012a. Land Protection Plan, Proposed Additions to Hakalau Forest 

National Wildlife Refuge. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific 

Region, Portland, Oregon. 25 pp 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2012b. Environmental Assessment, Proposed Additions to Hakalau 

Forest National Wildlife Refuge. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, 

Pacific Region, Portland, Oregon. 77 pp. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 2011a. Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge 

Comprehensive Conservation Plan. Big Island National Wildlife Refuge Complex, 60 

Nowelo Street, Suite 100, Hilo, Hawai‘i and Pacific Islands Planning Team, 300 Ala Moana 

Boulevard, Room 5-231, Honolulu, Hawai‘i. Various pagination. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Conceptual Management Plan

12 

This page intentionally left blank. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

 

APPENDIX B 

Environmental Assessment

Proposed Additions to Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

Hawai‘i County, Hawai‘i 

February 2012

Prepared By:

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Division of Planning, Visitor Services, and Transportation

911 NE 11th Avenue

Portland, OR 97232 

(503) 231-2096 

www.fws.gov/pacific/planning

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

60 Nowelo Street, Suite 100 

Hilo, HI 96720 

(808) 443-2300 

www.fws.gov/hakalauforest

CITATION. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2012. Environmental Assessment, Proposed 

Additions to Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge. U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Region, Portland, Oregon. 77 pp.
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

ii

This page intentionally left blank. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

1 

Errata Sheet

April 2012 

Page 3, Figure 1. Lands managed, in part, for conservation on the Island of Hawai‛i.

An area of 11,288 acres located roughly within a 2.5 mile radius of the summit of Mauna Kea is 

managed by the University of Hawai‛i as the Mauna Kea Science Reserve. The Master Plan for 

this area includes a 10,760 acre Natural and Cultural Preservation Area with the remaining 525 

acres designated as an Astronomy Project.

Page 19, Section 2.2 Alternatives Considered but Excluded from Detailed Study

Add: 

Range of Action Alternatives

The Service considered including a range of intermediate action alternatives between the No 

Action and Full Protection (Preferred) Alternative. We rejected this approach because all of the 

properties had resource values of interest. Moreover, the Preferred Alternative can be modified 

in our final decision should we choose to exclude some properties from our proposed boundary. 

References Cited

The following references, missing from the public draft, have been added.

Burney, D.B. 2001. Fossil evidence for a diverse biota from Kauai and its transformation since 

human arrival. Ecological Monographs 71:615-641. 

Foster, J.T., B.L. Woodworth, L.E. Eggert, P.J. Hart, D. Palmer, D.C. Duffy, and R.C. Fleischer. 

2007. Genetic structure and evolved malaria resistance in Hawaiian honeycreepers. 

Molecular Ecology 16:4738-4746. 

Haines, W., and D. foote. 2005. Rapid assessment of invertebrate fauna of the Kona Forest Unit of 

Hakalau [sic] National Wildlife Refuge. Hawai‘i Cooperative Studies Unit, Technical Report 

HCSU-001. University of Hawai‛i at Hilo. 93 pp. 

Hart, P.J. 2000. Causes and correlates of rarity in the Hawai‛i ‛Ākepa. Ph.D. Dissertation, University 

of Hawai‛i, Honolulu, Hawai‛i. 

Hawai‛i Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism (DBEDT) and 

Department of Health (DOH). 1998. Hawai‛i Climate Change Action Plan. Various 

pagination. Available at: 

http://ase.tufts.edu/polsci/faculty/portney/climatePlan/HawaiiActionPlan1998.pdf. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

2 

National Ecological Assessment Team. 2006. Strategic Habitat Conservation: final report of the 

National Ecological Assessment Team. U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. 45 pp. 

Available at: http://www.fws.gov/nc-es/habreg/NEAT_FinalRpt.pdf. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 2008d. Strategic Habitat Conservation Handbook: a 

guide to implementing the technical elements of Strategic Habitat Conservation (Version 1.). 

Washington, D.C. 22 pp. Available at: 

http://www.fws.gov/science/doc/SHCTechnicalHandbook.pdf. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 1998. Big Island II: Addendum to the Recovery Plan 

for the Big Island Plant Cluster. Region 1, Portland, Oregon. 69 pp., plus appendices. 

Available at: http://www.fws.gov/ecos/ajax/docs/recovery_plan/980511a.pdf. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 1996. Recovery Plan for the Big Island Plant Cluster. 

Region 1, Portland, Oregon. 176 pp., plus appendices. Available at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/960926a.pdf. 

In addition, the References Cited section from the public release Environmental Assesement has 

been separated into specific references for the Final Land Protectino Plan, Final Conceptual 

Management Plan, and the Environmental Assessment.

Numerous other minor corrections have been made to the text of the Environmental Assessment. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

i 

Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1. PURPOSE AND NEED FOR ACTION 

1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Proposed Action ................................................................................................................... 1

1.3 Purpose of Proposed Action................................................................................................. 2

1.4 Need for Proposed Action .................................................................................................... 5

1.5 Study Areas .......................................................................................................................... 6

1.6 Related Actions .................................................................................................................... 6

1.7 Decisions to be Made ......................................................................................................... 10

1.8 Public Involvement and Identification of Issues ................................................................ 11

1.9 National Wildlife Refuge System and Authorities ............................................................ 11

1.10 Acquisition Policies ......................................................................................................... 12

1.11 Land Acquisition Process ................................................................................................ 12

1.12 Refuge Revenue Sharing Act of 1935, as Amended........................................................ 13

1.13 Compliance ...................................................................................................................... 13

1.14 Scope of the Environmental Assessment ......................................................................... 13

CHAPTER 2. ALTERNATIVES 

2.1 Land Selection ................................................................................................................... 15

2.2 Alternatives Considered but Excluded from Detailed Study ............................................. 19

2.3 Alternatives Considered in Detail ...................................................................................... 21

2.3.1 Alternative A – No Action .......................................................................................... 21

2.3.2 Alternative B – Full Land Protection .......................................................................... 21

CHAPTER 3. AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 

3.1 Overview of the Study Area .............................................................................................. 23

3.2 Physical Environment ......................................................................................................... 23

3.2.1 Topography .................................................................................................................. 23

3.2.2 Geology and Soils ........................................................................................................ 24

3.2.3 Climate ........................................................................................................................ 25

3.2.4 Climate Change ........................................................................................................... 25

3.2.5 Hydrology ................................................................................................................... 26

3.2.6 Environmental Contaminants....................................................................................... 27

3.3 Social and Economic Setting ............................................................................................. 28

3.3.1 Populations and Local Communities ........................................................................... 28

3.3.2 Island Economy and Employment .............................................................................. 29

3.3.3 Tax Revenues .............................................................................................................. 30

3.3.4 Contribution of Hakalau Forest NWR to the Island Economy .................................... 31

3.4 Historic and Present Land Use, Development, and Public Use Setting............................. 32

3.4.1 Historic Use ................................................................................................................ 32

3.4.2 Present Land Use, Development, and Public Uses ..................................................... 32

3.5 Archaeological and Historic Resources ............................................................................. 33

3.5.1 Previously Recorded Sites and Cultural Practices ...................................................... 34
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

ii

3.6 Biological Resources ......................................................................................................... 34

3.6.1 Natural Communities .................................................................................................. 34

3.6.2 Habitats ........................................................................................................................ 37

3.6.3 Endangered Species .................................................................................................... 40

3.6.4 Other Native Species and Special Ecosystems ............................................................ 48

3.6.5 Introduced Species ...................................................................................................... 51

CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 

4.1 Alternative A (No Action). ................................................................................................. 53

4.1.1 Effects on the Physical Environment ........................................................................... 53

4.1.2 Effects on the Social and Economic Environment ...................................................... 53

4.1.3 Cultural Resources ....................................................................................................... 53

4.1.4 Recreation .................................................................................................................... 54

4.1.5 Effects on the Biological Environment ........................................................................ 54

4.1.6 Climate Change ............................................................................................................ 56

4.1.7 Introduced Species ....................................................................................................... 56

4.2 Alternative B – Full Land Protection (Preferred Alternative) ............................................ 56

4.2.1 Effects on the Physical Environment ........................................................................... 56

4.2.2 Effects on the Social and Economic Environment ...................................................... 56

4.2.3 Cultural Resources ....................................................................................................... 58

4.2.4 Recreation .................................................................................................................... 58

4.2.5 Effects on the Biological Environment ........................................................................ 58

4.2.6 Climate Change ............................................................................................................ 62

4.2.7 Invasive Species ........................................................................................................... 62

4.2.8 Unavoidable Adverse Effects ...................................................................................... 62

4.2.9 Comparison of the Effects of the Alternatives and Rationale for the Preferred 

Alternative............................................................................................................................. 63

CHAPTER 5. COORDINATION, CONSULTATION, AND COMPLIANCE

5.1 Public Involvement ............................................................................................................. 67

5.2 Environmental Review and Consultation ........................................................................... 67

5.2.1 National Environmental Policy Act ............................................................................. 67

5.2.2 National Historic Preservation Act .............................................................................. 67

5.2.3 Endangered Species Act .............................................................................................. 68

5.2.4 Other Federal Laws, Regulations, and Executive Orders ............................................ 68

5.3 Distribution and Availability .............................................................................................. 68

CHAPTER 6. REFERENCES CITED

FIGURES

Figure 1. Lands managed, in part, for conservation on the Island of Hawai‘i ................................3 

Figure 2. Areas under consideration for addition to the HFU and KFU of Hakalau Forest 

National Wildlife Refuge .................................................................................................7 

Figure 3. Department of Hawaiian Home Lands property adjacent to the HFU showing proposed 

management of key areas under the ‘Āina Mauna Legacy Program ................................9 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

iii

Figure 4. Lands under consideration for addition to the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge 

in the vicinity of the HFU (top) and at the McCandless Ranch adjacent to the KFU 

(bottom).......................................................................................................................... 17 

Figure 5. Recreational opportunities on the Island of Hawai‘i ..................................................... 35 

Figure 6. Vegetation of the HFU, KFU, and the study areas ....................................................... 41 

TABLES 

Table 1. Land under consideration for addition to Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge .......6 

Table 2. Demographic Profiles of Hilo and Hōnaunau-Nāpō‘opo‘o Census Designated Places, 

Hawai‘i .......................................................................................................................................... 28 

Table 3. Top ten employers on the Island of Hawai‘i in 2009 ..................................................... 29 

Table 4. Hawai‘i County Industry Job Counts and Average Monthly Wages .............................. 30 

Table 5. 2010 Tax Rates for the County of Hawai‘i ..................................................................... 30 

Table 6. 2010 Tax Bills for Potential Additions to Hakalau Forest NWR ................................... 31 

Table 7. Status of Endangered, Threatened, and Candidate Species and their potential habitat on 

the Koa Forest, Maulua Gulch, Kūka‘iau Ranch, and McCandless Ranch properties ................. 59 

Table 8. Summary Comparison of the Effects of the Alternatives .............................................. 63 

APPENDIX A. Draft Land Protection Plan (not included – see Final Land Protection Plan)

APPENDIX B. Draft Conceptual Management Plan (not included – see Final Conceptual 

Management Plan) 

APPENDIX C. List of Preparers and Reviewers (see Final Land Protection Plan Appendix C)

APPENDIX D. Notification List for the Environmental Assessment
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

iv

This page intentionally left blank. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

1 

CHAPTER 1. PURPOSE AND NEED FOR ACTION

1.1 Introduction 

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) is the primary Federal agency responsible for 

conserving and enhancing the Nation’s fish and wildlife populations and their habitats. Although the 

Service shares this responsibility with other Federal, state, tribal, territorial, local, and private 

entities, the Service has specific trust responsibilities for migratory birds, federally listed threatened 

and endangered species, and certain anadromous fish and marine mammals. Service efforts over the 

last 100 years to protect wildlife and their habitats have resulted in a network of protected areas that 

form the National Wildlife Refuge System (Refuge System). This network of protected areas is the 

largest and most diverse in the world. Refuge System lands provide essential habitat for numerous 

wildlife species, wildlife-dependent recreational opportunities for the public, and a variety of benefits 

to local communities.

1.2 Proposed Action

 

The Service proposes to expand the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge (NWR or Refuge), 

located on Hawai‘i Island, in Hawai‘i County, in the State of Hawai‘i. The Service is reviewing lands 

in the vicinity of the Refuge’s two units with high wildlife conservation values and the potential for 

contributing to established Refuge management goals. The lands under consideration for acquisition 

or cooperative management will be limited to those described where participation is voluntary and 

willing sellers or partners are identified. The entire area described for the proposed boundary 

expansion is termed the Hakalau Forest Conservation Study Area (HFCSA). In this draft Land 

Protection Plan/Environmental Assessment (LPP/EA), the Service describes the purpose and need for 

protecting the wildlife and habitat associated with the proposed Hakalau Forest NWR expansion and 

analyzes the consequences of a range of alternatives for Refuge expansion. This document was 

prepared in compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA), as amended 

(42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.). 

The proposed action to expand Hakalau Forest NWR would further several Refuge goals identified in 

the Comprehensive Conservation Plan (CCP) (Service 2011), including:

Pahuhopu 1: E ho‘opalekana, mālama, a ho‘ōla hou i ka waonahele ma Mauna Loa ma ke ‘ano he 

wahi noho no nā mea a pau i mea e kū‘ono‘ono hou ai ka nohona o nā mea ‘ane make loa ‘o ia nō ‘o 

‘oe ‘o nā manu, nā ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, nā mea kanu, a me nā mea kolokolo ‘āina. 

Goal 1: Protect, maintain, and restore subtropical rainforest community on the leeward slope of 

Mauna Loa as habitat for all life-history needs to promote the recovery of endangered species (e.g., 

forest birds, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a (Lasiurus cinereus semotus), plants, and invertebrates). 

Pahuhopu 2: E ho‘opalekana a mālama i nā ana kahe pele a me ke ola i ka puka mālamalama o nā 

ana kahe pele ma ka waonahele o Kona, e kālele ana ho‘i i ke ola o nā lā‘au ‘ōiwi. 

Goal 2: Protect and maintain lava tube and lava tube skylight habitat throughout the Kona Forest 

Unit, with special emphasis on their unique and endemic flora and fauna. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

2 

Pahuhopu 3: E ho‘opalekana, mālama, a hō‘ola hou i ka waonahele ma ka ‘ao‘ao ko‘olau o Mauna 

Kea ma ke ‘ano he wahi noho no nā mea a pau a me ko lākou pono ‘oia nō ‘oe ‘o nā manu, nā 

‘ōpe‘ape‘a, nā mea kanu, a me nā mea kolokolo ‘āina. 

Goal 3: Protect, maintain, and restore subtropical rainforest community on the windward slope of 

Mauna Kea as habitat for all life-history needs of endangered species (e.g., forest birds, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, 

plants, and invertebrates).

Pahuhopu 4: E ho‘opalekana a mālama i ka ‘āina nenelu ma Hakalau. 

Goal 4: Protect and maintain wetland and aquatic habitats (e.g., streams and their associated riparian 

corridors, ponds, and bogs) on the Hakalau Forest Unit. 

The proposed action would implement objectives 1.5 and 5.3 of the CCP to investigate and initiate 

landscape-level habitat conservation measures for the Kona Forest Unit (KFU) and Hakalau Forest 

Unit (HFU), respectively. The strategies to achieve these objectives include: identify habitat to 

support focal species; develop protection and management strategies; and work with partners, 

neighbors, and private landowners to meet conservation goals and develop specific proposals for land 

acquisition, cooperative agreements, and/or conservation easements (Service 2011).

1.3 Purpose of Proposed Action

The Service identifies the purpose(s) of a refuge when it is established or when new land is added to 

an existing refuge. The purposes of the proposed Hakalau Forest NWR additions reflect the core 

mission of the Service to protect wildlife resources of national importance and the purposes for 

which the units of the existing Refuge were established. 

Under Refuge System policy, lands acquired for an existing refuge must incorporate the primary 

purposes for which the existing refuge was established. Thus, the primary purposes for the Hakalau 

Forest NWR would also apply to the proposed additions, if they are acquired by the Service. The 

purposes of Hakalau Forest NWR, established on October 29, 1985, are “. . . to conserve (A) fish or 

wildlife which are listed as endangered species or threatened species . . . or (B) plants . . .” 

(Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, 16 U.S.C. 1534). 

The Refuge is comprised of two units, the HFU and the KFU (Figure 1). The acquisition boundary of 

the HFU was originally approved to include 33,446 acres (ac) (Service 1985) and it was subsequently 

expanded by 500 acres (Service 1995) for a total of 33,946 acres. The acquisition boundary of the 

KFU is 5,300 acres (Service 1997). The total area within the current approved acquisition boundary 

of the Refuge, therefore, is 39,246 acres. 

In addition to implementing objectives from the CCP, acquisition of the currently proposed lands 

would have additional benefits, including: 

• Conservation, enhancement, and restoration of aquatic resources, including streams and bogs; 

• Protection, enhancement, and restoration of other native habitats, including lava tubes and 

lava tube skylights; and 

• Potential enhancement of opportunities for compatible wildlife-dependent visitor uses. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

3 

Figure 1. Lands managed, in part, for conservation on the Island of Hawai‘i. Not all 

managed areas shown have fish, wildlife, and plant conservation as their highest priority. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

4 

This page intentionally left blank 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

5 

Protection and management of these areas would allow the Service to contribute to the recovery of 

endangered or threatened species and to support other native plants and animals. The lands identified 

for addition to the Refuge include mid- and low-elevation habitats on the windward slope of Mauna 

Kea, and mid-elevation slopes on the leeward slope of Mauna Loa (Figure 2). 

1.4 Need for Proposed Action

The native flora and fauna of the State of Hawai‘i are largely endemic to the islands. One-third of all 

birds listed under the Endangered Species Act occur in Hawai`i, more than anywhere else in the 

United States. Populations of all native Hawaiian forest birds are declining, and 73 percent of their 

current range is on public lands. Eighty-five percent of State land in Hawai`i is open to uses 

incompatible with bird conservation, undermining efforts to manage, protect, and restore critically 

important habitat for endangered birds (North American Bird Conservation Initiative, U.S. 

Committee 2011). 

Habitats on the Island of Hawai‘i range from coastal to alpine, and this study area encompasses 

montane mesic, montane wet, and montane dry forests. Human land use practices and introduced 

ungulates have drastically changed the native landscape, allowing invasive plants such as strawberry 

guava (Psidium cattleianum) and gorse (Ulex europaeus) to succeed in the disturbed areas. Much of 

the land on Hawai‘i Island has been converted for either agricultural uses or cattle ranching; 42 

percent of the island has been converted for a variety of human uses. The proposed Refuge additions 

have the potential to serve as much-needed protected habitat that would benefit a number of 

endangered or threatened Hawaiian species and ecosystems, including: 

• Habitat for threatened and endangered birds such as the ‘akiapōlā‘au (Hemignathus munroi), 

Hawai‘i ‘ākepa (Loxops coccineus coccineus), Hawai‘i creeper (Oreomystis mana), ‘ō‘ū 

(Psittirostra psittacea–Hawaiian honeycreeper), nēnē (Branta sandvicensis–Hawaiian 

goose), koloa maoli (Anas wyvilliana–Hawaiian duck), ‘alalā (Corvus hawaiiensis–Hawaiian 

crow), and ‘io (Buteo solitarius–Hawaiian hawk); the State’s only native land mammal, 

‘ōpe‘ape‘a (Lasiurus cinereus semotus–Hawaiian hoary bat); and several invertebrates;

• Habitat for threatened and endangered plants such as the ‘oha wai (Clermontia spp.), hāhā

(Cyanea shipmanii), and ha‘iwale (Cyrtandra tintinnabula), among others; 

• Two of the highest quality streams on the island, the Hanawī Stream and Honoli‘i Stream; 

and, 

• Opportunities to create and enhance partnerships that will help connect and improve the 

mosaic of conservation lands across the island. 

Our proposal stems from recognition that habitat connectivity and complete ecosystems are essential 

to the recovery of endangered species on the Island of Hawai‘i. While the current network of lands

managed to various extents for conservation on Hawai‘i Island helps to protect these rare species and 

ecosystems (Figure 1), further land protection efforts are needed to help ensure and speed recovery, 

especially in light of the potential impacts of global climate change. By allowing us or our partners to 

secure and/or manage key habitats in the proposed HFCSA through cooperative arrangements, 

conservation easements, and/or fee title acquisition, we could strengthen the resiliency of existing 

lands in conservation and provide for wildlife movement and adaptation in the face of nonnative 

species invasion, global climate change, and other impacts to native ecosystems.
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

6 

1.5 Study Areas 

Our current study areas encompass 5 parcels of land totaling 29,973 acres (Figure 2; Table 1). About 

two-thirds of these lands are near or adjacent to the HFU, while the remaining lands are adjacent to 

the KFU. 

Table 1. Land under consideration for addition to Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge. 

Hakalau Forest Unit Parcels

Parcel Name Acres Based on County Assessor Records

Koa Forest Property 13,130

Maulua Gulch 2,230

Kūka‘iau Ranch 4,469

Hakalau Forest Unit Subtotal 19,829

Kona Forest Unit Parcels

McCandless Ranch Honokua Lots 3,887

McCandless Ranch Kahuku Lots 6,256

Kona Forest Unit Subtotal 10,143

Proposed Expansion Total 29,9731

1 Total differs from combined subtotals due to rounding.

1.6 Related Actions 

The HFU and KFU are part of a much larger landscape that includes lands on the Island of Hawai‘i 

that are managed to various degrees for conservation of native Hawaiian ecosystems and species. In 

addition to the Service, other major Federal land managers include the National Park Service and the 

Department of Defense; numerous State and private lands also contribute to the overall conservation 

landscape on the island (Figure 1).

The Department of Hawaiian Home Lands (DHHL) administers 56,200 acres of land contiguous with 

the HFU (Figure 3; DHHL 2011). These lands are the largest contiguous parcel of land under DHHL 

jurisdiction and comprise 28 percent of the 200,000 acres set aside by Congress in 1921 as a land 

trust for Native Hawaiians. About 10,000-13,000 acres in the vicinity of the Refuge are heavily 

infested with gorse. This invasive shrub forms impenetrable thickets that crowd out native vegetation 

and grow outward, creating a center of dead vegetation. The high oil content of the plants also creates 

a major fire hazard. DHHL and the Refuge have collaborated on mechanical removal of gorse and 

reforestation on buffer strips of DHHL land adjacent to the Refuge (K2 and K3 in Figure 3). 

DHHL has developed a management plan for these lands known as the ‘Āina Mauna Legacy 

Program, which proposes actions to restore native forest, including seed collection, outplanting, site 

preparation, maintenance, and monitoring (Figure 3; DHHL 2011). The intent of the areas conserved 

as native koa (Acacia koa) or koa/‘ōhi‘a (Meterosideros polyphylla) forest (R3 and R4 in Figure 3) 

would not be commercially harvested on a large scale and are instead managed for their habitat and 

biodiversity values. Two additional corridors (R1 and R2 in Figure 3) would also be managed for 

these values and, when restored, would provide habitat connectivity to native mamane forest at 

higher elevations on Mauna Kea. Other areas are designated for sustainable koa forestry (K1-K5 in 

Figure 3). A portion of DHHL land lies within the southwest boundary of the Refuge. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

7 

Figure 2. Areas under consideration for addition to the Hakalau Forest and Kona Forest 

Units of Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge.
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

8 

This page intentionally left blank 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

9 

Figure 3. Department of Hawaiian Home Lands property adjacent to the HFU showing 

proposed management of key areas under the ‘Āina Mauna Legacy Program (DHHL 2011). 

See text for explanation of coded areas.

The Kūka‘iau Ranch parcels have an existing conservation easement held by The Nature 

Conservancy of Hawai‘i (TNC). Makai (toward the ocean) of the study parcels, Hawaiian 

Hardwoods Legacy is implementing a reforestation project on 2,672 acres of the ranch. These acres 

are contiguous with the parcels we are considering. The State Division of Forestry and Wildlife has 

also submitted a proposal to the Service for a Recovery Land Acquisition grant to acquire the two 

Kūka‘iau Ranch parcels we are studying. However, the proposal was not funded in 2011. 

The State of Hawai‘i has recently released The Rain Follows the Forest, a plan to replenish their 

sources of water (Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR) 2011a). The priority actions 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

10 

identified in the plan include managing invasive species, increasing the State’s ability to withstand 

impacts from climate change, and seeking increased DLNR funding to restore their management 

capabilities. The plan identifies priority watersheds and outlines actions and projects to protect and 

sustain their critical water sources. It emphasizes that in order to be successful, the actions must 

occur on a large scale across ownership boundaries through agreements and leveraged funds 

provided by statewide watershed partnerships. 

The Mauna Kea Watershed Alliance (MKWA) works in areas adjacent to the HFU. The goal of the 

MKWA is to improve water and environmental quality by enabling comprehensive and sustainable 

watershed management projects that address current threats, maintain the watershed’s integrity, and 

protect its economic, socio-cultural, and ecological resources. Funding was secured for the 

development of the MKWA in 2006. A management plan will be drafted to describe the watershed 

resources and associated values, to identify threats to the resources, and direct the activities of the 

MKWA toward their protection. Once finalized, the land area of the MKWA will likely include over 

50,000 acres of forest and grasslands that includes tracts of privately owned land, the HFU, three 

State Forest Reserves, two State Natural Area Reserves, the federally owned Pōhakuloa Training 

Area, and a proposed U.S. Forest Service Experimental Forest (Service 2010a). 

Lands within and adjacent to the Kona Forest Unit are included within the largest watershed 

partnership in Hawai‘i, the Three Mountain Alliance (TMA). The overall goal of TMA is to sustain 

the multiple ecosystem benefits of the three mountains of Kīlauea, Mauna Loa, and Hualālai by 

responsibly managing the watershed areas, native habitats and species, and historical, cultural, and 

socio-economic resources for all who benefit from the continued health of the three mountains (TMA 

2007). TMA partners include the Service, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, U.S. Geological Survey 

Pacific Island Ecosystems Research Center, State of Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural 

Resources and Department of Public Safety, U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources 

Conservation Service (NRCS), U.S. Forest Service (USFS), Kamehameha Schools, and TNC. Other 

contributors include the Hawaiian Silversword Foundation and the University of Hawai‘i Pacific 

Cooperative Studies Unit. In 2009, TMA was presented with the Partners in Conservation Award by 

the Secretary of the Interior for its achievements.

1.7 Decisions to be Made 

Based on the analysis documented in this LPP/EA, the Director of the Service will determine 

whether or not to expand the boundaries of Hakalau Forest NWR. If the Director determines that 

expanding the Refuge is appropriate, a decision will also be made regarding the boundaries of the 

Refuge and whether the selected boundaries would have significant impacts on the quality of the 

human environment.

The authorities for this habitat protection effort are the National Wildlife Refuge System 

Administration Act of 1966 (16 U.S.C. § 668dd-668ee) (Administration Act), as amended by the 

National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997; Endangered Species Act of 1973 (16 

U.S.C. § 1531-1544 as amended) (ESA); and the Fish and Wildlife Act of 1956 (16 U.S.C. § 742a742j) as amended. The Administration Act authorizes the acquisition and management of land for the 

Refuge System. The ESA authorizes the acquisition of land for the conservation of listed species 

with Land and Water Conservation Fund (LWCF) monies. The Fish and Wildlife Act authorizes the 

acquisition of refuge lands for development, advancement, management, conservation, and 

protection of fish and wildlife resources with LWCF monies. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

11 

1.8 Public Involvement and Identification of Issues

The Service worked closely with a number of government agencies, nongovernmental conservation 

organizations, affected landowners, Refuge neighbors, and other interested stakeholders and citizens 

to identify issues and develop this proposal. 

In July 2011, a planning update was distributed to 292 interested parties, accompanied by a press 

release. The planning update informed members of the public about the project and solicited their 

comments. The planning update also provided a map of the study areas and described potential 

management actions. 

The Refuge Manager presented information on the Refuge proposal at an open house in Hilo on 

August 17, 2011. Attendees were presented with an overview of the proposed study areas, and their 

comments were recorded. In addition, public comments were submitted by e-mail during the scoping 

period, which ended September 16, 2011. The public identified a range of issues regarding the 

proposed land acquisitions and their management if they were acquired by the Refuge. Specifically, 

public concerns were expressed regarding the effects of the acquisition on the following: 

• Acquisition and management costs and funding; 

• Access and public use; 

• Invasive species management; 

• Removal of land from agricultural and livestock use; 

• Water rights; 

• Short-term versus long-term conservation benefits; and

• Public education. 

These issues and the effects of the land acquisition on other features of the affected environment, 

including endangered species and other native wildlife, the local economy, and conceptual 

management of any acquired lands, are considered in this LPP/EA. 

 

1.9 National Wildlife Refuge System and Authorities

The Hakalau Forest NWR is managed as part of the Refuge System within a legal and policy 

framework. The Refuge is guided by the mission and goals of the Refuge System and the purposes of 

the Refuge as described in its acquisition authorities. Management programs are developed and 

conducted in compliance with international treaties, applicable Federal laws and Executive orders, 

and Service policy.

The mission of the Refuge System is to administer a national network of lands and waters for the 

conservation, management, and where appropriate, restoration of the fish, wildlife, and plant 

resources and their habitats within the United States for the benefit of present and future generations 

of Americans. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

12 

1.10 Acquisition Policies

The Service’s land protection policy is to acquire land only when other protective means to achieve 

program goals (such as zoning or regulation) are not appropriate, available, or effective. When lands 

are to be acquired, the minimum interest necessary to reach management objectives is acquired or 

retained. The Service strives to reduce costs by acquiring land through donation, exchange, transfer, 

withdrawal, permit, and by cooperative agreements with landowners. When the Service determines 

it is necessary to acquire land, it acquires fee title (control of all property rights) only if acquisition of 

lesser property interest (such as easements or leases) is not available or would not achieve its 

conservation objectives. 

It is Service policy to acquire lands from willing sellers and to offer fair market value for the land. 

Public Law 91-646, the Uniform Relocation Assistance and Real Property Acquisition Policies Act, 

as amended, requires that the Service offer a landowner 100 percent of fair market value of the 

property (as determined by an approved appraisal) and provide certain benefits and payments to 

persons displaced by the acquisition of land. 

It is Service policy to acquire lands that are not contaminated. No Superfund sites are identified in 

the County of Hawai‘i based on a search of the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) 

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Information System database 

(EPA 2011). Site specific Pre-Acquisition Level I Contaminant Surveys would be conducted for each 

parcel prior to completion of acquisition. 

1.11 Land Acquisition Process 

The Service acquires land for national wildlife refuges in a manner consistent with legislation or 

other congressional guidelines and Executive orders. The Service can protect habitat through various 

means, such as (1) the purchase of fee title or conservation easements, (2) transfers of other Federal 

lands, (3) donations, (4) exchanges, and (5) cooperative management agreements. 

Acquisition funding may be made available through the LWCF or other sources to acquire lands, 

waters, or interest therein for fish and wildlife conservation purposes. The Federal monies used to 

acquire private lands through the LWCF are derived primarily from oil and gas leases on the outer 

continental shelf, and motorboat fuel tax revenues. 

The basic considerations in acquiring land are (1) biological significance of the land, (2) existing and 

anticipated threats to wildlife resources, and (3) landowners’ willingness to sell or otherwise make 

property available to the project. The purchase of lands proceeds according to the willingness of 

sellers and availability of funds. 

The Service has no authority to acquire land except within an approved refuge acquisition boundary. 

An approved refuge boundary authorizes the Service to acquire an interest in real property, such as 

fee title or a conservation easement, from landowners who are willing sellers. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

13 

1.12 Refuge Revenue Sharing Act of 1935, as Amended 

Under provisions of the Refuge Revenue Sharing Act (16 U.S.C. 715s) (RRSA), the Service would 

make an annual payment to Hawai‘i County to help offset property tax revenue lost as a result of 

acquisition of private property. This law states that the Secretary of the Interior (Secretary) will pay 

to each county in which an area acquired in fee title is situated the greater of the following amounts: 

• An amount equal to 75 cents per acre for that portion of the fee area which is located within 

such county; 

• An amount equal to 3/4 of 1 percent of the fair market value, as determined by the Secretary, 

for that portion of the fee area that is located within such county; or 

• An amount equal to 25 percent of the net receipts generated and collected on the Refuge. 

If these funds are insufficient to make full payments to the counties, Congress is authorized to 

appropriate funds to make up any shortfall. When Congress does not appropriate sufficient funds, 

counties receive a pro-rata reduction in their RRSA disbursement. 

RRSA also requires that Service lands be reappraised every five years to ensure that payments to 

local governments remain equitable. Payments would be made only on lands that the Service 

acquires in fee title. On lands where the Service acquires only partial interest through easement, all 

taxes would remain the responsibility of the individual landowner. 

1.13 Compliance 

The proposed acquisition will be in compliance with Service policies and the following laws and 

regulations: National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, as amended; Executive Order 12372 

(Intergovernmental Review of Federal Programs); Executive Order 11988 (Floodplain Management) 

and 11990 (Protection of Wetlands); ESA; Uniform Relocation Assistance and Real Property 

Acquisition for Federal and Federally Assisted Programs (Uniform Act of 1970), as amended; 

Executive Order 11593 (Protection of Historical, Archaeological, and Scientific Properties) including 

the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (NHPA), as amended; the Archaeological Resources 

Protection Act; the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990; Coastal Zone 

Management Act of 1972, as amended; Executive Order 12996 (Management and General Public 

Use of the National Wildlife Refuge System); Secretary’s Order 3127 (Contaminants and Hazardous 

Waste); the Administration; and other applicable laws. 

1.14 Scope of the Environmental Assessment

This LPP/EA evaluates the environmental effects of adding and managing new Refuge lands. The 

LPP is included as Appendix A. While this LPP/EA does not cover the details of future Refuge 

management for the proposed expanded Refuge, conceptual management actions are described to 

indicate potential management direction until such time as the CCP (Service 2011) for Hakalau 

Forest NWR is amended. A draft Conceptual Management Plan is included as Appendix B. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

14 

This page intentionally left blank. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

15 

CHAPTER 2. ALTERNATIVES 

2.1 Land Selection 

Although several alternatives for land protection were considered, only two alternatives, including no 

action, have been carried forward for detailed study. The action alternative includes four properties 

for potential addition to the Refuge. These properties are described in more detail below. Key 

biological features of each property are discussed in Chapter 3, Affected Environment. These 

properties are included because they have value as wildlife habitat, and therefore complement the 

Service’s mission and Hakalau Forest NWR purposes; the lands are in close proximity or contiguous 

with the existing Refuge and other areas managed for conservation; the landowners have expressed 

an interest in selling the lands; and some of the parcels contain habitat not well represented within the 

Refuge System. The expansion would enhance the recovery of up to eight federally listed endangered 

or threatened species, reduce habitat fragmentation, and increase connectivity among existing 

conservation areas on the Island of Hawai‘i. Expansion, enhancement, and restoration of areas 

managed for Hawai‘i’s endangered and native wildlife and for the enjoyment of the American people 

will increase the resiliency of island ecosystems, which are highly vulnerable to climate change 

(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2001). 

Koa Forest. The Koa Forest property is comprised of two tax lots contiguous with the southern 

portion of the makai boundary of the HFU (Figure 4). The larger of the two lots (Tax Map Key 

(TMK) No. (3) 2–7–001–001) is 11,395 acres and is zoned conservation (10,115 acres) and 

agricultural (1,280 acres) (County of Hawai‘i 2011a). The second lot (TMK No. (3) 2–8–001–002) is

1,735 acres and lies adjacent to the northern boundary of the larger lot and is zoned conservation 

(County of Hawai‘i 2011). Most of the property retains a native forest tree canopy although invasive 

plants dominate the understory at lower elevations (Terry 2002). The two lots were proposed for 

commercial koa harvest in the past decade (Koa Timber Inc. 2003) but were sold at auction in 2010. 

The Koa Forest property is currently for sale. 

Maulua Gulch. The Maulua property is also comprised of two tax lots, one of which is contiguous 

with the northern portion of the lower boundary of the HFU (Figure 4). The makai lot (TMK No. (3) 

3–4–002–004), at 1,237 acres, is the larger of the two lots and is zoned agricultural. The mauka 

(toward the mountain) lot (TMK No. (3) 3–7–001–011) is 994 acres and is zoned conservation 

(County of Hawai‘i 2011a). Both lots are currently for sale. 

Kūka‘iau Ranch. The Kūka‘iau Ranch property includes two tax lots roughly bordered on the 

northern edge by Mana (Keanakolu) Road and on the southern edge by Mauna Kea Forest Reserve 

(Figure 4). To the east and west of the lots are conservation lands leased by the State of Hawai‘i to 

provide habitat for the endangered palila (Laxoides bailleui) and other species (State of Hawai‘i 

2009). The larger lot (TMK No. (3) 4–2–008–008) is 2,524 acres and zoned as agricultural. The 

second lot (TMK No. (3) 4–2–008–021) is contiguous with the east side of the larger parcel and is 

1,945 acres; it is also zoned agricultural, with the exception of the uppermost paddock which is 

zoned conservation (County of Hawai‘i 2011a, State of Hawai‘i 2009). The lower elevation portions 

of the two lots have been cleared and the current vegetation is predominantly pasture grasses, 

although some koa trees remain in the ravines. An estimated 250 acres of subalpine forest of ‘ōhi‘a, 

koa, and māmane (Sophora chrysophylla) occurs at higher elevations on the western parcel primarily 

within the paddock zoned for conservation (Pacific Forestry Consultants 2010). 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

16 

These two lots, comprising 4,469 acres, are included within a perpetual and transferable conservation 

easement that is held by TNC. The property-wide purpose of the easement is to conserve its

productive capacity for sustainable human use and ecological and watershed function, and to 

maintain natural values associated with its open-space condition (State of Hawai‘i 2009). Specific 

purposes vary among four zones identified in the easement. In Zone 1 (1,050 acres), protection of 

natural habitat and cultural resources is the priority purpose and no use or activity is permitted that 

would impair these resources. In Zone 2 (845 acres), preservation and protection of natural habitat 

and agricultural values are co-equal purposes but, if a significant conflict between these purposes

arises, protection of natural habitat values will take priority. In Zone 3 (1,343 acres), protection of 

natural habitat and agricultural values are co-equal purposes but, if a significant conflict between 

these purposes arises, agricultural use for production of food and fiber will take priority. In Zone 4 

(1,231 acres), the primary purpose is agricultural use for production of food and fiber and no use or 

activity that would impair this purpose is permitted. The grantee, TNC, has rights of preservation and 

protection of conservation values, reasonable access, and enforcement of terms of the easement. 

Specific uses and activities inconsistent with the purposes of the agreement and the grantor’s 

reserved uses and activities consistent with the purpose are also identified (State of Hawai‘i 2009). 

The State of Hawai‘i recently submitted a proposal to the Service for a Recovery Land Acquisition 

Grant for the two Kūka‘iau Ranch lots (DLNR 2011b). The upper portion of the two parcels is within 

designated critical habitat for the endangered palila (42 Federal Register (FR) 40685). The objective 

of the proposal was to acquire the 4,469-acre property with the Hawaiian Islands Land Trust as fee 

title owner. Management of the land would be conducted in partnership with the State of Hawai‘i, the 

Service, other non-profit organizations, and community groups for the purposes of endangered 

species recovery and native species habitat restoration. However, the proposal was not funded in 

fiscal year 2011. 

Another interesting aspect of the Kūka‘iau Ranch lots is that 2,700 acres of the Kūka‘iau Ranch 

makai of these lots are planned for reforestation by Hawaiian Legacy Hardwoods (HLH), LLC, a 

sustainable koa forestry business. Although most of the reforested areas will be harvested, HLH has 

donated 1,000 acres to their Hawaiian Legacy Reforestation Initiative (HLH 2011a). Their hope, 

inspired by the reforestation project at the Refuge, is to plant 1.3 million koa trees through the sale of 

legacy, fundraiser, and endowment trees. These legacy trees will not be harvested. The trees for 

outplanting are grown in a nursery on the Kūka‘iau Ranch. Each tree has a radio frequency 

identification tag with GPS tracking that provides a unique signature and includes the sponsor’s 

name, honoree, date planted, and the location of the tree (HLH 2011a). This effort has recently been 

furthered by a partnership with the Four Seasons Resort, Hualālai, which has joined with HLH, TNC, 

the Boy Scouts of America, and government agencies to plant 200,000 legacy trees (HLH 2011b; 

TNC 2011). 

McCandless Ranch. The McCandless Ranch property includes four lots in the Ahupua‘a (a 

traditional Hawaiian subdivision of land) of Honokua south of the KFU and four lots in the Ahupua‘a 

of Kahuku mauka of the KFU and the Honokua lots. The KFU and the two ahupua‘a share a common 

boundary point that is also the mauka endpoint of the Waimea Tract, a 1,258-acre parcel of land 

owned by the State of Hawai‘i and leased to the McCandless Ranch on a month-to-month basis 

(Figure 4). The State has had access difficulties to the Waimea Tract which is landlocked by the 

McCandless Ranch. An access road to mauka lots on the McCandless Ranch weaves in and out of the 

Waimea Tract. The McCandless Ranch recently constructed a road entirely on their property to 

ensure permanent access to two 250-acre Kahuku lots to remain in their ownership. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

17 

Figure 4. Lands under consideration for addition to the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife 

Refuge in the vicinity of the HFU (top) and at McCandless Ranch nearo the KFU (bottom).
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

18 

This page intentionally left blank 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

19 

The four Honokua lots under consideration include lot 5 (641 acres), lot 7 (641 acres), lot 10 (1,344 

acres), and lot 11 (1,261 acres), for a total of 2,604 acres, all within TMK No. (3) 8–6–001–001 and 

zoned agricultural (McCandless Ranch 2010, County of Hawai‘i 2011a). The Honokua lots span the 

same general elevation range as the KFU, about 2,000-6,000 feet (ft). Lower and middle elevations 

therefore are closed canopy forest dominated by ‘ōhi‘a, increasing amounts of koa with elevation 

gain, and patches of dry subalpine ‘ōhi‘a and māmane woodlands at the uppermost end of the 

property. 

Kahuku lots 1 (TMK No. (3) 9–2–001–003) and 2 (TMK No. (3) 9–2–001–077) are both 1,439 acres

and zoned agricultural (McCandless Ranch 2010; County of Hawai‘i 2011). Kahuku lot 3 (TMK No. 

(3) 9–2–001–078) and lot 4 (TMK No. (3) 9–2–001–079) are both 1,689 acres and also zoned 

agricultural (McCandless Ranch 2010; County of Hawai‘i 2011a). The Kahuku lots lie mauka of both 

the KFU and the Honokua lots and, therefore, are covered primarily with dry subalpine ‘ōhi‘a and 

māmane woodlands. McCandless Ranch sold a perpetual conservation easement on 3,128 acres of 

Kahuku lots 3 and 4 to USFS (Henshaw 2011). 

2.2 Alternatives Considered but Excluded from Detailed Study

Protection by State Land Use District Classification and County Zoning 

All of the lands under consideration are within State Districts classified as either agricultural or 

conservation. The use of such lands is limited as set forth in Hawai‘i Revised Statute (HRS) Chapter 

205. In general, lands classified as agricultural can be used for crop and livestock production, and 

related agricultural activities; biofuel and wind energy production for public, private, and commercial 

use is also allowable (HRS Chapter 205-2(d)). Conservation districts include areas necessary for 

protecting watersheds and water resources; preserving scenic and historic areas; providing park 

lands, wilderness, and beach reserves; conserving indigenous or endemic plants, fish, and wildlife, 

including those that are threatened or endangered; preventing floods and soil erosion; forestry; open 

space areas whose existing openness, natural condition, or present state of use, if retained, would 

enhance the present or potential value of abutting or surrounding communities or would enhance or 

maintain the conservation of natural or scenic resources; areas of value for recreational purposes or 

other related activities; and other permitted uses not detrimental to a multiple use concept (HRS 

Chapter 205-2(e)). Geothermal resource subzones may be designated and geothermal development 

may be permitted within both agricultural and conservation districts (HRS Chapter 205-5.1). 

Counties have been granted powers to govern zoning within agricultural districts; in general, uses 

remain limited to those specified in HRS Chapter 205-2, but counties may further define agricultural 

uses and services (HRS Chapter 205-5(b)). Agricultural lands can be subdivided and sold subject to a 

review and approval process (County of Hawai‘i 2006). The County zoning designation sets a 

theoretical limit on the minimum lot size. The makai portions of the Koa Forest and Maulua Gulch 

properties fall within the agricultural classification and are zoned A20a and could therefore be 

subdivided into a minimum lot size of 20 acres. The Kūka‘iau Ranch parcels are zoned A40a 

indicating a minimum lot size of 40 acres. The Honokua lots at McCandless Ranch are zone A6a 

indicating a minimum lot size of 6 acres. The Kahuku lots at McCandless Ranch are zoned A20a 

indicating a minimum lot size of 20 acres, although the conservation easement on lots 2 and 3 would 

preclude their development. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

20 

Conservation districts are governed solely by the DLNR and are further subdivided into main four 

subzones which are, from most to least restrictive: protective, limited, resource, and general (County 

of Hawai‘i 2006). Only a limited range of uses are allowed and most uses require a conservation 

district use permit (CDUP) from the Board of Land and Natural Resources, a seven-member board 

appointed by the governor. In addition, depending on the subzone, permit approval includes an 

extensive public review and hearing process and may require an EA and/or Environmental Impact 

Statement (EIS). Over the past few years, CDUPs have been administered for open ocean 

aquaculture projects; telescopes on top of Mauna Kea and Haleakalā; major power line projects on 

scenic ridges; telecommunication facility projects; single family residences; parks; commercial 

forestry projects; and other projects (DLNR 2011c). 

The Koa Forest, Maulua Gulch, and Kūka‘iau Ranch properties all have portions that lie within a 

conservation district. The Koa Forest property is in a resource subzone which has commercial 

forestry as an identified use (Koa Timber Inc. 2003). A helicopter koa logging operation was 

proposed within 10,000 acres of the 13,129 acres of the property in 2000. A draft EA was published 

in March 2001 but was withdrawn after a public hearing the following month in favor of an EIS. A 

final EIS for the project was submitted in 2003 (Koa Timber Inc. 2003). The project proponent 

withdrew his application in 2007. No permit for commercial logging has been issued since the 1970s, 

although the high value of koa wood continues to make commercial harvest appealing (Dietz 2010). 

Because of the ability to use agricultural classified land for crop and livestock production, and 

potentially to subdivide large parcels into substantially smaller lots for sale, sufficient protection of 

the lands under consideration through State and County zoning alone cannot meet our purpose and 

goals as described in Chapter 1. Likewise, numerous use authorizations are possible on lands 

classified as conservation district that would be contrary to our purpose and needs. Moreover, 

although permits for commercial logging operations are difficult to obtain, the issuance of such 

permits remains possible under the existing rules governing conservation district lands. Because of 

the importance of koa forests to native species, including endangered forest birds and plants, and the 

threats that other identified uses, if permitted, pose, conservation district classification is also not 

sufficient to achieve our purpose and needs. If added to the Refuge, State and County classification 

and zoning would no longer apply and these lands would be managed for the long-term conservation 

of endangered species, which is the primary purpose of our proposed action. 

Protection through Recovery Land Acquisition Grant. As noted previously, a proposal was 

submitted by the State to the Service for a grant to acquire and restore the two Kūka‘iau Ranch 

parcels under consideration for recovery of the endangered palila (DLNR 2011b). This is a highly 

competitive grant process and the proposal was not funded in fiscal year 2011. While the proposal 

could be resubmitted in subsequent years, future funding is not assured. Because of the great 

conservation value of this parcel, we believe that it is prudent to pursue an alternative to the 

Recovery Land Acquisition process that would ensure long-term protection and management of these 

parcels by adding them to the Refuge. This would further the collaborative effort to recover the palila 

while satisfying the purpose and needs of our assessment.
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

21 

2.3 Alternatives Considered in Detail 

2.3.1 Alternative A – No Action

Under Alternative A, the No Action Alternative, no new acreage would be added to the Refuge. 

There would be no additional long-term commitments by the Refuge to recover endangered species 

in these areas. The lands under consideration would remain private and available for agricultural, 

residential, commercial, or industrial development, subject to any existing deed and land-use 

restrictions or permitting requirements. No cultural sites or resources present on the parcels under 

consideration would be included in the Refuge. Private landowners would continue to control access 

across and use of private lands, subject to any deed restrictions on parcels with existing conservation 

easements. Private landowners would continue to pay taxes on these lands. No public funds would be 

expended for the purchase of additional property or for Refuge operations and maintenance of new 

property. 

2.3.2 Alternative B – Full Land Protection 

Under Alternative B, our preferred alternative, the approved acquisition boundary of the Refuge 

would be expanded by up to 29,973 acres to include the Koa Forest, Maulua Gulch, Kūka‘iau Ranch, 

and McCandless Ranch properties, as described above. An LPP for these properties is required by 

Refuge System policy and is included as Appendix A. The Refuge would make additional long-term 

commitments to recover endangered species in these areas, including invasive species control and 

habitat restoration. Management of acquired land would be consistent with the Refuge CCP (Service 

2011), which would be amended to incorporate newly acquired land. A Conceptual Management 

Plan (CMP) for the proposed additions is included as Appendix B. 

Any land acquired would become part of the Refuge System and be unavailable for agricultural, 

residential, commercial, or industrial development. All cultural sites or resources present on lands 

acquired would be included in the Hakalau Forest NWR; any future ground-disturbing activities 

would require compliance with the NHPA. Access and public use would be controlled by the Refuge 

in compliance with appropriate laws and policies. Under current law, tax losses would likely be 

largely offset by payments authorized by the RRSA. Acquisition costs, estimated to be $120,000,000, 

or about $4,000 per acres for all parcels, would be requested over time from the LWCF. Additional 

costs for Refuge operations and maintenance of new property will be incurred. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

22 

This page intentionally left blank.
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

23 

CHAPTER 3. AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

3.1 Overview of the Study Area 

The Island of Hawai‘i is one of eight main islands in the Hawaiian Archipelago, located near the 

middle of the Pacific Ocean, just south of the Tropic of Cancer. The Hawaiian Archipelago is the 

world’s most isolated group of islands, lying approximately 2,400 miles southwest of San Francisco. 

Hawai‘i Island is located on the southeastern end of the main island chain. It is the youngest and 

largest of the islands in the chain.

Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge is comprised of two management units: the HFU on the 

wetter, windward side of the island east of Mauna Kea summit, and the KFU on the drier, leeward 

side of the island, west of Mauna Loa summit. The proposed expansion areas lie near or adjacent to 

these existing management units. Similarities and differences between the study areas and HFU and 

KFU are discussed below. 

3.2 Physical Environment 

This section describes the topography, geology and soils, climate, and hydrology of the Island of 

Hawai‘i and the immediate vicinity of the HFU, KFU, and lands under consideration. 

3.2.1 Topography 

 

Hawai‘i is one of the highest oceanic islands in the world, peaking at 13,796 feet on the summit of 

Mauna Kea. Eighty-eight percent of the island is above 500 feet. About 70 percent of the island has a 

slope of less than 10 percent (Hawai‘i Department of Business, Economic Development, and 

Tourism (DBEDT) 2007), although the topography varies locally depending on the age of the 

volcano that formed the particular piece of land. 

Hawai‘i Island has a land area of about 4,038 square miles and is 93 miles long and 76 miles wide 

(Service 1995). The extinct Kohala volcano, the oldest on Hawai‘i, is on the northwestern portion of 

the island. The volcanoes of Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, and Kīlauea run north to south, forming the 

bulk of the landmass. Hualālai, a volcano on the western coast, is surrounded by Mauna Loa to the 

north, east, and south. 

The HFU is located on Mauna Kea, a relatively young volcano that does not contain the deep valleys 

and high cliffs distinctive of some of the other volcanoes on the island. The lower elevations have 

deeper gulches and steeper slopes than higher elevations, but the topography overall is relatively 

gentle. The prevailing aspect of the slopes is east. Cinder cones, built by lava fountains or erupting 

magma foam, are scattered throughout the area (Service 2011). Elevation within the HFU ranges 

from about 2,600 to 6,600 feet. The Koa Forest and Maulua Gulch study areas are contiguous with 

the lower boundary of the HFU. The potential Koa Forest addition extends downslope to about 1,000 

feet while the proposed Maulua Gulch addition extends to sea level along State Highway 19 near 

Weloka. The potential Kūka‘iau Ranch addition is located to the northwest about 5 air miles from the 

existing Refuge boundary and lies at slightly higher elevations above Keanakolu (Mana) Road. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

24 

The KFU, on the west slopes of Mauna Loa, slopes toward the southwest. The entire area has an 

average slope of 20 percent, decreasing to less than 10 percent at upper elevations. Elevation within 

the unit ranges from about 2,000 to 6,000 feet. The surface of the KFU is rocky, irregular, and 

undulating. Lava tubes and shallow gulches dissect the overlapping ‘a‘ā (lava with a rough, jagged 

and clinkery surface) and pāhoehoe (lava with a smooth, billowy, ropy surface) flows, creating 

uneven topography (Raymond and Valentine 2007). The Honokua portion of the McCandless Ranch 

study area, which lies south of the KFU and is contiguous at one corner (Figure 4), encompasses a 

similar elevation range. The Kahuku portion of the McCandless Ranch study area is mauka of the 

KFU boundary and the proposed Honokua addition. It ranges in elevation from about 6,000 to 7,000 

feet, connecting to the lower boundary of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. 

3.2.2 Geology and Soils 

Volcanic eruptions are the primary geological forces on the Island of Hawai‘i (Service 1995). The 

Island of Hawai‘i is comprised of five volcanoes of varying ages (Juvik and Juvik 1998). Hualālai, 

Mauna Loa, and Kīlauea are all active volcanoes. Mauna Loa, in the southern portion of the island, 

erupted in March 1984. Kīlauea, on the eastern portion of the island, became active in 1983 and 

continues to erupt through the present day. Mauna Kea is considered dormant and Kohala is extinct. 

Various soil types have developed as the basaltic lavas and volcanic ash from these volcanoes 

weathered and decomposed (Service 2011). 

All of the soil series in the HFU were formed from volcanic ash (Service 2011). The organic soils are 

fairly well-developed and continuous with bedrock composed of old lava (Service 1985). Above 

5,000 feet, the soils are classified as well-drained silt loams, while lower portions of the HFU are 

overlain by silty clay loams (Service 2011). They are typically well-drained and pose only a slight 

erosion hazard. Soils below about 5,000 feet are included in the ‘Akaka series, which within the HFU 

comprises moderately well-drained silty clay loams on gentle to moderate slopes dissected by small 

steep drainages; small swampy areas of shallow soils underlain by pāhoehoe bedrock also occur in 

this series (Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) 2011a). The ‘Akaka series extends 

downslope where it overlies the potential Koa Forest addition and the most of the mauka portion of 

the proposed Maulua Gulch addition. The makai portion of the proposed Maulua Gulch addition is 

covered by silty clays and silty clay loams of the Honokaa, Kaiwiki, and Ookala soil series (NRCS 

2011b). Soils on the Kūka‘iau Ranch property are comprised primarily of the Apakuie, Hanipoe, 

Umikoa, and Huikau series, which include deep, well-drained to excessively well-drained soils that 

formed from volcanic ash, pumice, sand, or cinders over lava (NRCS 2011c). 

Mauna Loa lava flows of the Ka‘ū Basalt series cover the surface of the KFU and adjacent areas. 

Lava flows in the northern two-thirds of the unit are older, ranging between 1,500 and 3,000 years 

old, while the southern portion is estimated to be between 750 and 1,500 years old. A small area in 

the central region of the KFU is covered by flows between 3,000 and 5,000 years old. Twentieth 

century lava flows are present south of the KFU; a thin layer of organic soil covers the highly 

permeable basalt (Service 2011). In general, the lava substrate creates extremely well-drained soils 

with few surface drainages (Service 1995). The soils on the McCandless Ranch are similar to those 

covering the southern third of the KFU; mauka of the KFU on the Kahuku lots, thin soils overlie a 

mosaic of younger ‘a‘ā and pāhoehoe lava flows (Service 2011). The majority of the soils are 

extremely stony or rocky mucks of the Keei, Kekake, Kiloa, or Kona series (NRCS 2011d). 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

25 

3.2.3 Climate 

The climate of Hawai‘i is generally constant throughout the year, with only minor periods of 

seasonal variability. Temperatures during the summer season (May-September) are warm and dry 

with trade winds originating from the northeast direction. Winter months (October-April) have higher 

precipitation and less equable winds. At lower elevations the mean annual temperature is about 65 ̊F, 

and higher elevations are about 53 ̊F. Average daily humidity varies between 70 percent in the winter 

and 85 percent during the spring and summer (Juvik and Juvik 1998). 

A noteworthy feature of the Hawai‘i climate is a persistent subsidence inversion caused by the 

tradewinds. This inversion occurs between 4,000 and 8,000 feet, where descending dry air meets a 

well-mixed layer of moist air in equilibrium with the ocean surface flowing toward the equator. The 

inversion modifies air circulation by strongly inhibiting vertical motion and affecting spatial patterns 

of cloudiness, rainfall, solar radiation, temperature, and humidity. The inversion also makes the 

climate of the contact zone extremely variable. The natural vegetation and wildlife of these areas are 

vulnerable to long-term shifts in the inversion height that may accompany global climate change 

(Giambelluca and Nullet 1991). This contact zone coincides with the elevation range of the Refuge. 

The Koa Forest, Maulua Gulch, and Kūka‘iau Ranch study areas are on the east side of Mauna Kea, 

and extend from sea level to over 8,000 feet. Moderate temperatures and wet conditions prevail. 

Precipitation caused by the northeasterly trade winds average between 85 and 300 inches annually 

with less precipitation falling at higher elevations. Precipitation can be augmented by fog drip, which 

results when the condensation of fog or cloud water vapor on surface areas, such as leaves, becomes 

saturated and drips to the ground surface. Fog drip can increase precipitation by as much as 30 inches

per year; the type and density of forest cover may have more influence on fog drip than changes in 

the surrounding ocean or global climate (Hardy 1996). 

The McCandless Ranch study area is located on the west side of Hawai‘i Island, just south of the 

town of Captain Cook. This leeward area is drier, with average annual precipitation at the KFU 

ranging from 65 inches at 2,000 feet to 25 inches at 6,000 feet. Moisture patterns result primarily 

from daytime surface heating and upslope winds that yield convective rainfall between 2,000 and 

5,000 feet. During winter, occasional intense storms (known as Kona storms) produce heavy rain, 

hail, and flash floods with associated landslides. Summer is the rainy season with average rainfall 

that varies from 5.6 inches at lower elevations to 2.0 inches at higher elevations. This area is affected 

by volcanic gases and particulates (vog) released from the nearby active Kīlauea volcano (U.S. 

Geological Survey 2000). Fog drip is a major source of moisture between 3,000 and 6,500 feet 

(Service 2011). 

3.2.4 Climate Change 

Small island groups are particularly vulnerable to climate change due to their small land area 

compared to the large expanses of surrounding ocean, limited natural resources, high susceptibility to 

natural disasters, and inadequate funds to mitigate impacts (IPCC 2001). Thus, Hawai‘i is considered 

to have a limited capacity to adapt to future climate changes. 

Recent changes in the climate of Hawai‘i include a rise in air and sea surface temperatures, decreases 

in rainfall and stream flow, and increases in rain intensity, sea level, and ocean acidification (Fletcher 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

26 

2010). Changes due to increased air and sea surface temperatures and decreased precipitation are 

most likely to directly affect the Refuge and the study areas. 

An analysis of temperature changes in the Hawaiian Islands for the past approximately 85 years, 

based on an index of 21 stations, has shown a relatively rapid rise in surface temperature in the last 

approximately 30 years, with stronger warming at the higher elevations. Minimum temperatures 

increased about three times as much as maximum temperatures, resulting in a narrower range of daily 

temperatures; the warming trend was greater at higher elevations (Giambelluca and others 2008). The 

average ambient temperature at sea level is projected to increase by about 4.1o

F by 2100 (IPCC 

2007). These changes would increase the monthly average temperature to between 77o

F and 86oF. 

The rate of increase at low elevation (0.16o

F per decade) is below the observed global temperature 

rise of 0.32o

F per decade (IPCC 2007). However, a recent analysis of high elevation temperature data 

collected at the Mauna Loa Observatory between 1959 and 2006 has shown higher warming trends in 

mean annual and December air temperatures by 0.47o

F and 0.79oF per decade, respectively (Juvik 

and others 2011). Warming temperatures would also tend to increase atmospheric stability and 

strengthen the tradewind inversion (Cao and others 2007). 

Precipitation in Hawai‘i has declined by about 15 percent over the last 15-20 years (Diaz and others 

2005, Chu and Chen 2005). Stream flow has also been in steady decline since in the early 1940s (Oki 

2004). However, rain intensity, which contributes to stream overflow and flooding and is not 

beneficial for aquifer replenishment, increased by about 12 percent between 1958 and 2007 (Fletcher 

2010). Global climate models project that net precipitation at sea level near the Hawaiian Islands will 

decrease in winter by about 4 to 6 percent, with no significant change during summer (IPCC 2007). 

Downscaling of global climate models suggest that wet-season (winter) precipitation will decrease by 

5 to 10 percent, while dry-season (summer) precipitation will increase by about 5 percent by the end 

of the century under a moderate emissions scenario (Timm and Diaz 2009). 

 

Most climate projections suggest that more intense wind speeds and precipitation amounts will 

accompany more frequent tropical typhoons/cyclones and increased tropical sea surface temperatures 

in the next 50 years. The intensity of tropical cyclones is likely to increase by 10-20 percent in the 

Pacific region when atmospheric levels of CO2 reach double preindustrial levels (McCarthy and 

others 2001). 

Climate change has the potential to influence two interrelated ecological issues in Hawai‘i: 

endangered species and pest species. Species response to climate change will depend on the life 

history, distribution, dispersal ability, and reproduction requirements of the species (Middleton 2006, 

Giambelluca and others 2008). Climate change may exacerbate pest species issues because 

alterations in the environment may increase the dispersal ability of introduced weeds or animals, 

including infectious disease vectors such as mosquitoes. 

3.2.5 Hydrology 

Hawaiian island hydrology is largely influenced by geological features associated with lava flows. 

Watersheds are typically small, and streams are steep with numerous waterfalls. Many streams in 

Hawai‘i have lengthy dry reaches due to the high permeability of the underlying lava flows (Service 

2011). 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

27 

Rainfall is the greatest source of freshwater on Hawai‘i, and groundwater is the primary water 

resource. The island is particularly vulnerable to flooding because it is relatively young and water 

courses are generally not well-defined. The HFU and KFU, as well as all of the study areas, are 

outside of the 500-year floodplains (Service 2011). Gulches and ravines allow for intermittent 

surface water flow following periods of heavy or continuous rain. Some of the streams within the 

HFU boundary are considered perennial at lower elevations, and two of the highest quality streams 

on the island, the Hanawī Stream and the Honoli‘i Stream, are located within the potential HFU 

expansion area (Service 2011). 

The Refuge, as well as the Koa Forest, Maulua Gulch, and Kūka‘iau Ranch properties, all fall within 

the East Mauna Kea Aquifer Sector Area (East Mauna Kea ASEA) (Fukunaga and Associates 2010). 

More perennial streams are located in the East Mauna Kea ASEA than on the rest of the island. 

About 77 percent of the water use in this ASEA is for agriculture, with municipal, industrial, and 

domestic use accounting for the rest (Fukunaga and Associates 2010). The sustainable yield of the 

East Mauna Kea ASEA is 388 million gallons per day (mgd) which is the third highest of all sectors 

on the island. Full build-out water demands based on county zoning are sustainable even when worst 

case agricultural demands are considered; however, full build-out demands based on the County 

General Plan exceed the sustainable yield under the worst case agricultural demand scenario 

(Fukunaga and Associates 2010). 

Due to the extremely permeable lava and well-drained soils, there are no perennial surface waters or 

drainages on the KFU. The Refuge area functions as an important groundwater recharge area for 

Kona as a result of the porous substrate and relatively high moisture conditions from rainfall in the 

lower elevations and fog drip in the higher (Service 2008a). 

The KFU and McCandless Ranch fall within the Southwest Mauna Loa ASEA which has a 

sustainable yield of 130 mgd, or about one-third of the East Mauna Kea ASEA (Fukunaga and 

Associates 2010). There are no streams classified as perennial in the area. Agriculture accounts for 

about 54 percent of the water use, with municipal, domestic, and irrigation use comprising the rest 

(Fukunaga and Associates 2010). However, agriculture uses more than three times as much water in 

the Southwest Mauna Loa ASEA (9.6 mgd) than it does in the East Mauna Kea ASEA (3.0 mgd) 

(Fukunaga and Associates 2010). As in the East Mauna Kea ASEA, full build-out water demands 

based on county zoning are sustainable even when worst case agricultural demands are considered 

but full build-out demands based on the County General Plan exceeds the sustainable yield under the 

worst case agricultural demand scenario (Fukunaga and Associates 2010). 

3.2.6 Environmental Contaminants 

As of November 2011, none of the study areas are on the EPA National Priority List or in their 

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) information 

system (EPA 2011). Under Service policy, we are required to conduct a Pre-acquisition Level I 

Contaminant Survey for each parcel prior to completion of acquisition. At this time, we are not aware 

of any contaminants on any of the study areas, although potential pollutants on lands used for 

agriculture could include fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, or animal waste. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

28 

3.3 Social and Economic Setting 

I3.3.1 Populations and Local Communities 

The Island of Hawai‘i had a population of 185,079 people in 2010, which is 13.6 percent of the 

statewide population. This represents a 24.5 percent increase from the 2000 census. Population 

projections for the island in 2020 range from 213,452 to 237,323, an increase of 15.3 to 28.2 percent 

(County of Hawai‘i 2005). 

Hilo is the nearest large Census Designated Place1

 (CDP) to the HFU and had a population of 43,262 

in an area of 54.3 square miles (sq. mi.), a density of 796.7 persons per sq. mi. (Table 2; County of 

Hawai‘i 2011b). There are several smaller CDPs to the north of the Hilo CDP that are closer to the 

HFU with much smaller populations but higher population densities (County of Hawai‘i 2011b). The 

Hōnaunau-Nāpō‘opo‘o CDP is the closest to the KFU and has a population of only 2,567 within an 

area of 38 sq. mi, resulting in a density of 67.5 persons per sq. mi. (Table 2). Numerous CDPs lie to 

the north along the western coast of the island from Captain Cook to Kalaoa; most of these have 

larger populations and higher population densities than that of the Hōnaunau-Nāpō‘opo‘o CDP 

(County of Hawai‘i 2011b). The sex ratios, median ages, and ethnicity of the populations also differs 

between the Hilo and Hōnaunau-Nāpō‘opo‘o CDPs (Table 2; County of Hawai‘i 2011b). 

Table 2. Demographic Profiles of Hilo and Hōnaunau-Nāpō‘opo‘o Census Designated Places, 

Hawai‘i (U.S. Census Bureau 2011) 

Demographics Hilo CDP Hōnaunau-Nāpō‘opo‘o

CDP

Total Population 43,262 2,567

Population Density 796.7 (54.3 sq. mi.) 67.5 (38.0 sq. mi)

Male 48.8 % 52.7 %

Female 51.2 % 47.3 %

Median Age 40.5 45

Race

 White 17.6% 39.5 %

 American Indian 0.3% 0.2 %

 Black or African American 0.5% 0.3 %

 Asian 34.3 % 15.1 %

 Chinese 1.5 % 0.0 %

 Japanese 22.1 % 7.8 %

 Korean 1.0 % 0.3 %

 Filipino 6.1 % 4.9 %

 Vietnamese 0.2 % 0.1 %

 Asian Indian 0.1 % 0.0 %

 Other Asian 3.3 % 1.5 %

 Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander 14.2 % 13.1 %

 Two or More Races 32.5 % 24.7 %

 

1 A Census Designated Place is defined by the U.S. Census Bureau as a “densely settled concentration of population 

not within an incorporated place.” 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

29 

3.3.2 Island Economy and Employment 

Tourism is the major economic driver on Hawai‘i Island, as is true throughout the Hawaiian Islands. 

In 2007, about 1,622,400 individuals visited the Island of Hawai‘i, an increase of more than 30 

percent from 2001. Tourism dropped off in 2008 and 2009 due to the recession in the United States 

and Japan and the departure of two inter-island cruise lines, but was recovering by the end of 2009 

(University of Hawai‘i Economic Research Organization (UHERO) 2011). The State of Hawai‘i’s 

tourism sector has continued positive growth that started in the third quarter of 2009. Domestic 

visitor arrivals have increased while international arrivals decreased due to the negative impacts of 

the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. The decrease in international arrivals almost offset the increase 

in domestic arrivals in the quarter. Due to longer lengths of stay, the growth rate of daily visitors was 

higher than the growth rate of visitor arrivals. In addition, since visitors spent more on a daily basis 

during the second quarter, the growth rate of total visitor spending was significantly higher than the 

growth rate of daily visitors (DBEDT 2011). In 2010, a total of 1,289,300 visitors arrived on the 

island with 41 percent and 28 percent arriving from the west and east coasts of the United States, 

respectively; visitors from Japan and Canada comprised 21 percent (UHERO 2011). 

Agriculture is prevalent on the island with important products including beef, Kona coffee, 

macadamia nuts, papaya, and tropical flowers. The County of Hawai‘i has more farms and farmland 

than any other county in the State. In 2007, the most recent year for which county-level data is 

available, there were 4,650 farms on the island and 683,819 acres of farmland. The average farm size 

was 147 acres, while the median size was only 6 acres (National Agricultural Statistics Service 

(NASS) 2007). In that same year, Hawai‘i led the Nation in production of coffee and macadamia nuts 

(NASS 2007). Fruits, berries, flowers and nursery products, and sugarcane for sugar are also 

important crops. Seventy percent of the State’s livestock are raised and nearly half of its aquaculture 

operations are located on the island. The total market value of agricultural products from the island in 

2007 was $202,572,000, with about 75 percent coming from crops, including nursery and greenhouse 

crops, and the remaining 25 percent from livestock, poultry, and their products (NASS 2007). 

In 2009, government, retailers, and tourism made up the top ten employers on the Island of Hawai‘i 

(Table 3, County of Hawai‘i 2011b). Although governments are the top individual employers on the 

island, the government workforce comprises only about 16 percent of the total workforce. The 

University of Hawai‘i Hilo is the primary employer for the eastern side of the island (Service 2011). 

Table 3. Top ten employers on the Island of Hawai‘i in 2009 (County of Hawaii, 2011b) 

Rank Company Employees Business

1 State of Hawai‘i 8,265 Government1

2 County of Hawai‘i 2,275 Government1

3 United States 1,359 Government1

4 Hilton Waikoloa Village 900 Tourism

5 Wal-Mart 830 Retailer

6 KTA Superstores 750 Retailer

7 Four Seasons Resort Hualālai 625 Tourism

8 The Fairmont Orchid, Hawai‘i 574 Tourism

9 Mauna Lani Resort, Inc. 557 Tourism

10 Hapuna Beach Prince Hotel at Mauna Kea Resort 450 Tourism

1

Average annual job counts
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

30 

Accommodation and food services, retailers, and health care and social assistance are the top three 

types of employment on the island (Table 4, U.S. Census Bureau 2011). Construction jobs, a 

mainstay of the Hawaiian economy fueled largely by offshore demand for second and vacation 

homes, have decreased by nearly 40 percent since a housing market downturn that began in 2006 

(UHERO 2011). Construction remains the highest paid industry (Table 4). Many local jobs are in 

businesses that purchase labor and supplies to meet the increase in demand for additional services 

desired by the island’s tourists. Wildlife-related recreation in Hawai‘i generated approximately 

$373,778,000 in 2006, with roughly $210,414,000 attributed to wildlife watching (Service 2007). 

Table 4. Hawai‘i County Industry Job Counts and Average Monthly Wages (U.S. Census 

Bureau, Local Employment Dynamics 2011b) 

Industry Jobs (Q2 2009-Q2 2010) Average Monthly Wage ($)

Accommodations & Food Services 10,529 2,311

Retail Trade 8,727 2,395

Health Care & Social Assistance 5,912 3,429

Construction 3,518 4,367

Administration & Support Services 2,784 2,450

Transportation & Warehousing 2,154 3,124

Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, & Hunting 2,106 2,292

Arts, Entertainment, Recreation 1,868 2,877

Other Services, Exc. Public Administration 1,805 2,523

Public Administration 1,451 3,748

Wholesale Trade 1,440 3,342

Manufacturing 1,356 2,840

Finance and Insurance 1,086 3,820

Educational Services 1,064 2,709

Information 647 3,940

Utilities 614 5,364

Mining, Quarrying, Oil, and Gas Extraction 18 5,459

3.3.3 Tax Revenues 

The parcels being considered in the study areas are currently zoned either agricultural or 

conservation and are therefore assessed at $8.35 or $9.85 per $1,000 Net Assessed Valuation for land 

(Table 5). We are not aware of any taxable buildings on any of the properties. 

Table 5. 2010 Tax Rates for the County of Hawai‘i (County of Hawai‘i 2011a)

(per $1,000 Net Assessed Valuation) Building ($) Land ($)

Affordable Rental Housing 5.55 5.55

Residential 9.10 9.10

Apartment 9.85 9.85

Commercial 9.10 9.10

Industrial 9.10 9.10

Agricultural and Native Forest 8.35 8.35

Conservation 9.85 9.85

Hotel/Resort 9.85 9.85

Homeowner 5.55 5.55
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

31 

The actual 2010 tax bills for the tracts under consideration are provided in Table 6 (County of 

Hawai‘i 2011). The 29,973 acres produced a combined tax of $68,944.12 in 2010, the most recent 

year for which these data are available (County of Hawai‘i 2011).

Table 6. 2010 Tax Bills for Potential Additions to Hakalau Forest NWR (Hawai‘i County 

2011a)

Tract Assessor

Acres

TMK# Zoning 2010 Tax

($)

Potential HFU Additions

Kūka‘iau Ranch 1 2,524 342008008 Agricultural 295.59

Kūka‘iau Ranch 2 1,945 342008021 Agricultural 603.71

Maulua Gulch (makai) 1,237 334002004 Agricultural 2593.51

Maulua Gulch (mauka) 994 337001011 Conservation 1,174.12

Koa Forest 1 1,735 328001002 Conservation 8,544.88

Koa Forest 2 11,395 327001001 Agricultural 53,574.72

Potential KFU Additions

Honokua Lot 11 1,269 386001001 Agricultural 1,421.17

Honokua Lot 10 1,331

Honokua Lot 7 699

Honokua Lot 5 621

Kahuku Lot 2 1,439 392001077 Agricultural 167.84

Kahuku Lot 3 1,689 392001078 Agricultural 197.06

Kahuku Lot 1 1,439 392001003 Agricultural 174.52

Kahuku Lot 4 1,689 392001079 Agricultural 197.00

3.3.4 Contribution of Hakalau Forest NWR to the Island Economy 

Although the HFU and KFU are generally not open to the public, the Hakalau Forest NWR does 

contribute to the local economy through recreational expenditures. The total annual recreational 

expenditure is estimated at $56,400 from 1,323 visitors (Carver and Caudill 2007). About 90 percent 

of these expenditures are from non-residents. Birding and other wildlife observation were the main 

activities (Service 2011). The KFU is currently closed to the public due to legal access issues and the 

presence of highly sensitive species. Fencing of the unit is in progress. The Refuge hopes to provide 

opportunities for the public to enjoy nature observation in the KFU at an appropriate level after 

management efforts have begun (Service 2011). 

In addition to recreational expenditures, additional revenues to the local economy are derived from 

local taxes, employment income, and annual Federal payments to the County of Hawai‘i authorized 

by the RRSA. The amount authorized is approximately 0.75 percent of the fair market value of fee 

lands, although the actual amount appropriated is usually less. In 2009, $66,557 was paid to Hawai’i 

County for the 38,005 acres of Hakalau Forest NWR owned in fee title. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

32 

3.4 Historic and Present Land Use, Development, and Public Use Setting

3.4.1 Historic Use 

At the time of Captain Cook’s arrival to the Hawaiian Islands in 1778, Hawai‘i’s lowland ecosystem 

was significantly altered by well over 1,000 years of Polynesian/Hawaiian settlement (Kane 1997). 

The Polynesians are believed to have discovered Hawai‘i during open water exploration from the 

Marquesas and Tahitian Islands sometime before 1,900 years ago (Kane 1997). The Polynesians 

brought about 27 species of useful plants to Hawai‘i, which included taro (kalo) (Colocasia 

esculenta) – their most important crop, breadfruit (‘ulu) (Artocarpus altilis), ti (kī) (Cordyline 

fruticosa), paper mulberry (wauke) (Broussonetia papyrifera), coconut palms (Cocos nucifera), 

sweet potato (‘uala) (Ipomoea batatas), yams (uhi) (Dioscorea spp.), banana (mai‘a) (Musa

acuminata hybrids), turmeric (‘olena) (Curcuma domestica), sugar cane (kō) (Saccharum 

officinarum), shampoo ginger (‘awapuhi) (Zingiber zerumbet), candlenut tree (kukui) (Aleurites 

moluccana), kava (‘awa) (Piper methysticum), noni (Morinda citrifolia), and other edible and useful 

plant species. The People of Old (Ka Po‘e Kahiko), as they are sometimes called, preferred to 

cultivate fertile valleys with permanent water sources, such as the Kīlauea River valley. They also 

used fire to encourage growth of thatching grasses and cut trees for firewood, commerce in 

sandalwood, and for construction purposes (Kirsh 1982). 

Along with plants, the Polynesians brought pigs, dogs, and fowl. These animals have had a negative 

impact on the natural flora and fauna of the Hawaiian Islands, especially the pig when it was later 

subsumed by the larger European breeds introduced to the archipelago after Captain Cook’s arrival. 

Accompanying the introductions came stowaways such as the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans), which 

did major damage by eating ground-nesting birds and their eggs (Finney 2003).

3.4.2 Present Land Use, Development, and Public Uses 

Tourism and outdoor recreation are some of the largest economic drivers on Hawai‘i, and a large 

percentage of the land on the Hawai‘i Island is set aside accordingly. The largest National Park in the 

State, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, is mauka of the KFU. The State of Hawai‘i Forest Reserve 

System manages 448,000 acres throughout the state for camping, gathering, harvest, hunting, and 

other uses. Fifteen State parks are scattered across the Island of Hawai‘i, allowing public access and 

requiring permits for larger gatherings. The County manages another 137 smaller parks on the island 

(Service 2011). Hunting is allowed, in accordance with State regulations, throughout the County. The 

private properties being considered for acquisition in this proposed expansion have historically been 

ranches or in agricultural production with restricted public use. 

The KFU is closed to the public due to rough terrain and vulnerable species, and the HFU is only 

open to a limited number of permitted users, or through a variety of Refuge-led outings (Service 

2011). The McCandless Ranch study area has been assessed for logging and subdivision, but the 

current use is limited to a few permitted guide services. Kahuku lots 2 and 3 are included in a 

conservation easement held by USFS. 

The Koa Forest property, makai of the HFU, is primarily zoned for conservation with its lower limits 

in an agricultural zone. The property has been promoted in the recent past for potential timber

harvest. Maulua Gulch is currently in agricultural production with open pasture at the lower 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

33 

elevations and forested habitats above. Mauka portions of Maulua Gulch have been used for grazing 

in the past but retain a canopy of native forest. 

Kūka‘iau Ranch has been a ranch for over a century, as well as historically supporting sugarcane 

farming. The upper portions of the Ranch, including the two tracts being considered for potential 

addition to the Refuge, are included within a conservation easement held by TNC. These parcels 

have several human-made structures, including reservoirs, water tanks, a cabin with a small kitchen 

house, roads and fences, and an FM tower, repeater, and three cellular towers (Pacific Forestry 

Consultants 2010). 

Many areas on Hawai‘i Island are open to public recreation, including hunting (Figure 5; Service 

2011). Public hunting areas include the Hilo Forest Reserve portions which are contiguous to the 

Refuge, as well as the Koa Forest and Maulua Gulch properties, and the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve, 

which is contiguous to the Kūka‘iau Ranch property (Figure 5, Service 2011). 

Boundary commission testimonies dating to the 1870s and 1880s describe activities conducted in the 

Koa Forest area as including bird-catching, canoe-building, bullock hunting, and gathering of olonā 

and pulu with associated temporary settlements by bird catchers and canoe makers whose permanent 

homes were close to the coast (Koa Timber, Inc. 2003). Three trails associated with bird-catching 

and canoe-building following ahupua‘a boundaries were described in Boundary Commission 

testimony; current residents of the area who were interviewed had little or no knowledge of the 

uppermost ahupua‘a boundaries and their testimonies suggested that the trails described in the late 

1800s were no longer in use (Koa Timber, Inc. 2003).

3.5 Archaeological and Historic Resources 

No records searches or ground surveys have been conducted by the Service as part of the proposed 

land acquisition. Because of the interrelationship of natural and cultural resources in Hawai‘i, we 

recognize the importance of identifying cultural resources. We are currently drafting a scope of work 

for a records search. The records search, and other requirements in compliance with Section 106 of 

the NHPA, would be conducted subject to funding availability after land is acquired and prior to any 

specific management activities. 

In addition, Article XII, Section 7, of the State Constitution protects all rights, customarily and 

traditionally exercised for subsistence, cultural, and religious purposes and possessed by ahupua‘a 

tenants who are descendants of Native Hawaiians who inhabited the Hawaiian Islands prior to 1778, 

subject to the right of the State to regulate such rights. The exercise of such rights is a complex legal 

arena but, in general, a Native Hawaiian practitioner has the burden of showing that his or her conduct is 

a constitutionally protected, traditional or customary practice (State v. Hanapi, 89 Hawai‘i 177, 970 

P.2d 485 (1998)). The practitioner must establish three prongs: (1) the practitioner must be a “Native 

Hawaiian”; (2) the claimed right is constitutionally protected as a customary or traditional Native 

Hawaiian practice under the three sources of law; and (3) the exercised right occurred on 

undeveloped or less than fully developed property. Id. at 816-87, 970 P.2d at 494-95. Finally, the 

exercise of constitutionally protected rights must be reasonable. Id. at 184-85, 970 P.2d at 492-93 

(Hawai‘i Legal News 2010). 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

34 

3.5.1 Previously Recorded Sites and Cultural Practices 

Cultural resources of the Koa Forest property were studied and summarized for the environmental 

documents for the timber operation proposed for this property (Koa Timber, Inc. 2003). According to 

the documents, their study did not identify any traditional Hawaiian practices still being conducted 

on the property. Cultural practices were identified makai and outside of the property, including leina 

(jumping off point at Makahanaloa), Kane stone, and ‘aumākua worship (shark feeding at Kahali‘i). 

The document states that the only people that use the site today are pig hunters who also occasionally 

gather fern shoots, freshwater shrimp, hīhīwai, prawns, and other food resources while hunting. No 

gathering was done for cultural reasons or on a regular basis, and no one interviewed knew of anyone 

who accesses the property for cultural reasons. The document also notes that Boundary Commission 

records from the 19th Century indicate the area was heavily used by Hawaiians for activities such as 

gathering pulu, olonā, and especially for bird hunting and canoe-building materials, and that there 

would have been traditional cultural practices associated with these activities. The disappearance of 

these cultural practices is attributed to changes brought about by the sugar plantation industry that 

dominated the agriculture and land use since the mid-19th Century (Koa Timber, Inc. 2003). 

Hawaiian rock walls and trees enclosed in rock walls have been reported from the mauka area of the 

Kūka‘iau Ranch (Pacific Forestry Consultants 2010). Pacific Forestry Consultants (2009) also reports 

that a number of documents refer to areas on or near the property as being important burial sites and 

other cultural gathering sites, although they cautioned that they could not definitively deny or 

substantiate these claims. A cabin and small kitchen house and other agricultural facilities also occur 

on the property (Pacific Forestry Consultants 2010). 

3.6 Biological Resources 

3.6.1 Natural Communities 

The ecology of Hawai‘i’s native ecosystems has been severely altered. Native plants and animals are 

generally absent and exotics predominate in nearly all low-elevation areas except for a few relatively 

undisturbed beach strands, steep-sided gulches, lava tube skylights, and similar features that exclude 

ungulates. The intentional and accidental introduction of alien plants and animals to Hawai‘i has 

been ongoing for over 1,000 years. Significant changes occurred from Polynesian settlement, but 

since the arrival of Europeans, an estimated 12,000 plant species have been introduced to the 

Hawaiian Islands, compared with the 27 or so that the Polynesians brought with them.

Feral pigs destroy understory vegetation and spread alien weeds. They consume groundcover plants 

and significantly contribute to erosion, stream sedimentation, and sediment transfer to the ocean that 

can smother coral reefs. Pigs also facilitate mosquito-breeding through their rooting and wallowing. 

Hawai‘i has no native mosquitoes, but the Southern house mosquito (Culex quinquefasciatus) was 

introduced from Mexico in 1826 by the crew of the whaling vessel, Wellington, while replenishing 

their water barrels in freshwater streams on Maui. This introduction has devastated endemic bird 

species by spreading avian malaria and avian pox, diseases to which they have no natural immunity 

(Henshaw 1902). 

The intentional introductions were accompanied by accidental species introductions such as the 

Polynesian rat, which due to its high reproductive rate, had a devastating effect on ground-nesting 

birds, native land snails, and some tree species (Burney 2001). Other stowaways have included the 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

35 

Figure 5. Recreational opportunities on the Island of Hawai‘i (Service 2011).
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

36 

This page intentionally left blank. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

37 

black rat (Rattus rattus), Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus), house mouse (Mus musculus), various 

geckos and skinks, land snails, various arthropods such as rat parasites, and other mosquitoes (genus 

Culex, Aedes, and Wyeomyia). 

It is within this context that one must view the “natural” communities of both the existing Refuge and 

the study areas. The Refuge is home to an array of endemic native species, including forest birds and 

plants, many of which are endangered. Most of the native bird species were historically found in 

many forest types, despite differences in elevation and rainfall. Populations today are more 

fragmented and largely missing from lower elevations. Higher elevation montane forests are wetter

and sustain a slightly different bird assemblage. 

The tropical climate, abundant food resources, and ample water supply make the HFU an attractive 

home to many native species, despite nonnative species and habitat degradation in portions of the 

area. The Refuge provides habitat for 11 endangered animals (6 forest birds, 3 waterbirds, 1 

invertebrate, and 1 mammal) and 16 endangered plants. Many other native forest birds prefer the 

intact forest in the HFU. Endangered waterbirds use the high quality streams in the HFU. The last 

wild habitat of the ‘alalā was in the KFU, and as restoration progresses, repatriation of ‘alalā may be 

considered in the area (Service 2009c). An endangered picture-wing fly (Drosophila spp.) is found in 

areas of the KFU. 

All of the study areas border Refuge lands, State conservation lands, or the Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park. Enhanced connectivity and restoration of these large blocks of habitat could create a 

significant expansion of contiguous forest for the recovery of endangered plants and animals. More 

detail on the habitat values of the Refuge and study areas is provided in the next section. 

3.6.2 Habitats 

Island of Hawai‘i habitats are determined primarily by elevation, temperature, and rainfall. As noted 

previously, all habitats have been affected to some degree by agriculture, logging, feral ungulates, 

and cattle ranching. Lower elevation habitats are highly degraded due to the presence of an array of 

nonnative species and coastal development, while the higher elevations have been used for ranching, 

logging, and agricultural experimentation, and subsequently these altered habitats have been 

degraded by feral ungulates. Despite this habitat degradation, numerous native species persist. 

Pockets of intact forest are interspersed within degraded habitat. Both the HFU and KFU lie between 

2,000 and 6,500 feet and are predominantly forested. Habitats that occur above 9,500 feet are not 

addressed in the following discussion because they are outside of our study areas. Because the Koa 

Forest and Maulua Gulch study areas extend makai to 1,500 feet and sea level, respectively, lower 

elevation habitats are discussed.

Windward Slope of Mauna Kea Habitats. Five main habitats characteristic of the windward, 

wetter, eastern side of the island occur in this area, which includes the HFU and the Koa Forest, 

Maulua Gulch, and Kūka‘iau Ranch study areas. From lowest to highest elevation, they are: 

Coastal Communities (Sea level–2,500 ft): Subject to marine influences, these communities can be 

dry, mesic, or wet and include stream outlets. The lower edge of the Koa Forest property lies at 1,500 

feet. It has been cleared and was used as farmland (Koa Timber, Inc. 2003). Between 1,500 and 

3,000 feet, the Koa Forest property is a sub-montane rain forest dominated by ‘ōhi‘a and koa, with 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

38 

koa occupying only the better drained positions, often heavily invaded by strawberry guava (Koa 

Timber, Inc. 2003). Maulua Gulch extends makai from the current Refuge boundary to sea level; the 

lower portion consists largely of agriculture lands with open pasture and lower-elevation forest that is 

largely comprised of invasive species. Native wildlife includes terrestrial invertebrates and 

waterbirds. 

Montane wet ‘ōhi‘a/‘uluhe forest (2,500–4,000 ft): This area is characterized by gently sloping hills 

and steep streams. Poorly drained volcanic soils and bogs also occur here. This low-elevation area is 

mostly comprised of nonnative plant and animal species, especially mosquitoes and pigs. 

Historically this forest type supported native birds, many of which have been eliminated by avian 

malaria and pox. The koloa maoli still frequents the bogs. Other common groundcover plants 

include ferns, sedges, and sphagnum moss. Portions of the Koa Forest property extending upwards to 

its boundary with the Refuge at about 3,600 feet are described as dominated by ‘ōhi‘a trees and large 

patches of ‘uluhe fern (Sticherus owhyhensis) (Koa Timber, Inc. 2003). Upper portions of the Maulua 

Gulch property and the lowest portions of the HFU are within this ecological zone. 

Montane wet ‘ōhi‘a forest (4,000–5,000 ft): The ‘ōhi‘a forest occurs on more moderate slopes than 

the lower elevation forest and has intermittent streams. It has more native bird diversity because it is 

above the range of most mosquitoes. A mature closed canopy of ‘ōhi‘a reaches 60 to 90 feet above a 

middle canopy of trees and tree ferns. The understory is dominated by shrubs, mixed ferns, and 

sphagnum moss. This forest type predominates in lower portions of the HFU and remnants may exist 

in the upper portions of the Maulua Gulch and Koa Forest properties. 

Montane wet koa/‘ōhi‘a forest (5,000–6,000 ft): The koa/‘ōhi‘a forest is characterized by moderate 

slopes, intermittent streams, and substantial native and endangered species populations. Much of this 

habitat has been used for grazing. Trees, shrubs, and mixed ferns dominate below a mixed age-class 

forest canopy of koa and ‘ōhi‘a. The wet koa/‘ōhi‘a forest is potential habitat for koloa maoli,

‘ōpe‘ape‘a, and most species of native forest birds. This forest type generally occurs above the 

elevation of the Maulua Gulch and Koa Forest properties but it may occur in ravines and protected 

sites.

Montane mesic koa forest (6,000–6,600 ft): Much of this forest has been converted to nonnative 

grassland, where historically it was composed of koa, shrubs, ferns, epiphytes, and native grasses. 

This type dominated the upper portion of the HFU and has been the focus of forest restoration 

efforts. It provides potential habitat for nēnē (Hawaiian goose), ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, and ‘io (Hawaiian hawk). 

Several species of native forest birds are found in the reforested areas. This forest type is above the 

elevation of the Maulua Gulch and Koa Forest properties, but was likely a dominant type on the 

lower portions of the Kūka‘iau Ranch study area, an area that was cleared for rangeland and planted 

to nonnative pasture grasses. However, at Kūka‘iau Ranch remnant koa trees occur in ravines and 

would provide a local seed source for forest restoration. Much of the lower elevation pasture is 

infested with Madagascar ragwort (Senecio madagascariensis); restoration efforts are likely to be 

complicated by this invasive weed that is poisonous to livestock (Motooka and others 2004). 

Māmane forest (5,900–9,500 ft): The māmane forest, occurring on Mauna Kea, supports the palila, a 

federally endangered bird. This rare forest type is threatened by ungulates. Minor amounts of 

māmane forest occur on the HFU and the palila is not currently known from the HFU. The upper part 

of the western parcel at Kūka‘iau Ranch property between 5,900 and 8,400 feet has māmane forest; 

upper areas of both parcels are currently dominated by Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum) and 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

39 

are potentially restorable to māmane forest. Remnant māmane trees would provide a local seed 

source for restoration and a viable seed bank likely remains in the soil (Pacific Forestry Consultants 

2010). 

Leeward Slope of Mauna Loa Habitats. Three main habitats characteristic of the leeward, drier, 

western side of the island occur in this area, which includes the KFU and the McCandless Ranch 

study area. From lowest to highest elevation, they are: 

Montane wet ‘ōhi‘a forest (2,000–3,000 ft and 3,500–4,500 ft): This forest type occurs in two 

elevation bands which differ in three main respects. The upper band receives less rainfall, has higher 

plant diversity in the mid-canopy, and the ground cover is dominated by grasses compared to herbs in 

the lower band. Due to the lack of mosquitoes and increased plant diversity, the upper portion of this 

forest type supports a diverse native forest bird community. The ‘ōpe‘ape‘a and several endangered 

plants occur in this forest habitat (Service 2011). 

Montane mesic koa/‘ōhi‘a forest (4,500–5,800 ft): Forest habitat in this elevation range is dominated 

by mixed age trees of koa and ‘ōhi‘a. The middle canopy is dominated by a mix of trees; ferns, tree 

ferns, and epiphytes also occur (Service 2011). The montane mesic forest provides potential habitat 

for several endangered species including ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, the ‘alalā, picture-wing flies, and various plants 

(Service 2011). 

Native dry koa/‘ōhi‘a/māmane forest (5,800–6,100 ft): This dry forest occurs at the upper elevations 

of the KFU on Honokua lot 4, and also on the Kahuku lots mauka of the unit. It is potential habitat 

for the ‘alalā, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, endangered plants, and endangered invertebrates. Native birds including 

the ‘akiapōlā‘au, Hawai‘i ‘ākepa, and Hawai‘i creeper occur in this habitat (Service 2011). 

Lava Tubes and Lava Tube Skylights (subterranean): While not known to have any endangered 

obligate species, lava tubes and skylights contain ferns, birds, mammals, and rare invertebrates. 

These habitats are less susceptible to nonnative species because of the specialization required to exist 

in them, but the entrance and twilight zones are still affected by nonnative species (Service 2011). 

Conservation Study Area Habitat Types: Virtually all of the 13,130 acres of the Koa Forest property 

are forested with the lower portion being a mixed koa/‘ōhi‘a forest and the upper portion being 

predominantly ‘ōhi‘a forest (Figure 6). About one-third, or about 700 acres, of the Maulua Gulch 

property is forested, with the remaining makai 1,400 acres having been cleared for agriculture 

(Figure 6). The Kūka‘iau Ranch parcels were largely cleared of trees when it was converted to 

pasture, although about 250 acres of a lower-stature ‘ōhi‘a forest with koa and māmane remains 

mauka, primarily in the uppermost paddock (Figure 6, Pacific Forestry Consultants 2010); in 

addition, patches of trees remain in gulches throughout both parcels. At McCandless Ranch, all of the 

Honokua lots, in total about 3,887 acres, are heavily forested with either ‘ōhi‘a or a mixed koa/‘ōhi‘a 

forest. The mauka Kahuku lots, about 6,256 acres in total, at McCandless Ranch include dry 

subalpine koa/‘ōhi‘a/māmane forest mixed with a native shrubland with sparse ‘ōhi‘a. At the highest 

elevations on the Kahuku lots, vegetation is very sparse to absent, especially on the lava flows 

(Figure 6). 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

40 

3.6.3 Endangered Species 

3.6.3.1 Endangered Forest Birds

All federally listed forest birds that occur within the HFU or KFU are endangered and include 

‘akiapōlā‘au, Hawai‘i ‘ākepa, Hawai‘i creeper, ‘ō‘ū, ‘alalā, and ‘io. None of the endangered forest 

birds have designated critical habitat.

‘Akiapōlā‘au (Hemignathus munroi). The ‘akiapōlā‘au is a medium-sized, stocky, short-tailed 

Hawaiian honeycreeper endemic to the Island of Hawai‘i. It was listed on March 11, 1967 (32 FR 

4001). It was once distributed virtually island-wide, but by the 1970s it was found only in five 

disjunct populations (Scott and others 1986). The largest population is thought to be in the North 

Hāmākua area where the HFU protects about 50 percent of the estimated local population of 1,600 

birds (Camp and others 2003). The highest densities of ‘akiapōlā‘au are at upper elevation areas with 

high-stature koa forest and heterogeneous habitats along the forest margins (Camp and others 2003). 

Despite the availability of apparently suitable habitat, ‘akiapōlā‘au are absent from most areas below 

4,500 feet, where mosquitoes are common (Service 2006). The dispersal behavior of ‘akiapōlā‘au is 

poorly known, but habitat fragmentation may isolate populations, decrease the effective population 

size, and hinder recolonization of areas previously inhabited (Service 2006). ‘Akiapōlā‘au were 

observed on McCandless Ranch in 1998 (Jacobi and Bruegmann 1998), but were not detected in 

recent field surveys in central Kona (Service 2008a). 

Hawai‘i ‘ākepa (Loxops coccineus coccineus). The Hawai‘i ‘ākepa is a small Hawaiian

honeycreeper endemic to the Island of Hawai‘i. It was listed on October 13, 1970 (35 FR 16047-

16048). This species is an obligate cavity nester with most nests placed in natural cavities found in 

old-growth ‘ōhi‘a and koa trees. It is currently known from five disjunct populations; an estimated 

8,300 birds occur in the North Hāmākua area with 72 percent of these protected by the HFU where 

they are locally common (Service 2011). Breeding densities at HFU appear to be limited by the 

availability of nest sites (Hart 2000) and the population may be at or near carrying capacity with 

respect to food availability (Fretz 2002). The species is not found below 4,300 feet, presumably due 

to the presence of mosquitoes (van Riper III and others 1986, van Riper III and Scott 2001). Hawai‘i 

‘ākepa were observed on McCandless Ranch (Jacobi and Bruegmann 1998) and birds have been 

regularly detected on the KFU since 1999 (Service 2008a). 

Hawai‘i creeper (Oreomystis mana). This bird is a small, inconspicuous honeycreeper endemic to 

the Island of Hawai‘i. It was listed on October 28, 1975 (40 FR 17590-17591). Hawai‘i creepers 

were known historically from ‘ōhi‘a and ‘ōhi‘a/koa forests throughout the island, usually above 

3,600 feet in elevation (Service 2011). By 1979, this bird was confined to four disjunct populations 

with two near Kona, one near Ka‘ū, and the fourth on the Hāmākua Coast; the latter population is the 

largest with an estimated 17,800 birds (Camp and others 2003), of which 49 percent are protected 

within the HFU where it occurs in montane wet ‘ōhi‘a forest, mesic koa/‘ōhi‘a forest, and dry 

koa/‘ōhi‘a/māmane forest. Its densities are highest in the upper elevation high-stature‘ōhi‘a forest 

(Service 2011). The Hawai‘i creeper was present on McCandless Ranch in 1998 (Jacobi and 

Bruegmann 1998) and has been detected at the KFU as recently as 2006; no population or density 

estimates are available (Service 2011).
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

41 

Figure 6. Vegetation of the HFU, KFU, and the study areas.
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

42 

This page intentionally left blank. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

43 

‘Ō‘ū (Psittirostra psittacea). The ‘ō‘ū is a heavy-bodied Hawaiian honeycreeper that was listed on 

March 11, 1967 (32 FR 4001). It was common historically on many of the larger islands of Hawai‘i 

but is now one of the rarest birds and may be extinct, although survey efforts have been insufficient 

to determine its status (Service 2006). The ‘ō‘ū occurred in a wide range of forest types, but dense 

‘ōhi‘a forests with ‘ie‘ie (Freycinetia arborea) were considered to be preferred habitat (Service 2006, 

Snetsinger and others 1998). A few ‘ō‘ū were observed on the HFU during the 1977 bird survey in 

the lower reaches of the Refuge in montane wet ‘ōhi‘a and mesic koa/‘ōhi‘a forests. Unconfirmed 

detections have been reported since that time, including a possible sighting in the mid-1990s and a 

possible audio detection 4 to 5 years ago (Service 2011). ‘Ō‘ū are not known from the KFU (Service 

2011). 

‘Alalā (Corvus hawaiiensis). The ‘alalā is a medium-sized crow endemic to the Island of Hawai‘i. It 

was listed on March 11, 1967 (32 FR 4001). It was historically restricted to a belt of dry woodlands 

and mesic ōhi‘a and ōhi‘a/koa forests at mid-elevations on the western and southern sides of the 

island where it occurred in large numbers. The last wild ‘alalā was observed in 2002 (Service 2009c), 

and it is believed to persist only in captivity. All captive ‘alalā are maintained by the San Diego 

Zoological Society in facilities on the Islands of Hawai‘i and Maui. About 77 birds are currently in 

captivity and repatriation into the wild is being considered. The KFU is one of the areas being 

considered for repatriation. McCandless Ranch was home to the last wild population of ‘alalā. 

‘Io (Buteo solitarius). The ‘io is a small, broad-winged hawk endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and 

known historically only from the Island of Hawai‘i. It was listed on March 11, 1967 (32 FR 4001); at 

that time, its population was thought to number in the low hundreds due to extensive destruction of 

native forests. In a 2007 island-wide survey, the ‘io was estimated to have a population of more than 

3,000 birds. ‘Io have been recorded nesting in both the HFU and KFU (Service 2011) and were 

reported from the McCandless Ranch (Jacobi and Bruegmann 1998). In 2009, the Service proposed 

to delist the ‘io due to evidence that the hawk is broadly distributed throughout the Island of Hawai‘i, 

its numbers had been stable for more than 20 years, it nests and forages successfully in native and 

disturbed habitats, large areas of habitat have been protected, and the hawk was not otherwise been 

threatened with extinction (73 FR 45687). A post-delisting monitoring plan has been drafted and 

public comments have been solicited and received. Delisting is currently under review (Service 

2011). ‘Io are also frequently seen hunting on the Kūka‘iau Ranch (DLNR 2011b). ‘Io have also 

been observed flying above upper portions of the Koa Forest property (Terry 2002). 

Palila (Loxioides bailleui). The palila is one of the larger Hawaiian honeycreepers. It was listed on 

March 11, 1967 (32 FR 4001). Although fossil remains found on O‘ahu suggest that it was once 

more widespread, the palila is known historically only from the Island of Hawai‘i where it is 

restricted to māmane/naio (Myoporum sandwicense) dry forest on the upper slopes of Mauna Kea. It 

feeds almost exclusively on the immature seeds of the māmane tree. Annual monitoring of the 

species began in 1980. An estimated population size of 5,337 birds in 2005 had declined to 2,640 in 

2008 (Service 2009d). From 2003 to 2007 the estimated number of birds on the southwestern slope 

of Mauna Kea had declined by 58 percent, the first statistically significant decline since monitoring 

began (Service 2009d). Palila are not known to occur on either the HFU or KFU. But the upper 

portion of the tracts under consideration at Kūka‘iau Ranch is within federally designated critical 

habitat for the palila (DLNR 2011b). 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

44 

3.6.3.2 Endangered Waterbirds

All federally listed waterbirds that occur within the HFU or KFU are endangered and include nēnē, 

koloa maoli, and ‘alae ke‘oke‘o. None of the endangered waterbirds has designated critical habitat.

Nēnē (Branta sandvicensis). The nēnē is a medium-sized goose endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It 

was listed on March 11, 1967 (32 FR 4001). In 1951, the wild nēnē population was estimated at 30 

individuals, but all populations have been augmented by captive-bred birds. As of 2009, the total 

population was estimated between 1,877 and 1,927 birds with 446 birds on the Island of Hawai‘i 

(Service 2011). At the HFU, the 2007 population was estimated to be about 200 birds. They prefer 

lowland dry forests, shrublands, grasslands, and montane dry forests. Nēnē are found at higher 

elevations of the HFU in pastures around the cattle ponds and in the vicinity of the administrative 

site. Nēnē do not occur at the KFU (Service 2011). 

Koloa maoli (Anas wyvilliana). The koloa maoli is a small duck endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It 

was listed on March 11, 1967 (32 FR 4001). Once extirpated from the Island of Hawai‘i, it is now 

estimated that 200 of the statewide population of 2,200 birds occur there. The koloa maoli is found 

up to 10,000 feet in elevation and inhabits and breeds in streams and ponds on the HFU. Due to lack 

of surface water at the KFU, it is not likely to occur there (Service 2011). 

‘Alae ke‘oke‘o (Fulica alai). The ‘alae ke‘oke‘o, or Hawaiian coot, is a small waterbird endemic to 

Hawai‘i. It was listed on October 13, 1970 (35 FR 16047-16048). The population is estimated to be 

2,000 to 4,000 individuals and is considered stable. Eighty percent of the population occurs on 

Kaua‘i. They use freshwater and brackish wetlands, which can include agricultural wetlands and 

aquaculture ponds; they also graze on grass adjacent to the wetlands. Although rare, ‘alae ke‘oke‘o

are known from ponds on the HFU (Service 2011). They are not likely to occur on the KFU due to 

lack of surface water. 

3.6.3.3 Endangered Mammal 

‘Ōpe‘ape‘a (Lasiurus cinereus semotus). The Hawaiian hoary bat was listed on October 13, 1970 

(35 FR 16047-16048). The abundance of this endangered mammal is unknown, although there are 

regular sightings on the Islands of Hawai‘i, Kaua‘i, and Maui. The ‘ōpe‘ape‘a feeds on night-flying 

insects, including moths, beetles, crickets, mosquitoes, and termites. ‘Ōpe‘ape‘a have been sighted 

everywhere from sea level to 13,000 feet, and are thought to migrate to high elevations January 

through April, then give birth at lower elevations during the summer months. Within the HFU, bats 

are found at Pua ‘Ākala, Maulua, and Upper Maulua Pond (Service 2011). Echolocation data show 

that the HFU is an important foraging site for the ‘ōpe‘ape‘a (Menard 2001, Bonaccorso 2008). 

‘Ōpe‘ape‘a have also been seen within the KFU, although little is known about their foraging or 

roosting habits there (Service 2008a). It is probable that ‘ōpe‘ape‘a utilize resources within the Koa 

Forest property on at least a seasonal basis (David 2002). 

3.6.3.4 Endangered and Threatened and Candidate Plants 

Fourteen federally endangered plants, one federally threatened plant, and one federal candidate plant 

are known to occur on the Refuge. Of the 14 endangered plants, half are members of a group 

collectively known as the Hawaiian lobeliads. These are members of the Bluebell Family 

(Campanulaceae), of which three are in the endemic genus Clermontia and the remaining four are in 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

45 

the endemic genus Cyanea, that represent one of the most spectacular examples of adaptive radiation 

(Givnish and others 2009, Lammers and Freeman 1986). In general, lobeliads are shrubs or singlestemmed plants capped by rosettes of leaves that are often large and strap-like; the flowers are showy 

and have floral tubes that are usually long and curved. They include high-elevation bog rosettes, cliff 

succulents, forest and bog shrubs and trees, and a few epiphytes and vine-like species that vary 

strikingly in floral form and leaf shape (Givnish and others 2009). All Clermontia are shrubs or 

shrublike and tend to cluster around natural openings in wet forests, which makes them more 

susceptible to disturbance by ungulates. Most Cyanea have single, unbranched stems, and some are 

tall and palm-like in appearance (Sohmer and Gustafson 1987). Two others of the 14 endangered 

plants are in the endemic Hawaiian genus Phyllostegia of the mint family (Lamiaceae) and have 

flowers associated with insect pollination (Lindqvist and Albert 2002, Lindqvist and others 2003). 

Asplenium peruvianum var. insulare (=A. fragile var. insulare). This short-lived perennial fern 

was listed as endangered on September 26, 1994 (59 FR 49025). It occurs in ‘ōhi‘a dry forest, ‘a‘ali‘i 

(Dodonea viscosa) dry montane shrubland, naio-māmane dry montane forest, and koa/‘ōhi‘a forest, 

as well as subalpine dry forest and shrubland. It grows almost exclusively in large, moist lava tubes 

from 10 to 15 feet in diameter, pits, deep cracks, and lava tree molds, with at least a moderate soil or 

ash accumulation, associated with mosses and liverworts (68 FR 39666-39667, July 2, 2003). The 

single unit of critical habitat designated for this species on the Island of Hawai‘i lies outside of the 

study areas on the southeastern slope of Mauna Loa (68 FR 39647, 39666). At the time critical 

habitat was designated, however, there were 36 known occurrences of Asplenium peruvianum var.

insulare on the Island of Hawai’i (68 FR 39625). Known occurrences range between 5,413 and 7,218 

feet in elevation (Palmer 2003). It is known to occur on the KFU (Service 2011) and has been found 

at higher elevations on McCandless Ranch (Jacobi and Bruegmann 1998). 

Clermontia lindseyana. This is a branched shrub or small tree endemic to the Islands of Hawai‘i and 

Maui that was listed as endangered on March 4, 1994 (59 FR 10305-10325). The common name 

often used for species in this genus is ‘oha wai. It is typically 8 to 20 feet in height, and grows from 

the ground or as an epiphyte. At the time that the recovery plan was released, 11 populations with a 

total of 86 individuals were known to occur between 4,860 and 6,200 feet on the Island of Hawai‘i 

(Service 1996). At the HFU, wild individuals occur in the Upper Maulua, Lower Honohina Tract, 

and the Hakalau Tract; in addition, an estimated 988 propagated individuals were outplanted between 

1998 and 2008 (Service 2011). Of the 10,459 acres of designated critical habitat for C. lindseyana, 

2,202 acres are within the HFU (68 FR 39623-39672).

Clermontia peleana. This is an epiphytic shrub or small tree endemic to the Islands of Hawai‘i and 

Maui (where it is now presumed extirpated) that was listed as endangered on March 4, 1994 (59 FR 

10305-10325). It is typically 5 to 20 feet tall. At the time of listing, six wild populations with a total 

of about eight individuals were known to occur in montane wet ōhi‘a forests on the Island of 

Hawai‘i; only a single wild individual is now known (Service 2008b). One unit of the 38,664 acres of 

designated critical habitat for C. peleana lies mostly within the HFU, but no wild individuals are 

known to occur there. In December 2008, in coordination with the Plant Extinction Prevention 

Program, over 800 propagated individuals were outplanted at about 5,000 feet in six areas of the 

HFU (Service 2011). 

Clermontia pyrularia. This is a terrestrial tree endemic to the Islands of Hawai‘i and Maui (where it 

is now presumed extirpated) that was listed as endangered on March 4, 1994 (59 FR 10305-10325). 

It is 9.8 to 13 feet in height. It was known from montane wet and mesic ‘ōhi‘a and koa forests in 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

46 

North Hilo, including on State land at Pīhā adjacent to the HFU. Subalpine dry forests dominated by 

ōhi‘a can also provide suitable habitat. It grows best between 3,000 and 7,000 feet. Much of the 

6,823 acres of designated critical habitat for C. pyrularia lies within the HFU, but no wild individuals 

were known to occur there at the time of designation. A total of 846 propagated individuals have 

been outplanted within the HFU (Service 2011). 

Cyanea hamatiflora ssp. carlsonii. This is a palm-like tree, 9.8 to 26 feet tall, endemic to the Island 

of Hawai‘i that was listed as endangered on March 4, 1994 (59 FR 10305-10325). At the time of 

listing, it was known from only 2 populations with an estimated total of 19 individuals on the western 

and southwestern slopes of Mauna Loa. The populations were in degraded montane wet koa/‘ōhi‘a 

forests between 4,000 and 5,700 feet in elevation and have since declined in size and are comprised 

primarily of mature individuals (Service 2009a). Although no plants have been found on the KFU, it 

is key potential habitat for reintroduction. Of the 2,583 acres of critical habitat designated for the 

species, 57 percent (1,475 acres) lies within the KFU (68 FR 39624-39761). 

Cyanea platyphylla. This is an unbranched, palm-like shrub, 3 to 10 feet tall, endemic to the Island 

of Hawai‘i that was listed as endangered on October 10, 1996 (61 FR 53137-53153). At the time of 

listing, only a single population with five mature individuals and two juveniles was known to exist. 

The habitats for this species are lowland and montane koa forests between 390 and 3,000 feet. At the 

time two units of critical habitat comprising 7,234 acres were designated, six occurrences were 

known (68 FR 39624-39761). No individuals are known from the Refuge. 

Cyanea shipmanii. This is a short-lived, unbranched or few-branched shrub endemic to the Island of 

Hawai‘i that was listed as endangered on March 4, 1994 (59 FR 10305-10325). At the time of listing, 

fewer than 50 wild individuals were known. The range of this species is centered on the eastern slope 

of Mauna Kea in montane wet ‘ōhi‘a and mesic koa/‘ōhi‘a and koa forests from 5,400 to 6,200 feet. 

By 2008, only four individuals remained in the wild (Service 2009b). Of the 6,088 acres of critical 

habitat that has been designated for C. shipmanii, over 64 percent occurs within the HFU. From 1999 

to 2008, 711 propagated individuals were outplanted within the HFU (Service 2011). 

Cyanea stictophylla. This is a shrub or tree 2 to 20 feet tall endemic to the Island of Hawai‘i that was 

listed as endangered on March 4, 1994 (59 FR 10305-10325). At the time of listing, it was known 

from 3 populations with a total of 15 individuals in montane wet ‘ōhi‘a and mesic koa/‘ōhi‘a 

forests between 2,500 and 6,400 feet. Two individuals were known to occur on the KFU, but were 

thought to have died from rat damage in 2007 (Service 2011). Four critical habitat units have been 

designated for a total of 95,484 acres (68 FR 39624-39761). It has also been documented on 

McCandless Ranch (Jacobi and Bruegmann 1998). 

Cyrtandra tintinnabula. Commonly known as ha‘iwale, this is a shrub in the Gesneriad Family 

(Gesneriaceae), 3.6-6.6 feet tall, endemic to the northern to eastern slopes of Mauna Kea that was 

listed as endangered on March 4, 1994 (59 FR 10305-10325). At the time of listing, 3 populations 

were known with about 18 individuals. It typically grows in lowland wet koa and ‘ōhi‘a forests with 

hāpu‘u (tree fern). Two critical habitat units comprising 6,672 acres have been designated for this 

species (68 FR 39624-39761). Efforts to germinate seeds and propagate this species at the Refuge 

greenhouse have not been successful (Service 2011). 

Nothocestrum breviflorum. This is a long-lived tree in the Nightshade Family (Solanaceae) endemic 

to the Island of Hawai‘i that was listed as endangered on March 4, 1994 (59 FR 10305-10325). At 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

47 

the time of listing, it was known from 3 populations with an estimated total of 53 individuals. In 

1996 there were an estimated six populations restricted to the western side of the island with few 

individuals in each population. By the time critical habitat was designated in 2003, it was known 

from 66 occurrences (68 FR 39646). It typically grows in koa and ‘ōhi‘a lowland dry or montane dry 

or mesic forests. Three critical habitat units totaling 12,708 acres have been designated for this 

species (68 FR 39624-39761). It is not known to occur on the KFU but has been documented to 

occur on McCandless Ranch (Jacobi and Bruegmann 1998). 

Phyllostegia racemosa. Commonly known as kīponapona, this climbing vine in the Mint Family 

(Lamiaceae) endemic to the Island of Hawai‘i was listed as endangered on October 10, 1996 (61 FR 

53137-53153). At the time of listing there were 3 populations with a total of 25-45 individuals on the 

eastern slopes of Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa, where it occurs in montane wet or mesic koa and 

‘ōhi‘a forests with hāpu‘u between 4,650 and 6,070 feet in elevation. Over 2,317 acres of critical 

habitat has been designated on the HFU. Over 1,043 propagated individuals of kīponapona have been 

outplanted at the HFU (Service 2011). 

Phyllostegia velutina. Like the previous species, this climbing vine in the Mint Family (Lamiaceae) 

is endemic to the Island of Hawai‘i and was listed as endangered on October 10, 1996 (61 FR 53137-

53153). At the time of listing, 2 populations were known with a total of 25 to 50 individuals. It 

occurs on various eastern slopes of Mauna Kea and on the southern slopes of Hualālai. It occurs in 

montane wet or mesic koa and ‘ōhi‘a forests between 4,900 and 6,000 feet in elevation. Ten 

populations with 63 to 116 individuals were known in 2003 when 9,009 acres of critical habitat was 

designated (68 FR 39623-39672). A single wild plant is known to occur in a gulch on the HFU, 

where 112 propagated plants were outplanted from 1999 to 2007 (Service 2011). It was documented 

on the McCandless Ranch (Jacobi and Bruegmann 1998) and may occur on the KFU. A single 

individual of this species was encountered in 2001 on the Koa Forest property during vegetation 

surveys (Koa Timber, Inc. 2003). No critical habitat has been designated at either Refuge unit. 

Portulaca sclerocarpa. This perennial herb with succulent leaves in the purslane family 

(Portulacaceae), known by the common name po‘e, occurs on the Island of Hawai‘i and in one 

population on Lāna‘i. It was listed as endangered on March 4, 1994 (59 FR 10305-10325). At that 

time, there were 11 populations with an estimated 72-122 individuals known from the Island of 

Hawai‘i. It grows in weathered Mauna Kea soils, on cinder cones, or on younger lavas. There are 

currently an estimated 24 occurrences of po‘e on Hawai‘i Island. One population in Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park (HVNP) is estimated to have 900 individuals (68 FR 39624). The critical 

habitat unit for po‘e includes 10,848 acres of HVNP, but no critical habitat has been designated at 

either Refuge unit. No po‘e have been found at the KFU although it is known from an adjacent area 

(Service 2011). 

Sicyos macrophyllus. This perennial vine, with stems up to 49 feet, known as ‘anunu, is a candidate 

species for Federal listing with a listing priority number of 2 (Service 2010b). It was historically 

known to occur on the Islands of Hawai‘i and Maui. All 10 populations currently known are from 

Hawai‘i Island and have an estimated total of 24-26 individuals. Its typical habitat is wet ‘ōhi‘a forest 

and subalpine mamāne-naio forests at elevations between 4,000 and 6,600 feet (75 FR 69280). One 

population is known from the KFU (Service 2010). ‘Anunu may also occur on the Kūka‘iau Ranch 

parcels under consideration (DLNR 2011b). 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

48 

Silene hawaiiensis. This sprawling shrub endemic to the Island of Hawai‘i was listed as threatened 

on March 4, 1994 (59 FR 10305-10325). At the time of listing, it was known to occur in 17 

populations with an estimated total of 2,600-2,700 individuals. In 2003, 156 occurrences had been 

documented, including an estimated 5,651-5,751 individuals in HVNP, where 6,908 acres of critical 

habitat were designated. No critical habitat has been designated at either Refuge unit. It typically 

occurs within montane and subalpine dry shrubland on weathered lava, various aged lava flows, and 

cinder substrates (68 FR 39623-39672). No individuals are known from the Refuge, although it is 

known to occur at 7,000-10,000 feet in elevation mauka of the HFU. 

3.6.3.5 Endangered and Threatened and Candidate Invertebrates 

Of more than 600 species of the genus Drosophila (picture-wing flies) endemic to Hawai‘i, 11 are 

federally listed as endangered, 1 is federally listed as threatened, and 1 is a Federal candidate species. 

Two of the endangered flies, the threatened fly, and the candidate are known to occur on the Island of 

Hawai‘i. One of the endangered picture-wing flies, D. heteroneura, is known to occur on the Refuge 

and is discussed in more detail below. The other three picture-wing flies could potentially occur on 

the Refuge. 

Drosophila heteroneura. This picture-wing fly is endemic to the Island of Hawai‘i and was listed as 

endangered on May 9, 2006 (73 FR 73794-73895). It is restricted to montane wet ‘ōhi‘a forests on 

the west side of the island. Drosophila surveys were conducted in 1999 and 2000 at the KFU and 37 

percent were identified as D. heteroneura, making it the most abundant picture-wing fly on the 

Refuge unit. The population of D. heteroneura on the KFU is the only known extant population of 

this species (Haines and Foote 2005). Five critical habitat units comprising a total of 4,582 acres

have been designated for this species (73 FR 73794-73895). Of these total acres, nearly 80 percent 

(3,604 acres) are within the KFU.

3.6.4 Other Native Species and Special Ecosystems

Forest Birds. In addition to the federally listed bird species described above, Hawai‘i Island has a 

diverse population of other native forest birds. Other native birds include the ‘i‘iwi (Vestiaria 

coccinea), common ‘amakihi (Hemignathus virens), ‘apapane (Himatione sanguine), Hawai‘i 

‘elepaio (Chasiempis sandwichensis), ‘ōma‘o (Myadestes obscurus), and pueo (Asio flammeus 

sandwichensis). While most of the native birds have historic ranges including most of the island, 

native birds now rarely live below an elevation of 4,500 feet because of the presence of nonnative 

mosquitoes and associated diseases. However, certain native forest birds, particularly the common

‘amakihi, are developing a resistance to avian malaria and are expanding their habitat to include the 

lower elevations of their old range. Many of the native birds join interspecies foraging flocks, 

including the ‘akiapōlā‘au, Hawai‘i creeper, Hawai‘i ‘ākepa, Hawai‘i ‘amakihi, and palila. The forest 

birds feed on a variety of forest resources including nectar, fruits, sap, and invertebrates. Some birds, 

such as the common ‘apapane and ‘elepaio, still survive in habitat modified by nonnative plants. The 

‘i‘iwi and common ‘amakihi avoid nonnative forests, and the ‘apapane migrates throughout the area, 

following the ‘ōhi‘a bloom. The pueo hunts in grasslands. 

‘Apapane, ‘ōma‘o, and ‘elepaio were seen or heard during invertebrate surveys of the Koa Forest 

property in 2002 (Montgomery 2002). The Kūka‘iau Ranch parcels are home to ‘amakihi, pueo, and 

kolea (Pluvialis fulva, Pacific golden plover) (DLNR 2011b). ‘Apapane, ‘elepaio, ‘amakihi, and 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

49 

‘i‘iwi were reported to occur on McCandless Ranch; of these, ‘apapane and ‘amakihi were most 

common (Jacobi and Bruegmann 1998). 

 

Invertebrates. Invertebrates include a variety of groups including snails (Gastropoda) and 

arthropods (Arthropoda) such as beetles (Coleoptera), true bugs (Hemiptera and Homoptera), and 

moths/butterflies (Lepidoptera). The State of Hawai‘i is home to over 5,000 endemic insects, 

including over 600 species of picture-wing flies. The majority of the 5,732 native arthropod species 

are insects. Most of these insects are beetles and flies. 

Many endemic invertebrate species have been found on the HFU, including the koa bug 

(Coleothichus blackburniae, Heteroptera: Scutellaridiae) (a species of concern), at least 50 species of 

arthropods, 4 damselfly species (Genus Megalagrion, Odonata: Coenagrionidae), 23 species of 

weevils (Genus Proterhinus, Coleoptera: Aglycyderidae), 3 species of long-horned beetles 

(Plagithmysus, Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), 8 species of inchworm (Scotorythra, Lepidoptera: 

Geometridae), 10 yellow-faced bee species (Hylaeus, Hymenoptera: Colletidae), and 2 native 

mollusks (Succinea cf. ceputlla, Succindidae, and Tornatellides sp., Achatinellidae) (Service 2011). 

Surveys of the KFU have found six species of picture-wing flies; the cave carabid ground beetle, root 

moths, and a fruit moth in lava caves; five species of weevils, three species of long-horned beetles, 

eight species of moths, a click beetle (Eopenthes cf cognatus, Coleoptera: Elateridae), and ten 

yellow-faced bees species (Service 2011). It should be noted that these were only partial surveys and 

the total number of endemic invertebrates on the Refuge is likely to be much higher. 

Among the invertebrate species of interest on the Koa Forest property are evidence of all three native 

genera of long-horned beetles, including the native monotypic beetles Parandra puncticeps and 

Megopsis reflexa. The distinctive tunnels of Plagithmysus sp., grubs and a native sphingid moth 

(Hyles wilsoni wilsoni) endemic to the Island of Hawai‘i were also found (Montgomery 2002). Rare 

invertebrate species believed to occur on the Koa Forest property, because of similarity of habitats to 

known areas of occurrences, include Drosophila mulii, Nesotocus munroi, and Plagithmysus 

claviger; in addition, a rare native terrestrial mollusk Succinea cf. thaanumi was reported from the 

Koa Forest property (Montgomery 2002). 

Rare native invertebrates to be expected on the parcels based on their known presence in similar 

habitat on the adjacent Mauna Kea Forest Reserve include an undescribed damsel bug (Nabis n. sp.), 

a flightless brown lacewing (Micromus usingeri), a fruit fly (Trupanea nr. Pantosticta), a mirid bug 

(Engyatatus sp.), a stink bug (Oechalia sp.), and yellow-faced bees (Hylaeus spp.) (Pacific Forestry 

Consultants 2010). Other native arthropods observed on the Kūka‘iau Ranch parcels include 

Blackburn’s butterfly (Udara blackburnii), mirid bugs (Orthotylus sophorae), and exit holes of the 

long-horned beetle (Plagithmysus blackburnii) (Pacific Forestry Consultants 2010). 

Surveys in other areas of the island have found that the optimal range for native arthropods is 

between 3,500 and 4,000 feet, which is lower in elevation than the majority of the HFU (Service 

2011). The Koa Forest and Maulua Gulch properties, therefore, are likely to have a greater diversity 

of arthropods than the HFU. Native arthropod diversity tended to be highest at middle elevations of 

the KFU (Service 2011), suggesting that acquisition of the Honokua lots of McCandless Ranch, 

which include an elevation range comparable to the KFU, may enhance protection of native 

arthropods on the western side of the island. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

50 

Native Plants. Habitats on the Refuge conserve many native and indigenous plants with at least 87 

and 35 species documented from the HFU and KFU, respectively; a list of native plants on the HFU

and KFU can be found in Appendix A of the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge CCP (Service 

2011). Among these are the dominant forest canopy species koa, ‘ōhi‘a, and māmane. Moreover, the 

extensive restoration outplantings conducted over the past two decades have augmented not just 

endangered plant populations, but more common species as well. The outplantings have included 

more than 400,000 koa, 30,000 ‘ōhi‘a, and many thousands of other tree, shrub, and vine species 

(Service 2011). Outplanting of propagated plants continues to this day and is a major strategy 

furthering the goals of the Refuge identified in the CCP (Service 2011). Rare native plants that are 

reported from the Kūka‘iau Ranch include Coprosma montana (pilo), Stenogyne microphylla

(Hawaiian mint), Chamaesyce lolowaluana (‘akoko), Dubautia arborea (na‘ena‘e), Bidens 

campylotheca (ko‘oko‘olau), Chenopodium oahuense (‘āweoweo), Argemone glauca (pua kala), and 

(Asplenium trichomanes (‘oāli‘ī) (D:NR 2011b). Native plant species identified as rare that occur on 

the McCandless Ranch include Cyanea marksii (hāhā), Cyrtandra menziesii (ha‘iwale), Cystopteris 

douglasii (no common name), Phytolacca sandwicensis (pōpolo kū mai), Rubus macraei (‘ākala), 

Sanicula sandwicensis (no common name), Stenogyne macrantha (no common name), S. 

scrophularioides (mōhihi), Fragaria chilensis ssp. sandwicensis (‘ōhelo papa), Platydesma 

spathulata (pilo kea), Tetraplasandra hawaiiensis (‘ohe), Urera glabra (ōpuhe), and Xylosma 

hawaiiense (maua) (Jacobi and Bruegmann 1998). 

Aquatic Ecosystems. Gulches and ravines on the HFU have intermittent surface water flow 

following periods of heavy or continuous rain. Twelve streams have been identified on the HFU, 

some of which are perennial at lower elevations (Service 2011). Because the Koa Forest property is 

makai of the southernmost portion of the HFU, the lower reaches of four of these streams (Honoli‘i, 

Pāhoehoe, Kapue, and Kawainui) were included in an aquatic organism study conducted by the 

Hawai‘i Biological Survey of the property (Englund and others 2002). Honoli‘i Stream was the 

largest stream examined in this study and includes large, deep pools intermixed with riffles and 

cascades and a waterfall at least 50 feet high. Numerous standing water habitats occur due to many 

seeps and springs that flow from the sides of the incised canyon. The upper portion of Pāhoehoe 

Stream flows through a forest of ‘ōhi‘a and koa with many deep pools interspersed along a mostly 

lava bedrock channel. In contrast to most of the other sites surveyed, the upper Pāhoehoe stream had 

several smaller tributaries and streamlets that had habitats that differed from those of the main 

channel. The lower reach of Pāhoehoe Stream was large and had deep pools. The upper Kapue 

Stream passes through a diverse old growth ‘ōhi‘a and koa forest and has rock ledges adjacent to the 

stream channel with standing water that provides ideal habitat for aquatic insects. The lower reach of 

Kapue Stream lies below a 100-foot waterfall, one of the tallest observed in the study. Near the 

boundary with conservation district land there is a large diversion, but the destination of the diverted 

water was unknown. Kawainui Stream was one of the smaller watersheds in the study area; it had a 

series of riffles and stairstep cascades about 8–10 feet high and a small channel only 2–3 feet wide in 

the shallow run and riffle areas. 

The investigators found no federally listed or candidate aquatic animals in or around any of the major 

stream ecosystems they examined. They found, however, that the aquatic habitats in the area were 

some of the most pristine that remained in the State of Hawai‘i and noted that the lack of any major 

alien aquatic fauna within these habitats was unusual. Moreover, they stated that the high percentage 

of native aquatic fauna, great densities of native aquatic species, and the high diversity of native taxa 

indicated that the aquatic habitats within the Koa Forest property contain some of the best remaining 

examples of endemic native Hawaiian aquatic biodiversity within the archipelago (Englund and 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

51 

others 2002). The lower reaches of the streams that pass through the Refuge are also known to 

support native fishes (Tate 1996, Nishimoto and Kuamo‘o 1997). 

As noted previously, there is no surface water on the KFU. The Kūka‘iau Ranch parcels lie too high 

in the watershed to have more than intermittent surface flow during periods of high rainfall. Four 

prominent gulches cross the property with seasonal flow that contributes to subsurface flow and 

recharges groundwater (Pacific Forestry Consultants 2010). The upper reaches of Maulua Stream 

flow through the northernmost portion of the HFU and the stream itself forms one boundary of the 

Maulua Gulch parcels under consideration for potential acquisition. 

Lava Tubes and Lava Tube Skylights. Special ecological features of the KFU and the adjacent 

McCandless Ranch property are lava tubes and lava tube skylights. Lava tubes are subterranean 

channels created by flowing molten lava, particularly pāhoehoe lava. When sections of lava tube 

roofs collapse, vertical-walled openings called skylights are created; the skylights serve as natural 

refugia where endangered or rare plants may persist without being damaged by herbivores (Service 

2011). The cave environments are characterized by relatively moderate temperature and a light 

gradient that ranges from open sunlight at the entrance, through twilight and transition zones, to total 

darkness; each zone has unique biological characteristics (Howarth 1973). 

3.6.5 Introduced Species

As noted previously, numerous species of mammals, birds, insects, reptiles, amphibians, plants, and 

other taxa have been introduced to the Hawaiian Islands, many of which are invasive. A thorough 

discussion of the introduced species and the threats they pose to the Refuge can be found in the CCP 

(Service 2011); a list of all native and nonnative plants and animals known from the Refuge can be 

found in Appendix A of the CCP (Service 2011). Most, if not all, of these same species are likely to 

occur on the tracts under consideration for potential addition to the Refuge. Numerous invasive 

plants have been documented to occur on the Koa Forest (Terry 2002), Kūka‘iau Ranch (DLNR 

2011b), and McCandless Ranch (Jacobi and Bruegmann 1998) properties. As is the case on the 

existing Refuge lands, any additions will require intensive control and management of invasive 

species, and thus will require additional operating funds to achieve land management goals. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

52 

This page intentionally left blank. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

53 

CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

4.1 Alternative A (No Action). 

Under Alternative A, our no action alternative, no additional land would be added to the Refuge. A 

complete description of the no action alternative is provided in Chapter 2 of this document. A 

summary comparison of the no action alternative and the preferred alternative (Alternative B) is 

provided in Table 8. 

4.1.1 Effects on the Physical Environment 

4.1.1.1 Soils. Under Alternative A, existing uses of the proposed lands will continue with minimal to 

moderate adverse effects on soils. On lands zoned for agriculture, soil impacts such as compaction, 

trampling, and erosion will continue from use by farming equipment, cattle grazing, and vehicle use 

on range lands. Additionally, some development may occur with minimal to moderate adverse 

effects. Compaction, trampling, and soil erosion are expected at sites that are developed. The degree 

of impact would depend on the specific actions, size, and mitigation of any developments. For 

example, the timber operation on the Koa Forest property, which proposed only helicopter logging, 

stated that the only ground-disturbance would occur in staging areas which would be located on lands 

zoned for agriculture and that best management practices would be implemented to control erosion 

(Koa Timber, Inc. 2003). The no action alternative would not affect soils on the Refuge. 

4.1.1.2 Hydrology and Water Resources. Not increasing land protection could result in less aquifer 

recharge within the East Mauna Kea and Southwest Mauna Loa ASEAs if the private lands under 

consideration are not owned or acquired by other entities interested in increased conservation 

management. If the currently forested areas of the Koa Forest, Maulua Gulch, and McCandless 

Ranch were to be used for timber production, surface runoff would likely increase and result in less 

water infiltration to recharge the groundwater. Although the parcels under consideration at Kūka‘iau 

Ranch are included within a perpetual conservation easement, the terms of the easement allow for 

continued agricultural use. The portion of Maulua Gulch that is zoned for agriculture is currently 

fallow, but agricultural use could be renewed. Renewed agricultural use on the Maulua Gulch 

property or ongoing agricultural use on Kūka‘iau Ranch could reduce infiltration and groundwater 

recharge if the existing vegetation is disturbed or removed. Such activities are likely to have minimal 

to moderate effects depending on the severity of the impact and any actions taken to mitigate the 

impact. The no action alternative would not affect the hydrology and water resources of the Refuge. 

4.1.2 Effects on the Social and Economic Environment. Not expanding the Refuge acquisition 

boundary to include the lands under consideration is likely to have minimal effects on the social and 

economic environment of the Island of Hawai‘i and local communities.

4.1.3 Cultural Resources. Cultural resources on the lands under consideration would remain subject 

to State and local regulation and permitting. Cultural resources could be adversely affected by 

various land uses or development. Activities not requiring permits could contribute to loss or damage 

of cultural resources, especially if they have not been identified. The effects would likely range from 

minimal to moderate, although losses of cultural resources could be permanent. The no action 

alternative would not affect cultural resources on the Refuge. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

54 

4.1.4 Recreation. Public access to the properties under consideration would not be affected by the no 

action alternative. Recreational public uses on the existing Refuge will continue to be managed in 

accordance with the recently completed CCP (Service 2011). At HFU, only the Upper Maulua Tract 

is open to the public on weekends and holidays by reservation for self-guided wildlife observation, 

birding, and photography. The HFU also hosts an annual open house, a 1-day public event 

celebrating the Refuge System, and the unit issues a limited number of special use permits (SUPs) 

each year for commercial wildlife observation opportunities. The KFU has never been opened to the 

public. 

4.1.5 Effects on the Biological Environment

4.1.5.1 Endangered, Threatened, and Candidate Species. Most endangered, threatened, and 

candidate species face numerous threats including habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation, 

among other factors. Additional land protection measures are a primary action identified in the 

recovery plans for most such species. As noted previously, the State submitted a grant proposal for 

the Kūka‘iau Ranch parcels, but it was not funded. Under the no action alternative, this parcel could 

be resubmitted for funding or acquired by another entity. We are not aware of any alternative 

protection efforts for the other lands under consideration for addition to the Refuge in the foreseeable 

future. Time is critical to the recovery of listed species, many of which are now restricted to a portion 

of their former range and have much reduced populations. We conclude, therefore, that the no action 

alternative would have moderate adverse effects on the ability to recover these species. 

4.1.5.2 Other Native Species and Ecosystems. Under Alternative A, no additional lands would be 

added to the Refuge. The parcels under consideration for acquisition are mostly undeveloped, but 

there is no commitment for protection or restoration of these areas. The lands would remain private 

and available for agricultural, residential, commercial, or industrial development activities that would 

negatively impact native species and ecosystems occurring there. Even if development did not occur, 

under this alternative there would not likely be any management to protect or restore habitats. 

Without management, the value of these lands for native species would decrease due to the 

increasing occurrence of nonnative plants and animals and loss of native habitats. Over time, this 

would have a moderate adverse effect on native species and ecosystems.

4.1.5.3 Habitat Protection and Open Space Preservation. When Hakalau Forest NWR was created 

in 1985 to conserve endangered animals and plants, the lands had been degraded from cattle grazing 

and logging. Most of the Refuge still had closed-canopy forest, with the most intact areas at lower 

elevations. Under the closed canopy forest, certain sections of the understory had also been disturbed 

by cattle, pigs, and rats. The mesic koa/‘ōhi‘a and koa/māmane forests were the most severely 

degraded. About 5,000 acres of forest, mostly above 6,000 feet, had been converted into open 

woodland and pasture dominated by introduced grasses. The last cattle permitted to graze at the 

Refuge were removed in 1996. 

The primary focus for management of Hakalau Forest NWR lands is driven by the need to conserve 

the Refuge’s forest, subterranean, riparian, aquatic, and grassland habitats that are in various stages 

of (1) degradation by pest plants and animals (most notably ungulates and invasive plants), (2) 

recovery from cattle grazing activities by past owners, and (3) restoration by Refuge staff. A strategic 

approach that also provides for watershed protection and connectivity to adjacent conservation lands 

is anticipated by the Refuge CCP (Service 2011). Under the no action alternative, Refuge lands will 

continue to be managed with an eye towards landscape level efforts by neighbors and agency 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

55 

partners, but activities beyond the Refuge boundary will be less of a priority, and a lesser role for 

Refuge staff and resources is anticipated.

The initial management actions implemented by the Refuge included surveys (forest bird, native 

plant, weed, and ungulate), construction of ungulate-proof fences, ungulate removal, weed control, 

and reforestation (outplanting of koa) and reforestation research focused on techniques (mainly with 

assistance of the USFS Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry (IPIF). Due to the remote location of the 

Refuge, a cabin and storage building as well as water catchment systems had to be constructed to 

support Refuge operations. Over the years, other parcels of the Refuge (Pua ‘Ākala, Middle 

Papaikou, Middle Hakalau, and other lands) were acquired so that today the HFU is 33,946 acres. 

Refuge infrastructure includes existing ranch sites and structures present at acquisition, an 

administrative area with staff cabins, volunteer quarters, a greenhouse for propagation of native 

forest plants for outplantings, a garage/tool shed, and a maintenance storage facility.

In 1997, the KFU was established when 5,300 acres were purchased, bringing the total Refuge 

acreage to 39,246 acres. The KFU was established specifically for the endangered ‘alalā, as well as 

other listed species (Service 1997). Cattle grazing had created pastures in some of the upper 

elevations. Above the 6,000-foot elevation, the native forest was characterized by a mixed māmanesandalwood (Santalum ellipticum) and dryland koa or ‘ōhi‘a communities, with ground cover of 

nonnative grasses and native shrubs. Current Refuge management for both the HFU and KFU 

focuses on maintaining and constructing new fencing, controlling pest species (plants and animals), 

native forest restoration, reforestation, and threatened and endangered species management. Under 

the no action alternative, these management activities would continue on existing Refuge lands but 

would not expand beyond the current boundaries. No additional habitat would be protected or 

managed by the Refuge. 

Landscape-scale conservation efforts underway on Hawai‘i Island include various interagency efforts 

among both public and private land managers. Coordinated management across this landscape is 

critical to sustain adequate quality and quantity of water and to provide important habitat for a wide 

diversity of native plants and animals, including endangered species. In addition, the health of these 

lands is strongly connected with the quality of life for people and local communities. Cooperating in 

the areas of staff expertise and funding to conserve native ecosystems for over a decade has 

significantly reduced the threats of invasive ungulates and weeds on Federal, State, and private lands. 

The Refuge participates in several existing partnership agreements and cooperative management 

efforts described under Related Actions in Chapter 1. 

Under the no action alternative, Refuge staff would continue to work with current partners, such as 

U.S. Geological Survey-Biological Resources Discipline (USGS-BRD), USFS, National Park 

Service (NPS), DHHL and DOFAW, the TMA and MKWA, as well as adjoining landowners on any 

future opportunities within and adjacent to the existing Refuge. Within current funding and staffing 

levels,the Refuge will also seek new partnerships to restore habitats, improve the volunteer program, 

and identify to what extent improvements or alterations should be made to existing visitor programs. 

These activities will allow Refuge staff to ensure the biological integrity, diversity, and 

environmental health of the HFU and KFU are effectively restored or maintained. However, the 

scope of these partnerships would be less and result in fewer benefits than under the preferred 

alternative (described in section 4.2). 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

56 

4.1.6 Climate Change. Not expanding the Refuge boundary to include the identified lands would not 

have an appreciable effect on global or regional climate. It would, however, have adverse effects on 

the ability of the Refuge to increase the resiliency of native Hawaiian species and ecosystems to 

adapt to a changing climate. It could also adversely affect mitigation efforts by restricting local 

options to conserve and store carbon through additional land protection and habitat restoration. 

4.1.7 Introduced Species. Under the no action alternative, the Refuge would not have the ability to 

expand its efforts to control nonnative invasive species. This would have moderate adverse effects on 

native species and ecosystems. Water quantity would also be adversely affected as some invasive 

plant species have been shown to lower the proportion of rainfall reaching the forest floor and 

becoming available for groundwater recharge (Takahashi and others 2010). 

4.2 Alternative B – Full Land Protection (Preferred Alternative) 

4.2.1 Effects on the Physical Environment 

4.2.1.1 Soils. Habitat management actions under Alternative B that might be considered include 

removal of invasive plants and animals, and where possible, restoration or enhancement of native 

wildlife habitat. Thus, implementation of this alternative would likely result in long-term, moderate, 

beneficial effects. A long-term commitment to maintenance of the vegetative cover with minimal soil 

disturbance would conserve local micro-climate patterns and soil processes. 

4.2.1.2 Hydrology and Water Resources. Increasing land protection is likely to result in more 

aquifer recharge within the East Mauna Kea and Southwest Mauna Loa ASEAs. The currently 

forested areas of the Koa Forest, Maulua Gulch, and McCandless Ranch properties would be 

protected in perpetuity from timber harvest, and deforested areas would be replanted with trees over 

time. This would allow surface runoff to infiltrate and recharge the groundwater. Protection of 

existing forest cover would also facilitate stem flow and fog drip, which results when the 

condensation of fog or cloud water vapor on surface areas, such as leaves and trunks, drips to the 

ground surface. Fog drip can increase precipitation by as much as 30 inches per year; the type and 

density of forest cover may have more influence on fog drip than changes in the surrounding ocean 

or global climate (Hardy 1996). 

Parcels under consideration at Kūka‘iau Ranch and Maulua Gulch that are currently zoned for 

agricultural use would be fully protected and managed with fish, wildlife, and plant habitat as the 

priority. Removal of invasive plant species and restoration with native plants could also increase the 

quantity of water available in the watersheds; studies at HVNP have shown that invasions by 

strawberry guava had lower cloud water interception than native ‘ōhi‘a stands, resulting in a lower 

proportion of rainfall reaching the forest floor and becoming available for groundwater recharge 

(Takahashi and others 2010). 

Acquisition of these properties, therefore, is likely to have moderate beneficial effects to water 

supplies within the watersheds in which they occur. Acquisition of these properties would not affect 

any existing water rights or water uses other than any acquired water rights appurtenant to acquired 

lands. 

4.2.2 Effects on the Social and Economic Environment. Acquisition of the properties under study 

could have minimal to moderate adverse social and economic effects. Proponents of the timber 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

57 

operation on the 13,000 forested acres of the Koa Forest property projected that it would produce 

$12.3 million per year in direct and indirect economic activity, about 49 direct and indirect jobs with 

a payroll of $1.6 million per year, and tax revenues to the State of Hawai‘i of about $263,000 per 

year (Koa Timber, Inc. 2003). The value of koa and ‘ōhi‘a timber on the 10,143 acres at McCandless 

Ranch is estimated at $7,915,914 (McCandless Ranch 2010). We have no information on the value of 

the timber on the approximately 700 forested acres at Maulua Gulch. The Kūka‘iau Ranch property 

has little, if any, commercial timber value. Acquisition of these properties would preclude 

commercial timber harvest. Although commercial timber harvest remains a possibility on lands 

designated for conservation, which includes 90 percent (11,850 acres) of the Koa Forest property and 

45 percent (994 acres) of the Maulua Gulch property, permits are by no means assured and none have 

been issued since the early 1970s (Dietz 2010). Acquistion of these properties, therefore, is likely to 

have minimal adverse effects. The acquisition of McCandless Ranch would preclude commercial 

timber harvest and would have a moderate adverse economic effect.

Acquisition by the Refuge would also preclude their use for agriculture. According to the County 

General Plan, 1,184,999 acres of land on the island are within the State Land Use Agricultural 

District (SLUAD); about 227,177 acres zoned agricultural are located in the North Hilo/Hāmakua 

districts where the HFU, Koa Forest, Maulua Gulch, and Kuka‘iau Ranch properties are located

(County of Hawai‘i 2005). Only 1,280 acres of the Koa Forest property, 1,280 of the Maulua Gulch 

property, and all 4,469 acres of the Kūka‘iau Ranch are zoned for agricultural, or about 3 percent of 

the total agricultural district land. All of the soils within the Koa Forest, Kūka‘iau Ranch, and 

Maulua Gulch properties are considered to have severe limitations which reduce the choice of plants 

or require special conservation practices or very careful management, or that limit their use mainly to 

pasture range, forestland, or wildlife food and cover (NRCS 2010a,b,c,d). Within the North and 

South Kona districts, where the KFU and McCandless Ranch property are located, there are 280,937 

acres within the SLUAD; 279,466 acres of which are zoned agricultural by the county including all 

10,143 acres of the McCandless Ranch property (County of Hawai‘i 2005, 2011a). All of the soils 

underlying the McCandless Ranch parcels have severe limitations that restrict their use mainly to 

pasture range, forestland, or wildlife food and cover (NRCS 2010d). Acquisition of these agricultural 

lands, therefore, which are primarily suited for pastures or forestry, is likely to have minimal adverse 

economic effects. 

Maintaining and restoring forest cover on these lands, however, would conserve the values that 

healthy forests contribute to water quantity and quality, air quality, and other ecosystem functions. 

A study of Ko‘olau forests on O‘ahu determined the ecosystem services provided by these forests to 

have a net value of between $7.4 and $14 billion, with about half of this value attributed to ground 

and surface water quality and quantity; other watersheds across the State were estimated at 

comparable value (DLNR 2011a). In addition, forest cover contributes to carbon sequestration, 

thereby providing partial mitigation to the effects of climate change. These beneficial effects offset, 

in part, the economic impacts of removing these lands from commercial forestry or agricultural uses. 

The net effect to the social and economic environment from the proposed action, therefore, is likely 

to be minor, especially when the long-term benefits from maintaining and enhancing ecosystem 

services are considered. In addition, the ability to control invasive plants on newly acquired lands has 

an economic benefit (DLNR 2011a). In a public awareness study conducted to determine the 

willingness of Hawaiians to support watershed protection, 59 percent of respondents indicated an 

urgent need to increase the protection of the upland forest sources of the fresh water supply (DLNR 

2010c). Acquisition of these properties would also the recently released State of Hawai‘i The Rain 

Follows the Forest Plan to replenish their sources of water (DLNR 2011a). The priority actions 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

58 

identified in the plan include managing invasive species, increasing the State’s ability to withstand 

impacts from climate change, and seeking increased DLNR funding to restore their management 

capabilities. The plan identifies priority watersheds and outlines actions and projects to protect and 

sustain their critical water sources. It emphasizes that in order to be successful, the actions must 

occur on a large scale across ownership boundaries through agreements and leveraged funds 

provided by statewide watershed partnerships. 

4.2.3 Cultural Resources. As a Federal agency, the Service is required to comply with numerous 

laws pertaining to cultural resources, including the NHPA (16 U.S.C. 470 et seq; Pub. Law 89-665); 

the Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979 (16 U.S.C. 470aa-470mm; Pub. Law 96-95), as 

amended; and the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990 (25 U.S.C. 3001 

et seq.; Pub. Law 101-601). Because of these requirements, which may not apply or be fully effective 

in protecting cultural resources on private land, the preferred alternative provides moderate benefits 

to cultural resources when compared to the no action alternative. 

4.2.4 Recreation. Recreation and public use opportunities under the preferred alternative will be 

consistent with the Refuge CCP (Service 2011), as summarized under the no action alternative 

above. The Maulua Gulch property presents some potential for an enhanced level of public contact 

due to its proximity to a paved highway (State Route 19). The accessibility this provides could give 

the Hakalau Forest NWR a public contact and environmental education capability that is currently 

limited for the existing units due to their remoteness. The establishment of public access 

infrastructure here could greatly increase the Refuge’s visitor contact numbers and the ability to 

connect the public to the very remote Lower Maulua unit. Overall, the benefits to recreation from 

expanding the Refuge are likely to be minor over the short-term. Over the longer term, appropriate 

recreational benefits could increase depending on ease of access, sensitivity of resources, funding, 

and the capabilities of Refuge staff to oversee additional uses. 

4.2.5 Effects on the Biological Environment 

4.2.5.1 Endangered and Threatened and Candidate Species. The effects on endangered, 

threatened, and candidate species of expanding the Refuge boundary vary by the property under 

consideration (Table 7). This is because of differences in species’ ranges, their habitat affinities and 

restrictions, and elevation ranges, including the upper limit of mosquito-borne infectious diseases.

The potential direct and indirect effects on these species are discussed by property below. 

Koa Forest Property. The Koa Forest property includes historical habitat for the ‘o‘ū and the likely 

presence of habitat to support ‘io, koloa maoli, ‘alae ke‘oke‘o, and the ‘ōpe‘ape‘a. In addition to 

these animals, the property has historical habitat for Phyllostegia velutina and likely provides 

suitable habitat for Clermontia peleana and Cyanea platyphylla. In the short-term, addition of the 

Koa Forest property to the Refuge would have minor direct benefits to all of these species. Over the 

long-term, however, with habitat management including the control of invasive species, forest 

restoration, and plant augmentations and reintroductions, the direct benefits to endangered animal 

and plant species would be moderate to major. Because the Koa Forest property is contiguous with 

the current makai boundary of the Refuge, the ability to control invasive species in this area would 

also have long-term benefits to the conservation of endangered species and their habitats within the 

existing Refuge. Acquisition of the Koa Forest property would also provide habitat continuity 

through the current Refuge to higher elevations on Mauna Kea along the Wailukia River Corridor 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

59 

proposed in the ‘Āina Mauna Legacy Program (DHHL 2011). This is a major long-term benefit that 

will allow for species migration as the climate changes.

Maulua Gulch Property. The Maulua Gulch property likely provides habitat to support ‘io, koloa 

maoli, ‘alae ke‘oke‘o, and the ‘ōpe‘ape‘a. In addition to these animals, the property also is likely to 

provide suitable habitat for Clermontia peleana and Cyanea platyphylla. In the short-term, addition 

of the Koa Forest property to the Refuge would have minor direct benefits to all of these species. 

Over the long-term, however, with habitat management including the control of invasive species, 

forest restoration, and plant augmentations and repatriations, the direct benefits to endangered animal 

and plant species would be moderate to major. Because the Maulua Gulch property is contiguous 

with the current makai boundary of the Refuge, the ability to control invasive species in this area 

would also have long-term benefits to the conservation of endangered species and their habitats 

within the existing Refuge. Acquisition of the Maulua Gulch property would also provide habitat 

continuity from sea level through the current Refuge to higher elevations on Mauna Kea along the 

Kanekaleonui Bird Corridor proposed in the ‘Āina Mauna Legacy Program (DHHL 2011). This is a 

major long-term benefit that will allow for species migration as the climate changes.

Table 7. Status of Endangered, Threatened, and Candidate Species and their potential habitat 

on the Koa Forest, Maulua Gulch, Kūka‘iau Ranch, and McCandless Ranch properties (also 

shown is designated critical habitat for palila at Kūka‘iau Ranch) 

Status Koa 

Forest

Maulua 

Gulch

Kūka‘iau

Ranch

McCandless 

Ranch

Birds

‘Akiapōlā‘au (Hemignathus munroi) E N H

Hawai‘i ‘ākepa (Loxops coccineus coccineus) E H

Hawai‘i creeper (Oreomystis mana) E P

‘Ō‘ū (Psittirostra psittacea) E H N

‘Alalā (Corvus hawaiiensis) E N

‘Io (Buteo solitarius) E P P P P

Palila (Loxioides bailleui) E N, CH

Nēnē (Branta sandvicensis) E P

Koloa maoli (Anas wyvilliana) E P P P

‘Alae ke‘oke‘o (Fulica alai) E P P P

Mammals

‘Ōpe‘ape‘a (Lasiurus cinereus semotus) E P P P P

Plants

Asplenium peruvianum var. insulare E P

Clermontia lindseyana E

Clermontia peleana E A A

Cyanea hamatiflora ssp. carlsonii E A

Cyanea platyphylla E P A

Cyanea shipmanii E

Cyanea stictophylla E H

Nothocestrum breviflorum E H

Phyllostegia racemosa E

Phyllostegia velutina E H H

Portulaca sclerocarpa E A
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

60 

Sicyos macrophyllus C P, A A

Silene hawaiiensis T A A

Invertebrates

Drosophila heteroneura E A

Status: E = Endangered; T = Threatened; C = Federal candidate; P = likely present; H = historically occurred (up to 

the mid-1970s), no recent observations, but may still be present; N = historically occurred (up to the the mid-1970s) 

but no longer present; A = known to occur in adjacent areas of similar habitat; CH = critical habitat

Kūka‘iau Ranch Property. The Kūka‘iau Ranch property includes designated critical habitat for the 

palila, as well as suitable or restorable habitat for the ‘akiapōlā‘au, ‘io, nēnē, koloa maoli, ‘alae 

ke‘oke‘o and the ‘ōpe‘ape‘a. In addition to these animals, this property likely provides suitable 

habitat for Sicyos macrophyllus and Silene hawaiiensis. In the short-term, addition of the Kūka‘iau 

Ranch property to the Refuge would have minor direct benefits to all of these species. Over the longterm, however, with habitat management including the control of invasive species, forest restoration, 

and plant augmentations and repatriations, the direct benefits to endangered animal and plant species 

would be moderate to major. Because the Kūka‘iau Ranch property is contiguous with lands 

managed by the State of Hawai‘i with the intention of palila reintroduction, the ability to control 

invasive species and conduct habitat restoration in this area would also have major long-term benefits 

to the conservation of the palila and endangered species and their habitats. In addition, long-term 

benefits would derive from the reforestation of adjacent makai land through the Hawaiian Legacy 

Reforestation Initiative (HHL 2011a). 

McCandless Ranch Property. The McCandless Ranch property was the site of the last known wild 

population of the ‘alalā and is suitable for its repatriation with proper management and restoration. 

The property also includes historical habitat for the ‘akiapōlā‘au and Hawai‘i ‘ākepa, and suitable 

habitat for the Hawai‘i creeper, ‘o‘ū , ‘io, the ‘ōpe‘ape‘a and the endangered invertebrate, Drosophila 

heteroneura. In addition to these animals, the McCandless Ranch property includes historical habitat 

for the plants Cyanea stictophylla, Nothocestrum breviflorum, and Phyllostegia velutina. It also 

likely includes suitable habiatat for Asplenium peruvianum var. insulare, C. hamatiflora ssp.

carlsonii, Portulaca sclerocarpa, Sicyos macrophyllus and Silene hawaiiensis. In the short-term, 

addition of the McCandless Ranch property to the Refuge would have minor direct benefits to all of 

these species. Over the long-term, however, with habitat management including the control of 

invasive species, forest restoration, plant augmentations and repatriations, and repatriation of the 

‘alalā, the direct benefits to endangered animal and plant species would be moderate to major. 

Because the McCandless Ranch property is contiguous to the HVNP, the addition of these lands to 

the Refuge would provide habitat continuity through the current Refuge to higher elevations on 

Mauna Loa. This is a major long-term benefit that will allow for species migration as the climate 

changes.

4.2.5.2 Other Native Species. Under Alternative B, the Service proposes to protect wildlife and 

habitat on up to 29,973 acres of mostly undeveloped land. In addition to endangered species, these 

lands support native forest birds, plants, and invertebrates. Habitats that would be protected from 

development in these lands include coastal, wet, mesic, dry and montane forests. Because these 

parcels are adjacent to existing conservation lands, including the Refuge, acquisition would enhance 

connectivity with habitats, resulting in a significant expansion of contiguous forests being managed 

for the conservation of native species and ecosystems. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

61 

Native birds that would benefit from the additional conservation efforts provided by acquiring these 

lands include the ‘i‘iwi, Hawai‘i ‘amakihi, ‘apapane, Hawai‘i ‘elepaio, ‘ōma‘o, pueo, and kolea. 

Some of the non-endangered native plants, many of which are rare, that would be conserved and 

restored include, koa, ‘ōhi‘a, māmane, pilo, ha‘iwale, Hawaiian mint, ‘akoko, na‘ena‘e, ko‘oko‘olau, 

‘āweoweo, pua kala, ‘oāli‘ī, pōpolo kū mai, ‘ākala, ‘ōhelo, ‘ohe, ōpuhe, and maua. Conservation of 

these habitats would benefit many species of native invertebrates, including long-horned beetles, 

sphingid moths, Blackburn’s butterflies, picture–wing flies, damselflies, lacewings, fruit flies, mirid 

bugs, stink bugs, yellow-faced bees, and terrestrial mollusks. 

Acquisition of coastal habitats in the Maulua Gulch property would preserve ‘ōhi‘a and koa forest 

and benefit the terrestrial invertebrates and waterbirds that use these habitats. Acquisition of the Koa 

Forest, upper reaches of the Maulua Gulch, and McCandless Ranch properties would protect vast 

expanses of montane wet forests, preserving ‘ōhi‘a, koa and ‘uluhe ecosystems. Conservation of 

these habitats would be beneficial to native forest birds, particularly at the higher elevation areas of 

the parcels. Acquisition of the Kūka‘iau Ranch property would allow for conservation and restoration 

of mesic koa and māmane forests. 

Management of these lands could enhance populations of native shrubs, ferns, epiphytes, and grasses, 

which would benefit native forest birds and invertebrates. Areas of māmane forests on Hawai‘i have 

been greatly reduced. Conservation and restoration of lands at Kūka‘iau Ranch would help preserve 

this rare ecosystem. Māmane also occurs in the dry koa/‘ōhi‘a/māmane forest found at the upper 

reaches of the McCandless Ranch property. Acquisition of the McCandless Ranch parcel would also 

conserve rare native plant and animal communities found in lava tubes and lava tube skylight 

ecosystems, including ferns, birds, and invertebrates. 

Overall, the addition of these properties would have minor benefits to native species and ecosystems 

in the short-term, but with habitat management, including invasive species control and native plant 

restoration, the benefits would be moderate to major over the long-term.

4.2.5.3 Habitat Protection and Open Space Preservation. The expansion of the Refuge acquisition 

boundary to encompass up to 29,973 additional acres of land on the windward and leeward sides of 

Hawai‘i Island will hold great potential to further the conservation of biological diversity across a 

larger landscape when opportunities arise from willing sellers or through existing partners. Addition 

of the Koa Forest and Maulua Gulch properties to the HFU would protect lower elevation rainforest, 

subject to high levels of disturbance and invasion by alien species. The Kūka‘iau Ranch property 

includes higher elevation habitats containing remnant open koa-māmane forest that can be restored 

using a model similar to the HFU. 

Beyond the conservation benefits expected under the CCP, described above under the no action 

alternative, connecting additional habitats to existing Refuge units and incorporating them under 

Refuge management guided by statutes, policies, and management plans will enhance landscape 

level efforts to recover endangered species and preserve and restore native forests. Additional lands 

described in this assessment, if acquired by the Refuge, would largely be managed in a similar 

fashion as that described in the CCP for the existing Refuge (Service 2011) and for the same 

purposes. Habitat protection, enhancement, and restoration would serve to preserve native plants and 

animal communities as a primary purpose. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

62 

All of the properties would connect to existing land divisions now under conservation management, 

creating corridors for wildlife extending mauka to makai in traditional ahupua‘a’s. These include the 

DHHL Humu‘ula/Pi‘ihonua tracts adjacent mauka to the HFU, State of Hawai‘i land managed for 

palila recovery adjacent to the Kūka‘iau Ranch property, and the HVNP and KFU adjacent to the 

Kahuku lots of the McCandless Ranch (Figures 1-3). 

Refuge expansion under the preferred alternative would enhance opportunities to coordinate 

management across this landscape with appreciable benefits to all partners. Our coordination with 

DHHL would be enhanced by expansion of the HFU. In particular, acquisition of the Koa Forest and 

Maulua Gulch properties would provide connectivity from lower elevation forests and, in the case of 

Maulua Gulch, the seacoast, through the current HFU and the Wailuku River Corridor and 

Kanekaleonui Bird Corridor, provided for in the Legacy Program, to upper–elevation native māmane 

forests (Figure 3). 

Under the preferred alternative, Refuge staff would expand coordination efforts with existing 

partners on both the HFU and the KFU to seek input on potential Refuge involvement in area 

conservation efforts and needs beyond our current boundaries in order to determine a desired goal 

and appropriate role for the Refuge. A landscape approach on the slopes of Mauna Kea and Mauna 

Loa will allow staff to focus efforts and work with partners to ensure that habitat needs are met over 

a larger area. Expansion of the Refuge would also increase the area available for researchers and 

provide additional opportunities for landscape-scale scientific investigations. Enhanced coordination 

with Refuge partners in conservation management on the Island of Hawai‘i would have moderate to 

major benefits over the long-term.

4.2.6 Climate Change. Expanding the Refuge boundary to include the identified lands would not 

have an appreciable effect on global or regional climate. It would, however, have positive effects on 

the ability to increase the resiliency of native Hawaiian species and ecosystems to adapt to a 

changing climate by increasing available and potential habitat, reducing habitat fragmentation, and 

increasing habitat connectivity. It would also positively affect climate change mitigation efforts by 

conserving carbon sequestration. Over the long-term, invasive species control, habitat restoration, 

and habitat management will enhance the resiliency of native species and ecosystems and increase 

carbon sequestration. 

4.2.7 Invasive Species. The preferred alternative would also allow the Refuge to control invasive 

species on any acquired lands. This would have moderate beneficial effects on native species and 

ecosystems. It would also have benefiical effects to water quantity since some invasive species have 

been shown to lower the proportion of rainfall reaching the forest floor and becoming available for 

groundwater recharge (Takahashi and others 2010). Control of invasive species on acquired lands 

would also have moderate beneficial effects to those lands by reducing the source populations of 

invasive species on properties adjacent to existing conservation lands. 

4.2.8 Unavoidable Adverse Effects. Expanding the Refuge could have unavoidable minimal to 

moderate adverse effects on the local economy by precluding commercial timber operations in 

forested areas and the removal of grazing from other agricultural land. However, these impacts 

would be offset by protecting these areas from adverse impacts to watersheds, which are important to 

acquifer recharge and water quality, and from further degradation or loss of native Hawaiian 

ecosystems.
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

63 

4.2.8.1 Cumulative Impacts. The proposed action would expand the Hakalau Forest NWR by up to 

29,973 acres and would potentially result in additional habitat being protected, restored, and 

managed in perpetuity. The Service would manage any acquired lands to provide for the recovery of 

endangered Hawaiian forest birds, waterbirds, and plants; the long-term conservation of lowland and 

montane wet and mesic koa and ‘ōhi‘a forests and high elevation māmane woodlands; the 

preservation of water quality and aquifer recharge; the protection of cultural resources; and, where 

appropriate, opportunities for wildlife-dependent public recreation and conservation partnerships. 

Management actions, such as invasive and introduced species control, would benefit not only newly 

acquired lands, but also the existing Refuge and contribute to efforts to control the spread of these 

species to adjacent properties managed for conservation. 

4.2.9 Comparison of the Effects of the Alternatives and Rationale for the Preferred Alternative.

A comparison of the no action and preferred alternatives is provided in Table 8. The no action 

alternative provides little assurance that additional protection and restoration of habitat important to 

the recovery of endangered forest birds, waterbirds, and plants or further protection of native 

Hawaiian species and ecosystems would occur. The no action alternative, therefore, does not meet 

the purpose nor address the need as described in Chapter 1 of this document. Alternative B, by 

providing for both the short-term stabilization and long-term recovery of endangered species, meets 

the purposes and need of the proposed action. 

Table 8. Summary Comparison of the Effects of the Alternatives. 

Environmental Factor

Alternative A

No Action

Alternative B

Full Land Protection

Physical Environment

Soils Potential for minimal to moderate 

adverse effects due to soil erosion or 

compaction depending on type and size 

of any development and mitigation 

actions.

Long-term, moderate, beneficial effects. 

Hydrology and Water 

Resources

Minimal to moderate adverse effects on 

water infiltration, groundwater recharge, 

and water quality depending on severity 

of impact and mitigation actions.

Land acquired would become part of the 

National Wildlife Refuge System and be 

unavailable for agricultural, residential, 

commercial, or industrial development.

Social and Economic Environment

Socio-Economic Commercial timber operations and 

agricultural uses potentially allowed 

under existing landownership; minor 

short-term beneficial social and 

economic effects. 

Commercial timber operations and 

agricultural uses would be precluded on 

any acquired lands.

Cultural Resource 

Protection 

No cultural sites or resources on the 

parcels under consideration would be 

included in the Refuge. Minimal to 

moderate adverse effects but cultural 

resource losses could be permanent.

All cultural sites or resources present on 

lands acquired would be included in the 

Refuge; any future ground-disturbing 

activities would require compliance with 

the NHPA.

Public Access and

Recreation

Private landowners would continue to 

control access across and use of private 

lands subject to any deed restrictions on 

parcels with existing conservation 

easements. No effect on current Refuge 

management, but public access to land 

not acquired could be constrained.

Initially, no public access to acquired 

lands, but programs for public involvement 

or cooperative management would be 

developed consistent with established 

programs at the Refuge.
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

64 

Environmental Factor

Alternative A

No Action

Alternative B

Full Land Protection

Biological Environment

Endangered Species 

Habitat

No additional habitat protection by the 

Hakalau Forest NWR. 

Endangered species management, 

including invasive species control and 

habitat restoration, would focus 

primarily within the current Refuge.

Moderate adverse effects on the ability 

to recover listed species.

Long-term moderate adverse effects on 

native species and ecosystems.

Minimal short-term to moderate long-term 

benefits due to:

Addition of up to 19,579 acres of 

occupied, potential, or restorable montane 

koa /‘ōhi‘ahabitat for endangered forest 

birds and plants to the HFU.

Addition of an estimated 250 acres of 

potential or restorable higher elevation 

‘ōhi‘a and māmane/naio forest for 

endangered palila to the HFU.

Addition of up to 3,887 acres of occupied, 

potential, or restorable montane ‘ōhi‘akoa habitat for endangered forest birds and 

plants to the KFU.

Addition of up to 6,256 acres of occupied, 

potential, or restorable higher elevation 

‘ōhi‘a and māmane/naio forest for 

endangered forest birds to the KFU.

Increased habitat connectivity between 

HFU and KFU and other conservation 

lands.

Endangered species management, 

including invasive species control and 

habitat restoration, would continue within 

the current Refuge and be expanded to any 

acquired lands after necessary regulatory 

compliance has been completed.

Other Native Species 

Habitat

No additional habitat protection by the 

Hakalau Forest NWR.

Habitat management, including invasive 

species control and restoration actions, 

would continue within the current

Refuge.

Long-term moderate adverse effect 

impact on native species and 

ecosystems.

Addition of up to 19,579 acres of montane 

and lowland koa/‘ōhi‘a habitat for native 

wildlife and plants to HFU.

Addition of an estimated 250 acres of 

potential or restorable higher elevation 

‘ōhi‘a and māmane/naio to the HFU.

Addition of up to 25 stream miles of 

aquatic and riparian habitat to the HFU.

Addition of up to 3,887 acres of montane 

koa/‘ōhi‘a habitat for native wildlife and 

plants to KFU.

Addition of up to 6,256 acres of subalpine 

‘ōhi‘a and māmane/naio forest to the KFU.

Addition of lava tubes, lava tube skylights, 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

65 

Environmental Factor

Alternative A

No Action

Alternative B

Full Land Protection

and associated native wildlife to KFU.

Habitat on acquired land would be 

managed to benefit native species.

Effect on County Taxes No effect. Under current law, property tax losses 

would likely be largely offset by payments 

authorized by the RRSA.

Estimated Land

Purchase Costs 

None. Acquisition costs are estimated at 

$120,000,000, to be requested over time 

from the LWCF.

Estimated Annual 

Operations and 

Maintenance Costs

None. Annual operations and maintenance costs 

estimated at $650,000.
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

66 

This page intentionally left blank. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

67 

CHAPTER 5. COORDINATION, CONSULTATION, AND 

COMPLIANCE

5.1 Public Involvement

The proposed expansion of Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge has been discussed with 

landowners; neighbors; conservation organizations; Federal, State, and County governments; local 

organizations and interested groups; and individuals. 

The Service invited and encouraged public participation throughout the public involvement process. 

Outreach consisted of public notices and meetings with potentially affected landowners, government 

agencies, private organizations, and individuals. The Refuge Manager gave a presentation on August 

17, 2011, at a public meeting at Refuge Headquarters in Hilo. A planning update was distributed in 

July 2011, and another will be published with the release of this document in February 2012. The 

Service will provide a summary of issues raised by the public in our February 2012 Planning Update 

2, as well as announce the availability of the LPP/EA, describe the No Action and the Preferred 

Alternatives, provide a summary of their environmental effects, and announce a 30-day review and 

comment period. The planning update will be distributed to the contacts listed in Appendix D, as 

well as posted on the Service’s Regional website. 

As part of the public notice and review process, the LPP/EA is available for a 30-day review and 

comment period February 15, 2012 to March 16, 2012. 

 

5.2 Environmental Review and Consultation 

In expanding the Refuge, the Service would comply with Federal laws, regulations, and Executive 

orders. The following section describes specifically how expanding the Refuge is in compliance with 

the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), NHPA, ESA, and other relevant Federal laws, 

regulations, and Executive orders. 

5.2.1 National Environmental Policy Act

As a Federal agency, the Service must comply with provisions of NEPA, as amended (42 U.S.C. 

4321-4347). An environmental analysis is required under NEPA to evaluate reasonable alternatives 

that will meet stated objectives and to assess the possible environmental, social, and economic 

impacts to the human environment. The EA serves as the basis for determining whether 

implementation of the proposed action would constitute a major Federal action significantly affecting 

the quality of the human environment. The environmental assessment facilitates the involvement of 

government agencies and the public in the decisionmaking process. 

5.2.2 National Historic Preservation Act 

The Service would follow established procedures for protecting cultural resources if the Refuge is 

expanded. This includes complying with the NHPA of 1966 (16 U.S.C. 469) and other cultural 

resource preservation laws, and consulting with the State Historic Preservation Office and 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

68 

appropriate Native American governments, if applicable, for any future restoration and management 

actions which may have the potential to affect historic properties. 

5.2.3 Endangered Species Act

Expanding an approved refuge boundary does not represent a Federal action which would affect 

species listed under the ESA. The Service would conduct consultation under Section 7 for any 

Hakalau Forest NWR management program actions which have the potential to affect listed species.

5.2.4 Other Federal Laws, Regulations, and Executive Orders

In implementing the proposed action, the Service would comply with the following Federal laws, 

Executive orders, and legislative acts: Intergovernmental Review of Federal Programs (Executive 

Order 12372); Protection of Historical, Archaeological, and Scientific Properties (Executive Order 

11593); Floodplain Management (Executive Order 11988); Protection of Wetlands (Executive Order 

11990); Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 

(CERCLA) (42 U.S.C. 9601 et seq.); Management and General Public Use of the National Wildlife 

Refuge System (Executive Order 12996); Departmental Policy on Environmental Justice (Executive 

Order 3127); Uniform Relocation Assistance and Real Property Acquisition Policy Act of 1970, as 

amended; Refuge Recreation Act of 1962, as amended; and Consultation and Coordination with 

Indian Tribal Governments (Executive Order 13175). 

5.3 Distribution and Availability

Copies of the February 2012 LPP/EA are being distributed to Federal and State elected officials, 

native Hawaiian organizations, county governments, affected landowners, private groups, and other 

interested individuals (see Appendix D, Notification List). Copies of the document are available by 

contacting the Hakalau Forest NWR, 60 Nowelo Street, Hilo, Hawai‘i, 96720, 808-443-2300. The 

documents can also be viewed and downloaded from the Service’s website at 

http://www.fws.gov/hakalauforest/planning.html. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

69 

CHAPTER 6. REFERENCES CITED

32 Federal Register (FR) 4001. Native fish and wildlife: endangered species. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/fr/fr32-4001.pdf, accessed November 17, 2011. 

35 FR 16047-16048. Conservation of endangered species and other fish and wildlife, Appendix D–

United States list of endangered native fish and wildlife. 

40 FR 17590-17591. Endangered and threatened wildlife: lists of endangered and threated fauna. 

Available at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile.action?spcode=B04M#status, accessed 

November 17, 2011. 

42 FR 40685. 1977. Determination of critical habitat for six endangered species including palila, 

renumbering of critical habitat listings. 

59 FR 10305-10325. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants: determination of endangered 

status for 21 plants from the Island of Hawai‘i, State of Hawai‘i. Available at: 

http://www.federalregister.gov/articles/1994/03/04/94-4841/endangered-and-threatened-wildlifeand-plants-determination-of-endangered-or-threatened-status-for, accessed November 17, 2011. 

59 FR 49025. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; endangered status for four ferns from 

the Hawaiian Islands. Available at: http://www.federalregister.gov/articles/1994/09/26/94-

23751/endangered-and-threatened-wildlife-and-plants-endangered-status-for-four-ferns-fromthe-hawaiian, accessed November 17, 2011.

61 FR 53137-53153. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants: determination of endangered 

status for 13 plants from the Island of Hawai‘i, State of Hawai‘i. Available at: 

http://www.federalregister.gov/articles/1996/10/10/96-25559/endangered-and-threatenedwildlife-and-plants-determination-of-endangered-status-for-thirteen-plants, accessed November 

17, 2011. 

68 FR 39623-39672. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants: final designation and 

nondesignation of critical habitat for 46 plant species from the Island of Hawai‘i, Hawai‘i. (1 of 

2). Available at: http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile.action?spcode=Q2SS, 

accessed November 17, 2011. 

68 FR 39673-39722. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants: final designation and 

nondesignation of critical habitat for 46 plant species from the Island of Hawai‘i, Hawai‘i. (2 of 

2). Available at: http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile.action?spcode=Q2SS, 

accessed November 17, 2011. 

73 FR 45680-45689. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants: withdrawal of proposed 

reclassification of the Hawaiian hawk or ‘Io (Buteo solitarius) to threatened; proposed rule to 

remove the Hawaiian hawk from the Federal list of endangered and threatened wildlife. 

Available at: http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile.action?spcode=B00D, 

accessed November 17, 2011. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

70 

73 FR 73794-73895. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants: designation of critical habitat 

for 12 species of picture-wing flies from the Hawaiian Islands. Available at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile.action?spcode=I0QZ#status, accessed 

November 17, 2011. 

75 FR 69222-69294. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants: review of native species that are 

candidates for listing as endangered or threatened; annual notice of findings on resubmitted 

petitions: annual description of progress on listing actions. 

Bonaccorso, F. 2008. Annual summary report: Hawaiian hoary bat occupancy in Hakalau Forest 

National Wildlife Refuge. Special Use Permit:12516-07008. 

Burney, D.B. 2001. Fossil evidence for a diverse biota from Kauai and its transformation since 

human arrival. Ecological Monographs 71:615-641. 

Camp, R.J., M. Gorreson, B.L. Woodworth, and T.K. Pratt. 2003. Forest bird distribution, density 

and trends at Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge, Hawai‘i. Report to Hakalau Forest 

National Wildlife Refuge, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Hawai‘i Forest Bird Interagency 

Database Project, U.S. Geological Survey, Pacific Island Ecosystems Research Center. 

Cao, G., T.W. Giambelluca, D.E. Stevens, and T.A. Schroeder. 2007. Inversion variability in the 

Hawaiian trade wind regions. Journal of Climate 20:1145-1160. 

Carver, E., and J. Caudill. 2007. Banking on Nature 2006: the economic benefits to local 

communities of National Wildlife Refuge visitation. Division of Economics, U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. 435 pp. 

Chu, P.S. and H. Chen. 2005. Interannual and interdecadal rainfall variations in the Hawaiian Islands. 

Journal of Climate. Vol.18:4796-4813. 

County of Hawai‘i. 2011a. Real Property Tax Office. Available from website: 

http://www.hawaiipropertytax.com/Main/Home.aspx, accessed September 7, 2011.

County of Hawai‘i. 2011b. County of Hawai‘i Data Book: a statistical abstract. Department of 

Research and Development, Hilo, Hawai‘i. Available at: 

http://www.co.hawaii.hi.us/databook_current/dbooktoc.htm, accessed November 14, 2011. 

County of Hawai‘i. 2006. Hawai‘i land use regulatory system. Synthesis prepared by Hawai‘i County 

Planning Director, Hilo, Hawai‘i. 7 pp. Available at: 

http://www.co.hawaii.hi.us/planning/Land_Use_Regulatory_System.pdf, accessed September 8, 

2011. 

County of Hawai‘i. 2005. County of Hawai‘i General Plan, as amended. Available at: 

http://www.co.hawaii.hi.us/la/gp/toc.html, accessed November 14, 2011.

David, R.E. 2002. An analysis of endangered terrestrial vertebrate species management issues for the 

proposed Koa Timber Project, South Hilo District, Island of Hawai‘i. (Appendix E in Koa 

Timber, Inc. 2003). 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

71 

Diaz, H.F., P.Chu, and J.K. Eischeid. 2005. Rainfall changes in Hawai`i during the last century. 16th 

Conference on Climate Variability and Change, American Meteorological Society, Boston, MA. 

Dietz, D. 2010. Plan to log for dollars no sure bet. The Register-Guard, Eugene, Oregon. Appeared in 

print: Saturday, March 27, 2010, page A1. 

Englund, R.A., D.J. Preston, G.A. Samuelson, K. Arakaki, and N.L. Evenhuis. 2002. Aquatic 

organism study for the Koa Timber Commercial Forestry Operation, South Hilo District, County 

of Hawai‘i. Hawai‘i Biological Survey, Bishop Museum, Honolulu, HI. 30 pp. (Appendix F in 

Koa Timber, Inc. 2003). 

Environmental Protection Agency. 2011. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, 

and Liability Act (CERCLA) National Priority List database. Available at: 

http://www.epa.gov/superfund/sites/npl/index.htm, accessed November 17, 2011. 

Finney, B. 2003. Sailing in the wake of the ancestors, reviving Polynesian voyaging. Bishop Museum 

Press, Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 124 pp. 

Fletcher, C. 2010. Hawai‘i’s Changing Climate, Briefing Sheet. University of Hawai‘i Sea Grant 

College Program, Center for Island Climate Adaptation and Policy. Available at: 

http://icap.seagrant.soest.hawaii.edu/hawaii%E2%80%99s-changing-climate-briefing-sheet, 

accessed November 16, 2011. 

Fretz, J.S. 2002. Scales of food availability for an endangered insectivore, the Hawai‘i ‘ākepa. Auk 

119:166-174. 

Fukunaga and Associates. 2010. Hawai‘i County Water Use and Development Plan Update. Hawai‘i 

Water Plan. Honolulu, Hawai‘i . Various pagination. Available at: 

http://hawaii.gov/dlnr/cwrm/planning_countyplans.htm, accessed November 17, 2011. 

Giambelluca, T.W., H.F. Diaz, and M.S.A. Luke. 2008. Secular temperature changes in Hawai‘i. 

Geophysical Research Letters 35. 5 pp. 

Giambelluca, T.W., and D. Nullet. 1991. Influence of the trade-wind inversion on the climate of a 

leeward mountain slope in Hawai‘i. Climate Research 1:207-218. 

Givnish, T.J., K.C. Millam, A.R. Mast, T.B. Paterson, T.J. Theim, A.L. Hipp, J.M. Henss, J.F. Smith, 

K.R. Wood, and K.J. Sytsma. 2009. Origin, adaptive radiation and diversification of the 

Hawaiian lobelioids (Asterales: Campanulaceae). Proceedings of the Royal Society B 276:407-

416. 

Haines, W., and D. foote. 2005. Rapid assessment of invertebrate fauna of the Kona Forest Unit of 

Hakalau [sic] National Wildlife Refuge. Hawai‘i Cooperative Studies Unit, Technical Report 

HCSU-001. University of Hawai‛i at Hilo. 93 pp. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

72 

Hardy, W.R. 1996. A numerical groundwater model for the Island of Lana‘i, Hawai‘i. Hawai‘i 

Department of Land and Natural Resources, Commission on Water Resources Management. 

Report No. CWRM-1. 135 pp., plus appendices. 

Hart, P.J. 2000. Causes and correlates of rarity in the endangered Hawai‘i ‘ākepa. Ph.D. dissertation, 

University of Hawai‘i, Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 

Hawai‘i Department of Hawaiian Home Lands (DHHL). 2011. Āina Mauna Legacy Program Draft 

Environmental Assessment. Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 298 pp., plus appendices. Available at: 

http://oeqc.doh.hawaii.gov/Shared%20Documents/EA_and_EIS_Online_Library/Hawaii/2010s/2

011-10-23-DEA-Aina-Mauna-Legacy.pdf, accessed November 15, 2011. 

Hawai‘i Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism (DBEDT). 2011.

Hawai‘i Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism (DBEDT). 2007. 2006 

Hawai‘i Data Book. Available at: http://hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/economic/databook/db2006/. 

Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR). 2011a. The Rain Follows the Forest: a 

Plan to Replenish Hawai‘i’s Source of Water, Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 21 pp. Available at: 

hawaii.gov/dlnr/chair/pio/nr/2011/The-Rain-Follows-the-Forest.pdf, accessed November 30, 

2011. 

Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR). 2011b. Kūka‘iau acquisition and palila 

habitat restoration project. Recovery Land Assistance grant proposal, Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 10 pp., 

plus maps. 

Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR). 2011c. 

http://hawaii.gov/dlnr/occl/conservation, accessed November 17, 2011. 

Hawai‘i Legal News. 2010. Native Hawaiian Rights--Once Proven--still must be Weighed Against 

State Interest. Available at: http://hawaiiopinions.blogspot.com/2010/11/native-hawaiian-rightsonce-proven.html, accessed November 14, 2011. 

Hawaiian Legacy Hardwoods (HLH). 2011a. About Us. Available at: 

http://www.hawaiianlegacyhardwoods.com/about_us.php#commitment Hawaiian Legacy, 

accessed November 14. 2011. 

Hardwoods (HLH). 2011b. Four Seasons Resort Hualalai to Plant 500,000 Trees: Resort in 

partnership to plant legacy koa hardwood trees in native Hawaiian forest. Available at: 

http://press.fourseasons.com/hualalai/hotel-news/four-seasons-resort-hualalai-to-plant-500-000-

trees/, accessed November 14, 2011.

Hart, P.J. 2000. Causes and correlates of rarity in the Hawai‛i ‛Ākepa. Ph.D. Dissertation, University 

of Hawai‛i, Honolulu, Hawai‛i. 

Henshaw, J. 2011. Personal communication from John Henshaw, The Nature Conservancy of 

Hawai‘i to Steve Caicco, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, regarding U.S. Forest Service purchase 

of conservation easements on McCandless Ranch Kahuku lots 2 and 3, April 29, 2011. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

73 

Henshaw, H.W. 1902. Birds of the Hawaiian Possessions. T.G. Thrum Publisher, Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 

146 pp. 

Howarth, F.G. 1983. Ecology of cave arthropods. Annual Review Entomology 28:365-389. 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2007. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. 

Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Available at: 

http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_ipcc_fourth_assessment_report_synthesi

s_report.htm, accessed November 14, 2011. 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2001. Climate Change 2001: the Scientific 

Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Available at: 

http://www.grida.no/publications/other/ipcc_tar/?src=/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/index.htm, accessed 

November 14, 2011. 

Jacobi, J., and M. Bruegmann. 1998. Final report on a survey of forest bird and plant populations on 

the McCandless Ranch, Kona, Hawai‘i. U.S. Geological Survey, Hawai‘i National Park, Hawai‘i, 

and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 12 pp. 

Juvik, S.P., and J.O. Juvik. 1998. Atlas of Hawai‘i. Third edition. University of Hawai‘i Press, 

Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 333 pp. 

Juvik, J.O., B.T. Rodomsky, J.P. Price, E.W. Hansen, and C. Kueffer. 2011. The upper limits of 

vegetation on Mauna Loa, Hawai‘i: a 50th anniversary reassessment. Ecology 92:518-525. 

Kane, H.K. 1977. Ancient Hawai‘i. Kawainui Press, Captain Cook, Hawai‘i. 10 pp. 

Kirsch, P.V. 1982. The impact of Prehistoric Polynesians on the Hawaiian ecosystem. Pacific 

Science 36(1):1-14. 

Koa Timber, Inc. 2003. Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Koa Timber Commercial 

Forestry Operations. Koa Timber, Inc., Kapolei, HI. 58 pp., plus appendices. 

Lammers, T.G., and C.E. Freeman. 1986. Ornithophily among the Hawaiian Lobelioideae 

(Campanulaceae): evidence from floral nectar sugar compositions. American Journal of Botany 

73(11):1613-1619. 

Lindqvist, C., and V.A. Albert. 2002. Origin of the Hawaiian endemic mints within North American 

Stachys (Lamiaceae). American Journal of Botany 89(10):1709-1724. 

Lindqvist, C., T.J. Motley, J.J. Jeffrey, and V.A. Albert. 2003. Cladogenesis and reticulation in the 

Hawaiian endemic mints (Lamiaceae). Cladistics 19:480-495. 

 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

74 

McCandless Ranch. 2010. Personal communication from Keith Unger, McCandless Land and Cattle 

Company, to Steve Caicco, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, regarding biological resources and 

economic valuation of Honohua and Kahuku lot, April 29, 2011. 

McCarthy, J.J, F. Osvaldo, F. Canziani, N.A. Leary, D.J. Dokken, and K.S. White. 2001. Climate 

change 2001: impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Contribution of working group II to the 

third assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge 

University Press, UK.

Menard, T. 2001. Activity patterns of the Hawaiian hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus semotus) in relation 

to reproductive time periods. M.S. thesis, University of Hawai‘i, Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 

Middleton, B.A. 2006. Invasive Species and Climate Change. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 2006-1153. 

Montgomery, S.L. 2002. Survey of terrestrial invertebrate resources (Insects, Mollusks, and other 

Arthropods) mid-slope Mauna Kea, South Hilo District, Island of Hawai‘i. Montane Matters, 

Waipahu, Hawai‘i. 22 pp., plus appendix. (Appendix D in Koa Timber, Inc. 2003). 

Mootooka, P., G. Nagat, K. Onuma, M. DuPonte, A. Kawabata, G. Fukumoto, and J. Pauley. 2004. 

Control of Madagascar ragwort (Senecio madagascariensis). College of Tropical Agriculture and 

Human Resources, Cooperative Extension Service. University of Hawai‘i at Manoa. 2 pp. 

National Agricultural Statistics Service. 2007. Census of Agriculture: Hawai‘i County. Available at: 

http://www.agcensus.usda.gov/Publications/2007/Full_Report/Volume_1,_Chapter_1_State_Lev

el/Hawaii/index.asp, accessed November 17, 2011. 

Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). 2011a. Custom soil resource report for Island of 

Hawai‘i Area, Hawai‘i: Koa Forest. Custom report downloaded from: 

http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/HomePage.htm, accessed November 2, 2011. 

Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). 2011b. Custom soil resource report for Island of 

Hawai‘i Area, Hawai‘i: Maulua Gulch. Custom report downloaded from: 

http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/HomePage.htm, accessed November 2, 2011. 

Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). 2011c. Custom soil resource report for Island of 

Hawai‘i Area, Hawai‘i: Kūka‘iau Ranch. Custom report downloaded from: 

http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/HomePage.htm, accessed November 2, 2011. 

Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). 2011d. Custom soil resource report for Island of 

Hawai‘i Area, Hawai‘i: McCandless Ranch. Custom report downloaded from: 

http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/HomePage.htm, accessed November 2, 2011. 

Nishimoto, R.T. and D.G.K. Kuamo'o. 1997. Recruitment of goby larvae into Hakalau Stream, 

Hawai‘i Island. Micronesica 30(1):41-49. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

75 

North American Bird Conservation Initiative, U.S. Committee, 2011. The State of the Birds 2011 

Report on Public Lands and Waters. U.S. Department of the Interior: Washington, DC. 48 

pages.

Oki, D.S. 2004. Trends in Streamflow Characteristics at Long-Term Gaging Stations, Hawaii: U.S. 

Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2004-5080, 120 pp. 

Pacific Forestry Consultants. 2010. Amended and restated conservation easement baseline 

documentation report for upper Kūka‘iau Ranch. Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 14 pp., plus exhibits. 

Palmer, D.D. 2003. Hawai‘i’s Ferns and Fern Allies. University of Hawai‘i Press, Honolulu, 

Hawai‘i.

Raymond, A., and N. Valentine. 2007. Cultural resource investigations for boundary and cross fences 

at the Kona Forest Unit of the Big Island National Wildlife Refuge Complex. Island of Hawai‘i. 

Report to Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge, Hilo, Hawai‘i. U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service, Pacific Region, Portland, Oregon. 

Sohmer, S.H., and R. Gustafson. 1996. Plants and flowers of Hawai‘i. Fourth printing. University of 

Hawai‘i Press, Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 160 pp. 

Scott, M.J., S. Mountainspring, F.L. Ramsey, and C.B. Kepler. 1986. Forest bird communities of the 

Hawaiian Islands: their dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Cooper Ornithological Society, 

Studies in Avian Biology No. 9. 431 pp. 

Snetsinger, T.J., S.G. Fancy, J.C. Simon, and J.D. Jacobi. 1998. Diets of owls and feral cats in 

Hawai‘i. Elepaio 54:47-50.

State of Hawai‘i. 2009. Deed of conservation easement including development rights by Kūka‘iau 

Ranch, LLC in favor of The Nature Conservancy. 44 pp. 

Takahashi, M., T. Giambelluca, R.G. Mudd, J.K. DeLay, M.A. Nullet, and G.P. Asner. 2010. 

Rainfall partitioning and cloud water interception in native forest and invaded forest in Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park. Hydrological Processes 25(3):448-464. 

Tate, D.C. 1996. Effect of larval and postlarval fish behavior in determining the instream distribution 

of adult Awaous guamensis and Lentipes concolor in Hakalau Stream, Hawai‘i. Pp. 132-147 in: 

W.S. Devick, ed. Proceedings of 1994 Hawai‘i Stream Restoration Symposium. State of Hawai‘i, 

Department of Land and Natural Resources, Division of Aquatic Resources, Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 

Terry, R. 2002. Koa Timber Project botanical report (with observations on avian fauna). 

Geometrician Associates, HI. 23 pp., plus appendices. (Appendix C in Koa Timber, Inc. 2003). 

The Nature Conservancy (TNC). 2011. Nature Conservancy, Hawaiian Legacy Hardwoods Partner to 

Restore Koa Forests: Agreement will also benefit other native forests in Hawai‘i. Available at: 

http://www.hawaiianlegacyhardwoods.com/TNC-HLH-Final.pdf, accessed November 14, 2011. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

76 

Timm, O. and H.F. Diaz. 2009. Synoptic-statistical approach to regional downscaling of IPCC 

twenty-first century climate projections: seasonal rainfall over the Hawaiian Islands. Journal of 

Climate. Vol. 22:4261-4280. 

Three Mountain Alliance (TMA). 2007. Three Mountain Alliance Management Plan. 82 pp. 

Available at: http://hawp.org/three-mountain-alliance.asp, accessed November 17, 2011. 

University of Hawai‘i Economic Research Organization (UHERO). 2011. Hawai‘i County at a 

Glance. Available at: http://uhero.prognoz.com/GlanceR.aspx, accessed November 17, 2011. 

U.S. Census Bureau. 2011. State and County QuickFacts. Available at: 

http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/15/15001.html, accessed November 17, 2011. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 2011a. Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge 

Comprehensive Conservation Plan. Big Island National Wildlife Refuge Complex, 60 Nowelo 

Street, Suite 100, Hilo, Hawai‘i and Pacific Islands Planning Team, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, 

Room 5-231, Honolulu, Hawai‘i. Various pagination. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 2010a. Partners for Fish and Wildlife and Coast Program 

Strategic Plan. July 2010 update. Pacific Region, Portland, OR. 146 pp. Available at: 

http://www.fws.gov/pacific/ecoservices/habcon/partners/pdf/FINALR1_PCSP.pdf. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 2010b. Species Assessment Form: Sicyos macrophyllaus. 

14 pp. Available at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile.action?spcode=Q396, accessed 

November 17, 2011. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 2009a. 5-Year Review: Cyanea hamatiflora ssp. carlsonii. 

Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office, Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 7 pp. Available at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile.action?spcode=Q2SS, accessed 

November 17, 2011. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 2009b. 5-Year Review: Cyanea shipmanii. Pacific Islands 

Fish and Wildlife Office, Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 10 pp. Available at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile.action?spcode=Q1V4#recovery, 

accessed November 17, 2011. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 2009c. Revised recovery plan for the ‘Alalā (Corvus 

hawaiiensis). Region 1, Portland, Oregon. Various pagination. Available at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile.action?spcode=B004#recovery, accessed 

November 17, 2011. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 2009d. 5-Year Review: Palila (Loxioides bailleui). Pacific 

Islands Fish and Wildlife Office, Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 18 pp. Available at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile.action?spcode=B00K#recovery, 

accessed November 17, 2011. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

77 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 2008a. Draft environmental assessment for fencing of the 

Kona Forest Unit of the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge, Hawai‘i County, Hawai‘i. 

Hakalau National Wildlife Refuge, Hilo, Hawai‘i. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 2008b. 5-Year Review: Clermontia peleana. Pacific Islands 

Fish and Wildlife Office, Honolulu, Hawai‘i . 6 pp. Available at 

http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile.action?spcode=Q1UM, accessed 

November 17, 2011. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 2007. 2006 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and 

Wildlife Associated- Recreation, Washington, D.C. 164 pp. Available at: 

http://wsfrprograms.fws.gov/Subpages/NationalSurvey/National_Survey.htm, accessed 

November 17, 2011. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 2006. Revised recovery plan for Hawaiian forest birds. 

Region 1, Portland, Oregon. Various pagination. Available at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile.action?spcode=B044, accessed 

November 17, 2011. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 1998. Big Island II: Addendum to the Recovery Plan for 

the Big Island Plant Cluster. Region 1, Portland, Oregon. 69 pp., plus appendices. Available at: 

http://www.fws.gov/ecos/ajax/docs/recovery_plan/980511a.pdf. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 1997. Final environmental assessment for the proposed 

Kona Forest Unit of the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge, South Kona District, Hawai‘i 

County, Hawai‘i. Region 1, Portland, Oregon. Various pagination. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 1996. Recovery Plan for the Big Island Plant Cluster. 

Region 1, Portland, Oregon. 176 pp., plus appendices. Available at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/960926a.pdf. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 1995. Amendment to the decision document for the 

proposal to establish an Upper Hakalau Forest Environmental Assessment, Island of Hawai‘i, 

Hawai‘i–Addition of the Pua Akala Ranch. Region1, Portland, Oregon. Various pagination. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). 1985. Proposal to establish an Upper Hakalau Forest 

Environmental Assessment, Island of Hawai‘i, Hawai‘i. Region1, Portland, Oregon. 41 pp. 

U.S. Geological Survey. 2000. Volcanic air pollution–a hazard in Hawai‘i. Fact sheet 169-97, version 

1.1., revised June 2000. Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, Hawai‘i National Park, Hawai‘i. 2 pp. 

van Riper III, C., and J. Michael Scott. 2001. Limiting factors affecting Hawaiian native birds. Pp. 

221-233 in, J.T. Rotenberry, ed., Evolution, ecology, conservation, and management of Hawaiian 

birds: a vanishing avifauna. Cooper Ornithological Society Studies in Avian Biology No. 22. 

van Riper III, C., S.G. van Riper, M.L. Goff, and M. Laird. 1986. The epizootiology and ecological 

significance of malaria in Hawaiian land birds. Ecological Monographs 56:327-344. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

1 

This page intentionally left blank. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

2 

APPENDIX D

Notification List for Draft Land Protection Plan and Environmental Assessment

Proposed Additions to Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

Hawai‘i County, Hawai‘i

 

Federal and State Elected Officials

Federal

Honorable Daniel K. Akaka, United States Senator 

Honorable Daniel K. Inouye, United States Senator 

Honorable Mazie Hirono, United States House of Representatives

Honorable Colleen Hanabusa, United States House of Representatives

State

Honorable Neil Abercrombie, Governor of Hawai‘i 

Honorable Gilbert Kahele, Hawai‘i State Senate, 2nd Senatorial District

Honorable Josh Green, Hawai‘i State Senate, 3rd Senatorial District

Honorable Malama Solomon, Hawai‘i State Senate, 1st Senatorial District

Honorable Jerry L. Chang, Hawai‘i State, 2nd Representative District 

Honorable Denny Coffman, Hawai‘i State, 6th Representative District

Honorable Cindy Evans, Hawai‘i State, 7th Representative District

Honorable Robert N. Herkes, Hawai‘i State, 5th Representative District

Honorable Mark M. Nakashima, Hawai‘i State, 1st Representative District

Honorable Clift Tsuji, Hawai‘i State, 3rd Representative District

County 

Honorable William P. Kenoi, Mayor 

Honorable Dominic Yagong, Hawai‘i County Council 

Honorable Donald Ikeda, Hawai‘i County Council 

Chairman J Yoshimoto, Hawai‘i County Council 

Honorable Dennis Oishi, Hawai‘i County Council

Honorable Fred Blas, Hawai‘i County Council 

Honorable Brittany Smart, Hawai‘i County Council 

Honorable Brenda Ford, Hawai‘i County Council 

Honorable Angel Pilago, Hawai‘i County Council 

Honorable Pete Hoffman, Hawai‘i County Council 

Federal Agencies

Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development

Department of the Interior 

National Park Service 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office

 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Islands Conservation Cooperative 

U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division

U.S. Geological Survey, Pacific Island Ecosystems Research Center
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

3 

Department of Defense 

U.S. Army

Department of Agriculture 

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS)

Natural Resources Conservation Service 

 U.S. Forest Service, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry

State of Hawai‘i Agencies

Department of Agriculture 

Department of Hawaiian Home Lands 

East Hawai‘i District Office

West Hawai‘i District Office

Department of Land & Natural Resources

 Division of Aquatic Resources 

Division of Forestry and Wildlife

Division of Lands 

Division of State Parks

State Historic Preservation Officer

Historic Preservation Division, Hawai‘i Island Burial Council

Department of Transportation 

Hawai‘i State Coastal Zone Management Program

Office of Environmental Quality Control 

Office of Hawaiian Affairs

County of Hawai‘i 

Department of Water Supply

Big Island Visitors Bureau

Hawai‘i County Planning Department 

Working Groups 

Big Island Invasive Species Committee

Firewise

Hawai‘i Volcanoes Rare Plant Facility

Hawai‘i Wildlife Center

Keauhou Bird Conservation Center 

Kohala Watershed Partnership 

Mauna Kea Watershed Alliance

Plant Extinction Prevention Program-Hawai‘i Island

Plant Extinction Prevention Program-Statewide

Three Mountain Alliance
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

4 

Organizations 

American Bird Conservancy 

American Birding Association

Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies 

Association of Hawaiian Civic Clubs

Cave Conservancy of Hawai‘i

Conservation Council for Hawai‘i 

Council for Native Hawaiian Advancement

Edith Kanakaʻ ole Foundation 

Friends of Hakalau Forest NWR

Hawai‘i Audubon Society 

Hawai‘i Entomological Society 

Hawai‘i Hunting Advisory Council 

Hawai‘i Island Chamber of Commerce

Hawai‘i Island Economic Development Board 

Hawai‘i Forest and Trail

Hawaiian Civic Club of Hilo

Hawaiian Environmental Alliance 

Hoopuloa Hawaiian Civic Club 

Hui Kakoo ‘Āina Hoopulapula 

Hui Malama I Na Kupuna O Hawai`i Nei and Hui Ho'oniho 

Island Transitions 

KAHEA

Kamaʻā inas United for the Protection of the ‘Āina 

Kanu o ke ‘Āina learning ohana

Kona Hawaiian Civic Club

Kona Outdoor Circle 

Kona-Kohala Chamber of Commerce 

Kuakini Hawaiian Civic Club of Kona

Land Trust Alliance, National Headquarters 

Land Trust Alliance, Western Office

Mālama O Puna 

Na Kuauhau O Kahiwakaneikopolei

National Audubon Society, National Office 

National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, National Headquarters 

National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, Western Partnership Office 

National Wildlife Federation

National Wildlife Refuge Association

Native Hawaiian Chamber of Commerce

Native Hawaiian Economic Alliance

Native Hawaiian Legal Corporation

Natural Resources Defense Council

Pig Hunters of Hawai‘i

Royal Hawaiian Academy of Traditional Arts

Sierra Club, Moku Loa Chapter 

Silversword Foundation 

Society of American Foresters, Hawai‘i Chapter

The I Mua Group 

The Nature Conservancy of Hawai‘i
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

5 

The Outdoor Circle 

The Wildlife Society, Hawai‘i Chapter

Trust for Public Land 

Waimea Hawaiian Civic Club

Local Research and Education Institutions

Hawai‘i Biodiversity and Mapping Program

Hawai‘i Nature Center

University of Hawai‘i, Office of Mauna Kea Management

Bishop Museum

Bishop Museum Entomology Department 

Hawai‘i Agricultural Research Center

Hawai‘i Pacific University

University of Hawai‘i Manoa, Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit

University of Hawai‘i Field Station

University of Hawai‘i Hilo

University of Hawai‘i Hilo Beaumont Research Center

University of Hawai‘i Hilo Library

University of Hawai‘i Manoa

University of Hawai‘i-CTAHR

Libraries

Bond Memorial Public Library, Kapa‘au, HI 

Hilo Public Library, Hilo, HI 

Holualoa Public Library, Holualoa, HI 

Honoka‘a Public Library, Honoka‘a, HI 

Kailua-Kona Public Library, Kailua-Kona, HI 

Kea‘au Public Library, Kea‘au, HI

Kealakekua Public Library, Kealakekua, HI

Laupāhoehoe Public and School Library, Laupāhoehoe, HI 

Main Hawai‘i State Library, Honolulu, HI 

Mountain View Public and School Library, Mountain View, HI 

Na‘ālehu Public Library, Na‘ālehu, HI 

National Conservation Training Center Library, Shepherdstown, WV 

Pāhala Public and School Library, Pāhala, HI 

Pāhoa Public and School Library, Pāhoa, HI 

Businesses

BBC

Hawai‘i Nature Explorers 

Hawaiian Sailing Canoe Association

Jack Jeffrey Photography

Jay Harada Productions 

Kai Malino Ranch

Kamehameha Schools

Keālia Ranch

Kūka‘iau Ranch

Les Marks Trust

Mark A. Robinson Trust 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

6 

McCandless Ranch

Pacific Pan Properties, Inc. 

Pacific Rim Conservation, Inc. 

Parker Ranch

Pono Pacific Land Management, LLC 

Rana Biological Consulting, Inc. 

Terran Tours

Tradewinds Hawaiian Woods

Waipono Investment Corporation 

Private Individuals

Landowners 

Private Citizens
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Environmental Assessment

7 

This page intentionally left blank. 
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

2012 Proposed Additions

Land Protection Plan, Conceptual Management Plan

and Environmental Assessment

APPENDIX C

List of Preparers and Reviewers

Author’s Name Position Work Unit

Steve Caicco Conservation Planner U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Region, Division of 

Planning, Visitor Services, and Transportation, Portland, OR

Jim Kraus Project Leader U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Hakalau Forest National 

Wildlife Refuge, Hilo, HI

Cashell Villa Wildlife Refuge Specialist U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Hakalau Forest National

Wildlife Refuge, Hilo, HI

Steve Kendall Wildlife Biologist U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Hakalau Forest National 

Wildlife Refuge, Hilo, HI

Liz Cruz Geographic Information 

System Specialist / 

Analytical Geographer

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Region, Refuge 

Information Branch, Portland, OR

Patrick Stark Visual Information 

Assistant

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Region, Visitor 

Services Branch, Portland OR

Truda Peters Conservation Planner U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Region, Refuge 

Information Branch, Portland, OR

Reviewer’s Name Position Work Unit

Charles Houghten Chief U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Region, Division of 

Planning, Visitor Services, and Transportation, Portland, OR

Scott McCarthy Chief U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Region, Planning 

Branch, Portland, OR

Christine Ogura Natural Resource Planner Hawaiian & Pacific Islands National Wildlife Refuge 

Complex, Honolulu, HI

Barry Stieglitz Project Leader Hawaiian & Pacific Islands National Wildlife Refuge 

Complex, Honolulu, HI

Don Palawski Deputy Project Leader Hawaiian & Pacific Islands National Wildlife Refuge 

Complex, Honolulu, HI

Wayne Hill Chief U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Region, Realty 

Branch, Portland, OR

Charles Parrott Realty Specialist U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Region, Realty 

Branch, Portland, OR

Nicole McCarthy Writer-editor U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Region, Division of 

Planning, Visitor Services, and Transportation, Portland, OR
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

Draft Land Protection Plan and Environmental Assessment

2 

This page intentionally left blank. 
APPENDIX D

Responses to Public Comments
This page intentionally left blank. 
1 

Responses to Public Comments on the Proposed Additions to Hakalau Forest 

National Wildlife Refuge Draft Land Protection Plan (LPP) and Environmental 

Assessment (EA)

The Service received seven letters on the Draft LPP and EA during the comment period 

which ended on March 16, 2012. Four of the letters support our proposed action and three 

expressed interest in collaboration on our shared conservation goals. Several issues were also 

identified. These issues are summarized and our responses to them are provided below. 

Minor corrections noted by commenters are addressed in an Errata Sheet included in the EA.

Range of Alternatives 

Comment. One commenter expressed the belief that it would have been useful to consider a 

“mid-range” alternative that focused only on the highest priority parcels. 

Response. Although not documented in the EA, we did consider having a range of 

alternatives beyond the No Action and Preferred Alternative. We rejected this approach 

because all of the properties had resource values of interest. Moreover, the Preferred 

Alternative can be modified in our final decision should we choose to exclude some 

properties from our proposed boundary. An Errata/Modification Sheet has been appended to 

our EA to note that an intermediate alternative was considered but excluded from detailed 

study for these reasons. 

Land Protection Methods 

Comment. The same commenter also felt it would have been useful for the Service to 

consider other land protection methods than fee-title acquisition, such as conservation 

easements or land exchanges.

Response. Because of the intensive management that will be required on any acquired lands, 

our preferred method of land protection is fee-title acquisition. While fee-title acquisition 

remains our preferred method of habitat protection for the proposed additions, other habitat 

protection methods are not precluded. The range of possible habitat protection methods are 

described in Section 1.7.2 of the LPP. The actual method selected for any individual parcel 

will depend on what the landowner and the Service agree upon. 

Acquisition Priorities 

Comment. The commenter also thought it would be useful to breakdown the individual 

parcels into a wider array of priorities and questioned the inclusion of the lower elevation 

Maulua subparcel which they felt would not meet the conservation-related acquisition criteria 

and appeared to have been proposed largely to provide potential access to the higher 

elevation subparcel. 

Response. The Service typically assigns a priority of 1 through 3 to parcels as a general 

indication of our protection priority. We are not, however, strictly bound by these priorities. 

In practice, land acquisition involves factors that are largely beyond our control such as the 

timing and availability of funding, a willing seller, and a fair-market value appraisal, which is 
2 

required by law. Our offer also must be acceptable to the seller. Additional “fine-tuning” of 

these priorities, therefore, provides little added value to land protection. 

The lower Maulua Gulch parcel, which is zoned as agricultural and has been used for 

agriculture in the past, is a lower resource priority. While access to, and perhaps through, the 

upper Maulua parcel was certainly a consideration, that is not the only reason to include it 

within our expanded acquisition boundary. For example, the accessibility of the parcel to 

existing public transportation (a paved highway) in combination with its connectivity to 

higher elevation refuge lands could provide a valuable opportunity for visitor services (public 

environmental education and increased visitation in a developed site) along with watershed 

protection values. If it were not to be included within the proposed expanded boundary and 

the seller would only consider selling the two parcels together, we would not be able to 

acquire the upper parcel without additional (and largely redundant) compliance to extend the 

boundary to include it. 

Acquisition Priority Criteria 

Comment. The same commenter stated that the prospect of a warming climate argues for 

assigning higher priority to higher elevation land, not lower elevation lands. 

Response. We agree with this argument as a general rule and, in particular, as it applies to 

the potential for mosquito-borne avian diseases to spread to higher elevation as the climate 

warms. Climate change, however, is a complex process and may not affect all resources of 

interest in the same way. Little is known, for example, about how endangered plants species 

which may occur, or be repatriated to lower elevations will respond to a changing climate. 

Some indications of apparent resistance to avian malaria in native forest birds also lend 

support to the potential for further repatriation of lowland forest habitats. The lower elevation 

properties also contain high value aquatic ecosystems, including some of the highest quality 

stream systems identified in the Hawaiian Islands that will continue to transport water from 

the mountain to the ocean into the foreseeable future. Moreover, a very strong argument can 

be made that it is better to have these downslope habitats managed to increase their resiliency 

than to have them unmanaged or converted to timber or residential uses. These additional 

considerations were identified in Section 1.5.5 of the draft LPP. 

Acquisition Costs 

Comment. Concerns were expressed regarding the cost to the taxpayers of land acquisition 

and the usefulness of having a further breakdown of the estimated acquisition costs by parcel. 

Response. Land acquisition funding will be requested from the Land and Water 

Conservation Fund, a dedicated account established by Congress to provide funds for State 

and Federal land acquisition and development for the benefit of all Americans. The primary 

source of these funds is fees on offshore oil and gas drilling. Our land acquisitions costs are 

based on a general estimate of $4,000 per acre. Given that land values fluctuate, the Service 

has not had formal appraisals made of any of these properties, are subject to negotiations with 

willing sellers, and funding is likely to be available over decades, we do not consider it 

practical or informative to estimate the value of any specific parcel of land.
3 

Refuge Operations and Maintenance 

Comment. Concern was expressed over the absence of any analysis of the potential impacts 

of additional land acquisition on existing refuge programs, especially efforts to control feral 

pigs and maintain the integrity of existing fenced units, and the potential consequences of 

acquiring lands that will not be aggressively managed in the short term on public perception 

and support of the Service. 

Response. The inherent tension between funds for land acquisition and funding for refuge 

operations and maintenance is a challenge faced throughout the National Wildlife Refuge 

System (NWRS). Additional lands are often needed to fulfill the mission of the NWRS, 

which is “to administer a national network of lands and waters for the conservation, 

management, and where appropriate, restoration of the fish, wildlife, and plant resources and 

their habitats within the United States for the benefit of present and future generations of 

Americans,” as well as the goals of an individual refuge as stated in their Comprehensive 

Conservation Plan. Land acquisition funding, as noted above, comes from a dedicated source 

and does not directly affect refuge operations and maintenance appropriation. Although 

operations and maintenance costs increase with the size of the managed area, this increase is 

not proportional. This is because costs do not double to manage twice as much land since 

administrative costs are relatively stable and neither staff nor equipment costs double. 

Weighing land acquisition against operational costs requires consideration of the costs of not 

acquiring land. This includes the possibility of lost conservation value both should the lands 

be converted to residential or commercial forestry uses which could also negatively impact 

the existing refuge. This weighing also includes consideration of the effects of appreciation in 

land values should the lands remain of high conservation value but acquisition is postponed 

until some indefinite future time. For example, the current refuge, most of which was 

acquired over 20 years ago, was obtained for an average of $700 per acre, or less than 20 

percent of what the same land might cost today. Twenty years from now, we may regret not 

acquiring more land at today’s prices. 

Proposed Acquisition Boundary 

Comment. One commenter noted that there were additional privately owned parcels in the 

vicinity of the two Refuge units that would likely meet our acquisition criteria in the future 

and that the possibility of future consideration of additional lands should be mentioned in the 

LPP. The commenter also noted that two parcels owned and managed by State agencies 

within the current Refuge boundary have significant conservation value and should be 

considered for future acquisition or land transfer. In addition, a representative for one 

property within our proposed acquisition boundary has requested that it be withdrawn. 

Response. Any decision with respect to this LPP does not preclude future consideration of 

other land with high conservation values for addition to the Refuge. With approval, future 

detailed planning could be undertaken at any time should new information come to our 

attention and would require additional compliance. Land within the current Refuge boundary 

has already been approved for acquisition, whether it be through fee-title, donation, 

easement, or cooperative agreement. There is renewed interest within the Department of 

Hawaiian Homelands for possible exchange or management agreement of the parcel under 

their administration. 
4 

The property that was requested to be withdrawn from our proposal has high resource values 

for endangered species and includes some of the most pristine freshwater aquatic ecosystems 

remaining in Hawai‛i. Conservation management of this property would also enhance our 

ability to manage the existing Hakalau Forest Unit and further the State of Hawai‛i‛s 

watershed protection goals under their Rain Follows the Forest Initiative. Due to the high 

resource values and no direct conflict with disposition of the property, we have decided to 

keep the parcel with the expanded boundary, if approved. 

State of Hawai‛i Historic Preservation Division and Native Hawaiian Consultation 

Comment. We received one letter encouraging us to conduct additional consultation with the 

State of Hawai‛i Historic Preservation Division and related Native Hawaiian entities on the 

subject of public access for the purpose of customary and traditional Native Hawaiian 

practices. The commenter noted that the potential transfer of land from private to public 

ownership may prompt cultural practitioners to seek access for customary and traditional 

practices. A second commenter also identified cultural uses such as gathering as important to 

Native Hawaiian culture.

Response. Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA), 16 U.S.C. Section 

470f, requires Federal agencies to take into account the effects of their undertakings on 

historic properties and provide the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP) a 

reasonable opportunity to comment on those undertakings. The ACHP has issued the 

regulations implementing Section 106 (Section 106 regulations), 36 CFR Part 800, 

“Protection of Historic Properties.” The NHPA requires that, in carrying out the requirements 

of Section 106, each federal agency must consult with any Native Hawaiian organization that 

attaches religious and cultural significance to historic properties that may be affected by the 

agency’s undertakings. As noted in the EA, the expansion of a Refuge boundary is not 

considered an undertaking. The Service takes its responsibilities with regard to Native 

Hawaiian consultation seriously but many of these properties may not be acquired for many 

years or, lacking a willing seller, may not ever be acquired. The public scoping process and 

review of draft planning documents has provided the opportunity for all interested parties to 

bring any traditional use or claim to our attention for the record prior to any appropriation of 

funds or direct negotiations to acquire property. The Service has no authority to make 

commitments on private land. The Hawai‛i Constitution addresses access to lands for 

customary and traditional practices, and discussions about how, when, and where that access 

may occur should be reserved until after any lands are acquired and the Service has obtained 

a robust understanding of the natural and cultural resources present on these lands. 

Other Issues 

Comment. One commenter provided an extensive critique of Service management of the 

Refuge, in general, and efforts to recovery the ‛alalā.

Response. These issues are beyond the scope of the proposed action and, with respect to the 

‛alalā, recovery efforts are not managed by the Refuge. These comments have been provided 

to the National Wildlife Refuge System and Ecological Services Programs.
APPENDIX E 

Other Compliance Documents



APPENDIX F 

Director’s Approval



Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge

60 Nowelo Street, Suite 100

Hilo, Hawai‘i 96720

Phone: 808/443-2300

Fax: 808/443-2304

http://www.fws.gov/hakalauforest

National Wildlife Refuge System Information

1 800/344 WILD

July 2012

All cover photos ©Jack Jeffrey unless otherwise noted

Front Cover Photos: Back Cover Photo:

Pueo ‘Apapane

‘A ̄kepa

O ̄pe‘ape‘a

Ne ̄ne ̄/USFWS